The Book of the Farm [2, 2 ed.]
128 42 65MB
English Pages 828 [829] Year 1851
Front Cover
ib 218 221 225
PRACTICE-SUMMER
229
ON THE HAY GIVEN TO FARM HORSES, -
The Hay-Knife,
242
243
244
246
ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF HEMP,
The Foot-Pick,
247
249
Espalier Form of Training Hops,
ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF THE TURNIP,
Drill,
Newberry's One-Rowed Dibbling Machine, 292 Newington's Six-Rowed Dibbling Machine,
The Double Roots of Deep-sown Wheat,
The Body of the Double Mould-
ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF KOHL-RABI,
ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF THE CARROT,
ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF RAPE,
TAE RATIONALE OF THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS,
Soil with Air and without Water,
ON REPAIRING THE FENCES OF PASTURE FIELDS,
The roots of Shallow-sown Wheat, 295 Secure Mode of Fastening the Hang- ing Post of a Field-Gate,
ON THE DISPOSAL OF THE FAT CATTLE,
The Side View of a Ripe Fat Ox, 297 The Hind View of a Ripe Fat Ox, 298 The Front View of a Ripe Fat Ox, 299 The View of the Back of a Ripe Fat Ox,
The Measuring of a Ripe Fat Ox, to ascertain its Weight, sinking the Offals,
Plan of the Cart-Steelyard,
Transverse Section of the Cart- Steelyard, 303 Longitudinal Section of the Cart- Steelyard,
ON MARES FOALING, -
113
The Bush-Harrow,
The Head-Cap, or Hood, fitted on the Sheep, 306 Sheep Bot-Fly-Estrus ovis, 307 Sheep Bot Larva-Estrus ovis, 308 Sheep Ked-Melophagus ovinus,
Maggot of the Checkered Blow-fly -Sarcophaga carnaria,
Cock-Chafers-Melolontha vulgaris,
ON THE PASTURING OF CATTLE IN SUMMER,
The Scoop for filling the Water- Barrel,
The Cattle-Bot and Larva-Estrus boris,
Larva and Pupa of the Cattle Cleg --Tabanus bovinus,
OX THE TREATMENT OF BULLS IN SUMMER,
The Bull's Ring in the state to be inserted in his Nose,
The Bull's Ring as fastened in his Nose,
The Bullock-Holder, 317 Swivelled Spring-Hook,
ON THE PASTURING OF FARM-HORSES IN SUMMER,
The Cleg or Gleg - Hæmatopota pluvialis, 319 The Horse-Bot-Gasterophilus equi,
A Horse-Fly-Chrysops cæcutiens, 321 The Horse Forest-Fly-Hippobosca equina,
The Patent Scythe with bent Sned,
A Scythe Strickle, 324 Scythe Stones,
ON THE WASHING OF SHEEP,
Sheep Washing,
The Wool-Shears,
The First Stage of Clipping
The Second Stage of Clipping a Sheep, 329 The Third and Last Stage of Clip- ping a Sheep,
A new Clipped Sheep,
ON THE ROLLING OF FLEECES, AND ON THE QUALITY OF WOOL,
The Rolling of a Fleece of Wool, 332 A Fleece of Wool Rolled
The White-Shouldered Wool-Moth - T'inea sarcitella,
The Weighing and Packing
Wool, Page | Fig 335 The Wingless Female of the Bean
ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF BEANS,
Plant-Louse-Aphis fabæ, 336 The Winged Male of the Bean 123 Plant-Louse- Aphis fabæ,
The Striped Pea-Weevil-Sitona 124 lineata,
The Milking of Ewes, 339 The Punching-Nippers for Sheep,
ON THE DRAFTING OF EWEB AND GIMMERS,
The Buisting-Iron for Sheep, 139 341 The Branding-Iron for Sheep and 140 Cattle,
The English Hay Tedding-Machine,
The Hay Horse-Rake,
The Hay Hand-Rake, 345 The Hay Hand-Rake,
over the Site of a Hay-Stack when 145 it is building,
Putting the Swathes of the Sown 146 Grasses into Winrows,
The Hay Horse-Rake cleaning the ib intervening Ridges between the 161 Winrows,
The Threshing of Rye-Grass Seed 165 in the Field,
The Hand-Flail,
The American Hay-Rake,
ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF WHEAT,
The Weed-Hook,
Smith's Steerage Horse-Hoe,
Long and Short Shares for the 168 Horse-Hoe,
The Wheat Stem-Fly - Chlorops 173 pumilionis,
The Structure of sound Wheat
ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF BARLEY,
Husk, 358 Sound Barley-Seed, 180 359 Diseased Barley-Seed, 360 Winged Male of the Turnip-Flower
ON SUMMER-FALLOW,
ON THE REAPING OF TURNIP SEED,
Plant-Louse-Aphis floris-rapæ,
Wingless Female of the Turnip- ib Flower Plant-Louse-Aphis floris- rapce,
Ground Plan of a Milk-House in ib relation to the Kitchen, in a Farm- 189 House, 363 Plan of Cheese-Room, &c , for a ib Farm-House,
Wedgewood-Ware Milk-Dish, 192365 Green Glass Milk-Dish,
| 366 Wooden Milk-Dish, ib 367 Zinc Milk-Dish, 197 | 368 A fixed Milk-Cooler of Marble, or 201 of Wood lined with Metal,
The Milk-Sieve, 202 370 The Cream-Skimmer, 371 The Cream-Jar,
The Wedgewood Table-Churn, 373 The Agitator of the Table-Churn,
The Box-Hand-Churn, 205 375 The Agitator of the Box-Hand- 207 Churn,
The Butter Print Mould and Hands, 208 377 The Butter-Spade,
The Curd-Cutter,
| 379 The Curd-Breaker,
114
PRACTICE-AUTUMN
ON THE SOWING OF THE STONE TURNIP, AND ON THE SOWING OF TURNIP FOR SEED,
ON THE PICKING AND DRYING OF HOPS,
251
ON THE PULLING, STEEPING, AND DRYING OF FLAX,
ON REAPING WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, AND RYE,
ON REAPING BEANS, AND PEASE, AND TARES, WHEN GROWN FOR SEED,
ON REAPING BUCKWAEAT,
ON THE BIRDS DESTRUCTIVE TO THE GRAIN CROPS,
ON LIFTING POTATOES,
ON SOWING WHEAT IN AUTUMN,
115
ON SOWING BARLEY IN AUTUMN,
253
ib
ON ELECTRO-CULTURE,
ON THE ROTATION OF CROPS,
ON THE FERTILITY OF SOILS,
116
ON THE MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS,
ON THE ANIMALS DESTRUCTIVE TO POULTRY,
ON THE DIFFERENCES IN THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF FARMS,
ON THE JUDGING OF LAND,
ON THE MODE OF OFFERING FOR A FARM,
ON ENTERING TO A FARM,
ON CHOOSING THE SITE, ON BUILDING, AND ON THE EXPENSES OF ERECTING
ON THE FARM-HOUSE,
ON INSURANCE AGAINST FIRE AND DISEASE,
ON THE PLANTING AND REARING OF THORN-HEDGES,
ON THE BUILDING OF STONE FENCES,
ON EMBANKING AGAINST RIVULETS,
ON THE DRAINING OF LAND,
ON IMPROVING WASTE LAND,
ON TRENCH AND SUBSOIL PLOUGHING,
268
ON THE LIMING OF LAND,
ON FORMING WATER-MEADOWS,
ON IRRIGATION,
ON THE BREAKING-IN OF YOUNG DRAUGHT HORSES,
ON SLAUGHTERING OXEN, SHEEP, AND PIGS,
ON THE POINTS TO BE AIMED AT IN BREEDING THE MOST PERFECT FORMS IN LIVE
ACCOUNT OF SOME OTHER BREEDS OF CATTLE AND SHEEP,
ON THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING,
ON CROSSING,
ON THE WAGES OF FARM-SERVANTS,
ON THE CARE DUE TO THE IMPLEMENTS,
ON CORN MARKETS,
CONCLUDING EXHORTATIONS TO THE YOUNG FARMER,
INDEX,
269
ib 271 ib ib 273 ib ib 276 ib 277 ib 279 ib 283 284
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BIBLIOTHEQUE DU PALAIS DES AT
|
15
THE
BOOK
OF
THE
FARM
1
PRINTED BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS, EDINBURGH
VILLE DE LYON Biblioth. du Palais des Arts
Stec mar t
le . RY POULT
Garmyage
PLATE XIV .
132507
THE
BOOK
OF
THE
FARM
BY
HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E.
Wherefore , come on , O young Nhusbandman !
O 10B 91
Da
S IO Ukinda Learn the culture proper toukoh AT FO N A DO N 9
۱}}(
5
1013 11
SECOND EDITION - IN TWO VOLUMES
VOL.
II .
VILLE DE LYON Biblioth . du Palais des arts
WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS
EDINBURGH AND LONDON MDCCCLI
CONTENTS
OF
VOLUME
II.
PRACTICE - SUMMER . Page
1 26 28 33 35 46 87
SUMMARY OF THE FIELD OPERATIONS, AND OF THE WEATHER IN SUMMER, ON THE HAY GIVEN TO FARM HORSES,
-
ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF FLAX , ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF HEMP, ON THE PLANTING AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF THE HOP, ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF THE TURNIP ,
ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF KOHL - RABI,
ON THE PLANTING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF THE CABBAGE , ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF MANGOLD - WURZEL ,
88 90 94
-
ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF THE CARROT, ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF PARSNIP , ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF RAPE,
99 101 103 105
ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF BUCKWHEAT, ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF THE SUN - FLOWER,
ib . 106 110
ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF MADIA, ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF MAIZE, TAE RATIONALE OF THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS,
ON SOWING BROADCAST, DRILLED, AND DIBBLED - THICK AND TNIN-AND AT 114
DIFFERENT DEPTHS,
128 130
ON REPAIRING THE FENCES OF PASTURE FIELDS, ON THE DISPOSAL OF THE FAT SHEEP, ON THE DISPOSAL OF THE FAT CATTLE ,
ON MARES FOALING , ON TAE PASTURING OF SHEEP IN SUMMER , -
ON THE PASTURING OF CATTLE IN SUMMER,
OX THE TREATMENT OF BULLS IN SUMMER, ON ON ON ON ON
THE THE THE THE THE
WEANING OF CALVES, PASTURING OF FARM- HORSES IN SUMMER, SOILING OF STOCK ON FORAGE PLANTS, WASHING OF SHEEP, SHEARING OF SHEEP, -
.
139 153 158
169 180 184 186 190 196 200
ON THE ROLLING OF FLEECES, AND ON THE QUALITY OF WOOL,
206
ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF BEANS, ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF PEASE,
216 218 219
ON THE WEANING OF LAMBS,
vi ON ON ON ON
CONTENTS .
THE DRAFTING OF EWEB AND GIMMERS , THE MARKING OF SHEEP, HAY -MAKING , THE SUMMER CULTURE OF WHEAT,
ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF BARLEY , ON ON ON ON ON ON
THE SUMMER CULTURE OF OATS, THE SUMMER CULTURE OF RYE , THE SUMMER CULTURE OF POTATOES, SUMMER -FALLOW , THE REAPING OF TURNIP SEED, MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE,
Page 223
225 226 245 252 253 254
256 261 267 268
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
SUMMARY OF THE FIELD OPERATIONS, AND OF THE WEATHER IN AUTUMN ,
ON THE SOWING OF THE STONE TURNIP, AND ON THE SOWING OF TURNIP FOR SEED, ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON
THE SOWING OF WINTER TARES, THE SOWING OF RAPE IN AUTUMN , THE SOWING OF CRIMSON CLOVER IN AUTUMN , THE SOWING OF BOKHARA CLOVER, THE SOWING OF RED CLOVER FOR SEED, THE SOWING OF ITALIAN RYE -GRASS IN AUTUMN , THE PICKING AND DRYING OF HOPS, THE SOWING OF WINTER BEANS, .
ON THE PULLING , STEEPING , AND DRYING OF FLAX, ON THE PULLING, STEEPING , AND DRYING OF HEMP, ON REAPING WHEAT, BARLEY , OATS, AND RYE, ON REAPING BEANS , AND PEASE , AND TARES, WHEN GROWN FOR SEED, ON THE CARRYING AND STACKING OF WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, BEANS, AND PEASE, ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON
REAPING BUCKWAEAT, HARVESTING TAE SUNFLOWER , HARVESTING MAIZE, THE COMMON JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE , THE BIRDS DESTRUCTIVE TO THE GRAIN CROPS, PUTTING THE TUPS TO THE EWES, THE BATHING AND SMEARING OF SHEEP, LIFTING POTATOES , STORING POTATOES, SOWING WHEAT IN AUTUMN , SOWING BARLEY IN AUTUMN,
ON SOWING PEASE IN AUTUMN ,
ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON
SOWING SEVERAL VARIETIES OF GRAIN TOGETHER , PLANTING POTATOES IN AUTUMN , THE EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES , ELECTRO - CULTURE , THE RATIONALE OF THE APPLICATION OF SPECIAL MANURES , THE ROTATION OF CROPS, THE FERTILITY OF SOILS, THE DISPOSAL OF THE FAT PIGS, THE MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS , THE ANIMALS DESTRUCTIVE TO POULTRY,
300 309 310 311
ib .
312 313 314 315 320 321 326
328 354 355 374 375 ib . 377 ib . 384
387 395 400 403
409 410 411
412 413 444 448 455 464 468
471
478
CONTENTS .
vii
REALISATION . Page
ON ON ON ON ON
THE DIFFERENCES IN THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF FARMS, CLIMATE AND ITS EFFECTS, THE JUDGING OF LAND , ESTIMATING THE RENT OF A FARM , THE MODE OF OFFERING FOR A FARM ,
482 485
494
ON NEGOTIATING THE COVENANTS OF THE LEASE,
497 503 505
ON ENTERING TO A FARM ,
512
ON THE STOCKING OF A FARM ,
516
ON CHOOSING THE SITE , ON BUILDING , AND ON THE EXPENSES OF ERECTING THE STEADING ,
ON ON ON ON ON ON ON
THE FARM -HOUSE , COTTAGES FOR FARM -SERVANTS , INSURANCE AGAINST FIRE AND DISEASE , THE PRINCIPLES OF ENCLOSURE , AND ON SHELTER , THE PLANTING AND REARING OF THORN - HEDGES, THE BUILDING OF STONE FENCES, WIRE FENCES ,
ON EMBANKING AGAINST RIVULETS ,
ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF FIELD -GATES, ON THE DRAINING OF LAND ,
ON IMPROVING WASTE LAND , ON TRENCH AND SUBSOIL PLOUGHING , ON THE LIMING OF LAND , ON FORMING WATER -MEADOWS,
ON ON ON ON
IRRIGATION , THE TREATMENT OF DRAUGHT STALLIONS, THE BREAKING - IN OF YOUNG DRAUGHT HORSES, THE BREAKING - IN OF YOUNG SADDLE -HORSES ,
ON TRAINING AND WORKING THE SHEPHERD'S DOG , ON SLAUGHTERING OXEN , SHEEP, AND PIGS, ON THE POINTS TO BE AIMED AT IN BREEDING THE MOST PERFECT FORMS IN LIVE STOCK ,
DESCRIPTION OF THE ANIMALS WHOSE PORTRAITS ARE GIVEN IN THE PLATES, ACCOUNT OF SOME OTHER BREEDS OF CATTLE AND SHEEP, ON THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING ,
ON ON ON ON ON
THE SELECTION OF PARENTS IN BREEDING , BREEDING IN - AND - IN , CROSSING , THE HIRING OF FARM -SERVANTS, THE WAGES OF FARM - SERVANTS ,
ON THE FARM SMITH , JOINER, AND SADDLER,
518 537 542 548
550 558 588 593 596 599 604 651 657 665 671 677 680
683 686 688 690 706 709
717 728 730 733 735 737 741 746
ON CORN MARKETS, ON FARM BOOK -KEEPING ,
749 751 757 761
CONCLUDING EXHORTATIONS TO THE YOUNG FARMER ,
777
ON THE CARE DUE TO THE IMPLEMENTS , ON MAKING EXPERIMENTS ON THE FARM ,
INDEX,
LIST OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOL. II.
ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD. Fig .
Page 65
Page Fig.
242. The Hay-Knife, 243. Crosskill's Clod -Crusher, 244. Side View of one Wheel of the Clod -Crusher.
26 267. The Singling of Turnips, 28 268. Turnip Flea -Beetle - Haltica 29 269. Larva of the Flea -Beetle,
245. Hepburn's Double-Conical Land Roller,
ne
morum ,
ib .
narum ,
30 271. Winged Male of the Common Tur
247. The Foot-Pick ,
35
250. TheSquare Method of Planting Hops,
251. The Quincunx Method of Planting Hops,
252. Espalier Form of Training Hops, 253. The Wire -Worm and its Perfect
Beetle - Cataphagus lineatus,
254. The East-Lothian Turnip -Sowing Drill, 255. The Seed -Barrel,
36
257. The Vertical Section of the Seed
Distributor, 258. The Turnip -Barrow for Sowing One Drill,
ib .
Turnip Plant-Louse --Aphis rapa ,
Louse - Aphis brassica, -
274. Wingless Female of the Swede Plant-Louse-- Aphis brassicæ , 37 275. Two and Seven Spotted Lady - Birds -Coccinella biet septempunctata , 38 42 276. Ichneumon Fly - Aphidius rapæ , 277. Cloddy and Stony Soil, 43 278. Soil with Water and without Air, 279. Soil with Air and without Water, 47 280. Soil with Water and Air,
ib . ib .
78 78 79 111 ib . ib . ib .
48 281. The Componentparts of a Grain of Wheat, 49
113
282. A Plant of Wheat in the State of
Germination, ib . 283. Well-Ploughed Regular Furrow Slices,
114
ib.
50284. The Position of Seeds when Sown
259. The Two-Rowed Turnip and Bone
on Regular Furrow -Slices, 285. Irregular Brairding from even Re gular Furrow -Slices,
Dust Sowing-Drill, 260. The Plan of the Two -Rowed Turnip
51
and Bone-Dust Sowing Drill, 261. Smith's Drop -Sowing Drill, 262. The Body of the Double Mould Board altered to a Scuffling
52 286. Ill-Ploughed Irregular Furrow
Plough, 263. Wilkie's Horse -Hoe with Parallel Motion,
62 288. Irregular Braird on Ill-Ploughed
53
Slices ,
287. Irregular Deposition of Seed on Ill. Ploughed Furrow -Slices, Furrow -Slices,
115
ib . ib . ib . ib .
ib. 289. Regular Depths of Seed by Drill
264. The Common Drill-Grubber,
63
265. Wilkie's Drill-Grubber and Harrow ,
64 290. Regular Braird from Drill- Sown
266. The Turnip or Hand Draw -hoe,
ib .
puit
77
273. Winged Male of the Swede Plant
256. Geddes' Two-RowedTurnip-Sowing Drill,
nip Plant-Louse -- Aphis rapa ,
75
272. Wingless Female of the Common
248. The Trenching-Fork with Three Prongs,
74
270. The Turnip Saw -Fly - Athalia spi
246. The Norwegian Harrows,
249. The Trenching-Fork with Two Prongs,
73
Sowing, Seed,
ib.
116
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Page | Fig.
Fig.
Machine,
122
123
Plant-Louse- Aphis fabæ ,
292. Newington's Six -Rowed Dibbling Machine,
293. The Double Roots of Deep-sown Wheat,
295. Secure Mode of Fastening the Hang ing Post of a Field -Gate,
lineata ,
ib. 338. The Milking of Ewes, 339. The Punching-Nippers for Sheep, 130 340. The Buisting-Iron for Sheep,
296. TheSide View of a Ripe Fat Ox, 297. The Hind View of a Ripe Fat Ox, 298. The Front View of a Ripe Fat Ox,
140
141 143
301. Plan of the Cart -Steelyard,
145
302. Transverse Section of the Cart Steelyard ,
146
303. Longitudinal Section of the Cart ib .
Steelyard, 304. The Bush -Harrow ,
161
343. 344. 345. 346.
307. Sheep Bot Larva - Estrus ovis,
308. Sheep Ked - Melophagus ovinus, 309. Maggot of the Checkered Blow - fly -Sarcophaga carnaria ,
Grasses into Winrows,
348. The Hay Horse-Rake cleaning the intervening Ridges between the Winrows, in the Field ,
ib . 350. The Hand-Flail, ib. 351. The American Hay-Rake, ib. 352. The Weed-Hook , 353. Smith's Steerage Horse-Hoe, 166
310. Cock -Chafers - Melolontha vulgaris, 311. The Scoop for filling the Water
168
Barrel, 312. The Cattle -Bot and Larva -
173 Estrus 177
boris,
313. Larva and Pupa of the Cattle Cleg --Tabanus bovinus, 314. The Bull's Ring in the state to be inserted in his Nose,
315. The Bull's Ring as fastened in his Nose, 316. The Bullock-Holder,
The Hay Horse-Rake, The Hay Hand -Rake, The Hay Hand -Rake, The Mode of Erecting a Rick - Cloth
over theSite ofa Hay -Stack when it is building, 347. Putting the Swathes of the Sown
165
306. Sheep Bot-Fly - Estrus ovis,
354. Long and Short Shares for the Horse-Hoe,
355. The Wheat Stem -Fly - Chlorops pumilionis, 356. The Structure of sound Wheat and of Smut-Ball compared, 357. The Kernel of Barley within the
Husk , 358. Sound Barley -Seed, 180 359. Diseased Barley-Seed ,
178
360. Winged Male of the Turnip-Flower Plant-Louse - Aphis floris-rapæ , 182 361. Wingless Female of the Turnip floris
181
317. Swivelled Spring-Hook , 318. The Cleg or Gleg - Hæmatopota
ib .
rapce ,
188 362. Ground Plan of a Milk -House in
320. A Horse-Fly - Chrysops cæcutiens, 321. The Horse Forest-Fly - Hippobosca
189
House,
363. Plan of Cheese -Room , &c., for a Farm -House, ib .
364. Wedgewood -Ware Milk -Dish ,
325. Sheep Washing,
192365. 193 | 366. ib. 367. 197 | 368.
326. The Wool-Shears,
201
327. The First Stage of Clipping a
369. The Milk -Sieve, 202 370. The Cream -Skimmer,
Sheep ,
ping a Sheep,
330. A new Clipped Sheep, 331. The Rolling of a Fleece of Wool, 332. A Fleece of Wool Rolled up,
333. The White- Shouldered Wool-Moth -T'inea sarcitella ,
334. The Weighing and Packing of Wool,
229 230 231
ib .
232 236
238
Green Glass Milk -Dish , Wooden Milk - Dish , Zinc Milk -Dish , A fixed Milk -Cooler of Marble, or of Wood lined with Metal,
371. The Cream - Jar, 203 372. The Wedgewood Table -Churn,
373. The Agitator of the Table-Churn , 204 374. The Box-Hand-Churn , 205 375. The Agitator of the Box-Hand 207
242 243 244 246
247 248 249
251 253 ib . ib . 268
268
relation to the Kitchen , in a Farm
ib.
bent
328. The Second Stage of Clipping a Sheep, 329. The Third and Last Stage of Clip
226
Flower Plant-Louse - Aphis
pluvialis, 319. The Horse-Bot - Gasterophilus equi, equina, 322. The Patent Scythe with Sned, 323. A Scythe Strickle, 324. Scythe Stones,
218 221 225 ib .
349. The Threshing of Rye-Grass Seed
305. The Head -Cap, or Hood, fitted on the Sheep ,
Cattle,
ib. 342. The English Hay Tedding-Machine,
300. The Measuring of a Ripe Fat Ox, to ascertain its Weight, sinking the Offals,
ib .
139 341. The Branding-Iron for Sheep and
299. The View of the Back of a Ripe Fat Ox, -
217
337. The Striped Pea -Weevil - Sitona 124
294. The roots of Shallow -sown Wheat,
Page
335. The Wingless Female of the Bean Plant-Louse - Aphis fabæ, 336. The Winged Male of the Bean
291. Newberry's One-Rowed Dibbling
ix
Churn , ib. 376. The Butter Print Mould and Hands, 208 377. The Butter-Spade, 378. The Curd -Cutter, 209 | 379. The Curd -Breaker,
269
ib . 270
ib. 271 ib . ib . 273 ib . ib .
276 ib .
277 ib .
279 ib . 283 284
-
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
X
Page | Fig.
Fig.
380. 381. 382. 383.
The Cheese- Vat, The Stone Cheese -Press, The combined Lever Cheese-Press, The Cheese -Turner,
285 433. The Potato-Graip , ib. 434. The self-delivering Potato-Washer, 286 435. The conical and prismatic forms of 287
384. Plan of a Steading for a Dairy Farm ,
385. Plunger - Churns fitted up with Power,
386. The Cheese-Fly - Piophila casei, 387. The Cheese-Maggot,
388. Longitudinal Section of the Hop Drying-House,
Potato -Pits,
400 439
436. The Soot-Sowing Machine, 289 437. Electro-Culture Apparatus,
446
438. View of the Side of a fat Pig, 290 439. A trussed Roofof Wood,
470
297
529 530 541
440. A trussed Roof of Iron ,
ib . 441. A Rain -Water Cistern , 317
442. Plan of a small Hind's House of one Room ,
389. Plan of the Hot Water Pipes in it,
ib. 443. Plan of a large Hind's House of
390. Progress of Ripening in aStalk of
one Room , 329 444. Plan of a Hind's House with two
Oats,
391. The Toothed Sickle, 392. The Smooth -Edged Sickle,
330
ib .
Rooms,
545 ib .
447. Section of the Foundation of a Hind's House,
546
rooms in a second storey, ib.
-
395. An ordinary Stook of Corn, 396. A Barley or Oat Stook hooded,
334 448. Method of contracting the Top of
397. The Sheaf-Gauge,
398. Reaping with the Hainault Scythe, 399. The Cradle -Scythe for Reaping, 400. The common Reaping-Scythe,
335 449. Top of a Chimney for preventing 338 the down-draught of Smoke, ib. 450. The Shelter afforded by even a 339 low Wall against a cutting Blast,
401. The Hand Stubble -Rake,
340 | 451. The Plan of setting off Fences
ib .
403. A Gaitin of Oats,
404. 405. 406. 407.
The Swedish Stook , The Corn and Hay Frame, Transverse Section of the Frame, The Corn and Hay Cart,
parallel to each other, 341 | 452. A Hand - Pick ,
343 453. A Ditcher's Shovel, 353 454. A good Thorn Plant, 356 455. Plan to prevent Water Lodging in ib , 357
408. Robertson's improved Corn and Hay Cart,
547
a Chimney, .
402. The Mowing of Corn with the Scythe in Heads,
557 559
560 ib . ib .
561 563
358 457. A Thorn -Plant, prepared for plant ing,
359
410. Old form of Throw -Crook,
ib . 458. Finished Hedge- Bank, 360 459. Modes of describing a Curve in the
412. The best forin of Throw -Crook,
ib .
the Hollows behind the Bank of
a Hedge, 456. The Thorn -Bed,
409. Coiled -up Cart-Rope , 411. Another form of Throw -Crook,
544
332446. Elevation of double Hinds' Houses,
394. The Corn -Band ready to receive the cut Corn,
543
ib. 445. Plan of Hinds' Houses having Bed
393. Arrangement of the Reapers in a Band -Win ,
Page 397 399
ib .
Corner of a Field ,
ib . 566 ib . 568
413. The Straw -Rope Spinner, 414. The process of making a Straw
360 | 460. Bad effect of a Scarcement, 461. The Switching-Bill ,
Rope, 415. A Straw -Rope coiled up,
570
416. A Bunch of Drawn Straw ,
361 642. A correctly switched Thorn -Hedge, 362 463. A breasted -over Thorn -Hedge, with ib . the Hedge Bank and Face worn
417. The Building of a Stack of Corn ,
365
418. A Stack Trimmer,
366 464. The Cutting-Bill,
419. Making the Stool for a Corn -Stack, 420. The Lozenge mode of roping the Covering of a Corn -Stack, 421. The Net-Mesh mode of roping the Covering of a Corn -Stack,
ib . 465. The Hedger's Axe, 466. The plashing, and laying of an old 367 Hedge, and the Water- Tabling of
572 573 ib .
down ,
a Ditch,
422. The Border method of covering
368 467. The Mode of Water - Tabling a Hedge-Ditch,
and roping a Corn -Stack , 423. A pyramidal Boss and Tressle, 424. A prismatic Boss, 425. The Rook Battery,
369 468. The Dead -Hedge of Thorns, 372 469. The Stake-and -Rice Dead -Fence, ib. 470. The common Wooden Paling,
426. A Bath-Jug,
382 471. Turf-Fence to a Thorn-Hedge, 388 472. The Hedge Spade,
427. The Bath - Stool for Sheep , 428. Bathing Sheep,
389 | 473. The Dutch Hoe,
429. Wilson's Sheep - Dipping Appara tus,
ib. 474. The Hedge Weed-Hook , 475. The Hawthorn Butterfly, Pieris 391
Rack, 431. The Potato Raiser or Brander,
575 576 578
579 ib . 580 581 ib . ib . 586 589
395 | 477. Expedients for increasing the heights of a Dry -Stone Dyke,
591
478. Four Watering-Pools formed by two Dykes crossing,
592
396
432. The Potato - Raiser attached to a
Plough,
cratægi,
476. The Building a Dry -Stone Dyke,
430. Kirkwood's Wire Sheep - Fodder
569
ib .
xi
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig .
Page
four fields,
592
ing of Dykes, 481. Straining-Post , with Sole and Stay
ib.
under-ground, 482. Straining-Post, with Planks under
593
521. The Drain Stone-Rake, 522. The Drain Stone-Beater, 523. A Small Drain Filled with Broken
Stones,
ib . 524. The Triangular Coupled Stone Duct,
ground ,
483. Straining- Post, with Standard and Embankment
Dyke
and
525. The Tile and Stone Drain , 594 | 526. Tile Double Duct for a Main Stone Drain , ib .
Stay above ground, 484. A Malleable -Iron Straining-Post, Dry - Stone
Substrata of Deep Drains,
520. The Drain Stone-Harp or Screen,
480. A Clumpof Trees within the meet
485. An
Page
Fig.
519. The Instruments for Boring the
479. One Watering -Pool common to
against
tised in Ireland,
a
486. A Rectangular Gate- Frame with Diagonal Strut, 487. A Common Field -Gate,
ib.
531. The Larch Drain - Tube,
532. The Calderwood Peat- Tile Spade Tool,
601
ib . ib .
533. The Peat- Tile for Drains,
ib. 534. A Plan of Sheep-Drains on a Hill
490. An Iron Field-Gateon the Tension
of impervious Subsoil,
602 535. An Open Sheep-Drain in Grass,
Principle,
491. An Angie Iron Field -Gate, 492. Miles' Wooden Field -Gate with Iron Heel-Post,
ib. 536. A Covered Sheep-Drain in Grass, 537. Draining the Face of Railway Cut tings, ib .
493. The Spirit-Level Set for Observa
538. The comparative efficacy of Drains
tion ,
497. Draw -Earth Drain -Scoop, 499. The Drain-Gauge, 500. The Levelling Staff, for testing the uniform fall in Drains, 501. The Trowel for Drains, 502. The Drainer's Plumb Level,
Declivity, 613 539. The descent of Water on a Ridge
646 ib .
into a Drain on each side,
615 540. The ordinary position of Substrata 618
647
in reference to the Surface Soil,
619
649 652 654 656
543. A Drain -Water Meter, ib . 544. A Mattock , ib. 546. Wilkie's Turn -Wrist Plough,
with a Main , 505. Parallel Drains in the same Plane
of inclination of the Ground,
547. The Mode of ordinary Subsoil Ploughing, 548. Read's Subsoil-Plough , 621 | 549. The Tweeddale Subsoil Trench Plough, 622 550. The Tweeddale Subsoil Trench 621
506. Drains improperly made parallel irrespective of the inclination of the Ground,
552. The Plough -Slide, 553. The Carriage for conveying Har
the
Ground,
508. The Narrowest Drain Spade, 509. The Pushing Drain - Scoop, 510. The Small Tile and Sole-Drain ,
511. The Cylindrical Pipe-Tile, 512. Cylindrical Pipe- Tiles connected by a Collar,
ib .
ib. ib. 624 ib .
by Lobes,
Field , 518. The Positions of Planks and
Wedges to prevent the Sides of Drains Falling in ,
659
660
665 672 675 683
rows, & c .,
554. 555. 556. 557.
The The The The
ib . 664 ib.
Bed -Work Water -Meadow , Catch -Work Water-Meadow , Breaking -Bridle Bit, Shepherd's Dog , .
689
558. The Scotch Mode of Cutting up a 625
Carcass of Beef,
-
692
559. The English Mode of Cutting up a
513. Cylindrical Pipe- Tiles connected Horse Shoe Pipe- Tile, Egg -Shaped Pipe-Tile, Egg-Shaped Pipe- Tile Drain, Ground Plan of a Thorough -Drained
658
Plough and theTweeddale Plough in operation, 623 551. The Iron Hammer Nut-Key,
507. Drains made parallel in accordance of
ib . 648
Drain ,
ib . 542. A Concrete Pipe- Tile,
620 545. The Levelling-Box, or Scoop,
503. Drain - Tiles properly set upon Tile Soles, 504. The junction of a Common Tile
514. 515. 516. 517.
645
ib. 541. Displacement of Pipe- Tiles in a
498. The Narrow Draw -Hoe for Drains,
with the inclination
ib. 642 ib .
Across and Along Ridges on a
607
494. Different Forms of Ducts for the Inclined Planes of Drains, 495. The bad effects of too great a dis tance betwixt Drains, 496. The Narrow Drain Spade,
639
ib . 640 ib . ib . 641
598 528. The Edging-Iron, 529. The HorizontalSpade, 600 530. The Shouldered Bog -Drain ,
488. The Kilmory Wooden Trussed Field -Gate, 489. An Iron Field -Gate with Iron Posts and Stay,
ib . ib . ib.
527. A Plan for Draining Bogs as prac
Face
Rivulet, -
635 637 ib . 638
ib .
Carcass of Beef, ib . 560. The Scotch Mode of Cutting up a Carcass of Mutton , 626
693 695
ib . 561. The English Mode of Cutting up a Carcass of Mutton, 628 562. The Scotch Mode of Cutting up a Carcass of Pork,
696 698
563. The English Mode of Cutting up a 634
Carcass of Pork,
699
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig.
Page
564. The Short-Horn Ox, 565. The Short- Horn Bull,
709 | 581. The Head of a Black - Faced Ram , 710 582. The Head of a Black -Faced Ewe,
566. Mr Hopper's Short-Horn Bull, Belville, · 567. View of the Back and Chest of Belville, 568. The Short-Horn Cow , 569. The Draught- Horse,
570. The Draught-Stallion, 571. The Draught-Mare,
572. The Leicester Ewe and Lamb, 573. The Brood Sow ,
574. The Common Fowl,
575. The Head of a Long-Horn Bull, 576. The Head of a Hereford Ox,
577. The Head of West-Highland Ox, 578. The Head of an Angus Ox,
579. The Ayrshire Bull, 580. The Head of a Cheviot Tup,
Fig.
Page 721
722
583. The Head of a Tup of the original ib .
Breed of Scotland ,
584. The Head of a Southdown Tup, 711 711
585. The Head of a Boar, 586. The Vertical Section of the Head 712 of the Adult Horse, showing the 713 Teeth and the Nervous system 714 in connection with them, 715 ib . 716 717 718 ib . 719 720
721
ib .
723 724
725
587. The Vertical Section of the Head
of the Adult Ox, showing the Teeth and the Nervous system in connection with them,
726
588. The Vertical Section of the Head
of the Wild Boar, showing the Teeth and the Nervous system in connection with them , 589. The Sack -Lifter,
727 759
--
THE BOOK OF THE FARM
PRACTICE SUMMER SUMMARY OF THE FIELD OPERATIONS AND OF THE WEATHER IN SUMMER.
a very beautiful instance of design and adaptation in this. The grand stimulat ing agent in all terrestrial action, at least
2959. As spring is the restoration of
in a natural view of it on the surface of
life to vegetation, and the season in which the earth, and the intensity of this action, the operations of the field again become is made up of two elements — the portion active, so summer is the season ofprogress of the twenty -four hours during which the in vegetation, and in the operations of the sun is above the horizon, and the altitude field, none of the greater ones of which are of the sun above that horizon. Both of
begun or terminated, but only advanced these, in either bemisphere, increase as a step towards their maturity in autumn. the sun declines towards the hemisphere, The advancement of the larger field ope- or rather as the hemisphere inclines to rations involves no difference of principle the sun ; though, as the first of these is the in their execution, but the minor operations apparent result of the second as a reality,
which accompany them, and the changes our using the one expression or the other they effect in the aspect of the larger ones,
does not affect the result.
The increase or
in the most agreeable season for work in decrease of altitude is the same, with the the year, invest all the operations of sum- same changeof declination, in all latitudes ;
mer with peculiar interest, and even de- but the variation in time above the hori light.
zon increases with the latitude : conse
quently, the higher the latitude thegreater 2960. “ Summer is the bloom of the the change of solar action with the year," as Mr Mudie truly observes— “ the same change of declination. The change period during which all the growing and in declination increases from the solstice living children of nature, which wax and to the equinox, and diminishes from the wane with the revolving seasons, are in equinox to the solstice. Thus the increase
the spring -tide of their activity, and of solar action begins to slacken at the when all those general agencies by which vernal equinox in March, and gradually they are stimulated are working to the diminishes till it becomes 0 at midsummer; very top of their bent.
Summer after this the decrease commences. This,
is, both in the literal and the metaphysi- however, is only in so far as depends on the cal sense, the season of blossoms; and, altitude of the sun ; for the other element,
as the blossoms make the fruit, the time of the time which the sun is above the hori
them is really the most importantof the zon , goes on increasing till the longest whole. In our middle latitudes, there is day, or day of the solstice. Thus, inthe A
VOL. II.
VILLE DE LYON Biblioth . du Palais des Arts
2
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
advanced part of the summer, there is a diminished increase of the momentary intensity of the solar action, and a lengthening of its daily duration . What is given
is highly elastic, and feels balmy and
bracing,indicated by the high position of the mercury in the barometer; at another the mercury descends, and almost always
to the presence of the sun above the hori- suddenly, to the lowest point, followed by zon is taken from its absence below it ; blasts of wind and a deluge of rain, imi and thus, as the summer advances towards tating the tornado of the tropics.
The
the longest day, all that works by the heat of the air so scorches us as to cause us action of the sun works with his increase to seek the shade, and the thermometer
of intensity, and for a longer time. After marks its intensity ; and shortly after, a the longest day is past, both elements of chilling gust, accompanied with hail, sud the solar action diminish, slowly at first, denly brings down the thermometer many and more rapidly afterwards, until the degrees. The air to -day is so calm and summer merges in the autumn. Near the breathless, that not a ripple is visible even
equatorthe changesarecomparativelysmall, on the broad bosom of the great ocean ; and they increase with the latitude; and to-morrow a hurricane agitates its waves the differences in this respect are whatmay to a height dangerous tothe safety of the be called the celestial differences of the
mariner. Not a cloud is seen at times to
character of summer in different latitudes; but terrestrial causes modify them so much, that the practical results, as observed, are very different from whatthe celestial theory
stain the purity of the blue vault of heaven ; at others, the thunder- cloud hovers over the earth, and blackens its surface with
a portentous shadow .
would give. Still, any one who thinks but for a moment will not fail to discover
2962. Such changes, in summer, are
how beautifully the season of bloom is se- usually sudden and of short duration, and cured from violent action either in the one
are requisite to preserve the healthy state
way or the other. This is enough to con- of the atmosphere. vince us that the action which goes on in the production of nature during the summer is really the most important of the whole year ; for it is performed with the maximum of power in the agents, and the minimum of disturbance in their operation. That resistance of winter, which but too
Did rain not fall
in large quantities, the vapour absorbed by the increased capacity of heated air for moisture would accumulate in the at mosphere, and form perpetual clouds and supless days. Did no cold strata of air move about to condense the warm , the warm , containing a large quantity of va
often shrivels the young leaf, and blights pour in solution , would always be elevated the early blossom in the spring, is van- beyond the reach of the earth, and there quished and completely stayed from mak- waste its latent heat. The sheet-light ing any inroad till the seasonal purposes ning passing from cloud to cloud, the most of nature are accomplished ; and the ar- common display of electric action in sum
dour of the stimulating causes which have mer, restores the electric equilibrium of
vanquished the destructive one are slack- the air, and the forked lightning relieves ened, so that they may not injure that both the earth and the air. Did not the
which, during the struggle of the early hurricane at times force its way through
part of the year, they have preserved. All
the calm and settled air, the same portion this, too, is accomplished by means so of the atmosphere would always remain
verysimple, that their simplicity proves the over the same locality, and become viti
most wonderful part of the whole, for it is ated by the breath of animals and the nothing more than the planes of the annual exhalations from decaying vegetables. and daily motions of the earth intersecting If the dews failed to descend upon the
each other atan angle ofabout23° 28'; and grass, the pastures would soon become the line of intersection passing through parched by the meridian fervour of the the equinoctial points of the diurnal summer sun . Thus, the active agencies of orbit.” nature are all required to preservethe air in a healthy state for animals and vege 2961. The atmospherical phenomena tables, and they operate in the most bene of summer are of the most varied and
ficial manner in summerthe season of the
complicated nature . At one time the air intensest action of the solar rays.
1
SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.
3
2963. The influence of the laws of and we cannot help admiring the delight
nature, which effects such changes in the fully benevolent design with which this atmosphere, also affects the condition of the period of life-- the grand period of fitness and disposition to observe — and the sum mer of the year, the season when, beyond the Lawgiver as to place the summer of the all others, nature is inviting to obser year in the situation of greatest safety in vation , and fitted to reward its exercise, the year's revolution, so onght the sum- are adapted to each other. But though the mer of the life of man to be placed in the summer is, in especial manner, valuable situation of greatest safety among the and inviting at the age we have named stages of his appointed time on earth. as corresponding to it in ourlife upon earth, Nature does this in the caseofall irrational yet every human being, from the earliest human race ; “ for if the laws of nature, " says Mr Mudie, “ have been so framed by
animals which belong whollyto material dawn ofobservation to the final close, may nature, and are, of course, in complete find much pleasure in the summer, if they obedience to material laws. In so far, seek it aright. too, as man is under the laws of material
nature, he is under their protection . But 2965. “ Though summer is unquestion man, even considered as body or animal, ably the most delightful portion of the is not wholly under the protection of these year — the one which, above all others, is
Jaws ; for from the moment that the mind hailed and enjoyed by every one who has has acquired the requisite degree of expe- senses to perceive, or a heart to feel, and rience which prompts him to the exercise a mind to understand the great goodness of his young judgment, he begins to exer- of the Creator in placing man in a world cise it, andthis takeshimself place long he summer of so manyis and so sweet enjoyments — yet is able to regulate evenbefore in what not a season of which we can
those who have had larger experience con- mark the beginning or the end by fixed sider very simple cases.
days in the calendar, or of which we can
This is a period at which the burden of say that it has definite characters which bodily labour of every kind should be belong to itonly,and to noother of the year. lighter than at any other period. It is Even with us, in the comparatively mild usually the time of most rapid growth, latitude of Britain, where none of the sea and therefore the one of greatest com- sons run into extremes, we cannot say that parative weakness in the whole system . summer is absolutely the warmest time of It is the time when the body is most sub- the year ; because we sometimes have a
ject to consumption, and to various other very warm day in the spring, which, pro diseases from which, if this time is fairly bably from the contrast with the general
got over, there is comparatively little to character of the season , we feel fully more fear in after life ; and, suchbeing the than we do many days in the summer. So case, we may very naturally infer that it is also there are often days in the autumn
the time when the bodily constitution is upon which we feel the heat more oppres rather confirmed in strength or given over sive than we do upon summer days; though
to feebleness. It is also the time at which this may in part arise from the greater
the deepest impressions are made; because length and comparative coldness of the it is then that the keenness of the senses to observe, and the readiness of the mind to receive and retain the result of the ob-
autumnal nights. 2966. “ Limited as the island of Britain
servations, are most usually upon an equa- is to a range of only about six hundred
lity. The time of perfect equality may miles in the meridian , which is just about be earlier in some cases and later in others; one-tenth of the quadrant from the equa but we believe we have truth on our side tor to the pole, there are very great diffe when we say, that at some time within
rences in the character and economyof the
the limits of ten years, the perfect equipoise summer in different parts of it; and these of the balance between the senses and the are still further increased by differenco of elevation above the level of the sea, and mind actually takes place.
other local causes. In general, the double 2964 .
66
This is in fact the summer of
season of activity, and the pause during
life to which we have already alluded ; the very vigour of the warm and dry
4
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
season , are much more marked in the
tude by turning it to proper account. southern part of the island ; while in the Crops of grain , pulse, and of artificial
extreme north they may be said to be grasses, especiallythe leguminous ones altogether unknown. In those remote parts the tall growing clovers, the lucerns, and there are hardly any spring flowers, and the sainfoins, retain the humidity in a very few autumnal ones. On elevated wonderful manner ; and all the legiiminous places, the snow will retreat before nothing crop - plants, which completely cover the short of summer ; and it returns, in occa- ground, are understood to give it more by sional showers, even in June. Thus, sum- this means than they take from it by any nier is hardly gone when the snow returns other, and thus to be ameliorating crops in and maintains its ground till next sunimer. stead of scourging ones ; but, in order to When the duration of summer is so brief,
do this, they must completely cover the
there can, of course, be few instances of
ground, so as to exclude from it all scorch
second flowering or growth in plants, or of ing action of the sun. Plantations, copses
secondbroods in birds.The plantsanalogous of trees, hop -gardens, and all other vege to the early flowerers of the southern parts table shadowings, while keeping the are not many ; and of the summer birds scorching heat of the sun from the ground, which make the southern groves and cop- in the times of its extreme strength, have
ses so gay with their songs, the far greater similar effects, only differing a little with part do not reach the extreme north .
the nature of the plants, and the varying
demands which their roots may have upon first place, the summer is too short ; and, the soil, for that ill-explained and under in the second place, there are few or no stood something which theyare generally groves for them to visit ; and in some of supposed to derive from it. În bleak the lonely moors there, one may wander the situations, a wonderful acceleration is often There is a double reason for this.
In the
livelong summer's day without hearing produced by plantations of evergreen coni any sound of bird , save the hoarse croak feræ , especially of the common Scotch
of the hooded crow, or the peevish and fir, ( Pinus sylvestris ,) which is at the melancholy twite ' of the mountain same time one of the inost valuable as linnet.
timber. And there have been many in
stances of a plantation of this kind yield 2967. " Viewingour own country, there- ing a good rent during the time that it fore, limited as it is in range of latitude, stood ; and then, when it had come to the we may say that the summer is cleft in growth most proper for cutting down—the
twain in the warm and dry places of the but-ends of the tree for ordinary deal tim earth by the ardour of the summer drought, ber, and the top -cuts for pit-props, used in which comes in the maximum of that the collieries the surface upon which it season , and has an enervating infnence on stood bad accumulated so much soil dur
vegetation ; and that the two segments ing the time of its standing, that very little approach each other as we proceed north- expense sufficed for converting it into corn ward, meeting so as to form only one sum- land, capable of bearing excellent crops. mer at different distances, according as the
surface is higher above the level of the
2969. “There are instances in which the
sea , with an unbroken progress in vege- vegetables that man has sown or planted, tation maintained by the presence of an have of themselves furnished no small por
adequate supply of moisture. 2968.
tion of that auxiliary power of the reten tion of humidity in the fields which enables
“ But the extra heat which par- the whole of that surplus of summer heat, above what the natural condition of the
ches the dry plains in summer is actually a store provided for man, and provided wbere he cannot find anything in art to answer the samepurpose . Man can neither cart the sunbeams into his fields, nor col-
place requires, to be converted to useful purposes.
There are other results equally
striking and profitable as these. In many parts of the uplandswbicb, not many years lect and retain them in reservoirs ; and ago, were in the naked and unproductive therefore the bounty which gives him this state wbich is common to such places when
summer surplus is a bounty for which he they are neglected, the most advantageous
ought, 'nay,is bound, to show his grati- results have been obtained from belts and
SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.
5
clumps of planting, and the bringing of the there was an approximation to the char surface into cultnre. While they remained acter of the season of burning drought, as
in a state of nature, the summers were in- it shows itself in the seasonal desolation tolerably hot and dry, and thewinters were of tropical plains ; and as there was no
excessively cold, with heavy falls of snow , power in the average temperature of the frequently coming on about the middle of year to produce the bulbous and tuberous January, and sometimes renewed in March plants, which so speedily bring beauty —so that they lay long, and field labour upon those plains when the rains do set could not be begun until the season was in, the general character of the whole was
far advanced. This rendered the grounds sterility. immediately adjoining of little value for tillage, and the wastes themselves of as little for pasturage, as the people in the vicinity had nokeep for cattle during the long winter,and sheep were altogether out of the question . When a few cattle were kept in such places, they were in a sad
condition in the spring, from the scanty supply and bad quality of their winter food , wbich consisted almost wholly of straw, unripened, black, sodden, and sapless, from the effect of the autumnal rains. In consequence of this, when the cattle
2971. “ It is not probable that at any
time the seasons, in the most neglected parts of Britain, ran into such extremes as this ; but still they were very different from what they are now , and had far more
pernicious effects in injuring the health of
man, and reducing the produce of the fields to a very small fraction of that which, by proper management, they now regu larly afford . 2972. “ This may seem to be treating
were put out to the npland, after the sun of the desolation of winter rather than the bad brought up the grass, a man had to be bloom and beauty of the summer, and it is
sent along with them , to lift them in the not a subject of bloom or beauty certainly ; case of their lying down and falling, as but still it is a summer subject, and one
they had not strength to regain theirlegs the knowledge of which is far more useful by their own exertions. The change of than any descant that could be written on
food had also very unwholesome effects the most lovely feature of the most delight upon them , and many used every year to ful and propitious season. The real cause die of murrain, a disease which was under- was the improper management of the sum stood to be infectious — so that, if it once mers — in the suffering of that part of it broke out, it was difficult to say to what which God has obviously provided forman,
length it might not proceed . The country as that element of successful cultivation people went so far as to say that crows which he cannot obtain by his own exer
and ravens, which are certainly not very tions, to run to waste ; and thereby allow delicate birds, were sometimes poisoned by ing that which has evidently been created the carrion of cattle that died of this for being the blessing of art, to become the malady ; and when they found these bane of nature. dusky-coated prowlers on the moors hang ing about the outskirts of the herd, they 2973. “ It is pleasant to view the con
always concluded that these birds smelt trast produced, when this surplus of sum death ' among the cattle.
mer energy is seen and appreciated, and so made to perform useful work in its own
season ; and though at that season the The short summer effect is delightful, and greatly beightens
2970. “ What has been stated was not
the whole of the evil.
came on so very hot that the dry pastures the charm of the summer ,it is not confined
were burnt up ; the little patches of culti- to that season, but extends to the whole vated ground in the neighbourhood were year, rendering every season more healthy hardened like bricks ; and the crops late and productive, and greatly adding to the
sown, from the length of time the snow enjoyment of life. lay, could not rise with any vigour in the main stem , or at all “ tiller' at the roots,
2974. “ When the excessive ardour of
so that they never so covered the ground as the summer is tbus turned to good account, to shut out the searching influence of the in the promoting of growth, and cooled by spring. Thus, as the summer advanced, evaporation constantly going on from fields
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
6
of corn coming into bloom : when the bean that subject, appear to have been very and the red clover give the full volume of satisfactorily conducted, and the theory
their combined perfumes to the lightest which he established by these experiments zephyr that fits from field to footpath ; and is the one now embraced by all philo
when the fields are cultivated up to thepower sophers. “ Aristotle and many other of the season, the little zephyrs do sport at writers," says Dr Wells ,“ have remarked, these shortjourneys as if theywere specially that dew appears only in calm and serene
commissioned to sweeten your path as you nights. This remark of Aristotle, how walk along ; when the hay-field, ready for ever, is not to be received in its strictest the scythe, plays in gentleundulations, as if sense, as I have frequently found a small
it were a sea of beryl ; when the rich pas- quantity of dew on grass, both in windy tures, starred over with the sweet though nights, if the sky was clear or nearly so, lowly blossoms of the white clover, breathe and in cloudy nights if there was no wind. balm and honey combined, and the indus- If, indeed, the clonds were high and the trious bees are flitting from flower to flower, weather calm, I have sometimes seen on softening the air with their mingled hum grass, though the sky was entirely hidden, of delight ; when the fresh breeze from the no very inconsiderable quantity of dew.
copse faces you as you pass, and the trem- Again, accordingto my observation, entire bling poplar by the brook salutes you with stillness of the atmosphere is so far from all its leaves ; when the birds, many of being necessary for the formation of this them from transequatorial climates, are fluid, that its quantity has seemed to me
enjoying their meridian siesta, in order that to be increased by a very gentle motion they may pour forth their gratitude in of the air. Dew, however, has never been vesper or in matin song ; and when man, seen by me on nights both cloudy and
and all thatbelongs to him ,living or dead, windy. If, in the course of the night, speaks of plenty, and comfort, and high the weather, from being calm and serene,
health, and full of grateful enjoyment should become windy and cloudy, not then, then it is summer, such as becomes
only will dew cease to form , but that
rational man ina land highly privileged which was formed will either disappear or by a bountiful God : and you require no diminish considerably. In calm weather, verbal definition ." * if the sky be partially covered with clouds, more dew will appear than if it 2975. The atmospherical phenomena of were entirely covered, but less than if it summer are not only varied , but are of a were entirely clear.
Dew probably be
very complicated character, difficult of ex- gins in the country to appear upon grass, planation, and apparently anomalous in in places shaded from the sun during calm occurrence . These are dew , which is a and clear weather, soon after the beat of great deposition of water at a time when the atmosphere has declined ; and I have
nota cloud is to be seen ; a thunder storm , which suddenly rages in the midst of a calm ; and hail, which is the descent of ice and congealed snow in the hottest
frequently felt grass moist in dry weather several hours before sunset. On the other hand, I have scarcely ever known dew to be present in such quantity upon grass as
days of the year. Each of these anoma- to exhibit visible drops before the sun was lous phenomena requires explanation. very near the horizon, or to be very copious till some time after sunset.
It also con
2976. Dew.—The phenomenon of dew tinues to form in shaded places after sun is familiar to every one residing in the country. In the hottest day of summer, the shoes become wetted on walking over a grass -field about sunset, and they may be wetted as thoroughly as in wading
rise ; and if the weather be favourable, more dew forms a little before, and in
shaded places, a little after sunrise, than at any other time. The forination of dew, after it has once commenced, continues
through water. The late DrWells inves- during the whole night, if the weather tigated the phenomena of dew more closely remain still and serene. During nights His experiments, that are equally clear and calm , dew often
than any other person .
as detailed in his instructive essay on appears in very unequal quantities, even * Mudie's Summer, p. 1-64.
7
SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.
7
after allowance has been made for any former than in the latter time, in conse
difference in their lengths. One great quence of a previous precipitation of part source of their difference is very obvious ; of it. The reason, no doubt, is the cold
for, it being manifest,whatever theory be of the atmosphere being greater in the adopted concerning the immediate cause latter than in the priorpartof the night." * of dew, that the more replete the atmo sphere is with moisture, previously to the
2977. Theories of the formation of dew
operation of that cause, the morecopious have been proffered by many philosophers, will be the precipitation of moisture in the atmosphere, which must likewise tend to increase the production of dew. Thus dew, in equally calm and clear nights, is more abundant shortly after rain than during a long tract of dry weather. It is
from the days of Aristotle to the time of Dr Wells ; and these have been referred to in (176,) as also the observations of Du fay on the perspiration of moisture from the earth, (177.)
more abundant during S. and W. winds, 2978. To measure the quantity of dew than during those which blow from the deposited each night, an instrument is N. and the E. Dew is commonly more used called a Drosometer . The most
plentiful in spring and autumn than in simple process consists in exposing to the summer; the reason is, that a greater open air bodies whose exact weight is difference is generally found between the known, and then weighing them afresh temperature of the day and the night in after they are covered with dew . Accord
the former seasons of the year than in ing to Dr Wells, locks of wool divided
the latter. Dew is always very copions into spherical masses of 3.4 inches diame on those clear and calm nights which are ter, are to be preferred to any other thing
followed by misty or foggy mornings ; the for measuring the deposit of dew. ull turbidnessof the air in the morningshow- circumstances that favour radiation equally
ing that it must have contained , during contribute to the formation of dew. Å the preceding night, a considerable quan- body that is a good radiator and a bad tity of moisture. I have observed dew to conductor of heat, will therefore be cover
be unusually plentiful on a clear morning, ed with a very abundant dew. Thus glass which had succeeded a clondy night. For becomes wet sooner than the metals ; or the air having, in the course of the night, ganised bodies are wetted more quickly lost little or no moisture, was in the morn- than glass, especially when they are in
ing charged with more watery vapour small fragments — because, as the heat than it would have been if the night had passes with difficulty from the one to the
also been clear. Heat of the atmosphere, other, that which is lost is not replaced by if other circumstances are favourable ,- that which is transmitted from the inte which, according to my experience, they rior to the surface of the body. Thus locks seldom are in this country,-occasions a of wool are very well suited to these ex great formation of dew . For, as the periments, and become covered with a
power of the air to retain watery vapour in a pellucid state, increases considerably faster while its temperature is rising than in proportion to the heat acquired, a decrease of its heat in any small given
very abundant dew. The moister the air is, all other things being equal, the more considerable is the quantity of dew that falls in a given time. Thus, it is entirely wanting in arid deserts, notwithstanding
quantity during the night must bring it, the intensity of nocturnal radiation . In if the temperature be high, much nearer our country, nights with abundant dews
to the point of repletion before it be acted may be considered as foretelling rain ; for upon by the immediate cause of dew, than they prove that the air contains a great if the temperature were low. I always quantity of the vapour of water, and that found, when the clearness and stillness of it is near the point of saturation. Dalton
the atmosphere were the same, that more dew was found between midnight and sunrise than between sunset and midnight, though the positive quantity of moisture
computed the amount of dew which an nually falls at 5 inches. In fine weather, in the evening, the vapour plane being destroyed, and the nubific principle, as
in the air must have been less in the Mr Forster observes, ceasing to act, the * Wells On Deu , p. 1. 1815.
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
8
vapour so deposited comes down in dew . left in the mouth a sharp and burning after Dew , however, is not the result always taste . On examination, these grains were of the stratus cloud, and it differs from the found to be the tubercles of the ficaire,
wet mist of the cirro -stratus of the lower
Ranunculus ficaria,a plant verycommon
atmosphere.
in Silesia . In the middle of June the leaves
and stalks of this plant dry up, and the 2979. As supposed depositions from the
tubercles having but loose hold of the
air, which take place usually in summer, ground, the wind sweeps them off their and accompanied chiefly with rain, are the sites, and the rains then carry them to a dis showers of remarkable substances, such as tance, but no one has seen then fall from sulphur, blood, corn , fishes, and others, the clouds. The seeds of the Melampy which have been said to have occurred in rum nemorosum , of the Veronica hædera
several places, and which I mention more folia, and of others, have been known to be as matters of curiosity than of importance, thus transported by wind and rain to con with the view of correcting the popular siderable distances from their habitats. ideas entertained of them . Showers of
Sulphur.- Formerly, and even at the
2980. Showers of Animals . - One has
present day, flour of sulphur has been said frequently to fall with rain ; after heavy showers, quiet waters have been found covered with a yellow dust, which, being easily inflamed , was believed to be sulphur.
frequently heard of the fall of fishes and frogs from the air ; and the common idea is that they had been taken up by water spouts into the clouds, and thence let fall upon the earth with the rain ; and it has
Accurate researches have proved that the even been asserted that they have fallen
dust was nothing else than the pollen of from the sky in calm weather.
“ To all
certain flowers, and of pines in particular, these assertions,” remarks M. Kaemtz, “ I which had been swept off by the wind and know no other answer than that which precipitated by the rain. The nature of one of the most distinguished naturalists
the pollen depends on that of the vegetables of the age made to one who assured him a certain distance
that he had seen such a phenomenon with Schmeider believes that, in March and his own eyes : ' It is fortunate,' he said, April, it is the pollen of alders and filberts; " that you have seen it, for now I believe in May and June, that of pines, elders, it : had I seen it myself, I should not have
that grow within
birch ; in July, August, and September, believed it." "
that of lycopodium , typha, and several species of equisetum . Showers of Blood.
2981. Dry Fogs. - From 29th May to
-Red spots have been found on the ground 1st July 1783 a dense dry fog was seen and on the waters, which were believed to be spots of blood. Microscopic researches have proved that those colourings arose from innumerable vegetables or animals, some filling the waters, and others — inor-
over the greater part of Europe. The fog was not an aqueous vapour, but a true smoke.
Veltmann ascertained that simul
taneous with it great peat-bogs were burn ing in Germany that dry summer, as also
ganic substances in the form of powder- were great volcanic eruptions in Calabria falling on the ground, were found colour- and Iceland, the hot lava from which burn ed with iron or hydrochlorate of cobalt. ed much vegetation and many dwellings. Showers of Corn . After heavy rains, In the dry summer of 1839 a similar dry
bodies have frequently been found on the fog was occasioned by burning bogs.* ground that possessed a distinct analogy to grains ofcorn, and appeared to be com2982. Summer Electricity. - The na posed of farina ; but were found not to be ture and sources of electricity have already
the grain of the cereals, nor had they fallen been fully explained from (123 ) to (130.) from the air. In June 1830 were found
As summer is the season in which elec
near Greisau, a village of Silesia, after a tricity is most active in displaying its rain storm , a certain number of small bodies existence, a few remarks on its condition
of a vegetable nature, on places covered in this season seems appropriate. Its usual with turf. They had the taste of farina, but state in the atmosphere is generally be * Kaemtz, Complete Course of Meteorology, p. 106, 465.
SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.
9
lieved to be positive, and that it increases above the surface of the earth : these ap in quantity as we ascend. In Europe, the pear to act as conductors of the electricity
observations of M. Schübler of Stutgardt from the upper regions. Cavallo ascer intimate that the electricity of the precipitating fluids from the atmosphere is more frequently negative than positive, in the proportion of 155 to 100 ; but that the mean intensity of the positive electricity is greater than that of the negative in the ratio of 69to 43 ; and that different layers or strata of the atmosphere, placed only at
tained, froma set of experiments per formed at Islington in 1776, that the air
always contains free positive electricity, except when influenced by heavy clouds near the zenith. This electricity is found strongest in fogs, and during frosty wea ther, but weakest in hot weather, and just previous to a shower of rain ; and to in small distances from each other, are fre- crease in proportion as the instrument - quently found to be in different states.* used is raised to a greater elevation. This, It appears also, from recent observations indeed, necessarily happens; for as the
by Schübler, that the electricity of the air, earth's surface is, cæteris paribus, always in calm and serene weather, is constantly negatively electrified, a continual but positive, but subject to two daily fluctua- gradual combination of its electricity with
tions. It is at its minimum a little before that of the air is constantly taking place sunrise : after which it gradually accumu- at its surface , so that no free positive
lates till it reaches its first maximum at electricity can be detected within four feet 8 A.m. in May; and then diminishes until of the surface of the earth .” I it has descended to its second minimum. The second maximum occurs in the even2984. Thunder -storm .-- Although the ing about two hours after sunset ; and presence of electricity is thus accounted then diminishes at first rapidly, and next in for, its manifest action in a thunder
slower progression during the whole of the storm is not easily analysed. Storm night, to present again,on the following clouds are at first small, and they rapidly
day, the same oscillations. It is probable become larger by accumulating all the that the exact time of its increase andde- vapours around them, when the sky is crease is influenced by the seasons. The generally seen of a pale-blue colour. At
intensity increases from July to January, times storm -clouds are formed in the and then decreases ; it is also much more horizon, where they remain either isolated intense in the winter, though longer in or unite together. Their characteristics
summer, and appears to increase as the are, that the cirri found in the upper part cold increases.
These fluctuations may of the atmosphere pass to a
state of
be observed throughout the year more thick cirro -cumulus, through the cumulus, easily in fine than in cloudy weather. to a compact and uniform mass of cumulo stratus.' The entire mass presents remark
2983. “ Among the causes modifying able opposition of light - one part being the
electric state of the atmosphere," ob- denselyblue-black, others ash- gray - and
serves Dr Bird, “ must be ranked its if the sun is near to setting, a yellow or
hygrometric state, as well as probably the orange colour may pervade the entire mass.
nature of the effluvia which may become volatilised in any given locality. Thus,
Saussure bas observed , that its intensity
2985. The formation of storm - clouds is
is much more considerable in elevated and preceded by a slow and continued fall of isolated places narrow than in and con- the barometer, as must be the case when fined situations : it is nearly absent in cirri occupy the sky. The calmness of
houses, under lofty trees, in narrow courts the air, and a suffocating heat, due to the and alleys, and in enclosed places. In want of evaporation on the surface of our warm places, the most intensely electric bodies, are circumstances quite character
state of the atmosphere appears to be that istic. The heat does not proportionately in which large clouds and dense fogs are affect the thermometer, and is peculiar to
suspended in the air, at short distances the lower strata of the air, for it decreases * Forbes's Report on Meteorology, vol.i. p.253. I Bird's Elements of Natural Philosophy, p. 209.
of Journal of Science and of the Arts, No. IV.
10
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
rapidly with the height-- twice as rapidly a zigzag form , though in reality it is of the form of a helix, or spiral screw , we
as in ordinary circumstances.
call itforked. Theunequal conductibility 2986. The electric fluid accumulates of the air explains this course of lightning, in the clouds of vapour.
When two as well as its bifurcations. The third
clouds, thus provided with electric matter kind, ball lightning, passes slowly from beyond theirusual state, are not far from the clouds to the earth, and is visible for each other, the electricity of the one al- several seconds ; whereas the lightnings ways becomes positive, and that of the of the other two kinds do not last for the
other negative. Being in the opposite millionth part of a second, according to states ofelectricity, they attract and ap- the observations of M. Arago. proach each other ; and when the approach comes within the distance in which the 2989. Lightning is generally of a daz
force of the positive electricity is able to zling white colour, and when the electric overcome theresistance of the air between spark is sent through vacuo, it is always the positive and negative clouds, the fluid of a blue colour, which would seem to leaves the positive and enters into the indicate that the true colour of electricity
negative cloud in lightning in such quan- is blue. Now, as electricity is known to tity as to restore the equilibrium of both. promote vegetation, ( 135 to 150, ) and as The forcible passage of the fluid causes such a concussion in the air between the two clonds that its vibrations, striking against the earth and mountains, cause
the blue rays more greatly accelerate
vegetation than any of the others, (193 ) the exciting action of electricity in plants may be connected with its blue colour.
the noise which is heard in thunder . 2990. The motion of the electric fluid
2987. The time taken by the electric is most commonly from the clouds to the
fluid to pass from one cloud to another is earth, though numerous examplesexist of inappreciable, but the velocity of sound is its having followed an opposite direction . calculable. For every 41 seconds of time It is probable, however, that in most cases which elapse after seeing the lightning to of electric explosion, the fluid leaves hearing the thunder, the cloudsare situate both clouds, or the cloud and the earth, at as many miles from the auditor. Far at
one time .
However this may be, the
sea, wbere are no objects for sound to be stroke always goes in the most direct line, reflected from , thunder is very seldom even through substances of the least con
heard ; whereas in a mountainous country ducting power. Animals are frequently
it inspires terror, though, being mere struck,because their fluids easily conduct sound , it can do no harm ; while the light- the Auid ; while the shock given to the
ning, which can do harm , does allthe body seems to be through the nervous mischief it can before we are aware of its system . presence.
2991. Hence lightning -conductors, call
2988. Lightning is of three kinds. If ed paratonnères, have been recommended the lightning joins two clouds, whose not only to draw off the fluid quietly from
height isnot equal, the sky appears irregu- the atmosphere into the earth, which they larly illuminated . If the lightning goes certainly do when attached to houses, but from a cloud to the earth , we observe a
also with the view of lessening the number
narrow train of dazzling light, surrounded and virulency of thunder-storms, whịch it by a less intense light. We observe the is doubtful that any number of conductors
same train when it joins two clouds of would effect -- since at Zurich, and its equal height, because there is no lower vicinity, the houses are studded with cloud in this case to hide it from our view. conductors, and storms are not less rare The two sorts of lightning are of course there than elsewhere.
identical, and we naine them differently because they affect our sense of sight
2992. Electricity emits
a peculiar
differently. When weremark a point of odour, somethinglike sulphur, or perhaps light which is not clearly defined ,we call rather garlic. This odour is generally it sheet lightning. When lightning is of attributed to the discharge of minute par
1!
!
SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.
11
ticles of metal from the conductor of the strata of cumuli exist beneath, the clouds electric machine ; but Professor Schoenbein
make a vertical exchange of lightnings.
of Basle considers it to arise from an ele- We must therefore assign to storms a
mentary body, which he calls ozone, libe- great height, in contradiction to the gene
rated from combination by the decompos- rally received opinion, and no storms have ing action of electricity, and which, in its been measured at a lower position than electrical characters, resembles chlorine, 4000 feet from the earth to the lowest part bromine, and iodine ; and it has been of the lowest clouds. stated that he has actually decomposed nitrogen into hydrogen and ozone.
2996. On a serene evening, in summer , we often see after sunset intermittent
2993. The noise of thunder is not lights that illumine a great portion of the always the same, for when it falls direct sky, and these are called heat lightnings. to the surface of the ground, those near hear a dry noise of varying power, which 2997. When a storm is situated below ceases immediately ; while those at a dis- the horizon, we observe in the evening,
tance hear a series of noises rapidly suc- and during the night, very brilliant flashes ceeding each other, completely different of lightning - while no thunder is heard , however from the volleys of thunder. M. because the storm is too fardistant from Dove explains these varied noises thus : With a flash that falls directly, the noise caused by the first explosion is heard at the same instant as the last ; while in a horizontal flash, the noises produced at
the observer for the noise of the thunder
to reach his ear. Every one may con vince himself that lightnings are reflected through the air with great intensity on a dark night. When a storm is in the W.,
the greater distances arrive later than the and the remainder of the sky is serene,
others, and a flash whicb extends over we have only to turn our back to the 2000 yards will produce a noise which storm to see the lightning reflected in the will last 7 seconds. In the zigzag light- E.
ning the noise reaches the ear at different 2998. In a thunder- storm , says M. intervals ; and it is at the angles that the noise is strongest, on account of the com- Tessan, “flashes of lightning, of a terrible pression of the air, and hence the unequal brilliancy, succeed each other with extreme
intensity of the sound. The rolling of rapidity, and are almost instantly followed thunder is thus explained by M. Arago : by tremendous claps of thunder,which are
“ Lightnings only occupy a point in space, themselves succeeded bydelugingshowers.” and give place to a short and instantaneous noise . Multiple lightnings, on the contrary, are accompanied by a rolling, because the different parts of long lines
But though the order of the phenomena is obvious, and well understood, yet the ruling cause of the order is a matter of dispute - it being yet unsettled whether the storm pro
which the lightnings occupy are in general duces the electricity or the electricity the found at different distances, and the sounds storm . M. Tessan, following the order of
which are there engendered, either suc- phenomena, supports the latter view ; and
cessively or at the same physical instant, Kaemtz supports the former with this must employ times gradually unequal in reasoning :-“ A flash of lightning passes order to reach the ear of the observer . ”
the zenith, and before the clap of thunder,
but rarely afterwards, the rain or hail 2994. All thunder - storms may be escapes in torrents from the cloud ; the divided into two classes, the one class being drops at first in a line inclined to the due to the action of an ascending current, horizon, and then return to a vertical and which only occurs in the hot season ; direction.
It is commonly stated,” he
and the other class is the result of a con- observes, “ that the rain is the effect of the flict between two opposite winds, and is lightnings tearing the clouds; but it is the gust of wind condensing the vapours the cause of the winter thunder -storms. into large drops, having first driven them 2995. Thunder-storms in summer al-
into a horizontal direction : hence, the
ways commence with cirri, and when escape of electricity, and the clap of
these become thicker, or when several thunder. As a proof that this condensa
12
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
tion precedes the lightning, the rain often the day, and seldom in the night. In falls before the noise ofthe thunder is England hail falls most in winter ; and at
heard . Now , the latter travels 333 metres Plymouth , according to Mr Giddy, in the ( 1092 feet) per second ; if, therefore, the
course of 21 years, its recurrence in each rain was an effect of lightning, it would month was, in Times . Times , follow that the drops of water would bave July, I fallen with a velocity at least equal-a January, 23 August, 0 February, 25 velocity which they never have, even at 25 September, 5 March , the end of their fall.”* 2999. Thunder -storms are of great use
April, May, June,
27 7 5
October, 17 November, 22 December, 43
in the economyof the atmosphere. The In August is absolute zero, and in Decem surplus electricity is disposed of to the ber is the maximum . The appearance of earth, the surplus vapour is condensed and sent down to the earth in rain , the air is prevented from becoming stagnant, the extraneous matters floating in the air
hail-clouds seems tobe distinguished from other stormy clouds by a remarkable shad ing ; their edges present a multitude of indentations, and their surfaces disclose
are brought down to the earth, whether here and there immense irregular pro these be in a solid or gaseous state, ( 290 tuberances. Hail seldom falls in deep valleys surrounded by mountains. It falls
to 295.)
more on the sea -coast than in the interior
3000. Hail. — The fall of ice from the of a country. atmosphere in the hottest weather is a 3002. Noise frequently accompanies or phenomenon not easily solved. That both snow and ice are required in the formation precedes a fall of hail. It is probably due ofbail there cannot be a doubt. “ The form
to the hailstones beating against each
of hailstones varies. They are nearly other, or to the conflict of contrary winds.
uniform when they fall on the same
The latter are frequently so violent that
level ; and in the same storm they have the hailstones are transported in a hori fallen smaller on the tops of mountains zontal direction. It is often observed that
than on the plains. Change of tempera- the wind blows in puffs, and that each of ture or wind alters the form of bail. On 7th July 1769, M. Adanson observed six -sided pyramids fall ; but the wind changing to N.E., changed them to convex
them is accompanied with a torrent of hail. If the bail falls as usual at intervals, bailstones, which are at first driven hori zontally, finally mingle with the drops of
lenses, and so transparent as to transfer rain ; and in the end there is nothing but objects without distortion. Hail is some- rain, the drops falling vertically on the times attended with spongy snow, which surface of the earth . may have formed the interior of the hail stone, while its exterior was transparent
3003. Although bail-storms are very
ice. It has been supposed from this, that violent, they occupy but a very limited the different portions have been formed space. They will occur at the foot of under different circumstances.
Leslie mountains and in the plain, while nothing
imagines the spongy texture to result from
but rain falls on the mountains adjoiving,
an atom of water having been suddenly and in their march they leave a narrow
frozen, and particles of perhaps rarified train of bailstones. pyramidal form fell at Aberdeen on 29th 3004. Both the barometer and air suddenly driven into the centre. The
November 1823. The usual form of hail
thermo
meter are affected by hail-storms. The
is a concentric lamellar structure, with a barometer falls on the approach of a hail
stellular fibrous arrangement .” +
storm , and immediately after the storm
has passed the temperature falls, and the 3001. Hail generally falls in the hottest contrast is the more severely felt in con hours of the day in Spain, Italy , and sequence of the great heat prior to the France. It falls in Europe generally in approach of the storm . The lowering of the * Kaemtz? Complete Course of Meteorology, p. 345-368. + Encyclopedia Metropolitana - art. Meteorology, p. 129.
SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.
13
temperature for two or three weeks after the formation of hail-have been erected
a severe bail-storm , would indicate that in parts of the Continent, to save the vine such a storm has a much greater effect yards from the hail ; and if electricity is upon the atmosphere, and must therefore connected with the formation of hail, these
be much more extensive, than the space should have some such effect, but there covered by the fall of hailstones would are no authentic records of their utility. Indeed, Kaemtz asks, are not forests a
lead us to believe.
collection of living paragrêles, and yet
3005. As to the formation of bail, the they are not spared by bail. Vegetable difficulty of accounting for the retention of the masses of ice in the free atmosphere, as observed byProfessorForbes, is certainly verygreat. Volta's theory, than which none is more satisfactory, and certainly none
points possess great powers of conduction. According toMr Pine of Maidstone, a blade of grass is a betterconductor of electricity than a steel needle, and that the spines upon thorns, gooseberry bushes, and indeed
more ingenious, is thus particularlyexplain- ' the whole creation of buds and leaves, have ed by Kaemtz:-Evaporation is favoured by the property of silently drawing off and the solar rays striking the upper part of the conducting away electricity. cloud ; the air above is very dry ; the elec tric state of the clouds favours evaporation. 3008. Sleet.— Very small hailstones are
Of two clouds, the one upper the other termed sleet. They are mostly spherical. becomes in a state ofpositive, and thelower, and of a whiteness approaching to that of in consequence, in that of negative electri snow. The largest are sometimes sur
lower, the upper is first formed ; the upper Isolated ones are opaque, frequently soft,
city ; the snow -flakes of the lower stratum rounded with a slight film of ice. They fall of clouds are in the same electrical condi- in winter and spring during gusty weather,
tion with it ; they are therefore repelled and rarely accompany storms,but always and attracted by the upper stratum ; as soon fall during gales ,and when the weather
as they touch it they partake of its electri- is variable, and such gusts of cold wind city , are repelled, and fall to the lower seem a necessary condition for the forma cloud, into which they penetrate ; they are tion of sleet.* again repelled, and so on. These attrac tions and repulsions may last for several
3009. Clouds. - The forms of the clouds
hours, during which time the grains unite in summer are very distinctly marked. in masses, and condense around them the When a deposition of vapour is taking surrounding vapours, which they convert place in the highest part of the atmosphere, into ice ; they strike against each other, the cirrus appears (242;) and when it and originate the noise which is heard ; soon disappears, it is a sign of fine weather ; when the bailstones have attained a certain but instead of disappearing, it may descend size, the lower cloud can no longer retain a little lower, and be converted into the
them , and resisting the action of gravity, cirro-cumulus (250, -an elegant, light, they traverse the stratum and fall to the flocculent cloud so often seen in a fine earth. The violence of the storm is ac- summer day. A farther deposition changes
counted for by the meeting of two oppo- this small cloud into the larger cumulus, called the day -cloud in summer, because it disappears in another form in the even The contact. tated of at the moment precipi N. wind prevails, and accounts both for ing, ( 245.) The cumulus is distinctly re
site winds, the N. and the S. The hail
the cold which succeeds and the rapid for- presented in Plate XIII. oftheLeicestertup mation of hail.
near the horizon, where it frequently takes up its position for the greater part of the
3006. Pieces of straw , and in Iceland day, resting on the vapour plane. When a volcanic ashes, have been found within large cumulus rises from the horizon in the hailstones.
daytime, with white towering heads, it is a sign of a storm or fall of rain from that
3007. Paragrêles - tall posts erected for quarter ; and the wind will change to that
drawing off the eleccricity, and opposing direction in the course of the next twenty * Kaemtz' Complete Course of Meteorology, p. 387 and 582.
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
14
four hours. This threatening cloud , called may judge of the immense mass of cumulo -stratus, is given in Plate VIII., of water required daily to supply the wants the Draught Mare. In calm serene even- of vegetation. And when we know that
ings in summer, the day -cloud descends evaporation, besides, carries an incredible and subsides in the bottom of valleys, or quantity of vapour direct from the surface spreads itself in hollows of the open coun- of the ground into the atmosphere, it may try, covering the ground like a lake or a more excite our surprise where all the re sheet of snow, as seen in moonlight, when quisite moisture can be derived from , than it becomes the true stratus cloud. Tall that too much has been provided. objects, such as trees, steeples, and even elevated ground , jut through this cloud like 3013. The quantity of rain which falls rocks and islands in a lake.
The air is in the summermonths, as we have adopted
then perfectly calm, the temperature de- them, taking the mean quantity as 1, is,
lightfully warm , and the intenseness of the according toM. Flaguergues, in silence is broken only by the snipe drum ming in its curious somersaults in theair-
by the harsh ventriloquous cry of the corn craik amongst the grass — or by the occa sional barking of the watch -dog at some distant homestead .
May, June, July,
0-0847 0.0765 0.0544
0.2156 .
The morning after
such a night is sure to usher in the sun in 3014. The number of rainy days in the bright and peerless splendour, whose steady same months, according to the same autho
heat soon evaporates the sheet-like stratus rity, is as follows: cloud from the valley and hollows, ele vating it, in the form of the beautiful,
compact, day- cloud, above the mountain
Days.
In May, June, July ,
15-8 11 : 8 16 : 1
top or vapour-plane. 43 7
3010. The effect of larger masses of
cloud, and especially cumuli, on the small-
3015. Ofthese quantitiesmuch the largest
er clouds in their vicinity is evidently proportion of rain in the same time is de marked in summer. The approximation rived from thunder -storms, though of course of clouds towards each other is always at- an entire rainy day may supply more tended with some alteration of their ap- than any storm . When rain falls in a
pearance , and clouds are constantly ope- shower to the extent of 1:18 inch in a day, rating on and altering each other's forms. the low plains of Europe become inundated,
Analogy leads us to refer all such changes while at Joyeuse 8.84 inches have been to the operation of the different states of known to fall in that time. In noun electricity in the clouds nearest each other, tainous countries such showers are not rare, because the winds frequently blow 3011. Rain . — The character of the rain with violence in several contrary directions. in summer is refreshing ; for even in a
rainy season , thongh we may feel displeased at being kept by it within doors on a summer day, we feel assured that it will in a great measure be absorbed by the immense mass of vegetation which is in constant activity during this season .
3016. It is stated by Kaemtz that, if on the N. of the Alps and the Pyreneesthe wind always blew from the N.E., no rain would ever fall in Central Europe, and that if it always blew from the S.W. it
3012. Since the experiments of Dr
3017. The boundary -line of the pro
would never be fair .
Hales proved that a sunflower plant, 34 vince of summer rainsin Europe proceeds feet high, and an ordinary- sized cabbage, W. from the Carpathian mountains to
on the average perspire 22 ounces of the N. of the Alps, through the middle of water every twenty -four hours, and conse- France, the west of Holland, and by the
qnently absorb at least that quantity, * we north part of the Gulf of Bothnia, through * Hales' Statical Essays, vol. i. p. 12 and 15.
SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.
15
the White Sea to the Arctic Ocean,* and 3022. A day wind betwixt the moun it includes all that large portion of Europe tains and plains exists in the same manner to the E. of it.
as the land and sea breezes, though to a less degree.
3018. Every one may have observed rain to fall without the appearance of a
3023. The alternation of all these winds
cloud. When the equilibrium of the higher is explainedby the unequal heating of the
regions is violently disturbed , especially land and of the sea , and of that of the when any cold N. winds come into col- mountains and the plain ; and as conti
lision with those from the S., it may nents are hotter in summer and colder in happen that rain falls from a serene sky. winter than the contiguous sea, the sea
Large drops are seen to moisten the earth, breeze ought to predominate in summer , and yet atthe zenith the sky is blue. The and the land breeze in winter . vapours condense into water, without pass ing through the intermediate state of vesi-
3024. In summer, when the wind is
cular vapours.
Humboldt gives several variable, rain is indicated, and also when examples of the kind, and Kaemtz remarks the wind blows along the surface of the from his own observations that the fact is ground and raises the dust towards the not very rare, having observed it twice or face.
When currents of air are seen to
tbrice annually. I have frequently ob- move in different directions, the upper one served this phenomenon .
will most probably ultimately prevail. When it is uncertain whether there be any
3019. Winds. — The character of the breeze, the lifting up of a wetted finger winds in summer in this country is gentle will instantly feel the current, and indicate and refreshing
the quarter from whence it comes.
3020. This is the season for the land
3025. In summer, especially in July,
and sea breezes. In fine weather, on the is perceived in the sea -coasts, no movemento'clock in the mornair until eight or nine ing, when a breeze from the sea gradually
the wind blows chiefly from the W.— the E. at this predominance of W. winds over season attaining its maximum ; and at the same time the N. winds become more com
rises, and increases in strength to three mon ; whence it follows that the mean o'clock in the afternoon, when it decreases, direction of the wind in this season is N. and gives place, after a short period of of the annual mean. calm , to a breeze from the land towards the 3026. When the wind blows strongly sea , which rises soon after sunset, and at-
from any quarter, even from the S. W., tains its maximum of velocity and extent which is the warmest wind in summer, for at the moment of sunrise. two or three days in succession, the tem
3021. The direction of these two breezes perature of the air is diminished, sometimes
is perpendicular to the coast line, but if as much as 20 °, and seldom less than 10°. another breeze arises at the sametime they are modified in various ways. On the E.
3027. When small whirlwinds are seen
coast of this island, if the wind blows from raising the dust upon the roads or fields, the E. the sea breeze will be strong, and it is a sign of dryweather. I remember the land breeze weak ; and on the W. coast, seeing, in the neighbourhood of Berlin, a the land breeze will be stronger than the large and beautiful whirlwind, in a hot sea breeze.
These effects will be the con-
calm day, raise the sandy soil of a field,
trary with a W. wind. In a wind from in a perpendicular direction, to a great the N. or the S. both the land and sea height in the air, and move majestically breeze will be changed in their direction away out of sight . respectively to the N.E. and S.W.
The
sea breeze is very weak in gulfs, and
3028. Evaporation . - In proportion as
the land breeze is as weak on promon- the sun rises above the horizon the eva tories. poration increases, and the air receives * Johnston's Physical Atlas - Meteorology, Map iv.
E
PRACTIC
16
- SUMMER .
every moment a greater quantity of tant element in nature, for the promotion
vapour. The fact of the rising of the of vegetation in summer. We have al vapour from the ground, may be dis- ready considered its nature and composi tinctly observed in summer,by the flick- tion, ( from 189 to 194.) Its properties ering with which distant objects are seen through the vapour. But as the air opposes an obstacle to the formation of vapour ( 229,) it becomes further and fur-
are most evidently manifested in this sea son , and these have beenshortly and for cibly enumerated by Dr Lindley. “ It is to the action of leaves," he observes— “ to
ther removed from the point of saturation, the decomposition of their carbonic acid and the relative humidity becomes more and of their water ; to the separation of and more feeble. The rate continues the aqueous particles of the sap from the without interruption, until the moment solid parts that were dissolved in it ; to
.when the temperature attains its maximum . In summer the absolute quantity of vapour increases in the morning, but before mid -day the maximum occurs, and
the deposition thus effected of various earthy and other substances, either intro duced into plants, as silex and metallic salts, or formed there, as vegetable alka
in different months it occurs sooner or loids ; to the extrication of nitrogen, and
later. The absolute quantity of vapour then diminishes, until the time of the highest temperature of the day, without however attaining a minimum so low as
probably to other causes as yet unknown that the formation of the peculiar secre tious of plants, of whatever kind, is owing. And this is brought about principally, if
that of the morning. As the temperature not exclusively, by the agency of light. rises during all this space of time, it follows, Their green colour becomes intense , in that the air is farther and farther from the proportion to their exposure to light point of saturation : after having attained within certain limits, and feeble, in pro
its minimum, the quantity of vapour again portion to their removal from it; tilſ, in increases very regularly until next morn- total and continued darkness, they are ing, while the air becomes relatively more entirely destitute of green secretion, and and more moist.
become blanched and etiolated . The same result attends all their other secre
3029. Vapour being the result of the action of heat on water, it is evident that its quantity must vary in different seasons. The relative differences in the tension of the vapours of water in the spring and
tions ; timber, gum, sugar,acids, starch ,oil, resins, odours, flavours,and all the number
summer seasons, are as follows: In February, it is March,
4.749 5.107
less narcotic, acrid, aromatic, pungent, as
tringent, and other principles derived from the vegetable kingdom, are equally influ enced , as to quantity and quality, by the amount of light to which the plants pro
ducing them have been exposed .” +
6.247
April, Their sum,
16.103
3031. To show the advantage that summer possesses over all the other seasons
as regards light, it is only requisite to In May, it is
7.836 10.843 11.626
June,
July,
state its comparative duration in the re spective months of the seasons, as we have
divided the year, and it will then be seen that summerenjoys more than double the light of winter, a half more than spring, The quantity of vapour attains its maxi- and a third more than autumn. Thus, mum in July, the month in which the air IN WINTER . is driest. We thus see that evaporation November has 8 hours 10 minutes of light a -day. 30.305
is nearly twice as active in summer as in
spring.*
...
7 7
8 ...
41
3030. Light . - Light is a most impor * Kaemtz’ Complete Course of Meteorology, p. 85, 92.
+ Lindley's Theory of Horticulture, p. 52.
...
mean of 7
44
...
December, January, Making a
::
Their sum,
SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS. IN SPRING.
hence it is that they illuminate the vault
February , has 9 hours 30 minutes of light a -day. 11 14
49
mean of 11
49
determine the insensible transition be
3033. Heat. - We have already con 11 16 45 44
mean of 16
...
creases with that of the latter.
:::
17
...
...
...
25
to ( 162. ) As beat always accompanies light with the solar rays, its intensity in
:::
34 23
::
12
...
sidered the properties of heat from (158)
:::::
...
Making a IN AUTUMN. August, 14 September, ... 12 October, 10 Making a
tween day and night.
:::::
...
...
IN SUMMER . 16 May, June, 17 July, 16
mean of
of heaven, light up terrestrial objects on which the sun does not shine directly, and
:::::
March, April, Making a
17
The acti
nometer and heliothermometer, as well as the pyreheliometer of Pouillet, bave all been employed to measure that intensity, and the results seem to be satisfactory.
It would appear that a very large propor tion of the heat of the solar ray is absorbed
in passing through the atmosphere, and 3032. Besides its existence for a greater
that the proportion is increased as the
number of hours each day, light is of sun approaches the horizon . The results greater intensity in summer than in the of some experiments made by Professor
other seasons; because it is then trans- Forbes of Edinburgh , with M. Kaemtz, in mitted through the atmosphere at a higher 1832 at Brientz, and on the Faulhorn in angle. The light of the sun or of the Switzerland, are interesting, and rather moon, in its passage from the meridian, is startling — to learn that so large a propor dazzling, whilst we can gaze at either tion of the solar heat is absorbed by the body when near the horizon, because their atmospheric air. It appears that the rays cannot so easily penetrate through bundle of calorific solar rays, on enteriug the thick stratum of atmosphere they have into our atmosphere, is composed of two there to traverse, and many of them are sorts of rays ; the one easily absorbable by
absorbed. If it were possible to measure the atmosphere, the other absolutely re the intensity of solar light at different fusing all extinction ; the former form
elevations, we might indicate the quan- nearly 0.8, and the latter 0-2 of the num tity of the absorption of those rays. The ber. The law of the extinction of the actinometer of Herschel and the helio- rays of the first order is a geometrical thermometer of Saussure have been em- progression, according to thehypothesis of
ployed for the purpose, but unsuccessfully. Bouger, Kaemtz, & c., such thatthe verti Messrs Fizeau andFoucault, more recently, cal transmission through the atmosphere, bave tried to effect the purpose by taken from its base, the level of the sea ,
Dagnerrean plates, and they have mea- to its superior limit, reduces the 80 absorb sured the intensity of light by its chemical able rays out of each 100 to 33. It fol effects ; and they regard it as very pro- Jows from this theory, that the portion of bable, that the luminous radiations ofwhite the heat which is not absorbed in the case
light possess optical and chemical inten- of vertical transmission, instead of being sities in the same ratio . Light and heat 75 per cent of the extra atmospheric heat, are so intimately connected with the solar is only 53 per cent. Calculating serene
rays, that it is difficult to separate the two and cloudy days, we thus see that the manifestations, so that the measure of the earth does notprofit bymore than a very intensity of the calorific rays may also be small portion of the* sun's rays that arrive regarded as that of the luminous. On at theatmosphere.* considering the nature of this absorption of the solar rays by the atmospheric air,
3034. Prognostics. - In summer, when
we must necessarily conclude that a por- falling stars appear, some feature of the tion only is absorbed — others are allowed cirro -stratus may generally be seen about.
to pass, and a third portion is reflected ; They indicate the approach of a thunder * Kaemtz? Complete Course of Meteorology, pp. 150, 403. VOL. II .
B
18
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
storm .
Fire - balls are not uncommon in And,
warm summer nights, particularly when cirro-cumulus, cirro-stratus, and electric
When clouds appear like rocks and towers, The earth ' s refreshed by frequent showers.
clouds abound . 3041. The summer flowers consist of
ranunculus, goatbeard, harebell, scar 3035. The barometer remainspretty the let lychnis ,poppy,lily, and rose ; and
stationary in summer, and comparatively high, any remarkable oscillation being a with numerous suchlike flowers the ground sudden fåll before a violent wind from the is literally covered with a profusion of
S. W. It was an observationof Dr Dal- beautiful creations. ton, that in summer, after a long continu ance of fair weather, with the barometer
3042. The metrical proverbs connected
high, it generally falls gradually, and for with the summer are not many. one, two, or more days, before there is mnch appearance of rain. If the fall be sudden, and great for the season, it will
probably be followed by thunder.
May.
A cold May and a windy, Makes a full barn and a findy.
May , comes she early, or comes she late, She'll make the cow to quake.
3036. The thermometer is also steady
and high, only indicating a great fall dur ing a hail-storm .
Beans blow - before May doth go. A May flood - never did good. Shear your sheep in May — and shear all away. A swarm of bees in May Is worth a load of hay.
3037. The air is clear and dry in sum
mer, the clouds high, and the wind breezy. The changes from this state are occasioned by thunder and hail storms, and such changes are always sudden and violent.
Look at your corn in May, And you'll come weeping away. JUNE.
Look at your corn in June, And you'll come home in another tune. Calm weather in June - sets corn in tune.
3038. Animals are numerous in sum
mer, and constantly in the air, and their covering of hair and feathers being pecu liarly sensible to the changes of the atmo sphere, give rise to such motions in the
animals as are significant of approaching changes in the weather. Ducks,geese, all
JULY.
A swarm of bees in July—is not worth a fly. A shower in July , when the corn begins to fill, Is worth a plough of oxen, and all belongs theretill .
No tempest, good July ! Lest corn come off blue by.
waterfowl, theguinea - fowl, peacock , crows,
frogs, and sparrows, make much noise be-
3043. Among the superstitious prognos
fore a fall of rain . Bees roam but a short
tics connected with the weather still in
distance from their hives, and ants carry existence, it is mentioned that if St Ur
their eggs busily before rain. Magpies ban’s day, 25th May, be fair, the Germans chatter much before wind. Spiders cover count on a good vintage, but if stormy,
everything with their gossamer when the the reverse is said to be indicated. The weather is to continue fine. forty days' rain ascribed to St Swithin, on the 15th July, is another well-known 3039. Wild flowers indicate changes in superstition, and may be ranked among the atmosphere as sensibly as animals. those originating in atmospheric pheno
Chickweed expands freely and remains mena ; for although the placing of the open fully, in a continuance of fine weather. prognostic to the account of St Swithin is When it, with the trefoil and convol- palpably the effect of ignorance and cre vulus, contracts its petals, rain may be dulity, yet, if rainy weather occur about expected .
the 15th July, it will be oflong continuance, as whatever weather sets in soon after
3040. Particular forms of clouds also the summer solstice is of long continuance, indicate both steady and changeable according to reference in many jour weather, as thus :
nals of the weather.
The influence now
If woolly fleeces strew the heavenly way,
ascribed to St Swithin used to be shared
Be sure no rain disturbs the summer day.
by St John the Baptist, and by St Paul.
SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.
19
St Margaret's day, 20th July, used to have hours, or happen above once a -year. If it some curious superstitions connected with begins torain an hour or two before sun it, relative to the fecundating power of rising, it is like to be fair before noon, and this lady's festival, quite at variance with continne so that day ; but if the rain begin
her character as a virgin martyr. Probably an hour or two after sun-rising, it is like
it may be connected with the circumstance, to rain all that day, except the rainbow that heifers are commonly put to the bull be seen before it rains.”. about this period of the year. 3046. Rainbow .- As showers of rain
3044. Among many remains of augury extant at the present day, may be mentioned the common practice of nailing up dead kites, crows, owls, hawks, weasels,
fall most frequently in summer, so is the rainbow most frequently seen in that sea son.
For the formation of a rainbow it
is sufficient that the sun strike drops of
and other rapacious animals against the water with its rays, and thus may be seen doors of barns, stables, and outhouses — a rainbows on clouds, and even on terres
custom which originated in an endeavour trial objects. In order to see a rainbow, to terrify their living compeers, and to it is necessary thatour face be turned away warn them not to obtrude themselves.
from the sun, and directed towards the rain
drops falling in the opposite direction of 3045. The Shepherd of Banbury's rules
the heavens. What we then see is an arc
affecting the weather of the summer quar- composed of the prismatic colours, ( 191.) ter are these : - “ In summer or harvest, arranged in parallel and concentric arcs, when the wind has been S. two or three the centre of which is formed by the
days, and it grows very hot, and you see shadow of the spectator's bead. When two clouds arise with great white tops like arcs appear, they are concentric on the towers, as if one were upon the top of an- same centre. In the interior bow , which other, and joined together with black on is the more frequently seen, and the colours
the nether side, there will be thunder and of which are the more vivid, the violet rain suddenly. If two such clouds arise, colour is within and the red without, and
one on either hand, it is time to make consequently, the red space is greater than haste to shelter. If you see a cloud rise the violet; and when two arcs appear, the against the wind , or side-wind, when the cloud comes up to you, the wind will blow the same way that the cloud came ; and the same rule holds of a clear place , when all the sky is equally thick except one clear edge . If the clouds look dusky, or of a
outer one has the colours reversed , and con sequently the violet rays predominate . The colours are more or less vivid in pro portion to the intensity of the rays of the sun ; and hence it is that lunar rainbows rarely exhibit the prismatic colours, being
tarnish silver colour,and move very slowly, merely whitish or yellowish . it is a sign of hail ; and if there be a mixture of blue in the clouds, the hail will
3047. The conditions under which the
be small, but if very yellow , large. Small inner bow is formed , are, that the ray scattering clouds that fly very high, es- from the sun, in passing through the drop
pecially from the S. W., denote whirl- of rain, is refracted towards the opposite winds . The shooting of falling stars side of the drop, where it is reflected, and through them is a sign of thunder . Snu- directed again by another refraction to den rains never last long ; but when the wards the eye. The different prismatic
air grows thick by degrees, and the sun, colours are reflected to the eye under dif moon, and stars sbine dimmer and dimmer, ferent angles . The red ray, in these cir then it is like to rain six hours usually. cumstances, subtends an angle of 42° 23' ;
If it begin to rain from the S., with a high and the violet ray only 40° 29' ; so that wiud for two or three hours, and the wind the width of the arc is 1° 54'. falls but the rain continues, it is like to
rain twelve hours ormore ,and does usually
3048. When the ray is twice reflected
rain till a strong N. wind clears the air. on the back of the rain drop, before it
These long rains seldom hold above twelve reaches the eye, a double bow is observed ; * The Shepherd of Banbury's Rules, p. 27, 41 .
20
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
and the angles formed by the different colours, in this case, is for the red 50 ° 21 ', and for the violet 53° 46' ; the width of the arc being 3° 25'.
by their exterior surface, whilst the drops placed below do send them , and these, not withstanding their divergence, vaguely illuminate the space situated beneath the bow . *
3049. A third and a fourth bow may be
formed ; but the intensity of the light from
3053. The prognostics connected with
these is so feeble that they are rarely seen. the rainbow are the following :-After a I have at times observed a triple bow.
long drought the bow is a certaia sign of rain ; and after much wet, of fair weather.
3050. I have hitherto considered only a single drop of rain, and as it moves rapidly, the image from it can only last for a moment; but if a great number of drops fall in succession in the same direction, each of them will produce an image in the same place, and the sensation produced by the colours will remain permanent. It is evident that, as the various colours subtend different angles with the eye, only one person can see the same rainbow.
When the green is large and bright, it indicates rain ; and when the red is the strongest colour, both wind and rain are indicated . If the bow break up at once, there will follow serene andsettled weather. When the bow is seen in the morning, rain will follow ; if at noon, settled and heavy rain ; and at night, fair weather. The appearance of two or three rainbows indi cates fair weather for the present, but settled and heavy rain in two or three days after.
3051. When the sun is in the horizon, 3054. The appearance of twilight, de the bow appears a semicircle, with an pending on the state of the sky, foretells
apparent diameter of 41°. When the sun to a certain extent the weather of the is 41° above the horizon, the apex of the following day. When the sky is blue, bow will be a tangent to the plane of the and after sunset the western region is horizon. If the sun is still bigber, the covered with a slight purple tint, we may
bow will be seen projected on the ground, be sure that the weather will be fair, and the colours will be very pale. When especially if the horizon seem covered the sun attains the height of 52°, a rain- with a slight smoke. After rain , isolated bow cannot be formed at noon in summer. clouds, coloured red and well illuminated, When the head is elevated above the announce the return of fair weather.
A
plane of the sun, as on a mountain , a twilight of a whitish yellow, especially
larger portion of the arc is seen than the when it extends to a distance in the sky, semicircle, in proportion to the height of is not a sign of fair weather for the fol the mountain, from whence may be seen the lowing day. We may expect showers circle complete. When the head is ele- when the sun is of a brilliant white, and vated above the cloud, a red circle will be sets in the midst of a white light , which seen projected upon it, the rays of the sun scarcely permits us to distinguish it. The
from which will subtend an angle with the prognostication is still worse when light eye of 42° 23',and the apparent diameter cirri, that give the sky a dull appearance, appear deepernear the horizon ; and when the twilight is of a grayish red , in the 3052. When a vividly coloured rainbow midst of which are seen portions of a deep
of the circle will also be 42° 23'.
is projected on a dark cloud, the sky is red that pass into gray, and scarcelypermit much darker above than below the bow, which difference is the more striking when the sun is low. This is a phenomenon opposite to that connected with halos. If
the sun to be distinguished. In this case , vesicular vapour is very abundant, and we may calculate on wind and approaching rain.
we follow the course of the sun's rays in a
rain drop, we shall see that the drops situ-
3055. The signs drawn from daybreak
ated above that in which the bow is
are somewhat different. When it is very
formed do not send us the rays reflected red, we may expect rain ; wbilst a gray * Kaemtz? Complete Course of Meteorology, p. 440-4 .
SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.
21
morning announces fair weather. The or slightly connected, lying at rest or reason of the difference between a gray gently floating along, serene weathermay dawn and a gray twilight is, because in be confidently expected. A change of this
the evening the colour mainly depends on settled state is presaged by the wind sud cirri, in the morning on a stratus, which denly rising, by close continuous cirro soon yields to the rising sun ; whilst the strati gathering into an unbroken gloom,
cirri become thicker during the night. If and by that variety (of cirrus) known as at sunrise there is enough of vapours for the goat's-hair or gray-mare's-tail. Some the sun to appear red, it is then very pro- times a few fleecy clouds skim rapidly be bable that, in the course of the day, the tween the superincnmbent vapour and the ascending current will determine the for- earth's surface, and are the forerunners of snow or rain," (the scud). “ Should the mation of a thick stratum of clouds.* cirri 'not pass away with the immediate
3056. According to the opinion of Dr fall, but extend towards the horizon, and Kirwan , after forty-one years' observa- present their troubled edges towards the tions, it would appear that a dry summer zenith, there will be stormy weather for was followed by a dry autumn 5 times ; some time. When a modification of the
by a wet one, 5 times ; and a variable one, cirro -stratus is forined to leeward, thick in 12 times. À variable summer was fol- the middle, and wasting at both ends, with lowed by a dry autumn only once ; a wet its side to the wind like a ship lying to, it one , 3 times ; and a variable one, 12 indicates continued wind. After a clear times. frost, we sometimes see long whitish
coloured streaks of cirrus, ( cirro -stratus,) 3057. After a dry summer, the proba- whose two extremities seemingly approach
bility of a dry autumn occurring, is as 5 to each other as they recede fromthezenith. 16 ; a wet one, as 5 to 16 ; and a variable one as 6 to 16. After a wet summer, the probability of a dry autumn is as 1 to 5 ; à wet one as 3 to 5 ; and a variable one as
This appearance is vulgarly called Noah's ark ; and if it point from S.W.to N.E., we expect a thaw from S.W. Small blackish boat-shaped clouds rising in the W., and
1 to 5.
moving sideways, indicate a thaw , with
little or no rain. A short glare of red in
3058. In the beginning of any year, the the E., about sun -rising, portends a rainy probability of a dry summer is as 16 to and windy day. When the sky shines 41 ; of a wet one, 20 to 41 ; and of a
from the watery exhalations around the
variable one as 5 to 41 .
mid-day sun, rain or snow will soon follow ; when it has a green appearance to the E.
3059. It may prove useful to such of or N.E. , frost and snow. A crimson red you as may engage in pastoral farming, to in the W., after sunset, indicates fair
know the prognostications observed in weather; a purple red indicates sleet. pastoral countries; and I cannot do this Atmospheric changes are more likely to better than in the words of the Rev. Dr bappen a few days afternew and full moon Russell, minister of Yarrow .
It may be than in the quarters. The point when she
noticed that some of the prognostics have changes seems to have little influence; if already been enumerated ; but the concur- in the N.W. or N.W. by W., it is often rent testimony of certain prognostics, in succeeded by boisterous weather. When
high and low parts of countries, serve to her horns are sharp and well-defined, we confirm the more strongly the proba- look for frost ; when she is wbitish and bility of their truth . “ When there is a not very clear, for rain or snow . If the copious deposit of dew ," observes Dr new moon seenis to embrace the old, very
Russell, “ and it remains long on the stormy weather is likely to follow .
.
grass — when the fog in the valleys is Halos are seen only when the cirro -strati slowly dissipated by the sun's heat, and are slightly but equally diffused over the lingers on the hills—when the clouds ap- sky ; the sun or moon seems to wander
parently take a higher station, and espe- through the storm ,” which is at no great cially when a few cirro -strati appear loose distance. One side of the balo is often * Kaeintz’ Complete Course of Meteorology, p. 413.
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
22
open or imperfectly formed , owing to the keenly, when flies keep near the ground,
denseness of the vapour, and points to the (shown by swallows, which feed upon the quarter from which the storm is approach- wing, flying low,) we look for wind and ing
.
Aurora borealis is most
rain .
But the most wonderful instance of
likely to appear in changeable weather, atmospherical changes is upon those crea and is often followed by a S.W. wind. tures that burrow in theground.
The
From the appearance of falling stars, it earth -worm appearing in abundance indi may be inferred that the equilibrium of cates rain . In like manner, the mole the atmosphere, held probably by the seems to feel its approach, as, a day or agency of electricity, is destroyed. They two before, he raises more billocks than
generally forbode wind, and when many of usual ; and when, after a long severe frost, them are seen, they are faithful though he begins again to work, it will soon be silent monitors, warning us to prepare, come fresh . The effects of electricity are with the earliest dawn, for the coming well known both on the atmosphere and storm. There is often much lightning in on animals; and the deposition of aqueous the night, both with and without clouds, vapours, with the relaxing damp near the which announces unsettled weather, especially if it be whitish in colour.
surface of the earth, which in certain states
takes place, may give rise to this increased When the wind shifts to the west, after activity."*
rain from S. or S.W., it generally fairs up, or there are but a few showers. Frost and snow from S.W. are forerunners of bad
3060. The strong and refreshing smell which is felt sometimes when showers
weather. If the wind turn suddenly from first fall, after a long drought in summer, S.W. or S. to N.N.E. , while this is accom- is not an invariable attendant on them, panied with a smell resembling that of coal even under the circumstances which seem smoke, a severe storm will follow .
to indicate a strong positive electricity, The lower animals, but such especially as such as the rising of the barometer in rain. are in a state of nature, or exposed in the The highly electrified water of summer open fields, are very susceptible of atmo- thunder-storms produces this smell the
spheric changes. Sheep eat greedily before a storm , and sparingly before a thaw. When they leave the high parts of their range - when they bleat much in the even-
strongest; and it is weakest with the cold, and perhaps even electric rain, which sometimes falls after the condensation of a spreading sheetofcirro-stratusinto nimbus,
ing or during the night, we mayexpect with a cold atmosphere. severe weather. Goats seek a place of 3061. I think every one, besides per shelter, while swine carry litter, and cover themselves better than ordinary, before a sons of a nervons temperament, lave felt storm .
Wind is foretold by the cat the truth of the following observations of
scratching a post or wall — and a thaw, Mr Forster, on the effects of certain states when she washes her face, or when frogs of the atmosphere on the bair of the head : come from their winter concealment. The -" In people of what are called nervous gathering of grouse into large flocks, the and susceptible constitutions,” he says, “ I diving of sparrows in dry dust, the flutter- have frequently noticed a remarkable va ing of wild - ducks as they flap their wings, riety in the appearance of the hairs on the the dismal lengthened howl of sea- gulls in head : they have appeared at times dimi an inland place or around lakes, the
nished in quantity ; at others, superabun
mournful note of the curlew, the shrill dant. I have examined them carefully in whew of the plover, the whet -whet-whet
each of their states, and found their appa
of the chaffinch perched upon a tree, the rent diminution to consist in the shafts crowing of the cock at unusual times — all themselves becoming smaller, drier, losing prognosticate rain or snow. When the their tension, and lying in closer contact. fieldfare, redwing, starling, swan, snow- I was once inclined to attribute their
fleck, and other birds of passage, arrive closer contact to a diminution of their soon from the north, it indicates an early electricity, by which they would become and severe winter. When goats bite mutually repulsive: this, however, does * New Statistical Account of Scotland Yarrow , Selkirkshire, p. 31-4.
SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.
not seem sufficient to account for their de-
crease insize. The shaft may possibly be organised throughout, and itsenlargement
23
Tension of vapour for 59º9 = 26.83.
Mean fall of rain in England in May,
may be caused by an increased action of
June,
its vessels; there may also be an aëriform perspiration into its cavity, on an increase of which it may be more distended ; and
July ,
1.37 inches . 2.71 1.66
Mean of summer,
1.91
the increased size and tension of the shaft
may result from the co -operation of these two causes. The increased size, strength, and tension of the hair, appear to accom-
pany health, while the opposite state seems to be connected withdisorder. The sym-
Prevailing winds in England in E. to N.
May, June, July,
W by N. to N.E. W. by S. to E.
Number of storms in the west of Europe in summer is 52:5 in 100.
patbies between the skin and stomach have
been frequently adverted to by physiolo- is Number 3 in 100.of hail -storms
gists : the skin has been found to be alter
nately dry and hot, moist and hot, dry and cold, moist and cold ; and these varieties have been attributed to varieties in the
state of the stomach, between which and the skin a very direct sympathy is believed to exist."*
in England in summer
Aurora borealis observed in
May, June, July,
184 times. 65
87
Number of fire -balls seen in
May, June, July,
46 20
47
3062. Variety of states in the hair of The least number of fire- balls occurs in
animals is frequently observed in all June, and doubtless the length of the clays classes of the domesticated animals ; and in summer allows a great many of these the difference is invariably ascribed either meteors to pass unperceived. to the pleasant or disagreeable state of the air, or to the functional derangements or
3064.
No
circumstance
shows
so
activity of the stomach and bowels. As strongly the inconvenience to farming of the food in pasture is nearly always the arranging spring and summer according same, any change of the condition of the to the calendar months, than in directing hair of animals in summer on pasture, must the sowing of thenumerous sorts of crops, be ascribed to the changes observable in which must be undertaken at the end of the the state of the atmosphere ; and from the one and the beginning of the other season.
recognised sympathy existing between the skin and the stomach, the changes in the be ascribed to hairmaysafely of thethe state from altered states of the air. arise
The sowing goes on progressively of one crop after another, from the sowing of at the turnipsmay beans in February to that ofperiod be end of June ; and all that
regarded as spring, in as far as field ope
3063. Mean ofthe atmospherical pheno- rations are concerned, and yet the latter mena occurring in summer is as follows : - date brings us a great way into summer. This being the case, many of the crops Mean of the barometer in England in May, June, July ,
30:03 inches. 29.98 30.04
Mean of summer ,
Thus flax may be sown in April as well
as May, and kohl-rabi may be begun to be sown in March as well as in May, ac cording to the mode of culture followed . 54.6 613 630.8
Mean of summer
ment of summer as at the end of spring.
30-05
Mean of the thermometer in England in May, June, July,
may as well be sown at the commence
59 ° 9
As regards the crops, therefore, about to be sown at the commencement of summer, it must not be deemed an absolute requi site to sow them at that season .
T'he
proper time for sowing each crop is speci fically mentioned, irrespective of the place
* Forster’s Researches about Atmospherical Phenomena , p. 180.
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
24
3071. The brood mare now brings forth it may happen to occupy in the spring or summer season, as we have divided these. her foal, and receives immunity from The real point to attend to is, the order of labour for a time. succession in which the different crops 3072. Hay -making is represented by follow each other ; and which they inva-
riably do every year. With this explana- poets as a labour accompanied with un tion, the description of the sowing of the alloyed pleasure. Lads and lasses are crops will be continued. doubtless then as merry as chirping grass hoppers; but haymaking is in sober truth 3065. All the root crops are sown just a labour of much heat and toil, the wield now, beginning with kohl-rabi, and ending ing of the hayrake and pitchfork in hot
with the turnip. The land for all these is weather, for the live-long day, being no worked,cleaned, drilled, dunged, and child's play. The culture of the turnip is a most 3073. The separation of the lamb from important and busy occupation , affording much occupation in singling and hoeing the ewe is now effected, and the marks of the plants the greater part of the sum- age, sex , and ownership are stamped upon sown.
the flock .
mer .
3066. The period bas now arrived for
3074. The forage -plants on farms in the
disposing of the fat cattle to the butcher or neighbourhood oftowns are now disposed dealer, as they are never put to grass. of to cow - feeders and carters. The fat sheep are also disposed of, except when it is desired to take off their fleece
3075. Butter and cheese are made on
before parting with them , when they are dairy -farms as often as the requisite sup allowed to pasture until the season becomes ply of milk will warrant. warm enough for them to be shorn .
3076. Summer, of all the seasons, is the 3067. Before any of the stock is put on most appropriate for the farmer to make grass, it is the duty of the hedgertomend seriousattacks upon weeds, those spoilers every gap in the hedges, and to have the of his fields and contaminators of his
gaps in the stone walls, and the gates of grains. Whether in pasture, on tilled ground, along drills of green crops, amongst
the fields in grass put into repair.
growing corn, or in hedges, young and
3068. Young cattle, sheep, and cows, old, weeds are daily exterminated ; and
are now put on pasture, to remain all Cattle and sheep graze well together, as the former bite the grass high, and the latter, following, bite it still lower. For the same reason , horses and cattle
summer.
the extermination is most effectually ac complished by the minute and painstaking exertions of female field -workers; for which purpose they are provided with appropriate implements.
graze well together. As both horses and sheep bite low, they are not suitable com-
3077. This is the season in which all
panions on pasture; and horses, besides,
manner of insects attack both crops and
often take delight in annoying sheep, by stock, much to their injury and annoy ance. biting and kicking them . com
3078. Although yet early, preparations
menced until the weather becomes as warm
are made in summer for the next year's
3069. Sheep -shearing is never
as notto chill the sheep, after the priva- crop. The fallow land is worked,cleaned, tion their coats wool. of
of
andmanured, and perhaps also limed, to be in readiness for the wheat seed in
3070. Horses now live entirely another autumn.
sort of life, being transferred from the thraldom of the stall-collar in the stable
3079. The top -dressingof growing crops,
to the perfect liberty of the pasture- field, with specific manures, isa recent introduc and none of the animals enjoy themselves tion into farıning. The subject is not yet there more heartily. matured, from want of sufficient experience
SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.
in the peculiar action of each specific, but
25
ner at the same time. When field -workers
enough is already known of that to en- labour in connexion with the teams, they courage the farmer to employ them, in the must conform with their hours of labour . fittest state of the weather and the crops.
3080. The hours devoted to field -work in summer vary in different parts of the country. On the Borders itis the practice to go as early as 4 o'clock in the morning to the yoke, and the forenoon's work is over by 9, and time is given for rest in the heat of the day. The afternoon's yoking commences at 1 o'clock, and continues till 6. Thus 10 hours are spent in the fields. But in other parts of the country,the morn-
3082. The long hours of a summer day, of which at least ten are spent in the fields --the ordinary high temperature of the air, which suffuses the body of the country labourer in constant perspiration - and the fatiguing nature of all field-work in sum mer, bear hard as well on the mental as the physical energies, and cause him to seek rest at a comparatively early hour of the evening. None but those who have experienced the fatigue of working in the
ing yokingdoes not commence till 6 o'clock, fields, in hot weather, for long hours, and, on terminating at 11, only two hours can sufficiently appreciate the luxury of
are allowed for rest anddinner till 1o'clock, rest —a feeling truthfully expressed in when the afternoon's yoking begins. In these beautiful lines : most places the afternoon yokingdoes not commence till 2 o'clock, and , finishing at
6, only 9 hours are spent inthe fields, or it is continued to 7 o'clock . In other parts,
only 4 hours are spent in the morning yoking, when the horses are let loose at 10 o'clock, and, on yoking again from 2 to 6 in the afternoon, only 8 hours are devoted to
work in the fields, the men being employed elsewhere by themselves for 2 hours. This practice is pursued where the ploughmen are made to do the work of field -workers, and a large number of draughts are kept. Perhaps the best division of time is to yoke
“ Night is the time for rest.
How sweet, when labours close, To gather round the aching breast The curtain of repose Stretch the tired limbs, and lay the head
Upon one's own delightful bed !” JAMES MONTGOMERY.
3083. Every operation, in summer, re quires the constant attention of the farmer. Where natural agencies exert their most active influences on vegetation, he requires to put forth his most active exertions to co operate with the very rapid changes they produce. Should he have, besides, field
at 5 o'clock in the morning, loose at 10, experiments inhand,the demands upon his yoke again at 1 , and loose at 6 in the attention and timewill be the more urgent,
evening, giving 3 hours of rest to man and and he must devote both, if he would reap horse at the height of the day, and 10 the greatest advantage derivable from hours of work in the field .
3081. Day -labonrers,when not working
experimental results. 3084. Summer is the only season in
along with horses, as well as field -workers, which the farmer has liberty to leave home usually work from 7 to 12, and from 1 to without incurring the blameof neglecting
6 o'clock in the evening, having one hour his business, and even then the time he has for rest and dinner. When labourers take to spare is very limited . Strictly speak their dinner to the field, this is a conve- ing, he has only about a fortnight between nient enough division of time; but when finishing the fallow and the commence they have to go home to dinner, one hour ment of harvest, in which to have leisure is too little for dinner and rest between
to travel.
Such a limitation of time is to
the yokings — and rest is absolutely neces- be regretted, as a journey once a year to sary, as neither men nor women are able witness the farm -operations conducted in to work 10 hours without more than an other parts of the kingdom , would en interval of an hour. It would be a better lighten him on many uncertain points of arrangement for field -workers to go to work practice. Such an excursion could not be at 6 instead of 7, and loose at 11 instead undertaken by a farmer , who is generally of 12, when they have to go home to din- a man of observation, without bis acquir ner ; but if they take their dinners to the ing confidence in good and receiving con field , one bour is sufficient for rest and din- viction against bad practices. A journey
26
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
exhibits mankindin variousaspects,elevates could not otherwise have. The person themind above local prejudices,and affords who cuts the stack is usually the steward,
a clearer understanding of places and customs, when reading about them in the publications of theday. As husbandry is a progressive art, a ramble of a few weeks in different parts of the country cannot
and in using the knife he kneels upon the part he is cutting off, with his face to the body of thestack . This form of knife requires considerable strength in its use, and unless the edge is kept remarkably
fail to enlighten the most experienced far- keen with a whetstone, and the hay firm ,
mer, much beyond what he can observe it makes bad work. The bay-knifeI pre around him and peruse in books by always fer is of the form of the dung-spade, fig. remaining at home. By intrusting the 191, which, being used standing, is wield fallow operations to his work people, he ed with much more force, and makes a might in occasional seasons have as much deeper cut ; and, having two edges, it as a month to spend in useful travel. cnts equally well to the right and left, whereas this knife cuts only to the right. ON THE HAY GIVEN TO FARM HORSES .
In cutting off a dace or breadth of hay, the end ofthe stack should be left in aper pendicular form, and horizontally straight.
3085. The hay -stack is never broken in When the dace is not all cut down to upon until the horses get hay in spring, the ground, straw should be placed on
and this is delayed a longer or shorter time, the top of the portion left, to preserve the for horses on the farm . Where good bean- workers carry the hay into the hay -house
according as there is other nourishing food hay becoming wetted by rain. The field strawabounds, the bay may be saved until later in the spring, when that sort of straw becomes too dry ; but on farms where no beans are grown, the horses should have hay whenever theseed - time is commenced,
as the cutter throws it down with a fork ,
and build and tramp it in regular mows, in the manner straw is mowed in the straw
barn from the threshing -machine, ( 1763 ) to make it easier for the ploughmen to
whether with spring -wheat or with oats. take the hay in armfuls to their horses. The site of the hay -stack in the stack -yard S, Plate II., is at n, opposite the hay-house 3087. Hay is supplied to work -horses H., and adjoining the work -horse stable at will; and ,as I have already said, when 0. The site of the hay -stack may be seen treating of their feeding in winter, strong in the isometrical representation of the ones will eat about 30 lb. a -day, besides stack -yard in Plate I. their corn , which may be 10 lb. more,
( 1444.) These quantities imply that the 3086. As much of the stack is brought hay and corn are given in their natural in as will fill the hay-house, and the hay is state, but when cooked the quantities vary , thence distributed to the horses. Each as has been stated in ( 1438 and 1444.) portion of the stack cut off should be 4 or 5 feet broad , and the implement
3088. Considerable waste of hay is in used for doing it is the hay-knife, fig. curred in the hay-racks, fig. 105. The 242, which represents its usual form . ploughmen stuff the rack not only full, but Fig. 242.
It will be observed in squeeze the bay firm , from a mistaken the figure, that the line notion that they cannot give too much at of the back of the blade
a time to their horses ; but when horses
is not at right angles find hay in a compressed state, and are to the handle, a posi-
unable to select the morsels they like,
tion which gives the they toss some upon the litter, which, after cutting edge of the being trampled on, is thrown into the knife an inclination to dung -yard . The cattle there eat it, and the line of section, and prefer it much to straw , because it is
consequently affords hay, and bas acquired a saline taste from it, in its downward the stable, so it cannot be said to be stroke, a force to cut entirely lost ; still, if it is desired to give the straws of hay in hay to the cattle also, it should be THE HAY- KNIFE .
succession which it given them in a clean state and proper
HAY GIVEN TO HORSES .
27
manner, rather than in this way. To which are administered at the same time.
avoidsuchwaste, therefore, small quan- the same specific gravity, which is littleabove tities of hay should be put into the racks
that of water. The bulk of the allowance there
at a time, and frequently ; but the surest fore depends upon its weight, and it will thus way to prevent waste of food is to chop be perceived that a highly nutritious food,which forthis reason would occupy little space , would the bay and bruise the corn . objectionable. Thus a cart - horse belonging to be
Boussingault, required to 33 lb. about 26 thelb.samequan and from food everyday, of solid 3089. Yonng horses should alsoreceive M.
bay after the stack has been broken up, tity ofwater. The bulk of thisallowance, when straw becoming too hard and dry after masticated and brought to a state to be swal March ; and hay serves, besides, to im- lowed, is more than 9 cubic feet. Now, if a
prove their condition, and prepare them few timesmore nutritivefood, as oil-cake,were for grass.
substituted, its bulk would be reduced to 51 cubic feet. The animal would not feel satisfied with this last allowance - it would still feel
3090. Feeding cattlenever receive bay hungry,and the food, in so concentrated a state, would disagree with it. On the other hand, if in Scotland, being considered too expen food of much less nutrition were substituted for sive food for them . In England, meadow the hay, such as wheat straw, the allowance that hay is given to feeding cattle either alone, would afford the samedegree of nourishment with some straw , but more frequently chop- would become too bulky to be eaten in the course ped bay and straw together, or in union of a day. It is therefore absolutely necessary
with oil-cake, or with linseed prepared. to take the bulkof thefood to be allowed into
Indairy farms cows always receive hay ever consideration :the belly must be filled ; what may be the nutritive quality of any article, after having calved, and it is partly given it must be given in a certain quantity'; and in
them in the form of steamed chaff, and the case ofsuch a substance as oil-cake, the con
partly as dry fodder. 3091. In Holland the horses in winter,
sumption to fill the stomach would cease to be in any kind of proportion to the nutritive equi valent. The best food for horses has long been admitted
to be hay and oats incombination,
and at all times when not on grass, receive neither article alone having the same happy
chopped hay and straw, with not much effect that the two together produce. Hay In Belgium , about Bruges, farm alone would be too bulky, oats alonewould not
oats .
horses receive about 35 lb. of hay and 7 be bulky enough ; but the horse is not particular his food, as barley in the southern countries replaces oats and answers equally well — though lb. of oats a -day, and in lieu of15 lb. of in
bay, 73 lb. of carrots. Near Courtray, it may reasonably be doubted that oats and hay 10 lb. of straw is given with 15 lb. of might be replaced by roots and tubers. Experi hay and 7 lb. of oats. Their drink is also ence,however,has proved that a cart-horse may
nutritive, being composed of water with
have half his allowance in roots and tubers, and be supplied with sufficient nourishment. M.
some oil-cake dissolved in it, and sweetened Boussingault has found that 100 parts of good
with rye -meal or buck -wheat flour.*
meadowhay is equal to the following quantities of roots usually given to horses :
3092. According to Boussingault, hay may be assumed as the most common or universal of all kinds of fodder. It is in some sort the staple food of the animals that are particularly attached to an agricultural concern , and may therefore be
appropriately made the standard of comparison for all other kinds of food or forage. Hay, how ever, varies greatly in point of quality, but in an average of kinds and states, the proportion for the standard should consist of 1:15 percent ofazote ,
To 280 parts of potatoes by analysis 280 400 400 400
Jerusalem artichokes Mangold wurzel, Swedes, Carrots,
315 by experiment. - 311
} ..
546 676 382
It may be concluded that the nutritive equiva lent of the potato , mangold -wurzel, Jerusalem
and 11 per cent of water , that is,about 8} per artichokes and carrots, asthey are inferred from cent of albumen and gluten, and the remainder
the amount of azote they contain , may be adopted
woody fibre. It is this last ingredient which
without detriment to the health of horses.
gives an important value to hay as a fodder, for,
they err at all, it is that they assign equivalents somewhat too high, making their actual nutritive
independently of the circumstance that the stomachs of animals are able to digest a certain proportion of the woody fibre, its bulk is neces-
sary for the digestion of the more nutritious
If
power less than these numbers give it — so that, a portion of the hay of the standard allowance
being substituted for its equivalent of root, the
parts of itself and of other food , such as oats, diet will be improved. + * Radcliffe's Agriculture of Flanders, p . 259. + Boussingault's Rural Economy, Law's Translation, p. 522.48.
28
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
3093. The composition of the ash of hay is as yielding coarse fibre, and on the latter Meadow -hay . Rye grass hay. the crop would be too scanty. Soil in BOSSINGAULT . THOMSON .
follows :
18:11 1.35
Potash , Soda ,
29.03 2:44
.22-95 16:36 8.82 6.75
Lime, Magnesia ,
Oxide of iron , alumina, & c ., Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid , Chlorine , Silica ,
0-64 5.63 3.08 2-97 31.03
64.57
100-00 100.00
98-15
1.69 5-97 . .
2-70 2:59 37.89
too high a condition also causes flax to grow rank and branching, and the fibre
8.03 2-17 6.50 4.01 0:36 12:51
coarse .
3097. The finest condition of the flax
crop is best attained by sowing it after a corn crop or after lea — as, after a green
Percentage of ash in the dry state ,
}
6-00
6-20
crop that has been manured, it grows too
5-89
rank and coarse .
When grown after lea,
flax may be raised on stronger soil than 3094. Good old hay is long and large, hard after any cereal crop. and tough ; colour inclining to green rather
3098. Whether after cereals or lea, the
than to white ; has a sweet taste and fragrant
smell, and when infused in hot water producesa land to be cropped by flax should be hay absorbs moisture,and becomes heavier. A ploughed early in autumn, to receive the full influences of the winter frost, as
truss of good old hay weighs 56 lb.
it cannot be in too fine a state of pulveri
change a horses appear. sation for receiving the fax seed. To 3095.Badhaywill ance in two days, evenwith an unlimited quan- obtain this state of the soil, the cross
tity of corn. The kidneysare excited by it to ploughing should beexecuted as earlyas
extraordinary activity.
this disease is always perfectly transparent,is possible in spring, ( 2613, ) taking care not
discharged very frequently and in copious pro- to do it in wet weather, or when the soil fusion. The horse soon becomes hidebound, is in a wet state, as the least dry weather emaciated, and feeble. His thirst is excessive. afterwards will render the soil hard and He never refuses water, and he drinks as if he would never give over. The disease does not difficult to pulverise. Any clods left on
produce death,but it renders the horse useless, the surface, after a double turn of the
and ruins the constitution . Musty hay is said harrows, should be reduced by rolling ; to be bad “ for the wind, " and it is certainly so but there are other implements better for every part of the body.t adapted for pulverising the soil than the
smooth roller, fig. 222. ON THE SOWING AND SUMMER TREATMENT OF FLAX .
3099. Crosskill's clod -crusher . — This is one of the most efficient implements of its
class, and is represented in perspective in 3096. The flax plant requires a deep fig. 243, where a a is the roller, six feet
mellow loamy soil, abounding in vegetable inlength, and 30 inches in diameter ; b a matter, and equally removed from strong cast-iron end frame, at each end of the clay and thin gravel — on the former the roller, bolted to the wooden frame c c, to
plant would grow too strong and branchy, which are bolted the horse shafts d d . Fig. 243.
CROSSKILL'S CLOD -CRUSHER .
* Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 390. + Stewart's Stable Economy, p. 184-6.
29
THE CULTURE OF FLAX .
The frame ends b are placed upon the 3101. This implement has been but axle e, the ends of which are prolonged partially used by Scottish farmers within
to form arms on which wheels are placed, these few years, though it is extensively and kept on by means of cotterels, for the used in England - perhaps on account removal of the roller from one field to of the much greater extent of clay soils, anotber. When the wheels are to be which are most subject to induration. placed or removed, a hole is dug in the Where the implement has been used in ground under each wheel, while the roller Scotland, the results have proved equally rests on the ground. favourable on strong and light soils — in pulverising the former and consolidat 3100. The roller consists of a number
ing the latter. The price is a bar to its
of toothed wheels, supported on four-
introduction into Scotland,as the smallest size is £ 18 . The weight ofthe implement
feathered arms, and an eye formed in the
centre fitted to move easily on the axle is 26 cwt. ; it forms a good draught for two
e of the roller. Fig . 244 shows a side horses, and frequently for three. view of one of those wheels, by which its action upon the soil may be easily understood . When
3102. Hepburn's double conical land roller. - Another implement of this
Fig. 244.
such a great
class is the double conical roller, in
number
vented by J. Stewart Hepburn , Esq.
of
of Colquhalzie, near Creiff, Perth
angles, acting like so many
shire.
The leading feature of this im
brought into
plement is to give the roller a conical form , and to add to it a series of trans
contact with the indurated
conical surface.
wedges, are
verse parallel flutings carried round the
clods, they in fallibly split them into nu
merous frag ments, and the SIDE VIEW OF ONE WHEEL OF
repetition of
Two of these conical
frustums are placed in one frame, base to base, but having their axes so inclined that the fore part of the periphrasis, and also those parts which lie on the ground, THE CLOD - CRUSHER ,
shall be in a straight line.
Fig. 245 re
presents this implement in perspective in
the process produces a well pulverised sur- the most approved form , where a a is the face. The effect is quite different from framework, similar to that of the common that of the plain roller, fig. 222, with land-roller, fig. 222, surmounted by three which, if a clod does not crumble down at
horse shafts 6 bb, for yoking two horses
once with its pressure, it is forced into the abreast. The three pendant bars co o soil in a solid state.
carry the axles of the two cones d d , in Fig. 245.
HBPBURN'S DOUBLE CONICAL LAND- ROLLER .
30
PRACTIC
E
- SUMMER .
clined as above described . A light frame move outward in a circle, and being re e is attached to carry the scrapers which strained by the bearings in which they clear the flutings of adhering earth.
revolve, their surface will produce a crush .
ing and abrading action well adapted for 3103. The effects of this form of roller the pulverisation of the soil.* upon the surface are peculiar and impor
While the smooth cylindrical roller 3104. Norwegian harrows. — Another acts merely by its pressure on the rough pulverising implement which has recently
tant.
soil, the conical form as here arranged been introduced into practice, is the Nor will, besides acting by direct pressure, wegian harrows. Fig. 246 is a view produce a strictly pulverising effect, for in perspective of these harrows,where a aa the cones having a constant tendency to is a frame, supported by two wheels 6, Fig. 246.
k
THE NORWEGIAN HARROWS.
which give locomotion to the machine. The into smaller ones, and the third row splits lower bars of the frame a support three those smallest pieces into still smaller ones ; axles, in the same plane, threading a num- so that, by the time the clods have under
ber of discs containing each 6 long rays c, gone those various splittings, they are pro which, being loose, revolve round their bably sufficiently pulverised ; but if not,
centres by successive insertions of their they may be so by another similar process points into the ground. The frame a is of splitting.
prolonged in a triangular form to d , where it is supported by the pivot-wheel e.
3106. Swedish land -roller.-- A pulver
The apparatus fg, for lowering and raising the axles of the rays c, to give them a deeper and shallower insertion into the soil, is moved by the screw h, which is put
iser of the soil has lately been introduced into this country by Mr James Slight of Edinburgh, from Sweden, where it is ex tensively and successfully used in the
in motion by turning the winch by its farming of Gottland. In construction it handles i. The horses are attached at k. is simply the skeleton of a cylinder formed of wrought-iron ribs, of a triangular forin , 3105. The action of this machine is to placed longitudinally round two cross
reduce large clods into very small ones, armed rings, which are the ends of the by the insertion ofthe points of the rays cylinder, and through the centresof which c into them, to split them into pieces by passes the axle upon the ends of which a
their reiterated action. The larger clods frame -work and shaft, similar to the com are split into smaller pieces by the first mon land -roller, fig. 222, are mounted. row of rays, the second row splits these It is made in two lengths, for the conve * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xi . p. 471 .
THE CULTURE OF FLAX .
31
nience of turning round, and as the ribs linseed beyond a year old should never are placed with their angles outwards at be sown. 2 or 3 inches, they are well adapted for 3112. To facilitate the weeding of the pulverising clods. In the trials that have been made of this roller in the neighbour- flax crop, it has beenrecommended to sow
hood of Edinburgh, in 1849, it has proved the seed in rows, in the ribs formed by the its efficiency as equalling any other of its small plough, fig. 230 ; but it is obvious class.
that such a practice would cause the plants along the outer sides of the rows to throw
3107. The soil being thus well pulver- out branches very much to the injury of ised, it should be finely harrowed, and the fibre. rolled smooth with the land - roller, fig.
3113. To save the weeding of the flax Linseed being a very slippery seed, and crop altogether, it hasbeen recommended to 222, before being sown with the linseed.
very difficult to be sown by hand, it is apt to sow grass seeds amongst it; but those who to be laddered , ( 2320,) and I have never recommend this practice, do not consider
heard of it being sown with a machine. that it is bad busbandry to sow grass It should be taken hold of by the thumb seeds with any crop that followsa corn crop and two foremost fingers, like grass seeds, without manure, or with one after lea. ( 2647,) and thrown forward in sharp casts, with short quick steps, and, being dark 3114. Although the flax crop does not coloured, 'may easily be observedto fall bear dung to beapplied beforeit is sown, A
upon the rolled ground. It is thus usually a top-dressing of bone-dust of 10 or 12 sown broadcast .
bushels to the acre , is recommended after a white crop , and is said to make the fibre
3108. The quantity of seed used depends on the object of sowing the crop. If for the fibre alone, the seed should be thickly sown, from 2 to 2 bushels to the
finer.* The Belgians profusely top-dress their flax grond with liquid manure, in which have been dissolved both rape cake and nightsoil, to the extent of 2480
acre ; if for seed, less seed should be sown ; gallons to the acre.t Were a top - dressing
and if for both fibre and seed, perhaps 2 applied to the flax crop , containing its bushels are ample.
essential inorganic ingredients, as phos
phoric acid, magnesia, and potash, ( 1263,) 3109. The seed should be covered very I have no doubt it would tend to produce shallow in the soil, not exceeding half an a superior quality of fibre or seed ." New inch ; and the best implement for covering limed land is detrimental to the flax it is the grass-seed harrow , fig. 232. crop . 3110. Linseed may be sown at any 3115. The only care required by the time, according to the state of the weather, flax crop in summer is to keep it free of from the middle of March to the first weeds, which will probably appear above
week of May ; and perhaps the best time ground as soon as the crop itself; and as is about the middle of April.
soon as the flax plant shall have attained the height of an inch, so as to be identi
3111. Linseed is of an oblong lenticular fied from weeds, the ground should be form , having as smooth a surface as to freed of them. The flax being best cul
appear oily,and it should feel heavy and tivated in broadcast, and thickly sown, seem plump and fresh . It is obtained of the only practicable way of weeding the the finest quality for sowing from Russia, ground is with the band; and as the plant of the variety called Riga kindt,which the is not of a succulent nature, but firm Dutch obtain for their sowing seed from and elastic, even when young it is not in
Riga. It weighs about 52 lb. per bushel, jured by the weeders kneeling or ly and affords 840 seeds to 1 drachm weight, ing upon it in the act of weeding. The ( 1323.) As good seed is of great import- weeding should be done effectually, and if ance in the success of the flax crop, so once done, the weeds will not again * Warnes' Suggestions for Fattening Cattle on Native Produce, p. 8, 1st edition. + Radcliff's Agriculture of Flanders, p. 42.
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
32
trouble the crop in clean ground , before and especially from Odessa, is peculiarly it grows beyond danger ; and although infected with it.” * A thorough weeding
hand-weeding costs several shillings per will remove this pest from the soil before acre, according to the state of the ground, it has the power of injuring the lax-plant. the increased value of the crop will more
than repay the cost. 3116. Besides the common surface and
3118. The flax, Linum usitatissimum , from the Celtic Lin, a thread, is in the class and order
Pentandria of Linnæus; in the order Lineæ of thePentagynia natural system of Jussieu ; and in
root weeds which infest the soil, according the class Hypogynous Ecogens ; alliance 36, to its nature, there are others specially Geraniales; order 183, Linacea ;genus 1 Linum, the natural system of Lindley. The plant is found amongst flax : of these, one is the of scattered more or less over most parts of the common Gold of Pleasure, Camelina satica, globe. the seed of which is imported among the flax -seed , and the grown plant may be 3119. The meal of the seed of the common flax kdown by its attaining from two to three is used for poultices. The infusion is demulcent
feet in height, having smallyellowflowers, and emollient. The oil,mixed with lime water, has been a favourite application to burns. The and very large pouches on long stalks. 3117. But a more troublesome weed
tenacious and delicate fibre obtained from this plant forms the most beautiful of our linen
fabrics.
than this is the flax-dodder, Cuscuta Eu
3120.usedThe oiltheextracted from linseed ( 1323) is ropæa, inasmuch as it adheresparasitically much in arts. The best is that which
to the fax plant, and materially injures is cold drawn. The warm drawn is obtained its fibre ; while the Gold of Pleasure may by heating the seed by steam to a temperature of be pulled out separately from the flax. 200° Fahrenheit; and as the heat liquifies the The babits of the flax -dodder are these :
oil, no doubt more is obtained of it by this pro
than the cold one. The oil is expressed by putting both the cold and the hot seeds into flan “ It is a plant which germinates in the cess
ground, and sends up a slender threadlike stem, which , twisting itself about, soon touches one of the stems ofthe flax amongst which it is growing. As soon as this
nel bags, and subjecting them to enormous pres sure by means either of wedges driven by weighty
hammers, orof thehydraulic press, ( 107.) This oilmaybeused in fattening cattle, (1322.) Cold
drawn linseed oil is the best substance for polish takes place, the dodder twists itself round ing furnitureof mahogany.
the flax, and throws out from the side next
to its victim several small processes, which 3121. The compressed husk left in the bag, penetrate the outer coat or cuticle of the after the expression ofthe oil, takes the form of a cake - theoil-cake. The English cake weighs fax, and act as suckers, by which the about3 lb., and sellsfrom £ 10to£ ll per1000.
parasitical dodderappropriates to its own The oil-cake imported from Denmark, Holland,
use the sap whichhas been prepared in the or America , is sold from £7 to £ 9 per ton. At flax, upon which the growth of the flax £7 the priceisthree farthings thepound, and at depends. The dodder then separates itself £ 11,it is about one-pennytwo-tenths. At id. the pound the price is £ 9, 6s. 8d. per ton. That
from the ground, and relies solely upon which comes from Flensburg in Schleswig -Hol nourishinent,
producing stein is esteemed the best of the foreign cake. the flax for its long slender leafless stems, which attach The machinery abroad being generally inferior themselves to each stem of flax that to that of this country, the foreign cake may be
supposed to contain more oil than the English, comes in their way: Thus large masses of which conjecture chemical analysis has confirmed
, the crop are matted together, and so much ( 1268.) weakened as to become almost useless. This plant produces great quantities of 3122. Mr James Bruce, Waughton, East Lo seed, which is usually threshed with the thian, made experiments in 1844 ,to ascertain the comparative value of English and foreign oil flax -seed, and sown again with it in the suc cake in the feeding of sheep; and on two lots of ceeding year. Several years since, I took twenty dinmonts each , having as much Swedish
considerable trouble to ascertain if all turnips as they could eat, with 16 oz. each daily
foreign flax -seed was mixed with that of of oil-cake,which was as much as they would eat, English and the,when other on cake, experiment theforeign thedodder,and was led to the conclusion one fromlottheon 1st of January
that the Americanfax -seed is nearly free commenced , to the 1stMarch, the increase of from this pest, and that that from Russia,
weight from the English cake over thatof the
* Gardeners' Chronicle for 10th February 1844, p. 189.
---
33
THE CULTURE OF HEMP.
foreign was as 209 lb. are to 150 lb. , after a consumption of 1182 lb. of cake by each lot.
3127. The price of linseed in 1849 for sowing is from 53s. to 56s., and that for crushing from
But to show the uncertainty of results from only
428. to 448. the quarter.
one experiment, other two lots of dinmonts of 20 each were fed in the same manner, and these
3128. The Greeks preferred a very different would not eat inore than 13 oz. of each kind period from ours for sowing the flax crop, their of cake daily, and the result of this experi- authorities saying that“ flax likes places that are ment was the converse of that of the former , miry, but it is sown from the autumnal equinox namely, the increase from the foreign cake over to the day before the nones of January.”+ that of the English was as 207 lb. are to 167 lb., 3129. " Formerly the seed of the ilax was oc after a consumption of 880 lb. of cake by each lot. So the results of the one experiment neu- casionally used with corn to make bread, but it considered hard of digestion, and hurtful to opposite was nature tralise those of the other, while the
of the results could not be accounted for, farther the stomach.
In a scarcity of corn which hap
than the less consumption of 3 oz . daily by each sheep, of cake, might possibly have some effect on its relation to the quantity of turnips consumed, and this relation may have affected all thesheep alike. Such a suggestion may be regarded as of trifiling import upon the general condition of an
pened in Zealand in the sixteenth century, the inhabitants of Middleburgh had recourse to lin seed, which they made into cakes, and which caused the death of many of the citizens who ate of it, causing dreadful swellings of the body and
experiment; but when we know that a very slight difference of food or of exercise may affect the functions of the animal economy at any time, we should not regard such a difference affecting animals as of trifling importance.
of Britain, and yet it would appear that flax seed
face."' I 3130. The flax plant is stated to be a native
was not sown in England until as lately as A.D. 1533, when it was directed to be sown for the
making of fishing - nets.s 3123. In another experiment by Mr Bruce, to ascertain the effect of oil-cake on the quality of manure voided by cattle fed on turnips, on comparing the produce of turnips from 20 cubic yards of dung in the common state with 20 cubic
ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF HEMP.
yards containing 26 lb. of cake in each cubic yard, he found an increase of 1 ton 11 cwt. 47 lb , of turnips from the caked manure.*
3131. Hemp requires a deep rich mel low moist alluvial soil.
3124. Oil -cake, independently as an article of food, or of manure, is an excellent medicine for
3132. Agreeing with manure, hemp
live stock, preventing constipation ofthe bowels, may be cultivatedas a green crop, but the giving unat- quality of the fibre willbe finer when the and the hide a sweetnessof tainable Mr Wilson coat by to other means. of Eding manure is applied to the soil in autumn
ton Mains, in Berwickshire, tells
me, that, ever since he has given oil-cake to his calves after be- upon the stubble, than immediately on the ingweaned insummer,they have not been affect- sowing of the crop in spring. Twenty
edwith the usually fatal complaint of the quar- tons of dung are required to the acre for
ter-ill;andhe has experienced this beneficialeffect the production of a good crop of hemp. for many years, without any external application of setons. By administering oil-cake to my cows after calving, I certainly prevented them being
3133. The land should be cross-plongh
affected withthe red -water, (2242.)
ed in spring, and harrowed and cleaned, and pulverised, as in the case with flax or 3125. I have already given the composition of potatoes, or any other such crop ; but as
) and of the ashesof linseed ,( 1263 ;) ( 1262,oflinseed linseed, the quantity imported into this country
the
young hemp plant is very susceptible
to 1845, ( 1264 ;) the price oflinseed oil, and of its of frost, the land does not require to proportionin theseed,( 1323;)and ofthe compo- be prepared for the seed before the end of be sown
sition of English and foreign,linseed cake, as April,when the seed may
.
well as that of their ashes, ( 1268 and 1269.) 3126. Linseed and oil-cake are imported duty
3134. There is no doubt, as the fibre
free, and since ( 1264) was written, the parliamentary returns give theimportation of linseed in 1847 at 439,512quarters, and in 1848, 796,013 quarters. In 1847, of oil-cake and rape - cake therewere imported 61,978 tons, and in1848,
should be both fine in quality and uniform in texture, that the hemp plant should be cultivatedbroadcast; but as it grows to the considerable height of 6 feet, and as cer tain processes of the cultivation require
73,029 tons, ( 1267.)
* Transactions of the Highland andAgricultural Society, for July 1846, p. 376. + Owen's Geoponika, vol. i. p. 87.
# Phillips' History of Cultivated Vegetables, vol. i. p. 208.
& Haydn's Dictionary of Dates — art. Flat. VOL . II.
с
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
34
the work -people to be amongst the crop, about 6 feet, and was in bloom at the time.
the most convenient mode is to place the In England it is grown in many localities, plant in rows ; and as plants are placed but perhaps most successfully in Suffolk most like the broadcast fashion when the rows are narrow , the best instrument for
making such rows is the ribbing plough,
and Lincolnshire .
3138. Hemp would no doubt be bene
fig. 230, or ribbing coulters, fig. 231,which fited by a top -dressing of some manure, make the rows from 9 to 14 inches a after it fairly assumed form of a plant; sunder, according to the capability of the and as pigeons' dung is the considered by many soil to produce alarge or small plant. cultivators as good manuring for bemp,
guano, to the extent of 2 or 3 cwt. the
3135. To secure a fibre of fine quality acre, would perhaps be the best ingredient
the plants require to be set close together; for the top -dressing. and for this purpose from 24 to 3 bushels
of seed are requiredto the acre. The seed is large, of a flattened orbicular shape, grey-
3139. The hemp, Cannabis sativa, belongs to the class and order Diæcia Pentandria of Lin
ish -brown colour, fresh aspect, somewhat næus,which have the male and female flowers on
oily lustre, and feels light in the band. The seed should not be older than thatof the preceding crop. Prove the seed by
different plants, and on which account it is un known, when hemp-seed is or sown, whether the plants produced willbe male female. In com
mon parlance, the plant which bears the seed is
rubbing it between the hands, and if it iscalled themale,whereasitis the female. Hemp of the order Urtiaceæ of the natural system of
suffersthis without breaking, and becomes Jussieu, and is therefore closely allied to the brighter, it is good. The bushel of seed common nettle ; and it is of the Diclinous Eco weighs about 40 lb., and the seeds afford gens - alliance 19, Urticales —order 86, Can 200 to the drachm weight. The seed nabinaceæ - genus Cannabis of the natural sys
should be sown by hand along the ribs, or stem of Lindley. Stem upright, from 5 to 8 feet,
it may be sown broadcast over the ribs, strong andbranching: Its valuable fibre makes the cordage of India,and our ships. It a native of the and barrowed lightly along them with the cooler parts of is notis cultivated there
grass-seed harrow, fig. 232, and the plant forits fibre,butforits intoxicatingproperty. Dr will come up rows. The ground rein
Lindley says that " it appears to owe its narcotic
quires to be watched after sowing until the properties to the presence of a resin which is not in Europe. This resin exudes in India plants are in leaf, to keep off the birds found leaves, slender branches, and flowers; collectedintomassesitisthechurras,or ofthe finch tribe, which are very fond of from when the eating hemp- seed, and even the young cherris, of Nepal. Its odour is fragrant and
plants are injured by them — the
capsules narcotic , its taste slightly warm , bitterish, and .” The hemp plant of India is a legumen of the seed, being brought above ground acrid of the order Fabaceæ , Crotolaria juncea, the sun by the embryo, are greedily devoured by hemp, which affords a coarse fibre, from which those birds.
bagsand low -priced canvass are largely prepared .
3136. The rows admit of the ground 3140. " According to the observation of Vau. being easily kept free of weeds with the cher of Geneva, the seeds of Orabanche ramosa lie many years in the soil unless they come hand hoe or horse boe in summer, but the will in contact with the roots of hemp, the plant upon hemp plants will soon grow up and over which that species growsparasitically, when they
top the weeds, which will be kept down immediately sprout. The manner in which the seeds of orabanche attach themselves to the ing not to break down the young plants, plants on which they grow has been observed by Schlauter. This writer states that they only seize as they will never rise again. seedlings, and are unable to attack roots of
ever after. Care should be taken in weed
in the possession of the late Mr James
stronger growth .”" + 3141. An oil is expressed from the seed of hemp, which is “ employed with great advantage in the lamp, and in coarse painting. They give a paste made of it to hogs and horses, to fatten them . It enters into the composition of black
Meldrum.
soap, the use of which is very common in the
3137. The hemp plant is not suited to the climate of Scotland.
I have seen it
cultivated there but once, and that in the farm of Kinnear in Fifeshire, when it was It grew in a flat holm of small
extent, and had attained the height of manufacture of stuffs and felts ; and it is also 基*
Lindley's Vegetable Kingdom , p. 265, 549, and 610.
THE CULTURE OF THE HOP.
35
used for tanning nets."* The proportionof oil be subjected to the extreme temperatures from the seed varies from 14 to 25 per cent.
prevailing every day ; but it should rather 3142. The price of hemp-seed in 1849 is for the be to the north on gently sloping ground,
smallandthe large from 34s. to 36s.the quarter. to receive a modified temperature ,and to It is used for feeding birds, and those of the finch , be away fromthe force of the prevailing tribe are remarkably fond of it. S.W. winds. The sloping ground will also favourable in evadin pre be g the blights composit hollow val. grounds valent
ion of hemp-seed,according
3143. The
in the flat
of
to Bucholz, is as follows : 19.1
Oil, Husk , &c .,
Woody fibre and straw , Sugar , & c., Mucilage, Soluble albumen , ( casein ?) Fatty matter ,
38.3 5.0 9.0
3148. The preparation of a new hop ground, after its thorough drainage, should
24.7 1.6 0:7
be the trenching of the soil to the depth of 24 feet, which may be effected in this
100-0
spaces of 15 feet in breadth to the length of the hop -ground. Let the surface mould
1.6
.
Loss,
leys.
manner :-Let the ground be laid off in
3144. The composition of the ash of the hemp seed is this :
Potash , Soda, . Lime,
21.67
Magnesia,iron Oxide of
0-66 26.63 1.00
,
Phosphoricacid, . Sulphate of lime, Chloride of sodium ,
Silica,
0.77 34.96
to the depth of 15 inches, and 3 feet in breadth across the 15 feet space, be taken
away with the common spade, fig . 237, to the opposite corner of the other side of the ground, to be ready to finish the trenching when it arrives at that point ; and should
0.18
a portion of the subsoilbe required to be
0.09 14.04
stirred , to make up the 15 inches of the
surface so taken away, let it be so ; and 100.00
Percentage of ash,
5.60+
ON THE PLANTING, AND THE SUMMER
should the spade not be able to cut the subsoil, let the foot-pick, fig. 247, be em ployed to loosen it for the spade.
3149. The foot-pick , fig. 247, is a very
CULTURE OF TIIE HOP.
Fig. 247.
efficient implement
for
stirring the subsoil, when
3145. Formation of a new hop ground.
in an indurated state . It stands 3 feet 9 inches in
-The soil for the hop should be deep and mellow , and if resting on a fissuredrock ,
height. The shank is of iron , three-quarter inch square at the neck , under the eye through which the
so much the better. An old garden , or an old meadow, forms the best site for a hop
ground. In every case the ground should be dry, that is, not subject to stagnant water, and, if not naturally dry, should be made so by thorough drainage.
cross handle passes, and it
is 14 inch broad at the tramp. The tramp is
movable, and may be shift 3146. To afford sufficient room for the
ed to either side of the
roots of the plants, the drain in a hop
shank to suit the working
ground should not be less than 4 feet deep,
foot of the labourer, and
and the distances between the drains
it remains
may
be from 15 to 35 feet, according to the porousness of the subsoil. The expense may be stated at £6 the acre.
firm at
16
inches from the point, which inclines a little for
ward, to assist the lever THE FOOT - PICK .
power of the implement in
3147. The exposure of a hop -ground loosening hard soil, or removing large should not be directly to that of the meri- stones. The cost of a foot-pick is 6s. 6d. dian sun, because then the plants would The implement is used in this manner : * Wisset'sTreatise on Hemp, which contains the sentiments of the best authorities on the cultiva † Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 381 and 921 .
tion of this plant.
36
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
The workman raises it by the handle two-pronged fork, fig. 249, will remove with both his hands, with the point bend- them outof the ground with more ease to the men, and the subsoil ing away from him , and thrusts the point Fig. 219. with force into the ground, and works it
be equally well subdivided
down with the pressure of his foot upon the tramp, until the instrument has penetrated as far as the tramp. He then pulls the handle towards him, and the sbank acting
and broken .
as a lever upon the surface of the ground, as a fulcrum , the point raises the ground before it, or displaces any stone that may
lie in its way. Should the ground be too hard to be affected by the power of the man's arms alone, he increases the power
by pushing with successive impulses against the handle, upon which he sits, with the
weight of the lower part of his body. 3150. Three men work best together when thus trenching hop -ground. All use
the spade alike when the surface mould is of the requisite depth, and no picking is
3152. When the bared
space of 3 feet in breadth, 15 feet in length, and a spading in depth of 15 inches , bas
been
fork
trenched by the 3 men, to
the depth of the length of the prongs of 15 inches, the entire depth trenched will be 30 inches. The land is then manured thus :
-Let a large dunghill of well-prepared and mixed
farmyard " dung be ready, near at hand to the hop
THE TRENCHING- ground, and whenever each
FORK WITH portion of the ground has required ,butwhen picking is needed, after TWO PRONGS. thus been trenched, letsome a little of the surface has been removed, one man removes the surface, another picks of the dung be put upon the trenched part 82, to the extent of the subsoil, and the third, generally the with the graip , fig. master workman, follows and shovels up 40 or 50 cubic yards to the acre. The the loose earth. dung is spread equally and trampled firmly down, not to be easily displaced .
3151. After
the surface has
thus
been removed, all the men take each a 3153. Then, upon the dung, let the sur trenching-fork , such as fig. 248. Tbis face soil of the next breadth of 3 feet be
instrument consists of three connected thrown to the depth again of 15 inches, by
prongs of iron, 15 inches in length, and 1ļ the same process as formerly described. inch in depth at the neck, tapering to a The surface turf should be placed over stout point. The prongs the dung, with the grass face downwards, Fig. 248. are connected with a hose, and the succeeding soil and subsoil mixed into which a wooden helve, over the turf by chopping with the spade, with a short cross handle, and rendering the entire soil uniform and is fastened . The entire firm . Every large stone in the soil should
fork stands 3 feet 9 inches be thrown aside for drains, or breaking in height, and costs 5s. It into road metal. I have been the more
is used by thrusting the particular in describing the fork -trenching, prongs into the subsoil with as well as that by the spade here, where the pressure of the foot,
first allusions to the subjects have been
like the common spade; and made, that the process may not again using the helve as a lever, have to be described. the workman forces the
prongs through the sub-
3154. In this manner let the entire
stance of the subsoil, which hop-ground be spade and fork trenched, is thereby ripped up into and manured below at 15 inches in depth :
pieces, which are so far and such a mode of trenching and manur displaced, and deprived of ing has the advantage of removing all the all the stones of a larger large stones of the subsoil and soil, to the size than the spaces between depth of the trench ; ofplacinggood manure
THE TRENCHING PORK WITH
the prongs.
Should the
15 inches under the surface soil, to nourish
THREE PRONGS. stones be very large, the the roots of the hop plants when they
THE CULTURE OF THE HOP.
37
reach it ; and of maintaining the natural setting off the ground for the planting of relation subsisting betwixt the soil and the young plants. There are two methods
subsoil. The trenching should be finished of arranging the plants in a hop-ground by the end of autumn, at latest before the one in squares, and the other in quincunx ; winter weather sets in ; and in that state and of these two modes, the quincunx is
the soil may remain until spring, and de- the preferable, because the plants, stand rive all the meliorating effects of frost and ing independently, are more exposed to sun rain . and air ; a greater number of plants are placed on the same extent of ground, in 3155. The cost of such a mode of the ratio of 1 20 to 100 ; and the ground can
trenching is considerable, but as the part be cleaned nearer the plants with the horse trenched with the fork is done at less cost hoe. In fig. 250 is shown the square than by the spade, in proportion to the
Fig. 250.
depth stirred, the depth of 2 feet will cost no more than about 20 inches with
the common spade ; because, in fork
trenching, the soil has not to be lifted up and turned over, but only stirred in its own place. The entire cost will, of course,
depend on the quantity of stones to be removed, and the indurated nature of the soil and subsoil to be overcome ; and, taking these at their worst 'state, the expense will
not likely exceed £7 the acre, including the putting in the dung.
3156. To avoid such an expense, it has been recommended to plough and sub soil the ground simultaneously, the com THE SQUARE METHOD OF PLANTING HOPS .
mon plough going before and turning over
the soil, or a skim -plough going before method, in which the hills of hops, such and turning over a thin furrow of the turf, fig. 240, followed by the common plough covering the turf with soil, and then the subsoil plough to stir the subsoil in the last plough furrow. This process may stir
as a, are each surrounded , in a triangu lar form , by three poles. In cleaning the ground with the borse -hoe from b to c, one pole is closely passed at each hill on the right, and two poles are as closely passed
the soil to the depth of from 15 to 18 on the left hand ; and the same happens
inches, but when done, however well, is in cleaning the ground from d to e. On inefficient compared with the thorough cleaning the ground in the direction at trenching described above ; and although this may at first cost more than the combined ploughings, yet, in a case of establishing a hop - ground which has to remain perhaps formany years, the most substantial and the most satisfactory operation,
right angles to the former, as from ftogand h toi, one pole is passed closely on both hands at each hill. The intersecting lines b c , andde, by $ 9 , and hi, represent the spaces of ground stirred by the horse -hoe; and it will be observed that while a square
and the most economical too, in the long piece of ground included byevery fourhills run, is trenching by the spade and fork .
is stirred twice, a considerable space in the
angles on each side of the single poles in the 3157. Early in spring, in the end of square piece of ground surrounding each
March, the surface of the hop-ground bill is left untouched by the hoe, which should be harrowed and rolled, and reduced must be cleaned by manual labour at an to as fine a tilth as practicable ; and from enbanced cost. 150 to 200 bushels of lime to the acre, according to the nature of the soil, should 3159. In fig. 251 is shown the quin be applied to the surface and harrowed in. cunx method , in which a is a hop hill,
surrounded by three poles set in a triangu
3158. Everything is now prepared for lar form , as in the square method ; but
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
38
bere it will be observed that in stirring the they are to remain permanently; and in ground with the horse- hoe, from b to c,and the other case, the sets are planted on a from d to e, in one direction, and from 6 to f, and from g to h in another direction, and from d to i, and from k to 1 in a third direction , the ground is not only all stirred Fig. 251.
piece ofground for a year, to produce roots before being permanently inserted in the hills. With the cut sets is the risk of one or more of the plants dying in the hills before striking root, and, therefore, more are planted than are absolutely re quired ; and should they all succeed in every hill, it becomes too crowded with plants. The number thus planted, is 5 in each hill. With bedded sets, as the
others are termed, is little danger of loss ; and therefore only 3 are planted in each hill. Of the two methods, I would always prefer the latter, although the other is most practised, merely, perhaps, because it
saves the trouble of transplanting the young plants, and of havingto provide a piece of ground for rooting the sets in.
Bedded sets can no doubt be purchased ; but some one, in that case, must take more
trouble than will supply himself, in pre THE QUINCUNX METHOD OF PLANTING HOPS .
paring the plants for others.
Mr Lance
close to each pole, wbich is as near the hop mentions the raising of plants from seed, plants as any horse implement can ap- but when it is considered that no reliance proach them , but the greatest proportion can be placed on the varieties raised from
ofit is twice, and some of it thrice stirred. seed, this does not seem an advisable plan, Of the two methods, therefore, the quin- except for experiment to originate new cunx not only saves much manual labour in cleaning the land, but stirs it the oftener.
varieties.* 3162. A hole is made in each hill where
3160. The maximum distance between the pin was stuck in on setting off the
the plants is regulated by the combination ground; and before the plants are set into of the power of the soil, and the nature of it, some rich compost, consistingof rotten the variety to produce the largest develop- dung, earth, and lime, is put into it, for
of plant; and the minimum distance encouraging the growthofthe young roots, keep the ground clean. In the former the manure below. The rooted plants are is determined by the room required to and to give them strength to strike down to
case, the distance should not exceed 7 feet; set with their roots outwards, and their and for the latter purpose, it should not be stems inclining a little inwards, in triangu less than 5 feet. Taking 6 feet as a lar order, and aboutsix inches apart ; and
good medium distance, the number of on the earth being pressed around them hills in the acre will be 1194 in the quin- over the stems, a ring is made on the cunx order, and 1031 in the square. The ground around each hill to mark its place. distances are set off by means of a mea suring chain, and pins are stuck into the 3163. There are many varieties of bops sites of the future plants. cultivated, and some are greater favourites
in one locality than others, being best 3161. Young plants are produced in suited to the soil, and also to other circum
two ways, but both by cuttings from the prunings of the bines of the former year's growth, after the crop has been gathered from them . In the one case, the cuttings
stances prevailing in the locality. Some of the best varieties are the Golding, the Canterbury, the Grape, Jones, andCole gates, names directly derived from indi
are inserted directly into the hills, where viduals, places, and character of the pro * Lance's Hop Farmer, p . 53.
THE CULTURE OF THE HOP.
duce of the plant.
Whichever kind is
chosen, it is desirable to have only one variety within one hop -ground, or 80 separated as to be distinct from each other in the same ground, because the picking of the hops in the same piece of ground
should take place at the same time, and different varieties require to be pulled at
39
Brought forward , £25 Setting off 1194 hills, at 6 feet
12
0
0
2
0
0 14 1 0
0 0
apart, .
Planting 1194 hills of bedded sets, at 2s. 6d. per 100, Compost for 1194 hills,
3582 bedded plants, at 6d. per 100, 0 17 0 Twisting the young bines , and re pairing the hills in autumn, 0 15 0
different times. And it is also desirable,
£29
0
0
in choosing different varieties, to have
them to succeed one another in ripening, One man at 3s., an assistant at 23., and 2 that too much work may not be thrown boys at 6d. each, 18.-in all 68.—will set upon the workpeople at one time. Keeping of 3 acres a -day: 2 men at 2s. each, 48., these distinctions in view , it would seem and 1 boy at 6d.-in all 4s. 6d.—will plant
that the Golding or Canterbury may be 600 hills a -day. taken as
one variety, the Grape as
3166. In the first year of a new hop Some of the Jones are recommended, as ground, the soil between the bills may be
another, and the Colegate as the latest.
the broken and short poles answer to sup- cropped with a green crop, manured for itself, in order to keep the ground clean ,
port them.
and cause it to make some return for the
3164. Whatever varieties are chosen, great outlay incurred in converting it into as all sorts of hops are diæcious, it is neces- a bop -ground. sary to have male plants amongst the female which bear the crop. Many hop 3167. During the summer, the young farmers contemn the male hop as be- plants will put out bines, which must be
ing useless ; but experience has suffi- supported by inserting beside them an old ciently proved, and common sense supports pole or stob, and fastening them to it. it, that when male plants are present to When bedded sets have been employed, impregnatethe female, the crop is always a small crop of hops may be expected. better and heavier. To secure their ser
vices, therefore, a hill of male plants should
3168. In autumn, after the bines have
be planted at every 10 or 12 hills, which died down, they should be cut off, and a will give a proportion of one malehill to small mound of earth put over them, to every 100 or 120 hop -growing hills. A remain all the winter. Some leave the bines few extra hills of males on the side of the
on until after the ground is dug in spring,
ground whence the prevailing winds blow, but the mounding the youngrootspreserves will tend still more to secure the impreg- them safe all winter against frost. nation of the female flowers.
The effect
3169. Digging . - As regards the treat fancy, since the impregnated flowers are ment of the growing plants of a hop always larger, firmer, and heavier, and ground, the soil is dug over in spring, as never growso loose and open as the spu- early as its state will permit in March ; rious ones. and this is done with a three- pronged tool named a hop -spud, having the forks or of the impregnation is not a matter of
3165. These are all the particulars re- speens broad and flat, or with a square speen quisite for the furnishing of a new hop- which turns over the several pieces ofthe
ground; and the expense per acre attend- soil raised at each stroke. An experienced ing them is as follows: Draining, Spade and fork trenching,
band, with either of these implements, will .
Manure, 50 cubic yards, at 3s.,
£6 0 7 0 7 10
0 0 0
Lime, 200 bushels, at 6d., and spreading,
.
Harrowing and rolling, Carry forward,
turn over the ground more easily for bim self than with the common spade, which obliges him to lift as well as turn it over. Digging costs from 18s. to 20s. the acre.
5
0
0
0
2
0
3170. Manuring . – The annual produce
0
of a hop -ground, consisting of the hops and bines,being very considerable, and as
£25 12
40
PRACTICE - SUMMER.
the perennial nature of the plant does not the sets or shoots of last year that were permit it to be placed in the category of tied to the poles; and which, from having those plants of the farm which follow each earth put on them the preceding sum other in any given rotati it is necessary mer, swell out to four or five times their to manure the ground every year at least original size, and form what we call sets
once, if not twice. The first manuring or cuttings ; and it is the cutting them off after the crop may be given in the autumn at the right part that should be particu or in spring, and if in the latter, the larly attended to, or great injury may be
time to do itis before thedigging of the done. It is therefore necessary that the ground commences. The best plan is to person cutting them should ascertain
apply the manure twice a -year - in the exactly where the crown of the hill
spring, with farm -yard manure and rags, is, that he may not cut them too low and during the summer with some assis- or too bigh ; and the place where they tant, as guano, rape -cake dust.
Of farm- should be cut off is between the crown of
yard dung, from 25 to 30 cubic yards the bill and the first joint, for it is around should be given to the acre. Black mould the set close to the crown where the is an excellent application about the crown best and most fruitful bine comes. If the of the roots, and from 80 to 100 single set is pared off down too close to the stock
borse-loads should be put on the acre. The or crown, it takes away the part from dung and mould may be carted on the ground, if its state permit; but the manure applied and dug in in summer should bewheeled on to the land, and the operation will cost about 1s. per 100 bills. Woollen rags cost £6 per ton, and from 12 to 20
where that bine conies, as little buds are seen ready to shoot forth at the time of
cutting, which, if cut off, the bines come weakly and few . On the other hand, if the set is cut off above the first joint, wbich sometimes will be the case, if the cwt. per acre will be required. Woollen man in cutting does not pay the attention waste or shoddy may be had for £4 per to it be ought, the bines which come from ton, and from 20 to 30 cwt. per acre will that or any other joint bigber up the set be required.
grow fast , but are coarse, hollow, or what
we call pipey, and unproductive: all such 3171. Guano and rape -cake dust are should be discarded at the time of tying.
convenient applications, in June and July, Consequently the operation of cutting or to be made around the plants and spread dressing, on which the future well-doing over the surface and loed in with horse- of the plant so much depends, is not left labour in damp weather . About £4 of so much to the judgment or skill of the cost of either, to the acre, will suffice for operator as to his care and attention .
one.manuring . Some seem to doubt that Many planters have their hops dressed
the summer manuring does any good, but by the day, paying extra wagestopersons experience has proved, by comparative ex- in whom they can confide to do itwith care . periment, that the yield of crop is con After all the old bine and runners, as the roots and small rootlets near the surface siderably increased by it. are called, are cut and trimmed off clean ;
3172. Dressing the shoots. After the some fine earth is pulled over the crown, manuring and digging in spring, the shoots and a circle made round with the hand of the bops are dressed, and cuttings made picker, to intimate where thehill is before
from them . These are nice operations, the young shoots appear.” The male hills The dressing cute them , otherwise the success of the should be finished before the end of March.
and require an experienced hand to exe- are particularly marked. future will be rendered doubtful. A recent It costs 6d . per 100 hills. author, Mr Rutley, writes thus particu larly on this subject. After stating that
3173. Such of the sets as have two or
a boy or woman opens around the stock more joints are selected to make a new hop of the hill, with a small narrow hoe, a ground with , or sold for that purpose ; but little below the crown of the hill, “ a man the cuttings should only be taken from the
follows with a pruning-knife and a small most healthy bines. hand hoe, with which he clears out the earth on the crown of the bill between
3174. Poling.-- Everything is now ready
THE CULTURE OF THE HOP.
for the reception of thepoles — for, the hop being a climbing plant, it is necessary that they be supplied with poles sufficiently strong and long to support them effectually. The best poles are of yew , next of chestnut, then larch, ash, willow , oak cut in winter, Scots fir, birch, alder, beech ,
41
hill, as shown in figs. 250 and 251 : they are set from 18 inches to 2 feet apart,
according to the strength of the plants to be supported. An instrument like the fold -pitcher, fig. 63, makes a hole deep enough to give the end of the pole a firm hold of the ground, which should
in the order enumerated . As three poles be as many inches in depth asthe pole are required for each hill, every acre of is of height in feet. The pole is pusbed
hop-ground requires 3600 poles. They cost down to the very bottom of the hole, and 1s. per foot the 100 poles - tbat is, poles if it have any crook or set at the lower of 20 feet in length cost 20s. the 100, or end, it is placed inwards to be out of £36 the acre . They last from 3 to 5 the way of the horse in cleaning the years, according to the wood they aremade ground ; and the top should have a lean
of ; and thus,atthe longest, 700 poles per outwards, to give room to the bines to acre are required to maintain the stock of branch ; whilethe body of the pole should be as upright as possible, in order to give poles in an efficient manner. it the strongest position. The cost of poling 3175. To lessen this great expense , it and sharping is from 1s. to 1s. 6d. per 100 bas been suggested to employ stout wire hills of three poles, according to the size
to support the bines between a few strong of thepoles and the nature of the ground ; poles; and I have no doubt, now that wire and the carrying of new poles into the is extensively employed in field fencing, ground costs from ld. to 3d. per 100 that it might be as usefully employed in poles.
hop -grounds.
The bines could be spread
and tied with freedom on such wires, for
3178. Many modes have been devised
exposure tosun and air, and the tyings of setting thepoles. A mode adapted by could be effected with great ease and Mr Knowles, in Kent, seemsto combine the advantages of affording shelter to the hop
precision.
ground, and of training the bines for the
3176. The poles, when about to be set, are chosen in conformity to the variety of the hop they are intended to support ; for if longpoles are set beside a low -growing hop, the plant will be drawn too much up
greatest production. The weather side of the ground is poled four hills deep, with 21 -feet poles in rows from end to end. To these are lashed similar poles, placed horizontally from pole to pole about eight
and prove unproductive; and, on the other feet abovetheground ; and each row of such hand, if the poles are too short for the lashed poles is bound to the nearest one, plants, the tops of the plants will bend by means of horizontal poles similarly
down and not branch out,and the crop will lashed and placed at right angles to them be smothered . Much, however, must be from the outside to the inside rows. By left to chance in this matter, as a favour- these means a phalanx of poles offers able season for vegetation will cause a short a sufficient resistance to the wind, and
variety of hop to grow tall, and a stinting year will prevent the tallest attaining their proper height. The poles are new sharped at the ends every year ; and, when sharpening them, trial should be made of each pole, whether it be strong enough
shelters the whole ground; and this plan has proved a means of increasing the quantity of hops grown on the outside row , which is covered with from 13 to
14 feet of hops from the top, and branched and clustered most heavily on the cross
above the sharpened point to bear a slight poles, thereby showing the advantage blow , and if it cannot, it would have broken of keeping the tops of the plants firmly off in high wind, and caused much incon- fixed, instead of allowing them to swing venience and loss. Whenever a pole proves about in the wind. The increased ex doubtful, it should be cut short and sharped, pense of poling a ground in this way is to be used by a lower class of plants, or 30s. the acre, besides an extra hand at
by the young plants in a new hop- ground. the poling; but the saving in a windy season is considerable, both in hops and 3177. Three poles are set around each poles.
PRACTICE - SUMMER.
42
3179. The best hops grown at Lewis- and when above that height ladders are ham have been trained horizontally in the used, which stand independently upon espalier form , as represented in fig. 252, the ground. The tying begins aboutthe on poles 5 feet high,and 3 feet apart, with end of April. Fig. 252,
3182. From 18 inches to 2 feet of the lower end of the bines should be stripped
of their leaves, to allow air to get to the crown of the roots, and to dig about the hills during the summer. Some hop farmers cut off the branches of their bines for a considerable height above the ground,
which seems an unnecessary practice inany case, and in the case of those hops which shoot out bines near the ground it must
be positively injurious. The stripping costs 2s. the acre.
In some seasons, as of
wind, the young bines are apt to lose their head, or leading shoot, in which case one or more lateral branches will have to be ESPALIER FORM OF TRAINING HOPS.
removed, to allow one to take the lead, and this one should be carefully trained to
a long pole or two at such intervals as may the pole. In every season some of the be desired, fixed to the top of the horizon- poles will be blown down by the wind, tal ones to keep them steady. A plant is and in such cases the common practice is set at each stake, and the rows are formed to tie the bines to an adjoining pole ; but
one way across the field. This method may a better plan is to sharpen the bottom of be adopted with success where poles are the broken pole and push it into the ground
scarce, and where theground is exposed to again, and although shorter than itshould winds. All the male plants should be placed be, it will keep the bines in a better state on the long poles, that their farina may drop of preservation for ripening the crop than when tied to another plant, to the injury on the female flowers on the lower ones. of both plants. The repairing of blown 3180. Immediately after the poles are down poles will cost about 58. an acre.
set, the ground is horse-hoed as deeply as possible, and all weeds making their appearance eradicated ; and this operation is
3183. After the bines have all been tied up, and the leaves stripped below , which
conducted through the summer, as oppor-
will be about the first or second week of
tunity offers. Some object to the employ- June, the ground around the hills where mentof horse labour in a hop-ground, but the horse -hoe could not touch should be it is cheaper than hand labour, and equally dug over with the spade or spud, and effectual.
will cost from 38. to 8s. tbe acre. This
digging is necessary for the double purpose 3181. Whenever the bines shoot to a of loosening the earth about the crown,
length to be fastened, they are tied to the and the bills, trodden down by the tiers. poles. Three of the best bines are selected If the ground is rough in the alleys, it to be tied toeach pole, and the rest are cut away. The bines are tied by women —a woman and her family, or by single women—and the job is taken by the piece at 88. the acre. The ties are made with withered rushes, which cannot injure the stems of the bines against the poles ; and the tie is made with a slip -knot, so that the tying may give way as the bines enlarge in diameter. The tyings are done
should be harrowed, and even rolled, to render the tilth as fine as possible. Besides these operations, earth is placed upon the places where the bines had been cut off, and this is requisite to stop the fresh shoots rising up fromthe stools — to keep the weeds under - to support both the bines and the poles — and to strengthen the shoots that will be the cuttings and the bines of next
year. Earthing is done to the end of June,
from near the ground up to 5 feet above it, and costs 3d. the 100 hills. This finishes
43
the summer treatment of the hop in as far are fortunately enabled to furnish a pretty as the manual labour is concerned, but complete account of one of the most com the horse -hoe must be used until the crop becomes ripe, in order preserve the ground in a loose state for the roots of the plants, and to overcome surface weeds. *
mon kinds ; and as the family is a very natural one, we may thence derive a pretty correct notion of the natural history
earliest enemies is the Wire-worm . This
3185. “ The character of wire -worms
of the whole. Any mode of treatment which checks the depredations of this 3184. The hop -plant is subject to the species will probably be equally effectual attacks of insects and other maladies in in regard to the others. the course of its growth. Amongst its
insect is the larvæ of a tribe named Elate- generally is, that they have a long, slender,
ridæ , or click -beetles, which are readily and cylindrical body, covered by a tough known by having the sternum produced crust,which has occasioned the above name.
behind a strongspine, fitted to enter a They are composed of 12 segments, fitting groove in the abdomen, situated between closely to each other, and are provided with the intermediate pair of legs, as thus described by the Rev. Mr Duncan : “By bringing these partssuddenly into contact," he observes, " the insect is enabled to spring
6 conical scaly feet, placed in pairs on the three segments next the head. The latter is furnished with short antennæ , palpi, and
two strong mandibles or jaws.
The
to some heightin the air, and thus recovers species alluded to as being well-known is its natural position, when it happens to the larva of Cataphagus lineatus. When fall on its back, which it frequently does full -grown it is about seven lines long,
when dropping from plants tothe ground. a line being the twelth part of an inch, A special provision of thiskind is rendered and rather less than a line in breadth, necessary , in consequence of the shortness as a, fig. 253.
The shape of the body
and weakness of itslegs. Upwards of 60
Fig. 253.
different species of wire -worms occur in Britain , and it is probable that a consider
able proportion of them feed upon our most valuable cultivated plants. The same species of larvæ does not appear to confine itself to one kind of food ,but attacks in a
discriminately the roots of corn and other grasses, as well as esculent roots, such as turnips, carrots, radishes, & c. But it is at
the same time deserving of notice, that, as a strong similarity prevails among larvæ specifically distinct, it is probable that different kinds may often have been con founded , and a more correct knowledge may prove them to be more restricted in
ootb
eat ராட்டி
THE WIRE - WORM AND ITS PERFECT BEETLE CATAPHEGUS LINEATUS ,
their choice of food than is at present sup- would be perfectly cylindrical were likely by what is observed in analogous tirely of an ochre yellow colour, except the cases . We are as yet acquainted with the anterior part of the head, which is brown : posed : this at least is rendered not un- the back not a little depressed . It is en
metamorphoses and habits of avery small for some time after a change of skin, it is
number of these insects ; and it is there- white. Owing to the rigid consistency of fore highly desirable that, wherever a de- the skin or crust, the larva can scarcely
structive wire -worm prevails, it should be contract its body, but, being composed of traced to the perfect condition. This, rings or segments, it is flexible enough however, is attended with considerable from side to side. These rings are 12 in
difficulty, owing to the length oftime they number, the three nearest the head each continue in the larvæ state, extending in provided with a pair of conical legs, and many instances to several years. But we the caudal segment having a fleshy tubercle * Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. ix. p. 532-563.
-
-
THE CULTURE OF THE HOP.
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
beneath , which_serves the purpose of a it is likely to feed on the cereal and other useful grains. This is the Hypnoidus terminating in a point, and is remarkable riparius, a small insect of a brassy -black for having two circular holes, like two colour, with pale reddish legs." brown points in the surface, as in b. It 3188. Fortunately, the wire-worms find is difficult to conjecture the use of these, unless they be a kind of stigmata which numerous enemies amongst the same class seventh foot. The last-named is conical,
»*
serve for respiration ; but the real stig- of creation of which they form a part. mata are placed along each side, appearing like small brown points from thefourth to the eleventh segment inclusively. The whole body is smooth, with a few scattered hairs. The pupa into which the larva changes, is nearly white, with two black points over the eyes; the length about The front has two brown three lines. projecting points, and the abdomen consists of 10 rings, the last of which termi-
“ Concealed, therefore, as the wire-worms
are in the earth," observes Mr Curtis, " and armed with a coat of mail which
will withstand most external assaults, a little ichneumon -fly, probably a Micro gastor, discovers their retreats, and punc turing the sutures of the skin, in all pro bability which are the more membranous, deposits her eggs in the body of the worm, to feed upon the muscles, and thus destroy
nates in two short spines. The perfect in- this enemy to the cultivator.” That shin sect c, which issues from the pupa, is of a ing black beetle which inhabits wet and brown colour, thickly covered with short damp localities, Steropus madidus, des
pubescence. The antennæ d are about the troys the wire-worm with its mandibles. length of the head and thorax, with the The small tick, Uropoda umbilica, in
radical joint long and thick. The under fects the perfect beetle of the Cataphagus side of the body is dusky and pubescent; obscurus ; and the brilliantscarlet-colour the legs obscure yellow : length e about ed harvest-bug, Leptus phalangii, already four lines, breadth 14. This insect occurs referred to in (2956,) as the Acarus au in considerable plenty throughout the tumnalis of Shaw, infests another species
country, in green fieldsand pasture lands, of wire -worm beetle, Elater ruficaudis.t and isusually found creeping among the
herbage, or lying at the sides of stones; it is scarcely ever observed on the wing.
3189. I have been the more particular in giving a detailed description of the wire -worm , as many insects, such as centi
3186. “ Another species, at least what pedes, which inbabit the ground and injure
is usually regarded as such, occurs in the crops are so called ; and a remarkable similar places, and generally in much instance of such a mistake has been com greater abundance, at least in Scotland, mitted by Mr Lance, in assuming the wire namely Cataphagus obscurus. This insect worm to be a scolopendra.I is so closely allied to that above described that it may readily be taken for a variety
3190. As a trap to catch wire-worms,
of it ; andthere is little doubt that the de- potatoes cut in two,and turnips sliced, may scription of the larva of C. lineatus, will be buried around the bills, and examined
apply almost equally to that of C.obscurus. daily and replaced, by which means many From the great abundance of the latter, it may be destroyed, as the insects will leave may be presumed to be the species which the roots of the hop to regale on these esculents. commits most injury in this country . 3187. “ There is another species, which
3191. Other insects, besides the wire
occurs more plentifully in ploughed lands worm , injure the hop. The caterpillars of throughout the south of Scotland, but the ghost-moth, Hepialus humuli, which which we have never heard charged with are of a rather glossy cream colour, with similar depredations. Yet there is no the head brown ,and a scaly patch on the doubt that the larva is a root worin, and, neck, feed on the root of the hop, and it
from the places the perfect insect freqnents, changes in May to a dark-brown pupa ; * Quarterly Journal of Agriculture,vol. viii. p. 101-3. + Journal of the English Agricultural Society , vol. v. p. 209-227. Lance's Hop Farmer, p. 73.
THE CULTURE OF THE HOP.
but this insect is more common in grassy
45
taken to plant the same kind of hop as
places in June, and not unfrequent in that cultivated in the ground. In Flan churehyards, and hence its name.** A flea- ders, the hop - ground is not cultivated above beetle, not unlike the turnip -beetle, com- , five years, when it is rooted up, and the mences its attacks
upon the young leaves
soil cultivated with ordinary crops.
and heads of the hop as soon as they appear, 3194. The hop, Humulus lupulus, belongs to stopping their growth, and even quite destroying them. When the shoots attain the sameplace in the system of plants as the last described plant, the hemp, that is the class and
six inches or more , the insects may be order Diæcea Pentandria of Linnæus, some plants brushed off into any receptacle beld to re having male flowers and others female flowers ; to ceive them. A more formidable foe is the the natural order Urtiacece of Jussieu ; and to hop aphis, which commences its attacks the Declinous Exogens — alliance 19, Urticales after the flea -beetle has ceased, about the
order 86, Cannabinaceæ — and genus Humulus, of the natural system of Lindley.
latter end of May, when the bines have reached four or six feet up the poles, on the under side of the small leaves near the
3195. “ The bine and leaves of hops have been used for tanning light skins, " as Mr Lance in
head of the bine. The attack of the plant-
forms us, “ instead of oak bark, and
has louse is called a blight, though that is been taken out for the process by Mra J.patent P. New
another disease occasioned by the growth man, London . of a parasitic fungus. The hop in some 3196. “ In Sweden the stalks of hopsare success seasons recovers from the attack of the fully converted into strongcloth for sacking and aphis, as in 1807, 1834, and 1846 ; but in coarse bags for hops, for which purpose the stalks
others it is almost entirely destroyed, as in
are gathered in autumn, soaked in water during the winter, and in the succeeding spring, after
1837 ; while it is remarked that the same
being dried on stoves, are dressed like flax.
ground is not attacked in two successive seasons .
The natural enemy of the aphis,
3197. “ A coarse sort of brown paper has been the
Aphis humuli, is the larva of the lady-bird, made from the bines of the hop, at a mill in Coccinella bipunctata, and one or more of neighbourhood of Maidstone. the ichneumon - flies, which deposit an egg
3198. “ Hop bines are also used as binders for
within the body of the aphis, the larva the sheaves of corn andbean haulms. from which destroys the enemy. 3199. “ The prunings are also cut into pieces
3192. Besides by insects, the hop is as-
and stacked for winter provender for cattle and
them ,their bitterness sailed by a parasiticfungus, commoncalled horses,whicharefondof constituting an excellent stomachic. The bines themould,because the plantsseemmoulded. require carefulharvestingtopreserve them.” It is most subject to this disease in moist warm summers, and its effects are most
3200. The tender shoots of the hop in spring
disastrous, as it deprives the plant of the may be used as a pleasant bitter salad ; and " in Flanders, where the hop is cultivated, the prin cipal culturebeingfrom Brussels to Álost,they paris it forming ; but flower the of power tial in its attacks, confining itself to cer- use
the young shoots in the same way as aspara gus, tied in bunches, boiled and stewed , and eaten with butter and gravy. Such bunches are sold in the vegetable markets.
tain spots and localities.
3193. The power of some hop -grounds 3201. “ From the young leaves and offshoots to produce a great crop every year, when external circumstances do not occur to pre- of the bine, after being dried, an extract is ob
which will dye woollens of a fine cinna vent it, is extraordinary. Many grounds tained, mon brown. The expressed juice of the bine is have borne crops for upwards of half a cen well known amongst French chemists, as afford tury, and some exceed in age an entire ing a permanent red -brown colour.” + century. It must not be supposed, how 3202. According to the analysis of Mr Nesbit, ever, from this, that any plant that was planted at the formation of the ground 94 oz.of the Golding hop leares, dried at steam remains alive such a length of time. heat, lost 14 oz. of moisture, and leftd 84 oz. of
Whenever a plant or an entire hillindicates dried leaves. Thedried leaves,burne toashes, gave 572 grains, being at the rate of 164 per itshould be removed, cent. Of the yellow grape hop leaves, 14.oz. symptoms of decay,ted e
and another substitu ; but care should be lost of moistur in drying 1 g 02., and left 12 oz. * Stephens’ IUustrations of British Entomology, vol. i. p. 6. + Lance's Hop Farmer, p. 17 .
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
46
of dried leaves. The dried leaves, burned to ashes, been described for that crop from (2732) to
gave25 per cent of mineral matter.The com- ( 2736.) Having drilled up as much land
position of the ashes was as follows :
as will allow the dunging to proceed with
Golding Hop Yellow Grape
out interruption, thatprocess is carried on
leaves .
Hop leaves.
Potash , Soda,
12.48 0.32
2.29
then the ploughs proceed as in ( 2752.)
Lime,
41.46 1.99
32.28
This mode of dunging is the same as re commended for drilled beans, ( 2433,) and
Magnesia,
Sulphuric acid, Phosphoric acid, Phosphate of iron , Carbonic acid ,
.
4.20 2.02
6.24 3.63 3.68
2.93
0.54
16.54
more fully described for potatoes.
The
21.25
only difference between preparing the land forturnips and potatoesis, that,as turnips
7.92
4.58
are later in being sown , more time is found
10.14
20.38
for cleaning the land thoroughly for them,
100.00
100.00
Chloride ofsodium ( com
mon salt,) Silica ,
as described in ( 2749 and 2750) ; and
5.13
on which account another ploughing or another grubbing, according to the cir cumstances of the weather, may be given
3203. Of theGoldinghop bine, 1 lb. 24 oz. dried to the land before the process of dunging ata steam heat, lost 1 } oz. of moisture, and left 1 lb.
is commenced .
oz. of dry bine. The dry bine burned ,
gave 353 grains of ashes, being at the rate of nearly 5 per cent. Of the yellowgrape hop, 2 lb.
3205. When the land is to be manured
12 oz. of bine,dried, lost 4 oz. of moisture, leav- with farm -yard dung, it is first drilled ing 2 lbs. 78oz. ofdry bine. The dry bine, in in the single mode, ( 2389,) as being the being burnt,gave 5.1 percent ofmineralmatter. best andmost expeditious; but as the The composition of the ashes was as follows : Golding Hop Yellow Grape
Potash ,
18.62
12.97 2.32
ing the seed, the best ploughman should
29.59
3.15
17.39 12.61
2.63
3.14
5.22
8.14 2.06 1.55
Soda,
Lime, Magnesia, Sulphuric acid ,
Phosphoric acid, Phosphate of iron ,
0.31 ...
Phosphate of alumina, 23.51 Carbonic acid, Manganese , Chloride ofsodium ( com ...
mon salt,)
drills for turnips must be formed of exact
ly the same distance , to accommodate the working of the drill-machine for sow
bine .
4.95
Chloride of potassium ,
7.38
Silica,
4.64
100.00
Hop bine.
24.18 a trace . 9.98
be desired to form those drills.
3206. When farm - yard dung is alone used for manuring the turnip crop, the
quantity applied generally differs from 12 to 15 tons the acre, according to the sort of turnip — the Swedish variety receiving the larger quantity, and the white the
5.66
smaller . In the neighbourhood of towns,
100.00 *
much more manure isapplied to the turnip crop - as much as 32loads ofatleast 15cwt.
ON THE SOWING , AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF THE TURNIP.
each of town manure the acre, and upwards of20 tons of farmyard dung. The moredung the turnip receives it willyield the heavier and more valuable crop ; still, if the far
mer depend entirely on the sources of the 3204. I shall now take for subject farm for manure , he cannot apply a large the culture of the turnip, because it is the quantity to one crop, without depriving
most important root-crop cultivated, and others of their share. After the dung bas whatever relates to it may easily be been ploughed in by the double mode of applied to the culture of every other of the drilling, ( 2397,) the land is ready for the root-crops cultivated on the farm , such as seed . kohl-rabi, mangold -wurzel, carrot, and the
like, although one or all of these may be
3207. Of the varieties of turnips usually
sown earlier than the turnip . The turnip occupying the same place in the order of crops as the potato, the land is prepared for it in precisely the same manner as bas
cultivated on the farm , I have already given a sufficient account, from (843) to (854.) The Swedish turnip should be sown about the 15th May, and 3 lb. of
* Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. vii. p. 212-217.
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .
47
seed to the acre will suffice. The seed turnip seed is the same, 9d. the pound, varies in price from 9d. to 1s. a pound, and the quantity sown of both may be the
according to the supply. The next hardy same. A little saving in turnip seed is turnip, the yellow, should besown immediately after the swedes are finished with a smaller quantity of seed , 22 lb. to the acre — the seed being smaller, more of
of no great importance, unless when one farms on a very large scale; and if fresh seed only were used, much smaller quan tities than those specified would suffice.
course are found in the same measure.
The white turnips may be sown any
3208. Two-rowed
Turnip -drills. -
time from the beginning to the end of Turnip seed is always sown with a drill June, and in England they are seldom sown before July, for, if sown too early, according to the climate, they are apt to run to seed. The price of the yellow and white
machine, and one of the most efficient and simple sowing drills which sowsseed alone is the East Lothian turnip -drill. Fig. 254 is a view in perspective of this drill;
Fig. 254.
d
d
6 m
m
THE EAST- LOTHIAN TURNIP - SOWING DRILL.
in which a a is the bed -frame, consisting embrace the upper part of the drills, and
of two transverse and three longitudinal revolve upon a shaft passingthrough the bars, to which are mortised three upright lower ends of the upright bars . Of
bars b b b. Stay- braces c c are attached the two seed -boxes 99 , one is shown to the bed -frame by bolts, though in many thrown open, and they are attached to the of the inferior machines these are omitted, iron bows h h, through the ends of which
greatly to the deterioration of their the axle also passes, whereby the whole strength and durability. The horse shafts becomes movable upon the axle. The dd are bolted to the transverse bars, sup- bottom of the boxes is formed funnel ported by stay -braces e, and furnished shaped, terminating in a nozzle which with the usual horse mounting. This passes between the sheathes i i of the coul
machine sows two drills at a time, and, to support it upon two of the drills of land, two rollers ff, which are both motive and compressing, are provided one for each drill, and so curved longitudinally as to
ter for conveying the seed from the boxes to the ground: the bottoms of the boxes are firmly attached to the bow h.
Con
necting rods k k are attached to the seed box frame, for regulating the depth of the
PRACTICE – SUMMER .
48
coulter in the soil. The seed -barrels are are punched out, each three varying in mounted on axles within the box frame g, size from a sixteenth to an eighth of an
the outer extremity of which is furnished inch diameter, but all in the same order A separate band is fixed in the end of the rollerf, and both then fitted to the first,closedwith a clasp with a pulley m, corresponding to another from more to less.
made to move by means of a jack -chain.joint, and capable of being slid round, to The handles ll move upon the joint l', and a smallextent, upon the interior band, and when elevated draw the coulters i i out of is, besides, provided with a pinching- screw ,
the ground, and when depressed by the by which it can be fixed at any point weight of the hand, keep them steady in within its range of motion, which does not the ground. An important function of necessarily exceed one inch. The movable this machine is its self-adjustment to the band is likewise divided into six equal width of the drills. This is accomplished parts, and at each division a perforation is by the width between the pendants b6 made larger than any of those in the in being greater than the length of the terior. By these arrangements the mov
rollers, together with their attached able band can be placed so as to expose pulleys and iron bows h, which admit any ofthe three sets of the six perforations of a ready lateral motion of the rollers, of the inner band, whereby a greater or
with their accompaniments of bow, coul- lesser quantityof seed can be sown accord soon as the ing to circumstances. In the figure, the machine is put in progressive motion, and perforations are seen on the outer band; ters, and seed -boxes, so
the curved rollers feel any unequal resis- the clasp -joint also is seen near the upper
tance right or left. Any such unequal side b of the figure ; and the pinching resistance, on either end of the rollers, draws it immediately to that side where the resistance is felt, until it is fairly adjusted to the slope of the drill ; the effect
screw and slit, by which it can be fixed or moved, are seen in the middle of the figure. The slider d covers a hole by which the barrel can be filled or emptied of seed .
in this case being produced entirely by the
action of the sloping sides of the drill against the conoidal sides of the rollers.
3210. This machine is furnished with a
pair of small covering rollers, made of any hard wood, mounted in light iron frames or
3209. Fig. 255 is a perspective view of shears, which are hooked on to a bolt in
the seed -barrel, detached from its seat ; the coulter-frame, and are thus dragged Fig. 255.
bebind the machine. These rollers are not considered as forming an essential part of
this drill, though they serve to compress light soils from drought, but on heavy soils a crust would be formed on the sur
face, should rain fall afterwards.
The
figure giveu here is from the machines as manufactured by Mr James Slight, Edin burgh. The price of this drill, in the ordinary state for sowing seed alone, ranges from £ 5 to £6, 10s. 3211. Several varieties of this drill are THE SEED- BARREL.
to be met with, in which the chief differ a a is the axle or spindle in which it re- ence lies in the mode of communicating
volves, and on the longer end of which motion to the seed -barrel, and of throwing
the pulley is placed. The barrel is formed it out of gear.
This last particular may
of tin-plate, in two conical frusta, joined be regarded as a defect in the machine
base to base, with a cylindrical band b just described, and undoubtedly it is a de interposed between the two, and the fect; but the question is simply whether it is more economical to lose a balforonepercent hard wood. The band 6 is usually di- of seed every year, or pay a considerable vided into six equal parts, and at each addition in price to the original cost of the point of division three small apertures machine, which the adoption of the disen
truncated ends are closed with discs of
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .
49
gagingI am principlewouldincur Formy ratherthan wantseedthepwhen ower of stopping part, so fond of having. everything the issue of the desired. in the best state it can be obtained, that I
would willingly pay the additional cost
3212. Fig. 256 gives a view in perspec
Fig. 256 .
b
GEDDES TWO - ROWED TURNIP - SOWING DRILL.
tive of a variety of turnip -drill, contrived Fig. 257 is a transverse section of this,
by Mr Geddes, Cargen Bridge, Dumfries- d d being the interior surface of the box, shire. Its construction of parts is much
Fig. 257.
the same as that already described , but the depression of the parts forming the frame
work gives the machine an appearance of compactness and strength .
The bed -frame
a a is a plank, b are the pendants upon which the frame -work is supported upon the axles of the curved rollers e e.
The
horse shafts c are bolted on the plank a,
and the handles d d are jointed to it, and, being embraced by open guards, per mit the elevation and depression of the coulters by means of the chains k k, according to circumstances: gg are the seed -box frames ; h are spur- gearing, shown exposed, by which the seed axles are moved ; and i i are the bind covering wheels.
THE VERTICAL SECTION OF THE SEED - DISTRIBUTOR .
in the bottom of wbich an opening is made to receive a brass roller b, having a groove running round it. The roller is mounted on an axle a which is pro longed to a sufficient distance beyond the
box for receiving the last wheel of the
series already described, the connexion 3213. The distributing apparatus in with which gives motion to the roller b. this machine is peculiar, and bas been con- A slider c is attached to the interior of the sidered to contain its principal merit, and box, and capable of nice adjustment by a supposed to afford a more correct means screw or otherwise. The lower end of the
of graduating the quantity to be sowo than slider, which comes in contactwith the the common seed-barrel, fig. 255. This roller, is formed with a tongue thatenters
apparatus is very simple; the interior of into the groove, and the adjustment of the the seed -box is formed into a semi- cylin- opening between the point of the tongue der, which may be of wood or of tin -plate. and the bottom of the groove determines VOL. II.
D
50
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
the quantity of seed to be delivered . The or more pairs of horses ; but for farms of a
expense of this machine, in consequence of small class, having only one pair of horses, the wheel- gearing, is greater than that of a smaller class of machine might answer the purpose ; and on this account I give the
the machine above described.
perspective view of a machine which sows
3214. One-rowed turnip-drill.-- These one drill at a time with seed alone in fig. machines are suitable for the larger class 258, which consists of a frame of timber of farms, such as those which employ two formed of the two handles a a framed Fig. 258.
b
THE TURNIP-BARROW FOR SOWING ONE DRILL.
upon a broad transverse bar which carries the seed-box. Besides the broad bar, a round stretcher is introduced near the point of the stilts, chiefly intended for the attachment of a drag -rope; an iron axle is placed below the frame, running in bushes or small pillow -blocks, and the two wheels b b are fitted to it, one of them fixed, the other running free. Two iron legs c c are bolted to the stilts, with stretcher and braces to render them steady. A toothed
The pull may be too much for one man's strength, when a pony or horse should be employed. The price is from £ 2, 5s., to £ 2, 158. 3215. But turnip seed is not always sown alone, it being also deposited along with granulated manures in the drills. Such granulated manure has hitherto chiefly been bone -dust, though certain composts have recently been recommended
spur -wheel d is fixed upon the axle, and
as substitutes or assistants to bone-dust.
this acts upon another e of equal size fitted Guano cannot be distributed by means of upon the spindle of the seed -barrel, which any drill hitherto known, on account of
last is of the same construction as fig. 255. its clammy consistence, which, if natural, The seed -barrel is mounted in the casef, maybe rather troublesome to get rid of ; and the wheel e can be disengaged from but if produced by water being poured the driving -wheel. The bottom of the into the guano, to increase its weight, it seed -box isformed into a funnel, termin- may be overcome by evaporation, though
ating in a director-pipe, as seen at d, the process would certainly be attended which descends into the sheath of the with trouble and expense. The practical
coulter h. The coulter is simply a bar of consequence hitherto of this inconvenience hardwood, set in the transverse bar of the has been to distribute the guano by the
frame; and fixed at the proper position by hand. Bone-dust is admirably deposited means of a wedge, and shod at the bottom with the machine about to be described. with a strong sheet -iron sheath. One man pushes the machine forward along a
3216. Two- roued turnip and bone
drill by the stilts, and a boy or another dust drill.–Fig. 259 exbibits a view in man pulls it forward by means of a rope. perspective of a turnip -seed and bone-dust
_
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .
51
drill, and although apparently of very been said of this class of machines. The complicated form , its description may be bed - frame a a, is constructed in a similar easily understood from what has already manner to those of the corn -drills. The Fig. 259.
6
d
FI
THE TWO- ROWED TURNIP AND BONE -DUST SOWING DRILL .
axle of the carriage, which passes across and under it, is supported on pillow -blocks. The wbeels 6 b are added to support the great weight of the manure: one of them being fixed dead upon the axle, carrying
ported by the iron pendants i. Two lever handles k k are jointed to the front bar of the bed -frame, and to them are attached the connecting rods f'f' ; whose lower ends bring the operation of the coul
the latter round with it, and thus forming ters under the control of the person who
the mover of the actiug parts ; the other takes charge of the levers k k . An iron being left at liberty to revolve on the lever is also jointed upon the front bar : axle, for the convenience of turning the its bandle, extending backwards to k', machine round. The horse -shafts c care serves to disengage the action of the bolted to the two foremost transverse bars. manure -distributors from the motion of The seed -barrels, are enclosed in theboxes the main axle ; and as the motion of the
d d , through which axles pass ; and each seed - barrels is taken from that of the axle carries a pulley, one of which is seen manure-distributors, all the secondary The two manure hoppers e e are
motion ceases on the movement of the
constructed with a cast-iron bottom , havinga narrow opening, and in length equal tothe breadth of the entire bottom for the reception of the manure -distributing wheel ; f f are pressing rollers, of the same
lever k ', and is again brought into action by moving it in the opposite direction. The motion of the manure-distributoris conveyed by small spur -wheels, and the
form and dimensions as those of the com-
from the shaft of the former.
at d '.
seed-barrels are driven by separate chains These
mon drill. Each roller is also furnished wheels are so placed in relation to the
with a coulter-frame 9 g, which carries opening of the hopper, as to be quite close the coulters h h, and has also the usual extent of lateral play, whereby they possess the property of adjusting themselves to the drills, -of carrying the coulter-
to the fore- end of the opening, while an aperture is left at the opposite end suffi ciently large to pass the largest allowance of manure to be given out; and in
frame and coulter along with them, and order to graduate this quantity, a sliding of securing the object of the seed being sluice é é is attached to that side of the
always sown directly in the middle of the hopper, and is adjusted by means of a drills. The pressing- roller axle is sup- screw at the top. By these means, the
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
52
area of the discharging orifice can be
3217. A more distinct idea of the work
regulated to any desired quantity pering of this machine will be formed by the acre . The motions for the discharge of following plan, represented in fig. 260, the seed and manure are produced from where a a is the frame, b b the carriage the wheel b, which is placed on the main wheels, the main axle b'b', and the horse
axle, and gives motion to a similar wheel shafts c c, broken off. The seed -barrels, placed upon the manure axle. with their separate spindles and pulleys, Fig. 260. افلے
الاط
@
OI
4
m
m 1
THE PLAN OF THE TWO - ROWED TURNIP AND BONE - DUST SOWING DRILL .
are seen in their position at d d andff, is yet as free of that fault as it is perhaps the boxes being removed, mounted on the auxiliary shaft ſ, which carries also the manure-wheels e e , and the clutch -wheel h. This last wheel, which carries ronnd the auxiliary shaft, runs loose upon the
possible to attain, while the essential objects are kept under command. The graduation of the discharge of manure is attainable by it to any desired limit, and the discharge is also regular and uniform .
shaft, but can at pleasure be put in con- The means of engaging and disengaging nexion with the clutch - fork i, which slides both the seed and manure gearing is per
upou the shaft, and moves at all times fectly efficient and simple. From the with it. The loose wheel h is also con- materials and labour necessarily expended
stantly in gear with the driving -wheel g, in the construction of a machine of this which is fixed upon the main axle, and at kind, the price is consequently higher all times, when the machine moves, keeps than the common two-row drill, being the wheel h in motion, while the sowing- £ 11 , 10s. Machines of this particular
gear is at rest. The lever k is jointed construction have only been made by to the front-bar, and has hold of the clutch- Mr James Slight, Edinburgh. fork . The lever handles 1 l are jointed below the front- bar a, andextend backward
3219. The drop -drill. - Not content to a convenient distance, their chief duty with depositing the bone-dust in a con being to lift the coulters, and keep them tinuous stream , regarding that as a waste at a uniform depth in the ground. of manure, several parties have proposed to drop the manure at such specific inter 3218. The machine thus described may vals as to suit the turnip crop, after the
be considered as one of the best of its plants have been thinned ont to their
kind, and, though apparently complicated, ultimate distance from each other along
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .
53
the drill. This object has been attained by the Messrs Smith of St Ninians, near by the drop-drill, as it has been called, Stirling. because it drops the manure in small 3220. This improved one-rowed drop quantities at determinate intervals ; and the best that has yet appeared of that drill is represented in perspective by fig. form is that introduced to public notice 261. In this machine the general prin Fig. 261.
n
5
k
SMITH'S DROP - SOWING DRILL.
ciple is, that a metal trunk receives the tributing wheel, to carry the wiper-wheel manure from the ordinary distributing f. The sheath g slides up and down the wheel, and being provided with a valve, sbank plate h,to regulate the depth at capable of being opened and shut at cer- which the manure should be deposited.
tain intervals, the manure is retarded in The discharging valve within the trunk its descent within the trunk by means of carries at the end the lever k. The lower the valve, until the requisite quantity is extremity of the seed trunk is seen at l. collected , when the valve, being suddenly The regulating screw for discharging the opened, makes the deposit, and is again manure out of the hopper is at 0. The
shut. The bed -frame a a is supported on pressing roller is p, wbich, following, two carriage wheels b b, to ease the pres- covers in the seed and the manure, and
sure of the manure upon the tops of the consolidates the soil in the drill. Though drills. The bed -frame has a central bar, the machine only sow's one drill, it requires which supports the manure hopper n and to be drawn by a horse ; and that the the manure trunk behind it. The axle of horse and man who drives him may walk
the wheels carries a spur-wheel c, which acts upon the pinions d and e, the first being upon the shaft of the manure-distributing wheel, the second upon that of
in the bottom of the drill, the bar to which it is yoked is placed at one side of the bed -frame, of which q is the yoke-bar or beam , supported by the stay-rod r , and the seed -distributor. The shaft of the 8 8 are the handles supported by the pinion d extends beyond the manure -dis- stay t.
54
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
3221. In sowing with this machine, the cially with those manures held to be effect of the combination of its machinery the most active, such as bones, guano, and is to be thus understood. The carriage- the like - for here the manure is laid into wheels being three feet in diameter, or 113 the rut, the earth of which partially falling inches in circumference, the wheels will in and mixing with it, thereby reduces its
turn once round while the machine passes intensity ; and the seed is dropped upon over' that space. The main spur-wheel this mixture, instead of falling directly will also make one revolution in the same amongst the manure, as is generally the space ; but, as the pinions upon the case with machines which sow the seed axle of the seed and the manure distri- and manure continuously. It is said that butors are just half the diameter of the a more speedy and vigorous vegetation is other, they will each make two revolu- produced by this than by the continuous
tions while the machine is moving over mode of sowing ; but it may yet be de 113 inches ; and as the wiper-wheel has serving of observation , whether the more
six wipers, each revolution of it will lift speedy development of the young plant the valve six times, or twelve times in the
does not arise from the circumstance of the
space of 113 inches, making twelve depo- seed, under this mode of treatment, being sitions of manure in that space, which is deposited nearer the surface of the soil, 94 inches to each nearly. In the same than it is when put in immediately behind manner the seed -distributor, which also a coulter ; and, viewing the subject in this makes two revolutions in the same time light, it may suggest the question, whether or space, and as it has six little cups or deep sowing alone may not be the cause of perforations, it will discharge twelve times, the protracted vegetation so often and so as before, in 113 inches. Then, the seed- seriously experienced in the turnip crop ? depositor being placed 94 inches distant It is well known that the vegetation of all and behind the manure ; and as they are
seeds is decidedly affected by the depth at
arranged to drop at the same instant, the which they are planted in the soil, so much manure -deposit will be always one space in advance of the seed, and the seed will be dropped over the immediately preceding deposite of manure.
so, that at or beyond certain depths the seeds lie perfectly dormant; the depth, however, requisite for producing this effect varying considerably with the nature and qualities of the seeds. Thus, a potato-tuber
3222. The saving of manure in the first will vegetate if within 2 feet of the surface, instance, by the use of the drop -drill, appears to be considerable, since it has been frequently asserted that 10 or 12 bushels of bone -dust per acrewill produce a braird
but theprocess will be verymuch retarded ; the seeds of some Cruciferæ , again, to which family the turnip belongs, are sup poșed to become dormant, though not
equal, if not superior, to 16 or 18 bushels dead, at the depth of ordinary ploughing. put in by the continuous mode. In the There need be no surprise, then, though we view of its more general adoption, the should find the vegetation of the turnip form of the machine must be changed retarded to the extent of days, or even from the single to the two - row drill, a weeks, from the seed being deposited at
change of which it is quite capable, and 2, 3, or even 4 inches,asis sometimes done, which may be done at less than double below the surface . The subject, as regards
the expense of the single machine . In the turnip crop alone, appears to me de its present form , the process is too slow serving of careful experiment, and, if de for large farms; and on any such, the termined in the affirmative, much disap additional expense of the double machine pointment and loss may be prevented by
is not to be put in comparison with the adopting due precautions to insure sowing advantages of despatch in sowing. The at proper depths. But independently of price of the single machine is about £6 ; the consideration of the relative positions if extended to two rows, the price would of the seed and manure, which are favour not exceed £ 10. able, there are practical objectionsto drop ping the manure at wide intervals. The
3223. Apparently some advantages intervals should vary according to the kind are derived from this successive mode of of turnip sown. Swedes should be placed
depositing the seed and manure, espe- more apart than yellow or white turnips,
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .
55
and the last rather wider than the yellow, great as to induce to theemployment of because they have generally larger bulbs. the rollers at all times.
The mechanical
Whatever distance the intervals may be, it effect of the hind rollers is to fill up the
is evident that the young plants, which rut made by the coulters, and to smoothen have sprung directly from the influence of the top of the drills. Now, the utility of
themanure,will be more forwardin growth this smoothening and compressing of the and larger in size than those which have top of the drills is, not only to prevent the
risen from the soil alone between the heaps drought reaching beyond the surface of of manure. All the plants, therefore, the ground — which , in both light and
should be removedfrom between the heaps strong soils, is an advantage — but to ren of manure, and only one plant left at each der the singling of the young turnips more heap.
But suppose that a careless field- easy and certain ; and after the sides of the
worker should remove all the good plants drills have been pared by the scuffler, fig. from a heap of manure, a gap would be 262, it will be found that theturnip-plants left in the crop of double the proper dis- are much more easily singled when the tops tance, and the loss will be irremediable ; of the drills bave been smoothened than but when such a mistake occurs in a con- when left rough with a rut ; because the tinuous deposition of manure, little loss hoe displaces every individual plant more will accrue, because the adjoining plant certainly when onthe surface than at the bas as good a chance as the one removed bottom of a rut, where the plant is com
by mistake, to advance in growth, and paratively out of reach, and partially ont therefore to supply the deficiency . The of sight of the field -worker. A larger por
growing plant, too, will afterwards have a tion, too, of the drill ispushed away with better chance of obtaining a full supply of the hoe when singling is performed in the food when it is distributed continuously, by bottom of a rut ; the dung is more apt to
sending forth its fibrous roots into the be torn up along with the plant; and the space around it not occupied by plants, plants cannot be singled so young ; for, than when confined to food within the until they have reached a certain height limits of a given space. We should expect above the edges of the rut, it is not safe to
the success of a plant in the former posi- touch them with the hoe at its bottom, tion to be as great as in an open border, whereas on a smooth surface they may be when compared to the state of another singled very young. The advantages ofa plant with its roots confined within the smooth surface are not imaginary, for I have experienced all the inconveniences
limits of a flower -pot.
enumerated when I have been induced to 3224. I would make a few remarks on
remove the hind rollers in damp weather,
the effects of the too common disuse of the hind rollers of the turnip -drill. There is no doubt that rollers make the best work when the surface of the ground is dry, and
from the desire to proceed with the sowing before the ground was perfectly dry on the surface. A scraper is of use on the hind rollers, but still they cannot make the
as little doubt they make bad work when rollers work wellwhen the ground is damp. thesurface is damp, and that when the On carefully weighing the disadvantages surface is wet theyshould not be used at all. The finer the surface of the ground has been pulverised, those different effects of rollers are the more evidently manifested. This being the state of the case , when the ground is damp, the sowing of
of both modes, I am convinced of the supe riority of the smooth drills, inasmuchas I consider the most proper singling of the plants to be of much greater consequence to the future crop than any injury that can arise from waiting 2 or 3 hours in the
the turnip-seed will be delayed until the morning until the ground becomes dried of the roller, and, in the delay, the fate of rather work that time longer in the even
ground become sufficiently dry for the use with the sun and air ; and I would much
the crop may be materially affected for the ing, than sow turnip seed in land in a worse . On the other hand, the disuse of damp state without the hind rollers. This
rolling causes a positive inconvenience in resolution, however, would not induce the singling ; so that it is worthy of con- me to fix the rollers so as they could not be removed , for the option of removal
sideration whether the inconvenience is so
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
56
should rest with the farmer, who should again when the machine begins to sow new act according to the particular state of the drills. weather and the soil.
3226. The same remarks apply to the 3225. The land having been dunged and use of the one -rowed sowing machine, fig. drilled, and the sowing machine prepared , 258, when turnip seed alone is sown, let us first take fig. 254, which sows with a full manuring of farm -yard dung. tbe turnip seed alone, and the first use 3227. When bone -dust is used as the made of it is in sowing the Swedish turnip seed. The quantity of seed required , I sole manure for the turnip crop, the land have said, is 3 lb. the acre, because, the is somewhat differently prepared for the
for seed of swedes being large, that quantity seed from what has been describedbeing On the land plants against all the chances of failure ready to be drilled up, it is drilled at once is given to secure the necessary number of farm - yard manure.
connected with old dead seed, and the in the double method , (2397,) and is then numerous casualties to which it is sub- ready for the manure and seed to be depo
jected in the soil by insects, cold, and sited in it by the sowing machine . It dronght. The seed-box of the sowing- would not answer to drill the land by machine should never be above three the single method, as the drills would be
quarters filled with seed, to allow the seed too imperfectly formed for the seed. to fall easily through the holes. Swedish turnip seed requires a larger sized hole of
3228. The machine for sowing bone
the seed-box than either yellow or white dust, along with the seed, bas been de turnip seed.
A tin funnel is the most scribed under fig. 259. The bone-dust is
convenient means of filling the seed-box most conveniently taken to the field in a
from the seed -bag. The drills should be cart, fig. 175, the body of which slopes on browned or dried on the surface before the its trams on a bead -ridge when the horse machine is made to sow the seed, as other
is taken out.
A field -worker takes the
wise the coulter will make a large and manure out of the cart in a rusky,fig. 201 , rough rut in the drill, and the covering which is most conveniently filled with a rollers will become clogged with earth; lime shovel, fig. 233. Both hoppers are
and therough rutting would he bad work, filled to the top with the bone-dust: their even with the covering rollers removed. exact contents should have been previously One of these machines could sow a great ' ascertained ; and the seed -boxes are filled
breadth of land in a day, but it is seldom in the manner described above (3225.) that it can be employed throughout a When the machine has been entered by whole day, for two reasons : one is, that the horse at the end of the first two drills, the soil is seldom in a dry enough state in the sowing gearing is put on and the horse
the morning to be sown with it; and the bid to go on, the man_guiding the other reason is, that a sufficient quantity machine by the handles. To ascertain if of land will not be dunged and split in the the machine is sowing the proper quantity course of a day to keep a machine going of the bone-dust in the acre - namely, 16
constantly, because one plough canonly busbels, or two quarters — it should be cal can plough, so that 3 ploughs will only known quantity of bone-dust in the hopper
split one-third more land in a day than it culated beforeband how many yards the
split 5 acres at most of drills in a day, and should sow along the two drills to distri thus one machine could hold 4 ploughs bute the proper quantity : one bushel will splitting drills ; and as the dunging is sow 30 yards 9 inches along two drills, at carried on at the same time, few farms
16 bushels the acre .
are so large as toemploy 4 ploughs split 3229. The action of bone-dust on the ting drills. In like manner are the yellow and white turnip seeds sown through soil, and its consequent power to produce smaller holes of the seed box ; and as a large turnip crop, is not yet well under
both those seeds are sinall, 24 lb. the acre stood, the means employed being appar of each will suffice. At every landing ently so inadequate to the results received .
the sowing gear is disengaged, and put on Up to a certain quantity used, this manure
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .
57
has an evidently beneficial effect, but, be- nearer the bone-dust is placed to the tur yond that quantity, no apparent benefit is nip seed ,the quicker does the seed vegetate, derived from its use, in as far at least as and the morethe plantisencouraged togrow . the crop is concerned. I have tried to In sowing by hand, the manure is not
raise turnips with different quantities of placed near the seed, in so far as the sower bone -dust, varying from 12, 16, 20, to knows ; and when the seed is sown by it 24 bushels to the acre, and found the self, after the bone-dust has been covered crop improved up to 10 bushels ; but the up by the drill, the sowing-machine is as quantities beyond that, even to 24 bushels, likely to deposit some of it away from ,
produced nogreatereffect on the turnips as near the manure, and hence an irregular
in the same field, and on the same sort of braird may be the consequence. Bono late agricultural preceptor, Mr George does not affect its vitality. Guano, on
soil, than 16 bushels. More than this, my dust, though in contact with turnip seed, Brown, when he farmed Hetton Steads, in the contrary, affects the vitality of seeds, Northumberland, raised as good crops of and should thereforebe applied by the hand
turnips, as did 16 bushels of bone-dust, at a different time from sowing the seed. with only 8 bushels of bone-dust, combined 3231. The effect on the soil of so small with an indefinite quantity of sifted dry of bone-dust is surprising. I qnantity a boneof 8 bushels yet and coal-ashes; dust,or an indefinite quantity ofcoal- ashes, have liſted a portion of the manured soil when applied separately, produced a very of a drill with my hand before the turnip poor crop of turnips. It is therefore un .
seed had germinated, and felt it very warm,
necessary, in so far as the crop of turnips and found it agglutinated together in a is concerned, to sow more than 16 bushels lump with a greasy matter, and the lump of bone-dust alone, or 8 bushels with coal- interspersed partly with a white mould, and partly with minute fibres of plants. ashes, or street manure . When the turnip seed gerininates, wbich 3230. In some parts of the country, it will do in 8 or 10 days, according to the particularly on the Borders, bone-dust is state of the weather, its radicle strikes
sown by hand either along the drills made into the greasy mass of earth, and sends up in the single way ( 2389,) and which out an immense number of white fibres
are then split in the double way ( 2397,) around and through it. Its cotyledons imposing the trouble of a second drilling; then expand upwards, in two rudimentary or it issownon the flat ground, and covered smooth leaves, and immediately thereafter
by drilling in the double way. In both the two true leaves appear ; and these last cases the turnip seed is sown afterwardsby are called rough leaves, because they feel
itself, with the common two -rowed sowing rough on account of the small sharp spiculæ machine. The only reasonI haveheard in which cover the surface of every leaf of favonr of sowing bone-dustby hand, instead the common turnip: The rudimentary
of machinery, is the saving the cost of the leaves of the Swedish turnip are not rough machine ; but whatever advantage is but smooth, the plant not being a true
gainedby this saving, it is, I think , evi- turnip, buta species ofcabbage,which all dent that the machine must deposit the bone-dust much more regularly than the band ; and as to the cost of a machine, the saving must be trifling, as hoppers for containing bone-dust can be attached, and made to be removed at pleasure from the ordinary sowing-machine. I always used a machine of this form myself, and found it to answer the purpose well : it was constructed like fig. 259.
have smooth leaves. They are, neverthe less, termed the rough leaves. The smaller bone -dust is ground the more active it is as a manure, because it then mixes most
intimately with the soil, though its action continnes a shorter time; and, on the other band, large or drilled, or inch -bones, as they are called, remain longer in the soil undecomposed, but produce less immediate
But, in a case of effect. On these accounts, bone -dust is the
this kind, accuracy of work is a more im- more valuable manure for turnips, and inch portant consideration than the cost of a bones for the cereal crops.
small machine, although it should only be used for a few weeks every year. There
3232. A better method than using bone
is, besides, the value of the fact, that, the
dust alone, as a manure for turnips, is to
58
PRACTICE - SUMMER.
applyit in conjunction with farm -yarddung. soils, (346 ;) and if a substance can be Thebenefit accruing from the combination easilymadewhich will secure a crop of tur of the two manures is, that the bone-dust nips on heavy land, it is a very valuable promotes the quick germination of the tur- commodity. nip seed, and supports the plant until it sends its roots downwards, where it finds 3235. Sulphated bones may be used
the dung ready to snstain its future alone in raising turnips, or in conjunction growth. The quantity of farm -dung, when with farm -yard dung. When used alone, thus used, is reduced to 10 or 12 tons, perhaps 200 lb. of bones and 100 lb. of oil and the bone -dust to 8 bushels the acre . of vitriol may suffice for an acre, for the
The result is generally very satisfactory ; quantity has not yet been definitively and , even on strong clay soils, a crop of settled by experiment; but it is better to swedes may be raised with this mixture use it with farm -yard dung, when 10 or 12 of manures. The seed and bone-dust are tons of dung and lcwt. of bones,with 56 lb. sown withthe bone-dust sowing -machine, of vitriol,will be sufficient for the acre to
fig . 259, taking care not to dip the coulters raise a fair crop on comparatively heavy so deep as to disturb the dung below, which land. should have been well rotted, and covered in with the drills formed in the double
method, ( 2397.)
3236. According to some experiments made by Mr Pusey, and at his request by
others, it would appear that, when bones 3233. Of late it bas been deemed better have been fermented with coal-ashes and
to use bone- dust in combination with sul- even pure sand, their efficacy is stronger
phuricacid, or ratherthe oilof vitriol as sold than inthe form of dust, probably from the in the shops, than by itself, or with farm- fermentation disintegrating the bones to yard dung. The effect of the action of the the smallest degree, and thereby rendering acid on the bones is to reduce them to a them more easily mixed with the soil. The
pulpy mass, which is made in this manner: method of fermenting bone -dust in this -Mixa givenquantityof vitriol with twice manner is to mix 4 cart-loads of bones with its bulk of water, in any convenient vessel, as many of sand, or mould, or sawdust, when the mixture will evolve a consider- in a flat-topped heap. The bones should
able degree of heat. Put into alarge tub be thoroughly drenched with water, and or trough double the weight of bone-dust the other materials moistened.
In a few
as of acid used, and pour the mixture of days, such a heat will be generated in the
acid and water gradually, and by times, heap as to render it unbearable by the over it. An action will soon be observed hand. As the outside of the heap will not
arising from the escape of carbonic acid be heated so much , it should be covered gas, and in time, on stirring, the bone- with sand . Whether the heat should be
dust will be entirely dissolved, and form allowed to die out before the heap is used a mass with the acid and water. The is a point still unascertained , but a large mass may be dried with riddled sawdust, heap makes better manure than a small dry ashes, or fine dry vegetable mould ; one; so do unboiled and fresh bones, than
and the granulated powder thus prepared, boiled or stale ones. Large bones may be may be sown eitherbyitself, or in combina- reduced by fermentation in this way, by tion with farm -yard dung, with the bone- turning the heap over at the end of a dust sowing-machine, fig . 259. Uncrushed fortnight and watering it afresh, and at the
bones willanswer the purpose as well as end of a month very few whole bones will crushed, but the acid will take much longer remain . Broken bones will of course be time to act upon them. more quickly reduced than whole ones. 3234. The material thus obtained has
3237. Should this method of reducing
been called the superphosphate of lime, but bones prove successful, it is a much cheaper a more correct name would be sulphated and simpler mode of doing so than with bones. It is found to have a greater power vitriol. A farmer tried a comparative of raising turnips on clay soils than bone- experiment for Mr Pusey, and found that dust. No doubt bone-dust operates more 4 bushels of fermented bones gave the
beneficially on light (347 ) than on heavy same yield of swedes as 16 bushels of bone
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .
59
dust unprepared, and 2 bushels of sul- England to sow turnips broadcast on the phated bones. Mr Pusey himself found flat ground, instead of on drills, as in Scot
by experiment, that 8} bushels of heated land; and the reason I have heard stated bones and sand, at a cost of £ 1 , Os. 9d.,
in vindication of the broad - cast method is,
yielded 134 tonsof turnips; while 17 bush- that it resisted thebad effects of droughton els of bone-dust, at a cost of £ 2, 6s. 9d., the land in summer. No doubt excessive and 44 bushels of sulphated bones, at a cost drought in summer is inimical to the full
of £ 1 , 2s. 9d., only yielded 134 and 144 development of the turnip, and it is on this tons respectively ; and he also found that, account that the turnip crop fails so fre
by increasing all those quantities one-half, quently in Germany; but, for my part, I no greater results were obtained . *
cannot see how a broad -cast crop can screen
the ground from drought more effectually
3238. Guano has proved itself an excel- than one in rows, since the plants have lent manure for turnips, and being as easily procured, and as easily carried and applied as bone-dust, it has become a very favourite manure, and is more generally applicable to every class of soil than bone-dust. It cannot be applied by machine, on account
to grow and be thinned out toproper dis tances, and the ground stirred to get rid of weeds, in both cases : and as the weed ing is done by hand instruments in the case of the broad -cast crop, it is not so effectually done as with horse -hoes in of its clammy state as sold in the market; the crop in rows. The dung, being spread but it may be sown by hand out of a broad -cast for a broad -cast crop, cannot
sheet like corn, and it may be mixed with promote the growth of the crop at its early dry ashes or mould. When used by itself, stagesowell as when deposited in rows; 5 cwt. the acre are required . When used and I think it cannot admit of doubt, in conjunction with farm - yard dung, 3 cwt. that the same quantity of manure placed the acre will suffice .
immediately under the seed should pro mote the growth of the young plant more
3239. When applied with farm dung, rapidly than whenspread over a large sur the land receives a differenttreatment than face ofground. Now itmust be admitted, when bone -dust is used. After the dung as regards the turnip plant, that the more has been spread in the drills, ( 2749 and rapidly it grows in its early stage,the more
2750,) the grass-seed harrow, fig. 232, is quickly it will cover the ground from passed a single time along the drills, drought, and be beyond the reach of in which has the effect of drawing some of the soil off the drills upon the dung. The guano is then sown by hand over the harrowed drills, at the rate of 3 cwt. to the acre, and it does not come directly in contact with the dung, though it is scattered over the surface of the ground. Instead of the harrows, I have seen it recommended
habits of those which attack the turnip, that they become innocuous after the full developmentof the leaves. I do not think that the sowing of turnips in drills renders them invulnerable to the attack of insects, or the injury of drought; but, these effects being seasonal, the drill system places the
to employ a sort of scraper, which extends
crop more immediately under the control
sects - as it is well known, in regard to the
across two drills, having two bars ofwood of the cultivator, inasmuch as it secures to shod with iron, which, on being drawn him the whole powers of the manure at
forward by a horse, scrapes the earth from once, and enables him to clean the soil in the top of the drills uponthe dung in the the shortest time with the assistanceof horse
bottom . Such a device, I have no doubt, labour. Besides, the period of sowing the will answer the purpose, but it possesses crop should be chosenso as to avoid such
no advantage over the grass-seed harrows. casualties. If drought istoo great in July, The drills are then set up in the double or insects too powerful, the crop should be
method , ( 2397,) and the turnip seed is sown earlier, and though it should reach sown with the common drill, fig. 254, maturity sooner than desired, it may be which finishes the work.
stored until the season of consumption arrives; or it might be sown later, as in
3240. It is not an unusual practice in August, when the genial climate of the * Journal of the Enylish Agricultural Society, vol. viii. p. 418, and vol. ix. p. 630.
60
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
south of England—where the nights are ground prepared in autumn, only numbered
warm as well as the day, affording every 141 roots, and weighed as much as 109 day thegrowthof two ordinary daysin Scot- stones,showing the weight of each root to land, where the nights are always cold — in be 10 lb. 13 oz.* This instance proves sufficient time to mature the crop before the that land for Swedish turnips may be end of October, which is as early as the prepared in autumn, and a heavy crop
turnip crop is required for consumption obtained on drills as wide as 32 inches, in that part of the country - the grass and from plants 15 inches apart. till then continuing good. Were the soil, too, properly cleaned before the crop
3242. A somewhat similar success at
is sown, comparatively little labour would tended the trial of raising turnips on strong be required to keep the ground free of weeds clay -land, at ordinary distances, by Mr
in suinmer, and the drought would not Peter Thomson, Peffermill, near Edin theu have much effect upon it. To ren- burgh. As soon as theground was cleared der the culture varied, part of the turnip of tares, he cross-plougbed it with a deep
crop might be taken after winter vetches, furrow early in October ; harrowed, which, on being cleared off the ground in grubbed, and drilled it in the single time by feeding sheep, or by cutting for way, ( 2389,) at 28 inches asunder, but, forage,would allow the land to receive a owing to the unfavourable state of the weather, was prevented applying the dung
short fallowing before the end of July.
until December andJanuary, when 32single
3241. Nor is the much earlier fallowing horse-loads the acre of street manure were and cleansing of the turnip land impracticable in England, since the corn crops are frequently cleared from the fields by the end of August, when the stubble could be
covered in with the common plough. In March, the ground was found in a fine state, but, as it was rather foul with weeds, the drills were harrowed a double tine, the
broken up, harrowed,cross- ploughed, clean- soil stirred between them with the drill ed , drilled, and even dunged ,before the grubber, fig. 264, and set up with the double
arrival of winter, as has been proved in mould -board plough, for forming drills, fig . Scotland, by the practice of Mr James 214, and again set up by the same, just Scougall, at Balgone, East Lothian , on the farmof Sir George Grant Sutrie, Bart., in the autumn of 1841, when he drilled and dunged good turnip-land, at 32 inches apart in the drill, and otherwise finished its tillage. Purple-top swedes were sown
before sowing the seed of the green -top yellow turnip on the 15th, and of the white globe on the 25th and 26th of May. The yield in autumn was 32 tons of turnips the acre, including tops. The field had been
dunged five yearsbefore, and twice since on the 10th of May 1842, the plants thin- top -dressed with 8 bags of 4 bushels each ned to 15 inches apart, and the matured of soot to the acre.t Were such modes of crop was drawn and stored by the middle cultivating the turnip adopted in the south
of September following, when the ground of England, I have no doubt certain and was sown with wheat. On comparing the abundant crops would be raised in spite of
produce of this mode of culture with the drought and insects,and theslovenly prac usual one of working the turnip -land in tice of broad -cast culture give way to the spring, and at the usual distance of 28 inches between the drills and 12 inches be-
more scientific modo of the drill sys After all, it has never yet been tem .
tween the plants, the ground prepared in proved that broad -cast sowingprevents autumn yielded, in 429 links measured the turnip plant from being affected either along a drill, 82 stones of turnips, where- by drought or insects. as the land worked in spring yielded only 58 stones, whilst the number of turnips in 3243. On strong soils it is difficult to the 82 stones was only 238, and that in
obtain a braird of turnips in a dry season ,
the 58 stones was 276 — making each tur- on account of the hard and cloddy state of nip 4 lb. 13 oz. in the former, and only the surface of the drills, which is generally
2 Ib. 15 oz. in the latter number. A single induced by the land having been ploughed horse- load of turnips selected from the in early spring in a rather damp state, • Mark - Lane Express, October 17, 1842.
+ Ibid, November 21 , 1842.
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .
61
and becoming hardened by subsequent young state better than the kinds in use .
drought in May. In these circumstances As no turnip is yet known which possesses it not unfrequently happens that the plants the latter property to a greater degree than come np ina puny state, and very scantily, the kinds in use, it is requisite to sow a and are afterwards devoured by the flea- kind which will come early to maturity, beetle, so that the land is re -sown with and this the white stone turnip will do, white turnips in June. which, thoughsown late in July,will be ready for use by the end of October. If a few
3244. To avoid such serious incon- very early turnips are desired, as in Sep veniences, it has been recommended to tember, the stone turnip, sown immediately drill up the land in the beginning of win- after the white ones in June, will afford ter, to dung it fully, and to let it remain the supply. in this state all winter, to receive the
frost. In the spring the scuffler, fig. 262,
3247. It is of importance to fix the re
is passed along the drills to kill the sur- lative proportions ofground to beoccupied face weeds. The drills are harrowed a by the different kinds of turnips.
If
little down with the drill harrows, fig. 220, turnips are to be early begun to be eaten, a short time before the sowing of the seed ; more white should besown, as they should and the seed is then sown either by itself, last to the end of the year; and if turnips or better with the manure- drill, fig. 259, along with sulphated boues, which act more beneficially on strong soils than common bone - dust. By this mode of treating a strong soil, it becomes fine on the surface by means of the frost and air, and
are likely to be late in spring in being consumed, more swedes should be sown, to last four months. The intervening period of about a month is occupied with the yellows.
is in the best state for encouraging a braird.
3248. If it is desired to manure a large
But it must be borne in mind that unless field with sheep in the lattor part of the the land be clean , it cannot be so treated ; season, the field should be sown half with
for were it foul with couch - grass, the working and manuring of it would so encourage the growth of that weed, that the summer culture of the turnip plant would be almost impracticable. 3245. It has occurred to me, that one
swedes, and half with yellows, with white alternating with both . The yellows are led off and stored, while the white are taken to the steading to the cattle, leav ing possession of the field to the swedes. If it is desired to manure the field early with the sheep, it is sown with yellows
cause of the scanty braird of turnips, in and white, and the white are led off to seasons unfavourable to vegetation, is the the cattle, and the yellows left in posses too deep sowing of the turnip seed .
The sion of the field . Thus the extent of ground
coulters of most of the turnip -sowing desired to be occupied by any kind oftur machines are set to go too deep into the nip may easily be arranged, and its manu soft ground of raised drills, and when they ring by sheep secured to that extent with
are also inmovable, they cannot fail to any kind of turnip desired . deposit the seed deeper than desired in
such drills. I have made experiments on 3249. The young turnip plants may be the germination of turnip seeds, sown at expected to make their appearance above different depths, the coinparative results of ground in the course of eight or ten days which I will mention wben I come to treat at soonest, and later if the weather is un favourable to vegetation. When the plants of that interesting subject. have attained about 3 inches in height, it
3246. It may happen on account of the state of the weather, or its own condition in regard to hardness, or to foulness from weeds, that the ground cannot be prepared in proper time for sowing the or dinary kinds of turnips when it becomes expedient to sow a kind which will either
is time to prepare the ground for their being singled at determinate distances. The first preparation is passing the horse hoe between the rows of plants. 3250. Horse - hoe or Scuffler. The double mould -board plough, fig . 209, is
come to maturity, or stand the winter in a convertible into a scuffling or cleansing
62
PRACTI
CE
- SUMME . R
plough, or horse-hoe. To effect this, the 262, is formed ; the portions of the beam hinge-pins of the mould-boards are with- and handle being cut off, and the remain drawn, and the mould -boards removed, ing portion of the beam is a , and of the
when the implement represented by fig. handles, are bb, exhibiting also their junc Fig. 262.
2
DO THE BODY OF THE DOUBLE MOULD BOARD ALTERED TO A SCUFFLING PLOUGH .
tion with the tail of the beam. The body ing it to the double mould -board state, frame cc is of an irregular rhomboidal it is only necessary to remove the scuf form , whereof the front bar d forms the flers gg and hh, and the feathered share e. shield, and the lower bar, the sole-shoe m.
The two wing bars g g are jointed to a stud 3251. The effect of this horse - hoe in the that projects from the beam on each side soil is to loosen the earth between the at k." A quadrant barf is attached to the rows of drills, or, if fon ), to under - cut all
two stilts at f, and the ends of the wing- the weeds that exist in that space, or to bars, having a mortise formed to receive such breadth as the two scufflers h h may be
the quadrant, are moved upon this to any set; the upright part of these coulters per required width, and secured by the screws ii. A second mortise is punched in each wing -bar to receive the scuffling coulters h h , which are thinned off to a knife- edge
forming a species of paring along the sides of the two contiguous rows. If the land is in good order, and tolerably clean, stirring it with this scuffler will be suffi
in front, and bent inward below till the cient; but if overrun with weeds, one or points stand 6 inches to the right and left other of the drill -harrows or grubbers of the shanks. A double-feathered share will be found necessary to prevent a re e is fitted to the head d of the body- frame, vegetation of the weeds. which completes this simple horse-hoe, and
the change from the one state to the other
3252. Fig. 263 exhibits Mr Wilkie's
is effected in a few minutes, for, in return- horse -hoe with parallel motion, in which Fig. 263.
IN
MA
2 WILKIE'S HORSE -HOE WITH PARALLEL MOTION.
the two back tines have their tails jointed, pivots placed in the middle of their length, at a b c d , to two transverse parallel bars, attached to the tail of the beam . By the which traverse to a small extent upon motion of these, a perfect parallelism of the
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .
63
tines is preserved, capable of being se- the form that may be useful in a great cured at any required width by pinching- field - grubber is not applicable to an im screws. This is the most perfect mode of adjustnient for the tines of a hoe of this construction - three -tined — but it does not apply to those of more than three, and is
plement such as this ; for it seldom occurs, and ought never to be the case , that a drilled green crop is so overrun with weeds
as to require a self-cleaning tine.
perhaps too refined for a field implement. The self-cleaning form of the tines has been
3253. Thecommon drill-grubber, fig. 264, adduced in favour of this implement, but is a light and convenient implement drawn Fig. 264.
指
d
9
THE COMMON DRILL -GRUBBER .
by one horse. It consists of a central beam a b c, the neck part of which is bent upwards, and puuched at the front for the passage of the stem of the wheel. The wing-bars b d , carry the tines g 9 g ,
in others lengthened out to 9, and in many cases the tines are plain-pointed. It is
frequently also made with the tines stand ing in a zigzag position ; but, except in the second pair of tines, this is of little
6 in number, and the central beam car- importance, as those behind the second are
ries the front tine at b . The wing -bars sufficiently apart to prevent them becom are each furnished with a quadrant-bar ingchoked with weeds. The price of this riveted into the wings at dd ; the tail of grubber is about £ 2, 10s. the quadrants, passing through the mortise
at c, are secured by a pinching -screw fix-
3254. In this class of implements, we
ing the wings at any required width. The find a very handsomely constructed one, wing -bars are extended backward, and bent upwards to form the handles c c. To the point of the beam is affixed a simple bridle ſ with a cross-web and shackle, giving a small range of yoke right and left. The front wheel, whose office is to regulate the
known as Wilkie's drill grubber and har row , which is represented in fig. 265. This implement is constructed with a beam a b, and a pair of handles c c attached to the
tail of the beam , one on each side. It has no proper body- frame, but is merely a
depth of the grubbing, is usually 8 or 9 skeleton, the grubbing parts of it being the inches diameter, and the tines g are forged with duck feet slightly pointing forward. In many localities this implement is used for all the purposes of horse-hoeing, except the process of paring or of earthing up ; and, having cheapness as well as utility as a recommendation,it is very generally
three tines or coulters d ef. The foremost one d is set in a coulter -box in the beam, and
terminates in a double-spreading feather or duck’s- foot point; the two others, e and
f, are continuations of the two wings, which are capable of adjustment by the quadrant bar g. The effect of the tines on the soil
approved of. It is, however, subject to is somewhat similar to that of the scuffler, variety in the different districts where it is fig. 262, paring and undercutting ; but
employed: in some it is shortened to 5 tines, the implement is furnished with an appen
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
64
dage in the attached 6-tined barrow i, depth by means of its suspenders, and to which completes the operation at one turn . breadth by means of its two small quad The harrow is capable of adjustment to rant -bars. The regulation of depth is Fig. 265 .
ZEL42 WILKIE'S DRILL- GRUBBER AND HARROW.
aided by the wheel l bung in the shears n, pare the soil from the plants as near as which is jointed to the beam at a, and to possible without touching them , and the which also is attached a shackle and hook drier and finer the state of the soil , the nearer they may work to the plants.
o for the draught. The price is £4, 15s.
In rough and damp soil, the clods,raised 3255. In stiff soils, the broad - feather and disturbed by the coulters, will be apt to
shares will with difficulty be kept in the ground ; and, from their great length and breadth, will have the effect of consolidating that part ofit which they pass over, into a hard crust. The harrow is an important part of the implement, but adds considerably to the draught ; and the im-
fall upon the plants when the conlters are placed too near to them . In scuffling turnips the ploughman requires to be constantly on his guard, to guide the implement in the middle space between the row of plants on each side of him ; and on entering and fin ishing every landing, he should take care
plement, upon the whole, is too heavy for that the horse does notturn too sharply one horse being able to produce efficient upon the head-ridge, and cause the coul work with it.
By lightening the entire ters to cut off some of the plants from the
structure, and altering the form of the tine, ends of the drills. Scuffling admits of it might be rendered a very useful horse- walking at the rate of three miles in the hoe. hour or more, and is a very expeditious
process, when the land is pretty clean. 3256. A ploughman is set to work the 3257. The scuffling having cleared part scuffler, fig. 262, and he takes one of his horses while the other one is resting, each of the ground in a yoking in advance , the
horse working one yoking every day whilo singling is ready to commence. The im at this work. On farms having a large plement used for singling turnips is repre breadth of turnips, two scufflers may be sented in fig. 266, and is named the tur.
thus engaged. As the work of scufiling nip-hoe. It consists of a thin iron plate is easy compared to ploughing, the aged horses, or mares suckling foals, are em ployed at it.
Fig. 266. b
Should the companion to
the mare with foal be a horse or a mare
without a foal, the mare and her foal are sent to pasture, while her companion works THE TURNIP OR HAND DRAW - HOR . all the day. The steadiest horses, in wbat e ever state they may otherwis be, should a, faced with steel 7 inches in length and 4
only be employed at scuffling, else by inches in breadth , withan eye b, altached to unsteady walking the implement may its upper edge to receive the shaft c, usually cnt up the plants right and left.
The made of fir, to make the implement as light
ploughman should provide donble reins to in hand as possible . The shaft should not the horse. In setting the wings of the exceed 3 feet in length , though in some scuffler, the coulters should be brought to parts of the country it is 44 feet, whilst
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .
in others as short as 33 inches. The shorter it is the better for the work, as it enables the field -worker to bowcloser to the ground; but as this position is really severe for the back, the shaft in some places is made as
65
ing faces will last longer than that which has only one ; but the utility of the im plement is sacrificed for the sake of its durability, as it is evident that the nearly
square end of the hoe, in fig. 266, is much long as to allow the field -worker to more likely to separate a bunch of turnip
stand nearly upright, in which position, plants while pushing them away from a the eye
and hand being both far removed single one, in a firm and decided manner,
from so small an object as a young turnip than the sharp point of a triangle, over
plant, the worker cannot command the which the separating plants are apt to fall implement so effectually in the thinning upon the one which it is desired to retain. process, as when the hands are placed The price of a hoe such as in the figure is 2d. tbe inch along the face, without the
nearer the working part of the hoe.
helve, and when made entirely of steel, 3258. The consequences are, that num- which is unnecessary , it is dearer, while
bers of the plants are removed by awk- the triangular hoes are 4d. the inch round ward pushes of the hoe, and the singling all the three faces. is done very slow. Other forms of hoe are in use, such as the triangular, with 3259. The attitude of the workers, the
the handle attached to a hoserising from best method ofusing the hoe, and of arrang the centre of the equilateral triangle. This ing the field -workers at singling, is endea form has been constructed on the supposition voured to be represented by fig .267. This
that the hoe which possesses three work- work is performed by the field -workers of Fig. 267. m
xa
و سرهدنده من
THE SINGLING OF TURNIPS .
the farm , and they are placed at every 2 of the next drill i k, so that the side of rows, beginning at one side of a field, the the worker is presented to the drill to be first worker getting the charge of the first singled. The shaft of the hoe is held near and second drills, the second of the third its end with one hand, while the other and fourth, the third of the fifth and sixth , band, being that of the side in front, is
and so on with the rest of the workers. The placed a little in advance. The foremost
reason for this particular arrangement, in- hand indicates whether the person is right stead of giving a drill to every worker, is, or left handed, as it is rare to find a that each may have sufficient room to worker that can single turnips equally work, and, baving 2 drills each, thewhole well with either band. The foremost band of workers have the less seldom to hand is steadied by being partially rested shiſt their ground. on the bend of the leg of the same side, as is particularly shown in the figure o.
3260. It is not easy to give a short account of the mode of using the hoe in singling turnips ; but the following directions may serve to show the leading requisites to perform that operation in the best
The hoe, on its face being held downwards chiefly by the weight of the body of the worker against theground and the plants, when as many plants are removed along manner . On commencing to single a with the earthbehind them , by the forward drill 1 m, a foot is placed on each side push, as the length of the face of the hoe VOL. II.
and in a horizontal position, is pushed
66
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
covers ; and in this action the plant des- up c d, she returns down 6 a. All the tined to be left single falls overif tall, or figures in the cut are represented going up a little to one side - partly from the want singling the first drills of their stints of support of the other plants, and partly of two drills each. from taking away some of the soil from
Only 3 figures are introduced in the cut, but the number of
its root. The body of the worker is then workers employed depends on the size of brought back to its former position, and the farm . thusan oscillation of it forward and back
ward is maintained in the act of singling. In pushing away the next portion of the plants, one side of the hoe takes care not to touch the plant last singled , while its other side covers the plants next to the one intended to be left growing, which also falls over, and is left single, and so on, plant after plant. The leaving the
3264. On shifting the workers from one stint to another, the worker next the
side of the field which has yet to be singled forms the pivot upon which the rest turn. Thus theworker on the drill c d, on finish ing the drill b a , shifts to the drill next a b, not seen in the cut, forming the pivot for the rest to turn , the worker m going to
preserved plant single constitutes the the left side of her, and theworker o takes difficulty of the operation ; for, if attention np her position on the left side of the worker and dexterity are not both exercised, the m. This alternate shifting, whilst it keeps plant will be dragged up by the roots every worker in her own relative place, and
with the slightest hold by the hoe of a prevents confusion, divides the space to be portion of a leaf; and although the leaves gone over by each worker every day equal. are not touched, its stem or root may be in tertwined with those of the adjoining plants.
3265. In using the hoe, it is not an uncommon practice, both in England and
3261. It is found, that the best mode of avoiding these difficulties is to single the plants before the leaves ofeach plant become somuch expanded as to be confounded
Ireland, to make regular gaps with it in the rows of plants, and to leave the singling to boys or girls by the hand, who thus act as assistants to men, who form the gaps
with those of the adjoining plants, or the with the hoe. No doubt turnips may be stems become so drawn up as to inter- singled in this way, but at greater ex twine with those of the others. It is . pense ; and it intrusts the selection of the
also found, that in pushing the hoe is a plants to be left single to mere boys and much more certain mode of leaving the girls, who cannot be supposed to know plants single than in drawing it towards so well as experienced adults the proper the worker.
ties which make one plant to be preferred
to another.
Indeed, I consider the em
3262. The plants are represented on ployment of boys and girls in singling their sides in the row n o, fig. 267. They turnips a questionable policy, because they
receive no injury by falling over, and if cannot work as fast as an experienced
the weather is at all favourable, they will band of field -workers ; and thus working have nearlyrecovered their upright posi- much slower, as might be expected of all tion by the following day ; and it hasbeen inexperiencedpersons, they retard the pro ascertained that all that portion of the gress of the whole working band, as these stem which was drawn out of the earth ,
wish not to leave their young companions
being the part left exposed above the very far behind. The want of skill also ground, is converted into bulb. causes them to destroy many plants that should have been left, and this is a much
3263. When the first row has been greater evil than retarding the work. Two
singled, the second is singled, by the work- young workers are put for an old one on ers moving in the opposite direction from one drill, but this deranges the balance of the first; and, when the second drill bas the whole band, and does not attain the been singled, the bout is finished and the object desired - of keeping the entire work
singling of that part of the crop completed. Thus, on going up the drill 1 m, the worker returns by the drill k i ; on going up g h, she returns by fe; and on going
uniform in time. Rather than this should be done, young workers should be put by them selves in anotherpart ofthesameoranother field. Girls must acquire a knowledge of
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .
67
this work, to make them expert when they turnips to a distance of 9 inches, and of
become workers; but to acquire their know . those of Swedes at 12 inches, the first ledge they should at first be placed in a part of a field which offers peculiar facilities for singling, such as a smooth state of the ground, and the most proper age of the plants ; and so circnmstanced they
consideration is, whether the plants have
brairded so equally over the field as to allow you to preserve those distances between them . Being satisfied that the germination of the seed is pretty equal
should learn to single at leisure, from in- over the field, it ought to be your endea
structions received from an experienced vour to single the plants at the stated distances of 9 inches for white globes, and worker who superintends their work. of 12 inches for swedes. The hoe, fig. 266,
3266. Singling turnips should only be commonly in use is 7 inches long in the prosecuted when the ground is dry , and mouth, so in either case plenty of room is the plants themselves also dry, as they left for the boe to play between the plants. then separate from one another and from
If care were really bestowed in theuse of
the ground more readily. Whenever the the hoe, there cannot be a doubt but that the ground becomes cloggy on the hoes, even plants would grow at the stated distances,
with a slight shower, the work should be and produce as weighty crops, at the res suspended until it again becomes dry pective weights of bulb, as are indicated enough.
in the table in (877.) In like nianner, were the after boeings of the crop to
3267. In Scotland the distance between
receive as much attention, no cutting
the rows of turnips has been fixed on, con- away the single plants, and no making
ventionally no doubt, at 27 inches, which is a very convenient distance for drilling up the land in the first place, with the common or double mould -board plough ; for dunging it with the ordinary tilt cart of the common width between the wheels ;
of blanks would occur, and the estimated weight of the crop would be realised in overy case. But instead of bestowing care, field -workers are too often left to themselves — when talking, the proverbial failing of women, occupies their attention
and for working the'implements employed more earnestly than the work intrusted in turnip culture, such as the sowing drills, to them . Plants are pushed away with and thesucceeding scufflers and drill-bar- out regard to the space leftbetween them ;
rows. On a consideration of the size of and, even when superintended, many the bulbs of turnips, and the nature of the women are so disingennous as to stick the respective kinds of turnips cultivated, the plants they cut into the places they grew distances fixed on between the plants in on . In gravelly soil it is difficult for the drill are 12 inches between the plants the best workers to use the hand-hoe
of Swedish turnips, and 9 inches between well, as a corner will sometimes slip those of yellow turnips and white globes. Where the soil is naturally fertile, and sheltered, and known to promote vegetation generally in a luxuriant manner, those distances may be increased to the manifest enlargement of the plants and bulbs - 80 that the matter of distance must be left to
off a small stone, and cut through or remove a plant against the will of the
worker. In all stony soils particular atten tion is required in the singling and boeing of the turnip plants. Instead, therefore, of stewards being anxious merely to gather a large number of field -workers to
be fixed, in each case , by the judgment of the singling of the turnips, their anxiety
the farmer, in the circumstances in which should be evinced to obtain a number of the particular crop is placed. practised hands, in whom they can place confidence for their attention and skill .
3268, From what I have said of the
effect of 1 or 2 inches between the turnips
3269. Should blanks occur in the ger
decreasing the weight of a crop by several tons per acre, in (878 ,) the singling of this crop ought to be regarded as one of the most important operations that demands your attention. If you wish to single the plants of white globe
mination of swedes, either from loss of vitality in the seed, or from the effects of the weather, they may be filled up by transplanting those taken out, which will grow as well as the common cabbage ; but the true turnip , the white globe or
68
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
yellow , does not transplant, and any tioned. It is necessary for expedition attempt to fill up blanks with them only that two persons be employed in the ends in disappointment. When first intro- transplanting — one to prepare the plants, duced into this country, the plants of the other to transplant them . One spade swedes were raised from seed sown in ful is then taken from the barrow , and
the garden, and afterwards transplanted with a knife divided into three or four in the field ; but any such preparation pieces, one of which is taken into the is unnecessary, as the best of those which hand and carefully drawn asunder, so as were pushed away in the singling are to lay open the roots of the plants with as taken . I have repeatedly tried to fill little injury to them as possible, and tak up blanks in drills with carefully removed ing hold of the leaves of the one that plants; and although most of them grew , appears uppermost, draw it gently out they never attained the size of those raised with as many of the little balls of earth direct from the seed. Mr Howison of and dung adhering to its tender roots as
Crossburn House, Lanarkshire, adopted a practicable, and place it in one of the mode of transplanting swedes on strong saucers. In this way, when the saucers
land, which deserves attention, and may have been carefully illed with the plants be extensively practised in a season un- laid in regular rows, the transplanter
favourable to the growth of the swedes may commence his operations. He should on such soil .
“ In an open piece of then, with a short dibble not thicker than
ground,” says Mr Howison, " I raise drills his finger, make a hole which should only at the distance of 12 inches from centre to reach to the dung ; and then lifting up a centre, in each of which I place a layer plant by its leaves drop it into the hole,
of short dung, closely laid on , on which the and with the fingers of both hands press turnip -seed is pretty thickly sown, and the earth gently around it. In this way afterwardscovered with inch offine mould. two drills may be planted at the same The breadth of the drills at top should not time.
His follower with the barrow will
be more than 4 inches, so that the earth be able to supply him with prepared plants; and plants may be more completely lifted and, from my experience, the two men
together by the spade, when to be trans- should be able to finish one rood of ground
planted. The time of sowing should be in the course of the day, if the plants are regulated according to the purposes in- & inches distant from each other. I may tended ; and as a fall of ground converted into drills will produce plants sufficient for transplanting 3 or 4 acres, it is better always to have a superabundance. As to
here warn the transplanter against using plants that have not one or more balls of dung or earth adhering to their roots ; for if hedoes, the chance of their growing
the best age for taking up the plants, I will be very small." The advantages bave found no difference in their success attending this mode of transplanting
from the time they have got their proper swedes are stated by Mr Howison to be leaves, until theyare 3 or 4 months old ; three :- “ It enables the farmer to fill up however, those intended to remain long, the blanks of a turnip or potato field with should be thinned out in the rows. I good plants of swedes . It is more certain need scarcely mention , that in dry weather of procuring a crop than sowing the
they should be carefully watered , which in turnips over again : this was exemplified so small a space can easily be done. Hav- on the farm of Green Burnside, Lanark ing provided a wheel -barrow , a garden shire, in 1839, tenanted by Mr James spade, and a couple of flower - pot saucers of Cassie, when in October of that year
ravages of a large size, I with the spade lift up its the crop that had escaped thetrans
breadth of one of the drills, taking care
the fly was excellent ; the
planted
that the spade enters below the roots of very good, but the turnips not so large in
the plants . This spadeful is then care- general as the first. The third advantage fully placed in the barrow , and the same operation is repeated until the quantity of plants wanted is taken up. When that is done, they are then removed in the barrow to the field, where they are transplanted with the implements above inen-
is, that, although sown on the same day as the others were transplanted, none attained the size of an egg , which I believe is always the case with late-sown turnips , although the result is difficult to be accounted for. I may, in conclusion , men
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .
69
tion another advantage, that it is best 3272. In England the singling of tur performed in wet weather when all other nips in broadcast costs 6s. the acre, and field -labour is at a stand. I consider the second hoeing 2s. the acre.
In drills
rainy and cloudy weather as of the utmost the cost is from 28. 6d. to 58. the acre importance to successful transplanting; and with horse-hoeing: and in taskwork from so much so , that I prefer waiting weeks to a halfpenny to one penny the 100 yards
attemptingit in sunny and dry weather.”* along a drill; and the second hoeingfrom a half to two- thirds of the singling. 3270. The quantity of work done in singling turnips varies in different parts of
3273. After the plants have been the country . In the midland counties of singled, the drill-grubber, fig. 264, is used , Scotland it is estimated to take 3 women with a single horse, between the drills,
to single 1 Scotch acre in a day of 10 to level the lumps of soil which have hours, and there the long- shafted hues are been pushed away with the hoe, and to
in general use, and the women work with shake the clumps of plants asunder that their backs upright. In other parts one
they may not continue to survive, which
woman will single half an English acre in they would, were they not separated, if a day of 10 hours, and there short- shafted the weather proved favourable to growth. hoes are used , and the women work with bent backs. One summer I superintended 3274. The field - workers then hoe the 16 field -workers, and they singled about ground, by which they remove the weeds
90 imperial acres in 8 days of 10 hours from betưeen the plants, and loosen the each, which was equal to 2 roods 32 poles soil immediately around them. Each a - day to each worker. This is above the worker takes one drill, not two, as in the average rate of work, but the weather was
case of singling, because, boeing close
exceedingly fine all the time, the land together, they can see at once whether mellow and dry, the plants of a proper all the ground has been hoed over, which
age, whether of swedes or of white globes, it should be, whether a weed is seen or and the women were all experienced hands. I set one of them , a steady hand, to lead the band, whom she carried on like clock-work. She herself preferred to
not. The hoeing is done by setting a foot on each side of a row of plants, and, grasping the hoe short, the earth is loosen ed with it around every plant- care being
work with a hoe only 33 inches in length, taken that none of the plants arecut through which allowed her to bow down to her by the root under ground with the hoe. work, which she performed, in conse- Each worker taking a row of plants be quence, in the mostperfect manner. The tween her feet, there is no chance of her boes of the rest were 36 inches in length. jostling her neighbour. All plants left A rest of 20 minutes was given them at doublein the singling are removed by the
each mid -yoking. If the time occupied hand, and every weed pulled by the hand
in resting be deducted from the 8 days, which grows too near any plant for the the work donewas exactly 3 roods to each worker every day. To save fatigue in walking home at the end of the mid-day yoking , they brought their dinners to the field, consisting of barley and pease bread, and a bottle of milk. I took my
hoe to remove, and if its removal were attempted by the hue, it might cut the plant through. The hoeing should be be gun before the weeds become too strong,
though the singling should not be inter rupted for the sake of the hoeing.
bottle of milk and loaf of home-made bread
3275. When the hoeing has been ac to the field , and enjoyed the repast at the hedge-root with genuine relish, in as light- complished-and it should be conducted hearted company as ever undertook labo- with much care — the scufiler, fig. 262, is rious work. again passed between the rows of plants, to pare away a little of the ground from the 3271. At these rates of work, the sing- plants with its curved coulters, while it ling of turnips in Scotland costs from 28. to undercuts the roots of every weed that 1s. 2d. the acre in the drill system . may be remaining. Such a paring was * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiii. p. 513.
70
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
formerly done with the small plough, fig. numerable minute fibres interlacing one 230, when it also bore the name of the another, proceeding from the roots of the
paring-plough. Requiring to go a bout turnips, on both sides, which had not yet between every two rows of plants to pare
attained the form of a bulb.
A similar
away the soil on both sides, it performs the work slowly, and the scuffler paring the drills as well, it cleans the middle of the drills better, at one landing.
appearance may be observed when a spi der's web becomes visible with dew or mist on a furze bush . Having traced these delicately minute fibres to the roots of the plants, by means of the dew, it oc 3276. A second hoeing, similar to the curred to me to be an error in practice to first, finishes the manual operations of the work in the turnip land after the develop
turnip culture.
This boeing is quickly ment of those fibres, as there is no doubt
performed, as, by this time, very few plants will have been left donble, and the weeds will have been thoroughly eradicated ; and, if not, the weather must have
that these are sent out for a special pur pose connected with the growth of the plants. The setting up should either be concluded before these fibres begin to grow,
been unfavourable for their destruction. or be abandoned altogether; and I ap Both this hoeing and the first may be at times retarded by the workers having to attend at hay-making, as it unfortunately happens that turnip culture and hay -making have to be conducted at the same time. And even the singling of the later-sown turnipsmay be retarded by the bay-making. On account of such conflicting operations, the ingenuity of the steward is, at this season, much taxed in arranging
prehend more injury will accrue to the crop from disruption of those fibres than from want ofa channel to carry off super fuous surface -water from even undrained land : for, as to drained ground, such chan nels are of no use, there being no surface water to run off, the rain being absorbed by the soil as fast as it falls. The fibres are not to be seen after the dew has evaporated, except on the most careful examination of
the field-labourers, so as to avoid the least the surface of the soil. The same pheno loss in the condition of the crops respect- menon may be partially observed amongst ively requiring immediate attention. potatoes; but the fibres from their roots
spread more under the immediate surface
3277. The time has now arrived for of the ground than those from the turnip. setting up the drills with the double mould- Such isthe desire of most farmers to set broad plough, fig. 209. I am of opinion up the drills, that I have seen the double that this, in most cases, is an unneces- mould -board plough smashing the leaves sary piece of work ; and certainly, on of the potatoes and turnips after they had dry turnip - soil and on thorough -drained completely met across thedrills. On rather land, it is so, for two reasons - namely, that strong undrained land it is prudent to set flat ground is the best form for sheep up turnips with the double mould -board
to eat turnips upon in winter; and that, plough, fig. 209, in case of the occur or
a considerable inclination, hollow rence of a wet autumn, otherwise it is drills serve only as channels for surface- better to omit the operation.
water to carry away the best of the soil to the bottom of the inclination. There is,
3278. The weeds most troublesome in
besides, the objection of setting up or work- the turnip -ground are the common couch turnips after the grass, Triticum repens ; the wild mus ing in any way amo leaves are spreading across the drills ; and tard, Sinapis arvensis; knot grass, Poly this objection is founded on a fact connected gonum aviculare; wild radish, Raphanus with the growth of the plant which I shall raphanistum , and a few others. Of these mention. Early one summer morning, I the couch -grass is most troublesomewhile observed a whiteness, like hoar-frost, be- singling the turnips; as, in removing it, tween the rows of young turnips before its ramifying underground shoots, inter their leaves bad met across the drills.
twining the young roots of the turnips, fre
Knowing from the temperature of the air quently bring away the plants with them . that the phenomenon could not be hoar-frost, This weed should, if possible, be entirely
I examined it particularly, and found that removed from the ground before the tur it arose from the deposition of dew on in- nip seed is sown. The knot- grass, having
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .
71
a cluster of small bulbs for its root, when not a single weed will be seen in spring they are removed a large bole is left in their when the land is ploughed up for spring
place, and several plants may be brought wheat or barley . I had a favourable opportunity of witnessing, one season , a
away along with them . This weed should
alsobe removed as completelyas possiblebe- corroboration of what I am now recom fore the crop is sown . The wild mustard be- mending. I had a field of 25 acres so foul comes troublesome on account of its great of couch - grass, that it was utterly impos
numbers, covering almost the surfacesible to clean it in time. After removing
of the ground with its bright yellow the roughest part of the wrack to a com flowers ; but it is chiefly in the neighbourhood of towns that it appears to so great an extent, from the use, it is said, of the police manure. When allowed to stand so
post, the land was dunged and sown with white globe turnips, and the result was precisely what I have stated above. I may mention that the turnip sowing
long as to produce flowers — and it is a machine, which has movable coulters and
plant which runs very rapidly through its handles, is the best adapted for sowing courses — its stem is difficult to cut with the
foul land, the coulters passing over the
hoe ; and if any plant removed by the roots larger masses of weeds instead of displacing has attachment to the soil by even a single fibre, it will flourish as if it bad never been
them .
disturbed . Appearing only with the crop,
3280. In conclusion of the turnip cul
this weed cannot be removed from the soil
ture, after all the manual operations of it
before the turnips are sown.
are finished , the surface between the rows
The wild
radish, though not plentiful, is difficult to of turnips should be levelled with the drill eradicate bythe toughnessof its stem , and grubber, fig. 264. This operation should the vitalityof its roots. It also onlyappears be concluded some time in August, and, after the crop is above ground. The red at all events, before the commencement
shank, Polygonum amphitrum , is difficult of harvest, let that be ever so early. The to cut with the hoe. Whatever be the weed, crop requires no farther attention, until it should be entirely severed from the
the season arrives for pulling and storing
ground. Weeding cannot be practised in the turnips at the commencement of win singling the crop, as the entire attention ter, and these I bave fully explained from
must be directed to the single plant to be (808) to (834. ) preserved, although every weedin the way has a chance to be removed. Weeding is 3281. From (383) to (433) I have
professedly practised in hoeing the crop, given a list of plants regarded as weeds and it is in the first hoeing that the most that infest the different kinds of soils, and
effectual manual weedingis given, the which indicate to a certainty the nature second hoeing being chiefly required to stir of the soil upon which they grow. Such the surface of the soil around the plants. of those plants as are grasses, and oc The scuffler and drill harrow are powerful cur as a constituent of natural pasture, means of removing the weeds between the are useful, and should be encouraged ; rows of plants. but wherever they occur in cultivated arable soil, they are doubtless weeds and 3279. The land should be made quite should be eradicated. What seems to me clean before sowing the turnip crop; but a good definition of a weed is — when any when it has been allowed to run exces- plant is found growing where it should not sively foul to weeds, rather than be too be, it is a weed. For example, a stalk of
late in sowing the crop by cleaning the wheat in a bed of tulips in a garden is a land, and rendering it too fine, that is, deaf, (356,) sowthe crop in its propertime ; and provided the weeds, chiefly the couchgrass , can be kept down by the horse and
weed, and would be removed, and, in like manner, a tulip in a wheat field is a weed, and should be eradicated. When you con
sider the number of the plants mentioned hand hoe, until the luxuriance of the leaves in the paragraphs above referred to,-and
cover the drills, the weeds will be smother- the number is not intended to include all ed under them and rot, and serve partly that occurs as weeds in the fields, but only
to support the crop ; and after the turnips as those decidedly indicative of the nature havebeen eaten off by the sheep in winter, of the soil uponwhich they respectively
72
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
grow , and when you consider that they all culture of the turnip have been finished, are weeds in cultivated fields, in the sense and while the leaves of the plants are
of the above definition , --you may imagine expanding, and especiallyif there appear how actively the farmer should be employ- anythinglike a cessation in their growth, in the first cloudy ed in extirpating them in the season they it is of importance, present themselves in the greatest activity. or moist weather - and if such do not
The entire number of them do not make occur, dewy mornings and evenings their appearance simultaneously, since to administer a slight sprinkling , by plant, from each hasits season of efflorescence and ma- hand, of guano around each The women turity ; and were one allowed to grow , 1 to 2 cwt. to the acre.
until another was ready to be removed, workers, provided with coarse aprons, such is the vigour of growth in wild plants, will do this well by the band, and an that the former would shed its seeds and apron will contain as much as will soon occupy the ground to the exclusion suffice for a long drill, going and coming to ofthecultivated plants. The farmer should the headridge , where the cart with the allow them no such indulgence, and their guano'should be. Let the women each intrusive tendencies should be checked take a drill, and then no drill or plant will
betimes. Partly for this purpose the land be missed, nor any one receive more than
is ploughed before winter, that the roots its due allowanceof the manure . and seeds of weeds may be directly des 3283. The turnip belongs to the order Tetra
and indirectly dynamiaSuliquosa of Linnæus ; to the natural frost and exposure,alagentscomtroyed otherbynaturalatmospheric by order of Cruciferæ in the system of Jussieu, from minuting the soil, so as to render their the cruciate form of its petals ; and to the Hy mechanical removal by the roots compara- pogynous Erogens — alliance 27, Cistalis - order tively easy . By perseverance, it is quite 123, Brassicacea -- division 3, Orthoplocec - sub
- genus Brassica, of the possiblefor the farmer to get quitofevery divisionBrassicidiæ natural system of Lindley.
weed which propagates itselfby the root, although it is impossible to prevent weeds
3284. Cruciferc.— The crucifers are a very
appearing among his crops which origi- natural and inportant family ofplants, and, if we nate fromseed,many ofwhich are brought see regard their geographicaldistribution, weshall that the temperate zone is their favoured from a distance by the wind ; and it is quite
possible,even as regardsthese, to prevent region, according to De Candolle: their maturing the flower and seed. In summer, weeds thrive in the greatest luxu riance, and summer ought tobe the season for the farmer to employ his most active means for their destruction. A principle
Species.
In the frigid zone of the northern hemisphere
205
In all the tropics ( and chiefly in the mountainous 30
regions)
In the temperateſ of the northern hemisphere, 548 zone
{ of the southern hemisphere, 66 } 634
affects the vitality of weeds, which should According to Humboldt's statistics of the princi
never be lost sight of in attempting their pal families of plants, it would also appear that the crucifers have the maximum of their species
destruction ; and he who practises it will in the temperate zone, and decrease as well to infallibly prevent their coming to maturity. ward the equator as toward the poles. They It is a well-known law of vegetation, that are almost unknown in the torrid zone, if we the elaboration of the sap is effected by the consider the mountain regions between 7,670 and
leaves of a plant, and it is the elaborated 10,870feet in height,wherethese plantsscarcely form one eight-hundredth of all the phanæga
sap which enables it to sustain its exist mous plants. In the temperate zone their quo ence .
By preventing the development of tient in Europe is one-eighteenth ; in America the leaves, and consequently the elabora- only one-sixtieth ; in the frigid zone one
tion of the sap, the life of the plant will the twenty-fourth. The scarcity of this family in temperate zone of America is a remarkable
be sacrificed . The simple plan, therefore, circumstance. Schouw , inhis botanical division
ofdestroying all sorts ofweeds,is to de- of the globe into 25 phyto-geographical regions, prive them of their leaves as soon as they
places the crucifers in thesecond, whereinthey
appear.
extend over northern Europe and Asia from the southern limits of the first region to the Pyrenees, the the Balkan the mountains, the Caucasus, mean temperature of and Alps, the'Altai,within
3282. After all the manual and implemental operations in connexion with the
36 ° to 570 *
* Johnston's Physical Atlas - Phytology, Map No. 1 .
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .
73
3285. “ The universal character of crucifers," nips bears the same proportion to the respective says Lindley, " is to possess antiscorbutic and distances of the bulbs in the drill, so as to make stimulant qualities, combined with an acrid the waste of seed in each 27 to l . It must not be flavour. The officinal species are among the supposed, from these results, that 1 oz. 6 drachms commonest of all plants, and only require to be troy of turnip seed will suffice to sow an acre, named. They are found to contain a great deal for many of the seeds may want vitality, and of nitrogen, to which it is supposed is due their many others, in sowing, are no doubt buried When the too deep to vegetate with the rest. Abundance animal odour when rotting. acrid flavour is dispersed among an abundance of turnip-seed not only secures a full braird , and of mucilage, various parts of these plants become tends to draw the plant quickly to a state for a wholesome food, such as the root of the radish being singled, but quickness, combined with and the turnip , the herbage of the water -cress, the abundance, of growth, is the best safeguard cabbage, and the sea -kale. According to Müller, against the injurious attacks of insects, the water-cress contains iodine. Sulphur exists 2390. Turnip Flea -beetle. — The insect which in the oils of mustard and horse -radish to the extent of about 30 per cent. The oil from their first infests the turnip -plant, and attacks its seeds is one of their more important products. seed-leaves, is the turnip flea-beetle, Haltica nemorum , fig . 268, usually, That from rape is in very general use, and the Fig. 268. though improperly , desig residue, rich in nitrogen , is largely employed by nated the turnip - fly, which the fariner as manure or cattle -food, under the is a very different sort of name ofoil-cake, ” (rape-cake it should be, oil-cake insect. The flea -beetle is a being obtained from linseed .) “ Another ofthe oil coleopterous or hard -shell plants is Camelina sativa, or gold of pleasure ; ed insect, capable of either penetrating the ground or
but its cake is said to be too acrid for cattle : brooms are made from the dry haulm ." *
of bearing a considerable 3286. The Swedish turnip is named by bota nists Brassica campestris, rutabaga ,and its speci fic characters are, according to Don, “ leaves rather fleshy, covered with glaucous bloom ; first ones rather hispid or ciliated, lyrate, toothed ; the rest cordate, stem clasping, acuminated,
pressure . " It is a small insect,” says Mr Duncan , 66
scarcely one-eighth of TURNIF FLEA- BEETLE -HALTICA NEMORUM .
an inch in length. It is smooth, shining, and of a
brassy black colour, with
partly pennatifid ; is a native of Britain, Lap
a slight tinge of green ,
land, Spain, Transylvania, and in the Crimea in
particularly on the wing-cases ; the antennæ
fields.
black, with the second and third joints, and the
apex of the first, of a pale colour. The thorax 3287. “ The common turnip is the Brassica is convex above, and pretty deeply punctured ; rapa, having the radical leaves lyrate, destitute the wing- cases are much wider than the thorax, of glaucous bloom, green, covered with bristly likewise thickly and irregularly punctured, each hairs, middle cauline ones cut, upper ones en- of them with a pale yellow or slightly sulphur tire, smooth. Native throughout Europe in coloured stripe running along the middle, curved inwards posteriorly, and not reaching quite to cultivated fields, and their borders.” + 3288. After a gravelly knoll of about 30 feet in height had been cut through, in forming the
railway from Belfast to Lisburn , I observed a
the extremity ; the under side of the body and thighs black ; all the tibiæ and tarsi of a pale hue. This little insect feeds on the turnip , which it attacks both in its perfect and larva
When the plants have acquired some state . the sides of the embankment, formed by wheeling degree of strength ,andthe foliage is considerably the gravel from the knoll. The leaves of all developed, the injury done by it is insignificant; the plants were beautifully expanded, of a dark but unfortunately its favourite foodis the young
large number of wild turnip plants growing on
plant, just as it is beginning to unfold its coty .
green colour, and quite healthy, but not even the rudiment of a bulb was forming.
ledon leaves. These it consumes with the utmost
3289. The waste of turnip -seed, by the time the turnips are singled, is surprising. From 24
avidity, both as a larva and full-grown insect ; and when it abounds, the field is often wholly stripped of its crop in a very short time. In
Ib. to 3 lb. of seed is sown in the acre, and as in (877 ) 25,813 plants of white globes at 9 inches apart; 23,232 of yellows, at 10 inches apart; and 19,360 of swedes, at 12 inches apart, can grow on an acre on drills at 27 inches asunder ; and as 1387 seeds of swedes, 1645 of purple top yellows,
and 1800 of white globes, weigh one drachm, it follows that 1 oz. 6 drachms of seed of troy, or
deed their powers of mastication are surprising for creatures of such small size .
An individual
who confined a few , for the purpose of observing their habits, found that they consumed 10 young
turnip -plants every day. This may serve to give an idea of the extent of their devastations when
their numbers become excessive. They are found to attack the turnip plants as soon as the
14 drachms of avoirdupois weight, are sufficient latter make their appearance ; and one of the difficult points to determine is, how they are seed is as 27 to l. It is a remarkable fact that produced so speedily and so opportunely. In for the above crops ; so that the waste in turnip-
the respective weight of the seed of those tur- regard to the turnip saw - fly , and lepidopterous * Lindley's Vegetable Kingdom , p . 353.
+ Don's General System of Botany and Gardening, vol. i.
.
242-5.
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
74
insects, the process is obvious, the eggs being laid upon the plant by the parent fly, and the
other instance. Parallel examples are of fre quent occurrence amongst insects.
Unless the
larvæ evolved more or less speedily , but after eggs of the common flesh - fly were hatched with the lapse of some considerable time. The ap- extreme rapidity, the Jarvæ, when they appear, pearance of the plant and insect being in the present case almost simultaneous, it has been thought difficult to conceive how the same pro-
would neither obtain their food in perfection , nor fulfil the useful purposes for which they are now subservient.
cess should be gone through."* Various conjec tures have been formed to account for the early
3292. The remedies against the attacks of this
appearance of this insect on the turnip -plant.
insect are, I fear, of a hopeless character ; at
“But these conjectures,” continues Mr Duncan, least, it is better to prevent their appearance may now be referred to merely as matters con- than wage war against them when they do ap nected with the past history of this insect, and pear, as,even in the efforts to effect their destruc as showing the difficulty that has been expe- tion , the farmer is the chief sufferer. The pre rienced in tracing it throughout its different forms and changes. This, however, has been recently done by Mr H. Le Keux, and we are no longer in doubt as to the points alluded to. This observer found that the sexes pair from April to September, during which period the
rentive measures seem to be to keep the land in as clean a state as possible of all weeds, and especially of those of the cruciferous kind, such
as wild mustard and charlock , which are the special favourites of this beetle ; to sow the tur nips in drills instead of broad - cast ; but whether
eggs are deposited on the under side of the rough
it is this difference in the culture of the crop
leaves of the turnip . The female insect appar, ently does not lay above one egg daily — in a
which makes it less vulnerable, I do not know , although the attacks of the turnip insects, being
week, ten pair were found to layonly forty -three less frequent in Scotland than in England, would eggs. These eggs are very minute, smooth, and partaking of the colour of the leaf. They are hatched in ten days, and the maggots, fig. 269, an eighth of an inchlong, are Fig. 269. pale, fleshy, and cylindriDRABAD cal, with six pectoral feet, LARVA OF THE FLEA
BEETLE .
the eyes dark, and a dark patch on the first and last segments of the body ; im-
mediately eat through the
lead the mind to such a conclusion ; to sow the
seed thick and of the same age, for it is found that the more rapidly the plants grow at first,
they are the less often attacked ; to put the seed for some time before it is sown amongst flour of sulphur, and sow the sulphur amongst it. The late Mr Airth informed me, that when he farmed
the Mains of Dun, Forfarshire, his young turnip crops were often very much affected, and even destroyed, by these insects, but after using the
lower skin or cuticle of the leaf,and form winding sulphur, he never suffered loss - though his neigh burrows among the pulp, upon which they feed. bours did,who would not use the same precau The thickness of the leaf is sufficient to afford
them ample scope for this, and they may be seen at work in their galleries by holding the leaf up to the light. These maggots or larvæ are full. fed in 16 days, when they bury themselves in the earth not quite 2 inches below the surface , selecting a spot near the bulb, where the turnipleaves protect them from wet and drought. They enter upon their chrysalid state in the earth, and the beetle emerges in about a fortnight. About
tion - for the eighteen years he possessed the farm . It may be that the juices of the plant are so affected by the sulphur as to cause disrelish for it, while the disagreeable odour arising from the sulphur strewed in the soil may drive the insect away. The sulphur was found in no degree to injure the vegetative powers either of seed or of plant. Being a simple preventive, it is worth trying by those whose crops are usually affected by insects.
thirty days carrythe insect through all its dif ferent stages; and of these, ten are passed in the
3293. As a remedial measure , a long -haired
egg state, six as a maggot, and fourteen in the
hearth-brush switched along thedrills by field
chrysalis. There appear to be 5 or 6 broods in
on the foliage of plants in their larva state, and afterwards derive their aliment from other sub-
workers would cause the insects to fall from the plants better than any board or net ; and if quick lime were strewed immediately upon the plants, as recommended from the experience of 102 practical farmers of the Doncaster Agricultural Association, their destruction would likely be
stances, the general law seems to be, that a much
more certain .
the season.”+
3291. In the case of those insects which feed
longer duration is assigned to the larva than to the perfect insect; and it may be that this is not observed in regard to such as always consume vegetables, because in either of these
conditions they serve the same purposes in the economy of nature, to which the prolonged
3294. Turnip Sar -fly. — The insect which com mits the greatest ravages on the turnip crop, after the one just described, is the turnip saw fly, Athalia spinarum , fig. 270. It belongs
to the order Hymenoptera,having 4 membranous
existence of the larvæ bears reference in the wings, and it is denominated a saw -fly from the * Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. viii. p.353. + Transactions of the Entomological Society of London, vol. ii. p. 24.
# Report of the Doncaster AgriculturalAssociation on the Turnip -fly, 1834. A fuller account of the Haltica nemorum , by Mr Curtis, will be found in the Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. ii., p. 193-213.
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP . use and appearance of the instrument with which it deposits its eggs. It is placed at the extremityof the abdomen of the female on the under side : and is so constructed, that it combines the Fig. 270.
75
several times, and most of these moultings are attended with a slight change in the colour. After casting their last skin, they are of a dark
lead or slate-gray colour, paler beneath. Mr Curtis states that they are some nes green , a colour which we never saw them assume, for in general they are not liable to much variation in this respect. Like most of the other larvæ of
their tribe, when touched , or in any way dis turbed, they coil themselves up, and remain mo When full grown , the larvæ
tionless.
cease to eat, and allow themselves to drop from
the plant that nourished them to the ground, in which they usually bury themselves, or they take
x
shelter among rotten leaves, moss, & c. When examined after a short time, they are found to
be completely enclosed in a cocoon , composed of two distinct layers of silk . The inner layer is of a fine satiny lustre, and when the cocoon is
THE TURNIP SAW - FLY - ATHALIA SPINARUM.
opened , it appears as if it had been washed with a
properties of a saw and auger. It is distin
guished by the following characters: - “ Head
solution of silver. When the fly is fully matured, it makes its exit by gnawing with itsmandibles
wider than long ; deep black, with three ocelli in the centre; eyes oval ; antenna black above,
a hole in one end. The larvæ are known in dif ferent parts of the country by the names of black
and for the most part dull yellow beneath; caterpillar, blacks, niggers, canker, &c. labrum and pulpi, light yellow ; thorax, black above, with a triangular space in front; the scu-
3296. “ The loss they occasion to farmers is very
tellum and a spot behind it, reddish orange; the considerable, but data cannot be easily obtained collar, which is rather long and slender, black on the sides, and yellow in the middle ; abdomen rather short, entirely orange-yellow , inclining to red, with a small black spot on each side of the
to form an estimate of its amount .
In some in
stances the crop is wholly destroyed, and where the caterpillars are most numerous, the injury
they occasion to the plant appears in the dimi.
first segment; legs likewise orange-yellow , the nished size of the bulb, its vegetative functions tarsi paler, approaching to whitish ; the tip of being impeded by the partial consumption of the the tibiæ, and of each of the tarsal joints, black ;
leaves. A belief at one time pretty generally
the tibiawith two spines at the apex, and the prevailed that they did not attack the Swedish joints of the tarsus each with a very slender lobe turnip, and they certainly seem less partial to beneath ; extremity of the ovipositor, black ; that plant; for, examining a field in which swedes wings yellowish at the base ; the costa and stigma black . Length , 3 to 34 lines, exclusive of the antennæ . Antennc, short, and somewhat clubshaped, 9 or 10- jointed in the male, but generally with the appearance of 11 joints in the female, the radical joint slightly thickened at the extremity, the second shorter and ovate, the third, as
alternated with the ordinary kind, the caterpillar was found much less plentiful in the former, and
in many places did not appear at all . The late Earl of Leicester, hɔwever, lost in 1836 upwards of 200 acres of swedes by them, and that plant
by no means escaped in other parts of the coun try. They are said to have attacked the mangold
long, or longer, than any two of the other joints wurzel, but this seems not at all probable. ” My taken together, the remainder decreasing somewhat in lengthto the terminal one, which is large and ovate.
3295. “ The flies which appear in the early part of summer, and deposit their eggs on the young turnip plants, have probably survived the winter under ground in the pupal state, enveloped in their cocoon. Emerging from them as soon as the milder weather is confirmed, in their winged state, the females immediately lay their eggs,
own turnips never suffered from insects but in one season, when the swedes were partially at tacked by this saw -fly after they were singled. The leaves were eaten to the stem , and the crop seemed as if it would be lost, but it recovered and
produced a fair one after all. 3297. “ Unfortunately , ” adds Mr Duncan, “ it is more easy to describe their depredations than to suggest an efficient remedy of easy application.
A distinguished delineator of insects,who has
afterwhich they very soon die. The eggsap- published a beautiful figure of the fly, expresses pear for the most part to be placed round the outer margin of the rough leaves. In favourable weather they are hatched in a short time, and
his belief that it is not difficult to destroy them, for if they were brushed off the leaves, it seems they are unable to crawl upon the ground and the young larvæ immediately commence their recover their station ; they consequently perish attack on the plant. At first these larvæ are of unless they are full-grown at the time; but as a deep black colour, and, of course , small size ; there is a constant succession from August till but they grow rapidly, and in the course of a few near November, the operation of drawing a weeks attain their full dimensions. In the hurdle or board over the turnips ought to be re course of their growth , they change their skin peated at intervals during that period .'* of * Curtis's British Entomology, vol. xiii. folio 617.
76
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
course , this method can be effectual only on the abdominal portion of the body is thus left at supposition that the caterpillar is unable to
liberty, and it is either borne curved inwards, as
crawl; it might have been presumed, however, in the gooseberry saw -fly, Nematus grossulariæ , that it did not receive such a complement of legs merely as a matter of form , and accordingly the slightest observation shows that it can move about with facility ." * Rain will destroy the
or projects into the air in variously - contorted and singular postures, as is remarkably the case with the willow saw -fly, Nematus capreæ , and the larvæ of Hylotoma rosa , the rose saw -fly,
caterpillars; ducks are very fond of them. I
which has the extremity of its body almost al
have often thought that women and boys might
ways raised and curved in the form of the letter
be employed to whisk them off the plants, and though they would not thereby. be destroyed, theywould be much annoyed , and, during the time
S. Additional distinctive characters might be mentioned-such as the form of the eyes, which are pretty large in the false caterpillars, and
the annoyances were repeated, the crop might
placed one in each side of the head; while in true
advance as far as to escape serious injury. The
caterpillars they are small , almost invisible
most effectual destruction would be that of the
points, disposed in a circle. These peculiarities
fly itself before it lays its eggs. It is very sluggish in its flight, does not fyfar at a time, and may be easily caught by hand, or with an ento-
will suffice to distinguish the two tribes, and it is of importance to be able to do so, as they are
mologist's net. Swallowsare useful assistants in
tion. The body of false caterpillars is generally
capturing these flies. Each fly so destroyed would prevent the coming into life of from 250 to 300 caterpillars. It has been ascertained that a boy of ten years of age can gather 180 caterpillars in an hour; and a troop of young ducks, preceded by a boy or girl to switch them to the ground, would destroy them in great numbers. Young fowls are also efficacious, but old ducks
composed of 12 segments, but the incisures are distinctly defined , and liable to be confounded with the transverse wrinkles which thickly cover the whole surface. Many of them are marked with bright and varied colours, but the ma jority are of one colour. In this respect they often undergo a remarkable change after they have cast their last skin, the colour becoming entirely unlike what it was before, so that it is impossible to recognise the same individual. This change, indeed, extends even farther than
and old fowls do not work well.
3298. Caterpillars.-- As the term caterpillar is so frequently used in reference to insects, it is
right to be able to distinguish between true and false caterpillars. The larvæ of the saw - fly are called false caterpillars, from the general re-
often associated together in the work of destruc
to colour, for such kinds as are furnished with tubercles or spines in their earlier stages, lose them at their last moult, and become smooth ;
semblance they bear to the larvæ of butterflies
that of the gooseberry species, Nematus grossu lariæ , for example, loses the black tubercles,
and moths, to which the name of caterpillar is
which made the surface appear as if chagreened.
properly applied. A very slight examination,
Like the fies which they produce, these larvæ
however, soon shows decided marks of distinction. Caterpillars, properly socalled , have never more than 16 feet, while the larvæ of saw -flies have generally from 18 to 22 ; a few have only 6 --a circumstance which again distinguishes them from true caterpillars, in which the number of
are sluggish and inactive, seldom moving from the place where they fix themselves, unlesswhen requiring an additional supply of food . When not engaged in feeding, or when apprehensive of danger, most of them roll themselves into a circle, sometimes with the tail elevated in the centre. The greater number lie exposed on the foliage of plants, but others take up their abode in the interior of the slender shoots, and feed
these organs is never below 10. Another mark
of distinction is afforded by the structure of the feet. In lepidopterous larvæ , the abdominal legs are surinounted by a coronet of small hooks, which is never found to be the case in those of
on the immature pith ; others lodge in the inte rior of fruit, and cause it speedily to decay.
false caterpillars, as they are simple mammiform protuberances. This minute difference, which
3299. Turnip weevils. - A very small weevil,
can only be detected by the microscope, has, scarcelyone line in length , of a uniform black however, a material influence over their habits, colour, slightly tinted with metallic blue on the and often enables us to distinguish between the elytra, the latter with punctured lines, the respective kinds at first sight. The coronet of Ceuterohynchus contractus, is found occasionally hooks converts the membranous or abdominal legs of caterpillars into efficient instruments of
associated with the turnip flea -beetle, Hal.
prehension , and they accordingly fix their body by means of them to the place of position, while the head and anterior part remain free. The
that plant. This species does also good by attacking that pestilent weed , the wild mustard,
tica nemorum , feeding on the young leaves of
Sinapis arvensis. Another species, Ceuteroh ynchus pollinarius, attacks the nettle, Urtica dioica, a mere points of support, incapable of clinging to troublesome weed near buildings ; and a third,
abdominal legs of the others, on the contrary, are
an object, and the larvæ consequently fixes itself Ceuterohynchus assimilis, occasions the knobs on by its pectoral or fore-legs, which are much
the roots of the wild radish, Raphanus raphanis
developed for the purpose. The whole of the
trum, one of the most troublesome weeds which
*Quarterly Journal ofAgriculture, vol. vii. p. 562-566. Other accounts of this insect will be found in Kirby and Spence's Introduction to Entomology , vol. i . p. 186; Journal of the Royal English
Agricultural Society , vol. ii. p. 364-389; Newport's Observations on the Turnip Saw -fly; and in Newman's Letters of Rusticus - On Blight, p. 99.
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .
infest cultivated fields, particularly those in which the turnip is cultivated .
77
vures light brown ; tips of the thighs, shanks, Fig. 271.
3300. Aphides.- That multitudinous tribe of insects, named the Aphis or plant-louse, sends a few of their number to attack the turnip crop,
and their attacks are chiefly directed against the Swedish turnip . Mr Curtis says that there are 3 if
not 4 species of aphides which live upon the turnip ; one he has found under the rough leaves
of the English varieties, as well as one which he believes to be distinct ; another appears to be attached to the swedes, and the last is secreted amongst the flower stalks. I cannot enter fully upon this extensive and interesting subject, and must refer you to Mr Curtis' paper.* I shall only add a few words descriptive of the nature
WINGED MALE OF THE COMMON TURNIP PLANT LOUSE - APHIS RAPÆ .
feet, and claws, black.
Abundant beneath the
and peculiarities of that very curious tribe of leaves of the common turnip the whole of July, insects , the aphides, from another author : “ As
&c.
Fig. 272.
It is at once
the vegetable world, and, like them ,are so nu merous as to darken the air. The multiplication of these little creatures is infinite, and almost
distinguished from the other species by its long tubes and small apical cells of the wings. The cross ed lines below repre
Providence has endued them with
sent the natural size
almost every animal has its peculiar louse , so has almost every plant its peculiar plant-louse ; and, next to locusts, these are the greatest enemies of
incredible .
privileges for promoting fecundity, which no other insects possess : at one time of the year they are viviparous, at another oviparous; and what is most remarkable and without parallel, the sexual intercourse of one original pair serves for all the generations which proceed from the
of the body and of
the expanse of the wings. Fig. 272 is the female
female for a whole succeeding year. Reaumur
COMMON TURNIP PLANT
has proved, that in 5 generations, one aphis may
LOUSE - APHIS RAPÆ .
be the progenitor of 5,904,000,000 descendants ; and it is supposed that in one year there may be
of the
same species magni. WINGLESS FEMALE OF THE fied . It is bright
green , shagreened ;
horas fuscous, except at the base ; eyes, tips of shanks, and feet, black . The small figure on the left represents the
20 generations.” Bonnet says there may be 30. aphis of the natural size, and the figure below
“ This astonishing fecundity exceeds that of any represents one of the natural size just excluded. known animal, and we cannot wonder that a
creature so prolific should be proportionably injurious : some species, however, seem to be more
3302. Fig. 273 is the winged male of the aphis which infests the Swedish turnip and cabbage
so than others. Those that attack wheat, oats, and barley, of which there are more kinds than
Fig. 273.
one, seldom multiply so fast as to be very noxious to those plants; while those which attack pulse
spread so rapidly, and take such entire possession , that the crop is greatly injured , and sometimes destroyed by them .” + Mr Walker enumerates 6 different states of the aphis - winged oviparous
female , wingless oviparous female ; winged vivi parous female ,wingless viviparous female ; wing ed male, and wingless male . The wingless female
is the parent of the winged females ; the winged female is generally oviparous, while the wingless female is generally viviparous. An oviparous individual never becomes viviparous, nor a vivi
WINGED MALE OF THE SWEDE PLANT- LOUSE APHIS BRASSICÆ,
parous one oviparous.I
plants, the Aphis brassicæ , magnified, the lines below representing the natural size of body and 3301. Fig. 271 represents the winged male of expanse of wings . Generally pea-green ; horns the common turnip plant-louse, Aphis rapæ ,mag. setaceous, longish and black, aswell as the head , nified. Its characters are ochraceous,hornsmode- collar, and disc of thorax ; several blackish bands rately long, setacious, two first joints black, third more or less perfect across the body ; tubes short ochraceous at the base ; head blackish ; collar and stoutish, black at the base ; wings irredescent, ochraceous and brown, disc of shining black ; stigma pale green ; nervures strong, piceous, abdomen greenish ; wings irredescent, the ner- apical cell large, and the first furcate one wider
* Journal of the English Agricultural Society,vol.iii. p. 49-56. + Kirby and Spence's Introduction to Entomology, vol . i. P. # Newman's Letters of Rusticus -- On Blight, p . 68.
174.
78
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
than the species above; legs black, base of thighs green . Fig. 274 is the female of the species. Slightly mealy ; ge-
a secretion from the aphides, and that ants devour this honey -dew , and a sweet, clear, liquid honey it is.
I have often watched an ant go from one
Fig. 274.
nerally of a yellow- aphis to another, stand behind each, and gently er green than the squeeze the body with its fore legs ; perhaps one male ; third joint of aphis in ten, not more, will give out a small drop the antennæ och- of honey, as clear as crystal, which the ants in raceous, following stantly swallow . The ants take much more care black ; eyes two, two
of the aphides than the aphides do of themselves :
large spots on the
they are sad, dull, stupid creatures. It is very
crown , and one on
pretty to see the licking and washing, and cleans
each side of the col-
ing, and caressing which the ants constantly be
lar, black ; abdomen very large and
stow on them . " *
heavy ; spiracles, se-
3305. “ Protected as the aphides are in the
veral dots upon the
wrinkles of the leaves, which they themselves
back, and a few have caused by the pumping up and extravasa WINGLESS FEMALE OP THE SWEDE PLANT- LOUSE APHIS BRASSICÆ .
transverse streaks
tion of the sap, it is, I think," observes Mr Cur
beyond the middle, tis, “ impossible, in the open field, to apply any black ; tibia short
effectual remedy for the extirpation of this pro
and black, as well as the legs ; base of thighs
lific tribe. When it is in our power , the best
greenish. The small figure on the left repre- plan would be to cut off the diseased leaves as sents this aphis of the natural size. “ As far soon as the presence of the insects is detected , as my observation goes,” says Mr Curtis, “ the and crush them completely under foot ; or put swedes have suffered most from the aphides ; the
under sides of the curled leaves being sometimes densely covered with them of all sizes. The old wingless females are seen resting in August,
them into a sack, and carry them away to be destroyed with boiling water." 3306. Lady-birds.— “ Fortunately, no tribe of
September, and October, surrounded by their insects has a greater number of natural enemies young broods, with here and there a winged to keep it in check than the plant-lice. One of male walking lazily over his kindred . The leaves
are frequently, at the same time, gray with mil-
the most conspicuous and efficient enemies are the Coccinellæ , of which about 30 different species
dew ; but that is a distinct disease. It is said
have been noticed in England. Lady-birds pass
that, in a very dry autumn, early sown turnips seldom escape the mildew, which is a species of fungus forming a whitish powder over the leaves, and readily brushing off. The leaves thus affected soon become yellow, dry , and brittle ;
the winter in the crevices of palings and trunks
of trees, &c., and are ready to come out with the slightest increase of Fig. 275 . heat in spring. They eat into the side of the aphis, and thus destroy many daily. The two most com mon species are the
and , at an early stage, this disease seems to en courage the aphides, owing to the plants not being healthy and able to resist such attacks.
I may observe that I have seen myriads of
TWO AND SEVEN SPOTTED Coccinella bipunc LADY - BIRDS - COCCINELLA tata , and secreted in the leaves of the crumpled brocoli two- spotted BI ET SEPTEMPUNCTATA . as late as the end of November, when they were of lady-bird-a small all ages and sizes, both winged and apterous.” insect of 24 lines long, in fig . 275 a ; and a larger one , Coccinella septempunctata, seven 3303. Honey-dero. - " Whether any of the spotted lady-bird, which is 31 lines long, and above aphides deposit the sweet liquor called nearly 3 broad, fig. 273 b ; both of the natural honey -dew upon the turnip leaves, ” remarks Mr size.
Aphis brassicæ under cabbage leaves in July,
Curtis, “ has not yet been observed ; but I have never seen the ants occupied in visiting the in-
fested leaves for the purpose of collecting the saccharine matter which exudes from the two abdominal tubes or ducts, and which is also dis-
charged from the extremity of the bodies of some species. The exudation of this honey, which passes off through the tubes, and chrystalises in cold weather, may be a necessary means of disposing of any surplus secretions arising from the constant supply of sap which is passing
3307. Ichneumon Ay. - Another active enemy of the aphis is the ichneumon fly, Aphidius rapæ of Curtis, fig. 276, magnified.
Antennæ shorter
than the body, composed of 14 joints ; basal joint beneath, as well as themouth, ochraceous ; head and thorax shining black ; abdomen spindle shaped and pitchy in colour, attached to the trunk by a narrow ochraceous pedicle ; wings four, irredescent, superior, with a narrow fuscous stigma, from which issues, beneath, a short
through the stomachs of these little leeches, and
curved nervure, and there is a large elongate .
which they may not have the power of discharg-
trigonate cell at the base : legs six, slender, and
ing fast enough by the usual organs. "
bright ochreous, variegated with dark brown ;
length 1 } line, expanse of wings 24. The small 3304. A writer assuming the name of Rusticus says— “ I am quite convinced that honey-dew is
cross lines at the left side represent the natural
size of the fly with the wings expanded . This fly
* Newman's Letters of Rusticus - On Blight, p. 108.
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .
79
hosers about plants infested by the aphis, and the
streaked across with black ; they have a mark
female soon fixes on a female aphis, pierces her with her ovi Fig. 276.
terior wings, which expand if inch. The cater
egg , and then proceeds to another, and
stripe, having a tendency to become reddish on the upper side. The spiracles are white , sur
resembling the letter W on the disc of the an
positor, lay- pillar is greenish or brownish ,with a dark stripe visible ; ing a single along the back, on which a pale line isyellowish
thus
inocu-
the sides are marked with an obscure
rounded with black.
The White line brown
lates a consi-
eyed moth , Mamestra oleracea , is of a rusty-brown
derable number. As the
colour, the fore-wings at times slightly clouded,
aphis imbibes
the cross-lines obliterated. The caterpillar red dish or yellowish -brown, with a dark line along
the juice of the back, and another on each side, and beneath ICHNEUMON FLY-APHIDIUS RAPÆ .
the plant, the
the latter a white line ; underside and feet light
little maggot which has hatched in her body hourly increases
brown . The Gamma or Y -moth , Plusia gamma, is easily recognised by the silvery character on
in size , until the exhausted aphis dies. As there are many generations of ichneumon flies in a
its fore-wings resembling the letter Y, or rather the Greek y, upon a variegated dusky -brown
summer, it follows that they are most formidable ground. Head and thorax ash-gray ; theabdomen enemies to the plant- lice.
of a lighter hue. It expands from 1f to lì inch. The eggs of this moth are very beautiful, being
3308. Turnip-leaf Miners. — There is a class of of an orbicular shape, with elevated ribs, and slen insects called turnip-leaf miners, the larvæ of
der, transverse, raised lines. They are chiefly
which destroy the energy of the leaves of turnips, laid on the under side of leaves, sometimes singly , under surfaces, in the manner which is now ascer .
but more commonly in small clústers. When the caterpillars reach maturity, they are green , with
tained to be the case with the turnip flea -beetle.
6 white or black lines along the back , and a faint
by boring galleries between their upper and
One is the Drosphila flara, which forms its yellow streak on each side; the breathing pores dwellings so carefully under the upper cuticle of black. They possess only 4 abdominal feet, and the leaves that not a trace of them can be seen
2 anal ones, thus indicating an approach to the
on the under side. Its length is 1 line. The larva of this insect is destroyed by two little para-
geometric or looper caterpillars. The chrysalis, which is pitchy-brown, is inclosed in a white
sitic hymenopterous flies, the Ceraphron niger, woolly cocoon, spun between the folds of a leaf, and the Microgaster viridis. The other leaf-miner is named Phytomyza nigricornis, which is bred from the under sides of the turnip leaves, where the maggots form long irregular galleries inside of the lower cuticle, and these miners are not
or among herbage. The moth flies about in the day with much rapidity, keeping the wings, when feeding, in constant vibration . They may be seen, often in great numbers, hovering in this
I line in length .
manner about a turnip -field, over the yellow blossom of the charlock and field -mustard , or the blue heads of the scabies and devil's-bit.t There
3309. Moths. - Lepidopterous insects, that is, those of the butterfly and moth kind, afford several species injurious to the turnip crop. One is the
is no moth more shy and difficult to catch by day, for it will seldom allow any one to come near it, but whether it detects the approach of man by its eyes, which sparkle like living rubies, or by its
visible on the upper side of the leaf. The fiy is
turnip diamond -back moth, Cerostoma xylostella . hearing, is not known : it darts off, however, in an instant, when disturbed, and stops again a few yards off, or entirely vanishes. There is, per haps, nothing but hand -picking, or switching the turnip- plant , to get quit of these insects. The Large White cabbage butterfly, Pontia brassicce, lays eggs in clusters, of 20 or 30, on the under long fringe. Its length is 24 lines. The cater- side of the turnip leaves. The caterpillars are half an inch in length, slen- green before and yellow behind, when young, but, pillar is green, about der and tapering to both ends. They are exceed- when matured to full growth , are 1.5 inch long, ingly active, and on the slightest touch wriggle and as thick as a small goose-quill. They chiefly themselves off the leaf they are feeding, and let attack the Swedish turnip. They are destroyed When at rest the wings are closed and deflexed, and the horns are projected forward in a straight line. It is more or less brown. The upper wings are long and narrow , and when closed form 2 or 3 diamonds upon the back ; the inferior wings are lance -shaped , and of an ash -colour, with a very
themselves downby a silken thread, and remain
by the ichneumons Microgaster glomeratus and
suspended until the cause of alarm subsides. As
Pimpla instigator, and by the cynips Pteromatus brassicce and pontiæ . The Small White or tur nip butterfly, Pontia rapæ , as its name implies, is another enemy to the turnip. The superior
many as 240 have been counted on one leaf, and
such is their avidity, that not the smallest vestige of a green leaf is left by them . This larva is
destroyed by a black ichneumon, named Campo- wings of the male are tipped with black, and the inferior have a black spot on the upper edge ; the brassica, will live on the Swedish turnip . The female is similar, but has 2 large black spots like forelegs are ash-brown, clouded with ash- gray wise beyond the centre of the superior wings ; plex paniscus.* The cabbage- moth, Mamestra
* Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. iii. p .68-72. + Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xiii. p. 167.170.
80
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
underside of the same white,apex yellow , and 2 nip with her proboscis, and deposits an egg in it ; black spots beyond the middle, the lower one and the young maggot, which is fat and whitish , sometimes obliterated ; inferior wings yellow , often of a bright flesh -colour, lives on the sub freckled with black. Length of male 8 lines, and stance of the bulb. Except in affecting the beauty expanse of wings 2 inches. The eggs are not unlike and symmetry of the bulb, this insect does no those of the cabbage -butterfly; but the caterpillar great harm to the turnip. * is totally different, being entirely green , and so densely clothed with minute hairs, as to be velvety.
3311. A plan of destroying moths in vineyards
They have a yellowish stripe down the back, and has been tried by M. Audouin with success, and another along each side. They are more than 1 inch long, and about as thick as a crow quill.
The small oval eggs so deeply embedded in the pulpy substance of the back of someturnip leaves, are laid by the Chrysomela betulæ, a brilliant shining or green oval beetle, with undersides, horns, and legs black, and about 1 } line long.
which consists oflighting lamps covered with bell glasses smeared with oil, when the light attracts the insects, and they are captured on the glass. Such lights are much more effective than open fires of brushwood .
In this way 200 lamps the first
night, and 180 the following nights, placed at 25 feet apart, in 4 nights in August 1842, in a
vineyard of 4 acres extent, and lighted for 2 3310. Besides the leaves, the turnip is attacked by insects in the bulb, among which noxious insects are many large caterpillars, called by far-
mers and gardeners surface grubs, which commit very extensive depredations uponturnips. Among
hours each night, destroyed these numbers of
moths in the respective nights — 30,000, 14,405 , and the two last nights 9260; in all, 53,660. Of these it was reckoned that three -fourths were
females, which, supposing they would have laid these is the caterpillar of the Triphæna pronuba, 150 eggs each , caused a destruction of 6,000,000 of eggs. Many moths, I apprehend, might have times very plentiful in hay-fields, where it will been caught besides, while flickering round the the Great yellow underwing. This moth is some-
rise from the swathes when disturbed , and alight again in another swathe. The Noctua or Ægros tis exclamationis, the Heart and Dart moth, so
lamps, with an entomologist's net. +
named from the markings of the wings resem-
in allusion to the anbury, says that it is a large excrescence produced below the bulb ; and when
bling the note of exclamation ( !), and a heart and
3312. The Anbury in Turnips - Mr Marshall,
a dart, affords a caterpillar of a dull lilac colour, with a lurid space down the back of more ochreous hue, which is a most destructive animal to crops of turnips at every stage of their growth,
this was just forming, and not larger than a green walnut, the anburies were as large as a goose's
it forms a round hole in a vertical direction about
veins or string -like vessels may be seen dispersed
2 or 3 inches deep in the earth . At the bottom of this it remains during the day, unless it be dark and moist, and at night it emerges from its burrow , and commences an attack upon a plant
through the tumour. When turnips are affected with this disease, the tops become yellow , and flag in the heat of the sun, and its existence is thus readily distinguished. He says it has been attri buted to the land being too long continued under this green crop ; but it is certain that the anbury appears on land where turnips had never before been grown. He, however, considers that it pro ceeds from the formation of an insect in the vessels of the tap-root, by which the course of the sap is divided, and instead of the natural bulb an
egg, irregular in form , with excrescences be low , and not unlike races of ginger depending it being very apt to separate the crown from the from them . After arriving at maturity, they ex root. The grub of the Noctua or Ægrostis sege- hibit a putrid fermentation, and emit a most tum is a very formidable assailant in the more offensive smell. When the anburies are divided, advanced state of the turnip plant, near to which they are hard ; but with the assistance of a lens,
by eating round the neck of it, and eventually detaching the upper part from the root. In this
way singled Swedish turnip-plants may be destroyed one after another until very few are left. The rook is useful in searching for this grub, and in quest of it will also tear up the piant. Young pigs are fond of it, and would dig for it in a turnip -field, were it not that they would dig up the plants at the same time. There seems no ready means of getting quit of this pest. The excrescences which frequently disfigure the turnip bulb,
excrescence is produced. He recommends that the diseased plants should be removed as soon as possible, and the earth stirred about those that
remain ; and he adds, that it may be wholly
by well preparing and richly manuring and are not confined to any particular variety of avoidedsubject to produce anbury . If the disease
turnip, on being opened will be found to contain
lands
a small maggot. This is produced by the Ceu-
were occasioned by the puncture of insects, better
terohynchus pluerostigma,the turnip -gall weevil. cultivation would not abate its virulence, but It is very similar to the turnip-seed weevil, but
rather increase it, as the turnip would thereby be
is black instead of gray ; the wing -cases are not so rough or strongly tuberculated at their extremities, and all the thighs have a small tooth
rendered much more palatable to them .
The
beneath. It is not uncommon in hedges from May to August, and, closely contracting all its
truth is, all such diseases arise from poverty of the soil, either from want of manure when the soil is naturally poor, or rendered effete by overcropping. Labour, clean, and manure the
members when alarmed, it looks like a black seed, The female pierces a hole in the rind of the tur-
soil fully, according to the condition it presents, and no anbury will appear, unless it may happen
* Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. iv. p. 103-121. + Gardener's Chronicle for 1843.
# Marshall's Rural Economy of Norfolk, vol. ii. p. 33.
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .
81
in peculiar seasons, which always counteract the
knolls, where sheep would take to and rest on for
effects of culture, and affect plants in a manner similar to want of nourishment. This disease is not so prevalent as it was 30 years ago, be .
light loamy turnip -soil, on an open bottom, is
cause the culture of the turnip is now better
land, or any soil resting on a retentive bottom ;
the night. In conformity with this circumstance, much more apt to produce the disease than clay
understood, and the ground is manured with and it prevails more in dry than in wet seasons. Hence in the wet seasons of 1816 and 1817 it
greater liberality.
3313. Insects are invariably found in the bulbs of turnips diseased with anbury, but they are the effect and not the cause of the disease, as the habits of the insects so found clearly indicate.
The principal insects are the winter turnipgnat, Trichocera hiemalis, belonging to the family Tipulidæ , and one or two of the rovebeetles, principally of the genera Aleochara and Oxytelus, of the latter of which the sculptured
rove-beetle , Oxytelus sculpturatus, is the most common .
Both these kinds of insects are to be
found among dung after it has been a few days dropped, and in rotten turnips, particularly in the diseased parts.
was but little felt in Roxburghshire; whereas in the dry summers of 1818 and 1819, and particu larly in 1818, it was both extensive and destruc
tive. Hence also Roxburgh, with its light soil, was always more affected thanthe neighbouring county of Berwick with its heavy soil. The ultimate effects of the disease are to produce a distorted bulb like a boxer's glove, with fingers and thumb, which are longer or shorter, smaller or larger, in proportion to the bulb. The leaves are unhealthy in colour, and the top has a tend ency to shoot. Inequalities occur in the bulb which collect water, the freezing of which in winter causes premature decay of the bulb. The texture of the bulb becomes fibrous, its juice tastes acrid like the skin, and the smell is some
3314. Fingers and Toes in Turnips.- Of this what putrescent. Hence the disease affects the disease Mr Dickson says : - “ It occasionally hap- weight of the crop, as also its nutritive properties pens that turnip -plants, instead of swelling and as an article of food for live stock.t forming bulbs, send off numerous stringy roots,
which soon decay and come to no account. It
3315. The analyses of the tops of turnips, as
occurs most generally when the crop is sown on
well as of the bulbs attached to them, have been
fresh land, and no remedy issaid yet to have been discovered to prevent it. More perfect tillage, and the use of such measures as have a tendency to render such lands more mellow and friable,
made by different chemists. In conducting such analyses of the tops, it has been found that the proportion of the water in them to the ash , taken in both the wet and dry states, is as follows, according to Professor Way and Mr Ogston :
may perhaps be beneficial." *
No doubt the dis-
ease has been observed on fresh virgin soil, that had beforedborne a crop of turnips; it has never been remarke in a long experien land ce,thatbut
Turnip-ton
Water. High . Low ,Mean 90.0 79.0 85.5
Ash . Ash -dry. High . Low . Mean | High . Low . Mean 2.64 1.19 1.84 18.00 8.00 12.98
which had often carried turnips was most affected by this disease . The county of Roxburgh was much afflicted with it, and it continued to increase
for 30 years ; but latterly it has decreased, and
The mean numbers are those of 30 different
analyses, and not of the highest and lowest quan tities ; but it is evident that the percentage of
may now be said to have disappeared, in conse
water and ash varies with tolerable uniformity,
quence of the superior manuring of all the crops and the larger liming of the soil, and the same experienced may resultremark, has beenhowever, here that everywhere. spurious seedI wiil
portion of water contained in different parts of the
have the same effect on the turnip, in unfavour able seasons, as want of manure, and the injurious effects of weather, such as was the case in Scot land in the season of 1847. The disease affects
the turnip plant from the period of singling to the first hoeing of the crop. The plant becomes flaccid, and the leaves assume a yellowish hue, but do not die, nor does the plant bear the slight. est mark of insects ; and when once affected never gets free of the disease, and continues to live and
both above and below the averages given. 3316. Professor Johnston ascertained the pro
tops of turnips, before and after the formation of the bulb. Thus Mean per cent.
From June 28 to July 26, the water in the entire top was,
88.49
From Aug.2to Sept. 27, water in the top,
85.42
at the bottom ,
90.22
The conclusions which these results warrant are , that the proportion of water is greater when the
never come in contact, but, on finding interrup-
plants are young and succulent ; that the per centage of water in the lower part of the top is greater than in the upper; and that the average quantity of water in the lower part is greater than the mean of the whole green part, includ ing leaves and stalks.I
tions, assume irregular forms. The interruptions are the ends of drills and the hollows of fields.
3317. The composition of the ash of the tur
grow in size . The disease never affects a whole
field at once, nor does it run along drills, but invariably begins in spots which increase in diameter, and spread out into large patches, which patches
The patches never commence in hollows or drill- nip-top, as ascertained by Professor Johnston, is ends where water may lodge, but on the driest
as follows :
* Dickson's Practical Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 666. + Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. i. p. 429. # Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, for July 1848, p. 281-3. VOL . II.
F
82
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
Potash, Soda,
28.65 5.41
Lime,
23.27 3.09 0.86 9.29 12.52
Magnesia, Oxide
iron,
Phosphoric acid, Sulphuric acid , Chlorine, Silica ,
This table exhibits wide differences in the com position of the ash of the turnip-top, the phos phoric acid of one specimen being double that of
others. We are prepared for this, observes Pro fessor Way.
In the growth of plants of this de
scription , the construction of the materials is
16.05
supposed to go on in the leaves from which the
0.86
vegetable matter, when fully worked up, de scends into the tuber, and is there deposited .
.
100.00
The leaves would contain, therefore, not only
Percentage of ash from 14. to 20.
their own proper mineral constituents, but the greater part of the excess of such bodies which
Professor Johnston says there is no doubt the proportion of ash varies very much with the period of the plant's growth, and with the part of the tops which is burned for the collection of ash .* The variety of turnip from which the
had entered the plant. The ash of the top differs
from that of the bulb chiefly in containing less phosphoric and sulphuric acid, less potash, but a great deal more lime. On comparing the con tents of the column of mean results with that of
analysis was taken is not mentioned, but in a case Professor Johnston (in 3317,) a great difference the following results were obtained in illustration
will be observed to exist in the composition of
of these remarks :-Percentage of ash obtained turnip - tops derived from different localities. from green turnip-tops, collected from the 2d of August to the 27th September from the top, 3319. It may be useful to give the relative mean , 2.19 ; from the bottom, mean, 1.75. From quantities of the mineral matter, in pounds weight, the same, when dried at 212 ° Fahr. top, mean, contained in one ton of the tops of each of the 16.84 ; bottom , mean, 18.21 . The conclusions which these results warrant are, that the propor
kinds of the turnips given in the above table :
tion of mineral matter in the tops increases with
Dale's Hybrid . lb ,
Skirving's Swede.
the age of the plant ; that the average quantity
Ib .
of mineral matter in the green part of the turnip is greater in the highest than the lowest part ; and that in the tops dried at 212° Fahr., the proportion of mineral matter is greater in the lowest than in the highest part. As regards this change of place in the proportion in the mineral matter in the tops when green and dried, ProfessorJohnston gives an explanation, which you should bear in mind when comparing the results of chemical analyses in other things : - “ This difference arises from the circum
Potash , Soda, Lime, Magnesia, Oxide of iron ,
9.08 ) 3.616.205.18
1.23 12:57 13.26 9.37 12:18 11.76 1.16 1.39 0.47 1.79 1.17 1.33 0.29 0.16 1.55 0.33 2.15 2.71 1.22 5.87 1.29 4.57 5.33 1.79 3.51 3-20
Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid , Chloride of sodium , 5.48 4.51 4.81 11:40
Mean of six speci Inene . Ib .
6-08 1.12
11-29 1.16
0-72 2-60
4.36
3.46 6.15
6.77 0.85
2-02 1.73
Chloride of potas
sium , . Silica,
stance that the lower part contains the largest percentage of water. The present case is only one of many illustrations of the fact, that the relative
5.09 5.49
Green Top White . Ib .
3.55
0.91 0.50
0.34
0.92 3-69
41:39 37-98 23-00 47 11 34.91 36.23 Percentage of ash ,
1.97
1.95 1.19 2.25
1.82
proportions of mineral matter , in green products, are not to be received as real indices ofthe rela-
tive proportions in which this mineral matter exists in the dry substance of the plant.” +
3320. The leaves of turnips contain much more common salt, chloride of sodium, than the bulbs, and the quantity is considerable in some cases, the second column of Dale's hybrid above exhi
3318. The following table exhibits the compo- biting an amount of it of 11 lb. to the ton, or sition of turnip-tops of the respective varieties of about 9 oz. to every owt. of the green tops. May the turnips mentioned in it, as ascertained by not this circumstance in part explain the action Professor Way and Mr Ogston : Green Top White .
Meap of six speci . mens ,
11:56 20.79 13:53 12:35 12.68
15:21
Skirving's Swede.
Potash , Soda , Lime, Magnesia , Oxide of iron , Carbonic acid , Phosphoric acid ,
12:43
Dale's Hybrid .
2.84
4.60
2-62 3:18 1.75 3.57 2.85 3.02 0.66 0.61 3.09 0.80 6.18 12-97 1382 6.10 14.64 4.85 6.21 4:58 11-70 3.15
2-09
.
8:04
2.81 1.68 9.98 6.77
1.84 16:56
1:14 1:26 7:35 2.05
5-04 3.99
99.96 99-93 99-98 99.96 99-96 99-94
Percentage of ash ,
of soda and potash, and organic salts of these
bases, oxalate, tartarate, & c., and which are known as purgatives, exist largely in turnip -tops. I
28.49 30-38 35:10 24-27 28-73 28.49
Sulphuric acid , 1036 12.20 671 699 7.83 8.43 Chloride of sodium , 12:41 10-31 18-02 22:70 10-67 15:30 Chloride of potas sium , Silica ,
of turnip- tops in causing purging in sheep when they are first turned upon this food from pasture ? The other alkaline salts, such as the phosphates
1.97
1.95 1:19
2:25
1.82
3321. A rather singular result was obtained by Mr Johnstone, Lang- Liddesdale, Wigtonshire, on transplanting swedes on land which he had
not got ready for sowing them in at the proper season. He sowed some seeds of Skirving's swedes in a bed in April 1847 , and transplanted the plants from them as late as the 22d of June. From ten to twenty days afterwards, the transplanted
plants running into flower, some of them were pulled up, and others cut over near the ground ; when, in about fourteen days afterwards, bulbs
* Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p . 385.
T Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, for July 1848, p. 283. # Journal of theEnglish Agricultural Society, vol. viii . p . 176-84.
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP .
83
began to form , and new stems and leaves were
-namely, barley, hay, pasture, and oats - were
put forth luxuriantly. He then cut over others which had lowered, and the same results fol lowed. Finding the new leaves succulent and
all better in their respective years.
delicate, he caused them to be pulled as green
bear that had been buried for an indefinite time
3325. Thus Marchand found the bones of a
food for his cows, and continued to do so during
at a shallow depth—where moisture and air may
the season , three times, never imagining that the
have been supposed to have exercised their
bulbs would ever be of any value. Meanwhile,
influences very actively - not to have differed
however, the bulbs enlarged untilthe latter end
very materially in composition to other bones of
of October, when two were pulled, and one a bear that had been buried deeply, except in ani weighed 18 lb., the other 15 lb., with scanty
mal matter, as is shown in the following table :
stem and leaves, because the former ones had been cut down not long before.
Bones of the Bear buried .
3322. The question, after such treatment of the Deep. Shallow .
bulbs, was, were they deteriorated as food ?
From an analysis made of them by Professor
Johnston, it would appear they were not - as may be seen from these figures : In the natural state .
Water,
Dried at 2120.
90.95
1.28 Protein compounds, Sugar, gum , fibre, &c., 7:17
79.23
0-60
6.63
100.00
100-00
Ash of phosphates, .
14:14
Animal matter , Phosphate of lime, Carbonate of lime,
Sulphate of lime, Phosphate of magnesia , Fluoride of calcium , Oxides of iron and manganese , Soda ,
Silica, :
16.2 56-0 13.1 7.1 0.3 2.0 2.0 1.1 2.2
4.2 62-1 13:3 12.3 0-5
100-0
100-0
2.1 2.1 1.3 2.1
That substance must be a valuable manure
which resists decomposition for a long time,
The nutritive power not having been diminished, while it imparts nourishment to the roots of is it probable that green food may be obtained all summer from the Swedish turnip , and enlarged size of bulb for winter in the same season ? The subject deserves to be experimentally investi-
plants as they require it.
gated, when only a true answer will be obtained
determined by Dr Thomson :
3326. Bone is a dense substance , as will be seen by the specific gravity of different kinds as
to the question. I think, however, that the transplanting process is merely incidental, and
Os femoris of a sheep, Tibia of a sheep,
cannot affect the result ; for it is evident that the plant will produce new stems and leaves, and
Ilium of an ox, Human os humeri,
2-0329 1.8353 1.7479
Vertebræ of a haddock ,
1.6350+
consequently bulb, whether it had been grown from seed sown at one place, or sown elsewhere and transplanted in that place. *
2.0345
It thus appears that the bones of sheep are den ser than those of oxen.
3323. Bone- dust . - Bone -dust has now com-
3327. Bones contain a large proportion of
pletely established itself as a valuable manure ;
water, the quantity of which is greatest when
and I believe that, with the exception of farm-
the animal is young, and the interior of the bone
yard dung, there is no substance we know upon
spongy, varying from 33 to 15 per cent in the
which we may place more implicit reliance, in one or another of its states, as a fertiliser of the
former and from 20 to 80 per cent in the latter case , in different animals.
soil, not even excepting guano. 3324. One of its most valuable properties as a manure is its durability ; and in thisrespect it is superior to farm dung and guano.
Bones, even
in their reduced state, when applied in large quantities, as ) } ton and upwards on the acre , as
3328. Bones are composed of organic and inorganic matter, the former consisting of fat and cartilage, the latter of earthy matter. The inorganic matter varies in the bones taken from different parts of the body. When the fat has been removed, the proportion of earthy matter
is done by the farmers of Cheshire, will evidence their existence as a manure after the lapse of 20 years. This result arises from the slowness of the decomposition of their organic matter in the soil. I pulled off 4 acres of turnips raised with
to cartilage is as follows, according to the experi
bone-dust, and four acres adjoining in the same farm -yard dung to the acre ; and the crop was not only betterafter the bone-dust than after the
64:7 pig, birds, 66.2 66 :1 fishes, In the earthy matter the bones of different ani
dung, but the crops that followed in the rotation
mals do not thus vary much. The earthy mat
field, which had been raised with 15 loads of
ments of Dr Stark : Earthy matter .
Bones of the ox contain , horse,
64.5
66-7
and Agricultural Society, for March 1848, p . 241 . * Transactions of the +Highland Thomson's Animal Chemistry, p. 234.
Cartilage 35-5 33 3 35-3 33.8 32.9
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
84
ter consists chiefly of the carbonate and phos- the French have long been in the practice of phate of lime ; and Dr Ure says, " that the bones steaming them for two or three days in continu of the ox are three times richer of the phosphates
ance in the making of soup .
of lime and magnesia than those of man, and
hence we may conclude that as manure they are
3332. It is the opinion of both Sprengel and Liebig, that it is the earthy portion of the bone, and particularly the phosphate of lime, which is 3329. When bones are boiled, a large propor alone useful as manure in bone -dust. Some tion of the fat and cartilage pass into the water. experiments may have warranted such a conclu The fat is skimmed off the surface of the water, sion ; but others , on the other hand, would lead to and is used by the candle -makers ; the water, the conclusion, that it is only the organic part of when boiled down, makes size for the stiffening bones which is useful in manure. Such results of certain kinds of cotton goods. The bones, would depend upon the degree in which the soils
more valuable." *
after being boiled, contain more water than they experimented on at the time had been previously did before, and when ground into dust make as
supplied, from other sources, with organic or
good manure as when fresh, according to the inorganic matter. “ The most striking change," opinion of some. But it is evident thatthe loss
as Professor Johnston observes, “ undergone by
of the fat and cartilage must deteriorate the value of bones as a manure for general application. It is probable that the additional water obtained by the boiling may facilitate the decom-
loss of organic or animal matter they had suffered . The relative proportions of the phosphate and carbonate of lime had been comparatively little
bones buried at the roots of trees, was the large
position of the bone -dast in the soil, and thereby altered. The main effect, therefore, produced by bones, when buried at the roots of trees, as
give to the boiled bone a factitious value.
particularised in the table in ( 3325 ,) and their 3330. The organic parts of bones, when heated first effect, in all cases, must be owing to the to redness in the open air, are dissipated, and the animal matter they contain --- the elements of the earthy matter is left in the form and bulk of the animal matter, as it decomposes, being absorbed original bone. The calcined bones, which are by the roots with which the bones are in contact . very brittle , and easily reduced to powder, get He who candidly weighs the considerations the name of animal charcoal, but its proper above presented, will, I think , conclude, that the name is bone-black, which constitutes a valuable whole effect of bones cannot in any case be manure in some cases .
ascribed exclusively either to the one or the other of the principal constituents. He will
3331. Bones, when subjected to theaction of believe, indeed, that in the turnip husbandry the steam heat, equal to a pressure of 35 lbs. to the inch, becomespongy and brittle, and may be
organic part performs the most permanent and most immediately useful office , but that the
reduced easily to powder. This process has earthy part, nevertheless, affords a ready supply lately been introduced to notice by Mr Black- of certain inorganic kinds of food, which in many hall of Edinburgh, as a means of reducing bones
soils the plants could not otherwise easily obtain.
to powder in a more economical manner than by Hewill assign to each constituent its separate the powerful machinery which is necessary for and important function ,being constrainedat the the construction of a bone- grinding mill. But the analyses by Dr Anderson make it appear that steaming deprives bones of much animal matter. Thus, in two instances, steamed bones gave of 12-66 13-86 Water , Animal matter ,
Bone -earth ,
27.37 59.97
19.90 66-24
100.00
100.00
And that of bones in three states gave, from Water , Animal matter, Bone- earth,
Inch bones ,
Bone -dust .
Entire bones ,
10.00 41.88
14.89
48.12
10:39 42.60 47.01
37:04 48:17
100-00
100.00
100.00
same time to confess -- that, while in very many
cases the earthy part of bones applied alone would fail to benefit the land , there are few cultivated fields in which the organic part ap
plied alone would not materially promote the growth of most of our artificial crops." I 3333. The comparative value of bones and farm - yard dung was ascertained by Dr Henry R. Madden. This is his analysis of both : Bone -Dust.
Water, Organic matter, Inorganic matter,
100.00
Hence the loss of animal matter is as 27 to 40 ;
and hence, also, if crude bones cost £ 4 the ton, steamed bones would cost £5, 6s. 8d., besides the
expense of steaming.+ It has been more recently stated that steaming bones at a pressure of 50 lb. to the square inch, reduces them to a state of pulp.
11 :5
577 30.8
FARM- YARD DUNG,
Water,
45.535 43-565
Organic matter, Inorganic matter,
10-900 100-000
That the steaming process will deprive the bones 3334. Another analysis gave of azote in bone of most of their organic matter is evident, since * Ure's Dictionary of the Arts -- art. Bones.
+ Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, for July 1849, p. 22. # Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 789.
THE CULTURE OF THE TURNIP. dust 1 •77 per cent, in farm -yard dung .45 ; so that, with respect to azote, these substances stand comparatively thus in Total organic matter, Soluble matter,
Bone -dust. 38-50 10-20
Easily rendered soluble, 41.50 Azote , Saline matter ,
3339. Although it is improbable that you will keep bone-dust over the year, it being more pro
10.750
fitable to put it into the ground , yet in case you should have any left over, or should purchase a lot cheap out of season , it may be proper to let you know how to keep it in the best state until
1.77
14.250 -450
55.00
10.900
1
Easily dissolved do., 2.9 Azote, Saline matter,
become dry, and be in a good state for passing through the sowing-machine.
Farm - yard dung. 33.565
Hence 1 ton bone- dust equals, as regards1 ton farm - yard dung. Organic matter, Soluble matter ,
85
3.9 5
Earthy phosphates, 18:3 If all the various degrees in which bone-dust is superior to farm -yard dung be added together," concludes Dr Madden, “ 1 ton of it equals 30 tons of dung ; but as only 16 bushels of bone-dust are applied to the acre, which, at 47 lb. per bushel, weigh 7 cwt., this quantity is equal to 104 tons of dung ." *
66
3335. Bone -dust is less efficacious as manure on clay than on light land ; nor does land which has been recently limed experience the same
benefit from bone-dust as land devoid, or nearly so, of lime.
it is used . It is this : whenever you get it, you should put it on a dry pavement floor, as a damp one quickly rots it . It will heat, but not so strongly aswhen it was grinding, and it will heat every time it is turned, which it should not be. It should not be kept in the bags, as it will
soon rot them, as I have experienced, nor should it be kept upon or under a wooden floor, as it will rot it ; nor should it be kept near horses and cattle, as they evince a strong dislike to its smell ; and horses actually become restive and troublesome on feeling the smell it emits.
3340. Heating has the effect of increasing the weight of bone-dust from 47 lb. to 49 lb. per bushel, and this increase is no doubt effectedby the heating taking off the angles of the particles, and allowing them to come closer together in the bushel. The colouris also changed to blue and yel low, and, on examination with the microscope,the mass containsnumbers of minute insectslike mites.
3336. Bone-dust is obtained from those who
grind bones, with heavy and costly machinery , constructed for the purpose, and bone-mills are
3341. The consumption ofbone-dustas manure must have been great before the introduction of
guano ; and, even in my own experience of its use, large seaports . Hull is the great emporium of it rose in price from 28. 6d. to 3s. 6d. the bushel,
now common over the country, at least in all the
this article. When bone-dust is purchased on ship -board, it is almost always adulterated with old plaster, brick -dust, ashes, & c ., and should
on account of the increased demand, which con tinued to increase until the use of guano was
therefore be purchased direct froin the grinder-
known . It is now imported duty -free, and its price has receded to the original amount of 2s.
from one, if possible, on the spot. To avoid such
6d. the bushel.
adulteration , an association of farmers was formed a few years ago in Perthshire to import
bones, rape -cake, &c., and grind them at their own mills under the superintendence of a manager in whom they had confidence, and they thus supplied themselves with genuine manures.
3342. By a parliamentary return , the quantity of bones imported from abroad in 1847 was 29,646 tons, and in 1848, 32,582, the increased 2936 tons
implying an increasing demand for bone manure, notwithstanding the use of guano.
3337. Bone-dust is best conveyed from the mill in sacks, and 40 bushels will fill a double-
huano, meaning dung, so spelt by the Spaniards.
horse cart and sow 2 ! acres.
It is an excrementitious deposit from myriads
It weighs 47 lb.
3343, Guano .---Guano is the Peruvian word
per bushel. It should be immediately emptied of cormorants, flamingos, cranes, &c. and is found out of the sacks and kept in small heaps in a in the highest perfection in the small granite cool shed until it is used, as it is very apt to heat ; islands 10 miles from Chincha, off the coast of and one consequence of recent heating is, to Peru, in latitude 14°, to Paquica, on the coast of become lumpy and troublesome to sow by the Bolivia, in latitude 21 ° S. Little or no rain bone -dust sowing machine, fig. 259, though other- falls in this district, and it is to the desiccating wise it is not injured but rather improved by it. effect of the sun that the valuable state of the guano is to be ascribed. Rain falling in the dis 3338. If fresh bone-dust just obtained from tricts beyond those latitudes, the guano from the mill is desired to be heated at once, which it Chili is not so good as that obtained from the should be if it is to be kept for a few months, Peruvian port Iquique, having undergone a cer the process is much accelerated by the addition of a little sifted coal-ashes or earth, and as much water as will make the whole mass only damp,
and by turning it over several times until it is incorporated ; and in 48 hours the heat will be
so great that you cannot hold your hand in it. The heat will gradually subside, the mass
tain degree of fermentation .
3344. If guano be compared with the excre mentitious matter from man and the mammalia, it will be found to be very superior, imasmuch as the urine and dung of that class of animals are
evacuated separately, and each has its own
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv. p. 529-31.
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
86
peculiar action on vegetation ; whereas in birds
Silica ,
the excretions both of the kidneys and intestines
Undefined
are contained in the cloaca, whereby the volatile elements of the former become combined with the
more fixed components of the latter : and guano should be a richer manure than the excrements
1.25
organic 9.52 14.73 1.00 ?
matter, Matter Urate of ammonia, insoluble ) Oxalate of lime, in water .
of the mammalia, on account of its being pro duced by sea -fowl which live entirely on fish , without admixture of vegetable matter.
1-23
Subphosphate of lime, 22.00 Phosphate of magne 4.50 53-00 0:32 siaand ammonia , 100-00 9.80
ciate the value of guano as a manure, that they
3349. Two samples of guano were analysed in 1847 by Professor Johnston,one of which was ob
bring the nitrate of soda from the interior to the
tained in 1846 and kept in a dry room, the other in
coast to exchange for guano, though thenitrate is much cheaper. The farmers themselves collect
1847, both from Messrs Meyer & Co., Liverpool. He also analysed in 1848 two samples, one of
3345. So much do the farmers of Peru appre
the nitrate and purify it. From ordinary applica- Chilian and the other said tobe Peruvian, both ob tions, the returns from the nitrate upon maizeis tained from Glasgow .
All the analyses were
only 15 to 1, while that from guano is 300 to l. made at the request of Mr Cranstoun of Core were these : Hence the Peruvian proverb-Huano, though no house, Lanarkshire. The results 1848 . 1846 . 1847 . saint, works many miracles. 3346. Pure Bolivian guano possesses these
properties :—Pale yellow brown colour, dry, partly pulverulent, partly concreted, in small lumps, with small' fragments of granite inter of the pulverulent Specificthegravity spersed.without granite 1:60, of the concreportion
Water,
Peru . Peru . vian . vian , 7.83 15:14
Chi lan . 5.03
Peru vian . 8.70
Organic matter with ammonia 59.85 51.64 12.75 55-73 cal salts,
Common salt, sulphate of soda, with a little phosphate of pot ash and soda ,
12-24
• 67 15.86
6.23
29-72 47 35 26-48 Phosphates of limeand magnesia, 15-15 0.97 2-26 10-27 0.72 Carbonate of lime,
tions 1.66, mean 103.
Insolublesiliceousmatter,
of decomposition . The Chilian guano always emits such a smell. Genuine guano, when burned
The Peruvian guanos of 1846 and 1847, obtained
No ammoniacal smell should be felt, and when present it is a sure proof
3:39
1.71
8-74
2:14
99-43 99.14 100.00 100.00
on a hot shovel leaves a white ash of phosphate of direct from Meyer & Co., proved excellent; and lime and magnesia.
that of 1848 was also good, and much better than the Chilian used at the same time, and for
3347. Guano has been found on the coast of the same purposes. Africa, in the island of Ichaboe, and in Saldanha Bay, and on account of the high price of Peruvian , 3350. After many analyses of guano of the best these African deposits were highly prized; but as description, Dr Urewasenabled toestablish the fol the supply from them was scanty, it was soon ex lowing formula as an average result, and which hausted. The guano from those sources was of has reference solely to its agricultural value : a very inferior description to that from Peru. I Azotised animal matter, including urate of have heard that a recent visit to Ichaboe has
ammonia, together capable ofaffording
discovered new deposits of guano there, so that the
from 8 to 16 per centof ammonia by
birds must have returned to their former haunts.
slow decomposition in the soil, .
Water, Were these deposits placed under responsible Phosphate of lime,
authority , as are those of Peru, it is probable that
ammonia,
taken as individual caprice and interest dictate .
Siliceous sand,
the substance in its best state, its composition should be a standard for comparison : Ammonia .
Sulphate of potash, 6.00 0.95 4.62
1.00
0.34 0:50 0-89
ammonia,
together containing from 5 to 9 parts of 13 . 1.
100
3351. Guano is adulterated to a great extent, and one sample, offered to the public by adver tisement as Peruvian , Dr Ure found to contain the following ingredients :
Sulphate of ammonia,
2.00
Oxalate of ammonia , Water ,
3.23 8.50
Common siliceous sand, Sulphate of iron , or copperas, Phosphate of lime, Organic matter from bad guano, &c. to give it a smell, . Moisture, .
ammonia, , 14:32 Muriate of ofammonia 3.00 Phosphate soluble | Sesqui - carbonate of
Matter
in water.
nia, ammonia, phosphate of magnesia ,
Common salt,
with a little sulphate of soda ,
12. to 25 .
Phosphate of ammonia, sulphate of ammo
they might yield a continued supply of good manure,but ifleft to commercial rivalry,the birds will again be driven away, and the guano will be
3348. Dr Ure, among many analyses of guano, made an elaborate one of a sample from Chincha ; and as this sample may be regarded as a type of
50 8. to Il .
.
32-0 28-0 5.2
4.0 with 23.3 7.5 100-00
Soluble organic mat ter and urea ,
8.95 47.00
This stuff had a specific gravity as high as 2:17 produced from the salt,sand, and copperas ; and,
THE CULTURE OF KOHL - RABI.
87
when burned in a hot shovel, left ablack fused for the climate of Scotland, although it it analysed by a competent chemist; andin gardens. In Ireland it has been success
shouldtherefore purchase guano withouthaving maybe raised in favoured spots, such as guarding the interestsof farmers in this respect, fully cultivated for years. the late Agricultural Chemistry Association of Scotland was eminently useful. The Highland
3357. As kohl- rabi holds the same
andAgriculturalSociety of Scotland in their position, as a crop, as theturnip, its cul chemical department will be equally protective of the farmers' interest.
The sure way to pur
ture is very similar; but while turnips af
fect the lighter soils, kobl-rabi thrives on Messrs Gibbs ofLondon, or Messrs Meyer & Co. tbe stronger, so it may be raised where Liverpool, who are theaccredited agents of the turnips cannot be. The stubble -land in of Peruvian government in this country. the beginning of winter is either gathered 3352. Peruvian guano is always high-priced up with gore-furrows ( 749 and 756) or in this country, being seldom below £ 10 the ton, cast with the same, ( 755 and 756.) In chase genuine guano is to order it only from
notonlyon account of its superiority toother kinds - and the longer voyage no doubt incurs a larger freight than the African- buttheexport: duty imposed on the shippers from Bolivia en African guano is hances the value £ 3 a ton .
spring it is cross-ploughed, ( 2613,) drilled in the single way, (2389) manured in the drill, ( 2749) redrilled in the double way, ( 2397,) and made ready for the seed,
sold for £5 or £6 a ton, and the Chilian for £7 .
as in the case of turnip culture. All these
operations should be gone through by the the importation in 1847 was 82,393 tons ; in 1848, 1st of May, and before the land for the 3353. Guano is now imported duty -free, and
71,414 tons, which gives a falling off of 10,979 earliest of the turnips is required.
tons in one year, which, at 8 cwt the acre, indi cates a want of the means of manuring for 79,860
3358. Either of two modes may be
acres in1848 compared with 1847,+ but the in- adopted in cultivating kohl-rabi — to trans
period would manure 11,248 acres,at 16 bushels plant plants, or sow the seed. If the me thod of transplanting is adopted, a piece
the acre .
of good ground in a favoured aspect should
3354. About 4 or 5 cwt. is the quantity of be prepared in February or beginning of guano which experience has ascertained to be March, by deep digging and manuring, required for the acre when applied alone, and 3
cwt. in conjunction with farm -yard dung.
and sowing the seed in rows of 12 inches apart, and not very thick in the row . The
ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER TREAT-
the hand -hoe, fig . 266, which it should
MENT OF KOHL - RABI .
occasionally be, not only to keep down
rois admit of the ground being hoed with surface-weeds, but to loosen the soil for
3355. Kohl-rabi, or the turnip -rooted the encouragement of the growth of the
cabbage, is a plant of recent introduction plants. The plants should be raised and into the agriculture of Britain.
Atten- carried to the field to be transplanted,
tion was directed to it in consequence of in the manner already described for trans
the properties it possesses of withstanding planting swedes, (3269 ) in the first week dronght, and being little subjected to the of May, before the sowing of the swedes attack of insects - properties which impart abont the 15th of May. As damp and to it an intrinsic value over Swedish tur- cloudy weather is the most favourable state
nips. Still it was a question whether it of the air for transplanting plants, it would afford a large enough crop to be- should be chosen for the purpose; and the come a substitute for swedes; and it ap- operation may be forwarded or retarded be pears, from recent experience, that it is fore orafter the ordinary time, for the sake capable of affording, in certain localities at of obtaining the assistance of such weather. least, a heavy crop. 3359. But as transplantation is attended
3356. Agreeing with heat and drought, with considerable trouble, the crop is it may suit the climate of the south of equally secure when sown in the seed ;
England, to which it has hitherto been and the seed may be sown either by itself, confined ; but it is, I suspect, too delicate with the common turnip -sowing machine, * Ure's Dictionary of the Arts, and Supplement - art. Guano.
+ Parliamentary Return, 26th February 1849.
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
88
fig. 254, or along with manure , with the
3363. Two varieties of kohl-rabi are
bone-dust sowing-machine, fig. 259. The cultivated — the green and the purple. The quantity of seed may be the same as green gives the heavier crop, but the pur swedes, namely 3 lb. the acre . And as ple the more nutritious one. bone -dust is not favourable to strong soil, 3364. Specimens of kohl -rabi have the manure selected should be bone -dust
prepared with oil of vitriol, termed sul- been raised in Scotland weighing from phated bones, (3233. ) The seed is dear- 5 lb. to 7} lb. each ; in Ireland, indivi it costs 2s. 6d . per lb.; on which account, dual bulbs have attained the weight of
it has been recommended to be sown 14 lb.; and in England they commonly with manure with the drop -drill sowing- reach from 8 lb. to 10 lb. machine, fig. 261 , or dibbled in at intervals 3365. As kohl-rabi stands in the same position along the drill. I think the saving would not compensate for the trouble of dibbling, in the Linnæan ,Jussieuan, and natural system of Lindley, as the turnip , it is unnecessary to re or the purchase of a drop - drill machine. peat the particulars which have been already given in (3283.) Its specific name is Brassica
3360. When the seed is sown, the crop oleracea, caulo-rapa, alba ,of De Candolle, and,as is singled the same as turnips with the this name indicates, it is a variety of the common
hand-boe, (3259,) and the intervals left cabbage. Its peculiar character is in having its between the plants may vary from 12 to 15 inches, according to the vegetating power of the soil. The cleaning of the ground with the scuffler, fiy. 262, and with
stem uppermass, extremity swollen intoanda large towards globularitspulpy in consistence
texture somewhat resembling a Swedish turnip ; from and near the summit of which mass the leaves,which are smooth, and of various shapes
and shades of colour, are produced. The taste the drill-grubber, fig. 264, is the same as of the pulpy mass is very similar to that of the
in the case of the turnip, (3256 ;) but when heart of the stem of the cabbage. the finishing operation is arrived at, the 3366. The kohl-rabi is used in Germany as a ground between the rows should not be
left somewhat flat, as recommended for vegetable for thetable. In whateverway it the turnip, (3277,) but raised with the is cooked, it is a coarse, harsh vegetable ; and yet we hear people in this country recommend, double mould - board plough , fig. 209, as ing its culture in the gardens of the poor, as a high as just not to cover the bulb upon the suitable esculent for their use ; but why the
stem of the plant, and this setting up should vegetables eaten by the poor labouring man and not be executed until the bulbs have his family should be coarser than those for other attained the size of a man's hand.
people, it is difficult to perceive. If mere bulk of crop is a recommendation of it for the poor, the Swedish turnip becomes bulky enough
3361. With 16 tons of good farm-yard for such a purpose, and it is actually better
dung, and 4 or 5 cwt. of sulphated bones tasted, even when ,plain boiled, than the heart to which that of the kohl stem of a cabbage likened. to the acre, a crop of from 20 to 30 tons rabi has been verytruly
may be expected to be raised. Kohl-rabi
will yielda heavier crop than swedes on
3367. The kohl- rabi is an excellent food
clay land, but not so heavy on turnip soil. for cowsand horses, and, when boiled with A sprinkling of2 cwt. of guano to the acre, grain for their use, will afford them truenourish
around each plant after they are singled, ment . The leaves may also be used, having en would tend to increase the size of the bulb should be removed with a sparing hand, else the materially.
3362. The advantageswhichkohl-rabi is said to possess over Swedish turnips by those who bave cultivated it in Eng
enlargement of the bulb will be prevented .
ON THE PLANTING, AND TIE SUMMER TREATMENT OF THE CABBAGE.
land and Ireland , are these :-cattle, and
especially horses, are fonder of it ; the
3368. The cabbage may be usefully
leaves are better food ; it bears transplant- and successfully raised on a farm ; and, ing better than any other root ; insects do occupying the same position in the order not injure it ; drought does not prevent its of cropping as the turnip and potato, it is growth ; it stores quite as well or better ; planted on the fallow break . It likes a
it stands the winter better ; and it affords rich deep soil with a considerable propor food later in the season, even in June.
tion of clay.
THE CULTURE OF THE CABBAGE.
89
3369. The cabbage, up to the time of treatment may be from 30 to 40 tons the laying the dung in the drill, is cultivated acre . In Scotland, the drumhead cabbage
in precisely the same manner as are tur- has yielded in the field from 17 lb. to 22 1b. nips and potatoes. As the cabbage re- of individual weight, with the stem and quires much manure, 20 tons to the acre
under leaves ; and from 10 lb. to 14 lb. of
of farm - yard dung should be given, and at solidly - hearted leaves. There are a great least 2 cwt. of guano sown by haud over many small cabbages in a crop, but at 10 the dung. The drills are then set up in the lb. of solid heart in each plant, the yield double form , ( 2397 ;) and just before the should be 43 tons 4 cwt. the acre . plants are planted on the drills, a light roller, of the form of fig. 222, should flatten 3373. The under leaves should never be their tops, andreduce the soil on them to a plucked from the close-headed cabbage, fine state . The turnip -sowing machine, but be allowed to drop off. Those of the fig. 254, with the coulters removed, will open -hearted sorts, and of the kales, may do this work well with its curved rollers.
be removed by the hand, and the growth
of the remaining ones will be increased. 3370. Cabbages may be raised by sow
3374. The application of 2 cwt. of sul ing the seed inthe drill, aswith turnips, or by transplanting prepared plants. The phated bones to the acre, around each plant,
transplanting is much the preferable and would greatly increase the size of the secure plan for raising cabbages. The plants close-headed cabbage, and the leaves of the are prepared in this way : Plough, or dig with the spade, a piece of ground, which has grown early potatoes or tares for the horses in harvest, with a sprinkling of manure upon it, and sow the cabbage seed, either broadcast, which is the common mode, but better in rows at 12 inches
open -hearted kinds. 3375. In autumn the cabbage plant is subjected to the attacks of insects, and particularly to that of the well-known cabbage butterfly Pontia brassicæ, with white wings and black tips, which pro
apart, and fence the plot from trespassers duces the long, beautiful, green caterpillars, during the winter. Hoe the ground be- familiar to every one who frequents a
tween the rows, and keep it clean. From garden. the end of March to May, take the best of the plants in the manner described in
3376. The cabbage occupies the same place as transplanting Swedish turnips (3269,) and the turnip and kohl-rabi in the systems of botany. The specific name of the drumhead cabbage---so transplant them in moist or dull weather named, I suppose, from its resemblance in size and
on the vewly prepared flattened drills, at shape to a drum , is Brassica oleracea , capitata 2 feet apart; and at this distance, with 27 depressa, and of the Scotch cabbage, Brassica inches between the drills, 9680 plants will oleracea, capitata spherica alba, of De Candolle, 893. ) The large savoy, cape, or drumhead be required for the acre. When pur (savoy, with its solid-like globular form of head, chased from nurserymen or gardeners, the and wrinkled leaves, being both hardy and pro plants cost 58. the 1000. ductive, might also be cultivated in the field . The tall purple German green is so cultivated . 3371. The summer treatment of the
cabbage, as regards scuffling, hand - hoeing, drill-grubbing for the destruction of weeds and the pulverisation of the surface,isin
3377. The ash left by burning the dry leaves of the cabbage leave the following ingredients,
according to the analysis of DrFromberg :
all respects the same as that of the turnip.
Potash,
The earth should be laid toward the stems
Soda, Lime,
double mould-board plough, fig. with onthefinishing 209, the operations, to assist in steadyingthe plants, as, when the heads be come heavy, the wind is apt to cause the stem to work a hole around it.
Magnesia, Oxide of iron ,
11.70 20.42 20.97 5.94 0.60
Phosphoric acid,
12.37
Sulphuric acid ,
21.48
Chlorine, Silica ,
5.77 0.75 100.00 *
3372. The crop expected from such * Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 384.
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
90
I have given thequantity ofmineral matter taken low, and the globe orange, which pames from the soilby a crop of 20 tons of drumhead truly indicate their respective characters ; cabbage at (894.)
and where the chief reliance of winter
3378. In the neighbourhood of large towns, food is placed on beet in preference to farmers raise the drumhead and common gar- turnip, all the varieties ought to be cul den cabbage to supply the market gardeners for tivated, since the globe orange thrives
planting in spring, in the manner describedin best on light soil, and the long yellow (3370.) The plants are cleared off the ground is in a better state for use in the early early in spring, and the ground sown with spring
wheat. Good plants fetch about half-a-crown part of winter than the long red . The the thousand . circumstance of beet not being a safe root to give to cattle, until it has been some
3379. The turnip -rooted cabbage , Brassica time out of the ground, is the only objec dolle, is little known in English culture,though tion,and it is a seriousone, to their indis it is cultivated in the fields of thenorth of France. criminate use. Its root is white or red, and its neck and pitioles greenish or purplish .
It has a woody short
3383. One and the other of these varie
stem, produced by the formation and decay of ties will grow on any soil intermediate
the leaves;and as new leavesare formed by the from a gravel to astrongclay, on neitherof central bud of the stem, the lower leaves drop
off, and thus the top of the bulb assumes the ap- which classes of soil will any one succeed. pearance of a stem .
Dr Neill observes that it
has a root under ground as sweet as a Swedish turnip.
3384. The climate of Scotland does not
seem to suit mangold-wurzel. I tried it
3380. The cow -cabbage, or Cesarean kale, in Forfarshire for three successive years Brassica oleracea, acephala arborescens, of De on the best land I possessed, wbich had as Candolle, which created so much interest a few well been long in cultivation as in a fresh years ago, only deserves a passing notice. " This state, but failed in two seasons ont of the plant,” says Don , " is almost similar in habit to the palm kale, and it lasts four years without three ; and the successful crop was but a
fresh planting .InLa Vendée,it is said to at- poor compensation compared to turnips. tain the height of 12 or 16 feet. In Jersey this
In England it succeeds well, particularly
plant is sufficiently hardy,and thereit grows in the eastern counties, and in the north from 4 to 12 feet.
The small farmers there feed
their cows with the leaves, plucking them from the stem as they grow , leaving the crown at the top. The stems being strong , are also used
by them for roofing small outhouses. When the
of Ireland I have seen very heavy crops
of the long red on drained bog. 3385. The mangold-wurzel being a
gathering of the leaves is finished at the end of green crop, is subjected to precisely the the year, the terminating bud or crown is boiled, same culture as the turnip up to the point and is said to be particularly sweet. It is not
sufficiently hardy tostand theclimate of Britain, of ploughing the dung in the drills, and unless planted in a very sheltered situation ." *
need not berepeated here. The quantity of farm -yard dung given is the same as to Swedish turnips - 16 tops the acre, with 3
ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER TREAT-
cwt. of guano, sown upon the dung before being covered in the drill. The land should
MENT OF MANGOLD - WURZEL .
thus be prepared for the seed early in
3381. Mangold -wurzel, a species of beet, April, and not later than the beginning of is a very important green crop, and may be May. regarded as next so to the turnip. It con
tains a sweet nutritious juice, which seems well adapted forthe supportofcows in milk, as it imparts none of the acrid flavour which the turnip does. This root, therefore, ought to be valued on every dairy farm .
3386. The seed of mangold -wurzel
being covered with a rough integument, cannot be sown with a turnip -machine having the common seed -boxes . Perhaps Geddes' turnip sowing-machine, with the
mode of feeding the seed described in fig. 3382. There are several varieties of 257, might answer the purpose ; and Mr
mangold-wurzel fitted for cultivation in Raynbird of Suffolk refers to a one-horse the field ; the long red, the long yel- drill which sows three rows of seed at * Don's General Dictionary of Botany and Gardening, vol . i. p. 229.
THE CULTURE OF MANGOLD -WURZEL .
a time, over three acres in two hours. *
91
3388. When the weather is favourable,
Newberry's wheel-dibbler has also been the plants should make their appearance used. I have never seen a machine cap- above ground in 8 or 10 days. The able of sowing mangold -wurzel seed well, scuffler , fig. 262, is first sent along the and one that will sow two drills at a drills to pare their sides, and cut down time, like turnips — and roll the drills be- any weeds in the intermediate space ; and fore and after the sowing with a light I may say at once that the entire clean
roller — is preferable, for management, to ing process, during thesummer, is precisely one having three drills. Mr Miles uses an the same as for the turnip. The plants iron wheel, upon the circumference of are hoed out with the hand-hoe, fig. 266, which are placed iron studs at 18 inches apart and 24 inches in projection, to act as dibbles in forming holes along the top of the drill ; but a projecting stud from the circumference of a wheel in revolution must make a hole much ragged on one side. In lack of a machine, I tried a plan of sowing which answered very well, and which I would prefer to any dibble - it was this : A light roller flattened and made even the tops of two drills at once,
at from 14 to 18 inches apart, according to the strength and rich state of the land;
and this is the time to fill up the blanks in the crop, by the transplantation of the best plants which had been singled out. 3389. Mangold -wurzel is raised in rows on the flat surface as well as in drills,
and this is chiefly practised on thestrongest species of soils, when the manure is plough ed in at the commencement of winter.
when the soil had become dry after the The seed is dibbled in by hand, or with
ploughing of the dung. A field -worker followed , and made a light rut along the top of the drill with the corner of a handhoe, fig. 266 ; another worker dropped the
Newberry's dibbler, referred to above, (3386,) or with a flat piece of wood 5 or 6 feet long, furnished with short dibbles, in the holes made by which the seed is drop
seed along the rut in the givenquantity , ped by the hand . In the flat culture sow 4 tb or 5 ib to the acre - steeped or in a drying with the common dibble, giving it a state as desired ; dry sand being mixed twist with the wrist to keep the hole open with it, in either state, to allow the more until the seeds have been dropped into it
easy separation from each other ; and a by a field -worker, a man and woman sow
third worker followed and levelled the ing an acre a day, is apt to make the earth, which had been raised up in making dibble holes in strong soil receptacles for the rut, over the seed with the back of an
water.
But there isno method so good of
iron garden rake. The sowing was thus raising green crops of all kinds as in drills ;
conducted quickly , though a sowing-ma- and if rough clods are dreaded in strong chine that rolls the drills at the same land, let the land be drilled and manured
time would be preferable. A roller fol- in winter, as has been recommended in the lows the sowing, and terminates the whole case of raising turnips on strong soils, (3244. ) One objection to the flat culture operation. on strong soils seems to me to be insuper 3387. A difference of opinion exists able — that the roots are apt to set out lateral whether or not the seeds of mangold -wur- shoots, after the soil is set up with the zel should be steeped in some liquor before double mould -board plough. being sown . Mr Raynbird conceives they should be sown dry, and, on trying an
3390. By some experiments instituted
experiment with steeped and dry seeds, by Mr Pusey, on the effects of certain found that 10 of the dry germinated, manures on the growth of mangold -wur
whilst the largest number of the steeped zel, it would appear that, in doubling that appeared was only 6, and these had farm -yard dung from 13 loads to 26 the been steeped in water for 14 hours. I acre, only one ton additional was obtained ; prefer the dry seed , as being safest from and that, of various ingredients used , no
the effects of frost anddrought,both which effect exceeding 5 tons the acre, beyond may be expected at the season mangold- what badno manure at all, was produced wurzel seed should be sown.
with the exception of 3 cwt. ofguano, and
* Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. viii . p. 213.
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
92
7 cwt. of woollen rags, each along with 13 wurzel leaves is not serious, the crop re
loads of farm - yard dung, which produced covering after the larva have dropped into 36 tons the acre. The conclusionsatwbich the ground to be transformed into pupæ , Mr Pusey arrived are sensible, and are thus expressed :-“ The two principal results of the experimentseem to be — that there is in some soils a limit beyond which an additional dose of dung is of no use. This result, if confirmed , would be inte-
from which emerge the beetles. A very destructive t insect is the common dart
moth, Noctua or Agrotis segetum , is generally of a reddish -brown, but sogreatly in the tint of the upper as to besometimes of a clay colour.
which varies wings It is
resting in theory. In actual farming there in length from 8 lines to three- quarters of is not much danger of our erring in that an inch, and its expanse is from 1
to 2
direction, as to our dressingsof dung ; and inches. The moth issometimes seen flying in some parts of the country this would not, in multitudes about the tops of hedges,soon perhaps, be a very safe doctrine to dwell after sunset, in June and July. The larva upon.
The other inference, a more prac- is smooth and shining , and of a pale lurid
tical one, is, that it is more profitable to ochreous colour, faintly freckled, with a use some artificial manures in conjunction broad space down the back, often rosy, and with dung, than to use either singly. a few short hairs scattered over the body. Thus guano and woollen rags, used singly, It does great mischief to young mangold added to my crop only 5 tons the acre. wurzel plants, the roots of which it cuts
The single dressing of dung added only 11 through just below the crown, and it tons, and doubling that amount of dung attacks the potatoes as they are pusbing did no good ; but guano combined with out of the ground, and is exceedingly vora cious. One cause of the great mischief bined with the same amount of dung, each arising from the attacks of the caterpillar gave an addition, not of 16 tons of roots, of this species, is its capability of travel the same amount of dung, and rags com-
according to theireffects when used singly, ling at a very rapid rate from one spot to but of 20 tons, yielding each 36 tons — a another ; and in this way, as soon as a produce very large indeed for land which, caterpillar has eaten through the root of a four years ago, when I took it in hand, was young plant, it marches off in quest of an said to be incapable of growing a turnip.” * other, and thus the evil is greatly multi plied. The grub which attacks the oat
3391. Like all the succulent green crops, plant in spring, fig. 223, also injures the mangold -wurzel is subject to the attack of mangold- wurzel plant by dividing the insects. It was at one time believed that young root about an inch below the sur this root was exempt from such attacks, face of the ground. Insects which injure but the experience of the few years bypast the parts of crops under the ground are has produced an opposite conviction. The much more destructive in their effects than mangold -wurzel plant, as soon as it ap- those which injure the leaves and buds of pears above ground, is attacked by the plants. larva of a beetle, named Silpha opaca. 3392. It is not an unfrequent practice The eggs are probably laid in the earthbut this remains to be proved — and the larva are hatched in ten or twelve days,
to strip off the under leaves of the man
gold-wurzel plant in summer, as fodder
and when full -grown are four to five lines for cows and pigs ; but the practice, as These are shining black, may be supposed,is injurions, as seenfrom
in breadth .
comprising 13 segments, including the an experiment made by Mr R. Rand, head. They have 6 short legs. From Hadleigh, Suffolk, in 1842. He selected
1844 to 1847 they completely ate down 3 portions of mangold -wurzel, containing the leaves of the mangold -wurzel in the each 7 square yards, and from the first por counties of Londonderry and Tyrone in tion he stripped 4 or 5 of the under leaves Ireland ; and what is remarkable, the same on 8th of July, 6th of August, and first week insect, though abundant in England, does of September ; from the second portion he no harm to that crop there. The ultimate stripped the same number at each period
effect of these attacks on the mangold- of the 6th of August and the first week * Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. vi. p. 532.
+ Ibid. vol. viii. p. 407.
THE CULTURE OF MANGOLD -WURZEL.
93
of September; and from the third por- were carefully cleaned and weighed, and tion none were stript at all. The roots the produce was as follows: From 1st portion, 47 } lb. net weight, or 14 tons, 13 cwt. O qrs. 27 lbs. per acre . 2d 3d
52
61
...
16 16
...
1 16
0
2
...
2 0*
3397. The German name of the field beet was 3393. Roots of mangold -wurzel have been grown in Scotland as heavy as 15 lb., atone time a matter of dispute, but is now set
and crops obtained of 38 tons to the acre ,
tled to be mangold -wurzel, which literally means the root of the white beet. The former phrase
at Largo in Fifeshire, where the land is of mangel-wurzel meansthe root of scarcity, and fine quality. From 5 lb. to 8 lb. each root used by Von Thäer, in common with the former, would be near the ordinary mark ; but in to denominate the field beet. His opinion is, seasons of late frosts, of which there are that the field beet is a hybrid betwixt the red
too many in Scotland, the mangold -wur- garden, beet and the white sugar beet - a not improbable conjecture. S
zel has no chance of succeeding there. 3398. Mangold -wurzel seed has a remarkable
3394. The plants of mangold -wurzel appearance. It proceeds from a capsule which, are very apt to run to seed when exposed when green, is soft and fleshy, and, when ripe,
to drought early after having been singled hard,and somewhatwoody in texture,and into outin the rows; and the seed from plants, imbedded. The seeds,with their persistent rough which had prematurely run to seed, en- capsule, are so large and heavy as only to require
courages that tendency in the future 184 to weigh a drachm . plant still more than drought. 3395. The mangold-wurzel belongs to the class and order Pentandria Digynia of Linnæus ; the
3399. I have given the composition of mangold wurzel in (854,) and the ashes of the bulb and leaf, as ascertained by Professor Way and Mr
natural order Chenopodiæ of Jussieu; and to Hy- Ogston, contain ingredients as follows : pogynous Exogens -- alliance 38, Chenopodales
1. Of the yellow globe beet.
order 195, Chenopodiaceae - genus Beta, of the natural system of Lindley. Its specific name is Beta vulgaris campestris,of the order Chenopods, which are closely allied to the Nettleworts. Its leaves are reddish or reddish green ; roots thickly fusiform , globular, or spindle-shaped, of a dullish
Bulb .
23:54 19-08 1.78
Potash , Soda,
Lime,
Magnesia, Oxide of iron ,
red colour on the outer surface, and marbled white and red of various shades in the interior.
Carbonic acid, Phosphoric acid,
One globular variety is of dull orange colour on the outer skin , and another spindle -shaped is
Sulphuric acid , Chloride of sodium , Silica ,
similar in colour.
Leaf 8:34
12:21 8.72
1.75 0.74
9.84
18.14 4.49 3.68 24:54 2.22
6.92 5.89 6.54
1.46
37.66 2-35
99.96
99.93
1.02
1.40
3396. A white variety, called the white sugar
beet, Beta vulgaris campestris alba, has longbeen
Percentage of ash ,
cultivated in France for the sugar which it yields. Many mills are at work in that country for the manufacture of the sugar.t It was the policy of Buonaparte to encourage the culture of this root, in order to render the French people independent
Bulb ,
Leaf.
Potash,
29-05
27.53
of sugar from our colonies. The scheme succeeded
Soda,
in France, but the climate of Britain is unsuited to this delicate root. The physical characters
Lime,
19-05 2.17
which serve to show that this beet is of good qua
Oxide of iron , Carbonic acid ,
5.83 9:06 9.10 0.48 6.11 4.39 6.26 29.85
lity for sugar, are its being firm , brittle, emitting a creaking noise when cut, and being perfectly sound within. The degree of sweetness is also a good indication. The 45th degree of latitude appears to be the southern limit of the successful growth of white beet, in reference to the extrac
tion of sugar. Dr Ure states that he has obtained 5 per cent of good sugar from white beet grown near Mitchemin Surrey.I
2. Of the long red beet.
Magnesia, Phosphoric acid, Sulphuric acid, Chloride of sodium , Silica,
Percentage of ash,
2.79 0.56
21.61 3:11
3:31 14:18
4:11
1.35
99.94
99.96
1.00
1.91
* Henslow's Letters to the Farmers of Suffolk - Letter xiv. + Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol.ii. p. 922.
# Ure's Dictionary of the Arts - art. Sugar, p. 1210. Thäer's Principles of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 589 -- Shaw and Johnston's translation
PRACTICE - SUMMER.
94
3400. Mineral matters in pounds in one
ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER TREAT
ton of
MENT OF THE CARROT. Mean of
Mean of
three speci-
three speci
mens of bulb .
mens of leaf.
Ib .
Ib.
Potash, Soda,
4.99 3.02 0.41 0:43 0.12 0-66 0.65
2-52 3:31 3.27 0.52 1.94 2.20
5.29
12.82
0:54
0.76
16:11
35.20
Lime,
Magnesia, Oxide of iron,
Phosphoric acid, Sulphuric acid, Chloride of sodium ,
Silica,
7.86
3403. Although the carrot is a green crop, and occupies the same course of cropping as the turnip, it is raised gene rally on so limited spaces of ground that
it has never assumed the importance of a crop of the farm as its value deserves. Its limited culture may have arisen from cer tain inconveniences attending its culti vation, such as that it requires a particu
lar kind of soil, very deep ploughing-the dung applied in the unusual season of winter, wben the land of the fallow break
3401. “ The chief features in the composition is not likely to be free of weeds, a second ofthe ash of the bulb, arethe large proportion of manuring when the seed is sown,and some
alkali present in it ascarbonates,but existing difficultyattending the sowing of the seed. in the vegetable itself no doubt in great part in
These are all unusual items of practice,
the form of nitrates, which are wellknown to be constituents of beet. Phosphoric sulphuric acid, and lime, are found in the acid, mangold bulb ash in smaller quantity than in that of the turnip. The high percentage of common salt, chloride of sodium ,in beet is remarkable : in one case it constitutes one-third, in another one-fourth , of the entire mineral matter. The ash of beet leavescontain more phosphoric and sulphuric acid,
which I have no doubt continue to ope rate as obstacles against the extended cul tivation of even so valuable a root as the carrot. On however small a scale it is cultivated, every particular of the process of cultivation must be attended to as if the crop occupied as large a space as the
more lime and magnesia, but less alkali, and á turnip. smaller amount of alkaline carbonate, than that
of the bulb. It contains, however, like the bulb, a very considerable quantity of common salt.
3404. The best soil for the carrot is a
The ash of bothbulb and leat'evidences a partial deep sandy loam. It will not succeed at substitution of soda for potash . Weight for all on tenacions soil of any kind, nor one weight, the leaves are considerably richer in resting immediately upon a retentive sub phosphoric acid than the bulbs ; and they also soil, whether of clay or rock, and much contain a very much larger proportion of mag- less if either are undrained . The alkalies predominate in the bulb, whilst common salt, although abundantly present in both, is found in larger quantity in the leaf
nesia.
than in that of the turnip ."
3405. As the carrot has a long fusiform root, which grows almost entirely under ground, it is evident that it must have a
3402. Itmaybeowingtotheeffects ofthelarge deep soil; and such a depth of soil must quantity of common salt contained in mangold wurzelandturnips , that the milkof cowsde- either be natural or artificially made so,
creases when fed exclusively on raw mangold. before the root can be expected to arrive at wurzel, or that abortion is brought on ewes in lamb when placed wholly on turnips in winter, and their milk deficient when the lambs are
dropped. It is a well-known fact that, when ewes
a perfect proportion of length.
3406. While treating of sea-weed as a
in lamb have been principally fed on Swedish manure, I mentioned that it was so used
turnips, for some time before the lambing season , for raising carrots, ( 2110,) by people in that their lambs are small and unhealthy, and certain parts of the coasts of Scotland, themselves are deficient of milk. The effect may
light sandy soil. This is the mode arise from the circumstance ofthe largequantity in of raising carrots practised by the feuars of common salt contained in turnips diminishing the secretion of the liver, and the effect would of the parish of Barrie, Forfarshire, on be aggravated by a free use of common salt being sandy soil, and it deserves imitation in
given toewes on turnips ; and it is,besides, known similar circumstances. They begin a trench
that incipient disease ofthe liver is favourable of2 feet deep in the sand in autumn, after to the production of fat, and hence the high con dition of the ewes or lamb on turnips, and espe
a white crop, and, collecting sea -weed as it
cially if salt is attainable at pleasure.*
is washed ashore after storms in the course
* Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. viii. p. 185-190.
95
THE CULTURE OF THE CARROT.
of winter, they half - fill trench after trench should be applied in drill ; and as it need
with it, till the break of soil allotted to not be much reduced by fermentation, Of cour se
the carrot crop is manured . other manure
the drills should be deep, and formed
would answer the same pur. in the double mode, (2397.) The quan
pose as sea-ware, but when it can be found in sufficient quantity for the gathering and carriage, it affords a cheap manure for the purpose . Of farm -yard manure, horse-
tity applied should be 25 tons to the acre. Afterthe dung has been covered in the double mode again, the land remains in that state until next spring.
dung is found to be best when treated in thismanner as sea -ware is.
In the end of
3408. About the end of April the seed
April, or beginning of May, ruts are form- is sown, and carrot seed should always be ed with the hoe in rows of about 14 steeped in water before being sown, and it
inches apart, and old rotten dung is sown is steeped in this way: The bag containing along the bottom of them to insure the the seed, which should be in the quantity brairding of the seed on so poor a soil as of 6 lb. of the best quality tothe acre, and loose sand generally is, the seed is sown upon the dung, and the soil raked over it. The plants are thinned out by the hand, at about six inches asunder, and the ground
an indefinite number of pounds more when of doubtful soundness — which it will cer tainly be if older than one year — is placed in a vessel of water and allowed to soak
kept clean by hand and hoe together. The for 48 hours ; and this process should be carrots grown by the sea -weed in this gone through eight or nine days before the manner, in loose sand, are not only excel- seed is sown. After the soaking, the seed lent in quality, but clean, long, and juicy, is spread about a foot in thickness upon as may be witnessed in the Dundee market the barn floor, to encourage its germina in autumn and winter. The culture in tion, which will take place in six or seven
this case is on a small scale, but may be days, according to the stateof the weather. extended to any degree where the cir- When the seed is observed to be chipped it
cumstances are similar. At the price of should be sown, and it is prepared for £ 3, or £3, 10s. the ton, and with a crop sowing by being intimately mixed with of not more than 10 tons to the acre, a fine drysand to about 4 pecks to the acre, considerable sum may be annually realised seed and sand together. by the labouring and industrious cottar. Instead of rotten dung in the spring, guano 3409. About the middle of April, should
might be employed, and in case of injury the drilled ground bear evidence of sur to the seed from the guano, the seed should face weeds, the drill-harrow , fig. 220, be mixed with a quantity of the sand. should harrow along the drills, and the drill-grubber, fig. 264, remove the weeds 3407. The land intended to bear the between the drills.
At this time, 2 cwt.
carrot crop, should be ploughed in the of guano should be carefully sown by band
stubble immediately after the harvest is along the top of the drills. The setting over, to have time to clean it, should it be up double mould -board plough, fig. 214, foul, before the bad weather in winter. should place the mould again upon the As the soil is light, the mode of plough- drills, and give them again their proper ing it will be by casting, (755,) fig. form ; and a light roller, such as the con 22; and, when ploughed, a second plough cave rollers ofthe turnip sowing -machine, should follow in the furrow of the one fig. 254, without the coulters, will make
turning over the surface, in order to stir the tops even and smooth. The seed the soil to the depth of 14 or 16 inches. should be preparing in the steeping and
Reid's two -horse subsoil- plough, to be germinating processes, to answer the time afterwards figured and described, will answer a similar purpose. The land will now be ready for the dung ; for the manure for carrots must be put into the ground
of these last operations; and the large quantity of sand with which it is mixed will protect it from immediate contact and
injury from the action of the guano.
before winter, the nature of that root not
agreeing with fresh dung, which causes it
3410. I have never yet seen a properly
to divide into a number of roots, each so constructed machine for sowing seedswith fibrous as to be unfit for use .
The dung rough capsules, such as those of mangold
1
96
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
wurzel and carrot ; but as carrot seed is naturally deep and rich, and loose, this mixed with so large a quantity of finesand, mode of culture is not so well suited for the I dare say the sowing part of the bean- field as that in drills; for with deep -plough
barrow , fig. 219, might be so adjusted ing to any extent, there is no possibility of as to answer the purpose. Failing any burying dung so deep, and affording the machine, a rut should be made along the crop such a depth of soil, as in the drill top of each drill with the corner of the and both these conditions are essential to
hand -hoe, fig. 266 ; the seed and sand sown the successful cultivation of the carrot. by hand in the rut, and covered with the earth raised by making the rut about an 3415. Carrots are also sown broadcast, inch in depth, with light iron rakes. The upon the flat surface; but, excepting in very rollers of fig. 254, on being again passed small patches, this mode of culture is not along the drills, finish the operation. suited to the use of implements of the field, and the clearing of the ground of 3411. The varieties of carrot cultivated weeds must therefore be expensively exe in the field need not be numerous, as one
cuted by the hand.
or two kinds are all that are desirable. 3416. Insects infest the carrot crop in The white Belgian carrot now stands at the head of all the varieties for certainty the root, stem, and flower. The plant of crop, beauty of root, and sweetness of no sooner makes its appearance than it taste . It is not long,-thick at the crown, is attacked by aphides, the Aphis dauci,
and tapering to a point. It grows wholly which are scarcely larger than cheese under ground. The Altringham is a good carrot - long, blunt in the end, rather irregular in its taper, and of an orange tinge in its colour. It grows a considerable
mites, of a uniform pale green colour, with 6 legs, 2 horns, and no wings. Their pre sence is indicated by the yellow foliage, and, in pulling up the plant, the roots are
height above the ground. The long red is sound and clean, but the crown is not only also a good carrot, of a deep red colour, discoloured , but, on opening the embryo long in proportion to its thickness, and leaves, numbers of the aphides are found concealed . has a comparatively small heart. 3412. The use of the guano is to start
3417. The root of the carrot is affected
the seed and support the young plant, with a disease named the rust, in which until its long root reaches the dung below , the crop gradually dies off, loses its saccha
wbich it will not be long in doing. The rine qualities, and, changing to a ferrugin from twenty to twenty-five days,and when complaint is occasioned by the larvæ of the
young germ will appearabove ground in ous colour, becomes of little value. This
it is about an inch in height, it is time to carrot-fly, Psila rosæ , eating galleries
single out the plants to 6 inches apart in along the roots which they inhabitthrough the drill, which is best done by the band, the summer, when they become pupæ in the in the case of the long-rooted carrot.
earth, but a new brood hatches in summer
Scuffling, fig. 262, and drill-grubbing the every three or four weeks. This fly is 3 ground between the drills, fig. 264 ,to make lines long, of a pitchy black ; the wings lie the land clean and to stir it, are executed horizontally along the back when at rest,
in precisely the same manner as for turnips. and extend beyond the tail, and when ex panded extend to 5 lines. The maggots are 3413. Besides light true soils, carrots ochreous and shining, cylindrical, pointed are successfully raised on reclaimed bog at the head and obtuse at the tail, resem
that has some alluvial matter in it. The bling cheese-hoppers, though they cannot culture is the same as on earthy soil, the leap, and are exceedingly transparent, manure being deep buried ; and as dried every internal part being visible. When moss is very porous in texture, the carrot
cavities bave been opened by this maggot
is enabled topush its long root through it in the rest of the carrot, large numbers of the millepede, Polydesmus complanatus, with comparative ease. and of thecentipede, Scolopendraelectrica, 3414. Carrots may be raised in rows on assist in extending the depredations. An
the flat ground, but unless the soil is other caterpillar, the larva of the ghost
THE CULTURE OF THE CARROT.
97
moth, Hepialis humili, also eats into the white Belgian carrot is 9 or 10 tons the root of the carrot and injures it.
acre greater, in the same circumstances, than that of the red varieties.
In Bel
3418. Mr Curtis gives the recipe of a gium the produce of the white carrot is composition of sand and spirit of tar, 160 bushels the acre, the individual carrots to prevent those insects injuring the carrot weighing 1} lb., making the crop about 4 root. Take 4 bushels of sand and mix tons the acre , raised with 21 tons of man
intimately with them one gallon of the ure, half of farm -yard dung and half from spirit of tar. The mixture is to be ap- the privies. plied along the drill, and if a space of half a foot in breadth upon the top of the 3422. Hares and rabbits are so fond of the
drill is dressed with it, the quantity named carrot that, unless the crop is protected will dress about 1300 yards along a drill. where they abound, it will have a poor
If it is applied in the drill when that is chance of coming to maturity ; and unless formed in winter, the spirit of tar may kill
the fence erected round the crop is a close
the young larvæ in the soil ; if in spring, one, it will not be able to exclude these
the female fly may be deterred froin de- wily depredators.
I believe the only
positing her eggs, and it will no doubt be as successful when the crop is sown, as it is the smell of the spirit of tar which is the obnoxious ingredient to insects. As carrots are not cultivated over a large extent of ground in any oneplace, this remedy may be easily applied, both as regards its
effectual fence is a close paling of laths pushed into the ground, supported near the top and bottom with horizontal spars nailed to them, and the whole held steady by
cost and the ease of its application.
it might be made fencible by interlacing s'ems of broom , or whin, or branches of
stobs driven at intervals into the ground
to act as shores against the paling . If a conimon 3-sparred paling already exists,
3419. The larvæ of the flat-bodymoths, spruce fir, between the spars. A dead Depressaria cicutella and depressella, bore fence of thorus also forms a complete into the stems of the carrot, causing the fence. leaves to stint and decay ; and the larvæ .
3423. On account of the land for carrots of the gray carrot- blossom flat-body moth, Depressaria daucella, commit great bavoc having to be cleaned and manured before on the floral umbels of the carrot. winter, the culture of thatroot is not likely
to be extended in Scotland, where the
3420. Few agricultural seeds are so harvest is not unfrequently late, and little difficult to obtain in a good state as those time left for cleansing operations after it. of the different varieties of the carrot ; and It is true that, should the potato crop oc
this is partly to be ascribed to the injuries cupy a less extent of ground in future than occasioned by this insect, and greatly also it has bitherto done, the time that would
to a wet state of the weather, the form of be saved from attending on that crop might the umbels being favourable to the reten- be bestowed on the carrot in the end of tion of much moisture, which either pre- autumn, and it would thus come in for a vents impregnation altogether, or destroys share of attention which it has not hitherto the vitality of the seed .
Of all the varie- received. Both it and mangold -wurzel
ties, the seed of the Altringham is the most requiring to be taken up and stored in difficult to obtain pure, for though obtained autumn,( 836-37-38,) wheat would follow from selected roots, its produce is often them. Trivial as the circumstance may appear of the partiality which bares and unlike the parent stock . rabbits exhibit for the carrot, it will con
3421. Altringhain carrots have been tinue to operate as an obstacle to its ex grown at Falkland in Fifeshire, of crop tended cultivation, for the trouble of fen
1834, that have weighed 5 lb. each. In cing in the crop so closely cannot be good hazel loam , on the honie farm of generally practised . Blair- Drummond in Perthshire, 29 tons of carrots have been obtained from the acre ;
3424. Notwithstanding these considera
but from 16 to 20 tons are a good crop. tions, I have dwelt the longer on theculture
It is said generally that the produce of the of the carrot, as it is a root suited to the G VOL. II.
98
PRACTICE - SUMMER . WAY AND
climate of Scotland, on which account it
JOHNSTON .
may take the place of the potato, the cul
Young red
ture of which cannot now be pursued with
the same degree of confidence it has hither
Potash , Soda ,
to received .
Lime, Magnesia ,
3425. The carrot stands in the class and order
Pentandria Digynia of Linnæus ; in the natural
order, Umbelliferæ of Jussieu ; and in Epigynous Exogens - alliance 55, Umbellales -- order 295,
carrot. 46.37
12.92 15.38 2.12 0.90 4.65
Oxide of iron , Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid , Carbonic acid , Chloride of sodium , Silica ,
Apiacece - tribe 12, Daucidæ - genus Daucus, of the natural system of Lindley.
3426. Umbellifers are “ natives chiefly of the northern part of the northern hemisphere, in
OGSTON .
White Belgian Old red carrot - mean carrot. of 5 specimens. 32.44 46.87 8.12 13.52 8.83 6.58 9.06 3.96 0.37 1.10
8.09
10.48 6.30
6.43 3.14
10.62 1.62
6.55 17.30 6.50 1.19
100.00
100.02
99.94
8.55
The carrot is rich in alkalies, much resembling
the turnip- the latter yields more sulphates, the former more carbonates.
habiting groves, thickets, plains, marshes, and waste places.
They appear to be extremely
3430. The ash of the leaves contain :
rare in all tropical countries, except at consider
WAY AND
able elevations, where they gradually increase in number as the other parts of the vegetation
acquire an extra-tropical or mountain character. Hence, although they are hardly known in the plains of India , they abound on the mountains of Himalaya. They are , however, not uncommon in the southern hemisphere, where they belong principally to hydrocotylids and malinids. The umbelliferous is one of those large orders in which plants occur with extremely different secretions. They all appear to form three different principles : the first, a watery acrid mat
JOHNSTON .
Potash , Soda, . Lime, Magnesia , Oxide of iron ,
Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid , Carbonic acid , Chloride of potas sium ,
as the hemlock ; the second, in excess, converts absence of the two renders them useful escu-
lents, as celery, fennel, samphire, parsley, and the roots of carrots, parsnips, and skirrets ; and the third causes them to be carminatives and pleasant condiments, as anise, carraway, cori-
48.50 4.53 18-58 2-04 1 +6 3:36
5-05
19.08 5.80 34.10 4.48
9:33 2.10
1.94 100.00
Leaves . 7.12 10-97
26.53
32-64
4.95 0.71 3.60 7.75
2-92 2.40 1-67 6.20 17-82
8.17 14:54
Silica ,
White Belgian carrot - mean of 3 specimens .
27.04
2:40
Chloride of sodium , 14:54
ter ; the second, a gum -resinous milkysubstance ; and the third, an aromatic, oily secretion . When the first of these predominate, they are poisons,
them into stimulants, as the assafotida ; the
OGSTON .
red Young red carrot. Old carrot Leaves. Tops . Stems.
5.04 22-69 1.69
13-67 4.56
100-00 100-001
99-97
“ The ash of carrot-leaf is peculiar in one re spect,” observes Professor Way : " of the alka lies, potash, and soda, the latter greatly predo minates. This is, in reality, an important as well as a singularcircumstance. The alkali soda is much more available for agricultural purposes than potash, especially as the results we have
ander, and cummin, used in veterinary practice.”* obtained would induce a belief that a plant can obtain this alkali from common salt -- the common
3427. The carrot, Daucus carota , has white flowers, with a solitary red or purplish barren one in the centre of the umbel; bristles of the seed slender, and as the same becomes ripe, the umbel acquires a contracted and concave form ; leaves
tripinnate ; leaflets, pinnatifid ; stems, rough and furrowed ; root, fleshy and fusiform , biennial. The generic name, daucus, is derived from the Greek, signifying hot, implying pungency ; and the specific term carota, is from the Celtic car, meaning red, the colour of the root.
est of all salts. If any plant be foundto content itself with this alkali, such plant will undoubt
edly be more easy of artificial culture than others which require potash, and refuse to take soda in stead of it: it is not said that this is the case with the carrot, but attention is drawn to the uni
formity of the result in the case of the leaves." 3431. Mineral matter in one ton of carrot-roots and of leaves, in pounds : Mean of
Mean of
five specimens. threespecimens.
3428. The composition of the carrot has been
given in (854). The proportion of water in the carrot is as follows: Young red carrot .
roots . leaves . stemg.
Water ,
87.08 76-83 86-58
Old red carrot .
Old white carrot .
roots . tops . roots . tops. 80.21 75-97 | 80-23 74.16
Roots . lb.
6.59
6.64
Soda , Lime,
2.71 1.77
9.67 30,24
Magnesia , Oxide of iron,
0.80
2.58
0.22 1.73 1.31
2.36
Phosphoric acid, Sulphuric acid, Chloride of sodium , Silica,
3429. The ash of the root of the carrot is as follows, from two authorities :
Leaves . Ib ,
Potash ,
1.42 0.24 6.79
1.64 5.61 11.95
4.46
75.14
Lindley's Vegetable Kingdom , p. 775. + Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, for July 347, p. 67-68 .
THE CULTURE OF PARSNIP .
99
Although the ash in the leaf is greater than in than the carrot, and yet it may be raised the root, and varies much more greatly in the upon sand, and even peat, if sufficient different specimens, yet in the entire plant the manure be applied. mineral matter will be found far more constant in quantity and composition, than in either the
3437. Its culture should be precisely that ofthe percentage ofash, or of the proportion of cropin the fallow division of the farm , and root to leaf. * root or the leaf taken separately ; the variations
which occur being counteracted by the alteration of the turnip and the carrot, being a green
3432. A mode of raising thecarrot is practised in Belgium which we would consider slovenly and expensive. The seed is sown broadcast with the lastturn of the harrows, with a cereal crop in spring , and when the crop is harvested the car rot hasacquired a very moderategrowth, and the land is weeded by hand and thestubble also removed, the field -workers going down on their knees and wearing a peculiar dress for the pur pose, no fewer than 20 weeders being required to
requiring a deep soil for the growth of its fusiformroots. This root, however, is not impatient of immediate contact with ma nure like the carrot, so that the land may be drilled and dunged in spring instead of winter,as is donefor the carrot. Pars nips should receive 25 tons of farm -yard dung in the drill, and 4 cwt. of guano sown over the dung, as described for the turnip
the acre. Theproduce is about half ofthe regular crop, (3239,) and the land then drilled up crop. Each horse is allowed 25 lbs. of carrots in the double form , (2397,) or with the a day without bay, and cows receive the same setting -up double mould - boardplough, fig. quantity, upon which they yield good butter 214 ; though it is improbable that this both as to quantity and quality.t
plough is able to cover so much manure
3433. The farmer may raise as much carrot seed as to supply his own wants. The largest
as the carrot and parsnip require. 3438. Parsnip seed is contained in a
and best roots are inserted in some convenient
piece of ground in October orNovember, or in the broad thin capsule, and is very light.
end of February, inrows27 inches apart,asdeep Even when good, 10 lb. will be required as to have two or three inches of earth over their crowns.
The only care required during the for the acre . Care should be taken that it
summer is to keep the ground clean ,partlywith be fresh and new. It should be steeped hand -hoeing and drill-grubbing, fig . 264. The in water before it is sown, as it would
seedwill be ripe in autumn, and as birdsdo not otherwise lie long in the ground before it
disturb it, the crop does not require to be would germinate ; but after being soaked, cipalumbel of each plant, whichwill not only if sownin very dry soil, it is apt to be de
afford the ripest and largest seed, but the most prived ofits vitality. The sowing-machines vigorous plants. The umbels are very liable to at present in use are not well adapted for be affected with mildew in damp weather. The the sowing of this seed any more than that yield of seed may be expected to afford from
of the carrot and the mangold -wurzel ; but on being mixed with sand, after being the London market, near Weatherfield, in Essex. soaked, it may be sown in the rut, made in
if lb. to 5 lb. per rood of 16 feet square . A considerable quantity of carrotseed is raised for
the top of the drill with the corner of the
3434. Much carrot seed is annually imported hand-boe, fig. 266, or with the bean-drill
and, by the tariff of 1846 it pays barrow, fig.219;but it would be more ex fromHolland, of 5s., and when from any British pos a duty
session , 2s. 6d. the cwt.
peditiously sown in the rut, out of the bands
of two or three workers, than with that machine. ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF PARSNIP .
Rakes cover the seed with soil
very well, and a rolling with concave rollers of the turnip- sowing machine, fig. 254, without the coulters, finishes the
3435. The parsnip requires a milder sowing of the crop in a neat manner. climate than Scotland generally affords; but it grows well in England, and in per3439. Parsnips should be singled when fection in the island of Jersey, both as ever the plant can be discriminated. The regards the quality of the root and the scuffler, fig. 262, clears away the surface weeds in the first instance. The singling weight of the crop .
is made at a distance of 8 inches apart in 3436. It will grow in a much stronger soil the drill the stems and leaves, spreading * Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. viii. p. 192-6. + Radcliffe's Agriculture of Planders, . 76. Vii iy
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
100
more than those of thecarrot ,require more violates every rule of good husbandry, room . The after-boeing and cleaning of such is the nature of the climate that the
the land of the weeds with the drill-grub- crop yields 27 tons and upwards the acre ber, fig. 264, are conducted in the same -a quantity, Colonel Le Couteur states, manner as those for the turnip and carrot. which is “ nearly sufficient for 10 cows
The drill should be set up with the double during the 6 winter months, according to mould -board plough, fig. 214, to heap the the calculation of the Flemings.' » *
earth as much about the root as possible, as in the case of the carrot.
3441. The parsnip is subjected to the attacks of a few insects. The maggots of
3440. The parsnip may be raised in the parsnip miner, Tephrites onopordonis, rows in the flat ground, as well as the are hatched from May to July, and feed
carrot, but the same reasons given for the upon the parenchyma or pulp of the leaf, cnlture of the carrot in the drill (3314) will causing large blisters upon them ; and apply to that of the parsnip. Colonel Le Couteur describes the broadcast mode pursued in Jersey in the following terms :“ An old grass lea is broken up by some persons in September,by othersjust before
when two or three larvæ are feeding on the same leaf, the blisters unite and form large discoloured patches, but otherwise the mischief is not serious. The caterpil lars of the flat- body moth, Depressaria
the parsnip-land is sown. The former I pastinacella, infest the parsnips left for consider to be the best mode. When the turf seed, and often much injure and diminish is well rotted, 20 tons of stable manure per the yield. They prefer theparsnip to the acre are spread over the land.
A trench
carrot seed, and on this account the growers
is then opened through the centre of the of carrot seed sow some parsnips beside field , between 2 and 3 feet wide, and, them , by which to lure the insect from the where the soil will admit of it, from 1 foot carrot crop. These caterpillars are gray to 18 inches deep. A 2-horse plough then ish blue, with the head, thorax, and pec turns the manure and about 3 inches of toral feet, black ; upon each of the seg
soil into the trench, and is immediately ments are 6 distinct little black dots, pro followed by a large trench- plough with 3 ducing single minnte hairs ; the sides and or 4, and in many cases here, with 8or 10 the belly are yellow , and the abdominal horses, which turns one foot or more of clean feet are dotted with black. They live in soil upon the manure and turf, when the July upon the flowers and young seeds of land has been recently skim -ploughed. the parsnip. There seems to be no better
Thesoil is then harrowed,and the pars- modeofridding parsnip crops of these nip-seed, quite new, is sown at the rate of caterpillar pests than hand -picking, and 3 or 4 lb. to the acre, and lightly harrowed. shaking the umbels of the lowers over a When the plants are one inch high, they vessel for them to fall into. The flower of are weeded. The plants, from the first, the parsnip is not nearly so liable to be should be thinned out to 6 inches apart, affected by insects, damp, or mildew, as and, according as the soil is good, should be the carrot, on which account the crop of again thinned out to 9 inches or more at seed is a surer one — though it should be
the second hoeing. In a dry season it is borne in mind that it will not retain its well to observe that moistening the seed vitality beyond one year.t with wet sand and earth, and stirring it
daily, to be sown in the first moist wea3442. It is quite easy to raise as much ther, or after a shower, will forward its seed of the parsnip as is required on any growth a fortnight.” I may observe that farm. Transplantsome of the best roots in this method of cultivating any green crop a spade- dug piece of ground in February, does no credit to Jersey agriculture. Just at 2 feet apart in every direction,and insert conceive a green crop taken after lea — 8 or them with their crowns under the surface of 10 horses being employed in a trench- the ground. The ground should be kept
plough - the land dunged before being clean with the band-hoe until the leaves of trench -ploughed.
But notwithstanding the plants cover the ground. The shoots
this objectionable mode of culture, which will become strong stalks, and produce * Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. i. p. 419.
+ Ibid . vol. ix . p. 190-4.
-
THE CULTURE OF RAPE .
101
large umbels of seed, which will ripen in potatoes destined for that purpose.” It is an autumn. From 1{ lb. to 4 lb. of seed, being excellent food forcows , and its fattening pro ver
y light, may be expected from a square perties I have already noticed in (896.)
rood of 16 feet, dependent on the nature 3446. Parsnips are cultivated in the drill of the season, and escape from the attacks method in Jersey as well as the broadcast , as
do not injure it, though , thus described by Colonel Le Couteur .“ The s. ds Bir ifof ins theectsee areds not gathered from the land," he says , may be prepared as in the method . In one case I found the umbels as they ripen, they are very apt broadcast by spreading a portion of plants to answerwell to be blown off by the wind. the manure on the surface of the ploughed land,
and then earthing it up into small ridges, one
3443. I have seen a statement of the
foot apart, with a double mould -board plough.
The seed is then sown on the top of the well ridge rolled in,which succeeded extremely expense of cultivating an acre of parsnips, and
and the return obtained from it in 1847 The hoeing was performed with a horse-hoe in. upon the Cappoquin homefarm in Ireland, the drills, and the plants were cross-hoed with a belongingto Sir Richard Keene, Bart. The hand-hoe. This mode does not appear so neat cost of cultivating the imperial acre, in-
as the following : as
when the land is well harrow
the seed broadcast, harrow cluding trenching 16 inches deepwith the ed plants appear,hoe andandrolllevelled whenthe it ; then, sow it
spade, ploughing into drills of 27 inches into drills, eitherwith a horse-hoe orhand -hoe. apart, manuring with 40 tons of farm-yard A drill-machine will be the best method if one dung, singling, hoeing, weeding, rent, could be found to sow parsnip seed regularly
taxes, and planting 400 cabbage plants in mine sowsit much tooprofusely. The parsnips the spacos which failed, was £11, 158. 4d . require hoeing and thinning as in thebroadcast husbandry.” + It seems strange practice to us The return was 20 tons of parsnips the to convert a crop into rows by sending an imple
acre, which were sold in Cappoquin mar- ment through a broadcast braird . ket at 4d. the stone, or £ 2, 13s. 4d. the 3447. The composition of the parsnip root I ton, amounting to £53, 6s. 8d., and the have given in (854,) and the composition of the cabbages fetched £3, 6s. 8d., at 2d. a ash, whether of the root or the leaf, has not yet
piece, averaging 14 lb. each in weight. been ascertained by the chemist. After deducting the cost, the sum realised from the acre was £ 44, 183. ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER TREAT
3444. The parsnip is placed in the class and
MENT OF RAPE.
order Pentandria digynia by Linnæus ; in the natural order Umbelliferce by Jussieu ; and in the natural system of Epigynous Exogens — alli
3448. Rape is cultivated in this coun ance 55, Umbellales - order 295,Apiacie - tribe try, not for its seed, as is the case on the 8 , Peucedanidæ - genus Pastinaca , by Lindley. Continent, but for its leaves as a forage plant, and a more wholesome food for
3445. The parsnip, Pastinaca satita edulis, sheep is not raised on the farm . has leaves pinnate or compressed ,downy beneath ,
and generally shining above ; leaflets broadly ovate , cut, and serrated, terminative, three-lobed ;
3449. It may be raised to be consumed colour of the flower yellow ; root fleshy, thick, at two different seasons -autumn and and fusiform ; biennial. It derives its generic spring. To be consumed in autumn name from the form of the root being like a it should be sown in summer, and for dibble, pastinum . This root has long been an
inmateof the garden , and was formerly much spring consumption it should be sown in
used. In thetimes of Popery itwas the farmer's autumn. The culture up to the sowing of
Lent root, being eaten with salted fish, to which the seed, in either case, is precisely the it is still an excellent accompaniment. “ In the for turnips . Inwithout England, in the; manure north of Scotland,” Dr Neill observes, “ parsnips same richer assoils, it is sown are often beat up with potatoes and a little butter ; of this excellent mess the children of but in Scotland the crop would not repay
the peasantry are very fond, and theydo not fail thetrouble were it attempted to be raised to thrive upon it. In the north of Ireland, a without manure, though it does not require
pleasant table beverage is prepared from the the same quantity of farm -yarddung as
roots, brewed along with hops. Parsnip wine the turnip ;10 tons the acre being suffi
is also made in some places ; and they afford an excellent ardent spirit, when distilled after a
cient to raise a good crop, or 16 bushels
similar preparatory process to that bestowed on
of bone-dust, or 4 cwt. of guano — the
* Don's General System of Gardening and Botany, vol . iii. p. 354. + Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. i. p. 420-1.
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
102
manures being applied respectively as di- renders the culture of rape both convenient rected for turnips. 3450. The culture of this plant ceases
and useful.
3454. In the progress of growth, the
after the sowing of the seed, as the crop rape is attacked by insects. The green is not thinned out like turnips or the other veined white butterfly, Pontia napi, is so rooted green crops, the object being to named because it feeds chiefly upon the raise a sufficient number of stems to pro- rape .
The superior wings bave tips of
duce a large crop of leaves, for which powdery black , and the nervures grayish,
purpose 2 lb. of seed to the acre will inferior wings have a black spot on the suffice ; and as the seed is large compared upper margin, and the dark nervures shin to that of the common turnip, and about ing through. Caterpillars are delicately the size of that of the swede, that quan- green, clothed with velvety hairs.
The
tity will not produce too many plants to male butterflies are nearlythree- quarters stand in the drill. Rape seed affords 810 of an inch long: The larva of this species seeds to one drachm , and weighs about 53 lb. to the bushel . The turnip sowingmachine, fig. 254, is used for sowing the seed, using one of the larger -sized holes in
is destroyed by the ichneumon, named Hemiteles melanarius. Hand -picking, and young fowls to pick up the larvæ as they areswitched off the plants, is the
the seed -box. When weeds make their most easy mode of getting quit of them. 3455. Sheep are very fond of rape as
appearance before the plants are suffi ciently advanced in height to keep them down, the scuffler, fig. 262, drill grubber,
food ; and that it is nourishing food the
fig. 264, and double mould - board plough, fig. 209, must be put in requisition to remove them , and place the ground again in its proper formand state.
experience of every farmer who has culti vated it can testify. By an experiment
made on Barteliver farm in Cornwall, it appears that 14 acres of rape, sown at three periods, from 13th May to 10th
3451. Rape will grow on almost any July, supported 80 sheep from the 2d of soil, and certainly well on clay, on which July to the 2d of November. On the it requires less manure than on hard loam ; 10th of August, 10 wether hoggs of those but it grows on none so well as on drained sheep were weighed, and they were 146 moss resting on a clay subsoil. The ashes lb. each, and on the 21st September they of the surface of a peat-bog, pared and were again weighed and were then 166 burned, form excellent manure for rape lb. each, making an increase of weight of on drained moss .
20 lb. in six weeks — that is, an increase of 10s. a -head in 6 weeks, at 6d. the 1b.*
3452. Rape is raised to be consumed
by sheep, by folding on the land, as a 3456. The rape is placed by Linnæus in the mode of manuring fallow ground. This class Tetradynamia ; in the natural order Cruci is a common practice in England, for the feræ by Jussieu; and in Hypogynous Exogens
double purpose of manuring the soil and alliance 27, Cistales -order 123, Brassiace 3, Orthoplonde - genus Brassica. The rape fattening sheep; and to attain both ends tribe the botanical characters of is Brassicanapus, the rape seed is sown in May, and the crop which are leaves smooth , of a grayish-glaucous is ready for being folded on in July or hue, radicle ones lyrate, stem ones pinnatifid and August.
crenated, uppermost ones cordate lanceolate, clasping the stem ; siliques devaricate spreading. Native country not known. This species of rape is well suited for culture in winter, and is allied
3453. In Scotland, sheep are never fattened on rape,the crop being appropriat- to the common turnip in its nature. ed to ewes, to bring them into season for
the tup, and to hoggs in preparation for 3457. The rape of the Continent is Brassica turnips. For these purposes it is not ne- campestris olifera, or colza ,a variety of cabbage cessary to sow the rape seed until the allied to the Swedish turnip, and is best suited for summer culture. It is distinguished from the
beginning of July, after the termination of other rape byitsleaves being hispid ,those of the turnip seed at the end of June, which the other being smooth. Its produce also,when * Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. vi. p. 430.
THE CULTURE OF BUCKWHEAT.
103
compared to the other, is greater by 955 to 700 supported on the potato, as long as it was available for the purpose ; but now that 3458. The colzaiscultivated in Mecklenburg and no implicit confidence can be placed on
according to Gujac.*
rape oil, used for the purposes of illumination
that crop , and in consequence it will in future fetch a large comparative price, it
and in manufactures. In Holstein the cropof seed
will be prudential in the farmer to consider
Holstein for its seed , out of which is expressed
is great,being 4000 lb.the acre,or nearly 36 cwt., wbat plants may be substituted for it in which yields from 40 to 70 per cent of oil. supporting these useful races of live stock, 3459. The cake left on the expression of the with wholesome food, at a reasonable cost.
oilfrom the seed is called rape-cake,andis more Fortunately, thereare other plants which used in this country as a specific manure than may beemployed for the purpose. Buck for feeding. Its price is from £ 4,108.to£ 5, wheat, Polygonumfagopyrum , makes ex 10s. the ton, and is free of duty on importation.
cellent food for pigs; theseeds of the com 3460. Rape -cake, when subjected to chemical
mon sun -flower, Helianthus annuis, fatten
analysis , yields the following constituents, poultry ; the madia, Madia sativa, is according to Dr Henry R. Madden : Organic matter,
Water, Soluble in cold water , in hot water,
10-5 24 : 7 4 :8
10-5
in weak potass, 31.5 in strong potass, 10.2
85-5
Destroyed by heat, Earthy phosphates, Silicate of potass ,
for the same purpose ; and the dwarf varie ties of the Indian corn or maize, Zea
4:0
1.0 100-0
mays, are capable of supporting the horse as well as the fowl. Whatever may
14 :3
3:01
favourably spoken of on the Continent,
100·07
be the results attending the cultivation of these plants, a trial of one or more of
them, by way of experiment, should be made in many localities of Scotland ; and
3461. Thequantity of rape seed imported in then perhaps, ere long, they would become 1847 was 47,523 quarters, and in 1848 it was 129,967, free of duty . The rape -cakes imported
naturalised to the climate.
in those years were included in the returns of
oil- cakes imported, as stated in (3126.)
3464. Buckwheat is not well suited to the variable climate of Britain . It pos
3462. The plants enumerated from the bean
sesses the advantage of growing best on farm : not that any one of these plants are sandy soil, which is too poor to carry cultivated every year upon the same farm, for barley, and in such heat and drought as to the rape , are those usually cultivated on a
space might not be found in some farms for the
are too great for oats to bear.
In the
cultivation of so large a variety of plants ; and circumstances of heat and sandiness of it is improbable any farm contains soofdiver permit sified a soil as tothat the cultivation such soil, then, it might be cultivated where no cereal grain would grow ; and on the light cannot turnips and Beans . a variety of crops be cultivated to a large extent on the same soil of a farm , in a sheltered situation, farm , the soil best suited to the foriner being un- it might be attempted, especially on new genial to the latter. Nor is it convenient to sow trenched ground, without manure, in pre a large breadth of turnips and of rape in the same season . Should the weather prevent the paration of a green crop. Much manure sowing of turnips in their proper season , it would be more prudent to employthe labour and manure
would encourage the growth of the plant, and prevent the formation of seed. This
allotted forthem to raise rape a few weeks after plant is very impatient of frost, and, were the turnip season , to be consu by the stock med in late autumn or early winter, when cows are as fond of rape as sheep are, than to attempt to
it sown as early as to appear above ground before frost had left for the season, the
raise turnips too late. In choosing, therefore, crop would inevitably be destroyed. It the various crops enumerated and described above, should , therefore, not be sown sooner than those should be selected which are best suited to the last week of May in England, and of the soil cultivated, to be atthe andwhen weather to thethe which may prevail season state of the June in Scotland : and late sowing is in
work is ready to undertake the sowing of a crop . no case unfavourable to the plant, as it
grows quickly, and produces its seed in ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER CUL-
the principal part of the flower in Septem
ber. The land is very easily cultivated for buckwheat. Having been ploughed in 3463. Poultry and pigs were greatly winter, from the oat stubble, by casting TURE OF BUCKWHEAT.
* Don's General System of Botany and Gardening ,vol. i. p: 242. + Prize Essays ofthe TỈighland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv. p. 529.
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
104
the ridges together, (755,) fig. 22, it should and bear seed in succession, till the frost destroys
be cross-ploughed ( 2013) in spring, bar- the plant." * rowed, and picked free of weeds, after
3467. This plant has not yet been satisfactorily
which recast, and again harrowed and hand- examined bychemists:thecompositionofits weeded. As abundance of time will be greenWater, stems, according to Crome, is 82-5
found to clean the land thoroughly before the time arrives for sowing the seed, it may be ploughed in any way thought most expedient, should the land show symp-
toms of foulness; but, if not, a passage of
the grubber, fig. 215, will prevent the sur-
4.7
Starch,
Woody fibre, Sugar, Albumen, Extractive matter and gum , Fatty matter, Phosphate of lime,
faceweeds becoming troublesome. From 1 to 2 bushels of seed are sufficient to the
10-0
0-2 2-6 ?
100-0
acre, and is always sown broadcast, though sometimes recommended to be drilled
3468. The composition of the seed of the buck
in rows at 12 inches apart. After the wheat, according to Zennick, is this, but which seed has been sown and harrowed in, the is declared imperfect 26.9 crop requires no further care until the
Husk , Gluten, &c.
10.7
harvest. The land should be cultivated for a green crop after the removal of buck-
Starch ,
52.3 . 8.3 0-4
Sugar and gum , Fatty matter,
wheat.
98.6
3465. Buckwheat stands in the order Octan
dria Trigynia of Linnæus ; in the natural order of Polygoner of Jussieu ; and in Hypogynous
3469. The ash of the seed of the buckwheat, according to Bichau, consists in the following
Exogens - alliance 37 , Silenales - order 191,Poly- proportions of the ingredients : gonacea -- tribe 2 , Polygonea -- genus, Polygonum , of the natural system of Lindley . The character of this family of plants is, that while the
leaves and young shoots are acid and agreeable, the roots are universally nauseous and pur gative ; and to these are added a third — that of
astringency.
Potash,
8.74
Soda, Lime,
20.10 6.66
Magnesia,
10:38
Oxide of iron,
1.05 50-07 2.16 0-69
Phosphoric acid, Sulphuric acid, Silica,
3466. “ Buckwheat, Polygonum fagopyrum ,”
99.85
Fagopyrum esculentum of Tournefort, " is said to be found wild in Persia , " observes the late 2.125 Percentage of ash , Rev. Mr Rham. “ The cultivation of it ,accord ing to some authorities, was introduced into Europe by the crusaders; according to others, the 3470. The quantity of nutritive matter derived Moors introduced it into Spain from Africa ; and from an acre of buckwheat, yielding a crop of hence it has in France the name of Bled sarrasin. 30 bushels, 1,300 lb., is of husk, 320 lb.; starch , The name of buckwheat is a corruption of the sugar, & c .650 lb.; gluten, & c. 100 lb .; oil or fat, German buch -weizen, which signifies beechwheat, 5 lb. (?) and saline matter, 21 lbs.+ from the resemblance of the seed to that of the beech-tree . It is called wheat because, when ground, it produces a fine farina, which resembles that of wheat in appearance. The botanical name of the genus, Polygonum, is taken from
3471. Buckwheat, which grows to a height of about 30 inches, is extensively cultivated over a great part of Northern Europe, as well as in Brittany, in Siberia, and on the table-lands of
the angular form of the seed , and the specific
Central Asia. It is understood to be a native of
name , fagopyrum , from its resemblance to the
Asia, and to have been imported into Europe in
beech-mast. Buckwheat grows with a strong herbaceous, cylindrical, and branching stem of a reddish colour, about 2 feet high . The leaves, which are ivy-shaped , are placed alternately on
the fifteenth century. The seeds of the buckwheat are in some countries used as food, the mealy albumen being mixed with a portion of wheaten
the stems. The flowers grow in bunches at the end of the branches, and are succeeded by black
ture ofcordials, but it is chiefly used as a green
angular seeds, formed of four triangles, being thus nearly regular tetrahedrons. The plant is
fodder. I
an annual, and the flowers appear very soon after
flour, of which a coarse breadis made. It is also
used by the distillers at Danzig in the manufac
3472. Buckwheat imported in 1847 was
it is out of the ground. They continue to blow 22 917 quarters, in 1848 only 205 quarters ; and } * Riiam's Dictionary of the Farm - art. Buckwheat. + Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 377, 893, 917, 928.
I Johnston's Physical Atlas -- l'hytology, Map, No. 2.
THE CULTURE OF MADIA.
105
of buckwheat meal in 1847, 386 cwt., in 1848, the ground between the plants, in the 194 cwt. A duty of 1s. the quarter is payable on buckwheat, and 44d . the cwt. on buckwheat
rows, is best cleaned with the hand -boe.
meal.
The crop may now remain until harvest.
ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER CUL-
3475. The sunflower belongs to the class and order Syngenesia Frustranea of Linnæus ; the natural order Compositæ of Jussieu ; and to
TURE OF THE SUN - FLOWER.
Epigynous Ecogens- alliance 50, Asterales order 273, Asteracec - sub -order 1 , Tubuliflora
3473. The sunflower consists of two sub-division 4, Senecionidea - tribe Coreopsidea species, the tall and the dwarf. The tall genus Helianthus. A bland oil abounds in the
is what is best known in this country, seeds of many species of this extensive family of
though the dwarf is the favourite inFrance, plants. Among themost remarkableis the com sunflower, mon
whose large, sweet, nut-like seeds as its leaves also afford an excellent food are very palatable and wholesome, and which for cows. We shall confine our observa- yield 15 per cent of oil. The tall sunflower is
Helianthus annuis, which, at one time , was a more common inmate of the flower garden than
tions to the tall species.
it is now dwarfcharactersofthesunflowers species is Helianthus in 3474. The tall sunflower requires a deep, dicus specific . .TheThe
mellow, rich soil, andalso a large quantity of manure. Its long and strong stem renders it unfit to be grown in drills like turnips : the roots would not have a sufficient
flowers yellow ; heads large and nodding ; pe
are leaves all cordate,rough, and three-nerved ;
hold of firm soil to counterbalance the
America ; introduced in 1569.
duncles and stalks thick, the latter from 4 to 6 feet high ; branched ; annual. Native ofSouth
great leverage power of the tall stem. It
should, however, be grown in rows, otherwise the ground would not be easily kept free of weeds.
ON THE SOWING , AND THE SUMMER CUL TURE OF MADIA .
pre
Its culture may
3476. Of this recently introduced plant cisely that of the turnip up to the point of applying the manure, which should be Mr Lawson says that, “ in its native coun ploughed in broadcast instead of in drills, try the madia has long been cultivated for and the quantity of farm - yard dung so its oleaginous seeds, the produce of which
ploughed in should not be less than 20 is deemed by many even superior to that tons to the acre . Before the land is har- of the olive and poppy. In Europe its rowed, 4 cwt. of guano to the acre should culture was first attempted in 1835 by M. be sown npon the surface, and then the Bosch, royal gardener at Stuttgard, since
land should be harrowed both along and which period it has been greatly ex across the ridges, to make it fine.
After
tended, and that with the utmost success,
this the small ribbing -plough, fig. 230, under the patronage of his majesty the should make ribs alongthe ridges at 27 King of Würtemberg, and others. The fol inches apart, into which the seed should lowing is extracted from a communication be sown, by hand, along the ribs, at the received along with a quantity of seed of rate of 7 or 8 lb. to the acre.
As sun
the madia in 1839 :-'From its valuable
flower seeds are not heavy and easily dis- property of enduring winter and spring turbed in their place, it would be proper frosts, the madia may either be sown in autumn or spring, the ground being pre
to cover them in the ribs with the hand-
rake, instead of even the lightest harrows. viously well pulverised. Four pounds of The guano will cause the seed to germi- seed will suffice for sowing an acre in nate soon, and the dung below will support drills, and about six pounds for the same
the plant, through its fibrous roots. When spacebroadcast. The young plants should the plants have shot up sufficiently high be thinned out, so as to stand at least 4 or
to be distinguished, they should be thinned 5 inches apart. The crop should be reaped in the row to 12 inches apart ; and , as the when the earliest seeds acquire a gray rows are on the flat, the thinning will better colour, and disposed in handfuls to facili
be done by hand, leaving the best plants, tate drying, after which it should be im than with the hand -boe , fig. 266.
The
mediately thrashed out, as, if stacked in
root weeds may be eradicated with the the haulm , the viscid matter which adheres scuffler, fig. 262 , and the surface once after- to the foliage would cause fermentation.
wards with the drill-grubber, fig. 264, while
The seeds should afterwards be washed in
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
106
warm water, to cleanse them of the same the Sphenogynee. The madia, Madia satira, viscid or gelatinous and strong -smelling thecultivated or oil-seeded madia, hasthese generic specific characters :-Receptacle substance. The crop on an acre of pop- and seedsandnaked ; involucredouble ,theouter
pies averages 12 bushels, which yields usually 8-10 leaved, and much larger than the about 22 lb. of oil per bushel, or in all
inner, which is composed of many leaves and
264 lb. at 6d. = £6, 12 ; while an acre of scales. Plant upright, with numerous diverging madia produces on an average 26 bushels branches, and, together with theleaves and in volucre, covered withlanceolate,entire,and of seed,each of which yields about 17 lb. hair more or down; leaves a very viscid glandulous of oil, or in all 442 lb. at 6d.= £ ii , 18. or less clasping; flowers inconspicuous, yellow ,
Chemical analysis shows that 100 parts of and much crowded at and near the extremity of madia oil contain 45 of elain , ( fluid fat,) the branches. Annual ; 14 to 2 feet high. Na
40 of stearin, (margarine, or solid fat,) and tive of South America. 15 of glycerine, a sweetish glutinous sub stance . »
3480. According to Souchay, the seed of the madia sativa contains the following ingredients in its ash
3477. Professor Lindley observes, in regard to this remarkable plant, that it is ' a Chilian plant, lately introduced with success into the agriculture of the drier parts of Europe. Madia oil expressed without heat is described as transparent, yellow , scentless, &c., and fit for salads;
Potash ,
9.53
11.24 7.74
Soda ,
Lime,
15.42 1.08 54.99
Magnesia, Oxide of iron ,
Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid, Chlorine, Silica,
its cake is said to be good for cattle. It 100-001 produces, in dry climates, as much oil per acre as poppy ; in comparison with colza Itwill be observed howlarge a proportion of soda, as 32 to 28 ; linseed as 32 to 21 ; and magnesia, and particularly of phosphoric acid, olives as 32 to 18 ." *
3478. Mr Lawson further observes, that 'a quantity of madia sown by us in the vicinity of Edinburgh, in May 1839, ripen
the madia contains.
ON THE SOWING, AND THE SUMMER CUL TURE OF MAIZE.
ed seeds in August following ; but the un
3481. Indian corn , as it is commonly usually rainy weather caused many of the called ,butmore properly maize, is un plants todampoff after flowering. A por- suited to the climate of this country; but
tion of the seeds, which was sown immedi
as many varieties of this plant exist, and ately after harvesting, produced plants 2 or 3 inches in height that autumn, many of as Schouw observes, in hisaccount of the geographical distribution grasses of the «grasses, which perished in the course of the win- that maize of allthecultivated ter ; but the remainder, although weak in has the greatest range of temperature,” it
spring, recovered sufficiently to produce a is,perhaps, possible toselectone variety
that may succeed so far in our climate as
July. Upon the whole,” Mr Lawson con to afford a means of supporting poultry, seems every probability without having recourse
cludes, “ there
to any of the
that, in ordinarily favourable seasons, the of grain cultivated for the use of madia sativa might be grown very success species man . It would appear that two varieties fully in Scotland .” +to It theculture adapted thewould turnipseem wouldthat in ripen their seeds in the course of our sum in ordinary seasons - orchicken one called by the French every respect suit this plant,and the rich- mer Maïs-à-Poulet, corn,
ness of its seed could not fail to prove brought from Egypt,which ripensits seed nourishing food to poultry and pigs. 3479. The madia is in the same botanical posi
in 120 days from planting, but the crop derived from which is so scanty that it
tion as the sunflower, excepting in the natural does not repay the trouble of cultivation ; system of Lindley, where it is in the tribe of the other is called the Forty Days' Maize * Lindley's Vegetable Kingdom , p. 707. + Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual - Supplement, p. 57-8. # Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 383.
THE CULTURE OF MAIZE.
107
not that it ripens its seeds in 40 days from fallowor green crop break, as a prepara planting, but because the male flower is tion of it for wheat in the autumn. ready to fecundate the crop in 40 days 3484. The culture of maize is the same from planting, and the seeds come to maturity in 140 days after being sown, or in as that for the turnip, up to the dunging of
about 5 months. To this latter variety Mr Keene has, in 1849, directed the attention of the British farmers, remarking that the reason of thewant of success attending the culture of the maize by the late Mr Cob-
the drills ; and as we have already seen in Peru bythe application of guano,( 3345,) it would be proper to sow 4 cwt. of guano over the 20 tons of farm -yarddung, given
how greatly the crop of maize is increased
bett was, because he cultivated an Ameri- as the manuring, before covering the dung
can variety, which are all known to be in the drill in the double mode, (2397.) late of ripening in Europe ; but it appears, 3485. The seed should be selected from by a letter in the Gardeners' Chronicle of the 31st of March 1849, from Mr James P. the middle of the ear, as being there the
Cobbett, that the Maïs Quarantain,orForty Days' Maize of the French, and “Cobbett's corn ,” are precisely the same plant. In fact, Mr Cobbett obtained bis corn from
best and strongest. It is no matter what colour it bears, whether dark purple, light red, yellow, or white, as it will not pro duce seed of the same colour, but only as
Artois in France, and there was no want many of the same colour in the same pro of success in his cultivation of it, but that portion. The seed should be steeped in at that time ( 1828) no interest was at- water for 24 hours before being sown, and
tached toits cultivation in this country. the quantity required is 6 pecks the acre. But now that substitutes must be found for It has been recommended to steep the seed
the potato, in the success of the cultivation in the same sort of liquor as wheat is, for
of which we can no longer place implicit the prevention of smut, as the maize is reliance, for the feeding of the live stock, liable to the ergot fully as much as the which was chiefly supported on the potato, rye. Cobbett denies that the maize is the maize may now receive that attention affected by any disease or any insect, and to which it was not entitled under differ- perhaps the kind he cultivated may bave ent circumstances. The question now is experienced immunity from disease in this
simply whether Cobbett's or any other country; but no doubt exists that maize is variety ofthe maize may be raised in this affected with ergot, for, according to Roul country with a reasonable expectation of lin, it is very common in Colombia, and success; and it appears that it is worthy of the use of it is attended with a shedding of a trial.
the hair, and even the teeth, of both man and beast.
Mules fed on it lose their
3482. The better the soil the better will hoofs, and fowls lay their eggs without the
the maize grow , but it will grow with pro- shell. Its action upon the uterus is as per culture in soils not of the finest quality, powerful asthat of rye-ergot,or perhaps provided they be warm , sheltered from
more so. The country name of the maize
strong N.W.'winds, exposed well to the thus affected is Maïs peladero. This state sun, be free of bottom wet, and not of ment, however, as Professor Lindley re marks, requires confirmation . * tough tenacious clay. 3483. As the maize does not occupy the 3486. The time for sowing maize seed ground very long, it may be cultivated in is an important particular in the culture of England on the land which has borne the the plant. The young plant is very sus winter tare or rape, which has been eaten ceptible of frost, and should the seed be down in spring with sheep, and the maize sown as early as to have no assurance of is removed in time in autumn for the sow- freedom from frost, the plants may be so ing of wheat. In Scotland, there being affected that, although theymay not die,the
no winter tares,it may succeed winter rape, leaves may become yellow, and the growth where that is grown ; but where not more backward than that of plants raised
grown, the maize may occupy a part of the from seed much later sown. The frosts of * Lindley's Vegetable Kingdom , p. 115.
108
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
April and the droughts from the east winds pear, for they were in the ground long in May are dangerous periods, and ought before the corn, and they claim their right to be avoided. Mr Keene gives an appa- of primogeniture, and act upon that right. rently infallible rule in theappearance of They will not rise to the same height with
the cock -chaferMelolontha vulgaris in the the corn plants ; but their inferiority in air, as indicative of the temperature in point of height will be made up for in
which maize may be sown in safety, and numbers, and the poor corn plant, if left this period usually occurs from the middle to itself, will soon be a Gulliver, when to the end of May. No apprehension need bound down by the Lilliputians.” + It is
be entertained of the crop being too late, recommended by Mr Keene to protract the for the floweringof the plant will then take ultimate thinning for some time, that the place in the finest part of the season, in plants so taken out may be used as green July, and even early frosts in autumn will food. But this is not the object of the not injure the fruit within its covering. culture, which is to produce a crop of seed ; and to do so in the best manner, the ground
3487. In sowing the seed, Mr Keene should be allowed to exert its fullest powers recommends the dropping it in the drills for that purpose, by the removal of all between the finger and thumb at distances superfluous vegetation, whether of weeds
of 3 inches, and then to cover it in plough- or of superfinous plants. For the same ing the drill.*
But such a procedure reason , no roots or baricot beans ought to
would be too rough treatment of the seed be sown in the drills of maize All catch of a plant that requires the tenderest care crops are no better than robbers of the we can bestow. A better plan is to cover plants among which they are sown. the dung in the drill before sowing the seed ; and as the seed should not be buried
3489. After another drill-grubbing, fig.
beyond 2 inches in depth, the top of the 264 , and hoeing, to remove the surface drills should be rolled with the concave
weeds, the maize plants will grow with
roller of the turnip sowing -machine, fig. 254, without the coulters, a rut of about 2 inches deep made along the top of the drills withthe corner of the hand -hoe, fig. 266, and the seed then either dropped by hand into the rut, or with the beandrill barrow, fig. 219, at 3 inches or thereabonts apart, covered over with the earth cast up by the rutting with the hoe, and
great rapidity, perhaps an inch a -day, until the flower spike appears; and so far from other plants being allowed to compete with the principal crop, the suckers which spring from the roots of the standing plants should be removed, and on removing them both hands should be employed — one in . stripping down one sucker, and the other another sucker,in the opposite side, at the
the drills again rolled with the concave same time. The suckers may be used as
rollers, which will finish the work in fine green food by the pigs ; they should not be style.
given to cows, as green maize invariably
causes a decrease of milk in them , though 3488. The spikes of the young plant it enriches the butter. “ The maize now
may be expected to break the ground in lances out its flower from the seed about 6 or 8 days. As the ground at this sheath,” says Mr Keene ; " then the seed season is easily overrun withi weeds, the cob forms, and sends forth its pretty
scuffler, fig. 262, will have to eradicate drooping yellow , red, or bronze-colonred them in the space between the drills, and pare away the soil from the sides of the drills iu preparing for the singling. When the plants have attained 3 or 4 inches in
silkeu feather, falling down gracefully upon the smiling head of corn. The flower-stalk shoots up rapidly ; its growth is marvellous, and the broad dark green
height, they are singled to a distance of 9 flag -leaves of the healthy crop denote the inches apart with the hand -hoe, fig. 266. strength of the vegetative power which is Cobbett, in his own humorous style, thus rapidly pouring into the whole system of alludes to the weeding: “ Let us now sup- this splendid plant. As this begins to re
pose the corn plants to be 3 inches high. treat, the graceful feather shows sigus of Long before this weeds will begin to ap- withering ; the sap no longer circulates * Keene's Facts for Farmers — Maize, p. 6.
+ Quoted by Amicus Curiæ in Maize against Potato, p. 130.
THE CULTURE OF MAIZE .
109
with the same vigour ; it is time to confine the harvest. The plants are never laid
the remaining strength tothe cob, and with rain or broken down by the wind, the flowering-stalk iscut off by a draw of though the latter may cause some of them the knife, atan inch higher than the first to lean over a little. joint above the cob. Women do this, walking along the rows; and when they 3492. Maize is of the class and order Trian have thus gathered a handful of 12 or 15 dria Digynia of Linnæus ; of the natural order Gramineæ of Jussieu ; and of Endogens - alliance flower- heads, they bind them round with 7 , Glumales - order 29, Graminacece - tribe 2,
a leaf, and hitch the little bundle, stalk- Phalaracec - genusZea. The maize, Zea mays, end upwards, on the stick of the standing has male andfemale organs in distinct flowers, stem , whereexcellentwinter it hangs for 4 or 5 days to dry, minal but on spikes the same plant :male in branching ter becoming food for cattle.” ; female in a concealed spike or
The criterion for removing the flower-beads elongatedreceptacle, proceeding from the joints of the culm or stalks ; calyx a two-valved blunt is when all the farina has completely glume ; corolla a two-valved glume ; style one,
quitted the tassel, and the tassel is long and pendulous, protruding considerably dead and dry ; also a perfect deadness of beyond the leafy envelope of the seed spike'; the end of the silk of the cob, where,
seeds solitary, immured in an oblong common
instead of the bright green that appeared receptacle. before, gracefully hanging down, a little 3493. Maize is also called Turkish wheat. bunch of withered -up and brown-looking “ The origin ofthis plant has been disputed. In stuff is seen .
The farmer should choose the equatorial countries of America, maize is
his time for topping, when the weather is cultivated, according toHumboldt,at anelevation when not cultivated in wet and unfavourable for other work ; ofthe7,600 fields InandEurope, open feet. for its grain, as green
neither need it be all done at one time, fodder, its northern limits extend to latitude47º. unless the plants are in a fit state for the
It is cultivated in abundance between La Maas
operation. Mr Keene's Forty Days’ Maize and La Flèche, (lat. 48°,) for feeding fowls. only bears one cob, which contains about From this the limitis traced with some difficulty, around Paris to Frankfort on the Maine, (lat. 500 30 '.) Farther east its limits are not ascertained. In the plain of Brandenburg ( lat. 52° 30') it
48 seeds.
3490. In the case of localities in which yields abundantly, but is little cultivated, and frost is felt until late in the season , it is that only for fodder. In Eastern Europe it banks of Dneister, ( lat. 49º possibletoraiseplants of maizeina piece occurs beyond onthistheitslimits aretheunknown isan;) .Maize
of good ground sheltered from frost ; and
when they have attained a height of 8
annual plant, which only requires heat in sum mer, and is not influenced by the cold of winter.
or 9 inches, to transplant them in the In North America, maize is cultivated more ex
prepared drillsat 9 inches asunder, and tensively than in Europe ; in the interior of its northern limits reach the parallel of in case some of the plants die, to reserve Canada, lat. 50°. The highest point at which it has been Europe is the village of Lescans, a few to fill up the gaps. The transplan- cultivatedin tation may be deferred until the third inthe departmentof Basses Pyrenees, situated, week of June, when all dread of frost is at 3,280 feet above the level of the sea. This is above the limits of the vine, which only reaches
an end.
2,620 feet .” * According to Schouw , in respect of the predominating kinds of grain , the earth
3491. In finishing the summer culture may be divided into five grand divisions or king of the maize, the drills are set upto their doins. The kingdom of rice ,of maize, of wheat,
original form with the double mould-board of rye, and lastly of barleyandoats. Rice, plough, fig. 214 ; and this operation should maize,and wheat, are the most extensive, and rice supports the greatest number of the be completed before the plants have at the human race . The maize has the greatest range
tained snch a size as to come in contact
with the horse or implement. The flower ing season is so critical to the maize, that
of temperature.t 3494. I have already given the composition
nooperation should be permitted thatwould of maize in (1303,) and of the composition of in the least agitate the plants; and for this
the ash of the grain of the maize in ( 1304. )
reason windy weather is unfavourable Every bushel of maize leaves about a pound of ash . I shall now give the composition of the for the crop at that stage of its growth. ash of maize straw , grownnearGratz by Hrus The
crop ,after being
set up, remains until
chauer:
Johnston's Physical Atlas — Phytology, Map No. 2. + Edinburgh Nero sophical Journal for April 1825.
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
110
Potash, Soda ,
14:46 39.92
Lime,
4.93
Magnesia,
1.84
Oxide of iron ,
Phosphoric acid , Sulphate of lime , Chloride of sodium , Silica, .
Percentage of ash,
4.78 12.69 11.00 11:44 0:73
0-90 11.76 1.01
22-39
6.29 18.89
0-55 35.05
100-00
100.00
2:30
6.50
1:37
living object. Though apparently lifeless to the sight and the touch, it haslife, and
its vitality is capable of exerting great power when excited into action. What the agent is, and how it acts, which excites the vitality of seeds, we do not know, and perhaps never shall know-it may be one of the secrets which nature
will keep to herself ; but we do know the circumstances in which, when seeds are placed, vitality is invariably excited,
Professor Johnston makes these important and the proof of thisexcitement is furnished regard to the great discrep by their germination, which is the first general remarks,in the results in these two analyses. ancy between
“ Between these results we observe great differ
movement towards the production of a
ences, both in the total percentageof ash left, plant. and in the proportions of every one of the con . stituents which the ash contains. This is by no means unexpected, but it illustrates a fact, that
3498. Now the circumstances which
our knowledge of the inorganic constituents of excite germination, are a combination of plants of the function performed by them in air, beat, and moisture. These must be the several parts of plants — and of the propor- afforded in the mostfavourable conditions,
tions required most perfectlyto perform these before the plant will grow. They may several functions — is yet in its infancy." *
all be supplied to the seed, and its ger
3495. The importation of maize in 1847, the mination secured in the air as certainly as year ofthe Irish famine, was as great as 3,608,312 in the ground ; but on the development of quarters, and in 1848, 1,586,771 quarters. of the radicle, the province of which it is to
maize mealin 1847, 1,448,837 cwt., and in 1848, penetrate into the soil, the young germ , quarter is payable on maize,and of4f .the cwt. instead of growing upwards, woulddie, were it kept constantly in the air. The
on maize meal.
earth supplies all the requisites of air, heat, and moisture to the plant, in a much THE RATIONALE OF THE GERMINATION OF
better state than the air can of itself,
and the soil continues to supply them , pot only at the period of its germination , but 3496. Now that we have proceeded during its after life. A vital seed placed SEEDS.
through the whole course of the seed -time, in the ground must be affected by three incidental to spring and to the early part agencies, one physical, another chemical, of summer, and the finishing of which ter- and a third physiological, before it can minates for a time one busy period of produce a plant. farm operations, it will prove useful to rest a while from actual labour, and 3499. Physical.— When a vital seed
consider the principles upon which the is placed in pulverised ground it is sur success of the operations we have been rounded with air ; for although the par conducting, chiefly depends. By obtaining ticles of soil may seem to the eye to be a clear view of the circumstances which close together, on examination it is found best promote the germination of the seeds that the interstices between the particles
of the crops we have been sowing, and of occupy one-fourth of a given quantity the earliest growth of the plants arising of soil.
Hence, 100 cubic inches of
from them , we shall be enabled to conclude pulverised soil contain no less than 25 cubic whether or not the practice we pursue, inches of air. Therefore, in a field , the
in sowing seeds, is calculated to afford soil of which has been ploughed and pul those circumstances which best promote
verised to the depth of 8 inches, every
their germination and the growth of the acre of it will contain 12,545,280 cubic plants from them .
inches of air ; and hence also, as every additional inch of depth pulverised , calls
3497. The healthy seed of a plant is a into activity 259 tons 5 cwt. 32 lb. of * Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 375.
THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS.
111
soil, at 1:48 of specific gravity, (119,) so able circumstances for germination. Be sides the di Fig. 278.
the ploughing ofthe soildeeperevery inch
S2s 8&
introduces into it an additional 1,568,160 cubic inches of air. Thus, by increasing
rect
exclu
sion ofthe air, the water, on
the depth of pulverised soil, we can pro vide a depot ofair to any extent for the use of seeds. Suppose that as much as 3
evaporation,
renders
bushels of wheat are sown on the acre,
the
earth around each seed much colder
2,104,704 seeds will be sown, ( 1856, ) so that each grain will have about 6 cubic
than it would SOIL WITH WATER AND WITHOUT otherwise be.
inches of air in a soil 8 inches deep. 3500. But this air must be above a cer
AIR.
The evils of
tain temperature ere the seed will germi- the excess of moisture are evident from nate - itmust be above the freezing point, this figure.. else the vitality of the seed will remain
dormant. A pulverised state of the soil
3502. But total want of moisture pre
affords great protection to the seed from
vents germination as much as excess. Fig.
a considerable depression of temperature, and the more finely it is pulverised, the
279 shows the seed a
more it will resist the induction of cold
placedin pul
from without, and the less will it radiate the heat from within . The less finely the soil is pulverised, such as in fig. 277,
verised soil, and the inter
Fig. 277.
stices
filled
where a seed
with air, but
a is placed
no moisture
among hard clodsb, on the one side,
tween and in
and near stone
the
C
a on
other ;
with a few CLODDY AND STONY SOIL .
Fig. 279.
is visible be SOIL WITH AIR AND WITHOUT WATER ,
the particles of soil.
In
such a state of soil, heat will find an
easy access to the seed, and as easy an escape from it.
The evils of the want
particles of of moisture, and of excess of heat, are fine earth evident from this figure.
hard by, neither the clods nor the stone can afford the seed any air, which can only be supplied through the few particles of pulverised soil; but cold is easily trans
3503. Fig. 280 represents the seed a com
mitted by stone from the atmosphere, with
verised ; be
in soil
Fig. 280.
pletely pul
which it communicates by its upper sur
tween every
face, and by which also the internal heat is
particle
easily radiated into the air. It is clear then, that, in such circumstances, seed is not placed in favourable circumstances for
access to the
its germination. The advantages of pul
seed ; and in
verised soil are evident from this figure.
the heart of every par ticle of soil
of the soil the
air finds easy
SOIL WITH WATER AND AIR .
3501. Besides by clods and stones, the be excluded by water. Fig. 278 moisture is lodged. All that is here re
air may
represents the seed a placed in a pulver- quired in addition is a favourable tempe ised soil, the interstices of which are en- rature, which the season supplies, and ger tirely occupied by water, instead of air, mination proceeds.
as well as the interior of all the pulverised particles of it.
It is also clear that, in
3504. Chemical. - The chemical com
this case too, the seed , being deprived position of seeds consists of organic and of air, is not placed in the most favour- inorganic substances. The organic are
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
112
composed of two classes of elements, the
3507. Heat, if now present, assists the
azotised and the non-azotised : the inor- elements of air and moisture to excite the
ganic of earthy, alkaline, and acid ingre- vital principle into action. It expands dients.
The azotised elements consist of the air contained in the numerous cavities
matter analogous to the casein of milk, of the seed, produces distension of all the albumen of the egg and of blood, and of organic parts ; and, their irritability being
the fibrine of the flesh of animals; the thus excited, the seed cannot be destroyed non -azotised consist of starch and muci. but with death. lage, and of fatty and oily matters rich in 3508. Immediately on the enlargement 'carbon and hydrogen. The proportions of
the starch, and of the mucilage, do not vary of bulk by the moisture, and the excita much in most seeds ; but in other respects tion to vitality by heat, a chemical change
the composition varies considerably - in takes places in the constitution of the seed. some the gluten predominating, in others The vital principle decomposes the water the oil, and by which the distinctive quali- absorbed, fixes its hydrogen for future purposes, and its oxygen , uniting with ties of the plants are characterised . * the carbon of the seed, forms carbonic acid, 3505. A seed, when fully ripe, contains a which is parted with by the respiratory large proportion ofcarbon or mucilage, and, organs into the air, and of the seed into as long as it continues to be charged with the soil, most of the ingredients of the either, it is unable to grow . It is only latter absorb it. The carbon is thus got rid able to grow when placed in circumstances of untilthe proportion is reduced to the in which it can get quit of a large propor- amount best suited to its being appropriated
tion of the carbon or mucilage, and this it by the embryo plant. The evolution of the is enabled to do when sown in the ground. carbonic acid may be one source of the heat which becomes manifest during germina
3506. When a seed is consigned to the tion, just as Liebig has pointed out the ground, the first change which takes place source of animal beat by a similar cause
in it is physical —it becomes increased in in the animal economy. It thus appears bulk by the absorption of moisture. If that oxygen is essential to germination, the moisture is presented to it in the pro- since no seed will germinate in hydrogen, portion represented in fig. 280, it is placed nitrogen, or carbonic acid. in the most favourable circumstances for
3509. When the seed begins to germi germination ; it then receives moisture and air, and only requires the requisite nate a substance named diastase is formed
degree of temperature to excite its vitality at the expense of its albumen. The func into action. If it is placed in want of tions of diastase are important, being to moisture, as in fig. 279, it will remain in convert the insoluble starch of the seed
a state of dormancy until moisture arrive, into soluble dextrin and sugar ; to effect and in the mean time may become the which change it seems to possess extraor prey of the many animals which inhabit dinary power, as one part of diastase will the soil, eager for food, or be scorched to
convert into sugar no less than 2000 parts
death by heat. If it isplaced inexcess of moisture, as in fig. 278, its germination is prevented by theexclusion of the air, and its tissues are destroyed by maceration in the water. In favourable circumstances, besides the direct effect of theabsorption of moisture in increasing the bulk of the seed, it softens and expands all its parts ; many
of starch. The diastase is formed at the base of the germ ; and as the seed shows the first signs of germination there, the diastase converts the starch which it finds there into a useful state for the support of the first efforts ofvegetation,and, after hav ing performed this important function, it disappears.
of the dry and soluble parts become fluid ; sap or vegetable food is formed, and a sort
3510. Acetic acid is formed in the
of circulation established, which communi- chemical changes effected by germination, cates between the more remote parts of but whether it or diastase is first formed , after germination commences, is uncertain . the embryo. Boussingault's Rural Economy--Law's translation, p. 19.
-
THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS.
119
The action of dilute acids gradually light the leaves of plants absorb carbonic changes starch into dextrin, then into acid and give off oxygen, and seeds ex cane sugar, and lastly into grape sugar. posed to light follow the same law ; but
After the acetic acid has been ejected by in the process of liealthy germination, car the plant, it may serve to dissolve lime, bonic acid is given off and oxygen absorb and other earthy matters contained in the ed. Hence to attempt to germinate seeds soil, and Liebig conjectures this to be an in the light is to reverse the order of nature ; and the best way to exclude the ligbt is to cover the seeds with earth.
especial function of this acid.
3511. “ Under fitting circumstances," says Professor Lindley , the embryo which
3514. In oily seeds having no starch
theseed contains swells, and bursts through mucilage takes its place, wbich,being easily its integuments ; it then lengthens, first in dissolved, transfuses itself into the circula a direction downwards, next in an up- tion, and is converted into dextrin or
ward direction, thus forming a centre or cellulose, as the case may require. axis round which other parts are ulti mately formed .
No known power can
3515. Turnip and carrot seed have no
overcome this tendency, on the partof the starch, but they contain pectic acid, wbich embryo, to elevate one portion in the air, being changed into dextrin, leaves car and to bury the other in the earth ; but it bon and oxygen to be used as the occasion is an inherent property with which nature may require. has endowed seeds, in order to insure the
young parts, when first called into life,
3516. Physiological.- A seed consi
each finding itself in the situation most dered in reference to its organisation con suitable to its existence -- that is to say, the sists ofan embryo, which includes thegerms of the root and of the stem , and of a cotyle don or cotyledons.
root in the earth , the stem in the air."
3512. When the germ bas shot out from the seed , and attained to a sensible length,
3517. Fig. 281 represents a grain of
it is found to be possessed of a sweet taste, wheat magnified, and so dissected as to compon show which is owing grape to the presence
of
Fig. 281.
its
ent
sugar in the sap which has already begun to circulate through its vessels. There is
parts. It consists of
little doubt that the grape sugar is formed
and an inner - a a the outer, and b the inner
two skins, an outer
subsequently to the appearance of both diastase and acetic acid . * “ With the
skin : b is also where the nutritive matters, called the starch and
assistance of this saccharine secretion ,”
continues Professor Lindley, " the root, technically called the radicle, at first a
albumen , are situate,
mere point, or rather rounded cone, ex
and these constitute
tends and pierces the earth in search of food ; the young stem rises and unfolds its cotyledons, or rudimentary leaves, which, if
the whole seed ; c is the little scale orcoty THE COMPONENT PARTS ledon through which
they are exposed to light, decomposo car-
OF A GRAIN OF WHEAT. the nutritive matter
bonic acid, fix the carbon, become green, passes in the sweet state, when the grain and form the matter by which all the
pre-
is germinating, and by which it is rendered
existing parts are solidified. And thus a most fit for the nourishment of the little plant is born into the world ; its first act plant ; d is the rudimentary plant, at the
having been to deprive itself of a principle base of which 3 tubers may be seen, from ( carbon) which, in superabundance, pre- which as many roots or stems, or both, vents its growth ; but, in some other pro- will afterwards proceed ; and e is the point portion, is essential to its existence." where the nutritive matter, the little scale,
and the rudimentary plant, are united.
3513. It is easy to comprehend why All these parts are essential to the growth light is prejudicial to germination. In of the seed, since, any one being absent * Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 221-8.
+ Lindley's Theory of Horticulture,p. 8-10. VOL. II .
H
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
114
by accident or design, the seed fails to spring.
ON SOWING, BROADCAST, DRILLED, AND DIBBLED - THICK AND THIN— AND AT DIFFERENT DEPTHS.
3518. The seeds of most species of plants possess such a structure as that only one stem can proceed from them ; but in the
3521. Broadcast sowing. – Of all the modes of sowing the seeds of the cereal
grasses , and particularly in the cereal crops, none requires so much seed as the
ones, which yield human food, a remark- broadcast. The usual quantity of seed able departure from this structure is sown is 3 bushels of wheat, 4 bushels of
observed. In them the embryo plant is barley, and 6 bushels of oats to the acre. usually thickened towards its base, and is Thirty years ago the quantities of seed so organised that, instead of one stem, 3 or sown were larger, viz. :-4 bushels of
4 usually spring from one grain ; and, in wheat, 6 of barley,and 7 of oats. These some cases ,the number of stems is so great quantities I myself have sown. almost to exceed belief. as
Fig. 282.
3522. However well the land may be
Thepeculiarity ploughed, the seed sown broadcast will
mentioned may braird irregularly — some falling into the be observed at
hollowest part of the surface, some upon
the highest, and some being scarcely which is the covered with earth by the harrows - some
C,
282,
fig.
rudimentary sliding gently into the rut after the tines plant, having 3 have passed , whilst others are carried projections in as deep into the ruts as the tines them the lower part, selves penetrate. To barrow the land
while in other smooth ,previous to the sowing of the seed , would not cure the inconvenience of irre there would gular covering , since it is impossible to kinds of seed
have only been cover so large a seed as thatof the cereals, one ; and from
N A
merely with the action of the tines of the
harrows, without the assistance of a rough projec- surface of mould. On smooth harrowed
each of these
T
three
tions a rootlet
ground the seed would be left on the sur
or a stem , d or face, and even harrowing, as presently b or both , pro conducted, leaves many seeds exposed, to ceed when the be picked up by granivorous birds. What
A STATE PLANT OFGERMINATION WHEATIN THE grain is placed I have stated may be illustrated by the OF
.
in the soil.
following figures, where from c to d, fig.
283, are represented furrows, well and re
3519. Fig. 282 represents such a grain in a state of germination , one shoot a having
Fig. 283,
left the sheath , another b is just evolved , and a third c remains unevolved ; and d d are the rootlets. It is this peculiarity of
structure which compensates , in somede gree, for the great loss sustained from the de
WELL - PLOUGHED REGULAR FURROW- SLICES,
struction ofseed, on sowing thecereal crops. gularly ploughed ; but it is obvious that although the seeds will fall successively 3520. The force of the vegetation of a more into the hollows between the furrows single seed is as great as to raise a weight than upon the sharp points, when scattered of 200 lb., as has been proved by its split- broadcast from the hand, yet some will fall ting hollow balls, in the manner the Flo- on the points and sides of the furrows.
rentine academicians measured the expan- The seeds will lie in the ground, as shown sive force of freezing water, ( 644.) In in fig. 284, where those are thicker at e,
1847 a small fungus upheaved from its bed which fell into the hollows of the furrows, alarge flag-stone in a foot pavement in one and thinner at f, which stuck upon their of the squares of Edinburgh.
apex, or on their sides.
But even their
BROADCAST AND DRILL -SOWING .
115
position will not be so regular as is here is shown in fig. 287, where some seeds are represented,where all the seeds are at the clustered together and covered in a shallow same depth from the surface, for some will
Fig. 287.
Fig. 284.
b
C
d
f
wovon IRREGULAR DEPOSITION OF SEED ON ILL THE POSITION OF SEEDS WHEN SOWN ON REGULAR FURROW - SLICES ,
PLOUGHED FURROW - SLICES .
manner at a ; others also clustered , but
be deeper than others, some too deep, and buried deep, at b ; whilst many are scat others too shallow , whilst not a few will tered irregularly at different depths, at c
have been left exposed on the surface. and d . It is obvious, from such a deposi From such a deposition, as in fig. 284, the tion of the seed, that the braird must come up
plants will come up in theirregular manner in a very irregular manner, likely to affect represented in fig. 285, whereg are clumps the future progress of the crop ; for we Fig. 285. k
9
h
have only to look at such a braird to be convinced that the plants have not all the
same chance of arriving at maturity at the same time ; and, if a crop does not mature alike, the grain cannot be alike in the sample. In fig. 288, where the seed was Fig. 288. b
IRREGULAR BRAIRDING FROM EVEN REGULAR
FURROW - SLICES.
of too many plants, and h straggling ones too far asunder. But in reality , theseeds having been deposited at different depths, the plants will present greater irregularity of height than is shown in fig. 285.
IRREGULAR BRAIRD ON ILL- PLOUGHED PURROW - SLICES ,
3523. But when the land is ill ploughed, sown very deep, it will produce plants the case is still worse . Fig. 286 shows the that will come up late, as at a ; while that Fig. 286. b
covered in a shallow manner will send up
plants early, as at b, which will push on in growth when the weather is favourable,
and get far in advance of the late ones at The remainder at c, coming up in a more regular manner, will form the best part of the crop. a.
ILL- PLOUGHED IRREGULAR FURROW - SLICES.
irregular manner in which the furrows are
3524. Drill-sowing. - One evident ad
placed by bad ploughing . Bad ploughing vantage of sowing with a drill over a is attended with bad consequences at all broadcast machine, is the regular deposi seasons, in forming the seed-furrow for tion of the seed at one depth, whatever any kind of crop, but particularly for a depth may be chosen . Fig. 289 represents cereal one, inasmuch as irregularity of sur- the seeds deposited at regular intervals, face cannot be amended in this by the from a to a. The figure is supposed to be
cleansing implements in future operations, a cross section of the ground,as also of the as mightbe the case in a green crop. Seed Fig. 289, sown on the irregular surface of fig . 286, where a is a narrow deep furrow , b a shal
low one, c a large one of ordinary depth, and d one having a high and steep side, will be covered in an irregular manner , as
.00
REGULAR DEPTHS OF SEED BY DRILL - SOWING ,
116
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
seeds in the lines of rows as sown with tion may either be in rows or broadcast, the drill. The braird is shown also in though commonly it is in rows. The dif cross section from the drilled seed in fig. ference betwixt dibbling and drilling is, 290 from c to c, where the plants seem all that the latter places the seed in continu ous lines, wbile the former places it in Fig. 290. rows, at intervening distances in the row . с
The object of dibbling is to fill the ground
with plants with the least quantity of seeil. The seed when sown in rows with the
dibble appears as those in fig. 289, viewed along one row , and the plants from them REGULAR BRAJRD FROM DRILL - SOWN SEED. come up as shown in fig. 290, standing of the same height and strength, and their at intervals when also viewed along a
produce may reasonably be expected tobe row . The depth of the seed and the equal of the same quality. What makes drilled brairding of the plants are as uniform as seed be certainly retained at a uniform in the case of drilling, while the plants in depth is the harrowing of the land into each dibble hole stand independent of the a smooth state before the drill sows the rest. seed .
3527. The waste in seed . When sown 3525. Certain as the result of the in all these ways in equal quantities, this is
drill - machine is in depositing the seed at surprising, as may be determined both hy a stated depth, there are objections to reason and experiment. Wheat at 63 lb.
sowing corn in rows, which all drill-ma- the bush.el gives 87 of its seeds to the chines do, that are not applicable to drachm , or 701,568 to the bushel, (1856 ,) broadcast sowing ; and could the seed be in apothecary's weight, or 865,170 in deposited at a uniform depth in broadcast, avoirdupois weight. Now , 3 bushels of
the objections would be disposed of. One seed are sown on the acre, or 2,595,510 objection to all grain crops placed in rows grains of wheat. Suppose that each grain is, that the air,having free access along produces one stem , and every stem bears
the rows, encourages the growth of weeds; an ear containing the common number of todestroy which ,certain implements, named 32 grains, the produce of the acre should horse and hand boes, are used to stir the be 96 bushels ; but the heaviest crop in
ground. And, as in their progressive growth Scotland seldom exceeds 64 bushels the the plants throw out innumerable root- acre, so that 32 bushels to the acre, or 33
fibres in every direction, in search of food, per cent of the seed, is lost in the best those which occupy the open space between crops,and 58 per cent in an ordinary one the rows aredestroyed in common with the of 40 bushels. weeds ; and although no estimate can be formed of the amouut of injury which 3528. The waste in barley seed may be
plants sustain in such destruction of their estimated thus: -Chevalier barley at 57 lb. root- fibres, it is consonant to reason that the bushel, and 75 grains to the drachm , those fibres must be essential to the wel- gives 547,200 grains to the bushel, apothe
fare of the plants, otherwise they would cary's weight, (1911,)or 665,242 avoir not be sent forth by them . It would dupois weight. Four bushels of seed are therefore be worth while to ascertain by sown to the acre, which gives 2,660,968 experiment the comparative results derived from depositing seed broadcast at a uniform depth with the same quantity of seed drilled in rows at a like depth. The drill-sowing machines commonly in use are described under figs. 205 and 206.
grains to the acre ; and taking one stem from each grain, and the produce of an ear at 32 grains, the produce should be 128 bushels; but the best crop in Scotland does not exceed 60 bushels, which gives a loss of 53 per cent on the best, and of
62, on an ordinary one of 48 bushels. 3526. Dilble- sowing. - Dibbling, or 3529. In like manner the loss upon dibble sowing, is the distributing of seed bymeans of a dibble at givendistances, at a oats may be estimated. The potato oat of uniform depth in the soil, and the distribu. 47 lb. the bushel, and 134 grains to the
DIBBLING .
drachm , gives 806,144 grains to the bushel, apothecary's weight, ( 1930,) or 978,968 avoirdupois weight. Six bushels of oats are sown to the acre, which gives 5,879,808 grains to the acre ; and taking one stem
117
soil ; but the broadcast method involves a loss of seed beyond the others of 168 per cent — an anticipated result, since many of the seeds were necessarily left unburied on the surface, and some perhaps buried too
from each grain, and the number of grains deep by the barrow tines. Theseeds were in an ear at 44, the produce should be 264 all sown on the same day, the 19th March, bushels ; but the largest crop in Scotland and the thickest sown of the drilled and I know of, is 114 bushels to the acre, and broadcast brairded first on the 16th April.
a poor one is 36 bushels. The loss of seed For three nights after that, severe frosts on the best crop is more than one-balf, occurred, which may have had a more in and on the poor one six -sevenths.
jurious effect on the shallowest covered seed of the broadcast than on the other
3530. Another view of the thickness of kinds of sowing. Every one of the brairds seed as sown is this :-2,595,510 grains of seemed quite thick enough for a crop. wheat the acre give 536 grains to the square yard ; 2,660,968 grains of barley 3532. Mr MʻLagan extended the expe
give 550 grains to the square yard ; and riment by sowing 7 pecks of oats drilled, 5,879,808 grains of oats give 1214 grains or 252 grains to the square yard, and from
to the square yard. In the cases of wheat these 208 plants came up, giving a per and barley, the proportion of seed is in centage of 825. He also sowed 24 pecks proportion to their respective weights, to the acre broadcast, or 864 grains to the
but in the case of cats the seed is more square
yard, of which produced plants, than double in proportion to the weights giving a percentage of570671, only a little of the grains, probably because the weight more than in the former case of broadcast. of oats is made up by that of its thick husk. Thus, 7 pecks of oat seed gave the largest return of plants brairded .. Still the ulti
3531. Mr M‘Lagan, junior of Pum- mate yield from the respective quantities
pherston, Mid-Lothian, made experiments of seed sown has yet to be ascertained. at my request in the spring of 1849, for
the purpose of ascertaining the waste of
3533. Mr Hay of Whiterigg, in Rox
seedin sowing oats inthethree different ways of dibbling, drilling, and broadcast. The oats weighed 42 lb. the bushel. The dibbled holes were made 6 inches apart,
burghshire, also performed similar experi ments for me at the same time, by dibbling
and drilling wheat, barley, and oats, and by sowing oats in broadcast. The dillled
and 6 inches between the rows, making 36 seeds were put into holes within 3 inches
holes in the square yard, and each hole square to the number of 1 , 3, and 6 grains was supplied with from one to four seeds, in each hole, which gave respectively 144, making the quantity sown from one peck 432, and 864 grains to the square yard . to four pecks the acre ; and the seeds sown The seeds were sown on the 16th March drilled and broadcast were in the same 1849, and the plants counted on the 8th
proportion. In drilling and dibbling, the May. The results were these : seed was inserted 34 inches into the ground. After After
The results were these :
144
433
seeds . seeds .
Dibbled .
Drilled .
52 68 87
Of Wheat sown , 97 Barley , 95 Hopetoun 129
Percentage ,
270
257
226
*750
•714
.628
616
1009 plants came up .
687
1117
403
800
1332
407 413 405
823
1365
125 132
777 751
1315 1288
•67
.69
*66
•79
oats ,
Potato oats, 135
Birley do. 360
296 335
:::
120
53 78 94
:
49 75
864
Broadcast.
From 36 grains sown , 26 plants , 32 plants, 19 plants came up. 72 108 144
After Seedo.
Sherriff do . Percentage of
Wheat
There is not much difference in the braird
came up ,
Barley ,
•71 average 69 79 75
-94 -90 -92 91 ing of the seed sown dibbled and drilled, Oats , excepting the case where four seeds were sown; and this might have been expected, 3534. On the 25th March similar seeds since the seeds in both ways were deposited were sown in drills at the same rates per much in the same circumstances in the square yard, and the plants counted on
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
118
the 8th May, when the results were the ing ones, which were dibbled and drilled, following :-
and their advanced state in that time is an After After
After
indication that plants sown in spring tiller very quickly, after brairding, in favour
144
432
864
seeds . 105 86
Beeds. 327 318
Seeds. 652
747
1151
} 139
408
798
1345
Potato oats , 137
407
795
1339
of Wheat sown , Barley, Hopetoun oats ,
1084 plants came up .
::
3536. Taking the respective quantities of seed as having been sown on the square yard, both by MrHay and Mr M'Lagan, the quantities will be as follows onthe
Percentage of Wheat came up ,
Barley , Oats ,
-73
* 75
-60 96
73
* 75 average 74 .86 •73
94
92
able weather.
-94
acre : -
On comparing the brairds of the drilled
Grains.
Grains.
with the dibbled seeds, the barley and oats
do not exhibit much difference, but the wheat incurs less loss of seed when drilled than when dibbled, in the ratio of 1009 to
1084. On comparing the results obtained by Mr Hay in the cases of dibbling and drilling oats with those by Mr M‘Lagan,
36 per sq. yd.
1 peck per acre .
174,240
348,480
2 522,720 = 3 696,960 I bushel 1,393,920 = 2 3 2,090,880
72 108 144 288 432
576 720
- 2,787,840 = 4 - 3,428,800
5
4,181,760 = 6
864
Mr Hay obtained a braird of nine-tenths of the seed sown in both cases ; while Mr
3537. Mr Kenyon S. Parker made a n d seven -tenths; and, M‘Laga broadcast, he comparative experiment between drill sowing oats of obtaine the caseonly in
obtained a still smaller braird, namely, ing, dibbling,andbroad -casting wheaton clover lea, and the results show little dif
six -tenths.
ference between the drilled and dibbled
3535. After a lapse of ten days, on the crop with Newberry's dibbler,the differ 18th May, when rain had fallen in the in- ence only consisting in the straw being terval, the plants sown broadcast were longer and stronger,and the ears and grain
counted, and they were unexpectedly found bolder in the dibbled. in greater number than the seeds sown. The plants therefore must have tillered in the course of the ten days during the rain, and the tillering was ascertained to
be to the following extent : Seeds.
Plants .
315 Barley produced 360 325
405 930
bush . peck.
qr. bush .gal.
Weight
the acre .
the acre .
per bush , lb.
Broadcast, i 3 produced 3 7 1 Drilled, 1 2 4 3 1
62
4
63
at 12 in., Tillering. one-sixth. one -fourth . double .
Dibbled,
4
10
3
0
63
3538. Mr Thomas King Thedam , Little ments upon wheat deposited in eight differ 666 Potato do... ent quantities, dibbled at the same dis the in On account of the wet weather course of the ten days, these plants were tance, each having 40 holes, upon a space 471 Sherriff oats
Braxted, Essex, made, in 1848, experi
648 = one- fifth . one -sixteenth 704
520
longer in being counted than the preced- of fourteen square feet, with these results , Rate of
No. of Amount of Grains Grains per SOwn . square
Grains in each hole .
1 2
5 6
7 8
Rate of Seed per acre .
foot.
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320
3
11 14 17 20
Pecks. 1 2 3 4
7 8 9
Pints. 3 6 10 12
3 6 9
Amended rate , Number ofWeight, in cluding according to the ears
quantitiesgiven produced . in (3536.) Pecks. 0 1 2
Pints . 14 12 10 8
Ounces .
4 5
14 4
67 97 157 170 174 242
6
2 0
224 222
3
7
straw and chaff .
12
16 26
265 264 40 36 38
THICK AND THIN SOWING .
“ The produce of a sheaf of wheat grown last year, and weighing 12 pounds, was 4 pounds net, or one-third of the gross; this season 12 pounds gross produced only 3 pounds net; therefore, as there are
119
have been much discussed and experimen
ted on by several parties, but none has expressed himself so conclusively on it as Mr Hewitt Davis, London, and farmer of Spring Park , near Croydon , in Surrey.
43,560 square feet in the acre, only one Mr Davis' farm contains 800 acres of high
ounce of wheat is required per square foot rented poor soil; bnt Scottishfarmers should to produce 2,722 pounds, which will be made acquainted that this farm stands amount by weight to something more than on a warm subsoil of chalk , an advantage 42 bushels, at 64 pounds to the bushel. which no farm of theirs possesses. Of
The foregoing experiment was made upon his practice, Mr Davis says, that the a gravelly soil,ofa tenacions quality, and practice throughout England is to sowtwo subject to grub and wireworm ; and the or three bushels of wheat to the acre, and .crop that surrounded my experiments was the yield seldom reaches 40 bushels, and from 6 pecks of seed per acre, drilled with more commonly less than 20 busbels, so 10 rows upon a 7 -feet stetch, and was that one- tenth at least of the crop grown in generalappearance much better than is consumed as seed, whilst a single grain
anyof thatgrown upon this thin -sowing ofwheat, planted where it has room to the greatest result was obtained from 240 hundred fold. The knowledge of these grains in the given space, which is here facts has induced me, in the course of the
system .” This experiment indicates that tiller out, will readily produce many
stated at 7 pecks 3 pints the acre ; but as last fourteen years, to make a variety of
the number of grains in a given space is made to show a larger quantity of seed by Mr Thedam than the calculations of Mr Hay and of Mr M'Lagan make it, I have
experiments, the results of which have clearly shown me that, independent of the waste, a positive and serious injury of far more consequence is done to the cropfrom
inserted a column of amended rates in the sowing so much seed . I bear in mind, that,
above table, by which the quantityof seed if so much be sown as to produce more
which produced the greatest result is alter- plants than the space will allow to attain ed to 5 pecks 4 pints, from 7 pecks 3 pints. to maturity, the latter growth of the whole will be impeded, and a diseased state will 3539. The question to which these par- commence as soon as the plants cover the ticular data give rise is, what quantity is ground, and continue till harvest. In too thick or too thin sowing, or what is consequence, I have gradually reduced my the least quantity of seed that should be proportion of seed - corn to less than a third sown to yield the largest crop ? The in- of what it was my practice to sow ; and quiry assumesmuch importance when we this reduction I have accomplished to the consider that from one-tenth to one- four- very evident improvement of my crops." teenth part of all the grain grown in the The quantities of seed which Mr Davis has country is every year put into the ground at length determined on sowing, in accord as seed. However small a fraction ofeither ance with these reasons, are, for of these proportions could be saved by an Rye, . . If bush , sown in Aug. and Sept. September other mode of sowing, would increase the Winter barley, 2 ...
profit of the farmer to that extent. If one bushel of seed could be saved on the acre, the quantity of seed saved would amount to 2,403,198 quarters, according to
Tares,
Oats,. .
Barley, Wheat,
the data furnished by Mr Couling to the Pease , House of Commons - the number of arable
.
Beans,
1) 6 pecks
S three sowings in Aug. Sept. & Oct. Jan, Feb. March .
3
Jan. Feb. March ,and April. Sept. and Oct.
9 9
Sept. and Oct.
5
1 .
.
.
Dec. Jan. & Feb.
acres in the kingdom being 19,225,583 - a It will at once be observed that the times
quantity of grain considerably exceeding of sowing here specified would not suit the annual import of foreign wheat for most of those crops in Scotland , and on the long period from 1801 to 1844.* this account alone the English farmer will always possess a great advantage over the 3540. Thick and thin sowing of seed Scottish . The results obtained by MrDavis, * Porter's Progress of the Nation, p. 138, 159.
120
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
after such scanty sowings, are 5 quarters barley per Scotch acre respectively, the of the best wheat, above 13 quarters of Scotch being one- fifth larger than the in oats, and above & quarters of barley to the perial acre . More recently, however, I acre on “ very inferior land,” from the have curtailed these quantities by nearly a bushel per acre, and, so far as I can judge, with manifest advantage to the crops. The
manure available on the farm . *
3541. Mr Mechi, of Tiptree Hall, Essex, straw is much more bulky, and the grain continues his experiments of comparative decidedly greater in quantity ; and, if sowing between onebushel and two bushels sown earlyenough, quite equalin quality the acre, and the advantage is in favour of to wbat it was under the thick -sowing
thin sowing, though the results are not system. I am persuaded that, were I to uniformly in favour of it, the products drill the seed either with a machine or a varying from 3 bushels 3 pecks to one plongh, I could safely and economically bushel the acre in favour of thin sowing, dispense with another bushel per acre .
and half a peck the acre in favour of thick Wbile making these remarks in favour of sowing. But it should be borne in mind that Mr Mechi’s thick sowing is only 2 -bushels the acre - a quantity equivalent to the thin sowing of many farmers.
thin sowing, I am not yet a convert to the English system of infinitesimal small quantities of seed, such as two or three pecks per acre, and can easily conceive circumstances under which this sowing
3542. Mr B. Hunt, Basingstoke, tried would be positively injurious.” Experi an experiment of thick and thin sowing of ence here also indicates the propriety of wheat on clover lea, betwixt 6 pecks of sowing in moderate quantity. seed to the acre, which produced 5 quar ters the acre, and 10 pecks of seed, which 3545. On comparing thebroadcast, drill
notonly produced 6 quarters the acre of ed, and dibbled methods of sowing the grain which was 4 16. the sack heavier, cereal grains, from what has been said on but half a ton ofmore straw. The results obtained by Mr Hunt have a tendency to uphold thick sowing, and he istherefore of the opinion that it is not safe to sow less than 7 or 8 pecks of good seed. As he
the subject, it must be owned that the broadcast method, which is the most com mon one throughout the country, imposes a loss of seed by the barrowing, which not only leaves soine of the seed exposed on does not mention the mode in which the the surface, but takes perlaps as many seed was sown, I conclude it was the com- too deep into the soil. These effects are mon mode of broadcast. produced whether the seed be sown bythe hand, ( 2316,) or by the broadcast machine, 3543. The experience of Scotland as to fig. 204, and cannot be avoided as long as
thin sowing is as yet limited. Mr Hay of Whiterigg tried an experiment in the spring of 1848 with wheat after turnips, by sowing 1.4 bushel against 3 bushels the acre, and the result was that the thin
the broadcast modes of sowing, as pre I think it would bedesirable could a plan be contrived of sowing grain broadcast at a uniform depth . It would be more econo
sently practised, are persevered in.
sown gave a greater produce by a small mical than dibbling or drilling, inasmuch quantity of strawand grain together, the as the horse and hand- hoeingof the crop chief advantage being in the saving of would be saved. seed ; but that the thick sown gave rather more than 2 bushels the acre more of
3546. A saving of one- tenth of the seed
grain , which was 1 lb. heavier the bushel.t corn is secured by using drilling or dibbling 3544. Mr John Haxton, Drumnod, in Fifeshire, thus expresses himself on this subject : — “ My own practice,” he says, “ used to be to sow 4 bushels of wheat after green crops, 5 bushels of early oats, 6 bushels of late oats, and 5 bushels of
machines instead of the broadcast, and wbich of these should be chosen njust be determined by other considerations than the proportion of plants produced by each, since both are nearly alike in that respect, from the thick as well as from the thin sowing.
* Davis On the Waste of Corn by Too Thick Sowing, p. 6-12. + Journal of Agriculture for January 1849, p. 638 .
THICK AND THIN SOWING.
121
3547. The drill does not work well in rived at the stage when their wants are of stony ground, it easily displacing the the most necessitous description ; and the coulters, or the stones are displaced by the struggle terminates in the least vigorous coulters, or the coulters ride over the tops ones dying off, and leaving the stronger, of some of them ; and where landfast which would have been as numerous with stones or the subjacent rock lie near the thinner sowing, but which in consequence
surface, drills would be certain of being of the struggle have been much impeded broken. The dibble is prevented pene- in growth ,and by which the ears and trating into the ground by even a small grains continue small, and yield a small stone,but perhaps no barm accrues to seed return. Thick sowing is advisable on newly
from depositing it upon stones under the broken up land, containing a large amount surface of the ground. With the exception of vegetable matter in an activestate of of such inconveniences, of which many instances might occur in Scotland, drilling or dibbling grain is preferable to sowing it broadcast as practised. One great advantage those possess is making the surface fine by harrowings and rollings,before the seed is sown, after which it is not disturbed
in its position. Reference to figs. 289 and 290 at once shows that the deposition of seed at a uniform depth is more likely to
decomposition , when when it is beneficial in re decomposition, pressing, by its numerous roots and stems,
that exuberance of growth which produces soft and sncculent steins, that become lodged and produce unfilled ears. Thin sowing has a tendency to make the roots descend deep ; and where a ferruginous subsoil exists, thick sowing keeps the roots nearer the surface, away from it. Thin sowing develops a large ear, grain,
produce a uniform crop than that at irre- and stem , but delays maturity. Thick gular depths and irregular distances, such sowing on old land in high condition ren as broadcast sowing necessarily deposits it. ders the plant diminutive, and hastens its maturity before the ear and grain bave
3548. On the comparative merits of attained their proper size. Thin sowing thick and thin sowing, experience has yet in autumn affords room to plants to tiller much to teach. The direct saving of seed and fill the ground in spring, while thin
effected by thin sowing recommends it at sowing in spring does not afford time for once for adoption ; but if this advantage the plant totiller much. Thick sowing in were all — unless the crop it produced were autumn makes the plants look best in win always good, of which there is no con- ter, but it gradually attenuates them as stant assurance — it would not produce a the spring advances . Thin sowing makes conviction of its superiority over thick them look worst in winter, but tobecome sowing. In so doubtful a position we may more full as the barvest approaches. You safely take the middle course, of sowing a thus see thata moderate quantity of seed moderate quantity of seed ; for I believe no of the cereal grains is the most prudent
doubt exists of very thick sowing, as practice to adopt generally ; and where
bitberto pursued, having wasted a large exceptional cases occur, as noticed above, proportion of the seed . In sowing, any the judgment must be particularly exer more than in other practices of busbandry, cised ; and after experience has certainly no absolute rule will apply to allcircum- established the most proper quantity for stances, and manyconsiderations should be every particular case, the difficulties of taken into account before a particular rule sowing will be removed, and its economical be adopted. I should say that farmers are, benefits realised .
generally, blamable for the lavish manner in which they throw the seed into the
3549. I have already described the
ground, and subject themselves to consider- mode of sowing grain broadcast, (2333 ) able loss in sowing more seed than the most and also in drill, (2339 ;) it now remaius extreme conditions of soil and season to describe the sowing of it with the dibble, warrant. The great evil of too thick sow- which is done by manual operation or with
ing, is the crowding the plants together machines. Dibbling may be performed by into a space where neither sufficiency of the band with a band dibbler as potatoes air or of room for their roots are pro- are in gardens, or with pins attached to vided. A struggle for existence between the side of a long piece of wood, and
the plants commences after they have ar- thrust with the foot into the ground, or
122
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
with small hand dibbles, thrust through is placed between the extremities of the
holes formed in a thin board of wood. În handles a a, prevents the large wheel f all these modes the seed is deposited into being pressed closer to the ground than is the holes so formed at stated distances of needful. A man pulls the machine for
7 inches between the rows, 4 inches apart ward by means of a rope attached to the in the rows, and 24 inches in depth, bythe stilts at b, or, what is better, a bridle and hands of boys and girls, and the earth is shackle might be mounted there, for yoking put over them with the foot. The cost of a pony or horse to draw the machine. As
these modes of dibbling grain is from 5s. the wheel is drawn forward by the horse, to 73. 6d. the acre, and of pease and beans it turns round by its action on the ground, from 38. 6d . to 4s. the acre. the projecting points e of the hollow tubes acting as dibbles and making holes in the
3550. But machineswill no doubt super- ground, one portion of which dibbles, before sede hand labour in dibbling grain, should leaving the ground, slide upon the other that mode of sowing be ultimately adopted, half, making an opening through which the and they can do thework at one -third of the seeds are deposited in the holes. The seed expense incurred by the band. The dib- descends to the requisite number, from the
bling machine first brought into notice,and which is yet the most perfect of its class, was invented by MrJames Wilmot Newberry, of Hook Norton, Chipping Norton , Oxfordshire. It is a very ingeniously
hopper g , by means of feeding- rollers, moved by the pinion, which is set in motion by teeth placed on the circumference of the disc d. The disc is supported in its centre by an axle revolving in its ends on plum
constructed machine, and rather elaborate mer blocks.
In using this machine, a man
in its construction, which will always holds by the two stilts a a , while a horse maintain its high price ; but it deposits draws the machine in the given line. This every kind of seed at given distances, in line not being in that of the drill, a rigger any quantity, with the utmost precision . like that of the drop- drill, fig. 261 , is here Fig. 291 is a view in perspective of one of required for the horse to be yoked to . The stay i supports the machine when at Fig 291 . rest. The price of the 5 and rowed dibbles is £ 60, that of the one -rowed on wheels £ 13, and a hand one, without
wheels, £6. This one-rowed dibble is said to be well suited for sowing mangold -wur zel seed on the top of the drill. ſ
3551. Since then a dibbling machine has been presented to public notice by Dr Samuel Newington, of Knole Park, Frant, near Tunbridge Wells, in Kent.
Fig. 292
is a view in perspectiveof one having six depositors : the box in front contains the seed, and the points of the depositors are NEWBERRY'S ONE - ROWED DIBBLING MACHINE.
seen to rest upon the ground, which has
the forms in which this machine is made, been barrowed smooth. The depositors being one -rowed . It consists of a hollow are made to deposit the seed at the desired Alat disc, d , which contains the machinery depths, elevating or depressing them, and that directs the seed from the hopper 9 keeping them in their places by pinching into the hollow tubes, e , 18 of which are screws. The machine is worked by tak connected with and project from the cir- ing hold of the upper rail by both bands, cumference of the disc d , like the spokes of and, on pressing upon it, the depositors, a wheel from its nave, and their points pass whenwithdrawn, leave the requisite num
through the larger outer ring f, which re- ber ofseeds in each hole the depositors have tainsthe hollow tubes or distributors of seed in their respective places, and prevents them sinking into the ground beyond the requisite depth. The fore wheel c, wbich
made, by the machinery in the interior of the machine. By pressing down the upper handle, the depositors press every seed firmly into a solid bed, which is so small
TILLERING OF ROOTS.
123
as to precludethe fear of their containing and, whenat b, let him shift that end ofthe line from b tof, and then dibble the seed in By changing the cups, the quantity of the from d to c, where, let him shift the end water, and yet completely buries the seed.
seed is regulated, as well as the description of the line at a to e, which brings the line of seed. With a machine having 6 deposi- straight from f to e.
Before starting with
tors, a man can dibble an acre in 10 the dibbling from e, let him remove the end of the line at c to g , and then dibble the seed from e to f, where he shifts the end of the line from d to h, which brings
Fig. 292.
the line straight from g to h. Shifting the line from f to i, he proceeds precisely as
he did when at b, and so on alternately from one side of the field to the other. 3553. Another circumstance wbich af fects the relation between the seeds sown
and the plants produced, is the depth to which the seed is buried in the ground.
In ill-ploughed land, such as in fig. 286, seeds sown broad - cast falling between ill assorted furrows, sink to the bottom of the
furrow slice, where they are buried so deep as to become dormant or lose their vitality.
Seeds are very differently affected by depth, some sorts germinatingfrom a con NEWINGTON'S SIX -ROWED DIBBLING MACHINE .
siderable depth, whilst others become dor
mant or die, if placed at a comparatively hours, which makes the cost about 2s. the small distance below the surface of the acre .
In using the machine after the first ground. I have traced the stery of a plant line is laid off straight next the fence, the of barley as far as 9 inches below the sur
workman continues to keep the other lines face, from which depth it had penetrated straight at the stated distance by the mark left on the ground by the machine. The seeds are put in at 4 inches apart in the rows, and the quantity is varied by either altering the distance between the rows, or
the ground from theseed whenceit sprung ; while oats, buried 7 inches deep in the soil, will die. This accounts for the ab sence of oats, which have slipped down between the furrow slices of lea, where
increasing the number of seeds in each they perish. The risk of thus losing the hole, but it is not desirable to exceed seed sown on old lea, the furrow -slices of
three seeds in each hole. The cups which which are difficult to be laid close to each contain the seed are of four sizes,and can other in ploughing, induced me to re be easily removed or replaced by meansof commend the partial harrowing of the screws . The price of a machine with six surface of ploughed old lea before the depositors, which is the usual size, is £2, 10s. seed is sown, ( 2491.) The roots of barley strike downwards a considerable depth, 3552. When a man uses a small dibbler,
which indicates that barley -seed should
a convenient mode of keeping the lines have a deep seed -furrow , as I recommended straight in sowing is this : - Take two long in (2689 ;) but the roots of oats spread and
lines and stretch them along the side of keep near the surface, like those of the the field to be sown, at a determinate dis- Scots fir and the beech, and hence oats tance between them ; a band cd are the two
thrive better upon shallow gronnd than
lines at a distance between them of a cand
barley.
bd . Let him dibble in the seed along ab, a
-6 d
3554. Wheat possesses a property in its roots common to both barley and oats. The seed will bear to be deep sown — not
e
f
9
h
so deep as barley, but deeper than oats,
i
and not deeper than 6 or 7 incbes ; and
124
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
after the germ has become a stem , it puts being out of the reach of frost, will then out another set of roots about an inch be- be enabled to send up nourishment to the Fig. 293.
low the surface. The
crown, by means of the pipe of communi
deeper may be called the seminal, and the upper the coro-
cation .”
nal root of the wheat
3556. Now the form which the plant Fig. 294.
plant. Fig. 293 shows the arrange
assumes, when sown near the surface, is dif ferent from this, and
ments of the roots
is seen in fig. 294,
under the surface,
where a is the seed
where a is the seed
with its seminal roots ;
its seminal
b the pipe of commu
roots c, and the germ b rising from it to
nicationbetween them and the coronal roots
the surface of the
ground at ſ, above
c c, which are a little beneath the surface d .
which the stem , with its leaves, are seen .
ing at a less distance
with
The coronal root c be
About an inch be low the surface at d
from the surface than
are formed the coro nal roots e e, the office of which is not
munication is shorten
before, the pipe of com ed to the smallest lon gitude. “ Hence it is obvious," continues the same writer, that
only to maintain the plant, but to form
SHALLOW SOWN WHEAT. wheat sown superfici the multiplication of ally must be exposed to the frost,” while
the site from which
the plants proceeds the life of the plant is placed in jeopardy when it sends forth “ from the shortness of the pipe of com
its tillers. At what- munication ," placing the seminalroot with ever depth the seed in reach of the frost. The plant, in that
mayhave beeninches, sown, sitnation, has no benefit from its double from root. On the contrary, when the grain has been properly covered, the seminal formed at one inch and coronalrootsare kept at areasonable 2 to 5 the coronal roots are
at d, the difference
distance. The crown, being well- nourished
DOUBLE ROOTS of being the length of during the winter, sends up numerous THE DEEP SOWN WHEAT. the connecting tube stalks in spring. On the tillering of the a b, according to the depth the seed had corn the goodnessof the crop principally depends.
been deposited.
A field of wheat dibbled , or
sown in equidistant rows by the drill, al 3555. “ As the increase and fructifica- ways makes a better appearance than one tion of the plant depends upon the vigorous
sown with the harrow . In the one, the
absorption of the coronal roots, it is no pipe of communic ion is regularly of the wonder that they should find themselves same length , but at in the other is irregu so near the surface where the soil is always lar, being either too long or too short." the richest .
I believe I do not err when In the
I call this vegetable instinct .
3557. The conclusions which the fore
northern counties wheat is generally sown going statements warraut are evidently late.
When the frost comes, the coronal
these :—that the wheat sown before winter
mots, being young, are frequently chilled . should be as deeply covered with earth as This inconvenience may, bowever, be easily to be beyond the reach of injurious frost,
prevented,by sowing more early, and bury- say 4 or 5 inches ; that in spring the ing the seed deeper.
The seminal roots
coronal roots will set out from the estab
* Georgical Essays, vol. i. p. 67-9.
DEPTH OF SOWING.
125
lished plants abundance of tillers or stools ; clover seeds should be covered, to pro that wheat sown in spring should be lightly duce the greatest number of plants. The covered, little exceeding one inch ; that the same weight of seed was sown of each tillers or stools will be few ; that there- kind, and as different seeds differ in bulk
fore the autumn wheat ought always to be dibbled or drilled to make the pipes of communication long, and of uniform length ; that spring wheat may be sown broadcast; and that autumnal sown wheat should have
and weight, the numbers of each kind differed materially. I think the better plan would bave been to have sown the same number of seeds of each kind, and the proportion which came up of the plants
less seed than that sown in spring.
would have been more easily ascertained than by the method adopted by Mr Stir
3558. Depth of sowing affects no plants ling. Each kind of seed was covered from so sensibly as the grasses. The late Mr a quarter of an inch to three inches of Stirling of Glenbervie, near Falkirk, made depth in the soil. They were sown on
the following experiments to ascertain the 1st of July and counted on the 1st of the depth which the common grass and August 1844. No. of seeds
KINDS OF SEEDS EXPERI
Propor. No. of tio n of plants plants
COVERED AT
sown
that
13
1
14
16 13 10 13 10
19 10 9 13 6
348
31
23
20
18
12
9
300
30
23
10
15
10
8
192
17
17
16
15
12
7
52
39
37
19
16
tail, Phleum pratense major , Evergreen wood meadow grass, Poa nemoralis sempervirens, )
528 228
24
14
4
1
Rib grass, Plantago lanceolata ,
252 192 144 96
22 17
25 16 11 10
19 14
17 11 4 6
14 11 3 4
Cocksfoot, Dactylus glomerata , Large fescue, Festuca elatior, heterophilla , Hard fescue, Festuca duriuscula , Meadow Fox -tail, Alopecurus pratensis,
11 9 2 4 2
6
4
1
5
3
1
6
3
1
15
7
5
0
11 8
10 4
8
6
11 7
11 9
9
up.
198 145 115 142 117
.57 .51 .38 .42 .36
124
.35
114
.38
8
4 5
6
2
::::
1
2
::
6 8
..
13
12
::
Yellow clover, Medicago lupulina ,
20
21 8 5 9
14
3900 358 303 241 181 144 118 90 65
..
Red clover , Trifolium pratense , White clover, Trifolium repens,
29 24 30
..
Timothy grass or Meadow Cats'
that came
up.
:
Meadow fescue , Festuca pratensis, Varied leaved fescue, Festuca
came
3
:
19 13 15 16 12
348 276 300 312 324
2
:
28
27 30 20 21 15 22 20 24 2816
Perennial ryegrass , Lolium perenne, Italian rye grass, Lolium Italicum ,
24
27
+ 22 , inch, inch, inch . inch .inch. inch . inch , inch . inch. inch , inch . inch
NON
1
..
alto gether.
..
MENTED ON
37 21 14
9
94
.49
190
.36
43
.18
134 85 38 42
.53 .44 .26 .43
1581
.40
It will be seen from this table that in only may have been induced in the young three cases did the number of plants come roots, from the seeds having been sown
up exceeding one half ofthat of the seeds in soil in a green -house, where the tem sown, the largest proportion being in that of the perennial rye grass — the average of the whole being under one half, viz. 40. The clovers came up in a smallproportion, particularly the white, which is generally considered a hardy plant in this climate. The rye grasses came up much better than the clovers. Of the depths, the quarter of an inch covering gave the largest return of plants, and 16 per cent more than
perature would be more conducive to reproduction than that of the open air. This experiment, therefore, though evi dencing much loss of seed, shows a more favourable result than should be expected in the field . 3559. The scanty braird obtained from the large number of turnipseedssown, there being about 292,600 seeds of swedes sown
half an inch; and to show that the quarter in the double drill on every acre, while only of an inch is the most favourable depth for 19,360 plants are required, it has fre all the seeds, most of them gave more quently occurred to me that many of the plants than the seeds sown, which indi- seeds are buried too deep in the drill by cates a tillering from the roots before the
the conlters, and that this circumstance
germ had penetrated the soil; and this might account for the want of sufficient * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, for January 1845, p . 341.
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
126
braird on strong soils in unfavourable sea- greater weakness than it in penetrating sons, for even that small number of plants. from 4 inches in depth.
The conclusion
This point cannot be exactly ascertained I would draw is, that the seeds of the in ordinary times, as it requires the concomitant circumstances of strong soil and an unfavourable season in which to conduct the experiment; but I made an ex periment in the summer of 1849, in June, to ascertain the effects of deep sowing in comparison with shallow in themostfavourable circumstances for vegetation — a free
swedes should notbe sown deeper than 3 inches, those of the yellow Aberdeen 2 inches, and of the white globe if inch. 3560. The property ofthe cereal plants to tiller
or stool-- thatis,to send upa number of stems fromthesame root — isa valuableone in an econo mical point of view. But for this property, when the seeds of the cereals happened to be much de
soil cherished in the high temperature of a stroyed by insects under ground, or by the un
vinery. Seeds of swedes, yellow Aber- favourable state of the ground or of the air for deen, and white globe turnips were experi- vegetation,or from thedestructive effects of frost, or when the young plants are destroyed
mented on, 40 of each of which were
by insects as they appear above the surface, the
placed in friable soil taken from under fine crop would be so scanty on the ground that it old pasture, at 1, 2, 3, and 4 inches in ' would most probably be ploughed up by the far depth in pots, at 8 o'clock in the even- mer as profitless, and another substituted in its
ing of the 6th of June, and the plants stead. The extentof tillering dependson the of soil, weather,and the space al came up at the time and in numbers as circumstances lowed the planttogrowin. A free soil,admitting follows :
the shoots of the radicles to penetrate easily,
encourages tillering, other circumstances being
SWEDES. Inches Plants In in depth . came up. days. Hours. 4 31 12 From 40 seeds 1 2 29 5 18 3 4
20 10
6 8
21
18
In pro portion . • 77 • 72 • 50 .25
YELLOW ABERDEEN . 1
::::
2 3
4
28 25 14 5
weaker ones.
4
10
4
18 13 14
5 8
•70 .62 35 .12
3561. When the cereal plants find abundance of room in which to shoot their radicles around,
they do so vigorously, with an apparent deter WHITE GLOBE. 1 2
:i
equal, more than a stiff hard soil. The weather when moist and warm promotes tillering. Unless plants have space for their roots, or are crowded together, they will not tiller. Tillering implies an instinctive faculty in plants to take advantage of all the food that will support them, and it is strikingly exemplified in the stronger plants in a crowded state, overcoming and killing the
3 4
22
18 12
7
4 4
7
7
10 13 0 13
•55 .45 .30
.17
On comparing these results there will at once be seen the large proportion of plants produced by the seeds sown at 1 and 2 inches in depth, compared with those at 3 and 4 inches. The proportion at 4 inches
mination to occupy it to the exclusion of other plants ; but when they are not crowded together, and are not more numerous than to occupy the ground fully, they exhibit no tendency to tiller. The question which such an observation gives rise to is, Whether it is better to allow few plants to fill the ground by tillering, or to fill the ground
at once with the requisite number of plants ? The answer to this question must be given conditionally. In naturally fertile soils, and in those rendered fertile by art, tillering will take place, and should be encouraged, as the
was so small that it is quite possible that straw and ears of tillered plants are much stronger and larger than those of single ones.
if the experiments had been conducted in the open air, instead of in a warm vinery at a temperature of about 75º Fahrenheit, no plants would have appeared at all, since
In sucha condition ofsoil, a small quantity of seed will, therefore, suffice, evenin early spring, as it is in that season alonethat tillering takes place in asensible degree; but then the seed must not
sown so deep, or so late , as to deprive the those which did appear were quite puny. be plant of the time requiredby its tillering to
Of the kinds ofseeds sown, the swedes gave occupy the ground fully. The extent of tillering
the most vigorous plants, these being al- is sometimes remarkable. Colonel Le Couteur ways the largest sized seed. Of the other mentions a downy variety of wheat which tillers the extent of 32 plants,* and from 5 to 10 two kinds, the white globegave generally to stems are a very common tillering forordinary
the weakest, being the smallest sized seed,
varieties of wheat. Barley has also tillered as
though the yellow Aberdeen showed much as wheat, though generally this species of * Le Couteur On the Wheat Plant, p. 29.
TRANSPLANTATION OF WHEAT.
127
grain shows less tendency to do so than either the same manner as the seed, out of the same wheat or oats, the last indicating fully as strong a tendency as wheat. In weak soils, and in those
hopper, in which a division is made to separate the seed from the manure ; and both fall through
in low condition, the tendency to tiller is much
spouts, one placed behind the other. The ad
checked , each plant being as if conscious of the
vantages resulting from this mode of sowing
inability of the soil to support more than itself.
wheat on spongy soil are, that the horse does
Hence the practice is to sow more seed in low
not tread on the seed, and the seed requires no
than in high conditioned land, and yet ability to covering in with the harrow ; but the state of the support the larger quantity of seed is just the soil for which this method of sowing is adapted reverse. Still, what can the farmer do than af- would be entirely changed by thorough draining.t ford the soil as much seed as will certainly pro 3564. A mode of saving seed to a greater duce as many plants as will occupy the soil fully ? It would be imprudence in him were he degree than by dibbling and drilling, is by trans to act otherwise, though a large proportion of plantation. This is done by sowing a small
the seed should be ultimately lost. The best way portion of ground with seed early in the season , for him to escape from such a dilemma is to put the soil in high condition, and reap the advantages derivable from tillering.*
taking up the plants as they grow , dividing them into single plants, and transplanting them . By thus dividing the plants, as they tiller into single plants, at four periods of the season , a very small
3562. The great loss in plants compared to the numbers of seed sown, may be accounted for from natural causes. Birds pick up seeds exposed on the surface after broadcast sowing.
quantity of seed will supplyas many plants as would cover a large extent of ground. Though wheat no doubt bears transplanting very well,
Many vermin , such as the rabbit, devour the young germ as it penetrates the soil, and many insects subsist in the grub state on the stems and
yet as the scheme implies the use of much ma nual labour, it is questionable if it will repay
the expense.
The proposed method has been
tested by experiment, and the question of com
thus :—Suppose 440 roots of young plants ; but I suspect that most parative expense stands of wheat are sown on the 1st of July, of the seed destroyed is so by insects before grains , on the supposition that every seed germi it germinates. We have seen how much of the and nates, by the beginning of August each seed will ingredient of the seed is converted into grape afford 4 plants, or in all, 1,760 plants. sugar, just at the germination of the radicle At the end of August these will living animal is fond ofsugar, every as and (it3512;) 5,280 produce is natural in the very numerous coleopter In September these again 14,080 ous insects which inhabit the soil, especially in And in November these last will spring, when the insect creation generally bursts produce 21,120 .
.
into active life, to revel on the large quantity of
sweet food presented to them at thetimethey The time occupied in sowing the 440 grains, and are most in want of food - in the grub state. dividing and transplanting the produce of them , The myriads of voracious grubs existing on the grain sown, cannot buthave a sensible effect on the limited quantity consigned to the soil. Were it not
stands thus :
forthe quickness ofgermination and vegetation,it
August beginning ,
is quite possible that all the seed sown might
1,760 1,760 August, end , taking up 1,760 dividinginto . 5,280 planting 5,280 September , taking up 5,280 dividing into . 14,080 planting 14,080 November , taking up • 14,080 dividing into 21,120
lost, even although that state of weather also tends to retard the development and suppress the numbers of the insect race .
sowing,
440 grains
} taking up dividing into .
planting
.
.
.
.
3563. A mode of drilling wheat similar in
planting
.
0
440 plants,
21,120
20 20
1
::::::::::
thus be devoured ; and accordingly we find that, whenever the weather is such as to retard germination , the largest quantity of the seed is
Hours . Min .
July
3 1 3
10 4 9
28 11 14 42
10 30 28 30 33 24 23 9 44 4
14
effect to ribbing with the small plough, (2628 and 49 130 2630 ,) is accomplished with the common plough and a single horse, and, if necessary, any species Equal to 13 days, 4 hours' work, at 10 hours a of dry manure may be deposited in the furrow . day. Of these say 13ļ days, 5 days may be The seed is dropped out of a hopper placed in reckoned for women and boys occupied in taking the bosom of the plough , the quantity of which up and dividing the plants, which, at 10d. per is regulated by a grooved axle, made to revolve day, will cost 4s. 2d . The remaining 81 days by a small wheel, which receives its motion by are for men transplanting, at 10s. per week, or being carried along the ground with the plough. 1s. 8d. a day, which will cost 148. 2d. more ; The immediate effect of the operation is to cover
both 18s. 4d. per acre. The seed for the plants,
the seed -wheat with the plough -furrow , which half a bushel at 44s. the quarter, or 6s. 6d. the prevents its being thrown out by the frost in bushel, would cost 2s. 9d . The entire cost spring in soft and spongy land, and to cause the would be £ 1 , 1s. ld. The saving of seed from crop to grow in rows 9 inches apart. The pul- the ordinary quantity sown would be the diffe verised manure is sown at the same time and in rence of cost between half a bushel and three * British Farmers' Magazine, No. vi . old series, p. 15, 1827. + Mark Lane Express for November 24, 1842.
128
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
bushels, or 139. 9d. So that the loss on the taking possession of the pasture fields, it is transplanting over sowingwouldbe 7s. 4d . “ In necessary to inspect the state of the fences theonly way of executing this plan is todibble enclosing them ,and to put them into such in the seed, 2 grains in a hole, about 4 inches repair as to offer no temptation to the stock from each other, the plants to be taken up when to scra ble through neglected gaps, to the
they are in aproperstate, and divided into 5, injury notSometimes only of the good fence,deal but ofwork them
which would be as many on an average at that selves.
a
of
is
time as could skilfully be made, and then planted
outat once, where they are to remain, thus requiredto put grass-fields in a proper state for the reception of stock , owing principally to the nature of the soil, and 3565. Suppose this methodwere adopted, the partly to the state of the weather. number of grains of wheat required for 1 rood getting rid of all the intermediate dividings." *
would be 391,040, which would be about half-a bushel, at a cost of 2s. 9d.; and, consequently,
3567. On every kind of soil, the small
about half-a-bushel ofwheat will plant 195,520 stones lying upon the pasture should be holes. If each hole gives 5 plantson anave- gathered by the field -workers, and carted
or to beItbroken of drains, for theforusethe rage, which may be reasonably expected, there away may farm -roads. into metal
would be at the disposal of the farmer about
977,600 plants,a quantity sufficient to plant3 happen that the throng ofother field-work
acres at 18 inches apart.
planting so many plants, suppose they are taken may prevent the assistance of horses and
up,separated, and planted again by, say, 25 per- carts being given for this purpose, in which ers, in all50persons, and allowing each planter in small heaps upon the furrow -brow of
sonstaking up, dividing, and supplying 25 plant- case the stones should begathered together boys and girls at 6d. per day — they would take
every other single ridge; but in doing this, it should be remembered that many such 3 acres would thus be £8, 15s. Wheat-seed for 3 heaps of stones occupy much ground, and, days to do it in. The cost of transplanting the
acres, sown in the usual way of 3 bushels to the acre, would cost £2, 9s. 6d. at 44s. the quarter.
of course, prevent the growth of as much
The whole matter would stand thus :
grass, so that it is much better practice to cart them away at once, although the gathering should be delayed fora few
Cost of half bushel of wheat, Cost of dibbling quarter of acre , Cost of transplanting 3 acres,
Cost of sowing 3 bushels of wheat, Loss on transplanting 3 acres,
£0 2 0 1 8 15
9 3
0
£8 19 0 2 96 £6
9
6
Or £2, 3s. 2d , the acre .
days, and even after the stock have been put into the fields. When carts are used, the stones are thrown directly into them ; whereas, in making heaps, they require to be carefully put together, which wastes time, and they have to be removed after Some farmers are regardless of all . gathering the stones from the grass-fields to be pastured ; while all acknowledge
ON REPAIRING THE FENCES OF PASTURE
that those for hay ought to be cleared of
FIELDS .
stones to save the scythes from injury
when cutting the grass. On clay soils few 3566. Having placed in the ground the or no stones are found, and in wet weather seeds of all the crops which will be ma-
no cart should be allowed to go, or stones
tured in the course of the following be gathered, op new grass on any soil. autumn , we must now bestow some at tention on the treatment, during summer, 3568. Every field, whether of new or of the live stock, for whose special use are old grass, should be rolled with the smooth those crops of roots, and straw , and forage, roller, fig. 222, some time before the
the culture of wbich has hitherto occupied our time and skill. The live stock are supported in summer chiefly on pasture grasses and forage plants. We shall first consider the management of pastures, as they come first into use, and then we shall
stock enter it ; and it is clear that the ground cannot receive all the benefits of rolling as long as stones are allowed to remain on its surface.
The best time for
rolling is when the surface is dry, not when hard as well as dry ; for whengrass,
treat of the forage plants ; but before particularly young grass, is rolled in a * Gardeners' Chronicle for October 1843.
REPAIRS OF FENCES.
129
wet state, it becomes bruised and black- The stones left on making the repairs ened, but, when dry, it is elastic, and should be immediately removed. able to bear the pressure of the roller
without injury.
Light land will bear
3571. In making repairs in all sorts of
rolling at any time when the surface is fences, it should be borne in mind to keep dry ; but plants are liable to be bruised at a passage for the shepherd from field to fieldwhen looking after his flock . Such on clay land, and such land in a soft state facilities are afforded by leaving small becomes hardened or encrusted by rolling. openings at the corners of fields, or by The rolling of heavy land thus requires placing wooden stiles across the fence; and all times between the roller and hard clods
consideration ; but a good criterion of its it is better for the fences that these are being in a fit state for the roller, is when made at once, than thatthe shepherd should
the clods crumble easily with the pressure of the foot, and do not press flat, or enter whole intothe soil. The rolling is always given across the ridges, (2475.) After rolling, thegrass is found to grow rapidly,
have afterwards to make them for himself. He is the best judge of where they should be placed, in theshort cuts to be taken from field to field .
if the weather is at all favourable.
3572. Besides the fences, the gates of grass - fields require inspection andrepairs,
3569. While the surface of the field is so as they may be put into a useful state thus preparing for the reception of stock, for the season. When a post is broken,
a new one should be the hedger should be engaged in repairing or a bar awanting,carpenter, and the iron the fences of thorn hedges. In this he is supplied by the frequently assisted by the shepherd, and work should be repaired by the smith . in case of no professed hedger being on the farm , the shepherd himself undertakes
3573. The most convenient position for
the duty. The repairing chiefly consists a gate, for easy entrance into and egress in filling up gaps, which are rendered from a field , is at the end of one or both fencible by drawing a thorn branch be- beadridges, whichare always regarded as tween the hedge roots, or by driving a the boundaries of fields. couple of stakes into the face of the hedge 3574. Field -gates should always be bank behind the gap, and nailing 2 or 3 short railson them, orin wattling them with made to fold back upon a fence, to open
branches of trees or of thorn, or by setting beyond the square, and not to shut of a dead hedge uponthebedge-bank . There themselves. When they shutofthem should nothing be placed in the gap, as is selves, and are not far enough pushed often done, to theprevention of thelateral back when opened, they are apt to catch extension of the thorn -plants on either the wheel of a cart when passing, and to
side to fill it up, which the shoots will be broken , or the post to be snapped as do in time in a narrow gap. A wide gap under by the concussion; and as self-shut
may require to be filled up with living plants, or with layers from the hedge on both sides. Every gateway in a field, not required for the season , should be filled up
with a dead hedge.
tinggates are often left unfastened bypeople who pass through them , requiring greater attention than is usually bestowed on such
matters, the stock, particularly young horses, wbich seem to take delight to loiter aboutgates,would then escape from the field.
3570. Stone-fences should be repaired Young horses loiter about gates to rub by a dry stone mason, and all they re- against them, to prevent which it is neces quire is chiefly the replacing of some sary to wattle thorns into the bars. cope- stones, and the rebuilding of any stones in the walls, that may have been 3575. I have found an excellent plan driven down by violence. It is seldom of fixing a hanging post is to dig as nar that the stones 80 driven down will repair row a hole as is practicable for the pur
the dilapidations, so that a few fresh ones pose, 3 feet deep, and at the bottom lay a
should be laid down at the gaps for the flat stone of about 15 inches square, and use of the mason . Every gateway not 7 or 8 inches thick , through the centre of required for the season should be built np . which is cut a hole of 8 or 9 inches in VOL . II .
I
130
PRACTICE
SUMMER .
diameter, to take in the lower end of the of a spruce tree, with the branches sawn off post, dressed with the axe to fitthe hole. square, not quite close to the trunk , and the
Earth alone is then put in spadefuls into the stubs thus left are rubbed smooth by hole, and made firm around the post with a scratching,
rammer up to the surface of the ground, in which is sunk the stone, at the edge of
the upper face of which the heel-post of the
ON THE DISPOSAL OF THE FAT SHEEP.
gate is made to rotate in a shallow hollow
made to fit it. Fig. 295 shows the different Fig. 295.
3577. When last treating of sheep, in regard to the lambing of ewes, we left the ewes and lambs upon the young grass,
(2555,) at wbich time the sheepwere feed ing on turnips, in the mannerdescribed in the early part of winter (940) ; and they continue there until all the turnips allotted to them are consumed .
3578. When the turnips allotted them are all consumed , and thetime has arrived
for the last of the turnip land to be
ploughed up for barley, ( 2685,) the hoggs receive a change of treatment. The wether- hoggs are either sold to the dealer off the turnips, or put to grass till shorn of their wool, and then disposed of. The circumstance that determines which of
these ways they should be treated, is the state of the wool and mutton markets.
If you find, on examination,that the hoggs are in a condition to realise as much SECURE MODE OP FASTENING THE HANGING - POST OF A FIELD -GATE .
money off the turnips as they probably will, after being kept a month longer on
parts of this mode of fastening the hang- grass, and washed and shorn , it is more ing -posts of field -gates; where a b is the profitable to dispose of them at once ; and hole into which the post d is sunk, and c besides this, should you fear the extent of the stone in the hole e, of which the end of grass to prove insufficient to support them the post is inserted and secured . Water in improving condition till they are shorn, passingthrough the stone, the end of the a necessity exists for parting with them
post will be preserved ; and further so by immediately off the turnips. But should being in the bark, smeared with coal tar, you find the grass able to maintain them and the upper part d is planed and paint- in condition, and that the wool market will ed. The earth is rammed hard into the probably be brisk , it would be advisable to pit a b to the surface of the ground, in retain and shear them. which is sunk at f a stone, on which the
3579. If you determine on selling the heel-post of the gate rotates. Part of the bedge fence of the field in which the wether-hoggs, you should first ascertain gate is placed is shown, as also the crook their value ; and in attempting this you on which the gate ishung ,in the gate -post will perceive, that a sheep wearing its above d .
coat of wool cannot be subjected to the ordinary rules of measurement ; nor can
3576. Every pasture- field should be pro- its true weight be found by weighing it vided with one good rubbing - post stand- alive, since the weight of the wool enters
ing 6 feet in height above the ground. It as a disturbing element into the calcula should not be so rough as to injure the tion, and the value of that material de skins of the animals, or so smooth as not pends on very different circumstances from
to titulate the skin.
Perhaps the best that of mutton . A new -shorn sheep may
material for a rubbing -post is the trunk be either weighed or measured, and its
DISPOSAL OF FAT SHEEP .
131
value ascertained very nearly. The eye the progress of the inside has increased,
and the hand alone must be employed to until a fattening disposition has been en judge of the value of a rough sheep, and couraged by the acquired condition ; and nomore certain way of acquiring a correct the result is, that the space between the judgment of the weight exists than by intestines and loin is filled up with net and
handling it, except by slaughtering one kidney fat. By this time, the cellular of average size and weighing the four spaces around each fibre of muscle has quarters.
received its share, and the fat deposited
there in quantity gives the meat the 3580. Hoggs, when put on turnips in marbled appearance. The interfibrous winter, are generally lean ; for although spaces are the last to receive the fat ; but they had been in good condition as lambs after the deposition has begun, every when weaned from their mothers in sum- other part simultaneously receives its share, mer, their growth in stature is so rapid , the back and kidneys receiving the most, that their flesh is but little intermixed with the former becoming nicked, that is, the fat. For the first few weeks on turnips, fat is felt through the skin to be divided
and in the most favourable circumstances into two portions, from the tail-head along as to quality of food, warmth of shelter, dryness of land, and pleasantness of weather, they make no apparent advancement in condition ; they rather seem to fall off, the wool looks collapsed, and indicates a tendency to delicacy in the sheep, in consequence , I suppose , of the turnips operating medicinally on their constitution
and the hollows between the breastbone and the inside of the fore-legs, andbetween the cod and the inside of the thighs, com pletely filled up. When in this state, the
as an alterative, if not as a laxative. But
sheep is said to be fat or ripe.
immediately after that trying period for young sheep, particularly trying in bad
the back -bone to the top of the shoulder, the tail becoming thick and stiff, the top of the neck broad, the lower part of each side of the neck towards the breast full,
3582. When the body of a sheep is en
weather, has passed, when the grass has tirely overlaid with fat, it is then in the been got rid of, and the stomach and in- most valuable state as mutton ; bnt few testines have become accustomed to the sheep lay on fat equally over their body more solid food of the turnip, their im- one lays the largest proportion on the provement is marked , the wool seems rump, another on the back, a third on the longer and fuller, the carcass fills out, the ribs, a fourth on the flanks, a fifth on the eyes become clear and full, and the gait parts adjoining the fore- quarter, a sixth on
firm and steady. They then thrive rapidly, those of the hind-quarter, a seventh lays and the more so the drier the weather,
on more fat on the inside, and an eighth more on the outside. Out of so many parts,
3581. The formation of fat in a sheep combining any two or more together, you placed to be fattened, commences in the may expect to find, in a lot of fat sheep, inside, the net of fat enveloping the intes- a considerable variety of condition ; yet
tines being first formed, and a little fat any one sheep is as ripe in its own way as deposited around the kidneys. After that, any other. the fat makes its appearance on the outside, and first upon the end of the rump at the 3583. Taking these data for your guide,
tail-head, whence it moves along the back, on both sides of the back -bone, to theneck, spreading out to the bend of the ribs. It is then deposited between the muscles, par-
youwill be able,by handling, to judge the condition of a sheep in its progress towards ripeness. A ripe sheep, however, is easily known by the eye, by the fulness exhibited exhibit
allel with the cellular tissue. Meanwhile in all its external parts.
It may
a
it is covering the lower round of the ribs deficiency of fat in some parts, but you descending to the flanks, until the two easily perceive that those parts will never sides meet under the belly, from whence become so ripe as others; and the defici
it proceeds to the breast in front, and to ency arises no doubt from some constitu the cod behind, filling uptheinside of the tional defect in the animal, because,other fore legs and thighs. While all these wise, no reason should exist why every depositions are proceeding on the outside, part should not be alike ripe. The condi
PRACTICE - SUMMER.
132
tion of a sheep obviously not ripe cannot muscles — is the thickness of the flank, the altogether be ascertained by the eye ; it fulness ofthe breast, fulness from shoulder must be handled — subjected to the scrutiny to shoulder across the neck ; stiffness of the hand. Now the hand scrutinises and thickness of the root of the tail, and
by discretion. A full-looking sheep need breadth of the back of the neck . Hence
not be handled on the rump, as it would the sole object of feeding sheep on turnips not seem full elsewhere until fat had been is to lay fat upon every bundle of fleshy A thin-looking sheep should be handled on the rump ; and, if no fat is felt there, it is useless handling elsewhere, since none exists. Between these two extremes of condition, every
deposited there.
fibres, called muscles, which are capable of acquiring it ; for as to bone and muscle, these increase in weight and extent inde pendently of fat, and fat only increases the thickness of the muscles.
variety may be inet with ; on which ac count examination by the hand is the rule
3584. I have spoken of the turning of
to judge a fat sheep, that by the eye a fat sheep, which is done in this way. alone the exception ; but the hand is much Standing on the near side of the sheep, or assisted by the eye, whose acuteness detects its left side, put your left hand under its deficiencies andredundancies at once. In chin, and seize the wool there, if rough — if
handling a sheep, the points of the fingers otherwise, the skin ; place your knees, are chiefly employed, and the accurate still standing, against its ribs, then lean knowledge conveyed by them, through forward a little, extend your right arm practice, of the real state of the condition over the far loin of the sheep, and get a
is truly surprising, and conveys a convic- firm hold of its flank, by the wool and tion to the mind of an intimate relation existing between the external and internal condition of an animal. So intimate is this relation, that the practical maxim, in the judging of stock of all kinds, has long been established, that no animal will appear ripe to the eye, unless as much fat
skin, as far down as you can reach. Lift the sheep fairly off the ground, with the assistance of your arms and knees, and then turn its body towards you upon your left knee placed under its near ribs, and drop it upon its rump on the ground with its back to you, and its hind-feet sticking
had previously been laid oninthe inside out and away from you. This is an act as its constitutional habit will allow. The which really requires strength, such that, application of the rule is easy - whenever if you cannot lift the sheepoff the ground, fat is seen or felt onthe outside, the inside you cannot turn it ; but practice teaches a
had previously received a deposition. In sleight in doing it, beyond mere physical tracing the progress of the fat on the out- strength. The art consists in jerking the
side, a relation also exists between the sheep off its feet at once, before it suspects parts.
Thus, when you find the rump what you are going to do ; for, when it
nicked on handling, you expect to find fat suspects, it is surprising how it contrives on the back ; when you find the back to retain hold of the ground with the nicked, you expect the fat to have pro- point of the hoof of the near hind - foot, ceeded to the top of the shoulder and over which, if you cannot lift off the ground,
the ribs ; and when you find the top of the shoulder nicked, you expect to find fat upon the neck, and on the under side of the belly. To ascertain its existence below, you will have to turn the sheep, which is done by setting it upon its rump, with
you cannot turn the sheep. I remember seeing four shepherds defeated in the at temptto turn 5 dinmonts belonging to the late Mr Edward Smith, Marledown, Nor thumberland. None of them , not even the tallest and strongest, conld turn all the 5
its back inclining against your legs, sheep, and one, a short, stout man, could and its hind -feet pointing upwards. In not turn one of them . The ability to turn this position you feel and see whether or a sheep easily, is not to be regarded as a
not breast and thighs are completely feat ofstrength or dexterity in ashepherd, filledthe up :
Still the criterion to know but a necessary qualification in connexion the real state of the inside of the sheep with many important operations connected —the largeness of the mass of fat on with the management of sheep. the kidneys, weight of net and thick
ness of layers between the abdominal
3585. The eve hoggs are alwaysretained
DISPOSAL OF FAT SHEEP .
133
on the farm , as from them is supplied the Butchers purchase chiefly in the market
waste of ewes, and they are shorn of their towns in which they reside, though they importance increasing their condition off lots which will not bear the long journeys
wool in duecourseof time. It is of less also attend fairs, and pick up a few fat the turnips by putting them on the best of the dealers ; in which case they pay ready money and liſt immediately, as
grass, which the wetherhoggs should occupy
until they are disposed of. Nevertheless, dealers do. But when they purchase on the ewe hoggs should not be allowed to the farmer's premises, they usually lift so fall off in condition, in case of injuring the many at a time, according to agreement, quality of their wool. and pay only for what they lift. Every farmer should avoid this practice, as every
3586. Farmers of mixed husbandry time the butcher comes for a lot, the sheep have seldom any other class of sheep feed- have to be gathered , and the whole handled, ing on turnips than the hoggs, which are that he may take away only those which
bred on the farm , and perhaps a few draft suit his present purpose ; and in the com ewes which had not become fat enough on motion thus made, probably every week , the aftermath grass in autumn. Occa- the whole stock are disturbed by the shout
sionally, from want of a good market, oring ofmen and the barking ofdogs, amongst
from want of condition , dinmonts (924) which the butcher and his dog are not are retained to be fed on turnips ; and, when the least noisy or least active . Besides this happens, their disposal is subjected to meeting purchasers at home, farmers the same considerations as that of the take their stock to fairs and market- towns ; hoggs.
and at fairs they meet both sorts of pur
chasers, while, in the market towns , the 3587. When dinmonts or wethers (925) butchers rule paramount. When a dealer are seen in quantity feeding on turnips, purchases on the farmer's premises, he lifts they have been purchased for the purpose, his lot at any time of day that best suits and are in technical language called a
bis own arrangements. He begins to lift
fying stock ; and this is the practice fol- the first lot in the more distant part of the lowed by farmers in most arable districts country, and, proceeding on the road in at a distance from large towns, in follow- the direction of their destination, he lifts
ing which they become dealers of sheep, lot after lot, until the whole are gathered and are subject to the fluctuations of the to the amount of many hundreds. In this markets for profit or loss. 3588. Fat sheep are purchased from
way he may lift a lot in the forenoon on
one farm , and another in the afternoon ou another, which is a much more satisfac
farmers both by dealers and butchers. tory way for the farmer to have his stock Dealers buy from farmers in wholesale, and lifted than the one the butcher chooses to sell to butchers in retail; so they constitute adopt. a sort of middlemen ; but, unlike most middlemen, their avocation is fully as use3589. The many casualties attending
ful to both parties as to themselves, inas- sheep sent to market, should cause the much as they purchase at once the whole farmer to consider the case well before he disposable stock of the farmer, and, assort- undertakes to send them there at his own
ing it, they present it in the most suitable risk. The expenses of the journey will form at the markets which the different cost at least 1s. a-head, and their jaded classes of their customers, the butchers, are appearance in the market, especially if the
in the habit of frequenting. They buy at sheep have been overtaken by bad weather, fairs, or on the farmer's own premises. In may lower their price 2s. or 3s. a -bead the former case they pay ready money, more; and, besides, the fees of the market
and lift the stock immediately ; in the have to be paid . But if he cannot dispose latter, they pay at the time the stock is of them at home, which sometimes happens, lifted by agreement. Dealers chiefly buy he has no alternative but to send them to at the country fairs, where they have market on his own account. ample choice , and only purchase on the
farmer's premises when stock happens to 3590. On determining to send them to be scarce, and prices likely to advance. market, the sheep require to be selected
134
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
for the purpose, and divided into equal be started on theirjourney about mid - day lots, and each lot marked in a particular in winter, and in the afternoon in summer. manner. The sheep selected for market They should not begin their journey when are the best conditioned at the time, to too full or too hungry. When too full, ascertain which it is necessary to handle they will purge on the road, and when too the whole lot and shed the fattest from the hungry, they will lose strength at once.
rest, and this is best done about mid -day, Let them walk gentlyaway ;and, as the before the sheep feed again in the after- road is new to them, they will go too fast at first, to prevent which the drover should
noon .
go before them , and let his dog bring up
3591. The sheep should also be marked the rear. In a short time they will assume with keil, or ruddle,as it is called in England - the ochry -red ironstone of mineralogists, which occurs in abundance near Platte in Bohemia .* The keil-mark is
the proper speed, about one mile in the hour. Should the road they travel be a green one, the sheep will proceed nibbling their way onwards at the grass, along both
put on the wool and ou any part of the sides ; but if a turnpike, especially a nar body you choose, the purpose being to row one, the drover will require to exert identifyyour own sheep in case of being all his attention in case of meeting and of
lost inthe fair. The parts usually chosen being passed by every class of vehicles,to for marking Leicester sheep are on the avoid injury to his charge. In this part wool at the top of the shoulder, back, rump, of their business drovers generally make far and nearribs. The mark is made in
too much ado, both themselves and their
this way :-Prepare the keil by wetting it dogs ; and the consequence is, that the and rubbing the part to be used upon a sheep are driven from side to side of the stone. Take hold of a small tuſt of wool at road more than is necessary . On meeting
any of the above parts with the right hand a carriage, thedrover should go forward, fingers, and seize it with the left hand insteadof sending his dog, and point off,
with the palm upwards, between the fore with his stick , the leading sheep to the and middle fingers, and colour the wool in the palm of the hand with the prepared keil. Short-woolled sheep are usually marked on the head, neck , face, and rump,
nearest side of the road, and the rest will follow as a matter of course, while the dog should walk behind the flock , and bring up the stragglers. Open gates into
or with a bar across the shoulders, and fields are sources of great annoyance to
generally too much keil is put upon them . drovers, the stock invariably making en The lots are keiled in scores and half-
deavours to go through them.
On obsery
scores, in large or small lots, according to ing an open gate before, the drover should
the value of the sheep, and the character of send his dog behind him over the fence, to the market.
be ready to meet the sheep in the gateway. When the sheep incline to rest, let them 3592. The selected ones are put into a lie down. Before nightfall the drover field by themselves, where they remain should inquire of lodging for them for the
until the time appointed them to start night. Upon drove-roads, farms will be arrive. If there be rough pasture to give found at stated distances, with food and
them , they should be put upon it, to get quit of some of the turnips in them. If there be nosuchpasture, a few cut turnips on a lea-field will answer. Here all their
lodging for the drover and his flock at a moderate charge. In winter it is requisite to put them into a grass-field , and supply them with a few turnips or a little bay. If
hoofs should be carefully examined, and turnips or bay are laid down near thegate
the loose horny skin removed, but the of the field they occupy, the sheep will be firm portion of the horn should not be ready to take the road in the morning ; touched . Every clotted piece of wool but, before lodging them for the night, the should also be removed with the shears .
drover should ascertain whether the road
is infested with stray dogs, which, if it be, 3593. Being thus prepared, the sheep the sheep should be taken to the safest should have food earlyin the morning, and spot in the field and watched all night. * Jameson's Mineralogy, vol. iii. p. 245.
DISPOSAL OF FAT SHEEP .
135
Manydogs thatlive in the neighbourhood of ale - house. Though exposed all day to drove-roads, and particularly village dogs, the air, and even feel cold, he should avoid are in the habit of looking out for sheep to drinking spirits, which only produce tem worry, at some distancefrom their homes. porary warmth , and for a long time after Short of sitting up all night, the principal superinduce chilliness and languor. Much precaution that can be used under an appre- rather drink ale or porter during the day, hension such as this is, for the drover to go and reserve the allowance of spirits he
frequently through the flock with a light, be late in retiring to rest, and up again early in the morning. The apprehension regarding dogs is not solely on account of
gives himself until the evening, when he can enjoy a tumblerofwarm toddy beside a comfortable fire, before retiring to rest for the night. The injunction to refrain
the loss sustained by the worrying, but when sheep have been disturbed by dogs, they will not settle quietly again upon that journey. The first day's journey should be a short one, not exceeding 4 or 5 miles. Allowing 8 miles a -day for a winter -day's
from spirits during theday will sound odd to the ear of a Highland drover ; but though a dram may do him good in his own mountain - air, and while taking active exercise, it does not follow that it will do him as much good on a drove-road in the
travel, and 10 miles in summer,and know- low country, when walking at a very slow ing the distance of the market by the des- pace, in wet or dry weather. I believe
tined route, the sheep should start in good raw spirits do more harm than good to all time, allowance being made for unfore- drovers who indulge in them. He should seen delays, that one whole day's rest may also have a good knife, by which to re be secured to the stock near the market.
move any portion of horn that may seem to annoy a sheep in its walk ; and also a
3594. The farmers' drover may either small bottle of amixture of tobacco-liquor be his own shepherd, or a professional and spirit of tar, with some cloth and drover hired for the occasion.
The flock twine, to enable him to smear and bandage
knowing the shepherd, he makes the best a sheep's foot, so as it may endure the
drover, if he can be spared as long from journey. He should be able to draw a home. A hired drover gets 28. 6d. a -day littlebloodfrom asheep in case of sickness. of wages, besides travelling expenses, and Should a sheep fail onthe road, he should he is intrusted with cash to pay the dues be able to dispose of it to the best advan incidental to the road and markets, such tage ; or becoming ill, he should be able as tolls, food, ferries, and market custom .
to judge whether a drink of gruel or a
A drover of sheep should always be pro- handful of common salt in warm water vided with a dog, as the numbers and may not recover it so as to proceed ; but nimbleness of sheep render it impossible ratherthan a lame or jaded sheep should
for one man to guide a capricious flock spoil the appearance of the flock, it should along a road subject to many casualties; be disposed of before the flock is present not a young dog, which is sure to work ed in the market.
and bark with agreat deal more zeal than
judgment, much to the annoyance ofthe 3595. Railroads now afford easy means sheep, but a knowing, cautious tyke. The of transit for sheep to markets, to all places, drover should have a walking-stick, a use- and when the distance to market is consi
ful instrument at times in turning a sheep derable, and the sheep valuable, such a mode disposed to break away from the rest. Å of conveyance ought to be preferred to shepherd's plaid he will find to afford driving them on the road. The advantages
comfortable protection to his body from of railroad transit are, that the sheep need cold and wet, while the mode in which it not leave home on a journey so soon by per
is usually worn leaves the limbs free for baps many days,and, being a shortnumber motion. He should carry provision with of hours on the journey, they feel, at its him, such as bread , meat, cheese, or but- end, neither jaded nor hungry, and will, ter, that he may take luncheon or dinner therefore, enter the market in much finer
quietly beside his flock while resting in a condition than off a long journey on foot. sequestered part of the road, and slake his The shepherd should accompany the sheep thirst in the first brook or spring he finds, in the train, and have them conducted to
or purchase a bottle of ale at å roadside the market at the proper hour. The cost
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
136
of conveying sheep by railroad is that of morning, arising from the dealers finding the truck , which contains alarger or smaller the condition ofthe stock below their ex
number, according to the sizeof the sheep. pectation. The market is never better for The charge of the truck is by the mile, the farmer than when it begins brisk early and the longer the distance the less is the in the morning, and the stock are all sold charge by the mile.
off early. These are the vicissitudes of a
market; they are interesting, demand at
3596. Under every circumstance, when tention, and are worthy of examination . you have determined on sending your You will frequently observe a trifling cir sheep to amarket-town, it is the best plan, cumstance give a decided tone to a mar after the journey, to intrust them to a ket. A dealer, for instance, who generally salesman, rather than stand in the market buys largely, and who has bought for many with them yourself, as you cannot know years in that particular fair, will make the the character of the butchers so well as he prices of the day byhis purchases; so that
does, nor can you know what classof pur- other people, particularly sellers,observing The con- the prices given by him , will sell briskly venience attending the employment of a and with confidence. There is no use, at
chasers your lot may best suit.
salesman is now generally felt, as it not any time, of asking a much higher price only saves the personal annoyance of at- than the intrinsic value of yourstock, or tending a market, but your money is re- than you will willingly take; for, although initted to you through a bank in the course
your stock may be in particularly fine
of the day. The only precaution requi- condition , and of good quality, and there site in thematter is to become acqnainted fore worth more than the average price of with a salesman of judgment, for as to the market, still their value must conform honesty, if he possess not that, he cannot to the rate of the market, be it high or show his face in any market. In attend- low, and it is not in your power to con
ing country fairs, where are no salesmen , trolit, though, should prices dissatisfy you must dispose of your stock yourself. you, you have it in your power to take
Before attending the fair, you should make your stock homeagain. There is a com up your mind what to ask for the mon saying applicable to all public mar stock, in accordance with the current kets, and is now received as a maxim , be market prices; but, notwithstanding these, cause indicating the truth , that “ the first you may have to take more or less cash offer is the best” —that is, the first offer than you anticipated , as the actual state from a sincere buyer, for there are
of the market is regulated by the quality and quantity of the stock in it, and by the paucity or numbers of purchasers who may appear. After your sheep are placed you should inquire of friends of the state of prices before you sell, and on doing this
people to be found in all markets who, having no serious intention of buying at
market price, make a point of offering considerably below it, with the view of catching a bargain from a greenhorn , or from one tired of standing longer in the
you may find the market in a most per- fair, and they sometimes succeed in their plexing state from various causes. Thus, tactics; but such people are easily dis there may be too many sheep for the buy- covered, and cannot deceive any but inex ers, when the market will be dull, and perienced sellers. remain so all day. Or the stock may be 3597. There are certain rules which, by scanty for the buyers, when a briskness may start in the morning and continue tacit consent, govern the principles upon until the whole stock are sold off. Or which all public markets of stock are con there may be briskness in the morning, the ducted, and they are few and simple.
buyers purchasing — dulness at mid-day, A custom is payable for all stock pre buyers declining - and briskness again in sented at fairs, exigible by the lord of the
the afternoon, buyers becoming eager. Or manor, or by other recognised authority . there may be excessive dulness in the After entering the field , your stock can morning, occasioned by the buyers lying take up any unoccupied position you
off andbeating down prices, and, finding choose , appointed for the particular kind they cannot succeed, buy briskly all after- of stock you have to show. No one, on noon .
Or there may be dulness in the pretence of purchasing, has a right to in
DISPOSAL OF FAT SHEEP.
137
terfere with a lot which is under inspec- break away from their own flock, and mix
tion by another party. Neither haveyou with another, when there is not only diffi any right to show your lot to more than culty in shedding them out, but those into one party at a time, unless both parties whose lot yours have strayed, may show
consent to it. When a bargain is made, unwillingness to disturb their stockfor the there is no necessity for striking hands, or sake of rectifying your blunder, though exchanging money, as an earnest of it. it is in your power to follow your stray When a bargain is finished, a time may be stock and claim it anywhere. stipulated by the purchaser for liftingthe stock ; and until they are delivered to him , 3598. Steam vessels carry live stock to or his accredited agents, they continue at the Smithfield market, in London, in large
the risk of the seller. When connted over numbers every year; and although stock before the purchaser, the price becomes cannot be carried by vessels so quickly as immediately due. When the money is on railroads, and are subjected, besides, to
paid, there is no obligation on the seller the effects of storm in a sea voyage, they to give a discount off the price, or a luck- suffer much less deterioration in them penny, as it is termed ; but purchasers, than by travelling a long journey on foot.
sometimes to humour the whim of the It hasbeen ascertained that a journey of seller, offer the price demanded, on con-
400 miles on land causes a loss of 6 stones
dition of getting back a certain sum , to out of 50 stones, or 12 per cent ; whereas
bring the price to their own ideas. Some- the loss by steam is only 2 stones out of times, when parties cannot agree as to the 50 ; and, besides this great loss itself,
price, the offerer proposes to abide by the the state of the remainder of the flesh is decision of a third party, but in doing this, worth 6d. a stone less after land travel. you virtually relinquish the power to sell When stock are sent to graze after a jour your own stock. Sometimes bills, and ney, they require a month to regain their
bank-post-bills, are tendered by dealers in former state on pasture, whereas the steam part or entire payment of their purchases; carried are again in the same state at the but it is in your power to refuse any form of cash but the legal tenders of the country, such as Bank of England notes, or gold, or silver. If a bill of exchange or promissory note is proffered instead of ready money,
end of a fortnight. Land travel renders the juices of the meat of fat stock in an unnatural state, while, on being carried by
steam , these are not sensibly altered. Heavy and high - conditioned stock, travel
you are quite entitled to refuse the bar- ling by land long distances, inevitably gain ; for theusage of trade in a fair inn- sink under the attempt, whilst by steam plies the conditionof ready money,* or you their condition is preserved with compara may demand a higher price to cover the tive ease. The time spent on a land
risk of the bill being dishonoured. The journey is of consideration in regard to notes of a bank you know to be good should altering the tone of the stomach of the
admit ofno question. After the stock are animals, when amore expeditiousmode of chaser. Some dealers' top's-men , the men respect railroad travelling is eminently
delivered, they are at the risk of the pur- travelling would preserve it — and in this
who take charge of theirmaster's lots after superior to any other mode of transit. delivery, demand agratuity fortheirtrouble, which you are at liberty to refuse. All 3599. When you determine sending these rules, in as far as relates to money stock to London, you should establish a
and the delivery ofstock,apply to the stock correspondence with a live-stock sales purchased by dealers on your own farm . man, who will pay all charges of the jour When you purchase stock at a fair, people ney or voyage, and at market, and remit
will be found on the ground willing to the balance in course of post.
The charges
render your drover assistance in taking by sea consist of freight, which varies with them out of it, and of setting them fairly on the distance, commission, hay or grass on the road. Such people are useful on the board, dnes, wharfage, hay or grass on occasion, as it may happen, especially in shore, and cost of driving to market. By
the case of sheep, that one or more may railroad the cost consists of the value of * The Farmer's Lawyer, p. 143.
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
138
the truck , hay or grass at the station, and and their mutton is bought for the colliers the cost of driving to market; and there with avidity. The long-established and are market dues in both cases. You will famed Morpeth market is now transferred
never transmit meat to the London market, but you should be well acquainted with all the pieces into which a carcass of beef or mutton is cut up there, that you may know whether your stock is of the descrip-
to Newcastle, as a consequence of the opening of the Berwick and Newcastle railway. In Smithfield, in London, on Monday, Southdown sheep are to be had in great perfection aud beauty, and the
tion to supply the most valuable pieces of mutton they afford finds the most favour ineat ; without which knowledge you can- in the metropolis. not be certain whether your stock ought 3602. Fairs, according toSpelman, were first to realise the top prices. instituted in England by Alfred, in the year 886.
3600. When you send sheep to London They were established generally by order of Gregory VII. in 1078, and
were termed Perice , on your own account, they should be of atwhich the monks celebrated the festival of the following description, to command the their patronsaint:the vast resort ofpeople occa
best prices ;and unless they are so, you sioned a greatdemand forgoods,wares,& c.* had better dispose of them at home. They Fairs were firstheldinchurchyardsonSunday, and afterwards the principal street of towns, should be ripe, compact, and of light where a cross wasin erected . weight; carrying a large proportion of lean on the back, loins, and shoulders, 3603. M'Queen estimated in 1836 the per with a full round leg, and handsome car manent stock of sheep in Great Britain at 19,800,000 of long -woolled , and cass . Such a form , of 14 lb. to 20 lb. a 28,200,000 of short-woolled .
quarter, will readily take, but most so at 16 lb. to 18 lb. the quarter. The nearer
In all,
48,000,000+
in form and quality they approach the Southdowns, the nearer they will com3604. We shall see what proportion of this mand the top price. True -bred Che number of sheep find their way every year to viots, and the Black -faced Linton breed, Smithfield it was In 1841 1,435,090
approach near the Southdown, and coin mand a high price. Half-bred sheep, between Leicester tups and the above sorts of Cheviot and Black -faced ewes, afford
1842 1843
99
1844 1845 1846
1847 1848
valuable mutton. The old Black -faced breed are too thin, and are styled goaty in Smithfield, and when only half- fat - half meated, as the phrase is — fetch but middling
19
99
1,655,370 1,817,360
1,804,850 1,539,660
1,527.220 1,505,650
1,353,720
Average of the 8 years, 1,579,786
prices, however good the flavour may be. Pure- bred Leicesters are too fat, unless
3605. The number 1,353,720, presented in the in 1848, was divided in each month of
market young, and not exceeding 20 lb. a - quarter, the year in thefollowing proportions :
but above that weight they realise an inferior price , and a Jifference of id. a lb. may constitute all the profit on their export. This last remark applies to every breed of sheep, and shows the expediency of only exporting the best forms, and finest, not fullest condition.
In January, February, 99 March, April, May, 99
June,
July , 9 August, September, » October,
91,880 75,160 72,010 82,310
102,230 152,730 147,200 153,280
161,230 114,760 108,770 92,160
3601. The Edinburgh weekly market » November, » December , on Wednesday contains Black -faced sheep 1,363,720 iot ction, st Chev the and in the highe perfe on of mutt the and good, very are also Itis necessary toremark that the numbers here both is bought by householders. In New . stated were the total numbers exhibited , from seen ought to be deducted the number which are Wednesday which castle market on Leicester sheep in the highest condition, madetheir reappearance at a future market-day, * Haydn's Dictionaryof Dates -- art. Fairs. + M'Queen's Statistics of the British Empire, p. 21.
139
DISPOSAL OF FAT CATTLE .
3610. Like sheep, cattle are disposed
and which hasbeen estimated to amount to 100,000 in the course of the year.
of to the dealer or butcher either at home
3606. The numbers of sheep imported into London from abroad , duty free, in 1848 were as
or in the public markets in towns, or fairs in the country, and the same rules exist
follows in the respective months : In January , February , March, April, May , June, » July, 97 August, "
» September, 9 October, November, December,
Sheep . 4,608
Lambs . 47
1,167 2,341
14
2,479
3611. The ox lays on fat in precisely the same manner as the sheep, ( 3581.)
4,781
28
9,591 8,705
74 302
14,266 21,681 10,669 13,424
871
3612. Prior to disposing of your cattle, either to dealer or butcher, you should estimate their weight and value, and, in
239
judging cattle, the procedure is somewhat
9,334
77 111
99
· In 1847,
as regards the payment and delivery of cattle as of sheep.
103,046 126,247
1,763 4,088 *
different from that of sheep, inasmuch as the hair of cattle not hiding the form as wool does that of the sheep, the eye is more used than the hand ; and, in the case of ripe fed cattle, the eye alone is con sulted ; but the hand, as well as the eye,
3607. Itmight besupposedthatthedecrease is brought into usein judging of lean
numberwasof occasioned the 1844, sheep presented inSmithfield cattleput on to grass or to fatten on tur insince by the importation vips. When you look at the near side of a ripe ox in profile, which isthe side always numberof sheep sold in Smithfield in 1848, was begun with, imagine its body to be in of foreign sheep duty free, but this circumstance does not appear to be the cause ; for the total
under the average of the 8 years by 122,920, a
scribed within a frame of wood of the
numberconsiderably more than theimportation form of a rectangled parallelogram , whose of foreign sheep into London that year. The very
depressed state of trade in 1848is a more likely length is horizontal, as in fig. 296 ; and if cause of the comparative decrease of the num
Fig. 296.
ber presented to market ; and the same cause had
evidently a similar effect in decreasing the num ber of the foreign importation.
3608. The numbers of sheep imported, duty free, into the United Kingdom from the Conti nent, in 1847 and 1848, were as follows : Sheep, Lambs,
1847 .
1848.
139,371 3,349
128,093 2,177
Total of sheep imported , 142,720
d
9
130,270+
enorming ON THE DISPOSAL OF THE FAT CATTLE .
THE SIDE VIEW OF A BIPB PAT OX .
the ox is completely filled up in allpoints, 3609. The cattle fed on turnips all win- bis carcass will occupy the frame about as ter and spring, are sufficiently fat to be fully as in the figure ; but in most cases disposed of to the dealer or the butcher deficiencies will exist in various parts,
by the time all the Swedish turnips are not that every deficiency willoccur in the consumed, which may be about the end of same animal. The flank a, for example, May and even the beginning of June. may be shrunk up, and leave a large space About that time the grass is in a fit state above the line of the frame ; the brisket b
to be pastured by cattle, but the fat cattle may descend much farther down ; the rump are never put on grass, and are disposed c may be elevated above the line of the
of out of the hammels, or from the stalls, back ; the middle of the back d may be to dealers or butchers .
much hollowed below that line ; the top of * Bell's Weekly Messenger, January 1849. f Parliamentary Return , 26th February 1849.
140
PRACTICE - SUMMER.
the shoulder e may be elevated above it ; whether the hook -bone k appears to con a large space may be left unfilled at the nect itself easily with the rump c on the hams f.
one band, and with the ribs d on the other,
or projects or sinks in. In all these alter 3613. A similar survey should be made natives, the former are the correct, and
behind the animal : the imaginary frame the latter the objectionable forms, and the Fig. 297.
inscribing
the correct ones should be arranged in the
hind- quarters in following manner, to constitute points in this view , being perfection : a square, as re
3616. The line from the shoulder e to 297, where the the hook-bone k, fig. 296, should be parallel
presented in fig.
breadth of the to the back -bone . The line on each side
hook - bones, a of the ribs d to e, on the one band, and to to a, is carried k on the other, should not fall in with the as far down as line of the back, but be a little nearer, and
the houghs, cc ; and the closing between the legs THE HIND VIEW OP A RIPE is also well fill-
almost as high as the back -bone, with the ribs falling in a rounded form down the side. The loin above, from k to d, should be perfectly flat, and on the same level FAT OX. with the back -bone, and drop suddenly ed up. down the side, and connect itself with the 3614. Then go in front of the ox, and rounding of the last three ribs. The point
imagine the outline of the body inscribed of the hook -bone k should just be seen to be within the same project, and no more ; and thed space ally Fig. 298. square frame, as tween it and the rump e shoul gradu in fig. 298. The sweep in a rounded form to the narrower
shoulders, from breadth of the pelvis, on each side of the a to a ,are nearly tail head as in fig. 297. The utmost bend of the same breadth as across
of the ribs is atg, through which a straight line should touch every point, from the
the hook -bones, front of the shoulder to the round. The
a to a, in fig. triangular space of the neck comprehend 297.
Having ed above h should gradually taper from the shoulder- point to the head. The line
thus obtained an
idea of the out- of the back should be straight from e to line which a fat c ; the tail should drop perpendicularly THE FRONT VIEW OF A RIPE ox should bave, from e ; and the belly should sweep in a FAT OX . in all the views somewhat level line, not too high at a nor
it can be taken , let us attend to the filling drooping at l. There are thus three straight lines along the side of a fat ox, one along the back from e to c, a second 3615. On looking again at the near- through the top of the ribs g from h to i.
up of the areas within the frames.
side view, fig. 296, observe whether the and the third from the lower part of the ribs g are rounded , and nearly fill up the shoulder through the flank a to the but projecting point of the shoulder h, and the tock f. round i .
Observe whether the shoulder
is flat, somewhat in the same plane as the 3617. Proceeding to bebind the ox, fig. ribs, or more prominent or hollow ; and 297, the space between the hooks, from whether the space behind the shoulder a to a , should be level, but a little rounded
is filled up or hollow. Observe whether off at both sides, and the bone at thetop
the shoulder -point h is projecting forward of the tail project a little upwards. When and sharp, or rounded off; and whether the muscles on each side of the rounds, the neck, between e and h, sweeps finely below the hook-bones a, are fuller than
into the shoulder, or is flat and small. the hooks, it is no deformity, but when Observe whether the muscles at i and f no fuller, they are right. The muscles at are full and rounded, or thin and flat; and the buttock, at cand c,at the lower end of
DISPOSAL OF FAT CATTLE.
the small rounds, should sweep gradually towards the hockjoints of the legs. The closing should be filled to furnish the rounds fully,but freely,for packed roundsprevent easy motion of the hind -legs. Sometimes the tail lies in a channel formed be-
141
and stronger, and the flesh less valuable, and it has also the effect of thinning the flank a. Flatness of the rib is also accom panied with a hollowness of the space be hind the shoulder, giving to that part of the body a contracted appearance. The
tween the rounds and buttocks, but this is sharp shoulder and hollowribs are accom not commonly the case .
panied with a projecting shoulder joint h, which again causes a thinness of the neck.
3618. On going to the front view , fig. The rump- bone at c frequently rises 298, the shoulder-top should be broad, upwards, spoiling the straight line of with its sides naturally rounded, and the the back ; and depriving the rump be muscles below it upon the shoulder-blades at a a should always project farther than the breadth of the shoulder-top ; and in this respect the fore -quarter differs from
tween k and c of flesh, where it becomes bollow, deteriorating the value of the most valuable parts of the hind -quarter. A projecting hook - bone k also thing the
the bind, where the muscles below the muscles below it, and as far back as the
hook -bones do not project beyond them , rounds; and this is accompanied with an for if they do, the hook is too narrow. enlargement of the opening at the closing, The shoulder points should not be promi- fig. 297. nent, but rounded off with the muscles of the neck into the brisket, where the front of 3620. Whenever the shoulder becomes
the neck comes from the head to the thin and narrow , viewed in front, fig. 298, The brisket projecting a little ' the shoulder-points are much wider than
breast.
forward, falls in a rounded form to the the shoulder-top ; and while this is the lowest part of the body, and fills out on case , the brisket below never becomes fat, both sides to the fore -legs. The fore-legs and then the fore- legs stand too near each are usually farther apart than the hind, other. but the hind at times, when the cod is large and fat, is even more apart. The fore and 3621. A great commendation of a fat hind quarters are more nearly alike in ox is a level broad back from rump to
weight, when the fore and hind legs stand shoulder, as the whole flesh on that equally apart.
Fig. 299.
space, seen when view ed from above, fig.
3619. The objectionable deviations from
299, is of the most
these points are as follows:-In fig. 296 , a hollow back at the ribs d is bad , show. ing weakness of the back-bone. A high
valuable description ; where the triangular space included be
shoulder at e is always attended with a sharpness, having the effect of bringing the shoulders, fig. 298, too close. A long
tween a b c is the
rump, the triangular space between a do the loin , and the space
distance between the ribs d and hook -bone
k, fig. 296, makes the loins hollow , gives the ox what is called a washy appearance ,
between d and e, de
which is always prone to looseness of the bowels, and washiness is also accompanied
are the ribs.
with an inordinate breadth of hooks, from a to a, fig. 297. A sharp projecting hook
is always accompanied with fiat ribs at g , fig . 296, and flatribs make a hollow side, which bears little flesh, and pushes the
flecting on each side, All the
points of a fat ox that have been enumerated
be
can be judged of by the eye alone, and most judges employ THE VIEW OF THEBACK no other means ; but
OF A RIPE FAT OX. the assistance derived viscera into the lower part of the abdomen, causing the belly to droop considerably from the hand is important, and in a pupil below the line of the frame. With this caunot be dispensed with. conformation, the yellow - coloured, tough, insensible integument of the belly, having 3622. The first point handled is at the
a greater weight to bear, becomes thick tail-head , fig. 296, although the least fat
142
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
here is obvious to the eye, and sometiines the lower than the upper part of the body. it attains anenormous size, amounting to These are all the points that require touch deformity. The hook -bone k is touched, ing when the hand is used , and in a high and should be well covered ; but if the conditioned ox , they are gone over very
bone be easily felt, both the rump between rapidly. the hook k and tail -head c , and the loin from the hook k to the ribs d , may be ex3623. By the former part of these rules pected to be hard and deficient of flesh . you will be enabled to judge by the eyeof To the points ofthe fingers the flesh upon the points of a fat ox,which ought to be
the ribs g should feel soft and thick when filled up ; and, with the assistance of the the ribs are round ; but when flat, the flesh hand, you will ascertain the degree of per feels hard and thin from want of fat. The fection which the most valuable points of skin, too, on a rounded rib , feels soft and an ox have attained. On putting those mobile, and the hair thick set, soft, and
rules in practice as opportunity offers, ex
mossy, both indicative of a kindly disposi- periencewill teach you to estimate the
tion to lay on flesh and fat. The hand, on weight of an ox, not its live-weight, but grasping the flank a, finds it thick, when the the weight of beef and bones it will yield internal tallow is abundant, as well as the after deducting the weight of the offal,
codfat and large, and, op lookingat itfrom which consists of the skin, head, entrails, behind, seems to act as a cushion between and loose tallow . The farmer is entitled the hind -legs, to keep them asunder. The to the value of the entire weight of the
palmof thehand passed along the lineof the beef and bones at the current prices; and back from the tail-head c to the top of the the profit of the purchaser is confined to shoulder e, points out the hard parts upon the value of the offal : these form the basis
it, and when all feels soft and pleasant,the farmer of the agreement between him and the flesh good Hollowness behind generally is
.
the
. The offals are
equal to
shoulder h is a very common occurrence ; the value of one -fifth of the ox, so that
and when it is filled up with flesh and fat, an ox of £25 value in beef and bones, the flesh of the fore-quarter is good. You should leave the purchaser £5 for profit, would scarcely believe the difference of the feel of the flesh betwixt a lean and fat shoulder. A high narrow shoulder e is attended with a ridged back-bone, and lowset narrow books k , a conformation named razor -back, always accompanied with a deficiency and hardness of flesh along the
though the offals are worth sometimes be low, and sometimes above that value. If the buyer is a good judge of cattle, be knows the exactvalueof the beef, and will endeavour to make such a bargain with the farmer as will not only leave his profit on the carcass, but cover his expenses of
back, where the best flesh of a good ox droving and slaughtering. Dealers con should be. This conformation is always in- stantly in practice generally make pretty dicative of a slow and obdurate feeder. good bargains for themselves, according to
The shoulder point h should be covered, the prices at the time the bargain is made ; and feel soft like the point of a good hook- but their purchases are subject to fluctua bone, and in that state indicates a well- tion in price, which may fall without an filled neck-vein, which runs from that adequate cause, and occasion serious loss ; point to the side of the head. The shoul- or may rise as causelessly, and leave a der point is more often bare and prominent handsomer profit than was anticipated - s0
than the hook -bone. When the neck - vein that the profession of a dealer resolves is so firmly filled up as not to allow the into a speculation, the issue of which is points of the fingers to enter into the in- involved in uncertainty at all times,
side of the shoulder point, it indicates Dealers formerly made large fortunes, abundance of tallow in the inside ; as also when breeders estimated the value of their does the fulness between the brisket and own stock with uncertainty, and when
inside of the fore -legs, andthe projection dealers invariably purchased in a rising When the flesh market, but now w - a -days few make for becomes heavy on the thighs, making a tunes, owing to competition, to greater sort of double thigh, the thigh is called skill in the farmer estimating the real forward of the brisket.
lyary, and it indicates a tendency in the value of his stock, to the great expense whole flesh of the ox to grow rather on incurred in taking cattle to suitable mar
DISPOSAL OF FAT CATTLE .
143
kets, and to the uncertain incidents of a what principle the rules given in books is roving profession.
founded I cannot say, unless on the as sumption that the body of the ox is a hollow
3624. As long as farmers trusted to their judgment only, when they had few opportunities of exercising it, in estimating the value of stock , dealers had an advantage
cylinder; for a sufficient number of experi ments have not yet been instituted to as certain theexact relation subsisting betwịxt the bulk of an or's body, and the weight
over them , and the advantage still exists of the flesh and bones upon it. to some extent, but assistance is now af
forded farmers to ascertain the nett weight
3626. Several such rules exist. Sup
of cattle by measuring their bulk , or pose an ox is 5 feet in length and 7 feet
weighing their gravity. The live-weight in girth. One rule is, Multiply the square of cattle is easily ascertained by placing of the girth in inches, by the length in the ox upon a steelyard, and the nett inches, and divide the sum by 7344, and weight is ascertained by multiplying the the quotient is the weight desired. For live weight with thedecimal .605, if the example :
ox is ripe fat, and if not, by .55 — that is to say, that the offals and fluids ofa lean ox weigh about as much as the beef and bones, An ox should not be weighed immediately after it has taken food , when it will be too heavy, but after it has chewed the cud, and is again ready to eat.
84
Square the girth in inches,
Multiply by the length in inches,
7056 60
Weight.
Divide by 7344 )423360 (57 st. 8 Ib.
3627. Another rule is, Square the girth in feet, multiply the sum by the length in
3625. Ascertaining the weight by mea- feet, and multiply the double sum by the suring the body of the ox is a more con decimal .238, and the entire sum is the
venient method than weighing ; and when weight desired. For example : the measurement is correctly taken, and the ox of an ordinary size , the result is
Square the girth in feet,
pretty accurate. Suppose fig. 300 repre-
Multiply by the length in feet,
Fig. 300 . Multiply by the decimal,
And the weight is ,
{ 49 5 245 .238 58-310 stones .
th
wi
3628. A third rule is, Multiply half the girthby itself in feet, and thesum by the length in feet, and the double sum gives the weight desired. For example : 3.5
Multiply half the girth by itself in feet, ( 3.5 Multiply by the length in feet,
Weight, THE MEASURING OF A RIPE FAT OX, TO ASCERTAIN ITS WEIGHT, SINKING THE OFFALS.
sents an ox whose weight is desired to be ascertained by measurement. The mode
12-25 61-25 stones.
Here is an average excess of 34 stones above the first and second rules. 3629. A fourth rule is, Divide the live
is, measure with a tape line from the top weight by 8 and multiply the quotient by of the shoulder a to the tail -head b, which 5, and the sum gives the nett weight. For gives the length ; then measure round the example :
body at c to d, immediately behind the
The live weight of 57 st. dead weight by the
shoulder, which gives the girth ; and on rule in (3624 ,) of .605 is 92 stones. Divide by consulting any table calculated for the 8992(11 Multiply by purpose, at the corresponding figures of thelength and girth ascertained, the pro And the nett weight is 574 st . duct will givethe nett weight. Upon
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
144
3830. A fifth rule is shortly this :Girth 2 x 5 lengths
3634. Accurate measuring would easily be acquired, and the result would ever be correct, were the form of the ox always
Weight.
21
Square the girth, }} Multiply by 5 times the length , Divide by
perfect, which it very seldom is, the fore and hind quarters being frequently un
49 25
equal; and the degrees of condition various. The judgment is called into exercise to
21) 1225 ( 58 st. weight.
makeallowance for those differences, and
3631. Thus many rules exist by which the allowance may be made somewhat the measuring and weighing of cattle may in this manner :- When the fore- quarter ascertain their nett weights, and many seems heavier than the hind, the line books of tables are found in which those should be extended nearer the head than the weights are calculated to one's hand. A exact top of the shoulder a , fig. 300 ; and
sliding scale conveniently carried in the in like manner, when the hind-quar
pocket, indicating at a glance the weight, ter is heavier than the fore, the line should with reference to the length and girth of be stretched a little beyond the tail- head animals, is sold by the philosophical instru- b. In regard to the girth, it is a very common fault in the carcass of an ox to
ment makers.
be contracted behind the shoulder ; the ac
tual girth of which gives a result below slaughtered in Dublin in 1828, weighed 12 the truth. It is very rare to find the girth cwt. = 96 st. = 1344 lb. The offals filled out beyond its proper form . The tape line must therefore be applied with weighed, lb, oz . judgment. The line is most conveniently 3632.
Lord
Farnham's
Devon ox,
Blood, lost, Feet, Head and tongue, Kidneys, Hide,
Heart, liver, and lights, Guts and contents , Fat,
22 8 18 30
5 7 0 0
divided into feet and tenths, instead of eighths, because the multiplication by de cimals is the easiest. As an illustration
4
0
of the practical effects of misapplying the
80 25 135 152
0 0 4 0
tape -line, I may state, that one inch only
25
0
504
0
1344
0
840
0
Weight lost by evaporation from the carcass ,
Live weight,
.
Equal to 60 stones,
added to the girth and length, assumed in the above examples, makes an increase in
the above weights of upwards of 2 st. The addition of one inch to the length is a mis take easily made when the ox stands with his head down ; and a similar error may as easily be made in the girth, when the ox stands with his back raised . Experience
alone can give proficiency in measuring The rule by measurement in ( 3628 ) comes cattle. I knew a steward in Berwickshire nearer the truth than those founded on who so successfully measured cattle, and live weight either in (3624) or (3629.)* had so many opportunities of verifying his measurements, that the measured weight 3633. After repeated trials by Mr Robert of an ordinary ox, whether fat or half lean, Stephenson , Whitelaw, East Lothian, on a differed only from 1 st. to st. of its real
number of oxen of the samo weight and weight. age, of the relative proportions of their live and dead weights, the following con-
3635. To an ox from 40 to 70 stones
clusions were come to — that every 100 the tables in books apply pretty near, when lb. of live weight gave of the measurement is made with judgment ; Butcher meat, Tallow, Hide, Entrails and offal,
57 7 per cent. 8 0 5.5 28.8
100.0
but in weights below and above those figures, the tables are at fault. I have no instances to adduce of error in very
small weights, but many in large ones, and shall only adduce one. A short
horn white ox, belonging to Mr Boswell Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. iv. p. 552.
145
DISPOSAL OF FAT CATTLE .
Irvine of Kingcausie, was exhibited at der it desirable that means were used for the Highland and Agricultural Society's rendering the rules of measurement, as well Show at Aberdeen in October 1834. Its as of weight, more correct than they are; measurement was 9 feet 3 inches in girth, and I see no way of effecting this end and 6 feet 2 inches in length. According but in collecting data, by instituting to Rentou's tables, the farmer once of experiments in different parts of the coun Dykegatehead, in Berwickshire, the weight try, to measure and ascertain the live was 126 st. 9 lb.; to Strachan's 124 st. weight of every animalbefore it is slaugh
2 16.; to Ainslie's 122 st.; and to Stewart's tered, be it ox, sheep , or pig,large or small, 117 st. The actual weight of beefyielded for a given period, and to weigh its fore by the ox was 136 st. 10 lb., on being and hind quarters, after it is slaughtered. slaughtered by Deacon Sparks of Aber deen , being 10 st. 1 lb. more than the
3638. The cart-steelyard or weigh
heaviest, and 19 st. 10 lb. more than the lightest weight indicated by the tables. Such deficiencies of weight, at 78. the stone, incur a loss to the feeder of from £3, 10s. 6d. to £6, 18s. upon a single ox ! 3636. The rule for live-weight is also
bridge.-- As I have mentioned the weigh ing of cattle alive, for the ascertaining of their value as a marketable commodity, and as many occasions occur in farnis for weighing heavy weights, it is proper to give a description of such a steelyard as will be useful on a farm .
The cart
liable to error when applied to oxen of steelyard is a machine in which a com extraordinary weight. Thus the late Lord bination of levers are employed to effect, Kintore's black ox, 7 years off, exhibited on the aboveoccasionat Aberdeen,weighed, alive, 28 cwt., or 224 stones. By the rule of multiplying the live-weight by the deci-
in a commodious way, the weighing of bodies of considerable weight, and which would require the common Roman steel yard of most inconvenient dimensions, or mal •605, the dead weight should bave à balance equally cumbrous, besides the been 135 st. 7 lb.; but when the ox was
inconvenience of a great mass of move
slaughtered by Mr Rodger, Crown Street, able weight. The combination consists of
Aberdeen, it weighed 173 st. 4 lb., or 37 two double-fulcrum levers of the second st. 11 lb. more than the rule indicated, order, combined with a single lever of the which, at 7s. the stone, made it worth
first order.
The relation of the arms of
more by £ 13, 4s. 6d.! On the other hand, the first are 34 to 1 , and of the second 8 a small spayed heifer, belonging to Mr to 1 , making the nltimate ratio 28 to 1 ;
Boswell Irvine, weighed 88 st. live-weight, so that every cwt. placed upon the plat which should have yielded, by the rule, 53 form of the machine is balanced by 4 lb. on st. 3 lb., but it only weighed 49 stones.
The rule in (3624) is equally in error when applied to these cases.
the scale -board attached to the second lever,
3639. In describing the construction of
this compound steelyard, we bave in fig.
3637. Such discrepancies certainly ren- 301 , the ground plan : the bed -framea aa a, Fig. 301. d
ala k
m
9
P
al
a
b
Scale in foet.
PLAN OF THE CART- STEELYARD.
VOL . II .
K
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
146
which is 6 feet in length by 4 feet in surfaceof its foundation course laid level, breadth, is surrounded by a stand -up under the surface of the ground, sufficient
flange. This frame is laid in a pit formed to bear the sole-frame, and upon which it of masonry x x, figs. 302 and 303, adapted requires to be solidly bedded.
Four
to the size of the frame, and having the blocks V' b', fig. 302, are faced on their Fig. 302.
n
d
TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE CART - STEEL YARD.
top -surface with a cradle of steel, forming the two arms of the standard h. From the dead fulcra of the levers. The two the centre g to i, and from g to l is 8 to 1 ;
first levers b c d, b c d, fig. 301 , seen in the extremity i to k being for the purpose profile at bc d,bcd, fig 303, are so forined of adjusting the equilibrium of the machine. in the horizontal direction as to bring Upon the two centres i, fig. 301 , links are their points of bearing at b, c, and d to appended, which, in their lower bend,
the requisite position ; and in the vertical receive the centres d d of the two first direction, to bring the centres b c d into levers, and the extremity l is formed into one plane. When the levers are duly placed, their ends d pass each other, being thus suited to the centres of the second lever. The second lever k l, figs 301 and 303, has its main centres g supported upon
the fork, upon the centres of which,P p, the scale-board m is suspended. In the chamber a' a', the second lever vibrates. The platform , which is left out in fig 301 , but is seen in profile in figs. 302 and 303,
Fig. 303. lon n n
V
v
m
al
a '
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE CART- STEELYARD.
is a frame with raised ledges, to guide the cart-wheels when being placed upon the Four pendant pillars n, fig. 302, attached to the platform ,bear equally on the centres c of the first levers. If the equilibrium of the levers is not perfect,
but this being extremely small, the want of lateral motion does not affect the accu racy of the indications. In those ma chines having slight lateral motion, the principle of the levers is the same as here described, the chief difference being
it is to be adjusted by adding to or taking that the platform is suspended upon links, from the back end of the second lever. to accommodate which the pillars n n are Studs projecting inward, coming under the lengthened downwards, and hooked under platform at the wheel-tracks, serve to bear the first levers, so as rest upon the links not only the weight of the platform when suspended from them. unloaded, but to receive the shocks of the
load when coming upon it, thereby saving much of the tear and wear of the centres.
3641. The most perfect form of such steelyard I have seen was that exhibited by Mr Craig, Liverpool, and manufactured
3640. In this form of weighing-machine, by Redpath, Brown, and Co. Edinburgh,
it will be observed that the platform can at the general show of the Highland and have no lateral motion , which would be a Agricultural Society of Edinburgh, in
defect if it had a great range vertically ; August 1848. This machine is adapted to
DISPOSAL OF FAT CATTLE .
147
theweighing of cattle,as well as everyother the byre, he soon calmed down and be live or dead stock , whether of large or
came exhausted. On being let out for the
small bulk and weight. It is constructed first time, cattle should be put a while into onthe principle of combined levers, is provided with a platform , the size of which is proportioned to the intended purposes, the platform being suspended on , or appended
a large court, or in a road well fenced with
to, the levers. It is thus of the same
lighten the weight of their carcass, they
enclosures, and guarded by men . Two or three times of such exercise will make them quiet ; and in the mean time, to
principle in construction as the steelyard should have hay for the largest proportion I have described ; but its bearings are so
of their food. All these precautions are
arranged as to weigh any object accurately, absolutely requisite for cattle which have no matter on what part of the platform it been fed' bonnd for months to the stake, may be placed. In the machine exhibited,
otherwise accidents will befal them on the
and tested by weighing animals and articles, road. Even when retained at home, seri
the platform is 6 feet 34 inches, and is
ous accidents sometimes overtake cattle
provided with a movable railing or pen, let out of a byre, such as the breaking of to insure safety to live animals while be- a horn, casting of a hoof, spraining a ten ing weighed. The price is £ 22. Other don, bruising ribs, and heating the whole
steelyards range in price from £ 15 to body suddenly and violently - and every £ 25.
such ill-luck befalling an animal, affects its value in the market to a sensible
3642. Whether the fat cattle are disposed degree. of to the dealer or butcher, or are intended
3643. Having been thus prepared for self, they should undergo a preparation for the road, the drover - who may be your to be driven to market by the farmer himthe journey.
If immediately made to own shepherd, or a hired professional
travel on the road from feeding on tur- drover, on the supposition that you are nips, when the bowels are full of undi- to take your cattle to the market - takes them along the road very slowly for
gested vegetable matter, a scouring ensues
which soon renders them unfit to pursue the first two days, not exceeding 7 or their journey ; and the complaint is the more likely to be brought on from the great propensity which cattle evince to take violent exercise on feeling themselves
8 miles a-day. At night, in winter, they should be put into an open court, and supplied with hay and water, and a very few turnips; for if the turnips are sud
at liberty, after a long confinement in the denly withdrawn from them, their bellies house. They become light-headed in will cling, or shrink up-a state very leaving even the hammel, and remarkably much against the appearance of every so on being brought out of a byre, when animal in a market, as it may be the effect their clumsy antics would be highly amus- of disease. In summer, a grass park suits ing, were it not for the apprehension that them best to feed and rest in. After the
they will hurt themselves against every first two days, they proceed faster, say 12 object, which they seem not to see before them , their visual organs being evidently at fault at the time. I remember seeing a dodded Angus stot let out of a byre run-
or 13 miles a -day, if very fat, and 15, if moderately so. When the journey is long, and the cattle become faint in travel ling, they should get corn to support them .
ning so recklesslyabout, that at length he In frosty weather, when the roads are came at full speed with his head against hard, cattle are apt to become shoulder the wall of the steading, and was instantly shaken, which is one effect of founder; felled to the ground . Before any one, and if sleet fall during the day, and be however, could run to his assistance, he come frozen upon them at night, they will sprang to his feet and made off again be chilled so as to refuse food altogether,
at full speed, with his head high up, and and shrink rapidly in bulk. I had a lot tail on end, as if feeling proud of hav- of 12 Angus oxen so affected, on their
ing accomplished a feat which none of the road to Glasgow, when overtaken by an others dared to do. With distended nostrils unexpected storm as late in the season as and heaving flanks, he seemed painfully May , that I scarcely recognised them in excited ; but on being brought again into
the market, and their value was deterio
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
148
rated to the amount of £3 a -head. Cattle should arrive the day before in the neighbourhood of a distant market, and be supplied with good turnips and hay, or grass,
Some like to proceed on the road quietly, slowly, but surely, and to take them into the market in a placid, coolstate. Others drive them smartly along for some dis
to make them look fresh and to fill up their tance, and then rest them to cool a while, flanks again ; but if the market is only a when they will probably become chilled ,
short distance, they can travel to it from and have a staring coat when they enter the market. Whilst others like to enter the market with the cattle in an excited
early morning.
3644. In droving cattle, the drover state, imagining that they look gay ;
should have no dog, which will only annoy but distended nostrils, loose bowels ,and them . He should walk either before or reeking sides, the ordinary concomitants behind the drove, as he sees them disposed of excitement, are no recommendations
to proceed too fast, or loiter on the road ; to a purchaser. Good judges are chary and in passing carriages, the leading ox- of purchasing cattle in a heated state, as for one generally assumes a leadership they do not know how long they have
after travelling for a while together been so, and to cover the risk, will offer with a little experience, will make way a lower price for them than in a cool for the rest. In other respects, their state. Some drovers have the babit of management on the road is much the same thumping the hindmost ox, whichever it
as that ofsheep, though the rate of travel- may be, with his stick, while on the road. ling is quicker. Accommodation will be This is a reprehensible practice, as the
found at night at stated distances along flesh, where thumped, will bear a red the road .
mark after the animal has been slaugh tered, named a blood -burn . The flesh
3645. On putting oxen into a ferry so affected will not take the salt, and is boat, the shipping of the first one only is apt to putrefy. A touch upon the shank, attended with much trouble .
A man on
or any tendonous part, when correction is
each side should take hold of a horn, or of necessary, is all that is required ;but the a halter of rope, should the ox be hornless, voice, in most cases, will answer the end. and other twomen,one on each side, should
push him forward from behind with a piece
3647. A few large oxen look best to
of rope held between them for a breeching, gether in a market, on a position rather and the men should simultaneously conduct
above the eye of the spectator. When a
him along theplank into the boat. This large lot is nearly alike in size and appear arrangement of the men should be adopted ance, they look best and level, on a flat
at once, and not after it had been found im- piece of ground. Very large fat oxen possible to induce the ox to go aboard of never look better than on the same level himself, or by dint of twisting his tail, the with the spectator. To look in the best irritation occasioned by which will cause state, an ox should hold his head in a line
everysubsequent plan difficultofexecution. with his body, have lively ears, clear eye, If the boat have low gunwales, one man dewy nose, a well-licked hide, and stand should remain beside the ox until one or
firm on all his feet.
These are invariable
two more cattle follow their companion, symptoms of high health and good condi which they will most readily do. In ne- tion. Whenever you see an ox shifting glecting to guard the first ox in small ferry- his standing from one foot to another, he boats, I have seen it leap into the water, is foot-sore, and has been far driven. When
and it is then difficult to prevent the rest you observe him hanging his head, and his doing the same from the jetty.
eyes watering, he feels ill inwardly. When
his coat stares, he has been overheated 3646. Whatever time a lot of cattle may some time, and has become subsequently
take to walk to a market, they should chilled .
These latter symptoms will be
much aggravated in cattle that have been driven cattle, when slaughtered, never be- fed tied to the stake. You may at once comes firm , and the tallow has a soft, melted discover whether cattle have been fed at appearance. Much diversity exists in the stake, by observing a fretted and cal never be overdriven .
The flesh of over-
managing cattle on the road by drovers. lous mark occasioned by the rubbing of
DISPOSAL OF FAT CATTLE .
149
the baikie or seal, figs. 75 and 76, on the is the only criterion of value, and the re top of the neck , immediately behind the turns of the prices to the respective graziers ears; by the hoofs being overgrown at the must depend entirely on his discretion ;
points ; by marks of dung and of much the apportioning of the money taking resting, upon the outside of the hams; and place in the money taker's office." Thus
also veryfrequently by the remains of lice your good cattle may be slumped in price upon the tail-head and the top of the with the inferior ones of another person. shoulder, their scurf remaining, or the hair “ Again, we will suppose a case of con shorn bare from those parts.
signment of 100 cattle or sheep by one person : these may be sold in one lotat an
average price ; but in order to satisfy his principal, it is not unusual for the sales man to render a fictitious account, showing that the sale was effected by tens or twen ties to different persons, and at prices markets at great distances, as was wont to ties
3648. Steam conveyance by sea and land is now so common from all parts of the country, and from sea -ports, that fat cattle are not now travelled on foot to
be the case some years ago ; still it iswell varying, but making up the amount for for you to be made acquainted with the which they wereactually sold. The rea best method of driving cattle on the road, son given for this proceeding is, that the since most parts of the country at which
salesman wishes to gain a name for mak
cattle are fattened are situate at consider- ing exertion to obtain the best prices, which able distances both from railway stations might be questioned if the animals were and shipping harbours. Fat cattle must returned as sold in one lot.” * still be driven to local fairs from short dis
tances, and in those short journeys they 3651. Besides this unfair mode of sale, require to be as well guided as on long the injuries probably to be sustained by the cattle or sheep you may consign to a salesman, on their way through the streets
ones .
3649. The customs relating to the pur- to Smithfield , are at times to a serious amount. “ The loss to the grazier,” says
chase and sale of cattle in fairs, and town markets, are precisely the same as those
a writer, " is in the difference in value of
connected with the disposal of sheep, his sheep or cattle, when they arrive in the neighbourhood of the metropolis, and (3597.) when offered for sale in Smithfield after
3650. On consigning fat cattle on your own account to London, either by steamboat or railroad, it is necessary beforehand to establish a correspondence with a re-
intense suffering from hard blows, driving over the stones, from hunger, thirst, frigbt, and the compressed state in which they
are constrained to be packed ; the sheep spectable salesman. I say with a sales- and beasts the whole time, from their
man of established character, for that class raised temperature, clouding the atmos of persons having the monopoly of the sale phere of Smithfield with dense exhalations of stock at Smithfield, some of them effect from their bodies. The London butcher,
sales for their customers in a question- carrying on a respectable trade,will at all able manner. It has been alleged, for times, when he enters the market, reject example, that each salesman receives such cattle or sheep as are what is termed consignments of stock from severalgraziers, in a mess ; that is, depressed , after excita and it frequently happens that when a sale tion by being overlaid or overdriven, or is effected, say of 100 cattle or sheep, such as have been more than usually composed of perhaps 10 from one grazier, troublesome in getting into the market, 20 from another, 30 from another,and so and, consequently, will be in a more wor op ; they, of course, vary in quality and ried and exhausted condition. It is to be size; the 10 or 20 being perhaps far supe- observed , that all animals brought into rior to those with which they are sold ; Smithfield, especially on the Monday's but it often happens that one general ave- market-day, are more or less in the con rage price is fixed for the whole : thus it dition above described.”
This was the
occurs that the judgment of the salesman case when an inquiry was made into the * Inquiry into the State ofSmithfield Ca
Market in 1848, p. 6.
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
150
state of the market in 1828 ; and the in- loose from their fastenings, and, in knock quiry instituted in 1847, by a committee ing against each other and the sides of the of the HouseofCommons, presents no im- vessel, become bruised to a considerable provement of the picture, as may be seen by the evidence of Mr Walter Anderson, Oakley, a grazier near Bedford, when, in answer to the question put to him , “ In
degree ; and, in some instances, have been thrown overboard to secure the safety of the vessel. If such confusion is bad'be low decks it is much worse upon deck,
what way were cattle ill treated ?” he an- where the cattle interfere with the work
swered ," Ihave witnessed in Smithfield, on ing of the ship. In the event of such a four different occasions, when I have gone risk, it is much safer to transmit them in
there to see my beasts, which were of very the trucks of a railway than in the holds good quality, they have been put into or decks of steam -vessels. ring-droves, where they bave been cram med in so thick that I have not been able
3654. The charge forconveying cattle
to see my animals for two hours; and when to London by the steamboat and railway they have been brought out, they were so increases, of course, with the distance, but disfigured with mud, and bleeding, that I less in proportion for the longer distance.
should not have known them , unless the The charges are too costly ; but, to view mark was pointed out to me." *
the matter in its proper light, the cost
should be compared with the loss of con 3652. The blows and bruises sustained dition incurred by sending fat stock on foot
by the cattle and sheep materially affect to the same distance.
Mr D. Martin of
their market value, and the state of their flesh as an article of food . “ A calculation has been made,” says another and earlier writer, “ that 512,000 serious and extensive edematous bruises are, in the course of one year, discovered on cattle after they are slaughtered. The pain these bruises must occasion to the cattle,
Wainfleet, in Leicestershire, ascertained the difference by experiment. He walked 5 sheep to London, which weighed 858 lbs. live-weight, and, on being killed there, their carcasses weighed 435 lb., and the loose fat 60 lb.; whereas 5 sheep of the same weight, killed at home, yielded 489 lb. of mutton and 741 lb. of loose fat,
and the loss to the butcher or the public,
the difference 68 } lb. in favour of those
is exclusive of those parts of the animal not travelled, at 6d. the lb., gives a which suffer most from the conduct of the sum of 34s. 3d., which would have paid
drovers, namely, the head, especially the the cost of a very long journey by the nasal organs, and concussions of the brain railway.I by blows on the horns, besides the more acute suffering from blows on the hocks.”
3655. It has long been my opinion that
The beef consumed in London, in 1836, cattle and sheep conveyed by railway ought
he states, amounted to 94 millions of stones, to pay by weight, as goods do, and not which, at 6s. a stone, gives a total value of £ 2,850,000 ; and if its deterioration is taken only at half-a-farthing per pound, the annual loss sustained by the bruises
by bulk as gauged in atruck. The pre sent plan has the effect of overcrowding fat stock in the truck, and of discouraging the sending of lean stock by rail ; for lean
of cattle alone, will amount to £ 69,270, cattle occupy more space in proportion 16s.f
This was in 1828, and from the to their value than fat, and their lower
increase in the number of cattle since that value is, besides, less able to pay thehigher period, and the consequent curtailment of fare. It would not be difficult for the space allotted to each, the loss sustained station master, or the servants at the sta by bruises was calculated, in 1848, to tion, to ascertain the live weight of stock amount to £ 100,000. by weighing one animal of every equal lot on the weighing-machine, always at the 3653. Cattle and sheep are not free from station ; and such practice, for a short serious accidents on board steam - vessels
in stormy weather.
time, would enable them to determine the
The cattle break weight by the eye.
Were farmers to
* Inquiry into the State of Smithfield Cattle Market in 1848, p. 19. + The Question of the Smithfield Market fully considered, p. 21 and 24. # The Railway Bell, for February 1847.
-
DISPOSAL OF FAT CATTLE .
press this change on the railway autho rities, and show, by a practical trial, the
trouble than goods to railway servants, in
In January, February, March, April May, June, July,
the putting in and the taking out of the
August,
ease with which it might be effected, it
would no doubt be adopted on the prin ciple of fair dealing Stock gives less
.
151 Oxen .
Cows.
15,589
480
15,404
570
859
15,407 15,322 16,541
601
1,122
577 491 509 495 497 421 487 544 620
1,375 2,087 3,846 4,033 3,840 2,707 2,200 1,483 1,263
6,292
25,585
17,452 16,878 17,975
September, 21,714
trucks, and they occupy no warehouse
October,
room ; and therefore, if they paid the same charge as goods, they would be more profit
November, 19,700 December, 19,855
able traffic to the company .
20,177
212,014
Calves.
770
3656. The importation of horned cattle from Ireland and Scotland into England, was prohi-
In regard to these numbers, it should be borne
bited by a la 16 Charles II . 1663 ; but the export of cattle from Ireland now forms a vast
in mind that they represent the total numbers ex hibited in each month ; but a deduction should
and beneficial branch of the Irish trade with the sister country. From the inferior port of Water-
market day, and which make their appearance
ford alone, the value of imported cattle and pro-
in another. It has been estimated that about
visions amounted , in 1841 , to nearly half a million
25,000 cattle reappear in the course of a year.
Total number of cattle,
243,891
be made for the cattle turned out unsold in one
sterling.* Now all live animals are imported from
all quarters of the globe into Britain free of duty.
3658. It is interesting to observe the propor tions in which the oxen from the different districts
3657. The numbers of cattle presented in each
of the kingdom found their way to London in the
month of 1848, for sale in Smithfield market,
different months of the year : in 1847 and : 1848
London , were as follows:
W. and Mid . Other parts of Eng
In January , February, March , April,
...
:::::::::
May,
June, July,
N , Districts.
E. Districts.
land Districts.
land with Ireland .
4,150 3,000
2,200 4,200
2,000 1,800
2,900 2,700
2,000 1,000
4,500 5,400
2,300
1,600
500
5,900
2,500 2,800
1,350 2,100
6,300
3,000
1,900
5,000 8,000
3,800 1,480
2,250 1,960 3,450
900
Scotland .
790 610 850 840
2,560 3,180
September,
3,600 5,000
2,000
2,600
October, November,
7,200
800
4,550
1,810
6,300
6,000
2,000 4,000
3,350
December,
1,500 2,500
3,900
790 960 572 910 400 290
39,650
48,300
32,830
29,270
12,752
47,870
48,700
27,800
26,150
8,725
August ,
In 1847 ,
A few deductions may be drawn from the numbers of this statement.
From the northern
and an increase of the Devons and Herefords from the western and midland districts , while
districts the chief supplies are in the beginning the supply from the eastern districts is about and end of the year, indicating there the preva the same. From Scotland, the increase in lence of arable husbandry, and fattening with 1848 is very marked , owing, no doubt, to the turnips, and little grazing. The same reinark accommodation of direct conveyances on the rail
applies to other parts of England with Ireland ; ways from Scotland to London. but, from these districts, the supply is more uniform than from the northern districts. From
the eastern districts the supply is scanty in win-
3659. The numb of oxen presented at Smith field for the last 8 years was as follows : Oxen.
ter, the fattening on turnips being evidently limited, while the grazing in summer is carried
In 1841,
194,298
1842 1843, 1844, 1845,
207,195 216,848
...
on to a large extent. The supply from the
..
western and midland districts is more regular
throughout the year than from any other dis trict, while it rather increases in winter, indi cating fattening for a short time on turnips from the grass in autumn. The grazing beasts are
...
1846,
1847, 1848,
210,723 222,822 233,402 216,280 212,014
largely supplied from the north of Scotland in 1,713,582 the early summer months. On comparing the numbers of 1848 with 1847, we find a falling Average of the 8 years, 214,197 off of the Short -horns from the northern districts, * Haydn's Dictionary of Dates -- art. Cattle.
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
152
3663. Cows are chiefly imported from Holland,
3660. Mr M'Queen, in 1836, estimated the number of cattle in the United Kingdom at 500,000
and calves from Holland and Belgium , whilst the oxen mostly come from Holstein . Dutch cows are good. The Dutch and Belgians feed calves
7,000,000
well. The pastures of Holstein afford the best
2,000,000
oxen of any imported.
15,400,000, divided thus :
Bulls, young and old, Oxen, fat, to kill,
Cows,
4,000,000
growing up to fatten , used to work ,
3664. At the end of the season of fattening the cattle, it is profitable to hear the conclusions
500,000 1,400,000
to replace waste,
stock ,one -tenth , Permanent Or thus : To replace waste,
arrived at by so acute and scientific an expe rimenter and philosopher as M. Boussingault, on
15,400,000 14,000,000
the experiments made by Mr Robert Stephen
1,400,000
son, Whitelaw , East Lothian, an abstract of
15,400,000 *
In a which is given from ( 1342) to (1350.) series of experiments which he undertook ,” says M. Boussingault, “ Mr Robert Stephenson pro
posed to compare the progress of the increase in
3661. The cattle and calves imported duty free, weight of oxen upon different alimentary regi from the Continent into London Cattle.
Calves.
mens. Starting upon the principle which we have alreadyestablished thatanimals consume a quan tity of food in proportion to their weight and size,
720
110
when they are under the same conditions - he
852
103 434 466 898
had, of course, to divide his stock into several lots, each made up of animals of as nearly as possible the same weight. Oxen of two years old, brought up on the same farm , and kept in the same manner, were the subjects of experi
, in each month
of the year 1848, were as follows : In January , February ,
::::::
March , April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November ,
1,146 2,456
•
2,197 2,044
ments. I shall select one experiment, in which
2,135 1,625 803
the observations were made upon three lots of
2,401
669 492
was ascertained before and after the experiment, which was carried on for 119 days, 1. The first lot was put upon white turnips, linseed oilcake,
26,759
11,133
beans, and oats ; and, for the last 24 days, each
32,968
8,433+
beast had 20 lb. of potatoes every day in addi tion. 2. The second lot was fed like the first, with this difference, that it had no cake ; and
.
4,301 2,962 3,488
•
December,
In 1847,
1,692 1,706
1,666 2,526
six beasts each . The live weight of each lot
3662. The totalnumbers of cattle imported, that, during the last 24 days, the quantity of duty free , into the United Kingdom, in the course
potatoes allowed was but 10 lb. a-day. 3. The third lot had no other provender than turnips.
of 1847 and 1848, were as follows : Oxen and bulls, Cows, Calves,
1847.
1848.
27,831
24,591 22,510
35,480
12,406
Total of cattle imported, 75,717
3665. “ Here are the weights and nature of the provender consumed by the animals during the 119 days, with a column added, containing the equivalent in hay corresponding to each
15,642 62,7431
article consumed : --
PROVENDER .
Weight, Equivalent in hay. Ib .
White turnips, Swedes, Beans,
Oilcake , Oats ,
Potatoes , Ration expressed in hay, Hay consumed per head per day, Hay per 100 lb. of the live -weight,
Lor 3.
Lot 2 .
Lot l .
Equivalent Weight Equivalent Weight, in hay . in hay, Ib,
lb.
Ib . 184.8
1,122-0
1973-4 | 13,384 :8
1980-0
12,012-0
538.0
1559-0
173.0
279-0
lb ,
1,628.0
1,518-0
171.6
13.336-0 338.0 389-0 173.0 4790
1559-8 1768.0 279-0
151.0
239-8
Ib . 1270 1777.6
5,902-8
1904-6
49.7 4.01
34.3 3.03
160
It therefore plainly appears that the lot which
in hay assumed . lb.
385 676
315
770
4079.8
had the largest allowance of provender, the food which contained the greatest quantity of azotised
Equivalent
2.0
creased in the smallest measure, both in flesh and fat - results which might have been readily foreseen .
principles of flesh , in fact produced the largest amount of dead -weight in a given time ; and that the lot which had the shortest allowance in
3666. " It is also apparent, from the table, that, in proportion to the nutritive value of the
* MʻQueen's Statistics of the British Empire, p . 18. + Bell's Weekly Messenger, January 1849. I Parliamentary Return, 26th February 1849.
MARES FOALING . articles consumed by each lot, the increase in
153
a waxy -like matter projecting from the
carcass -weight was greatest thatbulk.Thus which re pointofthe teats. Theperiod ofgesta ceivedits allowance in the inleast reducing the different rations to a standard for
age, we find that in the first lot, which was plentifully supplied, 100 lb. of hay gained 4.2 lb. of increased weight, whilst the same allowance
tion is from 333 to 346 days. 3671. As it is impossible to predict a mare's foaling within a few hours, it is
of hay produced 6 lb. in the third lot, which
putwatch her into box by her loose-night,as in u her aevery self, andto to was fed most parsimoniously. The fact is most proper
readily explained ; over a certain limit, the more food an animal receives, the smaller is the frac
in the work -horse stable O , or in the out
tion which is assimilated and turned to use in house g, Plate II. Too many farmers the body. Breeders have consequently discovered , neglect and even contemn such precau that itis by no means generally advantageous tions, and allow their mares to foal in the to push animals beyond a certain point of fatness. The excess of weight which is obtained with the
stall in the stable, at the risk of having both them and their foals injured. The late Mr Airth, Mains of Dun, Forfarshire, told me that a mare of bis, having been
assistance of the quantities of food exaggerated as it were, no longer compensates for the additional expense incurred . This is a circumstance which and, Mr Stephenson's experiments also illus indeed,they led trate; him tothe conclusion
neglected to bewatched atnight,or even
which has just been stated .
removed from the stable, was found in the
morning lying on the floor with her womb · 3667. “ Judging by the market price of the protruded, and the foal smothered in it. several articles of provender employed by this The mare shortly after died in great agony. distinguished breeder, the first lot appears to be It is a remarkable fact, that few people the one the fattening of which turned out the least
weightof bave observed mares to foal,even though pound ;whilsteach 5d. advantageously , theprice of watching for the purpose, for somehow flesh produced herecostabout
production in the second lot did not much exceed
they contrive to foal when left by them
4d., (4fd.) ; and in the third it wasa little more, selves for even a few moments. I have 43d. endeavoured for successive years to wit 3668. “ With these observations of Mr Ste phenson, we find the following numbers to ex
ness the foaling both of blood and draught mares, and was always disappointed.
press the daily increase in weight of the cattle
3672. A mare will eat with heartiness
during the period of fattening : Average weight Hay consumed Increase per Increase head in 119 per day , of the oxen be- per day per and per fore fattening . head . days. Ib .
lb,
she suddenly lies down, foals easily, quickly, forcibly, requiring no assistance,
Ib .
49.7
247-5
34.3 16.0
231-6 112.6
2.0 1.9 0.9
starts to her feet almost immediately after parturition, takes up with, though licks but little at, ber foal, and soon begins
hend . Ib .
First lot, 1115.0 Second lot, 1016.0 Third lot, 794-0
until the pains of labour seize her, when
again to eat. 3669. “ The weight of the several animals must also be taken into account, in seeking to estimate the increase realised upon every 100 lb. of live
in 119 days gained second, third,
ON MARES FOALING.
3673. The foal is not long of gaining
its feet after a few staggeringattempts on its long spindled shanks, but some time
weight during the fattening : In the first lot, 100 lb. of live-weight, 22-2 lb. 22.8
14-2
elapses before it can steady itself,in walk ing, or to lay hold of the teat. It should be assisted in its first attempt, to get filled with milk, after which it will lie down and sleep amongst straw , now replenished
clean, until it becomes dry.
The placenta
soon drops from the mare, and should be
3670. May is the usual month in which immediately removed. The thin pellicle
draught-mares foal. They continue to which covers the foal, is, when dried, like work until the immediate symptoms of the finest gut-skin used by the gold foaling are observed . These are, great beaters ; and it forms a good protection loosening of the ligatures on each side of from the air, when applied as a plaster the rootof the tail, and the appearance of over the surface of a recent wound. * Boussingault's Rural Economy - Law's translation, p. 615-17 .
154
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
3674. The mare should bave a drink of never stand upon its feet, or suck a teat,
lukewarm water and oatmeal, and a few and it died in the course of the day after handfuls of corn , after parturition, and it was foaled, though fed on cows milk. A mare when thus deprived of her foal, drink should be given her for a day or should be occasionally milked , and kept two. For the sake of increasing her milk , on dry food for a few days, until the ten then left with the foal ; and the warm
she should be put to grass immediately dency of the milk to secrete subsides. after foaling, if not already on it ; and When a mare dies in foaling, the foal may should she foal before the grass is as far be well brought up by hand on cow's advanced as to support her well, she milk. should have boiled turnips, or carrots and corn for a mess at night, and warm bran
mashes during the day, (1444.)
3676. The mare will be ready to receive the horse in 3 or 4 weeks at farthest after
parturition. The first symptoms of heat
3675. She should remain on grass with- is frequent convulsive openingof thevulva, out working at least for a month ; by and emission of a clear Auid. When a
which time her body will have sufficiently mare is touched in this state, she immedi recovered to bear the fatigue of labour. ately presses towards the object that The work which a mare with a foal should
touches her.
do should interfere slightly with the im portant operations of the farm ; having
3677. In presenting a mare to the stal
to suckle the foal every half-yoking, she lion, caution is required to prevent her
should be employed singly, such as at sow- striking him with her heels should she re ing, and scufiling turnips and potatoes, and fuse his attentions ; and this consists simply leading grass or otherforage to the stead- in holding her by the head with a bridle ing, and worked gently. When she works, across the outside of the stable door, while
thefoal should be left by itself in the out- the stallion is kept within, and only al bouse, well-littered, until it become ac- lowed to snuff and pinch her flank . If customed to be alone, rather than in a she takes his teasing kindly, presses closer
court or hammel, out of which it may towards him , twitches the vulva,and emits, attempt to escape and injure itself, as at she is in proper season ; but if she squeal
first it almost goes distracted on being and kick and make water, whenever he separated from its mother ; and she also evinces great uneasiness for it for the first few days. Should there be two mares with foals, both should beworked together: the treatment of both being alike, little inconvenience will arise to work, from
touches her, she is in an unfit state for him : but the tickling of the horse for a time not unfrequently confirms the season
of the mare, though at first it may evince a doubtful issue.
If in season , she should
be taken to an open piece of level ground,
being taken out of yoke together to their and held by the head as long as the horse foals ; or one of them might be worked in covers her, and the time occupied by a the forenoon, and the other in the after- stallion in covering is considerable. A noon . A stout mare will be able to per- horse safe to use requires no encourage form her own share of summer work, and
ment from his leader to leap on the mare.
bring up a foal at the same time; but should she be in a weakly state, which she will be when becoming old, or is overworked, she should be put either to very gentle work, in half-yokings, or one yoking a -day, or be set idle altogether, and
Making a mare stand to the horse with a twitch on her nose is an unnecessary act of cruelty ; for, if she will not voluntarily
receivehim , she will not become impreg nated in an involuntary embrace ; but many horses need assistance, which his
be constantly with her foal. She should keeper knows how to afford. One cover not be neglected of corn , though idle at is quite sufficient at a time. grass with her foal. Seldom any illness attacks a draught-mare while bringing up 3678. In about 3 weeks it will be seen a foal, and as seldom anything is the mat- whether the mare has held to the horse ; ter with a foal. I had one work -foal, and should she again exhibit symptoms of however, which, though safely and easily season , simple and safe expedients may be
foaled, and seemed lively enongh, could used to secure her holding, such as throw
MARES FOALING .
155
ing a bucket of cold water upon her rump that could be procured, and she produced the moment the horse leaves her ; or draw- four very fine and valuable foals; but after ing blood from her neck vein while the attaining ten years of ageshe became bar
horse is in the act of covering; or, what ren, and no art that could be devised could is better than these, unless the season bring her again into foal.
ishorse going rapidly off her, retaining the all night, and offering her a fresh
3681. Now that we have considered and de
cover in the morning ; or, to adopt a dif- scribed all thephenomena attendingthe parturi
ferent plan altogether, covering herwith tion of allthe domesticatedanimals ofthefarm , a few remarks on the nature of labour, as consti
another horse, or another kind of horse-- tuting the premonitory symptomsof parturition, one or other of which expedients gene- may enable you to understand moreclearly the on which that important process de rally secures the holding, unless themare rationale pends. This is a subject with which shepherds is past bearing. I was told by a man who led stallions for many years, that the and cattlemen ought to be well acquainted ;and so ought the farmer, in order to perceive whether drawing of a long sigh, from both horse or not his servants understand their duty. and mare, immediately after an embrace, is an infallible sign ofthe mare proving in 3682. The fætus in the uterus of the female
is produced by the impregnation of an ovum by
foal.
the semen of the male. The period of gestation differs in different kinds of animals. The mare 3679. The circumstances that militate
goes 11 months with young, the cow 9 months,
against a mare's holding infoal is too high the ewe 6 months,and the sow 4 months. And and too low condition. Whenever a mare attention is required to be directed to these is seen to eject the semen as soon as the periods, which are natural,andcannot be altered suit the convenience of man, that the young may borse bas left her, she will certainly not to not be produced in the cold and unpropitious
hold .
Sometimes the fault is as much his
season of winter, but in the milder and more
of spring and early summer, as the mare's, when he is subjected to favourableasseason those seasons present an abundance much travelling ; and when he is not a inasmuch of grass, the most natural of all food for good traveller,and has undertaken more
animals.
service than he can easily overtake, he is often so much fatigued when brought to a mare, especially in the evening, as to
quired for the complete development of the
be quite unfit for effective service. When
3683. At the termination of the period re ovum, a new series of operations are entered on,
the horse is observed to be in a state of for the purpose of giving birth to the foetus which
lassitude, the best policy for the farmer is to give him and his leader a night's quarters, and to let him cover the mare in the
has been matured ; these are included under the term labour. It usually commences at the com
pletion of the determinate periodof gestation; in some instances it occurs before that time, when
morning, when he is comparatively fresh. it is called premature labour. In the comprehen sense , therefore , we would define parturi Many farmers grudge maintaining a horse sive tion to be, as observed by Dr Murphy -- theaction the inof uterusto expelits contents when the fætusis and a man all night, but much better cur that small expense than run the risk sufficientlymature to sustain respiratory life. of a mare proving barren. When a mare has been covered three separate periods 3684. There are many circumstances,depende without success, it is needless to persevere ing either upon constitutionalpeculiarities, irre with her for that year, as the foal will gular formation, or upon accident, which may
come too late next season, and a late foal damage parturition or renderit dangerous ; hence labours have been is as objectionable to bring up as a late calf.
divided and subdivided to meet those difficult conditions. Some adopt only two divisions. The first includes those
labours which proceed regularly to their termina
3680. The becoming barren is a casu alty which befals mares at very different ages. Some will continue to bear until after twenty years of age, whilst others cease at the age of ten. I had a powerful and handsome draught mare , which was put to the horse at five years old, with the view of producing a large number of valu able foals. She was put to the best horses
tion without interruption. The second embraces those who do not do so. The one is the rule,
the other the exception ; but as the exceptional
includes several varieties, this second class is division is sufficient for our purpose, under the
subdivided into corresponding heads. Denman's
several heads of natural, dificult, preternatural, compler. 3685. Denman defines labour to be natural, “if the head of the fætus is present; if the labour
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
156
be completed in 24 hours ; and if artificial assis- menced, and draws the womb gradually to the tance be not required .” Labour is called pre- pelvis. By this means also the bottom of the ternatural when some other part than the head
womb is maintained in its proper direction, and
of the fætus presents. It is called difficult labour prevented from inclining too much to either side. when it exceeds 24 hours. It is complex labour This gradual contraction is unaccompanied by when some accidental cause of danger occurs,
both classes of animals usually require artificial
pain , and therefore is not taken notice of ; but its effect in altering the size of the abdomen, and making it less prominent, has always been observed and noted as a premonitory sign of labour. The fibres of the womb also serve a use ful purpose when the dilatation of its mouth commences : the bottom of the womb thus sup ported, the fibres on the internal surface contract
assistance.
more efficiently.
which may render interference necessary .
3686. Applying these definitions to the ordinary cases of labour among the animals of the farm , I should say that natural labour is rare in short-horned cows and Leicester ewes, since Most other breeds of cattle and
It is the muscles at the bottom
sheep, not requiring assistance, may be said to of the womb which chiefly effect the dilatation of produce their young by means of natural labour.
the mouth of the womb and the expulsion of
The mare may be said to be always delivered by the fætus--the fibres of the body and of the head means of natural labour.
of the womb remaining comparatively passive ; and their united action is in the direction of the
3687. Short -horn cows and Leicester ewes are seldom overtaken with preternatural labour,
mouth of the womb ; but there is still a necessity for the means by which the result of that action
since the head of the fætus most commonly pre-
should be perfectly conveyed to it. This is accom
sents ; and so it is with the other breeds.
plished by the fluid enclosed within the am nion, which acts with a distending power upon the
3688. Short-horn cows are frequently subjected mouth of the womb, exactly equal to the com to difficult labour, since more than 24 hours bined forces of the muscles. The muscular bands elapse before they are delivered of the fætus, from the time the premonitory symptoms of parturition present themselves.
Neither Leicester ewes
nor the females of the other breeds of stock are
subject to difficult labour.
must also have the effect of expanding the mouth of the womb, by drawing it upwards. The circular fibres of the body and the head of the womb resist the effects of the bottom of the womb to distend them ; and the force of their resis tance is also communicated to the contained
3689. Every breed of stock is at times sub- fluid . This force is therefore, as it were, reflect ject to compler labour, since accidental circumstances occur every year to render interference necessary in cases of parturition.
3690. It is of importance that you should have
ed upon the mouth of the womb, so that the whole womb might be said to act as one muscle in dilating its mouth. In ordinary cases dila tation occupies a certain period of labour, ( often a very lengthened one,) and the mouth of the
awhich clearconstitute view of the whole seriesunless of phenomena pivyed womb yields very gradually to the power em parturition ; for
you per-
fectly comprehend the changes which are going forward in the woinb, and have an accurate
knowledge of the means adopted by nature to
.
3693. Here nature interposes a means by which the danger attending the action of this
accomplish her purpose , you can never under
power may be met and modified. If the womb
stand the principles of midwifery ; your practice must be empirical ; and, however indebted to
exerted its full power upon its undilated mouth, and if the unyielding head of the fætus were driven forcibly against it, the almost certain con
chance you may befor success, you will always be exposed to the risk of committing some fatal mistake. In order to study parturition sufficiently, it is necessary to divide it into certain
sequence would be, that the irritation would ex
cite increased resistance , and ultimately termi nate in inflammation of the mouth of the womb.
stages. The means by which the womb is opened Toobviatesuch an effect, nature imposes a fluid is not the same as that by which the fætus is forced through the pelvis ; and the manner in
medium between the power and the resistance. The liquor amnii, contained within the mem
which the placenta is separated and expelled is branes, occupies the cavity of the womb, and different from either ; hence labour has been divided into three stages by Denman.
3691. The first stage is dated from the opening The second stage commences when the
of the mouthof the womb to its complete dilatation .
mouth of the womb is perfectly dilated , and ter-
minates in the expulsion of the fætus. The third stage is occupied with the expulsion of the pla-
when its parietes contract upon it, the force exerted (as explained above) by this means, is accurately conveyed to the mouth of the womb. When the latter dilates in the slightest degree, the fluid insinuates itself within the smallest opening, and expands it by a direct lateral pres sure against its edges. The power of the womb is thus made to act in the most favourable man . ner for distending its mouth .
centa .
3694. The importance of the action of the 3692. For the purpose of opening the mouth of the womb to its complete dilatation, the external muscular layer of the womb slowly contracts for some time before labour has actually com-
liquor amnii depends on the well-known hydro static law, that the force conveyed by a fluid does not act in one direction only, but is distributed to every part of the surface to which the fluid
MARES FOALING .
157
is applied, and it may be observed in the charac- to overcome unusual opposition occasioned by ter of the pains during this stage of the labour. rigidity. The contraction takes place continu You will find that, however severely they may ously for a certain time; but when the period commence, they last but a short time, and the effect on the mouth of the womb is comparatively slight. If these short, though severe
pains, be contrasted with the long -continued and powerful pains which follow them , after the liquor amnii, or water, is discharged, and the mouth of the womb is dilated, the difference in the effect will be sufficiently obvious.
which is usual to effect dilatation is exceeded, or when the mouth of the womb becomes irritated,
the pains grow feeble, and thewomb often sus pends its action altogether. By this means an interval of rest is gained , when the irritation may
subside, and the patient recovers from fatigue, which otherwise might end in exhaustion. When
the action of the womb is renewed, after a sus pension of this kind, the dilatation is often
3695. In regard to the order observed by the
rapidly completed. Much confusion has arisen
womb in the contractions which take place, and
as to the duration of labour, in consequence of
which may easily be ascertained experimentally.
neglecting this fact. The commencement, how ever, is generally dated from the sanguineous discharge, which marks the first opening of the mouth of the womb ; and all suspensions after this, occasioned by whatever causes, should be
Thus : when the hand is passed into the womb
after delivery , to remove the placenta, when necessary, we find that it may remain for some time in the cavity, without exciting its contraction, but the moment the hand is being with
drawn, the bottom of the womb instantly contracts, and as the hand passes along the vagina, the contractions are continued from above downwards ; so also, in other instances, when the mouth of the womb is only irritated by the finger of the hand introduced into the
vagina, and an attempt is made to dilate it, the
regarded as irregularities in the action of the womb, and not as indicative of the commence ment of the continuous labour, which may be of very short duration previous to parturition .
3699. “ It affords,” concludes Dr Murphy, " an additional illustration of the principle which nature seems to observe in the dilatation of the
mouth of the womb-to do nothing by riolence. You have thus a very favourable illustration of In all ordinary cases the liquor amnii, the water, the reflex nervous function. Hence, we infer moderates the action of the womb ; but if there
bottom of the womb contracts, not the mouth.
that the order of interior contractionsis from the
farther end of the womb downwards, and that the action commences there .
3696. The dilatable condition of the mouth
be an unusual resistance offered to it, and the waters are discharged, the increased action does
not continue : it is suspended, and again renewed ; 80 that the object is obviously to accomplish by time what nature avoids effecting by force.”
may be ascertained , if the fingers be passed within the mouth of the womb and separated.
3700. From experiments made by M. Boussin
The edges yield readily to a moderate pressure; gault, it appears that mares weighing from 960 there is a very slight increase of temperature; and there is no tenderness or pain produced when
from 110 lb. to 113 lb., about a ninth part of
the mouth of the womb is touched .
lb. to 1100 lb. produce foals weighing at birth
their own weight.
3697. But care should be taken that rigidity be not induced by too much meddling, making too
three months, increases from 112 lb. the mean,
frequent examinations, and attempting to dilate
in the various ratios of 172 lb. to 241 lb., that
3701. The growth of foals while sucking for
themouth of the womb artificially. Some shep- is, from 1:9 lb. a-day to 2:7 lb. a-day, the mean herds are too fond of showing their skill by too
being 2.2 lb. a-day.
frequent displays of examination into the state of the mouth of the womb. The danger is that the mouth of the womb becomes inflamed and
3702. Foals increase less after being weaned than on milk. The increase on milk of 2.2 lb.
rigid, and the os tincæ grows hot and tender, a-day is decreased to l•l lb. a-day, exactly one is swollen, and also becomes rigid. Rigidity of half. the mouth of the womb may be natural, as in the case of the first pregnancy of the gimmer and the quey, which, however, gives way in repeated
parturitions in future years. But sometimes the
3703. The increase of a foal to the end of the
first year is 1.3 lb. a-day, the increase to the end of the third year is something under ' i lb.
structure of the mouth of the womb is tough, a -day. After three years complete, the period which only gives way reluctantly; and it may at which the horse has very nearly attained his even be cartilaginous, theedge perfectly unyield growth and development, any increase becomes ing from thickened contraction ; and even when
thin the resistance may be the same, and is to the touch like a hole made in parchment. Such cases requires great attention and constant watching on the part of the attendants, 3698. The womb acts differently when it has
less and less perceptible . These conclusions in regard to the growth of the young horse differ very little from those in connexion with cattle.
3704. It appears that a young horse increases 12 per cent in live-weight on the weight of the food he eats. +
* Murphy On Natural and Dificult Parturition , p. 42-59 . + Boussingault's Rural Economy - Law's translation, p. 629.
158
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
grass for a fortnight or so, till the rested new grass has grown again ; and in such a 3705. When treating of the lambing of case they should receive poppy -cake, which
ON THE PASTURING OF SHEEP IN SUMMER.
ewes, we left them with their lambs on
assists ewes in secreting milk.
new grass, to bring a flush of milk on
them . ( 2555.) Since then they have con-
3709. The pastures ought not to be
tinued to receive the best grass on the allowed to be overrun with weeds. There farm the weather allowed , until now, are some weeds which sheep will not allow
the beginning of the summer quarter, in to grow up, being fond of them as food . May, according to our division of the These are the parsley, Apium graveolens; agricultural year. The ewes and lambs the rag-weed, Senecio Jacobæa--- and so continue together after the ewes have been fond are sheep of this plant, that, wherever
washed andshorn of their wool, until the it is seen in pastures, it may be concluded weaning of the lambs at the end of June, that no sheep have grazed there while the or beginning of July, according as the plants were young—the plantain or rib lambs become strong, and the ewes lean worts, Plantago, and several others. Every from being sucked ; but early weaned plant, not a pasture plant, should be cut lambs are found to stand the winter best.
down as wees, such as all the thistles and
docks, Carduus and Rumex , which are
3706. Ewes have more milk for their lambs on sown pastures of rye- grass and clover than on old pasture, which is at least a fortnight later in springing than
most unsightly weeds in sheep. pasture. The perennial species of the docks are easily increased by seeds, as well as divi sions of the roots, and the annual ones
the sown grasses .
very easily by the seed, of which the
This is a serious
objection against old grass for ewes at so plants produce a large number.
The
early a period of the year as the middle of annoyance attending the maturation of the March ; and as ewes ought to be well kept thistle tribe, and of all other seeds simi for at least a month before they lamb, it larly constructed, as the ray -weed, dande is essential to their thriving, as well as lion, chickweed, is themaking other fields that of the lambs, that they be kept not
foul with weeds as well as those in which
only as well but better after they have they immediately grow, by the transpor lambed. tation of their seeds by the wind.
3707. Nothing is done with the lambs 3710. No implement is better suited for after their castration, ( 2571 ,) until they cutting weeds in pasture than the common are weaned from their mother. hand-boe, fig. 266. In weeding pastures, two field -workers should be allotted to
3708. The new grass , to be pastured by every ridge, and when they have gone ewes and lambs, should be selected with from one end of the ridge to the other,
judgment. That intended for hay should they take a new ridge every time they first be stocked, since new grass, moder- arrive at the headridge. ately eaten down in spring, stools out, and affords a thicker cutting for hay than if it 3711. Should the wether- hoggs be re had not been so pastured. For the same
tained on the farm until they are shorn
reason, the new grass intended to be cut of the fleece, they should be put on the
for horses' forage should also be earlier best pasture to uphold the condition they pastured than that to be pastured all the haveacquired on the turnips, and to main season .
This arrangement gives both the tainthe strength ofthe staple of the wool forage and hay grass time to attain their until the fleece is taken off.
growth when they are wanted, and it also gives the pasture time to gain as much strength as to support the ewes and lambs
3712. Should dinmonts have been fed on the turnips, and it is desired to shear
well during the season of pasturage. None the wool before disposing of them, they
of the new grass, however, should be eaten should be treated in the same manner as too bare ; and ratherthan commit so great the wether-hoggs. a mistake, even in a late season , the ewes
should graze lightly on the best of the older
3713. For the sake of the wool, the
PASTURING SHEEP .
159
ere-hoggs should have good pasture until
3717. Lambs are subject to serious, and they are shorn of the fleece ; and after that even fatal, injury on farms situate on the
they may be put on rough or inferior pas- rocky cliffs of the ocean, from the attacks ture, as it is not desirable to make them of the Raven, Corous corax. This for too fat before being put to the tup in midable bird approaches lambswhen asleep, autumn .
and left alone by their dams, grazing at a distance, and pecks a hole in the abdomen ,
3714: Tups should also have good pasture until they are shorn of the fleece ; and after that they should have ordinary pagture, either by themselves or with the cows, but apart from the ewes and lambs
and draws out the entrails. Should the lambs be awake on its approach, it picks out their eyes. Even hoggs, when fallen
and gimmers.
on their back, have been known to
have had their eyes picked, and their entrails pulled out. The raven frequently builds its nest on cliffs overbanging the
3715. A general remark as regards the sea, and , when feeding its brood, becomes
pasturing ofsheep is, that, as sheep crop very bold, and will seize many animals grass closer and more constantly than which it will not meddle with at other
cattle, they are not so profitable to graze, times. Many a hare falls a victim to it. since they do not permit the grass to grow There is no way of destroying this bird but by shooting after long watchings, or by setting baited steel-traps neartheir 3716. Leicester hoggs, before being haunts. clipped, are so loaded with wool, that, when annoyed by the ked, they often roll upon 3718. The Carrion - crow , Corvus corone, their backs with the feet in the air, and, will perch itself on the rump of a sheep when this happens in the hollow of a fur- infested with maggots, and in devouring row , they cannot get up again. They are them will pick the flesh off the sheep to so full and freely .
then said to lie awkward or awald . Should the bone. I have saved many a young
they lie for some time with their head leveret from being destroyed by the car down the bill, with the stomach full of rion -crow .
food, they may soon die of apoplexy. It is 3719. Carse farms afford no pasturage : the disgraceful to a shepherd to allow even one grass, sown only for one year, is best suited sheep to die on lying awkward. He can for thebeing soiling of stock, and the making of hay. not prevent them falling awkward, but as
long as rough sheep are grazing,he should
3720. Nor is it profitable to pasture the grass
visit them frequently. Sheep are not easily discovered lying awkward in a fur-
in the neighbourhood of towns, in which a steady demand exists for grass to be cut for forage from cowfeeders, carters, and cabmen .
row, and therefore, when the field is ex-
amined, the ridges should be crossed, and the furrows viewed in length. An accus
3721. Dairy farms depend much on the rich
age of their pastures. The greater tomed eye, however, can detectthe hind- ness varietyandofplantsa pasture possesses thebetteris
hoofs elevated in the air, small as they it for the purposes of the dairy, and the greatest
are, at a considerable distance. Many number ofplants on the samespace of ground is
dogs are quick in observing sheep in this foundon dry, deepyielding hazelloam , which constitutes dairy produce of the state, and some I have seen run and take
the best soil for finest description . It, and is probably to the deep dry,great also to the variety of thegrasses
hold of the wool near the ground, and pull the sheep so far over onits sideas to enable sandyloams,so often met with in the haughs it to regain its feet. Sheep lain awkward along the banks of the rivers in the glens of the
for a short time will run away on getting Highlands of Scotland, that is to beascribed the up, but having lain a good while, voided superior richness ofthe butter made in those loca lities. The haughs are very limited in extent,
much dung, and thumped the ground with and are therefore capable of supporting but a the head and rump in struggling to get up, small number of even the small cows of the become fatigued, and on regaining their Highland breed,which may account for the scanty
feet, appearstupified,and walkaway as if supply of that kind of butter inthemarkets.
light-headed. Shepherds cannot be too 3722. As to pastoral farms, there are various active on visiting the sheep in the pastures circumstances whichregulate the pasturage of at this season .
them . Some pasturage is suited to the breeding,
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
160
whilst others are adapted to the bringing up of then adopt a general system of pasturing hill. sheep. On what is called bare or hard land, ewes flocks in accordance with sound principles . are preferred, and, to preserve room for them, their lambs are sold off every year. Some retain a few ewe-lambs to maintain the character of the
ewe stock, whilst others purchase great ewesthat is, ewes in lamb-in lieu of the draft ewes they sell. Hard land bears scanty pasture , which, although sufficient and wholesome for
3726. The brats or jackets should be removed from the sheep at the end of April, or beginning of May, according to the state of the weather,
( 1038.) Experience every year corroborates the use expressed of the brat in ( 1040) not only in
maintaining the condition of the sheep by its warm
breeding ewes, is unfit to support young sheep in covering, but also in protecting the wool from being washed by the weather, and in retaining condition, or to rear them to a proper size . the yolk, which is so essential to its preservation. 3723. Soft land is best suited to lambs. The wether-lambs purchased are reared until they to farmers who raise turnips to feed the sheep
3727. Sheep on hill-pasture delight in summer to spread themselves over, and goto the highest point of their range. Ewes are restricted in
they do not breed themselves, or to English
their range by the lambs, which, when young,
graziers , who fatten them upon grass. The ewelambs also purchased are reared until they are tupped, and then sold as great ewes to breeders, who purchase them to the extentof the old ewes they draft in autumn. Ewe-lambs are also purchased to convert into ewes, and after taking a few crops of lambs from them, are sold while yet
rather lie down and sleep after being satisfied with milk. Hoggs keep much together, and do not wander far from their morning lair, where ever that may have been. Wethers go to the height of their pasturage at an early period of
become wethers, when they are sold in autumn
show little inclination to wander, and would
the day, and remain till dusk.
Thus, when sheep
land will also put old sheep into good condition,
ofdifferent ages are brought up together, how use fully they distribute themselves over their entire
but it is unsuited to ewes, because they become
pasture ; and where only one class of sheep are
too high conditioned for a permanent stock, and
reared, they extend their range as their age in
are besides liable to be seized with the rot, on such pasture , in wet seasons.
creases, or food becomes scarce .
young to be fed off on turnips in winter.
Soft
3724. It is dangerous to change the ewe stock on some lands, because new ewes become diseased on new ground ; and the fear of disease is so strongly felt that many proprietors will not allow the breeding ewes to be changed upon them, the incoming tenant being bound to take
the standing breeding stock at a valuation. 3725. These various modes of regulating the pasturing of hill-sheep have probably originated from local circumstances, which cannot now perhaps be traced ; but the rot has made such fearful havoc upon hill-sheep, and especially upon ewes, that every means have been devised to
3728. On contiguous estates, where no march wall defines the common boundary, the flock of one property may occasionally trespass on the
pasture of another. Should this happen in the early part of the day, the shepherds should not dog off the strange sheep, as that will make
them restless for days, but to wait till nightfall, and then point them gently over the march to their own ground, where they will take to their own lair. Sheep usually select a spot for rest ing at night, and it will mostly be the safest one for them , especially if they are aged sheep, and well acquainted with the ground. In fine weather they should not be disturbed in select
avert its occurrence, and a store -master is justi-
ing their lairs; but in case of threatening storm , they should be directed to the sheltered side of
fied in trying them all to prevent so great a
the pasture, or even to the stells. With inclosed
calamity. Other circumstances may have had the effect of introducing practices which other. wise appear questionable. For example,-Land may support ewes in keeping condition, which could not fatten wethers; and land may support lambs well, though not wethers. Young sheep may pine on land that supports wethers, because its elevation and steepness may fatigue them to travel over it, and its herbage may be too hard
fields, sheepcannot go wrong in summer in select ing their lairs for the night.
for them .
Circumstances such as these affect
the practice of different grazings, as well as the dread of the rot.
If this view be correct, more
general draining on hill-farms would render both pastures and practice uniform in similar locali-
ties. At all events, draining would give farmers liberty to follow their own plans, whereas, at present, they are under the control, not only of the seasons, but of the state of the soil . Let wet pasturage be dried , and rot will be subdued , whilst the mind, emancipated from dread, would
3729. The uppermost parts of our mountain pastures, as well as many portions of lower elevation, consist of a soil very different in its nature from what is found in the valleys. This
is peat-earth - not the soft peat of bogs, but the hard peat-earth which covers the mountains.
The natural produce of this peat-earth is heath, consisting usually of 3 kinds,the Calluna vulgaris, common ling, the Erica tetralix, cross-leaved heath , and the Erica cenerea , fine-leaved heath. Peat-earth is only found in the colder portions of the temperate zone, and it was no doubt formed from the partial decomposition of several crypto
gamic plants. Professor Jameson of Edinburgh was the first to propound the theory of the for
mation of peat-earth .* The pasturage on peat earth would be greatly improved by draining.
* Jameson's Mineralogy of the Scottish Isles, vol. ii. p. 120-57.
PASTURING SHEEP.
161
3730. It has long been observed that the ap- bolted to it. A field -gate may be mounted in plication of lime on peat-earth produces abundance this fashion, but it is better to have a frame made of white clover, Trifolium repens. The seeds for the purpose, to be ready to be wattled with must have lain in the soil in a dormant state, fresh tough brancheswhen required ,for old brittle and their existence in elevated situations would ones will not do. The bush harrow is worked by imply that the pastures of our hills had been at a horse attached by a swing -tree to the shackled, one time better than they now are . Probably the by the driver walking behind the harrow with woods which, it is known, once covered the double reins in his hand ; and on the branches greater part of our mountains, had sheltered the rubbing against the powdered limestone, lime, or valleys near them as much as to allow the growth compost, or wbatever may be the composition of of the clover ; and their subsequent destruction the top -dressing, it is harrowed into the pasturage, may have exposed the ground to the cold, to the some to the very roots of the plants. destruction of the pasture, and to the formation of peat -earth.
3733. Limestone, sand, or gravel, occurs in Ireland in abundance.
3731. The top -dressing of mountain pasture
“ They are, indeed , ex
tensively diffused over the surface of that island , "
with success
observes Professor Johnston , "as we might ex
wherever it has been done. Pounded limestone
pect in a country abounding so much in rocks of mountain limestone. In the neighbourhood of peat-bogs, these sands and gravels are a real
with lime has been attended
would answer the purpose as well as slaked or
quick lime, and it would be more enduring in
its action. Mills for pounding it were erected blessing. They are a ready , most useful, and about the beginning of the century on the estate largely employed means of improvement, pro of Struan, in Rannoch , Perthshire. After being ducing upon arable land the ordinary effects of pounded, the limestone was carried bya run of liming, and when spread upon boggy soils, water to 3 different ponds, one above the other.
enabling it, without other assistance, to grow
The upper pond contained the grossest particles, sweet herbage, and to afford a nourishing pasture . and the lowest the finest partof thelimestone, The proportion of carbonate of lime which these which there resembled clay or marl from its sands and gravels contain , varies from 26 to 40 smoothness. On being put on the land at Struan, its effects were visible and much approved of. " There is no use of putting the pounded lime-
per cent.” +
3734. The top -dressing, whether of pounded stone in water, and it should be applied in the limestone, ordinary lime , limestone sand and state of powder upon the gorface, and harrowed gravel, or compost, is best spread from the carts with the frying- pan shovel, fig. 233, the raised into the grass or pasture with a bush -harrow . back of which preserves the hand from being in 3732. A bush -harrow is easily constructed. It jured by whatever material is contained within consists of a frame of wood having two longitu- the shovel. dinal side- bars, a a, fig. 304, two cross -bars ,and 3735. The green pasture obtained by top Fig. 304. dressing mountain pasture, would maintain an increase of mountain stock beyond calculation. As the pasturage in the green grounds are reserved d
as hospitals for complaining sheep, for which the best food should be provided, it creates a want
of sufficient extent of grass ground for young sheep, and prevents them getting full turnips in winter, in case they should fall off in summer on
the scanty grass ; and it is better for the health of sheep to be kept lean, than to be reduced to leanness from higher condition, when means are
not in the powerof the store -farmer to maintain his flock in the high condition he would desire. .
THE BUSH-HARROW.
a third of a rounded form , b, which are all three mortised into the side bars by their ends, the
whole forming a frame 7 feet in length and 3 feet in breadth . Stems of thorn , or branches of trees c , seven or eight feet long, are wattled through the three cross-bars so as to cause the twigs c, to
3736. As heath constitutes a principal food of the mountain sheep, muir-burning improves the heath for food . Store -farmers have long been in
the habit of burning the heath on their farms every year, with the view of allowing it to grow again , that its young shoots may support the sheep in those parts of the grazings where is little or no grass. The injudicious manner in which the burning was long conducted , and the
rest hard upon the ground. A shackle, d , is late period of the season at which it wasdone, de fastened to the front- bar. The front-bar being thinner than the side-bars a, is strengthened by
stroyed not only the heath plant itself by the roots, but also the eggs of the grouse. Such de
a spar under the wattles, to secure them , and is struction of the game determined the owners of
* Robertson's Agricultural Report for Perthshire, p. 62and 309. + Johnston On the Use of Lime in Agriculture, p. 24.. VOL . II .
L
162
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
grazings to prohibit muir-burning altogether, and the consequences were that the heath grew so
wholly been burnt by the evening , let it be watched all night, and whenever the fire reaches
tall, that its top was beyond the reach of the its prescribed limit, let it be put out by going to young grouse from the ground, and the oldplants put out so few shoots as to afford insufficient
windward and beating the flames, and pushing a board nailed across the end of a long and lim
support both for sheep and grouse.
ber pole against the burning plants. Where the
Burning
causes an abundant growth of young shoots ; it fire has not reached the bounds of the portion , is, therefore, the interest of both landlord and tenant that the heath should be so burned as to
produce the greatest growth of young shoots. The question of burningbeing thus established on principle, the difficulty at first was to discover a mode which would produce the best results, but
let the flame burn until it reaches the limit. There is none more easy plan than this, and if followed on every heath farm every year, there would every year be grown a certain quantity of young heath in an excellent state, to support both sheep and grouse in the best conditionthe
at length a good plan was discovered, and it is plant is capable of sustaining them.* this : -- Let that part of a hill-farm which bears heath be divided into 8 equal parts, if the whole farm forms one hirsel; and if it contains more
hirsels, let each hirsel be divided into 8 equal parts, and in 8 parts, because beyond that number of years the heath plant grows so rigid as not to
Before
beginning the burning, it should be considered from what direction the wind prevails, and the burning conducted against the wind. When the wind is from the E. or W., the burning should be begun on the side of the lot, but when from the N. or S., it should be begun at the end.
afford many new shoots, and it has then reached
one foot in height, tall enough for grouse. The first portion of all the hirsels is burned in the same year, and the second portion in the second year, and so one portion every year, until the eight years have gone round. Every year the plants which were first burned will be putting
muirburn, or setting fire to any heath or muir in Scotland, from the 11th April to 1st November, will be fined 40s. for the first offence, £5 for the second, and £ 10 for every other, or suffer impri sonment for six weeks for the first, 2 months for
forth fewer shoots as the expiry of the eight years
the second , and 3 months for every subsequent
3740. Law ofMuirburn.-- " Persons making
approaches ; by which time the first portion is
offence, (13th Geo. III., 54 , 4.) The tenant or burned again, as the commencement of a new possessor of theground will be deemed guilty of series of years. the offence, unless he prove that the fire was communicated from other grounds, or raised by 3737. In winter the snow covers the youngest some one not belonging to his family, ( ib. 5.) shoots and protects them under it, while the older Proprietors of high or wet muir may burn the plants being above the snow, both grouse and heather thereon, between the 11th and 25th
sheep feed upon them ; and in spring, on the
April, or, ifthe ground be let, he maygive per
melting of the snow , the young shoots, tender mission to do so in writing, (ib. 6.) Which per and nourishing, are ready for use. It is remark- mission , however, must be recorded in the sheriff's able that the young plants of heath bear the frost books, ( ib. 7. ) Prosecutions for the above offence better than the old , as was witnessed in the severe prescribe in 6 months, ( ib. 14 .)+ frost of 1837, which is a natural indication that 3741. Weeds. - The first writer of practice on the heath plant has only a period of utility. the “ Weeds of Agriculture," was Mr Benjamin
3738. The usual mode of burning is to setfire Holdich, who classified weeds into 5 very natu to the heath on the windy side, when the blaze soon towers to a great height, and is seen at a
ral divisions, in as far as the experience of a far mer would suggest, viz. :-) . Weeds which infest
great distance, and the plants crackle amidst the samples of corn,such as the corn-cockle, Agros scorching heat ; but the heat which produces the temma githago. 2. Fallow weeds, such as couch crackling destroys the plants by the roots, and the grass, Triticum repens. 3. Weeds which are flame, fanned by the gale,runs along the ground, catching every bush of heath that presents itselfthe
principally objectionable as they encumber the soil ; or whose roots are annual, and whose seeds
most readily, until a much largerspace of ground pass the corn -sieve, such as the charlock, Sinapis is set on fire than is desired, and the conflagra-
arvensis. 4. Weeds which never rise into the
tion becomes so extensive that the shepherd and
crop , nor come into the sickle, such as spurry ,
all his family cannot extinguish it. They don't Spergula ardensis. 5. Weeds of pastures, such mind it, and retire, and the flame goes wherever the wind lists, till it has no more heath to consume, or until the wind lulls, or the rain falls.
as yellow goat's-beard, Trogapogon pratensis. I Other authors divide weeds into fibrous and fusi
form rooted, annual and perennial; but it is of little moment to the farmer whether the weed
3739. The properway is to begin the fire along that annoys at the present moment has a fibrous the entire lee -side of the portion , when the flame
will not mount high, but, as it were, eat its way among the heath against the wind, and if any part escapes the fire, it is easy to take a burning brand and set it on fire. Let the burning be
or long root, or is an annual, biennial, or peren nial, as ordinary ploughing will eradicate almost every weed that infests cultivated fields. These
are botanical distinctions, which may be studied
as such, but give little insight into the weeds watched all day, and if the portion has not which infest a particular soil or crop. * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv . p. 640-8. + The Farmer's Lawyer, pp. 193-4.
# Holdich's Weeds of Agriculture. Edited by G. Sinclair, 1825 .
163
PASTURING SHEEP .
3742. It may be well to give a detailed account is distended, they appear only as opaque spots of the weeds which infest pastures. The bien- upon it ; but a lens of no great power will give nial spear plume-thistle, Cnicus lanceolatus, is a distinct view of their heads, or rather necks, prevalent, and not unfrequently the welted thistle, with the tentacula or barbs projecting from the Carduus acanthoides, both in dry ground. In apparent opening or mouth which forms the ex marshy pastures, the marsh plume-thistle, Cnicus tremity of them . These hydatids vary in size palustris, is the most prevalent plant of the kind. from that of a pigeon's to a hen's egg. The wall The ragwort, yellow weed, or weebo, Senecio of the cyst appears to be composed of 2 or 3 lay
Jacobæa, is often seen inpastures, in deep dryers, thecentre one of which seems topossess a The tribe of docks is also numerous : the
loam.
muscular character. On examining them with
broad -leaved Rumex obtusifolius, and acetosella, lenses of a high magnifying power , their coats sheep sorrel, are found on dry pastures, and the resemble paper made upona wire frame, their common sorrel, R. acetosa , and sharp dock, R. muscular films so plainly and regularly interlace The complaint may be cured,
acutus, in moist and damp pastures. In moist
each other.”+
pastures in low situations, the soft rush , Juncus
though it is seldom attempted, the sturdied hogg
effusus, and common rush, J. conglomeratus, are most frequent. The rush is prospectively removed by drainage, and immediately with the
being killed whenever it is seen to be affected. I was once tempted to try the experiment of a cure on a very fine Leicester gimmer, which was
scythe. The great white ox-eye, or nowt-gowan, evidently with twin lambs, and would lamb in Chrysanthemum leucanthemum , and the common the course of a fortnight. The creature became daisy, Bellis perennis, disfigure the pastures on low grounds, while the yellow nowt-gowan,
so bewildered under the disease, that she was
obliged to be brought into the lambing paddock,
Chrysanthemnm segetum , acts the same part in
and fed by hand on cabbages and kail. On ex
upland pastures, and all indicate soil in a The common bracken, or fern , Pteris aquilina, prevails in upland pastures, where the soil is deep and dry. When growing together so thickly as to injure the grass,
amining the head , I found a soft spot near the site of where a horn would be. I cut an in
state of poverty .
cision into the skull round the margin of the soft
spot, leaving only a small attachment to act as a hinge to the piece cut out, and on raising it, I
it should be removed as a weed, which may be distinctly saw the hydatid, which I extracted done with the scythe, or by irrigation with When so thin as to permit grass to
entirely with a small cobbler's awl, the only in strument the shepherd or I had that would
grow under it, it is an advantage as a shelter to
answer the purpose. Shutting the lid, covering
water .
sheep, and as protection to grass from frost, it with a plaster of tar on a piece of linen, and thereby cherishing it early in spring. Circum- putting a cap on the head, the gimmer was stances alone should guide you in the destruc- allowed to remain in the paddock and fed, and in tion of the bracken in upland pastures.* What the course of a few days I had the satisfaction of
constitutes the windlestraw of rich pasture seeing her perfectly recover, and in due time is the dried stem of the crested dogs’ - tail, Cynosurus cristatus, one of its most valuable
bring forth twin lambs, which she brought up well, and continued to breed for several years after. The success attending this experiment, was probably owing to the proximity of the hyd 3743. The Sturdy. - Sheep are subject to be atid to the skull, which it had softened, by ab affected with certain complaints on pasture, one sorbing a portion of its substance ; but when of which is the sturdy or turnsick, which produces hydatids exist deeply in the brain , it is question so much light-headedness as to cause its victims able that a cure can be effected . The Ettrick to turn round and seem stupified. When affected Shepherd recommends the insertion of a wire by it, the sheep separates from the flock , wanders through the nose and brain into the hydatid, by into a corner of the field, feels aversion to put which it would be destroyed, and the wire may its head down to the ground, but keeps its head be resorted to before any softening appears, and,
pasture grasses.
high and a little to one side. It seldom eats, and thus loses condition, and at length, becoming emaciated, falls into a ditch or burn , and is killed
or dies, if neglected. Hoggs are most affected by this disease, which seldom attacks large numbers, one or two now and then. What in-
from the situation of the hydatid, there may be no softness of the skull at all ; and he says that
“ several years passed before he failed in this operation in any one instance ." I But it is evident that no hydatid can be touched by
the wire, but such as may happen to be situate duces the growth of the hydatid, I do not know , in the direct line of its passage; and if a wire for the complaint may be observed when hoggs thus used will always destroy the hydatid, it use little exertion in walking to obtain their food follows that the hydatid must always occupy on turnip-land, and also when they wander over a particular part of the brain. A trocar and
a large range of pasture. Accurate dissection of canula, like fig. 104, but smaller, are now used the head has proved that the disease is caused by a living animal in the brain, the Many -headed
for tapping the hydatid. The sturdy is not an infectious disease, and I agree with Mr
hydatid, Hydatis polycephalus cerebrali. “ In-
Parkinson, that it is not hereditary, for although
stead of a single head, there are a great number I have seen several sturdied hoggs, I never spread over the surface of the parasite, and open- could trace any connexion of the disease with ing into the same general cavity. When the sac their parents. $
* Journal of Agriculture for October 1843, p. 143 . # Hogg's Shepherd's Guide, p. 50.
+ Youаtt On Sheep, p. 379. § Parkinson On Live Stock, vol. i. p. 412.
164
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
3744. Blinding.— This affection is sometimes The danger is greatest when the papalæ are of a produced in the eyesof sheep by the wind blow- dark purple hue, or, running intoeach other, be ing into them thepollen of the grasses. The eyes pollen -dust, and become almost clogged up with such a degree of inflammation is sometimes set
come confluent.
up as to cause the effusion of pus from them .
and contagious, so much so, that it might be pos
3747. “ The disease is decidedly both infectious
In many cases the eyelids becomegluedtogether sible to inoculate 1000 sheep from one havingthe with the pus. No serious injuryis produced by disease well developed. It is not till the vesicles this accidental annoyance, though it is disagreeable to the sheep for the time it lasts. Wiping
form that the disease becomes contagious, but it is probably infectious previous to this. It is
the eyes with a wet sponge affords great relief, uncertain when infection actually begins, but which should be cheerfully bestowed by the
we are disposed to consider that there is danger
shepherd once a -day. The annoyance can only as soon as any eruption takes place on the body, last till the largest portion of the pollen isblown off at the termination of the period of the flower-
though unquestionably the danger is greatly in creased afterwards.”
ing of the plants, and it may not be of annual occurrence, as there may be no wind, but rain , during their efflorescence.
we decidedly object to the plan of inoculation
3748. As regards the cure of this disease, simply as a means of prevention, whilst a flock
3745. Sheep -pox . - A troublesome and fatal is free from the disease, as by this means we disease amongst sheep has been brought into this propagate an infectious disorder, though in a country since the importation of live stock was mild form . The plan we
permitted from the Continent . It is named the advise,after some experience and considerable small-pox, because in its particulars it is very similar to that of the human subject. The disease has existed in Europe for many years, and in
reflection, is, as soon as the disease appears in a flock, to practise separation and examination as rigidly as possible, but, at the same time, to ino
France and Germany its ravages have been very culate one or two sheep. Then, if we find that great. Since its introduction into this country, its mortality in some flocks has been to the ex-
the disease extends in spite of our daily exami
tent of 90 per cent, and in numerous other cases
cases favourable lymph for the inoculation of the remainder. If some 12 to 20 cases of small- pox have really occurred , then , without any further delay, we advise inoculation to be practised on the remainder of the flock ; for it should be borne
50 per cent. The first outbreak here was traced to two small cargoes of merino sheep, one from Hamburg, and the other from Tormingen in Denmark . These sheep were sold at Smithfield,
nations, we shall have from these inoculated
in various lots, to farmers in different parts of thé in mind that the earlier cases are generally mild, country, and it was thus that the disease was introduced amongst our flocks.
and the disease increases enormously in virulence and fatality as it extends. The advantages in favour of this plan appear to be these : we may
3746. “ There is a singular uniformity in the select the most favourable weather for the ope period that elapses between exposure to contagion and the appearance of the eruptions, whether
ration , and in the course of six weeks are free from further anxiety about the matter ; the ut
the animal gets it by inoculation or by simple
most care can be taken of the flock during the
exposure to diseased animals. This period is about ten days. On examination at this time, the papalar stage commences — that is, little swellings resembling flea -bites are found all over the body, but mostly on the parts free from wool. These papalæ are preceded one or two days by red spots on the site of the papalæ . In the course of six days, vesicles or bladders form on the papalæ,
period, and the greatest vigilance exercised to prevent the spread of the disease to other flocks --- a care and vigilance which it may be difficult to adopt throughso long a period as the system of
and contain a fluid at first clear, and afterwards
continual turning might demand. Besides which,
it should be remembered that there are at least three ewes probably to one wether sheep, and
these ewes being of course kept for breeding, it
becoming more opaque. The chief point of dif-
is of the utmost importance to select the earliest and most favourable time for receiving the dis
ference in these vesicles, between the human subject and the sheep, is — in man the vesicles are
ease, and not to run the risk of their getting the disease naturally just previous to lambing. It is
rounded , while in the sheep, we find them flat, quite a mistake to suppose that the risk of and much larger in proportion; and it is rarely the case in sheep that pustular secretion takes place, which is so common in man as to constitute
a distinct stage of the disease. In about six days
spreading the infection is increased by inocula tion — in fact it is lessened, for the disease be comes milder, having a mortality ranging from 2 to 10 per cent. It is also circumscribed, and ne
more, commences the stage of desiccation, that cessarily entails the utmost vigilance, and pre is, a scab forms, and the ulcers gradually heal by the end of a month . These are the stages of a
vents the sale of sheep from the flock for a given period of twenty-one days.”*
case that ends in recovery ; but when death takes place, it is either in the first or third stage. In the former, all the external symptoms are suppressed , and the animal soon dies, whilst in the third stage the animal perishes from exhaustion.
3749. The only means of avoiding being con tinually annoyed with this disease, and of pre venting its circulation, is the prevention of the importation of diseased sheep from abroad, and
* Gardeners' Chronicle for April 14, 1849.
PASTURING SHEEP .
165
the prohibition of the sale of infected animals in 5 lines in length . It is supposed to deposit its thecountry, as well as those actually labouring eggs on the margin ofthe nostrils, andwhenever under the disease. The former means might be it does so , the sheep lies down upon dusty bare used in our insular position by strict surveillance, spots, holding its head close to the ground, or, but the latter could scarcely be made available when a number are attacked at the same time, without inquisitorial inspection of the flocks in they form a dense phalanx, with their noses the possession of both breeders and dealers. pushed towards each other. The warmth and humidityof the nostrils very soon bring the eggs to
3750. Two acts connected with this subject maturity, and the larvæ find no difficulty in gain were passed by parliament, which received the ing their way into the frontal maxillary , and royal assent on the 4th of September 1848, and
other sinuses and cavities of the face. There
are to continue in force only for two years,
they adhere by means of 2 hooks, the secretions of the cavities constituting their Fig. 307 .
from 1st September 1848 to 1st September 1850. One act prohibits the importation of sheep, cattle,
alty is £20 for every offence of exposing such
stock for sale, knowing them to be diseased , and a penalty of £5 for each offence in obstructing
food.
ground, in which they undergo their future transformation . The
larva, fig. 307, is flat on the under side, and convex above, of a delicate white colour, without spines of any kind, save the ter minal hooks already mentioned.
SHEEP BOT LARVA
A series of black transverse spots
persons in the execution of this latter act.*
3751. Scalded heads. — Sheep are much infested in summer with flies. As a protection to the head against them, the simple cap, or hood , fig. 305, is effectual. It may be made of stout linen ,
In time they wriggle
down the nose and fall on the
cute
horses, & c., affected by the disease; the other imposes certain specified penalties on those who should expose for sale any stock suspected to be infected with any contagious disease. The pen
are visible on the under side, ESTRUS OVIŞ. covered with rough points.
3753. Keds. The ked or keb, the sheep spider
fly, Melophagus voinus, is an insect so well Fig. 305. Fig. 308.
known in its nature
and habits, that a
particular
descrip
tion here seems un necessary. It is mag nified at a, fig. 308, the line b showing its b natural size. It pe netrates the skin and buries the anterior part of its body in the flesh or fat of the sheep, where it con a tinues to subsist and SHEEP KED — MELOPHAGUS enlargen. Its tough OVINUS.
THE HEAD-CAP, OR HOOD, FITTED ON THE SHEEP.
skin renders it diffi
cult to be killed by pressure ; and when its body is bisected by the shears, the buried part instant ly emerges and runs about quickly in a manner almost incredible, but nevertheless it soon dies.
Anotherremarkable circumstance attending the and fastened with 4 tapes tied crosswise under the
chin, or of leather, and buckled at the same place. Leicester tups should not be without these caps
tribe of keds or ticks which belong to the familyof Hippoboscidæ , and are included among the dip terous or 2 -winged insects, thoughtheyare wing
in summer, especially when grazing near woods; lessis,that the youngisretained in the body of and as tups are occasionallyfond of boxing each the mother until it becomes apupa, there being other, any skin that may thereby be abraded on the head will receive immediate and effectual protection, from the air Fig. 306.
and flies, by the cap.
no other instance amongst other 2 -winged flies of the period of gestation extending beyond the state of larva. This peculiarity has caused the Hippoboscidæ to be termed nymphiparous or pupiparous insects.
3752. Bots. — Sheep are troubled with bots
as well as cattle . The
3754. Blou -flies . - Much more dangerous tor mentors of sheep are blow -flies. When sheep
Ay is called Estrus are struck by the fly,the symptoms of disease can ovis, the sheep bot-fly, not be easily misunderstood . They almost con fig. 306. It is a smallSHEEP BOT- FLY ESTRUS OVIS .
stantly hang down their heads, sometimes turn .
er species than the ing them on one side as if listening ; shake the cattle-bot, being about tail with a quick jerking motion ; run rapidly * Journal of Agriculture for March 1849, p. 670.
166
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
from one place to another, and, in doing so, at off the flies. Mr George Mather, shepherd, New times stop suddenly and stamp with the fore-feet. Scone, recommends a wash containing arsenic, The flies deposit their eggs on any bare skin they can find, and, failing that, on the wool on the rump, below the tail, and about the groins.
which I have no doubt would prove effectual ; but I have a great aversion to using arsenic in
any shape on a farm , and cannot recommend it
If the larvæ are left undisturbed, when in large numbers, in two days they will destroy the sheep, having in that short time eaten the flesh into the
to be used in this case I .
very bones, and sometimes exposing the entrails! Warm moist weather, in fieldsenclosed by woods,
flies is the checkered blow -fly, Sarcophaga car naria . It is somewhat larger and more elon
and in the bottom of dells, are the circumstances
gated in shape than the common blue -bottle fly ;
and places most favourable to their attacks. The
general colour changeable gray ; thorax with
3755. The most dangerous, perhaps,of all the
smell arising from excrementitious discharges, black longitudinal lines ; abdomen covered with the glutinous matter left after milking ewes,and long wool, are all attractive objects to blow -flies. A shepherd ought to be able to detect sheep
black quadrate spots, which give it a tesselated appearance; body pretty thickly beset with strong hairs. It produces its young alide; hence the
that have been struck by the fly the moment he
appearance, so often considered unaccountable , of
enters the field. Dogs have been known to point
maggots in a short time after the sheep have been
them, as truly stated by Mr Price.
examined .
dog," he says, “ when properly trained , the mo-
“ The larva, when full grown,” says Mr Duncan , " is scarcely half an inch in length ,
ment he enters a field inwhich are any sheep
as at a," fig .309 ; the head b is small and mem
* A looker's
struck by the fly , instantly singles out the dis eased animals, and runs up to them , as much as to say they ought to be caught.” * Dogs require little training to do this, partly because the symptoms which struck sheep exhibit are une quivocal, but more probably from the peculiar smell which maggots doubtless emit ; or the sheep themselvesmay emit apeculiar odour after being struck . The Ettrick Shepherd is of opinion (and it is a probable one) that flies give a pre ference to one sheep over another, probably on account of the selected sheep being either actually subjected to diarrhea, or emitting such a peculiar flavour along with its perspiration, as to be at tractive to flies, and which may be indicative of a predisposition to disease . + It is culpable in a shepherd to allow any sheep to be dangerously injured by the fly. He cannot prevent their attack , but he should be able to detect it before
h
Fig. 309.
9
h
b
d MAGGOT OF THE CHECKERED BLOW - FLY - SARCO PHAGA CARNARIA ,
it proves serious in its consequences. The sheep branous, having two fleshy prominences above, should be carefully observed, one by one when the flies are active, and being gathered in a convenient part of the field , the suspected ones should be caught with the crook, fig. 224, and examined, and every maggot removed by the
with a small nipple-shaped knob c c, so that they bear a perfect resemblance to small mammæ. Beneath these mammiferous protuberances are
two strong black movable hooks d placed by the side of each other ; e e is the first segment of the
hand. As maggots are not killed by being body, and f one of the anterior stigmata . The thrown on the ground, they should be collected in principal use of these hooks isto tear off and some vessel, and destroyed either by being separate the fibres of the flesh on which the crushed by some hard substance, or by having boiling water poured upon them. I have seen a shepherd fill his hat with maggots, in the course
creature feeds. The last segment of the body g is, as it were, cut across. Two large air-vessels
may be seen running along each side of the body,
of an hour's search amongst a small flock of terminating at both endsin breathing -holes, hh Leicester hoggs.
Should the maggots have broken into the skin , rubbing the part with a
strong solutionof corrosive sublimate, or a strong decoction of tobacco - liquor and spirit of tar, will check a farther attack on that part ; and should the part affected be larger than is seen between the sheds of the fleece, the wool should be removed with the shears, and the corrosive subli-
and i i.
3756. The description of the maggot of this fly will serve for that of the other flies about to be mentioned.-- Musca Cæsar is readily known
by its brilliant green hue, which has a silvery play of colour when seen in certain lights . Musca domitoria, common blue bottle- fly or blow .
mate applied upon, and around,and rubbed into, fly. This fly is well known in our houses, and may easily be identified by its buzzing noise dicate a dryness of the skin, in consequence of when on the wing. “ This is the species," ob
the wound. Should the wound, on healing, inthe application of the corrosive sublimate, an ointment of tar and lard will soften it, and keep " Price On Sheep, p. 472, note.
serves Mr Duncan , " of which Linnæus affirmed
that 3 individuals could devour the carcass of a + Hogg's Shepherd's Guide, p. 106.
I Prize Essays of theHighland and Agricultural Society, vol. x. p. 221.
PASTURING SHEEP.
167
horse as soon as a lion. There is no doubt that
attack of sheep by dogs there are comparatively
we must impute toit a large share of the injury
few deaths to the number injured, and,were time afforded, most of the bitten sheep would most probably recover ; but the usual custom , in the
our flocks sustain from this tribe of insects."
Anthomyia lardaria is rather more than half the size of the blue-bottle fly, and of a bluish-black colour ; thorax with longitudinal lines, and abdomen slightly tesselated . It is very common
excitement which such an occurrence creates, is
to kill the sheep with the view of preventing the total loss of the mutton by the sheep dying-and
in low sheltered woods, and is doubtless often
were they to die in the blood , the mutton would
associated with the other in preying on living
be rendered unfit for use. There were once 9 of my Leicester ewes worried by a dog, from 3
subjects.
It is said that the green - fly first at-
tacks the sheep, and is succeeded bythe more greedy blue-bottle fly, which, having made a suitable place, is, in its turn, succeeded by the checkered blow - fly.
of which the blood was drawn on the spot, and the shepherd would have bled other two had I al
lowed him. From the recovery of these bad cases by the means used , I was persuaded that the 3 which were killed would have recovered
3757. Sheep worried by dogs. - Sheep on pas-
had they been permitted to live. There is no
ture are sometimes worried by dogs, and the destruction happens most frequently early in a
doubt, however, that sheep which have been run and worried ever so little are a long time, if ever,
of recovering their customary composure; and on while engaged in it ; their only object seeming other people's sheep should be severely fined summer morning. Experienced dogs go singly to do the mischief, and take care not to bark
this account alone, the owner of a dog that runs
to obtain a feed of mutton. Dogs most addicted to the vice of worrying sheep are mastiffs, bulldogs, bull-dog terriers, and lurchers bred from a
injured.
colley, and they are most prone to it when they escape from the chain , which detains them as
3758. Besides the sheep, the pasture on which they feed is infested and injured with a host of
over and above the value of the sheep actually
watch -dogs. An old colley addicted to this vice insects. The grubofthe meadow crane-fly ,Tipula practisesit with consummate art, and obtains mutton with the least trouble to himself, and
commits the least extent of mischief. Pointers when hunting, and especially self-hunting, are
oleracea, fig.223,destroys the roots of grass aswell as of oats, (2504. ) The year 1762 was called the wormy year, consequence of the depredations occasioned by this grub in Selkirkshire.
It
very apt to chase sheep when running from them . again appeared in 1802, 1812, 1824, and 1826, The part of the sheep commonly seized by the dog is the throat, which he tears open, and eats the flesh to the neck - bone ; and were he to content himself with this morsel, or to satisfy his
and in Peeblesshire in 1830.+ 3759. The ear -beaked weevil, Otiorhyncus sul catus, about 5 lines in length, of a brownish black
appetite, the loss would not exceed the value of colour, and incapable of flight, in consequence one sheep ; but the propensity to destroy seems of the junction of the wing -cases, produces a only bounded by the number of the flock ; he worries some to death and bites a great many
larva nearly half an inch longofa whitish colour, thick and fleshy, and thinly beset with long
more. The destruction is probablyaggravated bristles, which is for themostpart subterranean, and lives indiscriminately on the roots of all gra mineous plants.
by the conduct of the sheep themselves, which run away in a body from the dog ; and in fear of losing the rest whilst running down one, he leaves the wounded one on the ground and pursues the others, seizing the nearest him, one by the back, another by the throat, and a third by the haunch, until a great number are lamed by bites. It is
3760. The common kinds of ants, Formica fusca and rufa , sometimes almost usurp the en tire dry pasture ; and it is difficult to extirpate them. Perhaps as effectual a mode of doing so
rare that a dog feeds upon more than one sheep, as he is probably scared by some circumstance,
common spade, fig. 237, out of the top of each
of any is to notch a piece with two cuts of the
before hehas time to break into another. When mound, in the beginning of winter, and expose its a lamb is run after, it is so easily overtaken that
the dog tears its neck open at once and satisfies himself upon it. I am not aware that a dog which worries sheep can be deterred from the practice by any means - certainly an old dog cannot - and the only fate that should befall so har dened an offender is the rope or the gun . But a
contents to the weather.
3761. The caterpillars of several butterflies
also destroy pastureplants. The meadow brown
butterfly, Hipparchia janira, whose wings ex pand nearly 2 inches, produces a light-green caterpillar, with a white line along each side,
young dog, especially a pointer, may be deterred; which prefers for its food the smooth -stalked and the most effectual way, I believe, of doing it, is to couple him for a few days to the carcass he has worried, and cause him to drag it about with him ; or, in a hill country, to couple him to a black -faced ram for some days, with a sufficient length of chain to allow the ram to turn about and butt him severely with its horns. In every
meadow - grass, Poa pratensis, one of the most nutritious grasses for cattle ; and the caterpillar of the large heath butterfly, Hipparchia tithonus, considerably less than the preceding, is of a green colour, with a reddish line on each side, and a brown head, and feeds on the annual meadow grass , Poa annua, which forms the chief cover
* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. ix. p. 58, 63. + New Statistical Account of Scotland - Selkirkshire- Yarrow , p. 41 .
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
168
ing of our meadows and pasture- lands. The feeding on the grass, as many insects do, butby caterpillar of the antler-moth, Chareas graminis, throwingupmounds of earth upon it when digging is brown or blackish, with light-yellowish stripes their galleries under ground in pursuit of their along the back and sides , and attains about one
inch in length . It lives under ground, and feeds
favourite food, the earth -worm , and many of the larvæ of insects. They are thus useful and in
on the roots of grass — and the injury it does to jurious at the same time - useful in devouring pasture-land in hills is sometimes very great , the larvæ ofinsects onthe surface of the ground but it avoids low -lying damp meadows. The
at night, and which fall or go into their galleries
effects of its ravages are very similar to those in the day - and injurious in destroying the produced by the burning of heath .
earth -worm , which is useful to the soil while alive, by keeping it open to the air and moisture , 3762. But the greatest devastation of this and when dead by manuring it with its body; kind is committed by the larvæ of the common and also injurious in covering the surface of the cock -chafer, Melolontha vulgaris, an insect but grasswith earth - for, as to the value of the top
little known in Scotland, though sometimes it dressing which the grass receives in this way, occurs in countless myriads in England and Ireland. There this beetle “ wheels its droning flight ” in the summer twilight. Fig . 310 represents a female a , about an inch in length, oblong and convex, the head reddish in front,
it is received at the expense of the finer and richer part of the mould immediately under the grass plants, which, by its removal, are thus de prived of nourishment at the roots, where it is of most use to them. We have only to look at
the hinder part pitchy black. As soon as fecun- the scorched appearance of the ground in dry dated , the female makes holes in the ground weather along the lines of the galleries, and find ourselves sinking nearly ankle-deep in the ground Fig. 310. undermined bymoles, to be convinced that no
top - dressing will ever compensate for the injury done to the pastures of low farms. " course A
of thirty years' observation ,” says the Ettrick Shepherd ,“ over an extensive district of the
south of Scotland, and hard -earned experience, have convinced me, long ago, of the pernicious effects of destroying the moles on sheep pasture. The most unnatural of all persecu
tions that ever was raised in a country is that against the mole, that innocent and blessed little
pioneer who enriches our pastures annually with the first top- dressing, dug with great pains and labour from the fattest ofthe soil beneath . The
advantages of this top-dressing are so apparent, and so manifest to the eyes of every unprejudiced person , that it is really amazing how our coun trymen should have persisted, now nearly half a century, in the most manly and valiant endeavours to exterminate the moles from the face of the
earth . If a 100 men and horses were employed C
COCK - CHAFERS - MELOLONTHA VULGARIS .
on a common sized -pasture farmsay from 1500
about half a foot beneaththe surface,and lays &
to 2000 acres — in raising and driving manure for ita sotopeffectually -dressing,so of that could not neatlyfarm do soequally,as , or, they
cluster of white eggs b, tinged with dirty yellow
the natural number ofmoles on that farm would
at the bottom of each hole ,andshe lays a great
do ofthemselves. That pastureland isbenefited
many in ofa all. dingy-white The larvæ oryellowish c, which proceed from them ,are colour,and
byatop-dressing,no man,I think ,willattempt soft and inactive. They are14 inch inlength, to deny. Thatthemoles giveitthat top-dress and furnishedwith a pair of powerfulmandibles. ing, asfewwilldeny.”+ No onedeniesthe The perfect insect is short-lived, but the larvæ survive for 3 years, passing into a state of per
benefit of top -dressing to pasture grass ; still , if
vity in spring. So completely do they sever the pasture from the soilthat the turf may be rolled up in large sheets. Another chafer, named Amphimalla solstitialis, produces a grub
farmer no trouble, and incur no cost.
its benefit is to be derived at the expense of the
itself, many wouldbecause question the prudence of fect repose in winter, andrecovering theiracti- soil permitting it,merely give the it would
3764. Moles are caught in traps expressly
very similarin its habits to the one described, made to fit into their galleries, and personsmake though smaller and more restricted in is distri-
a profession of entrapping them in the summer
bution . *
season, who are called mole - catchers.
Mole
catching is generally taken for the season by
3763. Moles, Talpa Europea, often disfigure such persons,and the price on an extensivelow . the face of the richest parts of pastures, not by
land farm is 5s. the 100 acres. No endeavours
•
Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. ix. p. 565-572.
+ Ibid . 640-41 .
PASTURING CATTLE .
169
should be made to extirpate the mole,but only should have the best pasture, the object of to keep their numbersdown to a moderate extent. keeping them beingto breed calves, and
A few mole- hills here and there do little harm , afford plentyof milk to bring them up. but acres of good soil converted into a burrow ,
as a preserve, for the pleasure of moles,is too The more milk they yield, therefore, the muchof a good thing.
better will the calves prove, and the more profitable will they themselves prove after the calves are weaned. Cows in summer
ON THE PASTURING OF CATTLE IN SUMMER.
are treated in an opposite manner by dif
ferent people, one taking them into the byre atnight, and even at all times milk
3765. The cattle of all ages, as accom- ingthem there, and another allowing them modated in the steading in winter, (1082)
to lie out all night, and milking them in
to ( 1085,) remain there as we left them the field. Whichever mode is adopted, it ( 1219,) until the grass is ready to re- should be kept in mind that cows are pecu
ceive them, which, in ordinary seasons, liarly susceptible of sudden changes of is at the end of May or beginning of temperature, especially from
June ; but, in late seasons, when the tur- andfrom drought to rain; so that, when cold nips are expended before the grass is or rain, or both, come together, which is sufficiently long to afford them a bite, the common circumstance, they should be cattle are put to grass before it is brought into the byre. For some time ready for them. In case ofsuch an unto- after theyare first put out to grass, they
ward event happening, it is the duty of the should be housed in the byre at night, when farmer to provide against it, by purchas- they are milked there, and again in the
ing extraneous food for his cattle, such as oil-cake; or giving them beans or oats; or disposing ofthe fattening cattle in time to leave a sufficient quantity of turnips for
morning before they are let go into the field ; and when they are milked three times a- day, they should be milked in the field at mid -day. In dairy districts cows are
the young cattle and cows until the grass milked twice a -day ,morning and even
is ready to receive them . In the state of ing, and in breeding districts thrice a -day, confinement in the steading, cattle thrive morning, noon, andnight. After the nights better on a variety than on the same food ; become warm , I have found it conducive and yet when on grass they require no to health, and it is both a rational and a
variety of food, and thrive the better the longer they live upon it, unless that a change of pasture is desirable when it becomes bare. Grass is thus evidently the natural food of the ox, and his anatomi-
natural custom, to let them lie in the field all night, and to milk them there also at
stated hours - three times every day, the shepherd or cattle-man bringing them to the most convenient spot of the field to be
cal structure is peculiarly adapted for that milked . The lying out always in the field sort of food. Whatever kind of food be no doubt imposes more labouron the dairy
receives in winter partakes of an artificial maid and her assistants, in carrying the character; and being only a succedaneum milk to the calves, and to the dairy after for grass when it cannot be obtained, the the calves have been weaned ; but I am artificial food should be made as palatable persuaded it is an excellent system for the
to him as circumstances will allow , whether by variety or superior quality. This consideration shows the propriety of M. Boussingault adopting grass, or rather hay - grass deprived of its water, as the
health of the cows. The cows rise from their lair at daybreak, and feed while the dew is still on the grass, and by the time of milking arrives, say6 o'clock, they bave partially filled themselves with food, and
standard for comparing the nutritive pro- stand contented, chewing the cud, while perties of the different sorts of food given the milking proceeds. They then satiate to stock on the farm .
themselves, and by 9 o'clock lie down in a
shady part of the field, and chew their cud 3766. The fat cattle having been dis- until milking time arrives at noon, when
posed of, ( 3609,) the pasture should be they are againbrought to the same spot judiciously distributed amongst the re- and milked. Feeding again, when the maining stock of cows, year-olds, and heat of the afternoon arrives, they stand in
calves ; and first as to the cows. They the coolest partof the field, whisking away
170
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
the flies with their tail and ears. The When cows occupy the byre every night, evening milking takes place about 7 , after litter should be provided for them ; and
which they feed industriously, and take up should the straw be all expended, a num their lair about sunset, and chew their cud, and in the morning they rise and feed before being milked. Apprehension exists that cowsinjure themselves by eating grass
ber of light materials will answer the pur pose, such as coarse grass cut from plan tations and bogs, ferns, sawdust. The cows of a breeding stock will be mostly
wet withdew ; but it is a fact, which is served by the bull before they go out to not so well known as itshouldbe, that be- grass, though a few of the later ones will dewed grass before sunrise, and grass after yet have to be served. It is the duty of it is dried by the sun, are alike uninjurious the cattleman to attend to these, andsee
to cows; and it is only when the dew is in them properly served ( 2233) by the bull, the act of being evaporated, immediately as also those the season of which may after sunrise, that grass proves injurious to return . them. Cows which lieout all night eat
the grass while it is yet wet with dew ; whereas those kept in the byre, on being let out after being milked, are let out just at the time the dew is being evaporated by the sun, and when the grass is in the coldest state. It is thus consonant with the fact, that the cows kept in the byre at night are alone affected with the grass when it is wet with dew ; and, being
3767. Young cattle are not put on new grass, but on the one or two year old grass ; and although all ages of stock are fondest of new grass, all the stock of a farm cannot have it ; and the older pastures are quite good for all grazing purposes, and will generally stand the eating, during the summer, better under all circumstances of weather. The pasture of the young
hungry, they eat the cold damp grass with cattle should be changed as well as that of avidity and much relish, while cows which lie out all night are not affected by the wet grass . Circumstances, however, should rule the custom oflying out or housing at night. In a cold upland district, or in exposed situations, devoid of shelterin the
cows, whenever it happens to be eaten rather bare: not quite bare, for no stock onght to be allowed to remain as long in the same field as to allow the grass to become bare by too much and too close eating.
fields, so susceptible creatures as milk -cows should not lie out at night; and as but 3768. On this account, moderately sized very few nights are really warm in such fields, of 20 to 25 acres, answer best for situations, it is safer to put them into the grazing stock, as one can be rested for a
byre, and ventilate it well in the warm fortnight or three weeks until the grass nights that may occur. In favourable grow again in it, whilst the others are be situations, one circumstance is worthy of ing pastured. In this manner of treating attention in determining the practice of pasture, the stock obtain a tasting of new
lying out and housing, that the housing fresh-grown grass at intervals during the causesthe troubleofproviding supper for the season, which has the wholesome effect of cows; and this provision not only implies an alterative upon their system . the cutting of the forage, whatever it is, but also preparation of the plant in the
3769. Young cattle require little tend
field . Excepting a change of pasture - and ing whileon grass ; nevertheless, it is the the change should always befor a better duty of the shepherd, as he goes his daily one - the treatment of the cows is the same rounds to the sheep , to ascertain every throughout the summer, and even to the day that the young beasts are in good
cool evenings at the end of autumn. As health, and have plenty of food, plenty the milk falls off, the noon milking is drop- of water, and are in security within the
ped ; and, when the evenings become cool, fences. the cows are brought into the byre at night, milked there evening and morning, and
3770. Cattle, which do not crop the
graze during the day. When this takes grass close to the ground, graze well with place, supper must be provided for them in horses or sheep, both which crop thegrass the byre after the evening milking is over, close. The lips of the ox are stiff, and
and theyshouldalsobe littered forthe night. cannot lay hold of the grass while they cut
PASTURING CATTLE .
171
it with the teeth, like the sheep and horse ; tage of this plan is, that the stock at peri but their tongue is very prehensile, and odic times during the grazing season enjoy with it they embrace every mouthful of new - grown grass ; and another, that no
grass, and, drawing it towards the mouth, growth of the grass is so long pastured as retain hold of it until the incisors of the to cloy the appetite of the animals, or be under jaw sever it from the ground with come foul by being constantly trodden
a jerk of the head upwards, and the tongue upon. That this is a rational and natural then sweeps it into the mouth. The grass mode of pasturing grass-land is evinced by at this time receives very little mastication, stock delighting to consume new -grown and is swallowed and deposited in the grass; and every animalloathes grasswhich
paunch; when this is full, the ox eats no has been long trampled and dunged upon , more for a time, and prefers to lie down in and the breath passed over it times out of a shady place, and chew the contents of number.
the paunch in the pellets forced up into the month, ( 1652.)
3773. Another principle that affects the method of treating pasture land, is the
3771. Calves are put on grass at the same time as the other cattle, whether weaned or not. By that time the oldest ones will be ready for weaning ; but although ready, the herd of calves should be kept together at first, in a small paddock of grass near the steading, where the
difference in the effect of cropping the grass which the differentanimals employ ; cattle cropping high, and sheep nibbling low, while horsesbite both high and low . This is a wise distinction between the two classes of our ruminants, the sheep being suited to theshort pasturage ofmountainous
younger ones are served with milk, and regions ; their mobile lips enabling them to the older with grass, and both are at hand hold it firm , while it is severed from the to be put into the shedded court at night, ground with the incisors of the lower jaw ,
until the weather becomes warm enough with a twitch of the head to one side, not
to permit them to lie out all night. withstanding the want of teeth in the up Calves are very susceptible of cold, especially as long as they are on milk, and receive more injury from exposure to it than most breeders seem to be aware
per one ; whereas theox is better suited to the plains and valleys, where grass grows long, and may be cropped by the scythe-like operation of its tongue and
of. Much rather keep them in their court teeth.
The practical conclusion to be
at night one night longer than necessary, drawn from these different modes of crop after the warm evenings have arrived,
ping grass by the domesticated animals is,
than cause them to lie out one night too that the horse or sheep should follow the soon in the cold .
ox in grazing, or accompany him, but not precede him . When they follow , the 3772. Grass-land requires peculiar ma- pasture will be eaten barer by the horse
nagement to render it the most available
or sheep than the ox left it ; and, when
as pasture in every variety of season . The in company, it will be eaten barer by circumstances which most injure grass are the horse or sheep where the ox has overstocking and continual stocking. The eaten before, or it may first be topped by most effectual method of avoiding over-
the horse before the ox bas touched it.
stocking is to have no more stock upon the Whether the horse or sheep should follow farm than its grass will in summer main- or accompany the ox, the latter is the pre tain in good condition ; and to avoid con- ferable arrangement, because they have tinual stocking, the stock should not be then the choiceof the long grass, as well allowed to remain too long in the same as the short. The same reason that should
field . The safest principle to treat each graze the horse and sheep, in reference grazing field, is to stock it at once, so as it to the ox, should cause the horse to be shall be eaten bare enough in a shorttime, separated from the sheep, particularly in say in a month, and then to leave it un- the latter part of the pasture season, as
stocked altogether - hained, as it is technically termed for perhaps a fortnight, in order to allow the grass sufficient time to afford a good bite for cattle. One advan-
both biting close make the grass too bare for either . Horses, too, and work -horses in particular, have a greater dislike to sheep than to cattle.
172
PRACTICE SUMMER .
3774. Aninconvenience at times attends scarcity of water, and the little left be
the grazing of all kinds of stock on a farm comes almost stagnant. The objections to of mixed husbandry - that, as in everysum- such a mode of supplying so necessary and mer the same number of stock exists, there may not be the same quantity of grass to support them ; as the same number of acres,secured by a regular rotation ofcrops,
wholesome a beverage toanimals as water, are obvious, and a thorough amendment of the present system is requisite on almost every farm . A rivuletruns through some
may produce different quantities ofgrass part of most farms, andtanks of wood or in different seasons — one year affording a of stone are provided in fields, in con
scanty, another a superabundant supply: nexion with an adjoining spring, or with The number of stock should correspond a pump -well, where no rivulet runs ; but A with the produce of an average year.
bad year may much stint the condition, while a good one may grow more than the same stock can consume. The stinted condition cannot be amended by the sale of any of the stock , as it is impolitic to
no means are used to provide a reservoir of water on streams which are apt to become
dry in most summers, and in such cases
cattle are worse off than with pump-wells —though toooften the water is forgotten to be pumped out of them every day, and
disturb the equilibrium of the ages and at best theycannotprovide all the requisites kinds of the stock existing on the farm ; and a general sale of stock, under the circumstances assumed, would lower their value ; and if the stock suffer hunger, as it
of a good watering -pool. For in hotdays a walk into a clean pool is wholesome to cattle, and in very dry weather a stand at a time amongst water is an excellent pre
did in the severe drought of the summer ventive of that troublesome complaint, the
of 1826, no alternative exists but to make foot-sore. The external application of up the deficiency by hay, even thoughit water in this manner allays inflammation, should be purchased for the occasion . On and prevents irritation, and permits the the other hand, superabundance of pasture does no harm ; for, independent of its maintaining the entire stock in high condition, the rough aftermath will be of great service to the ewes in winter. On farms the stock of which are purchased every year, the number may be regulated by the
animals to take their food in peace in a scorching drought. The water out of a tank of a pump-well is never relished by cattle, and in cold and rainy weather it is rarelyvisited by them; and inhot weather it is viewed with indifference, because it is evidently inadequate to supply all their crop of the grass ; but even in that case wants for water; and tanks are invari the season may turn out worse than ex- ably placed toohigh for sheep. A water pected. Seeing that no one can foretelling-pool should be roomy and securely
the future state of the grass, the prudent fenced, as cattle are apt to push one an plan is, in every case, to keep the number other about while in it, and several go of stock under the mark which the farm together to drink or stand in the water; and it is the same practice with young can support. colts.
It should be of considerable length
3775. An essential requisite in all pas- and narrow , to give access to it for a number ture-fields is an abundant supply ofwater of the cattle at the same time ; and its side for the cattle to drink.
Both cattle and
next the field should be made hard with
horses driuk largely, and sheep, grazing broken stones like road metal, the bottom
early on the dewy grass, do not require so of the pool gravelled to keep the water much water to keep them in a healthy condition ; still, when no dew falls, and drought continues, they drink a little water. The proper construction of a watering -pool is sadly misunderstood in this country. The entrance to it generally is a puddle of poached mud at least balf a foot in depth, to avoid standing in which the animals go into the water, and render
clean and sweet, while the water should always flow gently through it. 3776. Where water is so scarce, that no
rivulet runs through the fields, and no water can be obtained by the sinking of wells, the only expedient is to bring water to the pasture fields from a distance in barrels mounted on wheels, such as the
it muddy before they drink. Not unfre- liquid -manure barrel in fig. 194. Such a quentlythe pool becomes nearly dry from barrel may be filled at a pump, or more
PASTURING CATTLE .
173
likely at a rivulet at some distance ;in for straw in summer, as the rough grass which latter case it has to be filled with from an adjoining wood, or a ditch, will such a scoop as is represented in fig. 311 , supply litter; and the dung, at all events, of the dimensions, and used in the manner described in (2075.)
should be shovelled up and removed before
Fig. 311 .
animals. I should like to see every farm systematically furnished with such sbeds, to the extent at least of one shed every
it accumulates to the discomfort of the
two adjoining fields. THE SCOOP FOR FILLING THE WATER - BARREL .
3778. Young cattle are not grazed on carse farms, nor on farms in the neighbourhood of towns. On the former no land is appropriated to grazing,
the grass is kept for only one year, and it is 3777. The want of sheds in pasture- as chiefly used forforage and hay; and on the fields is also a sad reflection on the sagacity latter it is more profitable to sell the grass for
In summer, where a forage, and make hay. The grazing on these farms is confined to thefarm milk - cows and work tree spreads its branches over the grass horses. in a lawn, how gratefully cattle resort to the shade, where they know that the stir 3779. On dairy farms the pasture for cows is
of our farmers.
ring breeze will cool their hides, and afford preferred on old lea abounding in natural
them a refuge from the attacks of flies. In grasses,whichafford finer flavoured butter and cold weather, cattle crowd to the wooded richer cheese than young grass. On such farms cows are kept for the express purpose ofstock, yielding corner of a field, and will do soina rainy dairyproduce,formingtheprincipal and
day even in summer. Such indications by receiving the largest share of attention. They animals teach us how they ought to be
are brought into the byre at night,milked there
treated . I am no advocate for hedgerow morningand evening ,and generally onlytwice
trees, although they shouldcasta grateful to givehis cows at all timesas much food as they shade into a pasture -field , since they prove
can consume; and with this view, besides the fine
injurious to the crops and fences near them ; pasture during the day, they have clover-grass and still less do I admire an umbrageous or tares in the evening for supper. plane in the middle of a field devoted to a 3780. The most profitable and also convenient course of cropping ; but similar effects may plan for dairymen in towns is to keeptheircows There are be obtained by other means. constantly in the byre in summer, and to feed few farms one or two sides of the fields of which are not sbeltered from some
them on forage, and purchase such litter as can be found cheapest at the season.
In pursuance
of thissystem ,the irrigated meadows in the quarter by a few trees ; but, indepen- neighbourhood of Edinburgh are taken by the and their pro dently ofthis, a shed,erected at asuitable dairymenbyauction every year,
part in the line of the fence, would not duce cut and carted dailyfrom April to Novem . only afford a shade in the hottest day in ber. The number of cuttings may be 4 or 5 in summer, but shelter in arainy day, or in a that period . The usual rentisfrom £16 to £ 20 cold night in autumn. Such an erection
the acre; and in the excessively dry year of 1826,
plentiful on an estate ,and they should be
were burnt up, that the rent was £40 the acre.
such was the demand for the grass which grew would cost little where stone and wood are well, while the forage plantsof thearable fields
placed to answer the field on either side of But such is the conviction of the healthy nature pasturage for milk cows, that many dairy the fence when it is in grass. But no of men in towns take
pasture at high rents the matter what it costs, when the health neighbourhood, and allow the cows to liein out
and comfort of stock are concerned . Its
all night, and incur the trouble and expense
cost would be repaid by the state of the
of sending people to milk them twice and thrice
stock in the first year of its erection, and a -day. it would stand, with slight repairs,for a long 3781. On pastoralfarms devoted exclusively to lease. Let it be roomy, and its structure the rearing of cattle, the calves are allowed to go
light, and itmay be roofed at a moderate with their dams, from whom theydraw as much cost with zinc, or composition, or tiles, milk as they can get, and support themselves when manufactured in the neighbourhood. besides on grass. The calves thrive well in this way, and attain to a large size ; and could the It may be troublesome to carry straw for farm maintain them in the same condition until litter from the steading to a shed situate 3 years old, they would become very fine beasts. at a distance ; but there is little occasion But, unfortunately, they fall off in condition
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
174
whenever they are weaned in autumn, and it is difficult to bring them up to the same condition
and constitution. The hams should not be too full of flesh, lyary, (3622,) which in a young
This circumstance raises a doubt in
animal indicates that the carcass will soon set from growing. A deep body,and short carcass
in winter.
my mind whether it would not be better to wean the calves at 4 months old, and let them depend entirely on the grass in the best season of the pas-
ture, and no difficulty would then be felt of maintaining, in the ensuing winter, the growing and healthy condition thus attained . Such a plan would no doubt incur the trouble of milking the cows, as it would be improper to let them run dry in the height of the grass season ; which, besides incurring the loss of milk, would be impolitic to pursue, as it would put the cows in so
between the shoulder-blade and the hook - bones across the ribs, indicate a disposition to fatten at a small size . Flat ribs and a high back - bone
indicate difficulty of fattening; and though the bone of the legs may be large enough, it is coarse and round , instead of flat and fine; and the sinews seem indistinctly marked and heavy,
instead of small and clean. On selecting a lot of young cattle, they should all nearly be of the same size and appearance ; and they will then be
higha condition before winter, as would be diffi- what is termed ledel, presenting an even surface cult to be maintained until next calving. Cows over their backs when standing together, or with calves at their foot will wander long dis- walking in a drove the sharp horns and ears of tances from home if their range of pasture is the horned cattle, and the crowns of the heads large, and they evince great art in concealing and ears of the polled ones, rising above the level themselves and their calves.
of the backs. This levelness is a very enticing property in every lot of cattle . It is a lesson to
3782. The young stock on pastoral farms graze on the lower and more sheltered portions of the grazing, till the weather becomes less stormy and cold inthe upper parts, when they stretch their walks upwards by degrees untilthe highestpoints are at length attained. This procedure cannot
the seller in preparing cattle for the market,to assort them in lots of equal levelness, and the larger the level lot is, the more is the purchaser persuaded that pains have been taken in their breeding. When a number of cattle of the same breed have to be compared ,the properties which
be strictly adhered to where no fences mark the boundaries of the farm ; but in the higher eleva
distinguish the particular breed must form the
tions the state of vegetation naturally deters them
from proceeding higher up until the grass grows.
standard of comparison, and what those standards are you shall know when we come to treat of the properties of the different breeds.
It would be better were fences laid off to divide
the pasture into portions, which should be occu3784. As to the state of cattle most profitable pied during the season at properintervals of time ; for the farmer to purchase, I believe that 2 -year and it hasoften occurred to me, that this object old queys have been found the most kindly would be best attained were fences to be run in feeders in every breed. They are subject to horizontal parallels along the face of a height, or periodic disturbance when in season in summer, round an entire hill, than up and down the slope and to avoid these the operation of spaying of the ground. As it is, pastoral farmers seem (2287,) was recommended, and was at one time contented with a ring fence round their farms. extensively practised; and as long as the heifers
It is the duty of the herds to ascertain the state generally possessed few properties for becoming of the cattle every day.
Young cattle for graz-
good cows, the practice was unobjectionable. Now, however, that every farmer possesses a large proportion of his heifers well formed, spay. ing has fallen into desuetude, and it is found more profitable to dispose of them as breeding stock than to fatten them , and the heifer market is not now so well supplied as it used to be. Good 2-year-old queys, from upland pastoral farms, can seldom be obtained without being in calf, the bulls having the range of the pastures. Of the different breeds, perhaps, more heifers
ing should have all the symptoms of health , a
may be obtained of short-horns for feeding, than
3783. Young cattle are purchased for farms in the arable districts of the country, on which none are bred, immediately before the grass is ready to receive them ; and not unfrequently this class of farmers hire grass-parks for the season and stock them with young cattle on speculation. Such cattle are obtained at public markets, or from breeders who do not keep their stock beyond two years.
clear eye, dewy nose, and glossy long hair, of any other; and the reason is, that this breed is although they may be in low condition . Such a now so generally improved, every animal pos condition may be a greater loss to the breeder sessing good properties, that all cannot be trans who has half starved them , than to the purchaser ferred to the cow stock ,and are therefore brought who may have good pasture to give them on sound to the market for other purposes, if desired by feeding land . To attain full size they should purchasers. I have known, even lately, handsome
have astrong bone, and their appearance might profits returned from those heifers, when nosuch profit could be obtained from steers of any kind. large in proportion to the quantity of flesh , and Still , as every farmer cannot be supplied with implies a quick growing condition. To be a heifers, oxen must be purchased in lieu ; and the good thriver and attain condition, the hair should age at which these should be purchased depends be termed raw -boned ;—that is, the skeleton seems
feel mossy, and the touch of the skin mellow.
upon the nature of the soil . Some soils bear
The skin should not be too thin, nor feel hard
pasture which will fatten oxen of large size,
and tight, and it should be covered with abund-
and on these steers of 3 - years will return most
ance of hair. A thick tail with plenty of hair on it and at the point, indicates strength of back
profit ; on weaker soils, it would be folly to at tempt to feed cattle to heavy weights; and for
PASTURING CATTLE .
175
lightsoils, young beastsshould alwaysbe chosen. necessarilyproducea larger quantity of forage of the black breeds, the hornless Angus and
Galloways, the West Highlanders and Aberdeen-
than land laid out in any other way. It is true that the forage thus obtained will not, like the
shires, or a cross of all these with short-horn cerealgrasses, answer immediately for the sup Those who possess pasture that will feed a heavy ox have the advantage, as they canpurchase small stock as well
bulls, are kindly feeders.
as large; but those who have only weak land must
purchase small, and, for most profit, young stock, and let the heavier and aged alone to others.
port of man; but itnevertheless concurs power fully in thisby producing milk, and butter, and cheese, and inbreeding and fattening cattle. Let there be added to all these advantages of what may be called a permanent vegetation, that the cost of keeping it in order is infinitely less, and that there is no risk to be run from failures of
3785. The following observations of M. Bous-
crops, and the vast advantages of meadow or
singault, on pasturage in general, and on the effects produced by pasture grass on the size
pasture land will meet us with all their force."
and condition of cattle in several countries on the Continent, are interesting. “ In those coun-
3787. These preliminary observations of M. Boussingault suggest a few remarks on the pro priety of having some meadow land, as he and
tries,” he observes, “ the nature of whose climate is favourable to pasturage, the rearing of cattle
presents immense advantages, but the animals can only be fattened in those that are the most
the farmers in England name what in Scotland is called permanent pasture, on every arable
farm ; and were those observations absolutely
fertile. The meadow that suffices for the growth applicable to all situations, they would go far to and keep of a bullock , will not always bring the animal into condition for the butcher. Those
sanction the practice which prevails in England, of having a large proportion of the country in
countries where the climate is moist, and long droughts rarely felt — where neither the summer heats nor winter colds are excessive-the conditions in fact, which are met with in the beautiful pasture lands of England in especial, are those that prove most favourable to the rearing and feeding of cattle. The pasture lands of Normandy and Brittany in France, of Switzerland, Holland, several of the provinces watered by the Rhine, &c., are also remarkable for their luxuriant herbage. In such situations, and with such advantages, the grand object of the farmer
suitable which grows coarse rank herbage, equally unfit for good pasture and hay, and which is more occupied with rushes than any other sort of plants. Whatever use such soils may be after being drained, and worked, and made to grow fine plants, they are in their
is the production and fattening of cattle.
present state unfit to be meadow land.
3786. “ Wherever it has been possible to lay
meadow ,whether the soil be really fitted to grow permanent pasture.
However well suited the
climate of England may be for the growth of meadow grass, there is no question that much of the land of England is kept in meadow which is unsuited for it ; for that soil is certainly not
3788. The practice of Scotland encourages the
down extensive and productive meadows, it is opposite extreme of having no meadow at all,on now beginning to be clearly understood that the
land which the plough can make arable, and the
introduction of even the best system of rotation
practice may have taken the strong root it has as a consequence ofthe general poverty of the soil,
were to make a false application of agricultural
science. In my opinion, there is no system of which imposes the conviction that no naturally rotation, however well conceived and carried ont, which will stand comparison, in point of productiveness, with a natural meadow ,favourably situated and properly attended to. The reason of this is obvious, and follows from the very
poor soil capable of growing good permanent pasture. Permanent grass of some kind is no doubt grown on many places in Scotland, but un less such pasture is capable of being converted into hay or pasture, as the farmer pleases, it is
principles which we have laid down in treating
not entitled to the character of a permanent pas
of rotations. The whole object in the best sys-
ture that will fatten stock .
tem of husbandry, is to make the earthproduce the largest possibility of organic matter in a 3789. It was once a great desire of the Ber. given time. But in such a system we are limited wickshire, as it still is of the Northumberland by the climate, inasmuch as we are obliged so farmer, to have at least one field on the farm of to arrange matters that our crops shall always good permanent pasture, and the best land was attain to complete maturity ; the consequence of which is, that with all our pains the soil remains
chosen to be converted to such a purpose. Expe
the winter, even, does not interrupt it com-
a great weight. But after it was found to be more
rience had proved that large oxen would not unproductive during a certain number of weeks feed ripe but on old grass, and the farmer who and months towards the end of autumn, in the desired to feed oxen of extraordinary weight early spring, and through the whole of winter. could not accomplish his end unless he had pas But upon meadow lands vegetation is incessant ; ture in summer for his beasts that would feed to
pletely; it still revives and makes progress in profitable to feed cattle fat at as early an age as the bright days; and in springit proceeds when practicable, and which can be easily accomplished the mean temperature is but a few degrees above the freezing point of water, and never ceases until it is checked again by the severer cold of
of oil-cake and linseed meal, the old permanent
winter. It is therefore easy to obtain convic-
fattening of heavy oxen was concerned; and
tion that a given surface of meadow land must
the consequence was, that much of it was plough
on turnips and sown grasses, with the assistance pasture was no longer required, in as far as the
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
176
ed up and thrown into the ordinary rotation
required to fatten an ox ofmedium size. On those
of the farm . Still old grass has one 'use which of the third quality, a surface of 3720 square yards, (about three roods,) is deemed necessary the extension of new has not yet provided— in to fatten a small ox . it formed the rankest and thickest pasture autumn, long after that from the sown grasses had ceased to grow and become bare . This inconvenience attending the sown grasses, has partly been met by pasturing them after the grain crop
has been removed in autumn, and partly by the extension and early production of the turnip. An old lea is an excellent winter walk for ewes
in lamb, and a few turnips strewed upon it are
kept clean in the worst weather.
3794. “ M. Dubois calculates the quantity of grass fodder consumed by an ox during the eight
months when he is fattening, as equivalent to 6600 lb. of dry hay, (equal to 300 stones, of 22 lb. to the stone ;) this is at least the quantity that the extent of meadow required to fatten one ox would produce. The average ration of green forage each day is, therefore, equivalent to about 27 lb. of hay, a quantity which appears small,
3790. In relating the mode of pasturage fol- and which would be so in effect, were not the lowed in some of the countries of Europe, M. oxen kept so long in the meadows. M. Dubois, Boussingault goes on to say, that “ on the banks indeed, observes, that in the stall, with a ration
of the Rhine, in Holland, in the neighbourhood composed of from 11 lb. to 13 lb. of linseed oil of Arnheim , the meadows are depastured during one year, and cut, and their produce made into hay the following year, and so on alternately. The cattle are fed in the house with the hay during the winter. They are driven out into the pasture in May. In the Low Countries, it has
cake, and 26 lb. of hay, an ox will become suf ficiently fat for the butcher in 70 days, and will acquire nearly the same weight that he would have gained in the course of seven or eight months in the meadows. There is nothing sur prising in this fact, inasmuch as the ration men
been found that tofatten a large ox, a surface of tionedby M. Dubois, in our mode of viewing it, meadow land, of about 9960 square yards, (more than two acres,) upon which it will pasture during five or six months, was necessary. In the
is equivalent in nutritive value to at least 81 lb. weight of hay ; the quantity of oil-cake alone is enough to supply a good pound weight of fat
bottoms of greatest fertilitynear Dusseldorf, it a -day. has been calculated that to keep a cow, an ex tent of surface equal to about 1800 square yards
3791. “ In countries which possess rich pasture lands, oxen are put to fatten immediately upon the richest of them . In the valley of the Auge, in Normandy, these meadows are designated as
3795. “ In Old Friesland, where the pastures are excellent, results are obtained which may be compared with those of the meadows in the val. ley of the Auge; an ox of from 770 lb. to 990 -lb. weight, (about 70 stone,) will be pushed to a weight of from 1100 lb. to 1650 lb., (about 118 stone,) on a surface of meadow land between
herbages. A meadow of this kind requires a rich
3000 and 3600 square yards (nearly 3 roods) in
damp soil, capable of retaining moisture. It is, therefore, to a considerable extent dependent
extent.
upon its subsoil.
3796. “ In the meadows of the Auge, the fat tening goes on even during the winter; the oxen
( 1ļ rood ) was necessary.
It the district mentioned, the
soil of the pastures consists of a thick layer of vegetable mould , resting upon clay ; it is, therefore, very rare that this meadow land feels the effect of drought; it is, indeed, only in the early spring that the pasture upon such land sometimes fails, in which case the stock must of course be
are received into the pastures between the 15th of
September and the 15th of November, and the animals pass the winter in the open field ; but they receive from 12 lb. to 26 lb. of hay a-day until the month of April , when the grass has al
assisted with hay, the quantity being gradually ready grown sufficiently to suffice for their keep. diminished as the advances. season
These oxen are generally fat and ready for the market in July." *
3792. “ M. Dubois finds that a lean ox, weigh ing 473 lb., after fattening in the valley of the
3797. I am not aware of any experiments hav
Auge, will weigh 763 lb., so that he will have
ing been purposely undertaken , in this country,
gained 290 lb., ( or 1 lb. 3 oz. a-day, in eight to ascertain the increase of flesh by oxen during months, or 1 lb. 6 oz. a -day in seven months.) the grazing season. Fattening cattle are not The degree of fatness attained in this district is kept above five months on grass, from the end of prodigious. M. Dubois mentions oxen which May to the end of October, or 153 days. Sir weighed when fat 1760 lb., upwards of 125 stones ; and he speaks of one which attained the
John Sinclair mentions that Galloway cattle, when kept in winter so as to maintain the con
enormou s weight of 2750 lb., upwards of 196 dition they had acquired on the pasture of the stones . previous summer, put on all their increased weight on the grass alone, and this increase
3793. " It is calculated that, in the meadows of varies with the age of the cattle : those from 3 greatest fertility, a surface of 2760 square yards, ( more than half an acre ,) are required to fatten a large ox. On meadows of medium fertility, a
surface of 4680 square yards (nearly an acre ) are
to 3} years old , increase 11 stones ; and those from 4 to 4 years old, increase 13 stones. He adds, “ Almost all these several additions are gained, according to the Galloway report, during
k
Boussingault’s Rural Economy- Law's translation ,p. 619-21 .
PASTURING CATTLE.
177
the six months of the grass season ." I take the The pock makes its appearance both on the udder grass season at five months ; and at the above increased weights, the younger ox gained just
and the teats of the cow ; and as milking must be performed frequently by all the teats, the
1 lb. a -day, and the older one 1 lb. 3 oz. a -day operation is very painful to the cow, and she on pasture, which agrees pretty near with the results stated by M. Dubois, as having been
becomes troublesome to milk . The pustules are soon rubbed off by the operation, and their sites
obtained in the pastures of the valley of the become skinless sores. Nothing but the utmost Auge (3792.* )
gentleness will prevent the cow becoming dis tracted under the torture. After having run its
3798. Cattle are subject to very few diseases course , the disease declines, the sores become less while upon grass in summer.
Sometimes they the weather
receive a chill in a sudden change
acute, and heal up by degrees. The disease for tunately is not of frequent occurrence ; I have
to wet and cold ; but were sheds provided in only seen it once in the course of a fifteen years' every field, probably no chills would be felt, as cattle never suffer from cold when they have shelter at will. The immediate effects of such
experience, and it affected all the cows I had at the time-9 in number.
I found an efficacious
ointment in affording relief to the cows when
a chill is a staring coat and hide-bound skin , afflicted with the cow -pox, sore teats, or chapped which may be removed by a cordial drink, com- teats. It consists of fresh butter melted and posed of one quart of gruel and one bottle of burnt in a frying-pan,and mixed with half its ale in a lukewarm state, in which has been dis-
quantity of tar. While hot it is poured into a
solved some treacle, and spiced with 1 oz . of gallipot, and applied cold to the affected parts.
ginger and 1 oz. of caraway seeds ground fine. The tar has the effect of keeping off the fies, while the burnt butter never becomes dry. The (1481 ) and the animal kept in a shed for a night ointment is washed off with warm water, and the
The drink is administered with the drinking-horn
or two. The ultimate danger from such a chill udder and teats dried with a soft linen cloth, be is inflammation of the lungs, which in most cases fore milking commences ; they are again bathed is a fatal disease.
with warm water after milking, again dried with
3799. The teats and udder of cows are at times subject to certain complaints in summer ; and these are chapped teats, sore teats, warty teats, and
the soft linen cloth, and the ointment again ap plied.
Cow -pox. Chapped teats consist of cracks across
3803. Warbles. - Cattle are not unfrequently troubled, towards the latter end of the feeding
the teats, which, when drawn downwards, the
season , with what are named warbles or wommals,
cracks are forcibly opened, and inflict pain on the that is, small swelled protuberances along the animal, which then becomes troublesome to milk. chine, caused by thelarvæ of the Estrusbovis, The easiest mode of milking them while under this complaint, is that described by nievling in
the cattle-bot. Fig. 312, a, gives a representation Fig. 312.
(2258, while stripping aggravates the complaint (2257.) I do not know the certain cause of this complaint, but suppose it to arise from leaving the teats in a wet state after milking ; and per haps cows lying upon wet ground may have the same effect.
3800. Sore teats are, when blotches of skin come off the teats, and their fleshy substance be comes sore by exposure to the air. This com plaint may arise from the milker who strips seiz
ing a particular part of the teat too hard, where an inflammation being set up, terminates in a
sloughing of the skin, and consequent exposure of the fleshy substance to the air. C
3801. Warty teats, I conceive, may originate in the skin of the teats being ruffled by too much force in stripping, or by too long a nail upon the thumb ; and the warts produced in consequence
THE CATTLE- BOT AND LARVA -
ESTRUS BOVIS .
of the fly which originates these larvæ . It is the female, which has the abdomen attenuated
may be exuberances of the skin in covering the injured parts. I am not sure thatthese conjectures , for they are nothing more, will explain the causes of these complaints ; but I believe when care is used not to abrade the skin or pinch the substance of the teats, but to keep them clean and dry, none of them ever occur.
behind, and terminating in a black -coloured style, composed of cylinders which slide into each other like the tubes of a telescope, as seen at b, but greatly magnified. It is not well ascer tained whether the fly merely lays her eggs on the hair or skin , and the larva, when disclosed , is left to force its own way beneath it, or a per. foration is made by the fly and the egg deposited 3802. As to the cow - pox , it is a constitutional with it. That the latter is the case seems most disease, and cannot be either induced or retarded . probable, as the ovipositor b seems constructed * Sinclair's General Report of Scotland , vol. iii. p. 90. VOL . II .
M
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
178
for the express purpose. Cattle feel great pain,
greyish -brown colour, the segments fringed on
and become almost furious, when attacked by
the posterior margins with grey hairs. The anal
this fly. The larvæ c are of an oblong shape;
segment is small, and armedwith 6 sharp scaly
the body divided into 11 segments by transverse
points o, which seem to enable the pupa to push
bands, which again are crossed at the sides by its head above the surface of the skin . " longitudinal lines; and on each side of all the segments there is a distinct spiracle or breathinghole. The young larva is found to occupy a
diseases have more or less frequently ravaged
small cyst or cell within the substance of the
the cattle of many countries from the earliest
3805. Pleuro-pneumonia . - Epidemic zootic
skin , which gradually enlarges with its growth ; period of history. During the past century, they while the pus, which is abundantly secreted by have made havoc in several of the countries of the irritation, serves for its subsistence. “ The Europe, especially in the pastoral plains of the
tumour is never entirely closed around it,” says
Ukraine; and of late years - only since the per
Mr Duncan, “ there being always a small aper- mission to import live stock , they have crossed ture on the upper side. On attaining its full the ocean that begirts our island, and have growth , the larva makes its exit by the aperture visited our establishments of stock with fearful just mentioned, and the wound speedily closes up severity. None of the epidemics have been so and is healed ; but the hide never recovers its direful in their effects as what was formerly de original strength, as afterwards appears when it nominated epidemic catarrh, then murrain , and comes under the operations of the tanner . It is now pleuro -pneumonia. From the earliest ac remarked by Reaumur as a singular circumstance, counts of this disease, we find the predisposing that the larva commonly issues from the tumour, cause attributed to marshy and woody districts, to assume the pupa state , at a very early hour or where perfect under-draining did not exist, in the morning, and thereby avoids many of the combined with exposure to sudden changes of dangers to which it would be otherwise exposed. the atmosphere, and a half-starved method of Thewarbles are so conspicuous on cattle , that if feeding . The influence of these predisposing searched for scarcely any could be overlooked; causes is now acknowledged by agriculturists and they may be killed with the utmost ease by and veterinarians ; but, however ill-ventilated
simple pressure of the fingerand thumb, or by byres, want of drainage, dirt, and nastiness of pouring some corrosive liquid into the aperture of the tumour. They are seldom so numerous
but that a short time would suffice to inspect a a whole herd, and if this were done simultaneously at different places, an entire district might in a
shorttime be nearly or altogether freed from this " * pest."
every description , may aggravate the force of the disease when it exists, these cannot be said to be the predisposing causes, since they all ex. isted in their full strength, and in the same places, before the disease was so well known.
Where are ill- ventilated byres to befound in the Ukraine, the cradle of the disease ? The truth is, the complaint is found in this country in the best
3804. A very tormenting insect to cattle on managed and best constructed dairy-houses of the Highland moors, though it is scarce in the
the country, as well as in the worst ; and since
lowlands of Scotland, and far from being rare in
this is the case, we must look to more general
England, is the cattle cleg, Tabanus bovinus. It influences than those to be found in locally is about one inch in length , being the most bulky ill -constructed houses, for the origin of the of our native Diptera . When the proboscis is disease ; especially as exposure to cold , with fixed in the skin , and employed in pumping the bad food, and little of it, are in themselves blood, the insect can in general be easily got at, quite sufficient to originate an affection of and killed with a stroke of the hand. The in- the lungs, which pleuro -pneumonia is, and strument by which the skin is pierced, and the nothing more ; and which can be cured as cer
blood extracted, is of curious and complicated structure. The larva a,fig.313, is long and cylinFig. 313.
ECHOU
tainly as anything can be so, provided its ap proach is detected, and remedial measures applied in proper time.
3806. The functional vessels of the lungs, as remarked by Dr James Mercer, are three in num
ber : the air vessels — the pulmonic vascular sub stance, the parenchyma — andthe investing serous membrane, the pleura. subject to inflammation.
All these vessels are
3807. The inflammation of the mucous lining of the bronchial tubes and air cells, is called bron chitis ; that of the pulmonic vascular substance , or the parenchyma of the lung, is called pneumo drical, narrowing at the head into an elonga- nia ; and that of the investing serous membrane ted cone . The body is divided into 12 rings, the of the lung is called pleurisy, or inflammation of anal one being very minute, and resembling a the chest. Pleuro-pneumonia, is, therefore, in spiracle; colour dirty white, the head brown and flammation of the vascular substance and of shining. The pupa b, is nearly cylindrical, of a the investing serous membrane of the lung, com 青 * Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. x . p. 544. LARVA AND PUPA OF THE CATTLE CLEG - TABANUS BOVINUS.
+ Šfagazine of Zoology and Botany, vol. i. p. 359.
-
PASTURING CATTLE .
179
bined - acombination attended with great danger mediable debility would rapidly follow . Pro to, and even rapid destruction of life.
miscuous bleeding must be avoided ; for, without
careful analysis of the symptoms, bleeding will 3808. The symptoms of these three species of hasten the fatal debility of the system . After
inflammation are shortly the following :-of the bleeding give a purge of l lb. of Epsom salts bronchitis, breathing quick and free; cough at first short and soft, then loud, harsh, rough, and prolonged ; pulse, frequent, but full and soft . of pneumonia, breathing weaker, slower, stifled ; cough, short and stifled ; pulse, small, weak, and oppressed. Of pleurisy , breathing short, and only partial; cough, short and catching; pulse, rapid , hard, and wiry. As long as the symptoms indicate only bronchitis, a cure may be easily effected ; but if neglected, and allowed to run into pneumonia , danger becomes imminent,
and rapidly passes into pleurisy, when death ensues .
1 drachm of tartar emetic, and 2 or 3 drachms of
ginger, mixed in water; and the dose should be repeated every five or six hours, until purgation has been produced. When this has been accom plished, let an anodyne diaphoretic mixture be given regularly, at stated intervals of four or five hours, consisting of half an ounce of laudanum, 2 drachms of tartar emetic, and 2 pints of water,
and thereby keep up the diaphoretic or sweating effect. The animal should be carefully removed
from its companions, into a clean , comfortable loose -box, or outhouse, free from sudden changes of the atmosphere. Cover the body with a warm
3809. In every sort of inflammation of the
woollen rug to prevent the too rapid evaporation of the sweat, which would chill the animal.
lungs, there are three stages - congestion, red hepatisation, and gray or white hepatisation. In congestion are found engorgement and pure inflammation. In red hepatisation is no circulation of air, no crepitation. In gray hepatisation,
should be left beside it, and a little of any slightly stimulating food that may be at hand. Should symptoms of debility remain, tonics
Warm bran mashes, and tepid meal and water
are required , beginning with camomile tea, and
lymph is effused throughout the substance of the giving stronger ones as the strength increases, lungs, which are marked with black patches, caused by the colouring matter of the blood being imprisoned in the vessels. In this last case, re
as the infusions of gentian, columba, cascarella , &c. *
covery is hopeless.
3814. “ The grand principles which ought to regulate our treatment of pleuro-pneumonia, and
3810. Casesof pleuro-pneumonia,whichassume which ,whenproperly pursued, will guide us to the distinct forms either of pneumonia, pleurisy,
the best and most scientific mode of combating
or bronchitis, will generallyterminate favourably, the disease,maybe thus setforth in a few words," while those characterised by prostration of observes Mr Finlay Dun, veterinary surgeon. 6
strength and typhoid fever, will be much more difficult of treatment, and often terminate fatally. Where animals are exposed to E. winds and drizzling rains, the symptoms seem to approach nearer to those characterising pure pneumonia ; while, on the other hand, dry, cold weather, and sharp, severe winds, cause the symptoms of pleurisy to become more apparent.
Pursue warily the antiphlogistic course ; sub due the inflammation, and reduce the fever, with the least possible expenditure of the strength of the patient; resort to venesection only when the symptoms indicate a state of active inflamma tion ; avoid pushing too far the exhibition of sedatives, contra-stimulants, or any depleting
3811. Young animals seem less predisposed to pleuro -pueumonia than such as are nearer maturity ; and fat cattle are attacked less fre-
measures whatsoever ; rely mostly on the use of tonics, and subsequently of stimulants ; sepa rate the animal from his fellows - place him, if possible, in a loose box, and keep him cool, clean, and comfortable ; keep the bowels in good condi
quently than those in a backward condition.
tion with treacle given at intervals ; check the
milk-cows are the most slightest appearance of diarrhoea by giving flour But of all sorts of stock . liable to this disease
3812. Much difference of opinion exists con-
cerning the propriety of using the flesh or milk of animals affected with pleuro -pueumonia . In the first stages of the disease, before the inflam-
gruel,and, if necessary, astringents. Where the animal is reduced, and manifests much weakness, blisters, rowels,and setons are to be condemned, as producing irritation and increasing the hectic fever. In short, let the treatment of the disease
be guided by a mature consideration of the symp
matory fever has run its course, both the flesh
toms ; and, while attending to the more impor
and milk may safely be used, but not so when the fever has assumed a typhoid form .
tant remedial measures, do not neglect what is
3813. Whenever the disease appears. characterised by the earliest symptoms, decided treat-
aptly called by Dr Armstrong ' the small ar tillery of physic ;' endeavour , by the combina tion and co -operation of various means, to arrive at the main point—the grand object of your
ment must be had recourse to . Bleed at once,
treatment , the eradication of disease and the
and carry it to such an extent as to make a de- restoration of health .” + cided impression on the circulation . If this is effected, and the symptoms become moderated, 3815. In summer, “ inflammation of the larynx the bleeding must not again be repeated, as irre- frequently takes place in cattle, the disease, at * Journal of Agriculture for March 1848, p. 313-16.
+ Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, for July 1849, p. 64.
--
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
180
the same time, spreading from the delicate lining more complete command than anything membrane to the nearest parts. In this way else over the inost ungovernable bull. In lymph is effused, and the play of the parts im case a bull becomes irritative and trouble peded. Sometimes the smaller cartilages them selves are altered, being thickened and con some as he advances in years, which is
torted, and small tumoursare apttobe produced, often the case, the ring furnishes the means both within thetube and without it. The of curbing him at once, when it would marked symptoms are local pain, difficulty in otherwise be impossible to get a hold of breathing and swallowing, and general fever : the treatmentrequired is venesection, and the his nose. It also affords an easy means of other parts of the antiphlogistic regimen .
suspending a light chain from it to the ground, upon which the fore - feet of the
3816. “ Tumours occurring in this locality in bull are apt to tramp, whenever he at cattle constitute clyers, which though it may notthefordisease a timecalled interfere with fat:, tempts to run forward, and by thus sud tening, yet speedily injures health .” *
denly jerking his nose, be checks himself
in an instant. A young bull may follow ON THE TREATMENT OF BULLS IN SUMMER.
a person in sport, and then run at him in earnest. I was once encountered by a 2
3817. Bull-calves, we have said, ( 2290 ) should be early calved, have good milk every day, for at least four months, to strengthen their bone,and until the grass is quite able to support them , and to maintain the fine condition they have acquired on the milk. If the mothers of the bull- calves did
year -old in the midst of a pasture field. Feeling it vain to reach a fence before he could run at me, I determined on standing still to face him, armed with a couple of large stones. When he came within five yards of me, scraping the ground with his fore -feet, with his bead close to the ground, and bellowing with apparent
not afford sufficient milk for them, it was anger, I struck him a blow with a stone
the practice of that very eminent breeder, on the forehead, between the horns, on the late Mr Robertson of Ladykirk, in which he started up, became silent, shook
Berwickshire, to have cows in milk to his head, turned,and ran away in a trot. Not content with defeating him in this manner, he was taken to the steading, and
supply the deficiency.
3818. When a number of bull-calves a new rope fastened to the ring. I led are brought up together, they should be him to the highroad, and punished him so
grazed bythemselves on the best grass the by checking him by the nose, that he never farm affords,or they may go with the cows, again attempted to meddle with any one. or with the ox -calves while the quey- To keep him in constant check, a chain calves go with the cows. Anyhow they was suspended from the ring, with its end should not be allowed to accompany the trailing on the ground. quey-calves. I knew an instance of a 3820. Fig. 314 represents a bull's ring. quey calf being stinted at as early an age as to bear a calf at 15 months old ; and I It consists of two semicircles constituting knew another quey - calf, one of my own, a circle or ring, Fig. 314. that was so injured by a young bull-calf, joined together at one end a , that she was thereafter rendered incapable with a rivet of impregnation, although her season re passed through curred periodically. To avoid such casu theends lapping alties, it is well to keep young animals of different sexes, capable of breeding, apart.
over each other,
A single bull-calf may go with the cows or with the young oxen .
b
after each end is reduced to
half the thick 3819. Year - old bulls should be furnished
THEBULL'S RING IN AState ness of the ring,
with a ring in their nose. This instru-
TO BE INSERTED IN HIS NOSE . and acting as a
ment is useful not only in leading them, hinge ; and the other two ends b also lap, but of keeping their temper in subjection. and are fastened together with two coun I have no doubt that such a ring affords a tersunk screws. The ring is opened, as * Dick's Manual of Veterinary Science, p. 76.
SUMMER TREATMENT OF BULLS.
181
shown in the figure, before it is passed takes the bull by the nose with his left through the hole in the bull's nose. hand, and feelinginwardly with his fingers, past the soft part of the nostrils, until he
3821. Fig. 315 shows the ring screwed reaches the cartilage or septum of the nuse, together as it hangs he distends the orifice of the nostrils, so Fig. 315. in the bull's nose ; that the hot iron may pierce clear through the joint a closed , the septum withont touching the skin of and the lapped ends the nostrils or his own fingers, taking care 6 also closed with to pass the iron in a direction exactly par the two countersunk allel to the front of the nose, otherwise the
0
screws, all Aush with hole will be pierced obliquely . Immedi the surface of the ately after the tapering rod has been ring. The ring is passed as far as to make the hole suffici
THE BULL'S RING AS FASTENED IN HIS NOSE.
formed of quarter- ently large for the ring, and the wound inch rod -iron , and its seared enough, the operator then takes the
diameter over all is The surface should be very smoothly filed, and it cannot be too highly polished with sand paper. It costs 28. 2 inches.
3822. The ring is put into the young bull's nose in thismanner :- Itis the smith who puts the ring into the bull's nose. Let him be provided with an iron rod about a foot long tapering to the point, and rather thicker than the rod of the ring. Let a
fire be near to heat the point of this rod. The smith should also be provided with a small screw - driver. Let a long stout cart-
ring opened, still holding by the bull's nose with his left band, passes one end of it gently through the hole, and, on bring ing the two ends together, lets go the nose with the left band, and taking hold of
the ring with the same, still to command the buli, puts one screw in after another, and secures each firmly with the screw driver. He then turns the ring round in the hole, to feel that it moves easily, and to see that it hangs evenly, after all which the bull is released. The ring should ap pear inthe nose as represented in the por trait of the Short-horn bull, Plate XI.
rope be provided with a noose bitchedupon The ring should not be used until the the middle, just large enough to take in wound of the nose is completely healed ;
the bull's neck like a collar. Put the bull though it isnothing uncommon to see the into any outhouse that has a window suf- ringing of a bull delayed, untilthe time ar ficiently low to allow his head to reach rives that he must be led by it for some par through it, though it is safer for his knees ticular purpose, such as the exhibition for a to press his counter against a stout bar of premium at a show, when, in the attempt
wood. Slip the top of the loop of the to accustom him to be led about by the rope over his headdown to the counter, ring immediately after the operation, every
bring his breast against the window or part of the nose being still tender and
bar,pass the rope from the lowest part sensitive, the poor animal is tormented. of his neck along the ribs on each side So alarmed do some bulls become by this
round his buttocks, like a breeching, and operation, that they hang back from the bring an end through the window or over the bar on each side of the bull, where let a stout man hold on at each end of the rope, and prevent the bull retreating backwards from the window or bar. A man stands on each side of the bull's buttock , to prevent him shifting to one
side or the other. A man also stands on each side of thebull's head, holding on by the horn, or by the ear if he is hornless, with
rein - rope in the ring with such force as to tear the ring through the nose ; but this is an abuse of the use of the rope, which should be slackened, and the animal relieved from pain, as often and until he learns to yield to the slightest motion of the rope. On first trying to lead a bull by the ring, the drover, who should always be the cattleman thathascharge of bim, in whom the bull will place more con
one hand, and keeping out the nose by fidence than in any other person , should supporting the jawswith the other. The not endeavour to pull the animal along operator having theiron rod given him by after himself, but allow him to walk on
an assistant, heated in the fire just red while he remains at his side, or goes be enough to see the point in daylight, he bind him, with the rope in bis band.
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
182
While so following , to relieve the animal animal attempts to move away. The rein as much as practicable of the weight of the rope is fastened to the ringedend e. Tho rope upon the nose, the drover should cost of such a holder is 4s . throw the middle of the rope over the bull's back , and retain a hold of its end. Should the bull offer to step backwards, a slight tap on the shank with a stick will prevent him ; and should be at
tempt to run forward, a mere check by
3824. The leading -rein is best fastened to a ring or holder by Fig. 317. means of a spring-hook swivel, such as fig. 317. The movable part a is
jointed at d , and kept in its place by the spring
the rope will cause him to slacken his pace. On no account should the drover attempt to struggle with the bull on the first occa
behind it. When the hook is desired to be at
sion ; on the contrary, he should soothe and pacify him, and endeavourto inspire him
tached to the ring, the
with confidence in himself and the rope,
thumb presses on a ,which
and to show him that he will receive no
yields, and allows the ring
hurt if he will butwalk quietly along. A bull soon learns what is intended for him
to be taken in the circular void of the hook . The
when he is properly dealt with ; but, if tor mented merely that the drovermay show his power over him , it may be a long
rein rope b is spliced on · the end of the ring of the
time, if ever, before he will learn to
hook . This ring, turning upon the swivel c, pre
behave quietly when led.
vents the rope twisting. With such a book a lead
ing rope can be attached
3823. A useful instrument for leading
a bull by occasionally, when he has not
and released from the
been ringed, or for leading a cow to the
bull's ring in much less
bull at some distance , or for taking away
time and with more ease
any single beast, and retaining a power over it, is what is named the bullock holder . It consists of iron in two parts jointed, fig. 316, where a is the joint
than any sort of tying.
Fig. 316.
3825. A bull is never in a better position for
which permits the two
serving cows than when
parts to open as far
grazing with them in the SWIVELLED SPRING-field, (2233.) I believe HOOK. it to be a fact, that a bull
as to allow the two small balls at 6 to em
brace the nostrils and which is constantly amongst cows in a take a gentle hold of field never teases or abuses them , likeone the septum by means
taken to them for the occasion out of his
of thepinching screw own house . But a bull can only be left in C. This form of bullock-holder allows the
the field when he is intended to serve all the cows. It may be necessary, however,
course adopted for the improvement points b to be screwed in the to every degree of of stock, that different bulls shall serve tightness until they particular cows, in which case no single bull meet ; and in my opi can have access to them all, and cannot
nion, is so far objecTHE BULLOCK - HOLDER. tionable, as the screwing may be carried, bya rash hand, to hurt the animal severely when the instrument
be grazed in thesame field. When therefore a bullgoes amongst cows he is usually quite safe to approach, and is quiet within the fence; but one is always troublesome by
is moved in the least degree to either himself in a paddock or field, or even
side. Another form I have used, and ap- amongst oxen, and such is his desire to be prove of, which never allows the two knobs with the cows, that few fences are able to 6 to be screwed closer than just to embrace
retain him .
He is constantly restless,
the septum of the nose, from which the often bellows, especially where he can snuff holder swings at ease, whilst it holds the the cows at a distance. In such circum nose with sufficient firmness whenever the
stances he should either be confined to his
SUMMER TREATMENT OF BULLS.
183
hammel or byre, and supported on cut should never be allowed to herd together, forage of some kind, or allowed to be with as they will inevitably fight; and a serious
the cows he is to serve in a separate field bull-fight is a terrific sight, seldom ter minating before the infliction of severe
from the rest.
injuries on both combatants. 3826. When confined , bulls, like watch dogs always kept on the chain, dis-
3829. Bulls can serve a large number of like the approach of any one but their cows in a season , amounting to 60; but
keeper; and even a keeper has been known where a bull is confined to the service of to fall a victim to his resentment of cows on the owner's farm , he will be re
others. Some bulls become so prone to mischief, when constantly confined, that they will attempt to run at every person, when brought out of the house to serve a cow — the presence, or smell of the cow in heat apparently having so maddening an effect upon them as to render them reck-
less. Air and daylight together seem to have an intoxicating effectupon them. I have observedthat Alderney bulls are par-
stricted to a much smaller number, as few farmers of the mixed husbandryhave above 20 breeding cows, with a few heifers, though most permit the service of a certain number of cows of the neighbourhood. 3830. When bulls gain premiums at agricultural shows, a common condition imposed upon them is, to serve a certain number of cows in a prescribed district.
ticularly reckless in such circumstances. The number of the cows is generally re Besides the rope or chain in the ring, a stricted to 60, and the fee for service is
safe precaution for the keeper, in such a case, is to have a stout stick about 6 feet long, with a swivelled spring - book, like fig. 317,on its end to fasten into the ring, which gives him a better command over the ring than the rope merely ; and it also enables him to keepthe bull off to a certain distance, and to prevent his making a rush without giving warning of his intention by pushing the stick. A mode recommended of taming a savage bull when at liberty,
fixed at from 10s. 6d. to a guinea each, besides a small gratuity to the keeper of the bull. The bull is kept at a convenient station, and not travelled, the cows being brought to him. 3831. On carse farms it is not necessary to
keep bulls ;the number of cows being kept for the
purpose of merely giving milk tothefarmer's houseand the servants, itismore convenient to purchase cows giving milk than to keep them,
and put them to the bull.
consists of the action of an apparatus,
attached to the point of one of the horns, 3832. On farms in the neighbourhood of towns, by means of a short chain, that when the have cows to supply new milk to customers in
which pulls the ring so tight in the nose the dairy husbandry is so far practised as tó
bull sets his head to use hishorns, its town; and thepractice istomilk the cowsaslong as they give milk profitably, and feed them , and
action immediately causes him desist from purchaseothers new calvedor about to calve, it.*
rather than to put them to the bull. Bulls are unnecessary in such a case .
3827. Bulls often display a natural
3833. On farms distant from towns practising fondness for calves. A calf ofmine, afflict other than the mixed husbandry few cows may
ed with scouring, lay for the most part of be kept,and these more for thepurpose of supply the day in the cow pasture from weakness.
ing milk than for breeding ; nevertheless they are
Whenever the proper medicine for its not sold every year,calves being taken from them state was brought into the field, the bull and fed as veal, forwhich purpose the cows are came and watched the proceeding with kept in calf, and bulls are required. interest, and on the calf being left, went to
3834. On pastoral farms bulls arealways kept
it as if to examine whether or not it had to serve the breeding cows, and their numberis sustained injury, and then went his way. in proportion tothe extentof the breeding stock. He was often seen licking the calf with his The cowsbringing uptheir calves at their feet, bulls accompany them in the pasture, and tongue, and persuading it to rise to its feet. the attend them as they require their services. So promiscuous is the intercourse of the bulls with 3828. Bulls that have served cows the females in the herds of upland pastures, that
* Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. iv. p. 559.
184
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
many of the queysare in calf as well as thecows ; tity reserved for the use of thehouse will milk by the time the cows go to grass, pastoral husbandry , that no lotofuplandqueys the
and so much uncertainty attendsthis portionof allow . The eldest calves are off the sweet can be purchased at the fairs in autumn with assurance that they are not in calf. The assur
and receive skimmed -milk with lythax
ancemay be given, because the owner does not ( 2278) amongst it, and cut swedes and know to the contrary, and the risk is run bythe hay, until the grass be ready. The most purchasers, very few of whom escape disappoint- convenient grass-field at first for calves is a ment. contiguous paddock, from which they 3835. On pastoral farms in which sheep alone should be brought into the court for a few
are bred, bullsare useful to keep the cows in nights, and receive turnips and hay until calfthat are required tosupplymilk to the the grass has safely passed through them, people onthe farm ; and such farmsaretoo far and the weather prove sufficiently mild the farmers to purchase cows in milk, just and and dryfor them to lie out all night on the always as they are wanted. grass. The youngest calves now leave their cribs R , and pass a few days in the 3836. Dairy farms, whether large or small, court k Plate II., until accustomed to the
removed from towns to make it convenient for
requirebulls,which are generally fully employed airand sun — the latter readily blistering
in summer at home.
their ears — before they are put into the
3837. Among the instances of extraordinary paddock during the day, where they then trials, those in which bulls were placed at the receive their diets of milk, and are brought bar, convicted and sentenced, are not the least into the court at night until the tempe a man, curious : -" In 1314, a bull having bebrought , waskilled
by tossinghim with his horns
rature permit them to lie out all night
fore the judges in the province of Valois, and
on the grass. In weaning the youngest
indicted asa criminal, and,after several witnesses calves, the milk should be gradually had given evidence, it was condemned to be taken from them, without giving any hanged . This sentence was confirmed by an other food but grass, until they entirely order of the parliament, and carried into effect.
pig,which depend upon it.
And we are told that an unfortunate pig, which
chanced to kill a child in Burgundy , was in like
3839. The older calves may be 4 months samepunishment." * I have heard of a shepherd's old before they areesweaned ; butasrthe season
manner solemnly tried in court , and suffered the
dog having been condemned in Scotland along ofgrass approach , the younge ones may withhis master ,for assisting himin avery artful be weaned atanearlier age, being seldom manner to steal sheep on many occasions . ON THE WEANING OF CALVES .
indulged with milk for more than 13 weeks. But it should never be forgotten, that the first month's good milk to a calf is of much greater importance to its future
3838. We left the calves in the court k growth and health, than at any period be Plate II., receiving the treatment most yond the 13 weeks, supported on a stinted proper for them, until the period should allowance of inferior milk, and the reason
arrive for weaning them from milk and for the generous treatment is given below , other food, and causing them to maintain wherethe functions of the calf's stomach themselves upon grass, (2288) and ( 2289. ) is explained. That period having arrived, we must now proceed to the consideration of the best 3840. There are parts of Ireland where mode of weaning them . It should not calves are brought up on butter-milk and
exceed, in the latest case, one month after gruel, after the first 8 days they have re the cows have been on grass — that is, by ceived sweet milk, and it is alleged that
the end of June ; for a calf later weaned they thrive well on that beverage. This than that period, has been too late brought is possible, but they will thrive much better into the world to be worth belonging to on sweet- milk .
the standing stock of a farm . As cows increase in milk after the grass has safely 3841. By the time all this has bappen passed through them, the latest calvesed, say by the middle of July, the pasture should have as large an allowance of new in the paddock will bave becometoo bare, milk, three times a day, as the small quan- and the whole lot of calves should then be * Forsyth's Hortensius, p. 267.
WEANING OF CALVES.
185
taken to good pasture, where they will canal so slowly as to allow it gradually to pass the three firststomachs through a compara havea fullbite;and nothing can be more by narrow channel into the fourth stomach, injurious to their future welfare than to tively which is the only one, as it were, necessary to allow them to fall away in condition im- perform the digestion required at this early age. mediately after weaning, which they will if, however, as is sometimes customary, a large assuredly and rapidly do, if not put on the quantity of milkis poured into the calf imme the best grass ; and from a loss of condition
diately afterbirth,or if atonce allowed todrink
from the pail, which it very readily learns thus occasioned, it will be very difficult freely to do, then it will swallow as much in two to recover them during the whole season . minutes as would probably require 15 minutes The best pasture for them is where the to take in by the act of sucking. The consequence white clover most abounds.
3842. Calves may be grazed amongst
is, that the narrow æsophagal passage , leading through the three first stomachs, does not admit the milk as fast as it is swallowed, and that fluid
is, from timeto time, transmitted into the small
cows, or young cattle. In their herding, rumen ,which continues to descend according to those which have been brought up and the amount collected . The rumen, however, it is in so young an animal, is not fitted for very weaned together, will be the chiefest com seen active functions, and the milk retained there, be
panions for the greater part of the season .
ing exposed to the warmth and motion of the
organ , undergoes certain chemical changes, which 3843. Calves which have been brought up at
formation of its coagulable principle the pail, and in the earliest period oftheir exis- end into inthethecheesy masses before noticed . These tence, are subject to a complaint called gasteritis, collectionsact as irritants to the parts containing or inflammation of the stomach. Its symptoms them ; inflammation is the result, and the exten
are the distension of the paunch, the inner mucous lining of which is inflamed, and it mostly contains
sion of this, with its consequences, causes death.”
a quantity of dirty, yellow, offensive fluid, and
3845. The obvious remedy is prevention. Give frequently whitishmatteroften larger than a person's fist, theyoungcalfmilk ,notless than composed of the coagulated ingredients of the thrice a -day, and in small quantities at a time,
milk, the density of which is nearly equal to that of cheese. None of the cheesy matter is found perhaps an imperial pint. Let it take time to
in the intestines, and but rarely in any ofthe drink it,andas the quantityshould be small,it stomachs except the first orpaunch. Loathing should be the richer,that is the pure milk . As of the food ensues, and at last totalsuspension thestomach increases in size the quantityof food should be increased ; and in time other kinds of of the appetite. The animal prefers to stand, and food should be added to the necessarily limited when it lies down, it is on its right side, the left quantity of milk the calf gets to drink as it eructa and teeth of the being swelled . Grating tions ensue. The stools are mostly thin, of a attains size and age.* whey-like appearance , and small in quantity. The animal shows uneasiness by looking round 3846. Calves, after being weaned, are subject, to the left side, and kicks at the belly with the towards the end of summer, to a disease com hind legs. A stupor at last comes on the animal monly called the joint-fellon , which, when oxen standing with its head in a corner , or pushing take it upon the loins, is named the chine-fellon. It is nothing else than acute rheumatism, ending with it against the wall . 3844. The remedial measures will be best un-
in a resolution to low fever; and so severe is it at times upon calves, that they cannot bear to be
derstood after hearing the rationale of the dis-
moved when lying stretched out all their length
ease as explained by Mr Barlow , veterinary sur-
upon the ground . Were sheds erected in the
geon in the Veterinary College of Edinburgh.“ In the adult ruminant," he observes, “ the to prepare the coarser particles of vegetable food
fields for cattle to retire into, whenever a dash of rain comes in the evening of a cold day, even in summer, this disease would perhaps never occur. Its treatment is removal to the courts and sheds
for the action of the fourth or true digestive
of the steading amongst straw, bleeding, mode
first three stomachs are of great size, and serve
stomach. The young calf, however, is not physi- rate purging, with fomentation, and embrocations cally fitted for living on solid food ; but, like the of liquid blister, forcibly and long rubbed in , on
youngof other mammalia ,is naturally nourished the swelled joints. by milk , a fluid which needs not the action of the 3847. Another effect of the same febrile affec first three stomachs to render it fit for digestion and absorption . In the calf, at the birth , conse- tion in calves in autumn is the quarter ill or evil. quently, and for some time afterwards, these “ Its characteristic symptoms are general dis three first or preparatory stomachs are infinitely turbance of the circulation , and feeble, rapid smaller in proportion to the fourth, than they pulse, weakness, prostration of strength ; deter are in more advanced life, being, in fact, as yet mination of blood to particular, but in different but rudimentary organs. The calf is also natu- instances and epidemics, very different, parts ; rally adapted for taking in its foodly sucking, a producing pain, and manifesting a tendency to process by which the milk enters the alimentary inflammation, but of a degenerate kind, so that
* North British Agriculturist for 2d July 1849.
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
186
the very texture of the tissue becomes disor- lost a calf from this disease. The quantity given ganised. The progress of the disease is often rapid ,and the result very fatal. In some cases the lungs or heart are attacked , in others the
depends on the wetness or dryness of the season, and the strength of the calves. The drier the
season, and the stronger the calves, the quantity
liver, bowels, or even some external part of the is the greater. From 1 lb. to2 lb. a-day to each body . ” Its immediate cause is plethora, or ful- calf, as it increases in size, will suffice . ness of blood in the system , which shows its effects in this manner: — “ When the supply of food is greater than the exigencies of the system ON THE PASTURING OF FARM- HORSES require," as Professor Dick observes, “ an ani mal usually becomes fat, but still may be toler SUMMER.
IN
ably healthy. When, however, a sudden change is made from poor to rich feeding, not fatness but
formed than the system can easilydispose of, and it becomes oppressed. The effect is often witnessed in cattle and sheep,which, after indulging fora time in luxuriant pasture, take what is
3849. From the time of the sowing of the oat seed until the completion ofthe turnip seed, the horses may be said to have enjoyed no rest ; and , in the long hours of labour in a period ofnot less than
called a shot of blood . All at once they become very ill ; some part of the body swells, becomes
14 or 15 weeks, the best food that can be
plethora may be the consequence ; more blood is
puffy, as if containing air, and in two or three devised to support them in strength and hours theanimal is dead,from the quarter-evil condition will not have prevented them
already described . Upon dissection , a large falling off in condition . The time, how quantity of black and decomposed blood is found in the cellular membrane, which during life was distended ."** This disease is of frequent occur .
ever, has now arrived when compara tive leisure awaits them for a while - to
rence on farms where fine stockare bred, and enjoy for several weeks to come the food most congenial to their taste -- the palatable green food and the much-loved pasture.
from the above description of its nature, there is no wonder that the best calves first fall victims to it. As its name implies, the disease attacks
the hind -quarter, and its effects are as sudden as described .
Since its cause is known, calves
3850. The usual treatment of farm
should not be put at once on strong rank foggage horses in summer is to make them lie out or aftermath - which is the renewed growth of in the pasture -field all night, and give
grass after it hadbeen cut forhay or forage- them cut grass between the yokings in same reason, should they,when in low condition, the stable. Forage is then supplied them,
from a comparatively bare pasture; nor, for the
be put on rank foggage; the transition, both as
because the time is too short to fill them
regards the pasture and the state of the calves, selves with grass on pasture ; but where should be gradual. the first yoking is over by 9 or 10 o'clock 3848. As a preventive, some farmers introduce in the forenoon, as on the Borders, the a seton into the dewlap of all their calves before horses are put on pasture until the after putting them on foggage in autumn. The use of noon yoking at 1 o'clock ; which plan the seton is to produce counter-irritation . The
saves the trouble of cutting and reserving passed under a portion of the skin by a seton grass for them. The grass thus allotted to needle ; the ends may be tied together, and the the horses is cut by the ploughmen, who cord may be moved every other day from side to each take the duty for a week by turns,
seton consists of a piece
tape or soft cord
side,being previously lubricatedwith oilofturpen- and he quits the field-labour in time to cut tineorblister-plaster, and in this way the amount the requisite quantity and cart it to the of irritation may be regulated. As to the cure, I stable ; and the man who works the mare believe every one is unavailing after the disease has been observed to exist ; but as a remedial
measure applied by anticipation, large blood
that has a foal is a very proper one to do this work. It is no part of his duty to
letting with purging of repeated doses will reduce supply the horses' racks in the stable with the plethoric tendency of the animal system , grass, except those of his own. The load
Perhapsa cribful ofhay,withsomesalt,placed of grass is usually emptied on the ground in a foggage field, would not be a bad alterative for calves to resort to at times, in order to modify
near the stable door, which is a dirty and
the effects of the succulenceof the rank after. slovenly practice. No doubt, it is better math. But the best pretentive is the administra- for the grass to keep it fresh in the open tion of oilcake. Mr John Wilson, Edington air than to put it into a house ; but it might
Mains, Berwickshire, gives hiscalves oilcake be emptied into a crib in a convenient towards the middle and latter end of the grazing season ,
and before they are puton aftermath, and shady place near the stable, or, what is
since he has followed this practice he has never
best of all, allowed to remain in the cart
* Dick's Manual of Veterinary Science, p. 11 and 88 .
PASTURING FARM -HORSES.
187
that brought it, out of which the men can bave grass in summer, as the best course as easily take it as from any other place of physic he can bave ; but it is much or receptacle. more convenient to give him cut grass in a court or hammel than to send him to
3851. The stable is the usual place pasture, in which he will be with con where horses receive their forage; but a siderable difficulty caught when wanted better place, in every respect, for room , when in company with young horses ; air, and freedom , is the hammels M, and if he is with the work -horses, be Plate II., and Plate I., which are now un- will feel lonely when they leave him dur occupied and cleared out of the manure , ing the day, and will hang about the gate
each hammel accommodating a pair of of the field in their absence. horses. Forage may here not only be given 3856. It is surprising with what con to horses between the yokings,but at night, if desired ; and little straw is requiredfor stancy a work -horse will eat at pasture.
litter, as the part only under the roof is His stomach being very small in propor occupied as thenight apartment, although tion to the bulk of his body, the food re more litter will be required in the hammels quires to be well masticated before it is
when the horses are fed on cut grass than swallowed ; and as long as that process is proceeded with while the grass is cropped, no large quantity can pass into the sto 3852. From 3 to 3} months, from the mach at a time. The horse, like all ber
in the stable, when on corn and hay.
beginning of June to the middle of October, bivorous animals, grazes with a progressive at night on pasture. Work -horses suffer fore he crops it. His mobile lips seize is as longtime as farm - horses should lie out motion onwards, and smells the grass be
much from chilly nights, and the cold then lays the foundation of diseases, such as rheumatism , costiveness, stiffness of the limbs. The aftermath may be good pasture after the middle of October for the interval
and gather the stem and leaves of the grass, which the incisors in both jaws bite through with the assistance of a lateral twitch of the head. When the grass is rank he crops the upper part of it first, and
of work at noon, and the second cutting when short, bites very close to the ground. of clover will last long enough for suppers until it is time to betake to the stable 3857. Horses should not graze amongst altogether. sheep, as both bite close to the ground ;
but horses, particularly work ones, often 3853. Young horses are put to pas- injure the sheep that come in their way,
ture during the day as soon as they can either by a sly kick, or by seizing the wool obtain a bite, and should be brought, at with their teeth. night, into their hammels until the grass has passed completely through them; after 3858. During the hard work of the seed-time, horses are, in some seasons more than in which they should lie out all night in a farm others - the wet and warm seasons--subject to field which offers them the protection of a have galled shoulders and backs, which, when shed . The work -horses don't care for a not attended to, are apt to produce trouble shed on pasture, being too much occupied somesores. The skin not only becomes abraded with eating all night to mind it. But in by the collar and saddle, but the flesh irritated up, an the irritation is keptdifficult andinflamed; and iftakes rainy weather they should be kept in the ichorous place, which is discharge hammel, on cut grass, rather than be ex heal without making the horse rest from work. posed to the rain in the field all the night, When a saddle gall is observed, the harness should be looked to, and the pressing points as also on a rainy Sunday. which have caused the sore should be relieved. 3854. A good watering -pool is essential A lotion should then be used to anoint the bruised parts every night, after they have been to every pasture -field occupied by horses washed with warm soap and water, and dried
lotion is made in this clothhot. The with a :softTake of every age, which are as fond as cattle manner lime shells of the bulk of 2
are to stand in the water in the midst of a
and pour upon them 2 quarts of cold pool, to avoid the torment of flies, though quarts, water ; and after they have intimately com
they drink from a trough quite willingly. 3855. The farmer's saddle -horse should
bined, pour off the liquid into a dish. Add to the liquid 5 wine-glassfuls of linseed oil, and 2 ounces of sugar of lead, dissolved in a little water.
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
188
Stir them together, and then bottle and cork up the lotion for use.
After the bruises have been
colour clear yellowish -brown: thorax inclining to grey ; abdomen rust-brown with a tinge of yel
washed in the evenings, anoint them with this low; wings whitish ; and legs yellowish. The liquid with a feather until the wounds heal.
antennæ are inserted in the cavity of the face .
The eyes are equally distant in both sexes ;
3859. Work -horses, when on grass,are subject mouth either entirely wanting, or consisting to few distempers, the principal beingannoyance from a host of insects ; and amongst these the common Horse-fly or Cleg, and the Bot- fly, are
merely of an indistinct line oropening.
This
insect takes no nourishment of any kind ; in fact,
the alimentary canal has no opening at its an terior extremity. It flies in company, producing derived from the Danish klaeg. Hæmatopota plu a humming sound. “ The female having selected vialis, represented in fig . 318, is so well known, the horse to which her treasure is to be intrust that a particular de- ed,” says Mr Duncan, “ she continues to hover Fig. 318. scription of it seems about for a short time till the egg be propelled
the most troublesome.
The cleg or gleg, a term
unnecessary. It may through the oviduct, and placed in the pincers at
besaid generallyof the extremity ofthe anal tube. Thus prepared,she the tribeof Tabani- makes a suddendescent upon the horse -- her body dæ, of which this is carried nearly in a perpendicular direction, and one, that they ap-
pear in June, and come into full force They in autumn. THE CLEG OR GLEGHÆMA TOPOTA PLUVIALIS .
the ovipositor curved forwards -- and deposits the egg upon a hair, to which it instantly adheres by means of a glutinous matter secreted along with
are more plentiful in
it. This process,which is performed with such expedition that the fly can scarcely be said to
the southernthan in
alight on the horse, is repeated at intervals till
the northern parts of thewhole of the mature eggs are discharged .” . the country. They These eggs,which are very numerous, 400 or 500 delight in warm and sultry weather; are most being sometimes placed on a singlé horse, are active on the wing during the day, and therefore somewhat pouch -shaped, and chagreened with most troublesome to horses and cattle when they transverse and longitudinal striæ ,as seen at b.
stand most in need of repose. Theyareparticu- Underthe guidance of an instinctwhich cannot larly excited and eager for blood when the atmo- be sufficiently admired, the fly almost invariably
sphere is in a warm and humid state, such asit attaches her eggs to some partof the fore-quar usually is after a thunder shower ; and it is this cir-
ter of the horse, the inside of the knee and the
cumstance which has obtained thespecific nameof shoulder being the spots most commonly selected, pluvialis for the cleg. A remarkable fact in reference to this species is, that the males are
so as to be within the reach of his mouth ; for he is himself to be made the unconscious instrument
seldom seen, their numbers seeming to be remark- of conveying them into his stomach, wherealone
be brought to maturity,the tempera they can horse's ably few in proportionto those of the other sex; ture stomach being high
and they appear to subsist entirely on the juices
of a
as
as 102
of flowers, and, in conformity to their innoxious
Fahrenheit.
habits, the organs of the mouth are much less
the mouth, the eggs are not necessarily lost, for
developed than in the female.
horses are in the habit of licking each other, and a horse free from bots may thus receive them
3860. Another pest to the horse is the Great Spotted Horse-bot, Gasterophilus Equi, seen at
from another.
Even when beyond the reach of
“ When the eggs are mature, "
continues Mr Duncan, “ it would seem that the
their appearance very soonafter larvæaremake a, fig. 319. It is about7 linesinlength; general they touched by the tongue, the warmth and Fig. 319.
themoisture both contributing to their immediate development. Indeed, if thelarvæ were not dis closedbefore reaching thestomach, orvery shortly after, the eggs would very soon pass into the alimentary canal. The larvæ fix themselves by hooks to the inner tissue of the stomach, where
they remain in security , uninjured by the power ful action of the gastric juice, and enjoying the
warmth of a tropical climate. " A small group of these larvæ adhering to the coat of the stomach are represented at c. Their colour is pale reddish yellow . Their only food seems to be the huinour secreted by the internal membrane ofthe stomach , or it may be the chyme, the latter undergoing a
farther elaboration to adapt it to their system . Bots take up their quarters in the stomach in the
end of summer or autumn, and pass the whole winter and spring months there, without under going any change, save gradually enlarging and
advancing to maturity. When that is complete, b THE HORSE - BOT -- GASTEROPHILUS EQUI,
they cease to retain their hold, pass into the in
testinalcanal, and are ejected by the anus.
On
PASTURING FARM -HORSES.
189
account of the many ordeals which this insect has
land, is not so great a pest there as to horses on
to pass in its transformation , perhaps not l in 100
the Continent.
of the eggs ever arrive at the perfect state of fly. 3861. The Red -tailed Horse -bot, Gasterophilus
3864. Another fly, the Stemoxys calcitrans, is in sizeand markingsnot unlike the common house
hæmorrhoidalis, though only half the size of the Ay, Musca domestica. This insect attacks various preceding, is nevertheless a greater torment to
animals, as well as man himself, and becomes
the horse. The female parent fly deposits her
very troublesome in certain localities. It attacks
eggs on the lips of the horse; and this operation
the legs, and its punctures are attended with
isattended with so much pain, that no sooner great pain, especially in damp moist weather.f does it make him aware of the presence of the 3865. Another annoyance to horses is the fly, than he tosses his head and gallops off to a different part of the field ; or, if he has the oppor- forest- fly, Hippobosca equina, fig. 321 ; its an tennæ consist of a single tunity, betakes himself to the water, where his Fig. 321 . articulation , tubercular tormentor generally leaves him, having a peculiar Indeed all the tribe of
with 3 setæ at the extre
gad - flies have ; and, to avoid them , it is not un common to see numbers of cattle lying on the sea
mity. “ This insect,” says Mr Duncan, “ is generally
dislike to that element.
shore until the approach of the tide alone compels
distributed throughout, but
them to retire . When this fly succeeds in fixing
it is scarce in all the nor
an egg, the horse rubs his mouth against the
thern quarters, and does not seem to become abun THE HORSE FOREST- dant till we reach the
ground or upon his fore-legs in great agitation , frequently striking out with his fore-foot, which occasionally comes in contact with the jaw, and serves but to increase his irritation . The larvæ
are taken into the stomach, and fix themselves there, exactly in the same manner as the greater bot. When they reach the intestines they remain a long time, casting anchor again in the rectum, where they cause great uneasiness to the
FLY- HIPPOBOSCA
wooded districts of the cen
EQUINA .
tral counties of England . It flies with facility, but seldom appears on the wing except during brightsunshine. June, July, and August are the months it is in force. Its attacks are principally confined to horses. It
occasions no other harm than an extreme degree of irritation , and if the flies are numerous, the rendering his movements awkward. These bots animal is apt to become unmanageable. It in should occasionally be looked for in horses that sinuates itself by a sideling crab-like motion be have been out at grass the preceding year, at the neath the hair,and anchors itself to the skin by extremity of the anus. The only speedy remedy means of its large sharply - toothed claws. It for getting quit of them is in back -raking by also runs about among the roots of the hairs with horse, causing him to kick frequently, and even
great ease, creating an insufferable titillation,
the anus.
which is still more increased by the frequent in 3862. The more rare species are the Gastero- sertion of its proboscis into the pores of the skin. philus nasalis, salutiferus, and Clarkii. Mr The places to which it prefers attaching itself
Bracey Clark was of opinion that the presence of are the under side of the belly, beneath the tail, bots in no way injured the horse, but on the contrary, by stimulating the stomach, they tend to prevent cholic, gripes, and other indigestions
and on the under side of the jaws. The insect is so flat, tough , and unyielding, that it is by no
which affect the head of the horse and produce staggers. “ The appearance of exanthemous
ever, tenacious of life. It is said that horses
means easy to kill it by pressure, and it is,more long accustomed to its attacks,become,in some
eruptions on the skin ,” he says, “ and the forma- measure, indifferent to them ; those which have tion of local abscesses, from the same cause of never experienced this plague, which is enough partial irritation , often relieve a general disorder to render some animals almost frantic, may be of the system . The mucous membranes of the saved from it, according to M. Köllar, by the
skin possess this power,when irritated, in the following application : Take of mineral earth 8 most eminent degree, and to these the larvæ of oz., and of lard 1 lb., and make them into a salve.
the Æstri are applied. Irritating the membranes Fig. 320.
Some of this salve is to be rubbed on here and
there upon the hair, and worked in with a wisp
of the stomach in other animals would excite nausea and
of straw .
vomiting ; but the horse, not
washed off with warm water, in which brown
possessing this power , his sto-
soap has been dissolved. Care must be taken that the horse does not catch cold.. This insect and its allies are neither oviparous nor viviparous.
mach is peculiarly fitted for the stimulus of such animals." *
After 24 hours the salve is to be
The egg , when fecundated, descends from the 3863. An annoying insect of ovarium into a kind of matrix, consisting of a less importance, is the Chrysops large musculo -membranous bag, expressly de A HORSE - FLY- cæcutiens, fig. 320, whichis of signed for its reception, and analogous to the CHRYSOPS CÆCU- a bright colour, and though fre- uterus of mammiferous animals. The egg is here TIENS . quent in some parts of Eng. hatched ; and the larva passes its life and is con
* Clark's Essay on Bots, p. 40. + Quarterly Journal of Agrioulture,vol. x. p. 529-46. # Kollar's Treatise on Insects injurious to Gardeners, Foresters, and Farmers , Misses J. and M. Loudon's translation .
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
190
verted into a pupa in the same receptacle. When profitable and less wasteful mode of using the pupa iscompletely formed, it isthen extruded it than pasturing. Although the objec from the bodyof the mother in theformof a soft, tions contain much truth, they are thus white , oviform body. It soon changes its colour
to brown,thentoblack; and at the sametimethe expressed too generally to be true in all
skin becomes hard and strong,so much so as almost
cases. It is evidently impracticable to use
to resist the edgeof a knife. Out ofthis body mountain grass by soiling. Much cattle the insect makes its exit by a kind of lid . " and sheep must, therefore, be allowed
3866. Anthomyia meteorica is often trouble
to pasture ; and a great part of the summer
some to horses, by collecting in clouds round their headsin warm weather, andflitting about with a kind of jerking flight, and occasionally alighting on the lips and nostrils of the animal,
would elapse before the old grass of the low country would be fit for the operation of the scythe. What would become of the stock in the mean time ?
to his no small annoyance .*
3867. It is amusing to hear the cool manner 3870. The other grasses are the culti in which M. Boussingault speaks of permitting vated kinds, such as clover and ryegrass, the public sale of horse - flesh. " The flesh of and those on irrigated meadows. It is quite
thehorse,” hesays,“ is not generally used, or at possible to cut grass from water meadows are countries in which itisexposed for saleand by the time the Swedish turnips are cou commonly eaten. At Paris, indeed ,in times of sumed by the beginning of June, but scarcity, horse -flesh has been consumed in quantity. During the Revolution, a knacker ex
water meadows cannot be formed every where. The cultivated grasses are not
posed publicly for sale, in the Place de Grève, joints from the horses which he had killed, and the sale continued for three years without any
fit to cut by that time except, perhaps, in the neighbourhood of large towns, and a ill effect. In 1811 , a scarcity obliged the Pa- second cutting from themis not to be de risians to haverecourse tothesame kindof food; pended upon every season. What, again,
and is said, indeed, that the traffic in horse - flesh as an article of human sustenance is still con tinued to a very considerable extent in the French metropolis. At the present moment, a distin-
is to become of the stock in the mean time ?
3871. Other plants than clover and rye grass would requre to be cultivated to Duchatelet,has even proposed to legalise the sale support the stock until that period. Lu of horse - flesh as food forman . " + cerne and Italian ryegrass might be cul 3868. Nearer home a writer asserts, “ It is tivated for the purpose, but lucerne cannot generally supposed that when horses die, or are be generally cultivated in Scotland ; and guished writer on medical police, M. Pavent
killed, the carcasses are converted into food for before Italian ryegrass could be cultivated animals cats, or fortowild dogs, such is not thatmenageries, to statein the have grieve but we
everywhere, a different system of bus always the case; some portion of this food finds bandry would have to be adopted — the its way into the shops and is consumed ,when disguised, as sausages, the horse-flesh tending to give the peculiar redness observable in the Adjoining to the largest licensed sausages.
fourcourse shift - a system which could not be everywhere practised without the sup port of much more manure than most farms command. Plants that will produce both
horse -slaughter-house inthe city,is the principal late and early forage, in a late climate, sausage manufac tory in London, in Sharp's Alley, Smithfield . At the same spot where your olfactory nerves are disgusted with the stench of the knacker's yard, you may distinctly hear the noise of the sausage-machine, performing its work of amalgamation and deception.” #
are not easily found . 3872. In regard to the comparative
extent of ground required for soiling and pasturage, ithas been alleged to be 3 to 1 in
favour of soiling. For example, 33 head ON THE SOILING OF STOCK ON FORAGE
of cattle were soiled from 20th May to
the 1st of October 1815, on 17+ English acres, which would have required 50 acres 3869. Objections have been urged to pasture them . I would say, that any PLANTS.
against pasturing grass by any species 33 head of cattle that could be maintained of stock, inasmuch as soiling is a more on 173 acres of cutting grass, would as 身*
Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xi. p. 51-57 . # Inquiry intothe present state of Smithfield Cattle Market, p. 10. + Boussingault's Rural Economy - Law's translation, p. 629.
$ Sinclair's Code of Agriculture, p. 424, and Note, 354, p. 73.
SOILING STOCK ON FORAGE PLANTS .
191
easily be maintained on the same sort of at one time for want of cutting grass, the land on 33 acres of pasture — 1 acre of second cutting having entirely failed that
pasture being quite sufficient to maintain year, and the other forwant of straw for an ordinary -sized ox from May to October. litter. The straw would have been more So the proportion is reduced to 2 to 1 , economised in the stable than in the ham which I believe is near the truth.
3873. To cut grass, however, for all the cattle on a large farm , to lead it tothe steading, and to supply them with sufficient litter in summer, I consider an imprac-
mels ; but the stable at night, in summer,
even with open windows, ventilators, and no hay-loft, is insufferable ; and I am sure that my stables were more comfortably constructed for summer and winter use, than most in the country. The horses re
ticable thing, were it for nd other rea- quired much more straw to keep them dry son than that the crop of grain on most in the hammel, on cut grass ,than on straw farms cannot afford sufficient straw to and corn in the stable in winter.
litter stock the whole year ; and if the
sheep are included in the soiling system , adequate accommodation could not be provided them. The only way to treat them would be to soil them upon the bare land within burdles, as is common in many parts of England ; but such a practice would not suit the variable and wet part of
3875. Taking every untoward circum stance into consideration, they lead to the conviction that soiling on grass, on a large scale, is impracticable ; and until early growth, as well as a late after math and plenty of straw , are assured to the farmer every year, general soiling
the climate of Scotland. The objection to cannot be established, even on a moderate grazing, in that the manure of the animals is entirely lost, is not a valid one, because land constantly grazed will support stock for an indefinite length of time; and it
scale. On a small scale soiling might be practised with advantage, and it behoves every small farmer to make his grass go as far as possible.
would not do that, if the ground did not actually receive nourishment in lieu of the
3876. Where winter tares, crimson
grass taken from it. Dissipation of the dung dropped on pasture cannot be great, since no fermentation is ever observed in it. In dry weather the water is soon evaporated outof it, and in rainy weather the water dissolves it among the roots of the
clover, lucerne, or sainfoin, and at least two cuttings of red clover, can be cer tainly secured,as in the south of England they may be, in most seasons, soiling of cattle and horses may be conducted ,not without trouble, for the cutting of green
grass, converting itinto a state of good forageand carrying it to the steading is at liquid manure . The greatest waste of tended with muchlabour, but with advan dung is from the consumption of it by in- tage to the manure heap, as well to fatten sects, and yet these leave their bodies in ing cattle as work -horses; but the system
the ground in return when they die. The cannot be systematically carried on in objection is thus purely theoretical. Cut Scotland, for want of a regular supply of grass and carry it off every year, and see green forage. Winter taresrarely survive how long time will elapse ere it can no the winter with a sufficiency of plants to
longer be cutuntilmanure be again applied make a crop. Lucerne is too delicate, and of itself show that the dung dropped on been proposed, and it withstands the to the ground. Does not this circumstance so is the crimson clover. Winter rye has
pasture is not entirely lost; and that the winter very well, and would perhaps be
land derives an advantage from pastur- fit to cut in May ; but stock are not fond age that it can receive in no other way, of the herbage of the cereal plants. The such as the fresh state of the urine dis-
Italian ryegrass makes an earlier start, in
charged upon and absorbed by it.
spring, than any forage plant we have;
3874. I have often thought that the work - horses might be supported in the steading, night and day, upon cut grass. I have tried the experimentmyself twice, in the hammels, and failed in both cases ;
and, insome situations, it may be cut by the end of May, and the first cutting would continue until the red clover was ready in June. In the former part of the year it might supply green forage, and also later, with due attention for its pro
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
192
duction. In Scotland, the difficulty of b, is made either curved , to suit the sweep soiling commences in August, when the second cutting of red clover fails ; and, even when it does not entirely fail, the crop is too light to give an adequate cutting for a length of time. The Italian ryegrass should, therefore, come in also at that season, in case of the failure of the red clover ; but it cannot last during the autumn when the cold nights commence in
of the instrument by the arms round the body, as in the figure, or straight - and the suitableness of both for work you shall learn when we come to consider harvest work. The curved sned is usually made of willow, which, being so shaped in hot water, retains its shape on becoming cold. Another form of sned is that of the cradle, which consists of two pieces of wood, one
September, and certainly cannot be de- inserted into the other. Bent sneds cost pended on until the turnips are ready. from 1s. 3d . to Is. 6d. each, straight ones Tares might come in at this season, but 1s. each . The straight are made of any they grow so fast then that portions sown sort of wood ; I have seen good ones of at successive periods run their courses larch. to seed faster than they can be con sumed ; and towards the latter end of the 3878. Scythes are of various kinds :
autumn they are unfitted as a forage plant. Perhaps the maize, or Indian corn, as it is more commonly called, might be sown at such a season , according to its early or late nature, as to afford a good cutting of herbage late in autumn, until the turnips are ready for use. Although the maize
the common kind keeps its edge but a short time, and in the long run is, I believe, more expensive than the patent kind, which consists of a steel plate with two flat rods of iron, riveted on one of its edges, and which plate will continue to cut keenly until it iswom to the back. The
may be regarded asa cereal plant, its berb- length of the blade of scythes varies from age is more palatable to stock than that 28 inches to 46 inches, and the price of the of other grain plants, on account of the common kind varies between these lengths large proportion of saccharine matter it from 2s. 4d. to 3s. 3d. each,and the patent contains.
from 38. 2d. to 4s. 8d. each. There are, besides these, other kinds termed crown ,
.3877. Grass is cut with the common labelled, and extra -warranted scythes. scythe, Fig. 322. which
18
3879. The blade of a scythe is mounted
well in this manner : - the sned is furnished known an with an iron ring at the end a, fig. 322, to
SO
imple- which the blade is attached ; the projecting ment, that
stud at the but- end of the blade is embed
a particu- ded Alush into the sned, by taking away a lar
de- portion of the wood ; and the ring is then
scription slipped over it, and held tight in its posi of it seems tion by an iron wedge, driven between the
unneces- ring and the sned . The peculiar position sary. The which the blade bears to the sned is de
choice of termined by setting off the length of the scythes, blade a c, along the sned from a to d , and the which is the place for the handle of the manner of right band, and the same length from d
mounting to c fixes the point of the scythe, so that a dc formsan equilateral triangle ; the blade subjects standing at an angle of 60° with the sned . them, are
c worth at- Theory would advise the placing of the tending planeof the blade parallel with the ground, f
to .
The when the scythe is held for cutting ; but
handle, or practice requires the cutting edge to be a sned THE PATENT SCYTHE WITH BENT SNED,
or
little elevated from the ground, and above
sneath, the back of the blade which sweeps along fig. 322, a the surface of the ground ; and the reason
-
SOILING STOCK ON FORAGE PLANTS
for keeping the edge elevated is, that it is
193
apt to run into the ground when swung parallel with it, and the scythe is worked with greater labour, as the stems of the plants are cut by the blade at right angles against them ; whereas, on the edge being
3882. On using the scythe to cut a forage crop with the greatest ease to the workman, a narrow swathe should be taken at each stroke of the scythe, as also a short sweep. To meet both these condi tions, the blade of the scythe should be
set upwards, it cuts the stems easily in an
short.
oblique direction. The blade is still fur ther secured in its position by the grass3883. Green forage should always, if nail f, which is hooked by one end into a possible, be cut in a dry state, and should holein the blade, and nailed through an not be loug cut before being used , nor lie
eye by the other end to the sned ; the great long in thefield before it iscarried home. use of this nail being to prevent the cut When obliged to be cut in a damp state , it plants becoming entangled between the may lie a while in the gwathe to let the Fig. 323.
bladeand the sned. The left- water evaporate, which itwill do in warm hand handle e is placed to suit weather even in a damp day. the convenience of the work man , the usual distance from
3884. Green forage is given to cattle
the right hand one being the and horses in the natural state, or mixed
length of his arm from the with straw or hay . When in a very damp
elbow to the points of the state , a mixture ofeither will tend to pre fingers.
vent fermentation in the green food . When hay and forage are mixed together in equal
3880. Scythes are sharped with strickles and stones. The strickles, fig .323,are made of fine sand embedded in an ad-
parts, the mixture makes an excellent fodder for fattening cattle. Such a mix ture is much used in Holland for horses, whether employed in the field or on the
hesive medium , spread on the road . surface of a piece of square or flat wood, 15 inches long, hav3885. The clover crop growing closely
ing a bandle, and cost 6d. together prevents the growth of weeds They are used to amongst it, an occasional field thistle only,
each .
smoothen the edge after the or broad - leaved dock, maintaining its ex
stone, and serve of them- istence. But one of that class of parasiti A SCYTHE STRICKLE .
selves, for a time, to keep the cal pests, the dodders, sometimes annoys edge keen ; and are always the crop to a considerable extent.
The
carried at the upper end of the sned atb, species which annoys the clover has been fig. 322, by a T -headed nail a, and spike named the Cuscuta Trifolii, the clover dodder ; and its nature and habits are
b, fig. 323.
precisely the same as that which attacks 3881. Scythe-stones, fig. 324, are 14 or the flax plant, as already described in
15 inches long, tapering in shape , and of sufficient thickness to fill the grasp of the hand. They are either of a round form , a , or
(3117.) Professor Henslow well describes the clover dodder 'as resembling fine closely -tangled wet catgut.” Of the ef fects of the Orobanche major and minor, the greater and less broom -rape ,another parasitical pest to the clover in Flanders, square, b, and are Dr Radcliffe says, “ The moment it estab
Fig. 324.
66
composed of the same lishes itself at the root, the stem and leaf sort of sandstone as of the clover, deprived of their circulating grindstones are, and juices, fade intoa sickly hue, which the cost 4d. each . They farmer recognises, and,with true Flemish
are only occasionally industry, roots up, and destroys the latent b SCYTHE STONES , VOL. II .
used at the landings, enemy. If this be done in time, and with to set a new edge on great care, the crop is saved ; if not, the the blade.
infected soil refuses to yield clover again N
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
194
for many years." * And such weeding our common culture ,we shall fail — it is to be requires very great care; for, if a part of a accounted for in the fine preparation, and extra Flemishhusbandry.
stein or one seed is left in the ground, the ordinarycleanlinessofthe The ground is repeatedly ploughed , pest will rise again, and renew its de- manured ; no weed structive attack .
and well
suffered to exist, and the
clover plant can tiller uninterruptedly , and pos sess itself of the entire surface.” I
3886. The crop of clover varies much, 3889. It is a well -ascertained fact in hus according to the nature of the season. In bandry, thatcultivatedon when the thesameground, clover plant has itbeen not a wet warm one it is very bulky; in a frequently
dry one much lighter, but more nutritious. only fails toproduce as heavy a crop as it did A crop of clover is a great oneif it yield before,but it ceases to appear. Whenafailure 300 stones of bay, of 22 lb. each, equal to
takes place,theland issaid to be clover-sick ,
2 tons 18 cwt. 104 lb. the acre ; and as and explanations on scientific principles have
Dr R. D. Thomson states, that 100 ofhay
been evidently given of the ;8 butthethekind failure connexion with has no phenomenon or
is equivalent to 387} of grass,+ it follows quantityofmanure employed, since it most sen thatsuch a crop of clover should weigh 8 sibly occursin the neighbourhood oflarge towns, tons, 16 cwt. 88 lb. the acre . The second
where the four-course rotation is followed, where
manured with extraneous land is addition matters farmyard dung, and cutting is seldom as heavy as the first, the in heavily tothe
though in some seasons it is, and even where bone-dust is but scantily applied as a heavier; but if we assume the two cuttings manure. The crop has been recovered in some
as in the neighbourhood of Dundee, localities, to yield 16 tons, the quantity will not be by extending the members ofthe rotation of some seasons a third cutting is obtained; cropping, and making the repetition of the clover under the mark in most seasons. But in
frequent along with thesame kind and quan and when that is realised , it is very nutri- less tity of manures as were formerly employed . tions, though not so bulky as either of its
predecessors. It is rare that three abun-
3890. Mr Keene, in his pamphlet on the Forty
dant crops of clover are obtained, and still Days’Maize, has this observation onthe failure of the crimson clover in England : - " The reason , ”
more rare that they all fail.
he says, “ for its succeeding so rarelyin Eng land is, that the cleansed seed only is soun ;
3887. Clover will thrive in every kind whereas I sow it with the rough pellicle as of soil, and hence the general usefulness of gathered. This pellicle seems to act as a protec tion to the young plant till it gets strength . The
theplant; but its favourite soil is a deep clean seed sometimesrises as wellas the rough, well-limed clay loam .
but it invariably drops off in strength , and very often the whole disappears as completely as
3888. “ In the management of the clover crop,” though none had been put into the ground; says Dr Radcliffe, “ the Flemings are most suc- whereas the same seed , not cleansed, sown along cessful, especially in the division from Waereghem to Courtrai; indeed, upon the cultivation of this plant hinges apparently the whole of the farmers' prosperity ; it is here and everywhere, except where vetches are sown , the summer support of all his stock . Here are very few pastures.
side, has resisted the cold temperature of the soil , and turned out vigorous plants." || The rea sons assigned by the writer may not account for the failure, but the fact that rough seeds never failed to grow is valuable, and may lead to the adoption of the practice of sowing the red
The clover, cut and carried to well-littered stalls, becomes an abundant source of manure of twó descriptions, and thus the cattle are made profitably subservient to the production of their own
clover in its rough capsule, and of thereby sav ing the troublesome process of depriving it of its husk. The hint is worthy of a trial by all cultivators, but especially by those who raise
nourishment. The luxuriance of the clover is
clover seed .
surprising, but doubly so when you inquire the crop, we cannot be secure of a good one from
3891. In regard to the value of green food to stock , Boussingault observes, that “ breeders
less than 17} lb. to the statute acre; but in Flanders, the usual quantity is 61 lb. to the acre. Can it proceed from the reduced quantity of seed? Whence, then,the superiority of the crop? No — for if even by the reduced quantity upon
have long suspected that green fodder is more nutritious than dry ; that grass, clover, & c., lose nutritious matter by beingmadeinto hay. That the thing is so in fact appears to have been de monstrated by a skilful agriculturist, M. Perrault
In Ireland, for a soiling
quantity of seed sown.
# Radcliffe's Agriculture of Flanders, p. 61 .
+ Thomson'sResearches in the Food of Animals, p. 71. Radcliffe's Agriculture of Flanders, p. 59. $ Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition , p. 85-8. il Facts for Farmers, p. 9.
--
-
-
1
SOILING STOCK ON FORAGE PLANTS.
de Jotemps, who found that 9 lb. of green
195
the same extent of ground will yield 600 lb., if
lucerne were quite equal in foddering sheep to the crop be mown only once during the six weeks : 3.3 lb. of the same forage made into hay; whilst he at the same time ascertained that 9 lb. of green lucerne would not, on an average, yield more than 2.02 lb. of hay. In allowing each sheep 3.3 lb. of lucerne hay as its ration , consequently, it was as if the animal had had 14.34, or more than 14 } lb. of the green vegetable for its
this has been positively demonstrated by a com parative experiment expressly directed to this subject. This is one of the main causes which render the produce of a given extent of surface so much greater when the crop is mown than when fed off, the plants not being allowed in the latter case to attain their full development. The
allowance. These practical factsare obviously of great importance: they prove beyond the shadow of doubt that the belief of agriculturists in general, as to the immense advantages of con-
question as towhether a cow yields a greater quantityofmilk when pastured or stall-fed ,leaving out of consideration the greater or less extent of ground employed in feeding her, can never be decided general
suming clover and lucerne as green meat, is well
in a
manner. The same cow
founded. Nor is this all; it is not merely the which a pasturage of goodquality, but not extra absolutely greater feeding value of the crop ordinaryrichness, will yield 10 quarts of milk a . green , than of the crop dried and made into hay. There is further, the saving of expense in making
day, may, when stall-fed, yield no more than 6 quarts, or as much as 14 quarts, according as her
the hay ; and still further, the escape of all risk
feed is scanty, or substantial and abundant. If,
from loss through bad weather during the process, by which that which was valuable fodder but a few days before, may become fit only for the
however, the pasturage be of the richest and most abundantdescription, so that the cattle are
dunghill.” * 3892. “ A comparative experiment, made at
not able to consume the whole of it, I believe that a cow will produce more milk upon it than upon the most abundant supply of green food that can be given to her in the stall. Trustworthy
Thorserg,on the relative advantagesof grazing persons assure us, that certain cows fed upon the with thetether, and stall-feeding , gives,” says
best and most milk -producing pastures of the low
Von Thäer, the following results :-Fourcows, countries, havegiven from 90 lb. to 100 lb. of stall fed, during twelve days, gave 1110 lb. of milk a -day, at the time of their greatest abund milk ; extent of land required,4344 square yards; quantity consumed, 6144 lb. of clover ; which
ance ; and I am not acquainted with any positive instance of stall -fed cows giving more than
gives for one cow a -day, 23} lb. of milk ; 451 60 lb. in the same time.” + These observations square fathoms; 904 square yards; 128 lb. of M. Boussingault and Von Thäer are valuable, clover. Four cows, pastured by the tether, for inasmuch as no definite data exist on kindred twelve days, gave 9503 lb. of milk ; extent of subjects in the experience of our farmers. land grazed, 3684 square yards ; which gives for one cow a -day, 1944 lb. milk ; 77 } square yards. 3894. A weevil named Apion facipes, about Therefore the stall-feeding consumed the produce
14 inch in length , with a black shiningbody, at
of 660 square yards more than the pasturage by tacks the Dutch orwhite clover plant ,Trifolium tether, and, on the otherhand, the quantity of repens ; and asthis insect is very common, the milk was greater by 1593 lb. by the stall-feed . ing. On estimating the milk that would have been yielded by the same extent of land pastured
cultivators of white clover would require to be on their guard against it.I
as stall- fed , the result would be that no particu-
3895. Slugs - Limax cinereus— devour the
lar advantage is gained by either side. The dung broad leaves of red clover, Trifolium pratense, was more economised by the stall-feeding, but the mowing and carrying of the clover were saved by the pasturage.
particularly in damp weather. 3896. The composition of the green stems of red and white clover, is as follows:
3893. “ I have never known cattle to be in Red clover .
jured by young clover mown before flowering, when it was given to them in moderation," con
tinues Von Thäer. “ But if it be given to them in very large quantities at a time, when they are very eager for green meat, or if they are allowed access to the place in which it is kept, it may undoubtedly produce indigestion, and its conse-
quence , the horen or blown ( 1381.) Besides, it
Water, Starch ,
Woody fibre, Sugar, Albumen , Extractive matter and gum Fatty matter,
76.0 14 13.9 2.1 2.0 , 3.5 0.1
White clover. 80-0 1.0 11.5
1.5 1.5 3.4
1.0
0-2 0-8
100.0
99.9
Phosphate of lime,
is most economical to mow the clover which has
put forth its flowers, because in the week during which the flowers come out, the plant increases in volume more than it has done for the five weeks
preceding . If a field of clover be mown once a fortnight during six weeks, and each crop yields 30 lb. of fodder, making 90 lb. in the whole,
3897. The composition of the ash of red and white clover, rye-grass, and Italian rye -grass seeds is as follows, and ought to have been given after ( 2684.) :
* Boussingault's Rural Economy - Law's translation, p .526 . + Thäer's Principles of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 710 and 720 — Shaw and Johnson's translation. I Quarterly Journal of Agriculture,vol. ix. p. 18.
PRACTICE
196
Clover.
SUMMER .
Red clover.
BOUSSINGAULT .
Potash ,
35.47
Soda,
0.67 32.80
Lime,
Magnesia ,
White clover.
26-70 7:07 37.09
34.00
8-03
6.34
4:45
3:34
2.17 6.50 4:01
8.40 0-40 8.40 3:33
25-72
Italian rye grass .
Rye grass. THOMSON .
SPRENGEL
WAY AND OGSTON .
12:45 3.98 9.95
2.23
0-20
2.77
0.36
5.53 3.86 2.31
12:51
0-78 6.34 2.82
3:47 7.06
8.80 5.98 4.86 4.85
16.13
64.57
59.18
100.00
100.00
100.00
98-05
100-00
Percentage of ash in the dry state, 7.70
7.48
Oxide of iron, alumina, &c., Phosphoric acid, Sulphuric acid, Chlorine, Silica,
3898. The clover, or trefoil, is cultivated in
9.13 *
2-27
5.89 +
6.97 €
efforton the one side, and on their walking
China. “ After the last crop of rice hasbeen out of it by themselves on the other. Should gathered in,” says Mr Fortune, “ the groundis the side from which they are putintothe immediately ploughed up and prepared to receive certain hardy green crops, such asclover, the oil water be a little steep, it is less objection
plant, and other varieties of the cabbage tribe able than having a steep slope for their The trefoil , or clover, is sown in ridges to keep exit from the water on the other side ; for it above the level of the water, which often covers
in the sheep struggling to get upon the
the valleys during the winter months. When I went to Chusan , and saw this plantculti- bank, even with assistance , when their first
vated so extensively in the fields,I was at a loss wool is loaded with water and a certain
to know the use to which it was applied,for the degree of terror affects them , their wool
are will become inevitably soiled ,and discom and those to feed, Chinesesupplied have few cattle unculti the road easily vate in posed against the earthy bank. When a the hills. inquiand On-sides, d parts of from ry,Iwas formed that the crop was cultivated almost ex
naturalrivulet is awanting, a pool should
clusively for manure. The large fresh leaves of be constructed in a large ditch, and in the trefoil are also picked , and used as a vegetable by the natives ." S
either case the banks should be covered with clean sward.
3899. The method of a part of the manufacture of scythes, is so curious that I cannot forbear
3901. The next step is to form a dam
mentioning it. “ In the manufacture of scythes, ming across the rivulet or ditch, if it have
length of the blade renders itnecessarythat not naturally a sufficient depth of water the the workman should move readily, so as to to conduct the operation of washing. It bring everyparton the anvilin quick succession is better, however, to make a pool thanto This is effected byplacing him in a seatsuspend ed by ropes from the ceiling, so that he is en-
use a naturaliy deep pool, as the water
abled, with little bodily exercise, by pressing his will flow from it quicker than the natural feet against the block which supports the anvil, current of a deep pool will. The bottom to vary his distance to any required extent." I
ON THE WASHING OF SHEEP .
of the river or ditch should be hard and
gravelly, and the water pure, or it will not answer the purpose, as a soft and muddy bottom , and dirty water, will soil instead of cleanse the wool.
A dam
3900. On the weather becoming mild, ming may consist either entirely of a turf and on the likelihood of its continuing so, wall built across the stream , though that a pool should be made in which to wash imposes considerable labour and waste of
the sheep, preparatory to their fleeces grass, or what is better, with an old door being shorn . The pool should be made in a convenient place in a natural rivulet; and the convenience consists in the banks of the rivulet shelving, so as to admit the
or two or other boarding, supported by
stobs driven into the bottom of the rivu let, to bear the boarding against the weight of water, and the chinks at the bottom
sheep being put into the water with little and sides of which are stopped with turf in * Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 390. + Thomson's Researches in the Food of Animals, p. 80.
# Journal of the Agricultural Society of England , vol. ix . p. 144. § Fortune's Wanderings in China, p. 65.
9 Babbage On the Economy ofMachinery and Manufactures, p. 27.
WASHING SHEEP.
the inside. When the water accumulates, it falls over the boarding; and in constructing the dam, the overflowing should be as great as to cause such a current in the pool as to carry away all impurities, such as earthy matter, greasy matter, small
197
sheep. They are confined in their respec tive places by hurdles, fig. 40, or pets, fig. 44. To prevent the sheep taking the water of themselves, which they are apt to do when they see others in before them, the fence should be returned along the
locks of wool, and scum, quickly. One sides of the pool as far as the men who side of the pool is occupied by the un- wash the sheep take up their stations. washed, and the opposite by the washed Fig. 325 brings out all the particulars, Fig. 325 .
8
nn
Longi
SHEEP WASHING .
where thedamming a a, by means of doorsing incessantly ; but, notwithstanding the and stobs, is seen to retain the water annoyance, they should not be dogged, but until it overflows. The net on each side rather get plenty of time upon the route, of the pool is returned far enough down which should be chosen free of dust or both sides.
The water is seen to take the
mud.
men to the proper depth of the haunches. 3903. The men who are to wash pre
3902. Everything being thus ready at pare themselves by casting their coats, the pool, the sheep are prepared forthe rolling the sleeves of their shirts up to the washing. The tups are washed first, either shoulders, and putting on old trousers the dayor the week preceding the rest of and shoes to stand in the water. Themen the flock, and the shepherd himself per- should not be barefooted, as they will not
forms the operation with an assistant,to be able to withstand the struggling of the hand each sheep to him in the water. The sheep with steadiness and firmness. The
lambs not being washed, they are tempor-
shepherd and other two ploughmen are
arily separated from their mothers, and quite sufficient to wash a largenumber of left in a court of the steading until the sheep thoroughly ; but if the stream be washing is finished, to save trouble with broad, another may be required to save them at the pool. When the flock is not very large, and the work can be done in
time in handiug the sheep from man to man . The three men are represented in
the course of three or four hours, the ewes, fig. 325, e being the shepherd, and the
boggs, and dinmonts, when these latter last man to handle the sheep, and d and c are retained on the farm , are all taken are his assistants. At least two other men to the pool in a lot. They should be are required to catch the sheep for the driven to it gently, not to create a heat on them when about to be put into the water.
washers, of whom one is seen at b. On this occasion the men receive bread and
The ewes are troublesome to drive, being cheese and ale, and also a dram ofspirits in constant search of their lambs and bleat- as a safeguard against being chilled on
198
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
standing in the water. The materials are the hand. Being satisfied that the sheep seen at h,where the dog keeps watch ; he is clean , he dips it over the head while has no occasion to work, but should be turning it to its natural position, when it present in case of an outbreak occurring. swimsashore, and gains the bank at g .
Some stimulant, as good spirits, is requisite for men who stand for hours with the lower half of their body chilled in the water, and the upper half heated by the work . If they had on long fishermen's boots they would less require the fillip.
On coming out of the water it walks feebly, its legs staggering under the weight of the dripping fleece; in a little, it frees itself from the water by making the fleece twirl like a mop. In the echelon form , in which the men stand in the water, the sheep bave the opportunity, when in its dirtiest state
3904. The washing is performed in this in the hands of the first man c , to get quit way :-While the three washers are taking of its impurities farthest down the stream , up their positions in the water,the two where they flow away at once, and do not catchers are capturing a sheep. The catching is fatiguingwork,and ,to make it easier, the fold shonld bemade as small as to contain the sheep easily. A sheep is caught,
come near the stations of the other men . The sheep being in a comparatively clean state when it reaches the second man d, the water in which it is further washed ,
and is presented as atb to the first washer c, who takes it into the water, and, allowing the wool to become saturated with it, turns the sheep over on its back, keeping
cannot much affect that which runs past the first man c ; and still less will the water in which the sheep are last washed by the shepherd e, affect that near either
up the bead, by taking a hold ofthe wool of the other two men. of the near cheek with his left hand, and the arm of the off fore-leg with the right. 3905. In this way sheep are washed in
With this hold he dips the sheep up and the Lowlands; and from two to three scores down, from and to him , rolling it over may be washed in an hour, according to from one side to the other slowly, and the size of the sheep, the activity of the causing the wool to wave backwards and washers, and the supply of water. After washing, sheep should be driven along a clean route, and be put into a clean grass
forwards, as if rubbing it against the water. These motions are easily effected, the sheep feeling light in the water. In this operation the water becomes very turbid
field having no bare earthy banks, against which they might rub themselves. They
about the sheep, and he continues it till the water clears itself, when he hands the sheep to the next washer d, who stands in the middle and higher up the stream . Whenever c gets quit of one sheep, another
should be kept perfectly clean until their fleeces are taken off. How long the fleece remains on after the washing, depends on the state of the weather, as the wool must not only be thoroughly dry, but the yolk ,
should be ready by the catchers for him which the natural oil of thewool is called, to receive into the water. The second
must return into it again ; and further, the
washer d holds and manages each sheep new wool should be risen from the skin
he receives from the first washer in the same manner, and then hands it to the shepherd e , who stands towards the margin and still a little higher up the stream ,
before the old is attempted to be taken off. Disregard to this particular will make good clipping difficult to be accomplished , and it will certainly deteriorate the ap
and is immediately ready to take another pearance of the fleece. Perhaps 8 or 10 sheep from the first man. It is the duty days may suffice to produce these effects. of the shepherd to ascertain if the skin of You need be under no apprehension of the the sheep is cleansed, and every impurity fleece falling off when the new growth removed from the wool. The position of commences, for wool will remain for years the sheep on its back is favourable for the upon the sheep's back if not clipped off, rapid descent of earthy matter from the and the sheep be free of all manner of longer part of the wool. Wherever he disease. How many years the fleece might feels a roughness upon the skin, he washes continue to grow I do not know , but I
it off with his hand, and clots upon the have seen a fleece upon the sheep'sback The belly , groins, three years old. Lord Western exhibited
wool he rubs out.
breast, and round the head, he scrubs with Anglo -merinos, at the show of the English
WASHING SHEEP .
199
Agricultural Society at Oxford in 1839, leaping from that height, the sheep go over the
andon swimming across the poolreach head, the fleeces ofwhichwereof that age, and, the dry land at the opposite side, where another when clipped, weighed I believe 20 lb.
each .
The lambs are restored to the ewes
immediately after the washing. 3906. The afternoon is generally chosen
enclosure of hurdles is ready to receive them. They are thus treated several times till they are clean. Where the edge of a lake is employed for washing sheep, stakes are driven in the water
and rails nailed to them, to form a space of water jumping
in which the sheep are swum , after by shepherds as the period of the day for fromthe jetty, andland uponthesameshore. washing sheep, but I conceive that the Thereare store-masters who prefer hand-wash
morning is a better time, inasmuch as the ingto leaping and swimming them across the fleece will bave become much drier during pool. Merely with hand -washing, and without
their backs,I cannot see how sheep inverting the day than inthe night when the sheep can be thoroughly washed , especially those which are washed in the evening, and they must
have been smeared .
feel uncomfortable in the night with a wet fleece. 3909. I have seen it somewhere stated, that
the more greasy the water becomes, in which
3907. Sheep are differently affected in sheep are washed ,the cleaner will the sheep be, the time of washing. Some disregard the and, therefore, it shouldnot be changed. I sup
plunges, and seem to enjoy them , giving toral districts, as Ihave seen nomeansused themselves up entirely to the will of the there tolet the water flow off, except where the washers; whilst others are in a state of side of a lake forms the washing pool. Theore great terror, struggling against every new tically, the opinion may be correct, as M. Ras
motion, and groaningin anticipation of pail observes, that “ when the wool iswashed, this soap, (the yolk) is dissolved, and takes thé
greater danger. Some are very expert in salts along with it. Hence it follows, that the turning their backs upwards, should the water that has been used in this process becomes, washer be off his guard and dip them
at each repetition, better adapted for the pur
too perpendicularly down, and when they pose.” Practically, however, the notion of and dirtied water washing wool better thus turn themselves quickly, they are greasy than clean will gain no converts from those who
apt to strike and scratch the barearms of have used cleanwater; besides,everyfleece has,
the washer with the hoofs of the fore- feet.
or ought to have, as much natural soap in it as
I was once amused by seeing a new hand, will wash it clean in clean water. No doubt though a stout fellow , thrown on his back soft water will wash wool better than hard ,but the airan forinordi some exposed water, when river it tocontain becomes soft, unless time, and soused under water by an old supple all
ewe turning quickly, and pushing herself nate proportion of lime or tannin ; but let the against his breast. He held on by her at state of the water be what it may in particular
is no doubtthat wool, like every first, but, on finding be could not regain bis localities,there thing else, is best washed in clean water. A feet on account of her impetuosity, he was
probability attaches to what M. Raspail atlength obliged to let go his hold. To greater states,that" it has been calculated that the grease
make the matter worse to him , he lost both obtained from the washing of wool in France his shoes in the struggle. might be sufficient to manure about 370,000 acres of ground."* In small lots of sheep, I
3908. Neither carse, dairy, nor farms in the neighbourhood of towns, support sheep, and there .
have seen thewool clipped before it was washed. The clippingon a dirty skin makes rough work,
forehave nothing to do with washing them . The but independently of this, wool washed off the washing of sheep on pastoral farms is conducted
sheep's back is deprived of its yolk, and, when
on a somewhat different manner from what has been described . A natural deep pool in a river is
dry, feels harsh, and is in an unfit state for cer tain processes of manufacture.
selected for the purpose, or, failing this, a dam ming is made in the gully of a rivulet, or a pool is
3910. A curious mode of washing sheep is
dug in the plain ground near a supply of water. practised in Würtemberg. Advantage is taken Where no river exists the edge of a lake is
to make a fall of water at a sluice in a river, by
selected . A small space is enclosed with hurdles, means of a number of spouts to convey the fig. 40, near the edge of the pool ; a narrow pas- water in small broad rills, and let them fall from sage fit to contain at most 2 sheep and 2 men in a height of 5 or 6 feet into the shallow water in breadth, is made from the hurdles to a jetty, the bed of the river. Or a pool is dug out of the which projects into the pool, and is 5 or 6 feet plain ground, and water is brought into it from above the water — and from this the sheep are a river or canal, by means of achannel which made to leap into the water one by one. On supplies the number of spouts required for use
* Raspail's Organic Chemistry, p. 457.
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
200
in the washing of the sheep. Men hold the upon the wool, ” observes Mr Luccock , “is not sheep in different postures, in theshallow water, under the spouts, from which the water falls upon different parts of their body. The water
accurately known. Some have considered it as the superabundance of that substance which forms the filament, and which by some unknown
first falls upon the head and shoulders, thesheep process, while thepile is growing, is consolidated being held up upon its rump; it then falls upon into a transparent mass ; whileothers conclude, the belly, the sheep being placed on its back ; it perhaps more reasonably,that it is a peculiar falls upon one side and then upon the other, the
secretion, which exudes through the skin, and
sheep being placed upon either side; and lastly, by intermingling with the pile, renders it it falls upon the back , the sheep standing in the water. The washers all the time shed the wool
soft, pliable, and healthy ; affecting it much in the same way as oil does a thong of leather, when
this way and that with the bare arm , to let the
kept immersed in it and perfectly saturated. A
water reach every part of the body, and not with
very curious and interesting question has been asked respecting the mode in which the wool imbib -s the yolk , whether by means of the root alone, or also by the pores, which it is supposed may be scattered through the whole length of
the hand, in case its manipulation should break the wool . The sheep are first rubbed with soap in a trough in which they are made to stand and the cost of the entire process is about 1d.
a -head. * I would apprehend that the constant beating inflicted by the fall of the water is any .
the hairI .
thing but serviceable to the sheep.
3914. The medium quantity of yolk in a Hereford, Shropshire, or Sussex sheep,” says Mr
3911. An interesting topic of investigation is
Youatt, “ is about half the fleece ; and this is
the ascertaining the quality of that substance which is most commonly found intimately mingled with the pile of our fleeces, which, on account of
the customary allowance to the wool-buyer, if the fleece has been sold without washing. More yolk is found on the breast and neck of a sheep
its yellowness and consistency, its egg-like ap- than on any other part of the body, and it is pearance, is aptly denominated yolk. The investigation of its properties, and of the good effects which it produces upon the fleece while growing, is more properly the business of the
there that the finest and softest wool is found . Softness of the pile is, therefore, evidently connected with the presence and quantity of yolk . There is no doubt that this substance
grazier than of the wool-stapler, and he has the is designed, not only to nourish the hair, but to most abundant means of acquiring information. give it richness and pliability. It what way is Hitherto it must be acknowledged that they the growth ofthe yolk promoted ? By paying more have been too much neglected; yet the few facts attention than our agriculturists are accustomed with which we are furnished indicate that, with . out the assistance of yolk, " or the application of some other substance which shall act as a substitute for it , wool possessing the best qualities cannot be produced. The celebrated breeds of
to give to the quantity and quality of this sub stance possessed by the animals which they select for the purpose of breeding, the quantity and quality of the yolk, on which many farmers now scarcely bestow a thought, and the nature of
Berry, of Castile, and of Persia, we are informed, which they neither understand nor care about, furnish the most copious supply of yolk, and at will, at some future time, be regarded as the the same time yield those valuable fleeces which very essential and cardinal points of the are eagerly sought after by the manufacturers
sheep." S
of the countries where they are shorn, in order that they may be able to supply even distant
markets with the most valuable commodities.” ON THE SHEARING OF SHEEP .
3912. The composition of the yolk has not been particularly analysed, but Vauquelin examined the matter, and found it to consist of a
3915. After the wool is dry, the yolk re turned into it, and the fleece bas indicated a
soap of potash, carbonate of potash, a little ace tate of potash, lime,a very little of muriate of freshgrowthnext the skin, thesheepshould potash, and an animal matter, which imparts to be shorn of their fleeces; and they are wool its peculiar odour.t “ The yolk being a
shorn in regular order, the tups being first
true soap, soluble in water, it is easy to account
shorn, to give the longer timefor the wool
for the comparative case with which the sheep to grow ere the time arrives for selling in a running stream. There is, however, a small them, or letting them on hire in autumn; quantity of fatty matter in the fleece, which is
then the hoggs and dinmonts, if there be
not in combination with the alkali, and which, any of the latter, and, lastly, the ewes. remaining attached to the wool, keeps it a little glutinous notwithstanding the most careful wash ing.”
3916. A place under cover should be selected for clipping the fleeces.
The
3913. “ The manner in which the yolk acts straw -barn, L, Plate II., of the steading, is * Zeller's Landwirthschaftlichen Maschinen, Apparate, und Geräthe, zweite lieferung, p. 15-21 . + Thomson's Animal Chemistry, p. 305. # Luccock On Wool, p. 80 and 84. § Youаtt On the Sheep, p. 61 and 75.
L.
SHEARING SHEEP.
201
a suitable place for the purpose. The end shears have additional springs between the next the chaff-house r , between the two bandles b to separate the blades more for doors, is a good site for the clipping floor, Fig. 326 .
and the rest of the barn contains the sheep cool under cover. The clipping floor is prepared in this way ;—Let clean wheat b
straw be strewed equally over the floor two or three inches thick, and then spread
thelarge canvass barn -sheet over it, ( 1740) the edges of which should be nailed down
THE WOOL - SHEARS .
tight to the floor. The straw makes a soft cibly, but are not so agreeable to the hand cushion for the knees of the clippers, as as the simple round spring a. The spring well as for the sheep. A broom is required a issometimes made too strong, and tires to sweep the barn -sheet clean, ( 1794.) the hand, torelieve which a piece of cord Any other equally convenient place will is wound loosely round the handles. answer the purpose of clipping sheep as Strong -springed shears are most easily well as the straw - barn . The barn - floor and
worked if held near the blades ; but the
walls, as high as the sheep can reach, should sharp backs of these soon hurt the hand. be swept of dust, and some straw strewn When not in use, and when carried , the upon the floor for them to lie clean upon. blades are held together at their points by a ring of leather. A ragstone is used to
3917. In case of dew or rain in the sharpen wool-shears. The cost of shears morning, it is customary to bring into the is from 28. 6d. to 3s. 6d. each, and of barn as many dry sheep on the previous ragstones 4d. per lb. A shepherd re
evening as the numberof clippers to be quires two or three pairs of small shears employed will shear on the ensuing day. for jobs, and he only uses the large shears It is acustom for neighbouring shepherds for shearing. to assist each other ; and though the plan cannot expedite the entire sheep -shearing
3919. The object of washing the sheep
of the country, yet the emulation amongst perfectly clean, is apparent at shearing; for a number of men clipping together, expe- if not clean, the shears grate upon the dirt dites the shearing of the individual flock. and make bad work ; and for this the
Other hands besides shepherds are pressed shepherd alone is to blame who had the into theservice at this time. A steward sheep last through hands in the water, seldom clips sheep, but the art is mostly and the charge of them afterwards on the possessed by the hedger, and if the cattle- pasture . man had been a herd, he lends a band. 3920. The shears are used in a particu Clipping being dirty and heating work,
the coat isstripped, the hat and vest thrown
lar manner, to be safe aliketo the fleece
aside, and the oldest clothes worn . Garters, and the skin of the animal. The essential
or tight knee-breeches, are irksome pieces of dress in clipping. It is rare to see knee breeches now -a -days, the long trousers having superseded their use entirely, even with elderly men.
particular ever to be attended to in clip ping, is to keep the points always clear of the skin ; for ifthey rest upon it, they will inevitably either run into it, or make a large gash in it before the clipper is aware of the mischief he is doing. This
3918. The instrument by which the is an error commonly committed by new
wool is clipped off sheep, is made of steel, clippers, by bolding the band too high above and is named wool-shears, which have the the wool,and is a great offence in any expe form as seen in fig. 326. They require no rienced clipper. The sure way of avoid
particular description farther than to ex- ing this serious injury to sheep, is to rest plain that the bend or bowl, a, which con- only the broad part of the blades of the nects the two blades, acts as a spring to shears upon the skin ; in which position, keep the blades separate, and it is the with the skin drawn a little, nottoo tight, pressure of the band on each side of the by the left hand, the shears slide upon it handle b, which overcomes the spring and with a hold of the wool with their points,
brings the blades c together. Some wool- which are never brought nearer than an
202
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
inchapart, while the clips are made short and frequent. The form of the sheep's body being round, the shears should not make so long a clip as to bring the pointsof theblades
Experience will teach you how to make longer clips effective, when you know how to manage the shears dexterously, but at all times short clips are the safest mode of
together at every stroke, for if they do, they using the shears. will cut the wool with their points at a con 3921. Clipping is done in this way : siderable elevation above the skin ,ata point
in advance of the place where the broad part is cutting close to the skin ; the wool, in fact, wouldbe cut in two places at once. Veryshort clips, nodoubt, make slow work,
Whenever a sheep is caught in the barn, the straw or bits of plants on the wool, or dirt on the hoofs, should be picked off be fore it is taken to the barn -sheet. Clipping
but rather have slow work safely done, consists of three stages, the first of which
than hasty slashing with injury to the wool. is represented in fig. 327. After setting Fig. 327 .
THE FIRST STAGE OF CLIPPING A SHEEP.
the sheep on its rump, and on the supposi- bared, then the inside of the thighs 9 g, tion that the clipper is a right-handed and, lastly, the sides of the tail k . These man, he rests on his right knee, and leans are all the parts that are reached in this
the back of thesheep against his left leg position. For the clipping of these parts a, bent. Taking the shearsin his right hand, small shears suffice ; and as the wool there and holding up the sheep's mouth with his is short, and of a detached character, it is left, he first clips the short wool on the best clipped by the points of the shears, front of the neck, and then passes down as carefully held close like d . the throat and breast betweenthe fore -legs to the belly. Then placing the fore- legs 6
3922. Fig. 328 represents the second under his left arm c, he shears the belly stage of clipping. Its position for the across from side to sidedown to the groins. sheep is gained by first relieving its fore
In passing down the belly and groin ,where legs 6 from their position in fig. 327, and, the skin is naturally loose, while the shears gently turning the sheep upon its far side, d are at work, the palm of the left hand e while he himself, resting on both knees, pulls the skin tight. The scrotum f is then supports its far shoulder upon his lap.
SHEARING SHEEP.
203
You may always rely upon this fact- clipper first removes the wool from behind the more a sheep feels at ease, the more the head, then around the entire back of readily it will lie quiet to be clipped. Sup- the neck to the shoulder-top. He then porting its head with his left hand, the slips its head and neck a under bis left Fig. 328.
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THE SECOND STAGE OF CLIPPING A SHEEP .
arm , g , and thus having the left hand at knees; and he then rests his right knee, fig.
liberty, he keeps the skin tight with it, 329, over its neck on the ground, and his while he clips the wool with the right, right foot b on its toes, the ankle keep
from where the clipping inthe first posi- ing the sheep's head down to the ground. tion, fig . 327, was left off to the back This is the third position in clipping. The
bone, all the way down the near side. wool having beenbared to the shoulder in In the figure, the fleece appears to be the secondposition, the clipper has now removed about half-way down the car- nothing to do but to commence where it cass ; the left hand b lying flat, keeping was then left off, and to clear the fleece
the skin tight; while the right hande holds from the far side from the back-bone,where the shears at the right part, and in the pro- it was left off in fig. 328, in the second per position. The clipper thus proceeds position, towards the belly, where the to the thigh and the rump and the tail d , clipping was left off in the first position, which he entirely bares at this time.
fig . 327.— the left hand e being still at liberty to keep the skin tight, while the
3923. Clearing the sheet of the loose right hand f uses the shears across the parts of the fleece, the clipper, holding by whole side to the tail. The fleece g is now the head, lays over the sheep on its clipped quite freed from the sheep. In assisting
or near side, while still continuing on his the sheep to rise, care should be taken that
204
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
its feet are free from entanglement with the from the unusual treatment it has just re
fleece, otherwise, in its eagerness to escape ceived, it will tear the fleece to pieces.* Fig.329.
THE THIRD AND LAST STAGE OF CLIPPING A SHEEP .
3924. On comparing the attitudes of bent outward by his knees. The skin is the clipper and of the sheep, in the diffe- certainly tightened, but at the expense of rent stages of clipping just described, the personal ease of the animal ; for the
with those of a mode very common in the hand can tighten the skin as well, as shown country, it is necessary to look again at the in all the figures, at b and e ; whilst the first stage of the process, fig . 327, the bowing down so low, and as long, until he
common practice of conducting which is clips theentire side, cannot fail to pain the to place the sheep upright on its tail, and back of the clipper. The third position is
the clipper to stand on his feet, supporting its back against his legs — which isboth an insecure and painful position for thesheep, and an irksome one for the man, who has
nearly the same in both plans, with the difference in the common one, which keeps the left leg bent, resting on its foot - a much more irksome position than kneeling
to bow much down to clip the lower on both knees. part of the animal. In the second stage, 3925. All the fleeces are not in the fig . 328, the man still remains on his feet, and the sheep upon its rump, while he same state for being clipped . Thin watery
secures its head between his legs, in order wool is apt to be clipped in too broad to tighten the skin of the near side, which is courses — the shears passing through it The artist has erroneously represented the sheep lying upon its far side, and the clipping to pro ceed from the belly to the back- bone, which is the proper posture for the second position, as also the keeping the head of the sheep down with the left leg a , whereas the sheep should have lain upon its near side, the wool been shorn from the back-bone to the belly, and the head d kept down with the right leg , as described above .
SHEARING SHEEP .
205
quickly induces the clipper to take more 3927. Immediately that one lot of sheep into the clip, in order to withstand the in the barn is clipped another is brought force of his hand.
Thick wool requires into it from the field, to be ready to com
the shears to be employed more at the mence the next morning's work . How
points, as these cannot penetrate it so far ever little itmay injure hoggs to bekept in in advance of the blades as wool in the ordinary state. Certain fleeces become so thick as to be coated — that is, felted on the sheep's back ; and these can only be taken
the barn all night, it is not good treat ment to ewes and lambs ; and in order to
dispense with it, the shepherd should bring in a few ewes during the day when their
off with the points of the shears in minute wool is dry, to clip while the hoggs are clips, and take longer time in being re- clipping; in which way the first shorn ewes moved than their value is worth. Such would be but a short time confined, whilst
fleeces can scarcely be clipped at all, until fewer ewes would be long confined when a fresh growthof the wool has taken place thelast ofthe flock to be clipped consisted after the washing entirely of them.
3928. A new clipped sheep should have 3926. To shear 20 sheep a -day is considered agood day's work for any clipper, the appearance of fig. 330, where the
though there are shepherds who can do shear-marks areseen to run in parallel more .
Afat sheep is more easily and bet- bands roundthe body, from the neck and counter a , along the ribs b, to the rump,
ter clipped than a lean one.
Fig. 330.
b
sto
A NEW CLIPPED SHEEP.
and down the hind -leg c. When pains are marks at all, which are formed of small
taken to round the shearmarks on the ridglets of wool left between each course back of the neck down byg ; to fill up the space in the change of the rings between those of the counterand of the bodyabove e; to bring the marks down from c tof to the
taken by the shears ; but such extreme nicety in clipping is scarcely attainable, and certainly notworth beingattained by the sacrifice of the time occupied in doing
shape ofthe leg, as far as the wool reaches ; it. It should be borne in mind, how
to make them run straight down the tail, and to bave them coinciding across the back from each side—a sheep in good condition so clipped forms a beautiful object. A
ever, that the closer the wool is clipped to the skin it is the better clipped, and is in a better state for growing thenext year's fleece ; and what is more, a larger and
sheep clipped to perfection shouldbave no heavier fleece is obtained from each sheep.
206
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
3929. Clipping makes sogreat a change the workers from the heat of the sun. If the onthe appearanceofsheep, that many lambs part oftheground occupied by the clipperswere covered with Abarn the can wool would be havedifficulty at first in recognising their keptclean. tent sheets, beerectedat of this sort
mothers, whilst a few forget them alto- little cost, andwould last many seasons. Still
gether, and wean themselves, however desirous their mothers may be to suckle them ; and as the ewe is content with one lamb, many a twin which does not follow
no pastoral farm should be without a steading, andapart ofit should bemadesuited for so necessary aprocess in a sheep -farm , such as the straw -barn e fig. 55.
her is weaned on this occasion. It should 3933. The deprivation of wool before the warm be the shepherd's particnlar care to mother weather has appeared, induces diseases insheep.
the lambs frequently after clipping ; but the difficulty of bringing an old lamb and ewe together, without much disturbance to the rest of the flock is great ; and besides,
it is seldom that a flock-master errs in this re spect, though cold nights do sometimes occur after shearing of the oftups in cases clipping that early,where owners are desirous their the the wool may havethe longer time to grow be
the shepherd cannot constantly attend on fore the season arrives when tups are sold or let the clipped portion of his flock while en- on hire. But the practice of shearing fat sheep gaged with clipping, and this is oneof the early, before they are sent to market, is thusvery
reasons why ewes should be last clipped.
properly deprecated by Mr Youatt. “ There is scarcely a Smithfield cattle show in which, in
the dead of winter, two or three sheepjust shorn
3930. Sheep-shearing is a joyous sea- certainlyin a veryneat and tastefulway, and son — a sort of harvest — in which a liberal every excellent point of the animal displayed not exhibited. Some excuse may be made allowance of beef and broth and ale is dis- are for this , forthe sheep re brought themetro pensed to the clippers engaged in the labo- polis in closedcarts,aand are shownto ina place rious but important work.
where the winds of heaven cannot visit them
too roughly ; but what shall be said of a
3931. No sheep-shearing takes place in carse drove of naked sheep going to market in the early farms, or dairy farms, or on farms in the vicinity part of March — the east wind cutting like ice,
oftowns. The clipping of sheep in mostpastoral and their eyes and noses nearly closed with districts is conducted in a most slovenly manner.
mucous ? This is done for the sake of the little
The old -fashioned practice of tying the legs of additional profit to be derived from the wool. Is
the sheep together, on the grass sward in the that profit really derived ? Has not the unfeeling open air , is still practised in most parts of the owner miscalculated the matter ? Let him , or Highlands ; and after the creature is thusplaced let any thinking or humane man , compare two in a helpless state between thelegs of the clip- pairs of sheep close by each other. In the one per, who sits on the grass with the headof the the animalsretain their natural covering ,and they
sheep towards him, the shearsare madetoply, are full of health and vigour; the inhabitants of from the neck tothe tail, in irregular long the other hang their headswith cold and disease, slashes,sothat the fleece may be said to be an unpleasant streamis discharged from their snatched off in the shortest time.
The legs are
nostrils, and the eye of the sheepthat never de
then loosened and the sheep set at liberty. ceives when the question of health is to be de Women are frequently employed at this work, to
cided, tells tales,far too intelligibly, of pulmo
which there is no objection, provided they do it properly ; but the result is, that a considerable proportion of the wool is left on the sheep, and their appearance, as a piece of work, is most disgraceful. The entire proceeding is the less justifiable, that the proper way can be done as
nary diseases, and of constitution undermined, and of everything to disgust rather than attract. Has not the unfeeling owner miscalculated the matter ? He will say, perhaps, that the sheep will
not well travel in their fleeces. In the heat of summer they will not ; but when the winds blow
expeditiously in the hands of dexterouspeople chilly, no system can so surely promote the health as any slovenly method. If hill-herdscannotclip of the animal as that which secures to him the in any other way, let them go and learn itin feeling of comfort."* places where it is better done.
3932. An improvement has been effected on the mode of clipping sheep in one pastoral district by Mr Colin Munro, Dingwall. It consists of
ON THE ROLLING OF FLEECES, AND ON THE QUALITY OF WOOL.
erecting an awning of canvass, fastened to stobs
driven into the ground at stated distances, and of 3934. Wherever the sheep are shorn, appropriate heights, along the side of a wall. whether in the straw barn or in a shed, a
This tent,as itmay be called,is sufficient to hold board is erected, for rolling the fleeces upon as many sheep as is desired , by making it large enough; it protects them from rain, allows the as they are shorn. A smooth plain deal clipping to proceed uninterruptedly, and screens painted door makes a useful and good board * Youаtt On Sheep, p. 548.
ROLLING FLEECES, AND QUALITY OF WOOL.
207
for winding fleeces upon, and itshould be part of the farmer, and in the latter dimi supported on tressels about 2 feet above nishing his profits. Besides the disgrace
the ground,and 2 or 3 feet from a side- of theattempt to commit such a fraud, the wall, near the clippers.
A chaff -sheet farmer is amenable to a criminal charge
(1749) should be spread on the floor of fraud and imposition by the common law close to the same wall, to pile the rolled of Scotland. fleeces upon until they are taken to the wool-room , at the end of the day's work . 3937. The winderbeing satisfied of the purity of the fleece , folds in both its sides,
3935. The person appointed to roll the putting the loose locks into the middle, and fleeces is one of the field -workers who has making the breadth of the folded fleece been accustomed to the work , and she, from 24 to 30 inches, according to its size. whenever a fleece is separated from the She then rolls the fleece from the tail to
sheep, lifts it carefully and unbroken from wards the neck, tightly and neatly ; and the shearing cloth, and spreads it upon when arrived at the neck, puts a knee the board upon its clipped side, withthe upon the fleece, while she draws out neck end farthest from her. She exa- the wool of it, twisting it in the form mines the fleece carefully, that it be of a rope with both bands, as far
quite free of extraneous substances, such until it will go round the fleece; and then as straws, bits of thorn, of whins, or holding the fleece tight at the lower end of burs, and removes them ; andshe also pulls, not clips off, all locks having lumps of dung adhering to them, which may have escaped the notice of the sheep -washers. Fig. 331 shows the mode of rolling a fleece Fig. 331,
the rope thus made,with one hand, removes the knee, and still holding the point of the rope in the other hand, she winds the rope tight round the fleece, making it fast under the rope. The fleece, as a bundle,is easily carried about, baving the clipped surface outside, which, being composed of white
wool saturated with yolk , exhibits a shining silvery lustre. Fig . 332 represents a fleece Fig. 332.
THE ROLLING OF A FLEECE OF WOOL .
where a is the board supported on the tressels b and c, and d is the field -worker
in the act of winding the fleece e, placed
A FLEECE OF WOOL ROLLED UP .
as above described .
of wool rolled up in the proper manner,
3936. The farmer should be very par- where a is the wool at thebreech forming ticular in giving instructions to have every the centre coil of the fleece, and c is the fleece as clean as possible, as the purchaser end of the rope made from the neck of the cannot unloose every fleece he buys; and fleece twisted round its body, b. should he find as much filth in the fleeces, after purchasing them, as to warrant the 3938. Fleeces are not all alike, either in
belief thatit had been purposely left there, he may either relinquish his bargain, or make a large deduction from the price in the former case implying fraudon the
structure or colour. Those of ewes are thin and open in the locks, of pale colour, and feel light in hand. Hoggs' fleeces are close and long in the pile, of a rich colour, bulky,
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
208
and feel heavy in hand .
All the fleeces This, as observed by Mr Curtis,
has long
are not in proper condition ; an occasional been recorded as a most mischievous little fleece may want some part, having been moth in our dwelling-houses, where it is shed off in the field ; another may be common the greater portion of the spring, The coated, having a felted appearance, like a summer, and autumn.
piece of very thick cloth ; whilst others female deposits her eggs upon clothes, may have a dusky hue. Whenever such blankets, curtains, carpets, or any woollen differences are observed, the fleeces should articles, on which the larva feed , living in cylindrical cases which they form of the be laid aside, and sold separately. materials on which they subsist covered
3939. Coarse stray locks, and those with their excrement, and in which they clotted with dirt, should be put into a change to pupæ .
The caterpillar is a
basket by themselves, to be afterwards lively wriggling animal, about half-an washed, dried, and used at home for vari- inch long when full fed ; it is soft and ous purposes, such as in repairing the white, with a yellowish tint, and sparingly clothed with fine longish hairs, sometimes saddlery. having a slate -coloured stripe down the
3940. Every day's clipping is carried back , arising from the food ; the head is into the wool-room , w , fig. 130, which is horny, of a chestnut brown, and furnished
entered by a stair c', from the straw -barn s. with little strong jaws and minute horns. * Previous to being occupied , the room should be swept clean of dust from its 3941. Wool is an unsafe article for a plastered walls, and its floor washed clean farmer to keep long. For a short time The fleeces are piled upon wool becomes heavier in the room , absorb one another on the floor at a little distance ing moisture from the walls, floor, and air,
and dried .
from the wall, putting the hogg and ewe which it probably does as long as it retains
fleeces in separate divisions. Each division its vitality ; for, being a living body when is covered with cloths, and the shutters of shorn , some time must elapse before it
the window closed. The reason for these loses its vitality entirely. After it has lost precautions, which are seldom attended to
its vitality, it will soon lose its natural
by farmers, is, that the cloths keep off moisture in a dry room, occasioned by the dust,prevent too quick evaporation of the yolkevaporating ,when the fibres be yolk of the wool, which, if allowed , will come curled and feel harsh. In a damp diminish its weight, and the exclusion of room , the absorption of moisture increases the light retains the bright lustre of the after the loss of vitality, and the fleeces wool . A damp wool-room causes the become compressed, feel clammy, and af wool to clap together and become moulded fected with green and yellow mould. with a yellow mould . A very dry room The wool-moth then takes up its residence scorches the wool . The odd fleeces and in it in summer, and breeds numerous flocks shonld not be brought intothe wool- larvæ, which subsist on the fibres of the
room at all; the former should be sold , wool, and cut them in pieces.
Many
and the latter prepared for use imme- farmers have no proper wool-room , but diately, as their unclean state creates such keep their wool in the granary or in an Fig. 333.
an effluvi-
out-house, where, of course, either of these
um as will effects are aggravated. The best way I induce the know of preserving wool for a length of white- time is to keepit in a cool dry room hav
shonldered ing a wooden floor, packed in the pack wool-moth, sheets, in which it will be out of the reach Tinea sar
of dust, light, and moths.
If only for a
citella, few weeks, it is best kept as directed in fig. 333, (3940.) The safest plan for the wool to THE WHITE - SHOULDERED WOOL
MOTH -TINEA SARCITELLA.
into
come
grower is to sell it every year at the cur
the
rent prices, which are determined at the
wool -room . great woolfairs that take place in summer
* Journal of the Ag
ural Society of England, vol. vii. p. 429.
1
!
ROLLING FLEECES, AND QUALITY OF WOOL.
209
in every part of the country, either to the own pack -sheets. Wool is weighed in wool-dealers who attend there, or remit this way:It is sold in Scotland by the the entire clip of wool to a commission agent in Hullor Liverpool, to dispose of to the best advantage, at the proper time, to the wool-staplers, who assort each fleece into several portions, each portion being suitable to a particular manufacture. His object is to please the manufacturer, who will give the bestcurrent prices
wool-stone of 24 lb. avoirdupois, and is weighed out in double stones of 48 lb., each being called a weigh. Usually 7 Leicester hogg and 11 ewe fleeces make i weigh of 48 lb. In England, wool is sold by the lb., and weighed out by the tod of 2 stones of 14 each, or 28 lb. In weigh ing out, the above number of fleeces may
for the wool suited to his particular not exactly weigh the double stone ; and, purpose.
The mere wool-dealer pur- as fleeces are never broken to equalise the
chases with the view of earning a profit scales, a few small weights are used to on the fleeces in bulk. His object is to balance the scale either on the side of the purchase at as low a price as he can bar- wool or of the weights, at each weighing. gain for. In this way the weight of the number of weighs required to fill eachpack is correct
3942. When a wool-merchant, of what- ly ascertained, a memorandum being taken ever sort, purchases wool from a farmer, of each weighing. In fig. 334, is seen he sends his own people to pack it in his the large scales and beam h , used in weigh Fig. 334 .
h
b
E
WOD
2 WOLE 2 d
k
THE WEIGHING AND PACKING OF WOOL.
ing wool. The man i takes the fleeces from the pile g , and, after weighing the double stone, places the fleeces in a heap as at k. The wool-room should have as high a ceiling as to admit the suspension of the beam and scales from a hook ; and
feet long when empty, and open along one side. A small stone is placed in each end of the opening of the sheet, and a rope for each end being suspended from the ceil ing of the place where the wool is to be
packed, the stones form knobs which pre if it is large enough to admit of the pack- vent the corners of the sheet slipping ing of the wool too in the sheets, so much through the tyings of the ropes, as at a a, the better ; but if it will admit of neither of fig. 334. The sheet d is suspended just these conveniences, the wool must be re- to swim above the floor. Two men, b and moved out of it to the place where it is c, get into the sheet, place the fleeces, as weighed, and where it must be placed on handed to them by the woman e, from the heap k, lengthways across its bottom , as clean barn -sheets. the man c is doing ; and they trample them
3943. Wool is packed in this way : — down with force, especially at the corners, Pack -sheets are made of thin canvass, of where they are pushed down with both the shape of an oblong rectangle, about 8 feet set together ; while both hands hold VOL. II .
o
210
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
firmly by, and pull up the outside of the tain, to be conveyed in large waggons, corner of the sheet immediately under the each drawn by eight stallions, andto be tying, as shown in action by the man b. shipped at Rotterdam . The second layer of fleeces is laid contrary to the first, in length along thesheet, 2 or 3945. On the slightest inspection on
3 fleeces being placed parallel in the the sheep's back , one can perceive that breadth of the sheet : but theends of the wool consists of different qualities, the sheet are always filled with a fleece placed across its length, in the same position as at first ,and pressed down in the same manner. The sheet is thus filled with alternate layers of fleeces to the top, when the packers come out of it, and then
coarser being evidently below and the finer above. The finest wool is upon the shoulder and along the top of the back to the rump ; the next best is below the shoulders, along the ribs to the rump ; the coarsest is on the haunches ; and be
loosening the ropes, and reserving the low the belly it is short and detached, and small stones for the next sheet, imme- cannot be classed with the rest. Each of
diately close the mouth of the pack ; for, these parts have their respective qualities, if left open for a time,the elasticity of the which wool-staplers classify, in order to wool will cause the fleeces to rise so far as to render the closing afterwards impracticable, and a pack is difficult to close at all times. With the aid of hand -cramps, inserted into opposite sides, the edges of the pack - sheet are brought together, and
satisfy the wants of the manufacturers. The subdivison of the fleece by wool staplers is technically in these terms : Prime- lock - choice -lock - picked -lock super-head - head - downrights— second abb — livery - short-coarse orbreech -wool.
so held by iron skewers passed through It would be well for wool- growers to re both edges. When a farmeris packing wool ceive lessons from wool-staplers on the on his own account, it is well for him to essential properties which constitute each know that common iron table -forks answer of these practical subdivisions of the fleece,
as well as hand -cramps for pulling, in op- that they may be able to judge whether posite directions, the edges of a pack- the wool they grow is useful or otherwise sheet together, and for keeping them close to the manufacturer; and if it is not, its
like skewers. The edges being thus kept value is sure to be depreciated in the together, they are permanently secured by market ; for it is certain that, if the manu sewing with packing-needle and stout facturer cannot obtain in this country what twine, and the skewers or forks are re- he wants, he will go to other markets, and
moved as the sewing proceeds. One pack other countries. According to present is thus filled after another. A pack of practice, wool f contains 10 stones, that is, 240 lb.
wool- growers grow wool without knowing whether or not it is fit for any manufacture pursued this country, sort of
in
3944. Wool, as I have seen it packed and they must, therefore, take such prices in the Highlands, is not placed regularly as are offered. in the sheet as I bave described ; the
fleeces being crammed in and trampled
3946. Good wool should bare these
down as they happened to come to the properties :—The fibre should be of uni hands of the packer. The staple of the form thickness from root to point, when wool is sure to be broken by such treat- it is said to be true; the finer the wool, ment. I have seen Merino wool packed the smaller in diameter it is ; it should
on a large scale at Leipzig. The sheets be elastic, on being stretched longways; were made of horse-hair , and, in the pack- tough, not easily broken ; its surface should
ing, were occasionally, subjected to the have a shining silvery lustre ; it should pressure of a long pole of wood acting be of great density. The pole was fixed at one end by a ring to the ground, upon them as a lever.
3947. Of a staple - the staple being
and heavy weights were suspended, and a any lock that naturally sheds itself from rope fastened to the other end and passed the rest — all the fibres should be of the
through a ring in the ground, to keep same length ,' otherwise it will be pointed ; as bright of the staple should be comp good, by holding on, what the lever had the end botto not seem gained . The wool was packing for Bri- as the
m , and
osed
ROLLING FLEECES, AND QUALITY OF WOOL.
211
of dead wool; the entire staple should be allows their wool to be dirtied before strong, and its strength is tested in this being clipped, injures his clip of wool to manner :
- take the bottom of the staple a serious extent.
between the finger and thumb of the left 3950. Attention by farmers to the dif hand, and its top between those of the right, and, on holding the wool tight be- ferent classes of wool required by the tween the hands, make the third finger of various manufacturers of woollen goods,
the right hand play firmly upon the fibres, as in staccato on the strings of a violin ; and if the sound produced be firm and sharp, and somewhat musical, the wool is
might direct them to produce wool in every locality best snited for a particular manufacture. Our manufactures seem to require three classes of wool, which pos
sound ; if the fibres do not break on re- sess distinct characteristics - one for card
peatedly jerking the hands asunder with ing, another for combing, and a third in considerable force, the staple is sound ; if termediate to these. they break, the wool is unsound, and it will
break at the place which issued from the
3951. Carding wool should be short,
skin of the sheep when it was stinted of under four inches in length, fine, true,
length, and crumple up food or had an ailment — although it will very elasticgo.in its The object of carding is
not break at both those places simultane-
when let
ously, because the part occasioned by the to break the wool completely, to blend
greater illness, being the weaker, will first it most intimately, so as to form it into give way. Pliability is an importantpro- a thin roll of the slightest texture, held perty in the staple ; inflexibility and brit- together only by thenatural hookedness tleness are the opposite bad qualities.
of the pile, which disposes it to assume
a zigzag or waved form . Wool that will 3948. A good fleece should have the bear this process is fit to be manufactured
points of all its staples of equal length, into the finest fabrics, with a close and otherwise it will be a pointy one;the smooth surface. The waving and crump staples should be set close together ; and ledness is not any sort of curvature which
the fleece should be clean.
A pointy, disposes the fibres into parallel curves, that
watery, or dirty fleece creates much waste seem as if they had been formed by exter
to the manufacturer, to bring a portion of nal pressure , but is produced by a natural the wool to the proper state. An essen- cause affecting every individual pile as tial property of a fleece is its softness to it passed through the pores of the skin, the feel, which does not depend on fine- cansing one pile to hook on to its neigh
ness of fibre, but on a peculiar sort of bour. elasticity which yields to the touch at once, and readily recovers the form it had.
3952. Combing wool must be more than
There should be no hairs in wool, no long ones, which are easily distinguished from wool, and give the name of bearded to the fleece ; nor short ones, soft and fine, like cats hair, which are not easily distin guished from wool, and are named kemps.
four inches long, fine, true, but little elastic in length, and each pile ready to arrange itself in parallel spirals with its neighbours. The comb has not only the effect of laying every pile straight and even, and of re
moving theshorter piles than the general
The long hairs are frequently of a diffe- ity of the fleece, but also the few longer rent colour from the wool, but the kemp hairs are of the same colour ; and of the two, the latter are the more objectionable, as being less easily detected .
ones which may happen to be tied together in indissoluble knots. Combed wool spins into the worsted which makes all the finer class of worsted goods.
3953. The distinction in the spinning 3949. Keeping all these properties in view, the farmer who breeds sheep having of the carding and combing wool is thus fleeces with pointy staples, thinly set on, well described by Mr Luccock : - " In
and of unequal lengths — who stints his twisting a woollen thread," he says, “ when sheep of food at times, producing wool of the staple has been previously broken, and unequal size — and who does notwash his the fragments of it in the utmost disorder, sheep clean - or, having washed them clean, they are united only by their natural hook
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
212
edness, and the turning of the wheel rolls a considerable quantity is obtained from them together without arrangement, and abroad. they are placed in every possible direction. But in spinning a worsted thread , where 3957. In regard to the cause of the fineness of
every hair hasbeen previously disposed wool,Mr Culley remarks,that“ the Herefordshire
by the sideof others in the mostregular sheep that have the finest woolare kept lean, and produce 14 lb. each ; if better kept they grow order, the pile is drawn out in the direction larger, and produce more wool, but inferior in
of its length,everysingle hair being parallel to all those which lie near it, and is twisted in a spiral form , something likethe threads of a compound screw . If thesehairscon-
quality.” + This is trueofevery breed of sheep, and particularly of the Merino, whose propensity toleannesscaused their culture to be abandoned in Britainasunprofitable. Their wool did not so much deteriorate in this cold climate, as the
tracted their length to any considerable degree, they could not be correctly arranged, nor drawn out in that regular order which thework requires, but would be twisted into the thread in an irregular and crumpled form — a circumstance in-
impossibility of getting mutton upon their car cass. But though leanness may produce wool of
finer quality than high condition, yet the remark isonly strictly true when appliedto breeds which yield fine wool in all conditions; for no degree of leanness breedof will cause acoarse-woolled sheep, such as the Black-faced, to produce fine
jurious to worsted yarn, and to the goods fore, wool.it isTonecessary obtain a togiven quality of wool, there possess the breed that pro
which are made from it . ” *
duces it, and the wool may be comparatively
3954. Intermediate to the short and
finer or coarser as the sheep may be kept in low or high condition. But I apprehend that the
long wools, is that chiefly employed in fineness of the pile of wool depends chiefly on the the hosiery manufacture. This manu- fineness of the pores of the skin of the animal,
facture takes wool from four to eight breed and this probablydepends on course, thefinenessof the which pro breeds, — but of those however, inches long, which has contracting pro- duce finewool. Thereis noofdoubt, that perties in too great a degree and are too the quality of the wool of this country is coarser weak for the comb, and are as elastic and than it was years ago; not because the breeds sheep have deteriorated — on the contrary , longer than the short wools, but too coarse of they have all improved—but because the animals forthe finer classes of goods.
are kept throughout the year in much higher condition than they were ; and such a result might
3955. The geographical distribution of have been anticipated, for ahigh condition, indi the sheep in Great Britain, which produce cating a moist skin, should cause its pores to
these three classes of wool, is pretty dis- enlarge. During the improvementthathas taken The E. coast more place in the breeds of sheep, the counteracting tinctly marked. of shelter, as I conceive, has been at than the interior and the W. coast, and all influence work to retain the wool offiner quality against the richer lands in the courses of the rivers the effects of high condition; and though shelter,
flowing chiefly to the E. coast, are in- by preventing unequal evaporation of the yolk of
habited by the sheep which yield long only the wool,by warding off coldand drying winds, exercises a negative influence, yet its effects wool.
The green , half -elevated
grounds,
are positively beneficial, inasmuch as Mr Luccock
which lie between thoseriver courses, sup- observes,that “ the silky softness, like most other port the fine short-woolled sheep ; whilst good qualities of the fleece, depends very much the highest ranges of pasture produce the upon the breed of the sheep, and the quality of coarse wool .
the yolk which they constantlyafford .” 3958. It is not easy to determine whether the
3956. The Leicester, Lincoln, Cottes- densityofthe fibre of wool, that most desirable wold, and Kent breeds of sheep produce property, depends on some general law connected long wool ; and little long wool is im- with the breed, or the circumstances in which the is produced, since the mere coarseness or ported. TheCheviot, Norfolk, Wiltshire, fibre fineness of the fibre does not affect itsspecific
Western, Hereford, and Southdowns, pro- gravity: as,forinstance, the closefull-grown duce short wool, and much short wool is wool on the shoulder of a sheep does notdiffer imported. The Merino wool, which is materially, in density, from that of the thin and
short and fine, is imported from Spain, hairy breech ; and hence, perhaps, the density
depend on the breed. I am inclined to Saxony, and Australia,in large quantities. doesnot believe that soil and food very much affect the The Black -faced and Welsh breeds pro- weight of wool, for we find what isgrown in the
duce coarse short wool ; and of this quality chalky districts of England much drier and * Luccock On Wool, p. 154, edition of 1805.
+ Calley On Live Stock, p. 132 — note .
ROLLING FLEECES, AND QUALITY OF WOOL. lighter than wool produced on fine soft hazel loam ; and that grown from turnips appears to
213
same breed, reared in similar circumstances, differ much in density. The conclusion to be in-
meter, the invention of the late celebrated opti cian, Dolland of London , reads off diameters of a veryminute fraction of an inch, and may there fore be used for measuring the diameters of wool. It produces a double image of the fibre, which, on being brought in contact, the result is read off
ferred from all these considerations seems to be,
a circular index .
me heavier than wool from grass of the same soil. This fact is undeniable, that fleeces from the
The cost of this instrument
that whatever induces the greatest secretion of is about £ 2, 2s. yolk, whether it be breed, condition of animal, nature of soil, or food, will produce fibre of the 3962. M. Raspail ascertained the manner of greatest specific gravity; and hence on grass on 66the growth of wool by means of the microscope.
a deep mellow soil, in good heart and in a sheltered situation , a fine breed of sheep, capable of continuing in good condition throughout the year , should produce the densest, the finest, and
the longest fibre of wool. If these views be correct, you easily perceive how much depends on the judgment of the farmer to produce
If the foetus of a sheep ,” he observes , " taken when it is of the length of about 44 inches, and preserved in alcohol, be examined, it will be
found studded with globules of uniform size, elegantly arranged , and almost at equal dis tances, round certain white spots disposed in quincunxes, which seem, even at this early period,
wool possessing the greatest number of good qua-
to indicate the places where the hairs are to
lities.
grow . On the epidermis of the temple, instead of thin white spots, we find vesicles projecting in
3959. The late Mr Youаtt examined the ex-
the form of bottles, or rather of urns, whose sides
ternal structure of wool with the microscope, and
are granulated in the same manner as the epider
ascertained that the surface of the fibre is covered with scales which form a series of serrations
mis. These vesicles are the rudiments of hairs .” + The organic difference in the origin of hair and
along its entire length. The general outline of of woolis thus distinctly indicated. the fibre consists of a central stem or stalk , pro
bably hollow, or at least porous, and the stem
3963. Wool is well known to have the power
possesses a semi-transparency not found in the fibres of hair. From this central stalk springs at
of becoming felted. This quality is not evident to the eye, and the best judges of wool consider
distances, in all the breeds of sheep, a circlet of
leaf-shaped projections. Thus wool possesses a
this to be a point only to beascertained by trial. It consists of a tendency in the pile, when sub
property common to all independent horny fibres which issue from the skin of animals, an irregularity which constitutes a degree of roughness
to cohere together, and form a compact and pli
mitted to moderate heat, combined with moisture,
upon the surface from the root to the point.
able substance ; and pressure serves to make the contact the closer, by excluding the air from
Hence, both physically and chemically, wool and hair are analogous substances.
between the interstices of the fibres. The pro ceedings of nature in the operation of felting are little known . A coated fleece is a natural
3960. The comparative fineness of the pile of
instance of the felting property of wool. Mr
wool of the following breeds of sheep, was measured by Mr Youatt with the micrometer :-
tions on the fibre of wool accounts for its felting
Serrations in the inch .
property. “ It is a curious and interesting point that has been established , ” he says, “ the exis
Diameter of one inch .
Youаtt believes that the discovery of the serra
tence of an irregularity of form in the wool ac
Merino wool, Picklock, Saxony , Leicester,
.
so ito gio 3do
Deccan, black ,
Ισσσ
Odessa ,
to ito
Wallachian, .
Van Diemen's Land, Southdown, Wiltshire,
Ryeland , Cheviot, hill-fed, good pasture, Norfolk , Lincoln , Irish,
To .
.
oto TO
...
...
2400 2560 2720 1860 1280 2080 2080 1920 2080 2400
ito
ado
2080
so yo
1860 2420 1860
sto
1440 .
Australian , New South Wales, Mr Arthur's,
and
ao
1600 1280
so
1920*
ssho
3961. A correct instrument, named the eiroYouatt On Sheep, p. 91.
counting for, and necessarily giving it a felting power — is there a variation in this structure
corresponding with the degree of felting power ?” Mr Boyd, woollen manufacturer, of Innerleithin , Peeblesshire, questions MrYouatt's views. “Mr
Youatt asserts with much confidence,” he re marks, in wbich he is supported by Mr Luccock, " that the felting properties depend entirely on During an expe rience of many years, I have found this not to be the fact, and therefore state, without fear of the structure of the wool.
contradiction, that in many instances it is impos sible to estimate the extent of the felting pro perties in a variety of wools, until they have been submitted to the actual test of experiment ; and I am decidedly of opinion , that however perfect the structure of wool may be, if produced in the absence of an oily or saponaceous sub stance, it cannot possess the requisite properties
of a clothing material.” I Mr Boyd is again supported by Mr Luccock , when he says, “ If
+ Raspail's Organic Chemistry, p. 283.
# Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv ., p. 669.
214
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
the wool-grower be anxious to promote the bably to the effect upon it by the calcareous soils growth of fleeces prevailing in the felting abounding in those districts, for when those quality, I should recommend, from the little knowledge at present possessed, that he should promote the supply of the rich and nu-
sheep are removed to different soils,they produce a wool which thickens in the fulling mill, although the process proceeds more slowly than in some
tritious yolk, which the pile receives while other breeds. We must not conclude from this growing." circumstance that the difference observed in the
felting quality of fleeces is entirely owing to the
3964. Mr Youatt's theory appears to me un- land , because we findupon soils knownnot tobe satisfactory. On the authorityof Mr Luccock, injurious to wool, different kinds of sheep whose the application of moisture,warmth, and pressure are necessary to bring thefelting property of wool into action .“ Without the aid of moisture," he affirms, " it remains perfectly dormant; the warmth and pressure are required to quicken the process.” And he adds, “ The degree of heat required to make the felting property act with
fleeces do not felt in an equal degree. * 3967. I have mentioned the calculated number
of sheep in the kingdom (3603.) Taking that as the basis, Mr M‘Queen calculates the quantity of wool they produce at the following rates : 19,800,000 long -woolled sheep at 7 lb. - 148,000,000 lb.
the utmost force, is considerably below the boil ing point of water," and that “ a higher tempera
28,200,000 short
ture loosens the texture of the thread , and in
48,000,000
39 lb.
98,700,000 lb.
246,700,000+
creases the elasticity of the hair, thus giving it a disposition to start from the substance of the The pack containing 240 lb. of wool, this quan cloth , and spoil its surface. ” If the serrations of tity will fill 1,002,791 packs. the fibres be the principal means of felting wool,
it must be proved that they change their struc
3968. Mr Porter states that the late “Mr
on being immersed in water at a temperature ture near the boiling point, which has not yet
Hubbard of Leeds, a gentleman of great experi ence in the wool trade, expressed his belief be
been done. Wool, after being combed with heated
fore the committee of the House of Commons, in
iron combs, will not felt ; and yet the number 1828, that the actual number of sheep in England of serrations given by Mr Youatt, do not warrant and Wales had increased one -fifth since 1800 ; us in believing that, with any number of serrations, one wool shall felt, and another with the
that the long -woolled sheep had become more numerous than the short -woolled, and that the
same number shall not felt. For example, the weightof the fleece had so muchincreased that, table informs us that Leicester wool gives 1860 serrations in the inch ; and it has no felting
one with another, each sheep yielded more than 54 lb. of wool.” It will be observed that the
property, being an excellent combing wool. It relative number of long and short -woolled sheep,
also informs us that Cheviot wool gives only the
as given by Mr MʻQueen, in the foregoing table,
samenumber of serrations, 1860, and yet it is (in 3967,) does not coincide with the statement one of the best felting wools known; while the of Mr Hubbard, though the average weight of each Southdown gives as high as 2080 serrations in the
fleece does so exactly.
inch, and it is not a good felting wool. 3969. Taking the price of long wool at 1s., 3965. “ Felting ," observes Mr Luccock , “ is and of the short wool, coarse and fine, at 9d .the lb., the basis upon which the hat manufacture de- the quantities specified in (3967) will bear pends among ourselves, and has for many ages these values : 148,000,000 lb. at ls., been applied abroad to the production of pieces of domestic furniture .
£ 7,400,000
In the fabrication of
98,700,000 lb. at 9d ., 3,701,250 worsted goods it is not employed ; nor is it ne cessary in the manufacture of stockings, blankets, 246,700,000 £ 11,101,250 baize, Alannels, nor any other article not submit ted to the action of the fulling mill. In some of them, when made of wool in which it 3970. The quantity of sheep and lamb wool, abounds, the housewife finds great inconvenience, including that of the Alpaca, Llama, and Vicuna, complains and that her stockings and her flannels imported into the kingdom, duty free , in 1847, become too small for the wearer.
From the
was 62,592,598 lb., and in 1848, 70,521,957 1b.
different modes of manufacturing these articles, we may conclude that, in general, the felting quality is a valuable one in almost every description of fine and short-stapled fleeces, and that it is not desirable in the greater part of the longer
3971. The declared value of wool and woollen
manufactures, exported from the kingdom , was 1847.
and coarser wools."
3966. The nature of the soil seems to have an
effect on the felting property of wool. The fine short wool of the Southdown and Wiltshire breeds, do not felt well or easily, owing most pro * Luccock On Wool, p. 161-4.
I Porter's Progress of the Nation, p. 175.
1848 .
sheep's and lamb's, £ 288,231 Wool, Woo
£ 189,817
1,001,364
776,175
Woollen manufactures, 6,896,038
5,740,634
llen yarn ,
£ 8,185,633 £ 6,706,626 & + M'Queen's Statistics of the British Empire, p. 52. § Parliamentary Return, Feb. 26, 1849.
ROLLING FLEECES, AND QUALITY OF WOOL.
215
3972. To show the importance of the home troops of their respective provinces in war ; but, market to the woollen manufactures, I shall before the time of Henrique II., it was become state, keeping the amount of exports as above in wholly a civil office, and the title was gradually
view , that in the committee of the House of giving place to that of Alguacil, (mayor.) Most Commons in 1828, it was stated by Mr T. Elworth probably the judge of the shepherds was called that four - fifths of the woollen goods made were the merino, and hence the appellation extended worn at home; by Mr Henry Hughes, that threefourths were worn at home ; by Mr G. B. Hall,
to the flocks under his care." 3976. It is the common opinion that merino
that in washing wool loses 10 lb. in 20 lb. — that
ittakes 4 lb. of unwashed wool to make one yard sheep came to this country from Spain, and so of broad cloth, price 18s.; by Mr J. C. Francis, they did in the end of the last century, but it that it requires 21 lb. of wool to make one yard appears that fine-woolled sheep were sent from of cloth, value 10s. — that the manufacturing costs England to Spain a much longer time ago. That 5s. the yard; and by Mr Benjamin Gott, that the sheep were sent from England to Spain at a price of manufacturing a yard of cloth was equal known period is certain, for Mr Youatt quotes to the value of the wool. *
3973. " A curious trade ," observes Mr Porter,
“ has of late years been introduced — that of importing foreign woollen rags into England for the
purpose of re-manufacture . These are assorted, torn up, and mixed with English, or more com-
from the Chronicles of Stowe, that “ this yere
( 1464) King Edward IV. gave a license to pass over certain Cotteswolde sheep into Spain ;" and he quotes Baker also, who says, “ King Edward IV. enters into a league with John , King of Arragon , to whom he sent a score of Costal ewes and four rams—a small present in show , but
monly with Scotch wool of lowquality, and infe- great in the event, for it proved ofmore benefit rior cloth is made from the mixture, at a price to Spain, and more detrimental to England, than sufficiently moderate to command a sale for exportation. By this means a market is obtained
for wool of a very low quality, which might other wise be left on the hands of the grower.” +
could at first have been imagined .” The wool of the Cotteswolde sheep of the present day is. long, and not remarkable for fineness. Perhaps the old Cotteswolde wool was finer than that of
the present period, because that breed of sheep 3974. When the skins of the Cape sheep are properly dressed and cleaned, and a number of
them sewed together, they form a much warmer covering than could be made from any other materials. The richer inhabitants, and those of Cape Town, who can afford themselves more ex-
has been much crossed with the Leicester.
But
if the old Cotteswolde conferred so much benefit on Spain, it may be fairly inferred that the wool
of Spain was not so fine as that of England at the time. But sheep were exported from England to Spain prior to the reign of Edward IV., as Mr
pensive coverings, affect to dislike this cheap Southey intimates, that “ Fernan Gomez de Cib article, because they say it smells of mutton ; but
dareal, in one of his letters, ( Epist. 73,) mentions
the boor, the Cape farmer, is enabled by his im-
a dispute between two Spaniards concerning rank
mense flocks to select such only as have a smooth in the presence of Juan II., 1437. It was ob fur, and so he obtains a handsome coverlet, sojected tauntingly to one of them, that he was unlike what a European could imagine, from descended from a judge of the shepherds, that is, sheep's skins, that it may be doubted whether from a merino. The reply was, that this office many personscould even guess from what animal had always been held by hidalgos of great honour, it was made. Those that have been brought to and that ' King D. Alfonso had instituted it in Europe, have been viewed as the skin of some the person of Inigo Lopez de Mendoza, when the
unknown quadruped . Few furs can be more
English sheep vere firstbrought over to Spain .'"
beautiful than the selected skins of lambs thus
This dispute occurring in 1437, and referring to
prepared.I
an ancient title of honour, which had been con ferred as far back as the time of the introduction
3975. The term merino, denominative of a particular breed of sheep and kind of wool, is of ob-
of English sheep into Spain, and a taunt being
Mr Southey informs us, that
then also given to a descendant of a Merino, it is clear that the English sheep referred to could
“ Merino is an old Leonese title, still preserved in Portugal, though long since obsolete in the
not have been the Cotteswoldes exported in 1464, as mentioned by Stowe. “ How long was
scure origin.
other kingdom of Spain. Perhaps it is a mon-
it before the merino fleece became finer than that
grel diminutive of the Arabic title mir or emir ,
of the original stock ! ” asks Mr Southey ; and he
likely enough to have been formed when the two replies, “ Brito,who wrote towards the close of the languages, Spanish and Moorish, were, as it were, running into each other. Mirquebir, the
Eixteenth century, says inpraiseof the wool grown about Santarem , it is so fine that it may die with
augmented title, was in use atOrmuz. Merino that of England, (Monarchia Lusitania, f. i. p. would be sufficiently explained by supposing it 93.) " If the Spanish wool had been as fine then a diminutive grade. The old laws of Spain de-
fine it thus :
He is a man who has authority to
as it is now, he would hardly have drawn his comparison from the English .”
administer justice within a certain district.' The
first mention of this office is in the reign of Bermudo II. The Merinos then commanded the
3977. While these facts are recorded in Spanish literature, regarding the origin and ancient quality
M'Queen's Statistics of the British Empire, p. 54 .
+ Porter's Progress of the Nation , p. 177.
# Bischoff's History of Woollen Manufactures, vol. ii. p. 292.
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
216
of the wool of Spain, the opinion of Mr Youatt hand growing between them, and displace seems much too strongly expressed, when he such clods as are seen to interfere with the says, thatto“Spain Europeforandthe world are originally indebted the most valuable materiał
proper growth of the plants. The workers in the manufacture of cloth.” And again,“ The should be careful in using the hoe amongst
chunahs, therefore,may be descendants of the bean plants, as they are very tender and English sheep,"namely, those sent to Spainin easilybruisedandcut over. After theplants 1464, “ mixed with the common breedofthe have risen about a foot in height, which
withany degree of justice,urgethe claim which they will soondo in favourable weather, some have done, of being instrumental in pro- the blossom will begin to appear; and its ducing theinvaluable Spanish wool.”.* And yet, appearance should be the signal to finish as we have seen, sheep were probably sent from the work amongst this crop as soon as England to Spain long before that date, or even possible. Time may be found to drill long before 1437 ; for if the King Alphonso men
tionedabove, as having instituted the order of grub,fig. 264, the space between the drills,
judge of the shepherds, be Alfonso the Wise, and hoe the sides of the drill along the king of Leon and Castile,who is stated to "have plants ; but if not, the double-mould -board
digested a code of excellentlaws, and rendered plough, fig. 214, should at all events, as hisname famous inhistory by his patronageof thelast operation, set the earth well up to the arts andsciences,”+he reigned at the early the rootsoftheplants, in orderto give period from 1252 to 1284. Another fact men
tioned by Mr Southey is, that when Catharine, them a firm footing on the top of the drill daughter of John of Gaunt, was espoused to against the powerof the wind. Henrique III., she took English sheep with her as her dowery, which fixes another exportation of sheep to Spain about 1390 — a considerable time
3980. The summer culture of beans
prior tothe Cotteswolde exportation of 1464; and growing on the flat ground in rows ( 2431 ) if the English sheep had been of an inferior de- is the same, in as far as the scuffling, hoe
scription to those of Spain , it is not likelythat ing, and drill-grubbing the ground are the future Queen of Castile would have taken concerned, as on the drill; but theland is them with her for her own dowery.
not set up with the double-mould -board
3978. Mr Southey puts the query : " Can there plough, the drill-grubbing finishing the possibly be any truth in the remark of Yepes (t. operation. 7,8 134,) who says, ' Daily experience shows us, that ifa lamb is suckled by a goat, the wool be 3981. When beans are grown broad comes hard and hairy; and, on thecontrary, if a kid is suckled by a ewe, the hair becomes cast, (2414,) no implement but the hand hoe is of any avail in clearing the ground soft ?? " I of weeds ; and as the hand-hoeing would require to be performed much oftener ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF BEANS .
than time will allow , to keep the ground as clean as it should be, the inevitable
3979. The state we left the bean crop consequence is that a crop of broadcast in spring, in (2443,) was immediately after beans is always a foul one, unless the the drills had been harrowed down on the weather is so favourable, from the earliest
crowns with the drill-harrow , fig. 220, part of the season, as to push the bean about a fortnight after the crop had been plants as far forward as to sinother the sown. So soon as the young plants growing weeds by overgrowing them . on raised drills ( 2432) have attained two or three inches in height, the scuffler, fig. 3982. In England, the young bean plants 262, should remove all the weeds thatmay are subject to be eaten down in moist
have appeared between the drills in the weather by the common field slug, Limax
interval of time since the drill harrowing ; agrestis.
I never heard of this mollusc
and the scuffling will also reduce some of being so numerous in Scotland as sensibly
the clods, where the land is naturally to affect a field crop, although the small tender. The field workers follow the scuf- grey slug, Limax cinereus, is troublesome fler with the band -hoe, fig. 266, and re- enough at times on plants in the garden . move all the weeds growing along each side of the plants, and pull those by the
3983. In dry summers, the young stalks
* Youаtt On Sheep, p. 146-7. + Bigland's View of the World , vol . ii . p. 589. # Southey's Omniana, vol . ii. p. 103-8.
$ Macgillivray's Molluscous Animals of Scotland, p. 43.
SUMMER CULTURE OF BEANS.
217
and leaves of the bean are attacked by the creep into the flower to reach the nectary, Aphis fabæ , commonly called the black she pierces the exact spot of the calyx, as dolphin, and collier. well as the upper lobe of the flower, be Fig. 335 . The females,fig.335, neath which the nectar is stored, and the are apterous, ovate, extraction ofnectar is a great detriment to sootyblack. When the crop, which cannot then perfect all the this aphis appears, it beans in the seed -pod.* The most for does so, like all its midable foe to the humble bee is the cater
tribe, in countless pillar of the moth called Ilythia colonella, numbers; and from which feeds upon the honey, and, when full their numbers they fed, spins a web of a close woolly texture, commit, in a few so tough that it cannot be rent in pieces. days, extensive rav- The moth creeps into the nest in June to THE WINGLESS PEMALE age upon the leaves deposit her eggs, and the caterpillars live OF THE BEAN PLANT LOUSE - APHIS FABÆ.
and tender stalks of in families sometimes of 500, to the total
the bean. The only destruction of the poor humble bees. course that can be practically adopted to get the better of them is, that, as they 3985. Beans often sustain serious in
cluster chiefly on the topmost bunch ofthe jury from the attacks of a small short leaves, these should be cut off with a sickle, snouted weevil, of the genus Sitona. It
which the field -workers can do very quick- was particularly abundant in 1848, and ly, and by this means the propagation ofthe we have seen young bean -plants almost
pest may be prevented. But it is not suffi- wholly stripped of their leaves by it. cient tocut off the tops of the bean plants There are numerons species, but thetwo
and let them lie on the ground, for the which appear to be most injurious in Scot apbides will again remount the bean plant land, are s . ulicis and s . canina. The -or at least the males, fig. 336, which are beak is short ,and nearly fat above, and has a groove down the middle ; the body Fig. 336 . covered with small scales of a brownish
colour above, and ash - grey beneath ; there are three pale lines onthe thorax , and the wing-cases are deeply punctured in linear rows; in S. canina, the latter are like
wise marked with pale lines. These in --
sects attack the bean shortly after it ap pears above the ground, and continue to
THE WINGED MALE OF THE BEAN PLANT - LOUSR
frequent itduring the greater part of its
APHIS FABÆ .
growth. But they by no means confine
winged and black, when they are hatched , their depredations to that plant, but feed will escape. The tops cut off should be on almost all the leguminous species, and carried to the ends of the drills and burned , are often veryhurtful to young pease both
or deep holes dug in the headridges, and the in gardens and in the field . Sweet pease tops buried in them with quickTime. It is in gardens seldom fail to be disfigured doubtful where these aphides are bred in by them , in the earlier stages of their
the egg — it cannot be upon the bean plant, growth. and as they are at first apterous, they can
3986. After the bean - plant has grown not transport themselves. The lady-birds, until all the pods are set, the practice of fig. 275, destroy this aphis. the garden indicates that, when the top of
3984. The flower of the bean is often the plant is cut off in moist weather, at that
deprived of its prolificacy by one of the period of its growth, the crop will be sen humble bees, Bombus terrestris, which is sibly increased. This is a probable result, densely clothed with the finest hairs of the it being a common observation that, in deepest black . Although bees are useful moist weather, the bean has a great ten in assisting in the fecundation of plants, dency to grow in height long after the pods when the female earth -bee is too large to have ceased to form ; and as long asthis * Journal of the English Agricultural Suciety, vol. vii. p. 413-16.
218
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
tendency continues, the pods and beans do prominent, orbicular, and black ; below
not enlarge; and the only mode of check them , on each side, is a deep angular groove to receive the two Fig. 337 . ing the tendency, in the circumstances reantennæ , inserted to wards the tip of the
ferred to, is to cut off the top, when the
vigour of the plant's growth will of course
nose ; thorax deeply
be directed tothe nourishment of the fruit.
punctured,
broader
than the head towards the base ; tarsi four
ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF PEASE.
jointed, and all com 3987. Although the most common prac
tice is to sow pease along with beans ( 2454,)yet, as theyarealso cultivated alone, it is necessary to bestow attention on them THE STRIPED PEA when they are so cultivated. When sown WEEVIL - SITONA LINBATA . broadcast, the pea - plant, growing quickly,
bined beneath except the fourth, which is
long, clavate, and ter minated by two small claws. The numbers of this beetle are at
especially in moist weather, soon over- times very great, while the art it displays comes the weeds that may be disposed to in eluding detection is very remarkable. grow along with it ; but, though it over- On a person going into a crop of peas in comes them , it does not entirely destroy fested by it, a pattering like rainmay be them ; and the consequence is, the ground heard upon the leaves, occasioned by the is left by the pea , when sown alone numbers dropping down to the ground, broad -cast, in a foul state. When sown in where they fall upon their backs amongst rows, in every third furrow of the plough, the clods , and remain motionless, with or in drills, ( 2456 ,) at 27 inches apart, their legs folded up. They perfectly the ground may be scuffled, fig. 262, hoed, riddle the leaves of the pea. They affect fig. 266, and drill-grubbed, fig. 264, the the leaves of the lucerne and red clover, as same as beans are when sown in rows in well as those of the pea . They begin at the flat, (3980.) These operations will the edge of the leaf, holding it steadily require to be rapidly performed, since the between their legs, whilst they eat down
quick and straggling growth of pea-straw from the top to the bottom .
On the
affords neither timenor room for dilatory clover being moved by band or foot, work, and asmuch should be done in the they will fall off by dozens to the ground,
time as the circumstances of the case will where they remain concealed for a time. admit.
3990. The pea itself suffers from a
3988. The pea-plant is subject to the attacks of many insects. The little brown pupæ of the fly Phytomyza nigricornis feed on the parenchyma, or pulp of the leaf, causing minute brown specks on the leaf.
beetle named the pea -beetle, Bruchuspisi. “ The beetles pair in summer," says Mr
Curtis, “ whilst the peas are in flower and producing pods; the females then deposit an egg inalmost every pea which has just formed.
From the outside of these peas,
when arrived at maturity, they do not 3989. A more formidable enemy is the appear damaged ; but, on opening them , striped pea -weevil, Sitona lineata, fig. 337, one generally finds a very small larva, which represents the insect greatly magni- which, if left to repose, remains there all
fied, as may be seen by comparing the the winter and part of the following sum figure with the line alongside of itin mer, consuming by degrees all the inter length of the natural size. This weevil is nal substance of the pea, so that in the more or less ochreous, or light clay colour, spring the skin only remains; after which elliptical in form , and convex above, punc- it is transformed into an insect with scaly
tured and covered with minute scales; wing -cases, which pierces a hole in the and, when these are worn off by age or skin of the pea, from whence it comes accident, the beetle has a black shining forth and resorts to the fields sowed with
surface : it has two strong mandibles for that pulse, in "order to deposit its eggs in * biting, notched on the inside ; eyes lateral, the new pods." This insect is about 2 * Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. vii. p. 408, 419, 428.
WEANING LAMBS .
219
lines in length, but fortunately it is rare in in that sense . These distinctive appella this country ; butanotherspecies, Bruchus tions are natural, and characteristic as to granarius, is rather plentiful in peas and their appearance. “ The secondary and beans, stored in granaries as well as in immediate causes of this disease," observed
those imported from abroad , particularly the late Mr Knight, “ have long appeared from Odessa.
Worm -eaten peas are as-
to me to be the want of a sufficient supply
cribed by some to the larva of a saw -fly, of moisture from the soil, with excess of whilst others affirm it is that of a moth, humidity in the air - particularly if the
whose metamorphoses are as yet unascer- plants beexposed to a temperature below tained, and a Bruchus gets the blame from that to which they have been accustomed . other parties. It would seem, from this If damp and cold weather in July succeed
contrariety ofopinion, that the insect which that which has been warm and bright, commits the ravages has not yet been without the intervention of sufficient rain
detected in the perfect state. Thecaterpil- to moisten the ground to some depth, the lars of the white -shouldered woollen moth, crop is generally much injured by mil Tinea sarcitella, fig . 333, are found in the dew .” + These remarks explain the cause cavities of peas and beans which had been
of the appearance of mildew in the pea
occupied by theBruchus. Thesecaterpillars with sufficient accuracy , and, acting in spin their webs in the texture of the sacks their belief, Mr Knight was enabledto which contain peas or beans; and so closely ward the disease off his pea crops. The are the threads of the sacks agglutinated
white mould on the pea is a species of
together by their webs, that the strength of erysiphe. “All fungals absorb oxygen , a man is required to tear them asunder. and exhale carbonic acid. This has been No doubt dampness and mouldiness assist proved experimentally by Dr Marcet of the efforts of those caterpillars. Geneva, and may account for their tend ency to vitiate the air, instead of purify 3991. The pea crop is very subject to ing it as other plants do ; and it may
mildew when the ground is dry, and the also explain the cause of the fungi being so universally destitute of green colouring for vegetation in summer. It exhibits matter, which is known to result in other air moist and cool - an unfavourable state
itself upon the leaves of the plants, and as plants from the decomposition of carbonic long as it remains their functions seem acid .
Fungals abound in nitrogen . Cer
suspended — the stem and leaves make no tain fungi, in an imperfect state, are saidto progress in growth, and the blossom and be connected with fermentation. The grain are diminutive. Rain washes the curious circumstance that in certain bake
mildew off, and the plant regains its ordi- houses the bread becomes ropy, and, though nary bue, but never attains the size and sometimes prevented from assuming this health it would have enjoyed had it not condition by repeated washings of the walls and foor with chloride of lime, the been attacked by the mildew . evil is occasionally so obstinate as to prove
3992. Mildew is a fungal plant, parasitic upon organised matter, and is valuable in the economy of nature by assisting in the decomposition of decaying or decayed
the ruin of the establishment, is probably dependent on the same cause. Another curious circumstance is, that mouldiness is effectually prevented by any kind of per
animal and vegetable substances. It origi- fume. It is known that books will not
pates in sporules so minute as to elude become mouldy in the neighbourbood of observation by the naked eye. Some kinds Russia leather,nor anysubstance, if placed
of mildew live entirely under the scarf within the influence of an essential oil.” + skin of the plants they inhabit ; whilst others exist in the open air, but all live at
first beneath the epidermis, and not upon
ON THE WEANING OF LAMBS .
it.* When the fungal affections of plants are of a white colour they are called mil3993. Many of the older lambs wean dew , in the agricultural sense, and when of themselves after their mothers have been
red or brown colour they are named rust shorn of their wool. Whether it is that * Journal of the English AgriculturalSociety, vol. ii. p. 2-11. Lindley's Vegetable Kingdom , p. 41.
+ Knight's Horticultural Papers, p. 206 .
220
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
they do not recognise their mothers, from general weaning takes place. The ewes, the altered appearance they have on being when separated from their lambs, should deprived of their fleece, or whether the scent of the body is lost or changed by exposure to the air from want of the fleece, it is not easy to determine; but, be the cause what it may, the event may be looked for by the shepherd of several of the oldest lambs weaning themselves from their mothers, immediately after these shall have been clipped. The voluntary wean-
be kept in a field of rather bare eaten pas ture, until their milk be dried up. They must be milked by the hand, for a few times till the secretion ceases - once, 24 hours after the lambs are taken away - again , 36 hours thereafter — and the third time perhaps 2 days after that. Even beyond that time a few may feel distressed by milk, which the shepherd should relieve
ingis no loss to the lambs, since, up to the at intervals until the udders become dry. period of clipping, they had almost solely Milking them after the weaning of the lambs is essential to the safety of the ewes , depended on the grass for subsistence. and I fear that it is not so effectuallyper 3994. Leicester lambs are weaned at formed as it should be until the udders
the end of June or beginning of July ; and the process is simple and safe, as most of them by that time chiefly depend upon grass for support. All that is required in
become dry. The danger to be appre bended from its neglect is the plugging up of the teats with caseous matter, deposited therein by the milk which should have been
the process of weaning is to separate the drawn away ; and which plugging, in the ewes from the lambs. The usual practice next lambing-season, will probably prevent is to take the lambs away from the ewes, the natural flow of the new milk ; and the
and, being taken to a strange pasture, consequence will be, that inflammation they bleat loudly and incessantly ; whereas will be set up in the udder, and the ewe if they are allowed to remain on the pas- either take puerperal fever, that is, udder
ture they have been accustomed to for clap or garget, (2596,) and die, or her some time past, and the ewes taken away, lambs be so restricted of milk as to be the bleating will sooner cease. The half starved . ewes should be taken to a field lying far asunder from the one the lambs were left
3996. Ewes are milked in a very dif
in, in order to be beyond the bearing of the bleatings of each other. The ewes should be put on bare, eaten, and not mown pasture, the latter being unfavourable to drying up the milk . The pasture of the lambs should be frequently changed after the bleating has ceased, say every ten days ; and, where such is at hand , they thrive well on billy pasture for someweeks at this time, the astringent quality ofwhich giving an excellent tone to their system ,
ferent manner from cows. A long nar row bught, a a fig. 338, formed of hurdles, fig. 40, on both sides, when the fence of the field is a hedge, and only on one side when it is a stone wall, as in the figure, is erected along the fence close to the gate of
a field near the steading; and it should be no larger than to contain all the ewes in a crowded state. The ewes being driven into it head inwards, women proceed with the milking, which is done by placing a small
and rendering them more hardy for the bandy, c, on its edge on the ground, and winter. Some farmers even bire rough sitting down behindthe ewe, as at b. The hill pasture for their lambs ; but where milk is stripped clean from the teats alter
such cannot be had , they put them on the nately, with the right hand into the handy, oldest good pasture, for a few weeks be- while theleft hand presses the udder of the fore the aftermath is ready to receive ewe towards the milker. The milker re them .
quires to be always on her guard , to remove
the handy the instant she observes the ewe 3995. The ewes which were forsaken showing the least symptom of voiding by their lambs after being clipped, should either water or fæces; and a ewe is apt to be daily observed by the shepherd, to void the former whenever her udder is ascertain whether the milk confined in the touched for the first time from behind .
udder is troublesome to them ; and for this The milk from every ewe is poured from purpose they should be caught occasionally, the bandy into the milking pail, d. Every and the milk taken from them , until the ewe is turned out of the bught by the
WEANING LAMBS.
221
shepherd, who waits for that purpose, band again ; and the milkers move up the as it is milked, to prevent its coming in bught as the ewes are turned out, to keep Fig. 338.
DILULUS mit
a
nd
s
Ctell THE MILKING OF EWES .
the unmilked ones as close together as
3999. Some breeders of Leicester sheep
possible, in order to prevent them starting annually dispose of all their lambs, imme forward or aside in the act of milking. diately after being weaned, except a few ewe-lambs to freshen the ewe- flock ; and
3997. Time was when ewe-milking created a great stir in the farm -house in the making of ewe-milk cheeses; and so much anxiety did housewives evince for this pro-
such breeders keep a larger flock of ewes. This difference of management does not arise from caprice, for it is found that some soils will maintain ewes in good keeping
cess , that the ewes were milked until they condition which will not put boggs in the were perfectly lean, to supply a sufficiency condition they shonld be ; and there are
of this sort ofmilk . Better ideas now pre- large breeding farms which cannot raise a vail, and farmers veryproperly will not sufficiency of turnips to maintain hoggs in allow the ewes to be milked oftener than is
winter. Their are many markets con
requisite to make them completely dry. venient for the sale of lambs in summer, It was misplaced economy to reduce the and it is no uncommon sight for from condition of the entire ewe- flock for the 50,000 to 70,000 lambs to be collected at poor boast of making a few strong -tasted a fair, such as at St Boswell's, Yetholm , cheeses.
3998. One great means of warding off
Lockerby, West Linton, and Melrose. 4000. It is recommended by some breed .
the attack of the fly on hoggs is doddering, ers of lambs to dip them in a solution of particularly in localities obnoxious to flies. arsenic and soft soap once or twice in the This operation consists of clipping the course of the summer, in order to get rid
wool from off the tail and between the of the keds, fig. 308, which had escaped Should boggs scour, which upon them from the ewes after they were they are not unapt to do when put on clipped. Other liquors besides solution of foggage immediately after being weaned, arsenic, such as a decoction of tobacco and and where there is no rough moory or billy spirit of tar, answer the purpose, and pasture to put them on for some weeks, should be preferred to that dangerous in the removal of the wool will prevent the gredient. The solution of arsenic will less discharge remaining about the animal, and, affect the colour of the wool than the to of course, deprive the fly of one object of bacco liquor; but that is of no consequence attraction. The use of docking the tails in Scotland, where the wool is nevershorn from the lamb. The process of dipping is of lambs is now made obvious, ( 2573.) hind -legs.
222
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
the less necessary , when it is considered them with a Leicester tup. Such a cross will
that the lambs, as hoggs, will have to be supply the requisite number of lambs of the finest
becom completely bathed or smeared before being quality for the table,and theewes, before There is no put on turnips in the commencement of sort of meat so readily obtained andsuitable for the table in summer, on account of its small
winter.
joints, and being fit for use immediately when
4001. No sheep being bred on carse and dairy
killed, as lamb. The jigot boiled, and the fore
farms, and on farms in the neighbourhood of quarter or loin roasted ,and relished with a thin towns, the process of weaning is unknown on
slice of toasted ham , makes an excellent dinner
them ; and on pastoral farms, as the lambs are a month later in being lambed upon them, the weaning is proportionally later than on low
cold roast rib and shoulder of lamb, with dressed
in a summer's day ; and who does not enjoy a salad, and cucumber, even in the hottest period
farms. "Lambs ought on no account to be kept of the dog-days,when the very sight of any other on the ewe beyond the first week of August,
sort of meat would cloy the appetite ! A sheep's
beyond which they will reduce the condition of haggis has been lauded by poet and peasant, and the ewes to too low a degree to be regained be- though classed by the foriner amongst the “ pud fore they are put to the tup in October.
din' race," must be regarded as too substantial a dish for summer , but a lamb-haggis is a deli
4002. The milking of ewes was practised to a great extent on pastoral farms for the purpose of making cheese, but is now abandoned for the
cacy even in that season .
good and sufficient reason — that it is injurious to the condition and constitution of the ewes, to a much greater degree than the profit derived from the cheese afforded by their milk . “ The wages paid for milking," observes Mr Little, are
for the farmer's table .
higher than any given for other out-door work ;
arise from an enervated and costive habit of the
the quality of the woolishurt, and the quantity
animal, which may be produced by a want of
A lamb's head and
lamb's fry make sweet and savoury dishes. Thus every part of the lamb is eminently useful
4005. Pining. The rationale and cure ofthis fatal disease is thus attempted to be given by a writer :-" The disease called pining, seems to
reduced ; and no part of the stock ever attain the
proper exercise, in conjunction with feeding in
strength and condition which those sheep do
pastures of an astringent nature. The principal
where the practice is laid aside ; and of course the lambs must be fewer, leaner, and of less size, and the cast ewes neither the weight nor in the
districts in which this disease is found to prevail,
same condition .
About 12 or 13 weeks'
are the green pastures of the Cheviot mountains, the chain of hills running through the S.W.parts of Roxburghshire, the pastoral districts of Sel.
suckling is sufficiently long for hill-lambs, and
kirk and Peebles shires, and some other districts of Scotland, as Galloway. Under the old prac tice of keeping the sheep in flocks, as they are At the weaning season sheep are easily hurt by termed hirsels,ofweaning the lambs in the months being crowdedinto folds, and heated by running, of July or August, and afterwards of milking the
will not be hurtful to the ewes, provided there is time to get them into condition before winter.
owing to the imprudence of inexperienced servants being sent to catch them . By being new clipped and full of grass, they are then more
ewes for 8 or 10 weeks, the pining was unknown in most of these districts; but under this mode of treatment, the sheep were frequently subject
easily hurt than at any other time of the year.”
to diarrhea - a disease diametrically opposed to
4003. Mr Little is of opinion that the lambs after being weaned ten or twelve days, might be
pining. The farmers of those pastoral districts have generally improved upon the older methods of keeping their sheep.
They find it to be more
allowed to go to the ewes, as by that time they
profitable to allow the whole flocks to pasture
would almost all find their mothers, and would not be able to bring them into milk , or do them
together indiscriminately and undisturbed . The lambs remain unweaned , until they wean them
any hurt ,and at the same time they would enjoy the benefit of being led by them throughout the winter." * Hill-lambs have a more acute instinct in recognising their mothers than Leicester ones,
selves, which generally doesnot take place till the month of December. By this mode ofmanage ment, the ewes and lambs are found to be of a higher comparative value than all the sumrea
and in an open hirsel they might accompany their
lised by the sale of cheese made from the milk of
mothers with impunity, while, on a lowland farm , the ewes ; besides, the ewes are not subject to the the ewes would be brought again into milk .
various accidents arising from so frequently col
lecting them together for the purpose of milking. 4004. Lamb for the table.-- I think that every farmer who possesses sheep should supply his
But under this undisturbed state of management,
I am aware
in all cases where dry astringent pastures are produced, such as on the syenitic porphyry of the
that breeders of the valuable kinds of sheep
Cheviot range, the piningmade its appearance.
grudge to use their lambs at table, and no doubt
That such pasture promotes this disease, is
own table with lamb in summer .
the table would thus be supplied at considerable
further strengthened by the fact that it is more
cost ; but there are other modes of obtaining the end without making any sacrifice, such as pur-
common in dry than in wet seasons ; and most so at that season of the year when, by the influence
chasing a few Black -faced ewes and crossing of the sun, the plants are less juicy ; or early in * Little On the Mountain Sheep, p. 63-5.
DRAFTING EWES AND GIMMERS.
223
autumn, when the grasses whichhave pushed to neck, which indicates breeding too near seed become less succulent. This disease isnot akin - hollow back, which implies weak known on the whole of the greywacke range of the Lammermoor Hills, where heath prevails, occa ness in the vertebral column, thereby ren sionally interspersed with green pastures, and dering them unfit to bear lambs to advan
where the hirseling practice is pursued . Nor is tage - flat ribs, which confine the space for it known to existin general on green succulent the fætus within the abdominal region — a
pastures,or even heaths, growing oncalcareous drooping tail-head, which affects the food,andthe exertion of the animal in procuring length of the hind -quarter, a space occu it, appears to counteract theprogress of the dis- pied by superior flesh — bad feet, which with ease along with ease, arising from the inactivity of the digestive prevent travellingand coarse bone, which function. If we suppose these to be the predis-
the flock - round
posing causes of this disease, the prevention or remedy will suggest itself, either under the head of food or treatment. Should it be deemed inex.
indicates coarseness of flesh - thin or short coat of wool, which lessens the clip and the pedientto adopt the mode of keeping the flocks profit from it- diseased teat or udder,
in hirsels, a change of place, and, consequently, which diminishes
supply of milk for of food,is necessary to accomplishthispurpose. the future progenythe — scarcity of milk, by Thesalutary effects of a variety of food onthe which lambs, not obtaining sufficient nou animal system are well known. When sheep affected with this diseaseareput upon a heath, rishment in the early period of their exis
it has frequently the desired effect; butwhen the tence, are stinted in growth, andweakened state of languidness may preventit from taking which induces neglect of the lamb, parti animal is much overcome with the disease, its in constitution - carelessness of disposition,
upon theanimal functions. The most effectual cularly one of twins, which is in conse cure, therefore, in all cases, is a change to a quence ill nursed - producing worthless more rich and succulent pasture.' lamb, by which profits are much diminish
4006. When lambs require to be bled, it is ed — missing being in lamb, a failing which is apt to recur in every future year — casting
done by opening the vein below the eyewith abest lancet, and the wound should afterwards be lamb, a propensity likely to recur annually anointed with camphorated oil.
-rottenness, which is, of course , objection
able in everyanimal thatproduces young shortness of breath , which prevents them ON THE DRAFTING OF EWES AND GIMMERS. seeking their food, and eating as much of it as theyshould — tendency to scouring,or 4007. Immediatelyon the lambs being the opposite, the former imposing weak weaned, the drafting of ewes and gimmers, ness, the latter inducing inflammation that is, separating those of them to be dis- delicacy of constitution , which disables posed offrom those to be kept, may be con- them from withstanding the ordinary veniently done. Drafting only applies to changes of the weather - diminutive sta a standing flock of ewes — a Aying stock ture, orinordinate size, which spoils the requiring no drafting, since, where all are uniformity of the flock . Such is a long disposedof, none obtain the preference of list of faults incidental to ewes, which may being kept.
all be observed in the same flock , and which
every breeder is desirous to get rid of. 4008. There are many marks of deterio ration which determine the drafting of ewes .
4009. It is not at all probable that any
Bareness of hair on the crown of flock of ewes presents all these objection
the head, which makes them obnoxions to the attacks of fly in summer - deficiency in eye-sight, which prevents them keeping with the flock, and choosingthe bestparts
able qualities in one season ; but, notwith standingthis circumstance, it is not in the power of the breederto draft every ewe having an objectionable property every
ofpasture, and the best points ofshelter , year, since the farm supporting a deter ill-shaped teeth and jaws, which disable minate flock, the extent of the draft de them from masticating their food so well pends in a great measure upon the number
as they should — want of teeth, from old of good substitutes which the gimmers age, when, of course, they cannot crop suf- may supply; and it is evident that no good ficient food to support their lambs — hollow object is attained by drafting a bad ewe, * Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 707.
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
224
and taking in its stead a bad gimmer. The number of gimmers fit to be transferred to the ewe flock, should therefore be, in the first instance, ascertained, and
them fresh, but will cause the season to come on them more strongly and equally than without such assistance. Poppy -cake bruised and served in troughs, fig. 52, then a corresponding number of the worst answers this purpose well. ewes should be drafted.
4010. In drafting gimmers , many of the above faults may be observed in them , although those arising from lamb-bearing cannotpossibly affectyoung sheep. The faults incidental to gimmers are, bareness of hair on the crown of the lead, ill-shaped teeth and jaws, hollow neck , hollow back, flat rib, low tail -head, bad feet, tuund coarse bone, thin and short fleece, rotten-
4012. The draft-eres and draft-gim mers should be put on the best grass the farm affords, immediately after being draft ed, to fatten as soon as possible, as they are usually sold before the time arrives for
putting lean sheep on turnips. The ewes whichhave missed lamb, called tup-eild ewes, having bad no lamb to rear, will be fat in the early part of summer; and when kept to the end of autumn become very
ness, shortness of breath, tendency to fat, not less than 30 lb. per quarter, if of scouring or otherwise, delicacy of constitu- the Leicester breed. The draft-gimmers, tion, diminutiveness of stature, and inor- and the draft -ewes which have borne lamb, dinate size. These faults arenumerous may reach, by the latter period, 20 lb.
enough, but not likely to be all observed per quarter. The gimmers should fetch in the same year, and less likely in the same individual. Most of them may be got rid of by rejecting females which have more than one of them , and by employing tups free of them all. Whenthe external
the highest price, the tup-eild ewes should also yield good mutton, but that of old ewes is always dry. Drafts are ready for sale in September. St Ninian's fair in Northumberland is held on the 28th Sep
form is improved, the constitution is also tember for the sale of draft-ewes; and I strengthened. Gimmers, when they be- have seen as many as 70,000 in it,fat and
come ewes of the first season, are likely to lean. be deficient in milk, careless of their young, and produce small lamb ; but these
4013. Ewes and gimmers on pastoral
faults may disappear in the succeeding year ; and should this not be the case, the ewe , though young , healthy, and fresh, should be drafted. Ample drafting alone, both of gimmers and ewes, can insure a sound, healthy, well-formed, young, and
farms are drafted on the same principles and for the same reasons as those on low land farms.
strong - constitutioned flock of ewes.
poppy, Papaver somniferum , of which it yields from 36 to 53 per cent, is used as an article of food in France and Germany,* the cake left after
4014. I have mentioned the use of poppy -cake
for ewes (4011.) As the oil of one species of
4011. The flock -ewes andflock -gimmers the expression of the oil is no doubtderived from circumstances may determine. If tupped analysis having yet been made of this cake, but together,they may go together all the of the ash of the common celandine, Chelidonium may be put together, or kept separate, as those countries. I am not aware of any chemical
season ; but if not, which is always the majus, probably a cultivated poppy got wild , case on large farms where more than one which is this : 3872 Potash, tup is employed, they should be grazed 3.98 Chloride ofpotassium , separately, to save the trouble of sepa 27.33 Lime,
rating them afterwards. Both should be kept on moderate pasture, to prevent at-
taining too great fatness before the tupping season , which commences the second week
Magnesia, Phosphate of iron , Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid , Silica,
of October ; but good fresh aftermath of grass, or, what is still better, rape, for about two or three weeks before the tups
5.92
2:10 17.67 2-63 1.65 100-00
Percentage of ash ,
are put amongst them, will not only make * Thomson's Organic Chemistry - Vegetables, p. 430 . + Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p . 401 .
6.85+
1 MARKING SHEEP. ON THE MARKING OF SHEEP .
225
inserted into the straight under-arm of the nippers, the pieces nipped out rising out
4015. When lambs cease to bleat for of the orifice c. The figure at once shows
their mothers, they should be marked and how the instrument is used, being similar buisted, not only to identify them with the to the one used by shoemakers to punch flock of the farm on which they are bred, holes into the lappets of shoes, through
but as a record of the particular blood which the shoe-strings are passed. It from which they are descended. The costs 28. 9d. markings are confined to the ears, and consist of small pieces cut out of the fore 4017. Besides marks in the ears, letters or back margin, or a slit in the tip, with a are imprinted on the body with an instru sharp knife, or of holes punched through ment called a buisting-iron. with punching-nippers,orof a combination of both sorts of marks. The female stock
4018. Buisting consists simply of
are always marked on thenear ear, and stampinga letter or letters, expressive of the male on the far one. Thus, a single the initials of the name of the owner or of round hole is punched through the near the farm, or of both, on diffe Fig. 340. rent parts of the body. The ear of all the ewe-lambs, and a similar hole
through the far ear of the wether lambs ; and should any of the ewe-lambs be con sidered fit for breeding tups, they either
buist ormark is effected by a simple instrument, fig. 340,
consistingofa wooden handle,
receive an additional bole through the near
an iron shank, and a capital
ear, or a bit cut out from either margin of either ear, corresponding to a similar mark on their dams or sires, to distinguish their particular descent in blood. Twin
letter, such as S. The letter is made of hammered iron , thin, and even, to the centre
ewe- lambs receive a hole through both
ears. Tup-lambs receive no ear marks, their long tail serving the purpose till they
of which is affixed by one end, perpendicularly, an iron rod, driven at the other end
are weaned, when they are at once trans
into a wooden helve, through ferule. The length of the
ferred to the tup flock . Individual tups
instrument is about two feet.
are so easily identified, and their descent so well known by the shepherd, that they
Its mark is made on the same principle as those on the ears,
require no marking ; but where a large
the near side indicating the
number of tups are bred , a distinguishing THE BUISTING- female, and the far side the IRON FOR SHEEP.male sheep. It costs 3s. mark is always satisfactory.
4016. Fig. 339 are the punching-nip4019. The material of which the mark pers, of which the inverted hollow cone a, is made is tar, made viscid by a little pitch, both being boiled together in a metal pot. Fig. 339. 4020. The sheep to be buisted are put into a convenient apartment of the stead ing, and handed out of a door, one by one, by one man, and kept steady by another holding the head and rump with his hands, and bulging out the side to be marked , the one opposite toThe himself,by pressure against his knee. buisting- iron is then dipped by a third person lightly into the melted tar in the pot, to preventdripping ; THE PUNCHING- NIPPERS.
and to make the mark vivid, the buist
having its small end sharpened to an should be applied with a degree of pres edge, is employed to cut thehole—of any sure upon the entire surface at once, to form , round, square, or triangular - out of compress the wool equally, and then
the ears; and,to save the ears from being withdrawn quickly. The wool must be bruised in the punching, a pad of horn is quite dry, or the tar will not adhere to it. VOL . II .
Р
226
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
All new clipped sheep are buisted in this it is bleached by the rain, scorched by the manner, and though but a temporary sun, or rotted by the growth of the after
mark, being in time obliterated, even on math penetrating through the swathes short wool,it answers the present purpose well. To my taste, the mark looks best on that point which is the roundest part of the rib, but others prefer it on the shoulder, the rump, or the loins. To save twice handling of the lambs, they should be marked and buisted at the same time, one person making the marks, another apply ing the buisting- iron.
puts the weather- beatenswathestogether as fast as possible, into as large ricks as will keep the hay without heating - and permits the ricks to stand on the ground till the grass under them is destroyed. The grass thus treated is expected to make good bay ! 4025. If it were desired to contrive a
plan to make bad hay, the one just de 4021. Tosave frequent catching,hill-lambs are scribed seems to be thebest suited for the marked in the ears with the peculiar mark of the
farm , with the punching-nippers or knife, when purpose. The practice, however, is not unreasonable, for reasons, in explanation, though not in vindication , can be given,
they are castrated.
4022. Fig. 341is an instrument for marking horned sheep and cattle. It is Fig. 341. upper face of the block is cut out asa die the capital letter tobe
and they are these :- An economical de sire exists amongst farmers to save as much rye-grass seed as will sow the land to be laid downto grass the nextyear, which
used, such as S. The length of comprehends the fourth, fifth, or sixth part the instrument is about eighteen of the farm , according to the rotation of
inches. It is heated in the fire, the crops practised upon it. To attain this
thehair of the face,on the horns object, it is necessary to allow the rye it is of the Blackfaced sheep, and on grass to nearly ripen its seed beforeascer the horns of cattle. If heated high cut down ; and the easiest test to sweep hat the ripenes to s, is, it may brand several sheep before tain its
brand is made when the iron is smartly along the heads of the plants, ;and, to and see whether it has caught any heated for every sheep carry on the work expeditiously, seeds. When rye - grass has attained two brands at least should be this degree of maturity, the clover has
BRANDused - one tobe in use while the passed itsmost succulent state, so that the THE-IRON FOR other is heating in a fire hard by, INGSHEEP AND CATTLE .
to and from which a person should crop is altogether too old to make good
carry the brands forthe operator. hay before it is cut down. To give time
Branding is done on the same principle as buist- to the rye-grass seed to won , the swathes ing (4015.) are allowed to lie for some days before
being gathered into ricks. Hay -making arriving at the same time as the singling ON HAY -MAKING .
of turnips, it receives the less attention on that account.
4023. It has often been alleged, that Scottish farmers have always shown little skill in the making of hay.
4026. These reasons are sufficient to
Ready explain the object and the circumstances,
as I am to vindicate the general excel- but they offer no justification for pursuing lence of Scottish husbandry, I must own a slovenly mode of making hay, since the that the allegation is well-founded. Hay- object can be attained by a different and
making, as usually performed in Scot- better procedure, which is this :-The land, would induce one to believe that the period of conducting it had arrived unexpectedly, and the time spent upon it was thrown away .
4024. The practice commented on, delays the cutting down of the grass until it has passed its most succulent period, allows it to lie on the ground when cut till
quantity of rye- grass seed usually required is 1 bushel per imperial acre; and as a crop of mixed clover and rye -grass varies in yield from 25 to 40 bushels of rye-grass seed per acre, an extent of crop appor tioned to yield the quantity wanted, would surely be a more rational proceeding than injuring a whole crop of hay for the sake of preserving a few bushels of rye- grass seed .
--
-
227
HAY-MAKING.
But after the crop has thus been injured, them ; and as the art of hay-making is the best ofthe rye -grass seed is allowed to be merely to expel the water from the plants
shed upon the ground by the dilatory mode without injury to their texture, the only of making hay usually pursued. As forthe danger to be apprehended is excessive fer interference of turnip -singling with hay- mentation, which is easily excited in warm making, it is evident that if the grass were weather, and will proceed to a destructive
earlier cutfor hay than it is, the hay might extent, if not controlled ; and when plants be secured past danger before the turnips are allowed to lie on the ground until they are bleached , the art of making them into were ready for singling. hay is virtually abandoned. Still bay-mak 4027. Hay is made both of sown and ing is modified according as manual labour
of natural meadow - grasses. The grasses or mechanical assistance is employed. sown in Scotland for bay consist of red
clover, Trifolium pratense, and rye - grass,
4029. The hay crop is cut down either
Lolium perenne; for although the white- by hired labourers by the piece, or by clover, Trifolium repens, is sown along the ploughmen of the farm. The grass with these two seeds, ( 2633, ) it forms no sensible part of the first year's crop, and
is better and more expeditiously cut down by the piece, as contractors exert
therefore constitutes no portion of the hay. As hay is thus made from the first year's grass, it matters not whether the ryegrass is annual or perennial. The annual yields the heavier crop, but the perennial makes the finer quality of bay. The natural grasses constitute the bay of Eng-
themselves more and work more hours
than ploughmen, who have the charge of
horses, can be expected to do. The usual cost of cutting grass for hay is 2s. 6d. or 3s. the imperial acre. I once let a small patch of 6 acres of clover, to be cut for hay, to a strong man, who undertook to do it land and Ireland . The hay of the sown for 2s. 6d. the acre , but, after the first half
and of the natural grasses are certainly day's work, he relinquished the agreement very different in appearnace — the former as being too low for him. And so it really is composed of the strong and stiff stems proved ; for on examination the clover of the red clover and rye-grass, while the was found so luxuriant that it was kneed
latter feels soft and woolly, and more down, that is, its lower part was lying odorous, on account of the sweet-scented upon the ground, while its upper part only vernal- grass, Anthoxanthum odoratum , seemingly formed the growing crop. He always forming a component part. If agreed to take 28. 6d. a -day, the usual both are equally well made, there is pro- wages at cutting grass for hay, and after bably no material difference in their nutri- toiling hard for his money, the cutting tive properties ; but this fact has been cost me 5s. the acre . established in Scotland, that the sown grasses are more nutritive for young stock ,
4030. The implement used for cutting
both sheep and cattle, than natural ones, grass for hay is the same as that for cut and hence we may hold as true, that, made ting grass for forage — the common scythe,
into hay, they will also be more nutritive
mountedwith a bent or straight fig. 322,
for them. Natural grasses on the other sned .
He is the best scythe-man who
hand are more nourishing to old stock than keepsthe keenest edge on his scythe, as sown ones ; and hence natural bay is best for cows and horses.
he will not only do more work, but that more easily for himself. The edge of the blade is first formed by using one of two
4028. I have heard farmers express the forms of scythe- stones, the round a and the
opinion that sown grasses require a differ- square b, fig. 324, and then maintained by ent treatment to be made into bay than the use of the strickle, fig. 323. Of the natural ones. If the object is to obtain two scythe-stones I prefer the round one, rye -grass seed, the two processes should as the circumference of the circle affecting be different; but if it be to make the best a smaller space of the scythe at a time in
hay, I cannot see why the treatment should sharpening the edge, the stone is more
be different. The nature of the plants easily drawn across the blade, and greater employed is the same, andsimilar treat- effect produced by the operator on any ment should produce similar results in particular part of its edge. Iu sharpening
228
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
the scythe, it is placed on the left side of men each form a convenient division of resting on a small flat stone on the ground, mown is considerable. On a 500 acres the heel ofthe blade andsned being sup- farm under a five-course rotation, perhaps
the mower, with the point of the blade mowers when the extent of ground to be
ported by the left hand. The scythe-stone, 20 acres of the 100 acres of new grassmay which is about 14 inches long, is grasped be made into hay. It is fair work for a by one end in the right band, which it man to mow an acre of good grass daily,
fills, and is thus used :—The sharpening and when he goes over more ground, it is is produced by making sliding downward no good sign of the crop. On choosing strokes along the stone on each side of the side of the field to make the beginning, the blade alternately. This mode of the direction from which the clover leans,
sharpening is based on the principle, that and, when it is scanty and the ryegrass the scythe cuts after the manner of a fine saw , with the teeth set towards the point of the blade, and against the direction of its motion when cutting. The stone cannot conveniently be carried over the whole length of the blade at one sweep of the hand, so that only portions of it are sharp ened at one time, and hence the sharpening begins at the heel, and proceeds downwards tothe point. A few inches at the point are left untouched , and to reach these, the mower lifts up the blade, and holds it in the middle with the left hand, bringing it into a horizontal position, with the sned
thin and upright, the point from which the wind blows, which always determines the lean of a thin crop - should be chosen for the direction of the mowing, which should be conducted if possible across the ridges. 4033. Of the two methods of making bay — the English with the natural grasses,
and the Scotch with the sown ones — I shall first describe the English method ; and then it will be seen whether or not it cannot be used in Scotland with the sown grasses. It is a convenient beginning for
still resting on its end on the ground, and hay-cutting to commencein the afternoon, leaning against bis rump to steady it while as by the next forenoon the grass that has
he completes the process by sharpening the point in the same manner as he did the blade, but with shorter strokes. Throughout this operation, the stone must always
been cnt will be tedded while the mowers are proceeding with their work for the day. The grass, however, should never be cut when rain falls, nor should any
be held flat upon both sides of the blade, other operation connected with hay -mak and if this be not attended to, the edge ing be then conducted. will either not be touched, or it will be too much rubbed and be rounded off : the
4034. Next morning, if the grass be
consequence in either case will be, to
free of dew, and if not, in the forenoon
render the scythe speedily unfit for cutting until it be re-ground upon the grindstone. It is this operation which tries the skill of the mower, in the same manner as the skill of the joiner is tested by his
after it is dry, the tedding machine is yoked to scatter the swathes of grass abroad to win, which the mowers had cut
ability to keep a fine edge on his tools.
the weather is likely to continue fair until evening. The English tedding-machine,
4031. Besides the stones and strickle, the mower should be provided with bits of thin leather to lay between the head of the blade and the sned, a few short broadheaded nails in case the grass -nail should
which is represented in perspective in fig . 342, consists of a skeleton carriage, hay ing aseries ofrevolving rakes occupying the place of the body. The carriage is composed of the transverse bar a, with the
on the previous afternoon , as also that cut
up to dinner -time of the present day, if
come off, and a hammer to unloose and horse-shafts b b. An iron stay-bar c on fasten the wedges used in the ring and each side connects and supports the shafts. handles.
The ratchet-wheel e, attached to the nave of the carriage-wheel d , takes hold of the
4032. The instruments being prepared, the mowers are ready to commence the cutting. Two or three men form a gangor head of mowers, and two ganys of two
spur-wheel ſ by means of a pall, and car ries it round when the machine advances, but slips hold on backing or turning. The spur-wheel f works into a pinion, which
HAY-MAKING.
229
is mounted on the end of the hollow shaft are exposed to view, they are in the machine h ; and though in the figure, for the sake closely boxed up to prevent entanglement of distinctness, the spur-wheel and pinion from the hay falling between the wheel Fig. 342.
ப்பாம்
எங்கப்பாபாபாபாபா
k
Whe
XX YYYE
THE ENGLISH HAY TEDDING -MACHINE.
and pinion. The two rake -wheels i i are moved over 12 feet, and as there are 8 of very light construction, and are fixed rake-heads, there will be 8 x 4.5 = 36 con
dead upon the shafth ,and armed with the tacts with the substance which is to be eight rakes k k. The rakes are attached lifted in a space of 12 feet, or one at every to the wheels by tumbling - joints m m, and 4 inches. From this calculation it will be are held to the work by the springs l only; seen that the hay under the operation of by which arrangement, when any undue this machine will undergo a process of resistance is opposed to a rake, such as a teazling or tedding of the most perfect stone or other obstruction, the rake falls description ; it will be separated and tossed
back till the obstruction has been passed , about until no two stems of the plants
when the springs immediately return it to will be left in contact, and by this expo its working position. Besides the capability of backing, without turning the rakes, there is provision for disengaging them when the machine is advancing. The machine is also furnished with the means of elevating and depressing the
sure the drying process is effected in a
period greatly shorter and more effectually than could be done by any number of hands. Thus, if suppose the horse to walk 24 miles per hour, and the machine to cover 6 feet in breadth , we have a sur
centre of the revolving rakes, and in con- face of 1 } acres nearly covered in an hour. sequence of bringing the rake -teeth nearer
There are some variations in the mode of
to , or farther from the ground.
constructing this hay - tedder, but not dif fering essentially from the one here figur
4035. When in operation the machine ed, which has been drawn from those is drawn by one horse, or sometimes two manufactured by Mr Slight of Edinburgh, horses, and the result of the combination where the price is £ 14. of the gearing is, that the revolving rake makes 42 revolutions for one of the car4036. Where there is no tedding -ma
riage-wheel. The latter being 3 feet 10 chine, the grass-swathes are tedded with inches diameter, will pass over 12 feet or the land or with forks, fig. 110, care be
thereby in one revolution, and the rakes ing taken to shake and separate the grass being 4 feet 6 inches diameter over the effectually. extreme points of the teeth, will describe a circle of abont 14 feet in circumference,
4037. In the afternoon the tedded grass
and this revolving 44 times for one of the is raked together with the horse -rake. other, the points of the teeth will pass One of the most common forms is repre through 63 feet wbile the carriage bas sented, in perspective, by fig. 343. The
PRACTICE - SUMMER .
230
body of the machine consists of a main two side bars, c c, as also to the interme beam , a a , and of a swing-bar, 66, of equal diate bars d d . The handles, e e, are length, and these are bolted together upon jointed upon a bolt in n and are also Fig . 343.
b
THE HAY HORSE -RAKE .
bolted to the lifting -bar f, which rest by when thus filled, the driver, by lifting the The axles are handles, causes the tines to be drawn up kneed. The wheels h are of light make ward through amongst the iron bent
noggs on the bars c c.
in cast-iron, and the horse-shafts i i, work- stripping- rods, which discharge the con
ed to such a curvature that they shall be tents of the rake upon the ground ; the
of the proper height for the horses'shoul- bandles are immediately let down to the ders, when the body of the implement working position, and the work proceeds as before. The usual price of this rake is and intermediate bars at k; and are like- from £3, 10s. to £3, 15s. Many varieties wise supported by the iron stays l. One of this implement have been patented ; horse - shaft is broken off for want of space. but all the essential working parts of The machine is armed with 20 tines or them are taken precisely from the earlier teeth m m, &c., which are each fixed into machines, similar to what is here describ a separate bead n, while at the point they ed, and theyare coniparatively expensive, are bent forward and sharpened, but are the price of the best being from £6 to £ 9.
stands level, are bolted to the main beam
adjusted so as not to run into the ground. Each of the rake-heads n is attached to
4038. While the grass that was first
the lifting-bar f by means of a short chain, cut is being raked with this machine across whereby, when the handles e are lifted, four ridgeson to the fifth, the field -workers
the bar f and all the rake-tines are lifted put the grass into small round -headed from the ground by one operation, and cocks, the size of which is regulated by the when let down again, each tine is at liberty state of dryness the weather has permitted to rise and fall a small space, as the in- the grass to become. If the raker has equality of the ground or any obstruction taken a considerable start of the workers, may require. In the act of working, the which is the best plan, the latter may machine advances till the tines have col- make as many ricks along one ridge as
lected as much hay as can be contained in the raked grass will admit ; but if the the bosom of the tines and heads, and, workers start but a short time after the
HAY -MAKING .
231
4039. Where there is no horse -rake,the raker, they will have to follow him in bis tracks across the ridges, and make up the grass must be raked together in the same ricks as there is grass raked for them . manner with the hand- rake, and no more
After the first cut grass has been raked, of it raked together than can be ricked by what was cut in the morning is raked. the workers at command. It is evident,
All the grass that had been tedded must họwever,that where the tedding machine is be put into small ricks before the workers employed, it is requisite to have a horse
cease from work that evening ; and, to rake to rake a space of ground corre secure this result always, the quantity sponding to the extent of its operation. tedded and mown should be regulated by Figs. 344 and 345 represent the hand the number of hands at command to put rake in its most simple form and construc it into ricks in the course of an after- tion. It consists of a head c d or g h, noon .
made of hard wood, which is armed with Fig. 344.
Fig. 345.
K
2.00
829
385 - 1.86
292 -1.36
::
Average ,
ing retards the ripening of the crop, it is
Dibbled in one square yard.
presented at the time of sowing, and the judicious farmer will proportion the qnan tity of seed to be sown accordingly. The
REAPING CORN CROPS.
351
yield of grain in the above experiments then of 53 lb.; and oats now of 43 lb. the were not ascertained, as both the wind and bushel as it was then of 40 lb. birds had destroyed a large number of the
heads, and in consequence rendered the results uncertain .
4555. These results have been realised
in the course of years, not so much from the superior as from the inferior classes of
4549. On the 28th of September 1849, soils. The latter have increased more in Mr Hay manured an undrained cold clay fertility in that time than the former, and field with 24 tons per acre of farmyard they became so entirely from ordinary
manure, and dibbled in on one part of it good farming, and before the introduction four tenths of a bushel of Hunter's Impe- of the special manures. rial Hopetoun wheat per acre upon ribs, 4556. Farmers neglectful of weeding at 4 seeds to the hole,at a cost of 5s. 7 d. per acre ; and on another part of the same their corn give reapers much uneasiness,
field, treated in the samemanner, he sowed and waste much time, while getting rid on the same day, broadcast, 1 bushel 54 of large weeds, someof which often injure tenths of the same seed, at a cost of £ i,
the bands of both reapers and gatherers
18. 67d. per acre. On the 6th of June very seriously. Of these the corn dead
1850, the dibbled wheat measured 3 feet netile, Galeopsis tetrahit, is dangerous, afforded from 14 to 21 thick strong stalks hands ; as also the biennial spear-thistle,
8 inches in height including the roots, and causing swellings, beat, and pain in the from each hole. The broadcast measured Cnicus lanceolatus, the spines of which
3 feet 4 inches of height, including the breaking in the flesh, inflict acute pain roots; the stalks were smaller ; and 21 when touched, and are exceedingly trouble of them weighed one eighth of an ounce some to extract. The only safeguard
less than the same number of the dibbled against such accidents is the wearing of from one hole. On the 15th of June, both gloves made of sheep-skin, called shearers' lots of wheat were in the ear.
gloves, which only cost ls. the pair ; but it is more pleasant for the work-people
4550. A crop of wheat varies by soil, when the corn is so free of weeds as to dis situation, and season, from 20 to 56 pense with gloves. bushels an acre ; and the weight varies from the same causes from 59 lb. to 68 lb.
the bushel, (1856. )
4557. It is in reaping a field , as in ploughing it, that short ridges waste much time in passing from one end of them to
4551. Barley varies in produce by the the other ; and frequently much time is same circumstances, from 36 to 60 bushels also lost in going from one field to another. an acre ; and its weight from 50 lb. to 59 It tends to economise time, when an lb. the bushel, ( 1911. ) acre or so of a field happens to be left uncut, after all the band-wins have com
4552. The yield of oats varies in pleted their stented quantities, to take the similar circumstances even more than troop of reapers at once to another field wheat or barley, from 30 to 90 bushels than remain in the one they are in to
an acre ; and its weight from 38 lb. to 48 finish the small portion left, which can be Ib. the bushel, ( 1930.) cut up by the part of the hinds' families who cannot undertake regular harvest
4553. It is as easy now, 1850, to raise work . Should such aportion be left at the 32 bushels of wheat on an acre, as it was end of a day's work, it is most economical
30 years ago to raise 24 bushels ; to raise to work a little longer and faster to com
54 bushels of barley as it was to raise 42 plete the field before leaving it for the bushels; and to raise 60 bushels of oats evening ; but if found in possible to com . plete it, the reapers should not return to
as it was to raise 48 bushels.
it in the morning, but proceed to a new
4554. In like manner, it is as easy to field, and leave the remnant to be reaped raise now , wheat of the weight of 65 lb. by the odd hands I have mentioned. the bushel, as it was then to raise it at 63
Ib.; barley now of 56 lb. the bushel as it was
4558. Harvest generally commences
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
352
with the reaping of the winter wheat, allowed to becomeripe; when we consider that which may be expected to be effected by by cutting this sooner we should produce an of 154 per cent of flour, and realise an the end of July in England, and the mid increase increased value of 7s. 6fd. upon every quarter
dle of August in Scotland. During my produced ; and thatwe should produce food for recollection the harvest commences earlier
7,362,857 persons over and above what we now
in Scotland than it did, when the begin- produce,and an extraannual income of L.512,491, ning of September was the usual period. and when we consider that this increase would Beans are never ready for the sickleuntil be somuchaddedto the wealth of the country, all the cereal grains bave been reaped . 4559. That one period of their age is better than another for reaping grain crops has been proved by careful experiments,made by Mr John Hannam , North Deighton, Yorkshire. Without
that it is equal to the proceeds, at three per cent, of an estate worth L.17,083,033; and that the increase of our population demands an in creased supply of food, I would ask , what is our duty in this case ! " * 4563. Upon one occasion I cut down a few
entering into their details, I give only their stooks of potato -oats when quite green, though results. Of wheat reaped at various ages, the
full in the ear, to allow carts to pass to a place
following were the advantages and disadvantages destined for the site of a hay-stack, and after derived :
standing till the rest of the field was brought
No. 1, reaped quite green on 12th August, and stacked 26th August, gave a return of Lill, 17s. per
in, they were thrashed with the flail by them
acre .
selves, and the sample produced was the most beautifully silvery grain I ever saw ; but not
No. 2, reapedgreen on 19th August, and stacked 31st havingmade the experiment with any view to August, returned L.13, 6s. No. 3, reaped raw on 26th August, and stacked 5th September, returned L.14, 18s.
raw on 30th August, No. 4, reaped not quite so and stacked 9th September, returned L.14, 175. 4d.
4564. There are various ways of stooking or
No. 5, reaped ripe on 9th September, and stacked 16th September, returned L.13, 11s. 8d. per acre. Hence, A loss of £1 14 8 per acre on No. I compared with No. 5. 0
5
8
A gain of 11 5848 3
1
improving the crop, I pursued the investigation no farther, and cannot say what effect would have been produced upon the quality and quan tity of the meal.
0
No. No. No. No.
2 3 4 3
No. 5. No. 5 .
No. 5. No. 1.
4560. Wheat reaped a fortnight before it is ripe gives an advantage on every point, namely : In weight of gross produce , of equal measures,nearly equal number of grains, nearly In quality and value,above In weight of straw , above .
134 per cent.
Other advantages are, straw of better quality, a
shocking corn besides those represented in figs. 395 and 396. In Ireland, a safe plan against wind and rain is practised in clustering the standing sheaves with their tops close together; and after placing two hood-sheaves almost in a
perpendicular position, with the stubble end uppermost, these are lashed together by a wisp from one hood being passed under the band of the other. Stooks are also set, with the standing sheaves in the form of a cross, across an open furrow or sheugh , and covered with four hoods meeting with their but-ends in the middle.
4565. In Germany the rye is stooked in a sub stantial and elegant form . The sheaves are all
made as large as a man can only carry one. In
better chance of securing the crop, and a saving forming the stook, one sheaf is set up having in securing it.
two bands, and around it in a circle, a little asunder, are placed eight sheaves with their heads meeting together, and one large sheaf acts month before it is ripe, gives an advantage of as a hood to the others . The hood sheaf is pre twenty-two per cent in weight of straw com pared in this way :- It is placed on its but-end pared with the ripe, but suffers disadvantage in upon the ground, and the straw is broken down at every other point, namely : the band from the outside of the sheaf to the 4561. On the other hand, wheat, reaped a
In weight of gross produce, 11 ' per cent. equal measures, above equal number of grains, above 13) In quality and quantity , above .
centre, and arranged in a circular form , after
..
4562. Some of these may seem trivial advantages and disadvantages when confined to the area of a single acre ; but when computed on the extent of ground under wheat culture in the
which the sheaf is lifted by two men, who place the circularly spread out straws as a thatching over the heads of the standing sheaves, with its but- end projecting upwards. The straws are then neatly trimmed around the stook, making them cover every sheaf equally, and reaching
nearly to the bands of the standing sheaves.
kingdom , the results are striking, as exemplified Such a stook will ward off any quantity of rain, by MrHannam , — “ When we considerthat there and resist any force of wind. In eight days the are in England and Scotland about 4,000,000 acres
rye is ready to be carried , but it lies broad -band
of wheat grown annually, producing 12,000,000 upon the ground several days before being thus quarters of grain, of which three- fourths are
bound into sheaves and stooked .
备
Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xii. p. 22–37 ; and vol. xiii. p. 170—87.
REAPING CORN CROPS.
4566. An effectual way of keeping sheaves dry and exposing them to the air is practised in Sweden, by Fig. 404. thrusting the
853
Carmylie, in Forfarshire, in 1827 or 1828. It clips the straw by a series of scissors, and places the cut straw upon an endless web, which deposits it on the right or left hand in a continu
end ofa small
ous swath .
pole six or
man to manage.
It also requires horse power and a
feet
seven
long, a, fig.
4570. The next machine, as to its time of
404, into tfie ground ; and
exhibition, in 1832, was thatof Mr Joseph Mann, Raby, near Wigton, Cumberland. The cutter
after impal-
is a disc of a regular polygon of twelve sides,
ing one sheaf and the gatherer a revolving drum with rakes, b upon the from theteeth of which a comb strips the straw , stake, with which then drops at one point of the machine in its but- end a continuous swath . It requires horse power , standing on and a man to guide. the ground, others cc are
4571. The country where the reaping machine
spitted upon
is most in use is in the western counties of the United States of America . There the large
the stake at the bands,
reaped with machines, manual labour being too
above
scarce, and in consequence too dear to secure the
each other, till the stake
harvest. The greatest varieties in the form of this machine may therefore be observed, and are
is filled — the
in use , in that country.
and c
sheaves
in
clining with their heads
downwards, to throw off the
rain.
This plan has
been tried in this country
THE SWEDISH STOOK .
fields of wheat, in the prairies, are obliged to be
to
parallel
by Mr Bog well Irvine King. of in causie, Kincardine-
4572. No doubt exists but that the reaping machine can cut down a grain crop at a cheaper rate per acre than any implement used by the hand of man ; but, beyond the mere cutting, the
gathering, binding, and stooking will still have to be accomplished by labourers. Even includ ing the binding and stooking, Bell's machine has proved that corn may be cut down by it for 3s, the acre . Such a machine is expensive to pur chase --not less, perhaps, than L.30 — and more
than one will be required on a large farm ; yet their original cost may be redeemed , by economy in time and labour, in the course of a few years.
shire, with success ; and I should conceive, in fields surrounded with woods, and where larch
4573. As to the extension of the use of the
weedings are abundant, the plan an excellent
scythe, Mr Taylor is justified in believing that
one for winning the corn well and fast.
“ the practice of mowing grain is slowly gaining ground, and will in all probability continue to
4567. To instance an opposite extreme, the
do so until it be universally adopted. In the
barley in the south of England is never stooked
north -eastern districts of Scotland, the scythe has been in general use for upwards of twenty years ;
at all, but left on the ground as mown in swaths to win , and carted home to a large barn
and numerous are the individuals of my acquain
like hay- a more slovenly and objectionable
tance who have had twenty harvests reaped by
mode cannot be imagined , of treating so delicate
the sickle before the scythe was introduced, and
a grain for colour, and one so easy to germinate who are now as clearly convinced that mowing as barley.
is an improvement in reaping, as the wooden two-horse was an improvement on the twelve
4568. I shall not say much on reaping machines, oxen plough of their fathers." as none have yet been generally used in this country. The first one was presented to public
4574. A curious statement was made at the
notice by the late Mr Smith of Deanston in 1814 or 1815 , and afterwards exhibited in an improved
council meeting, in March 1850, of the English Agricultural Society, by Mr Dyer, to the intent form in 1837.* This machine cuts the grain by a that, for the last ten years, he had observed that circular disc, and gathers it in a continuous swath a remarkable correspondence existed in his on the left hand with a revolving drum . It re- crops between the number of grains of wheat in quires horse power, and a man to manage the horse and machine.
the ear, and the number of bushels of wheat on the acre . Thus, in his crops the average num
4569. The next one was produced by the Rev.
ber of grains in the ear had been twenty-eight, while the bushels per acre produced had also
Patrick Bell, present minister of the parish of been twenty-eight. He did not mean to express * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. x. p. xi. Preliminary Notice. VOL . II .
z
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
354
his belief that this was a general law, but merely broadcast, (3981,) are only reaped with the sickle ; and the instrument is used in
referred to it as a curious circumstance occurring within his own observation . At the first consi
the same manner in each case—that is, deration of this remarkable statement, general experience would seem to support it ; for it is the stems are held steady by the left hand known that a thick crop produces small ears , being pressed palmwards against them, and a thin one large ears, and that the numbers and, almost coming under the arm, are of the former make up for the size of the latter. cut with the point of the sickle by the Thus a thick crop might have forty ears on a given extent of ground, which,at , thirtygrains right hand, thereaper stepping backwards to the ear, would yield as much produce as a as the work proceeds. Thus, as each stem thin crop of thirty ears, on the same extent of requires to be cut separately , the reaping
ground, with forty grains in each ear.
But, as
Mr Baruch Almack observed , if the ear alone were taken as the criterion of the crop, one of these crops would have ten bushels more of
does not proceed very quickly when the crop happens to be strong.
an erroneous estimate, since both contained 1200
4579. When the haulm is short and small, it is not unfrequently pulled up by
grains. The correct mode, therefore, he con-
the roots ; but as the barn is thereby made
wheat upon it than the other, which would be ceived, would be to count the average number
very filthy with dust, pulling should never of grains in the ear, and the number of ears in a practised . he given space. Mr Dyer had remarked that hebe
sowed three bushels to the acre , consequently, in Mr Almack's opinion, two remarkable facts were proved. First, That as he generally finds as many bushels per acre as there are grains in an average
4580. The scythe might be used in
ear, it follows that he usually has about as many
reaping beans, but the operation is so harsh to the arms that no reaper likes it ;
wheat ears per acre as there are grains in a
and, besides, the stems are difficult to be
bushel of wheat.
Second, That as he only
obtains as many ears of wheat per acre as there are grains of wheat in a bushel, and as he sows three bushels on the acre, it follows that he sows three grains of wheat for each ear that he obtains. Hence it would seem that the rule
would only hold good where the number of ears per acre are the same, or nearly so.
collected aright by the gatherer. 4581. When beans are sown by them selves, straw -ropes are laid down on the ground for bands: when pease are sown with them , their haulm makes excellent bands.
the residue of the crops that enter into a rota-
4582. The stems, cut as directed, are then laid evenly upon the band, whether of straw - rope or of pea -haulm ; and the size of the sheaf very much depends on
tion compensate, in greater or less degree, for
the length of the stems. Short stems will
4575. In reference to the portion of the crop left in the soil after harvest, M. Boussingault observes, that “ all the world acknowledges that what is carried away in the shape of harvest, and
bindsheafof together in astems thick stand sheaf, por will that in somecases they evenadd to the fertility not a thin long well up
of the soil, for in growing crops that leave a large quantity of residue, it is precisely as if a smaller quantity were taken from a given extent of sur
right upon the ground. 4583. The bandster follows the reapers,
face." *
and binds the sheaves in the manner he
binds those of the cereal grains, and sets ON REAPING BEANS, AND
PEASE, AND
TARES WHEN GROWN FOR SEED .
up the stooks in regular order in rows, composed of four or more sheaves, eachpair set together on end.
A bean -stook is
4576. The leguminous crops, having never attempted to be hooded. It is of either stiff or trailing stems, are reaped in a importance to keep bean sheaves always somewhat different manner from the cereal.
on eud, as they then resist most rain ; for if allowed to remain on their side, after
4577. Whenever the stems and pods of being blown over by the wind, the least beans becoine black, the crop is ready to rain soaks them, and the succeeding drought causes the pods to burst and be reaped. spill the beans upon the ground.
4578. Beans, whether sown in drills, (3979,) or in rows on the flat, (3980,) or
4584. Whenever the straw and pods of
• Boussingault's Rural Economy, p. 478 — Law's translation .
STACKING CORN .
956
pease become brown they are fit for reap- field, before it will keep in the large ing ; and in seasonswhen the straw grows quantity composing a stack or in a barn. very luxuriant, it is cut down whilst it That time depends mostly on the state of retains much of its greenness. the weather ; for if the air is dry, sharp, and windy, the corn will be ready in the 4585. None but the sickle can be used shortest time ; while in close, misty, damp
in reaping pease, as the trailing stems of the plant would inevitably entangle themselves around the head of the scythe. The reaper pulls straight the lying stems
air it will require the longest time; and it depends partly on the state of ripeness or condition of the corn when reaped. On an average, one week for wheat, and two
with the left hand, while the point of weeks for barley and oats, will suffice to win
the sickle is used by the right to sever the then. In this respect mowing manifests
plants from the ground - the reaper step- a decided superiority over reaping, inas ping backwards — most of the plants com- much as mown wheat is ready for the stack in three to five days, and barley and oats in eight or ten — the chief cause of the
ing up by the root.
4586. Pease are not bound at first,but difference being the loose and open state
laid on the ground in separate bundles, in wbich mowing places the straw, while the straw reaped by the sickle is much compressed inthe lower part of the sheaf which most requires exposure. The celerity of winning is an important matter in effecting the safety of the crop, as may be observed from an instance adduced by form a sort of stook, or left singly over Mr John Taylor in the harvest of 184 ). the surface of the field . Pea bundles are “ On the 28-9th of September, I had 30 where, after winning for sometime according to the state ofthe weather,the bundles are rolled into an oblong form , and made firm by a wisp of its own straw acting as a binder round the middle. The bundles may be set together in pairs to bound by women as well as men.
acres of oats carted and stacked , which had been cut by the scythe the preceding 4587. Tares are most easily and quick- week . On the evening of the 29th it
ly reaped by mowing with the scythe. began to rain , and continued very rainy
They are separated in bundles after the for twelve days, during which barvesting mowers, by the gatherers, and placed was at a stand -still; and had the produce asunder on the ground to win, and after- of those 30 acres been reaped by the wards bound in a similar manner to the pea. sickle, it would unquestionablyhave been exposed to those twelve days' rain, and 4588. Such is the diversity in the luxu- thereby much deteriorated.” * I have
riance of the crop of beans in different myself observed many similar instances. seasons, that the cost of reaping them varies from 48. to 78. an acre. Pease cost 3s. 6d. an acre. Tares cost 2s. 6d. an acre.
4591. Mere dryness to the feel does not
constitute all the qualities requisite for making new cut corn keep in the stack . 4589. In some seasons, such as dry and The natural sap of the plant must not only as
warm ones, pease and tares may
be evaporated from its outside, but also
be
early barvested as the cereal grains; but from its interior. The outside may feel
beans are always late, and sometimes not quite dry, whilst the interior may be harvested until three weeks after all the redolent of sap ; and the knowledge of its condition constitutes the whole difficulty
other crops have been housed.
of judging whether or not corn will keep in the stack . ON
THE
CARRYING
AND
STACKING
OF
One criterion exists by
which it may be ascertained with cer
WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, BEANS, AND tainty, in the straws being loose in the sheaf, and easily yielding to the pressure
PEASE .
of the fingers, and in the entire sheaf 4590. It is necessary that reaped corn feeling light when lifted off the ground, remain for some time in the stook in the by the hand thrust into its middle, * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1844, p. 261 .
856
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
beyond the band : for if the sheaf is dry and light in the beart, it must be so on the outside. In the winning, the sap of the straw of the cereal grains is no doubt converted into woody fibre,as thatof the grasses is on being converted into hay, ( 4073.)
wheels, and the axles greased ; and the ropes should be attached to the carts. The forks fit for pitching the corn in the field , and from the carts to the stacks, should be ready for use in the field and in the stackyard . Negligence and want of fore sightin all these particulars indicate im
4592. The winning of corn is compara- provident management in the farmer. tively an easy matter when the weather 4594. The tops or frames for placing on is dry ; but in windy and showery
weather, the stooks are apt to be blown the tilt-carts, fig. 175, are a light rectan
down and become wet, and incur the gular piece of frame-work represented trouble of setting up again at the first in fig. 405, where a, b are the two main recurrence of calm . When the air is calm, bearers, fitted to lie across the shelve
dull, damp, and warm , every species of ments of the cart. The foremost one a grain is apt to sprout in the stook before is slightly notched at a and b, fig. 406 ;
it is ready for the stack. When much and the hind one rests against the back grain becomes sooner ready than the straw 175, being first taken off. A pair of
rain falls, accompanied with cold, the board of the cart, its top sides e , fig .
for the stack ; and, to win the straw , the slight side-rails c and c, fig. 405, are ap bands are not unfrequently obliged to be
Fig. 405.
loosened, and the sheaf spread out to dry in the wind and sun ; and, in like man
ner, the sheaf should be spread out in
dry weather, when a large proportion of young grass is mixed amongst barley straw . ° Corn wins in no way so quickly as in gaitins, fig 403.
b
4593. While the first reaped corn is
winning in the field, the stackyard should be put in order to receive the new crop, by removing everything that ought not to be in it, such as old decayed straw,
c
which should have been used in time for
litter : weeds, which in many instances are allowed to grow, and shed their seeds, and accumulate to a shameful degree
a
during summer, such as strong burdocks, thick common docks, tall nettles, and
rank grass ofevery kind : and the larger classes of implements too are there accom THE CORN AND HAY FRAME.
modated, to be afterwards dispersed and exposed to the weather, for want of plied on each side, crossing the bearers,
sheds to keep them in. Where stathels, and notched upon and bolted to them with fig. 132, are used they should be put in screw-bolts. These are again crossed by two rails d behind, and by three more e, e in front; and as these last project over the
repair. Loose clean straw should be built ina small stack on one of the stathels, or other place, to be ready to make the bottomings of stacks as wanted . Drawn
back of the horse, they are made in arch form as seen by c d c, fig. 406, to give
straw should be ready in a stack for thatch ing the stacks of barley as they are built,
Fig. 406 .
in case of wet weather occurring. Straw ropes should be piled up in the bay -house, ready to be used in thatching. The tops
d
6
f
TRÅNSVERSE SECTION OF THE FRAME,
or frames should be put on the tilt carts; the corn carts should be put on their freedom to his motions.
The extreme
STACKING CORN .
357
4595. But the common corn or hay cart length, from outside to outside of the front and back rails, is usually about 10 feet, is a more convenient and efficient vehicle and the breadth in the same manner is for carrying the grain crops into the stack
about 74 feet, affording a superficial area yard than the tilt -cart with the frame, in for the support of the sheaves of corn of asmuch as the load is more on a level with 76 square feet. A simple and effective the horse draught, and, the body being method of securing the frame to the cart dormant, the load is not liable to shake with
is by means of the bolts, ff, figs. 405 and the motion of the horse. Fig. 407 is a 406, in the bearers, the front ones passing perspective view of such a cart. Light through the head -rail of the front of the ness being an object in its construction,
cart, andthe hind one through the top -rail the shafts a a are usually made of Baltic of the tail-board .
fir, and are about 17 feet in length, of Fig. 407.
a
a
THE CORN AND HAY CART,
which 6 feet go for the horse yoke and the body being set upon those belonging 104 feet for the body, measuring over the to the tilt - carts. The load -rail, 9 inches
cross- heads 6 b. These aresecured to the broad, is convenient to sit upon in driving, shafts by the iron standards passing and to stand upon when forking the through them and the shafts. Their sides sheaves in unloading. This cart is easily are supported by oak standards c c ; and these in their turn , along with the iron standards, support the inner top rails d d , dd, 12 feet in length, and the load -tree or
converted into a dray- cart by simply removing the framework, which should then have the standards c c based upon two longitudinal rails, instead of being
rail e.
The outer rails ffff, also 12 feet mortised into the shafts. In such a form it long, are supported by iron standards is eminently useful in carrying large tim resting on the extremities of the cross ber. It weighs 8 cwt.
heads b b, and also by those of the broad
4596. A corn and bay cart, simple in outer rails is 7 feet, and as the outer rails construction, but possessing complete effi load - rail e. The extreme breadth of the
support thesheaves of corn over the wheels, ciency, and greater safety from upsetting and are 12 feet in length, it will be seen than the former, was contrived bya farm that the superficial area of the cart for the servant, Robert Robertson , and was intro
load is 84 square feet, which is greater than that of the top -frame of fig. 405. The two front cross-rails f f over the horse's rump are arched, to give him free-
duced in 1832 in the west of Fifeshire, and of which fig. 408 is a view in perspec tive, with its wheels and axle in full working order. The shafts and body
dom of motion. The body is usually close -floored, besides having a low ledgeboard running inside the standards c c to keep in the corn that may have
frame of this cart may be considered as identical with the one just described, which, without the upper works, is the simple dray - cart. Upon this body -frame
Corn carts are is placed the fore and back cross- heads a not furnished with wheels of their own, a and b, projecting beyond the body, their
shaken out of the sheaves.
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
358
extreme length being 74 feet.
The other and lighter cross-rails areapplied one before and another immediately behind thewheels, and the whole bolted to the shafts. Upon
these are laid a longitudinal rail on each side, and two similar portions of longitu dinal rails are also laid on each side, extending from the fore and back cross
Fig. 408.
ROBERTSON'S IMPROVED CORN AND HAY CART.
head to the wheel-rails ; over these longi- ing. There is also the advantage of its tudinal rails is laid another light cross- easy conversion into an open dray- cart, for
rail behind, and the parts all secured with carrying timber or the like, byremoving bolts. A light frame d d is raised upon the upper framework . It weighs 7 cwt. the fore cross - head a a to a height of two feet, with two iron stanchion rods at each,
and these surmounted by an arched rail, which is supported against the pressure of the load by two iron stays from the shafts. The outer longitudinal rails, being cut by
4598. The forks already described in ( 1420) are only fitted to be used among loose straw . Those used in the loading of
corn require to have long shafts, not less
than six feet, and small prongs. Such a the wbeels as above described, are con- length of shaft is requiredto lift the sheaf nected again by the arched iron bars e and from the ground to the top of a loaded
e, which are bolted at the ends to their cart, or from the load - rail of the cart to
respective rails ; and these are connected the top of a stack. The fork used in the
by the broad load-railf, the arches rising field should have a strong stiff shaft, as sufficiently high to allow the wheels to the load on the cart is at no great eleva bave freedom to turn below the load - rail f. tion. That for unloading the cart to the A side- board g is also raised on each side stack should be slender and elastic, as
upon the body-frame, and under the load- many of the sheaves have to be thrown a rail, extending a little before andbehind the considerable height above the head. The wheels, thus preventing the sheaves from prongs, being small, just retain hold ofthe The sheaf, without being so deeply pierced into body -frame is floored over in the usual the band as to be withdrawn from it with
coming in contact with the wheels.
manner,and the space between the body difficulty. A deep and firm hold with long and the inner longitudinal rails isfilled up prongs renders the pitching of a sheaf a
with narrow hinged ilap -boards, which pre- difficult matter ; and if one of the prongs vent the loss of the grain that may have happens to be bent, or a little turned up at been shaken out of the sheaves into the cart. the point,the difficulty is much increased. Thebest fork for the person on the top of
4597. Carts of this construction possess the stack to use, in assisting the builder,
several advantages : from their simplicity is the short stable - fork, of the form , but is derived cheapness; and from the load of shorter prongs than fig. 110. assuming its full breadth over nearly the whole floor of the cart, at the lowest pos4599. The loads of corn and hay on the sible position, the centre of gravity of the carts are fastened with ropes,which should whole load will be very considerably lower be made of the best hemp, soft and pliable. than in that of the formerly described cart, They cost 41d. per lb. Ropes are either and still more so than on the top -frame. single or double,and both are required on This last quality produces greater stabi- the farm . Double cart-ropes are from 30 lity, and reduces the risk of upsetting, to 24 yards long and single ones half those
besides affording a greater facilityof load- lengths. The longest double rope weighs
STACKING CORN .
rather more than 11 lbs., and costs 58. The single ones are used on ordinary occasions, when a small load of straw or other bulky article is carted to short distances on the farm ; but in harvest and hay time, double ropes are always used for security to the load . The double rope is made fast to the corn-cart by first doubling it, and then measuring its middle from the centre of the cross-head of the hind part of the body of the cart to its extremity on both
359
ground, as earthy matter, of whatever kind, soon causes them to rot. When wetted by rain they should be spread out in the air to dry. On being loosened when the load of corn is to be delivered to the stacker, they should be coiled up before the load is disposed of, and not allowed to lie on the ground till the cart is unloaded. A soft rope holds more firinly, is more easily bandled, and far less apt to cut than a hard one.
sides, where a turn or two are taken round
the iron standards and the cross-bead by 4600. Straw -ropes are made by means each division of the rope, the ends of which of the implement named the throw -crook. are then passed in the inside of the upper Various forms of this instrument is in use,
cross-heads, and brought over them to the and one of the most common isrepresented Each division is coiled up by in fig. 410, which is made of a piece of holding the rope in the left hand at about tough ash, about 31 feet Fig. 410. two yards from the cart, and banding the long, the bent part of which is thinned off until remainder in coils with the right hand until it is capable of being bent the end of the rope is gained,when the coil to a curve, and is there is made to take a turn along the loose part of outside.
the rope in its middle, and then the loose
retained by the iron stay a ; the part 6 being left projecting beyond the stay, for the attachment of the first end of the rope
part still remaining is slipped through one loop of the coil and passed over it soas to make a loop knot, which holds the coil sus pended from the cart about three feet from the ground . Fig. 409 represents the rope
that is to be made.
The
end c is furnished with ferule and swivel ring, by
Fig. 409.
which it is either attached
to the person by a cord passed round the waist, or held in the hand.
In
using this implement the rope -maker is stationary, OLD THROW -CROUK .
usually sitting beside the
straw ; and the spinner, with the throw crook , moves backwards as the rope extends.
In its action this form of throw
crook is attended with a jerking motion, when the left hand holds the swivel c, and
the right one revolves the instrument round the shank. The direction of cb is in the line of the rope, and the twist given to COILED UP CART - ROPE .
the rope is effected by the revolution of the body of the implement aronnd this line, in generating which a pull is given to the rope
coiled and suspended, when not in use. at two opposite points in the circle of
When a ring is fastened in the cross - head of the cart, the middle of the rope is passed throngh the ring, and a turn taken round the extremity of the cross- head on each side of the cart, as above. Cart-ropes last according to the care bestowed on them.
revolntion , whichmay be greatly nentra lised by the spinner causing both hands to revolve in small circles.
4601. Fig. 411 is a form of throw -crook in use in the western counties of Scotland. When used with the corn-cart It is used by holding the wooden bollow
they should never be allowed to touch the cylinder b in the left hand. The end of
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
360
the rope is attached to the hook, and the iron spindle a, in contin Fig. 411 . nation of the book, is made to revolve by means of the handle c,
cross -head is a hollow box or case adapted Fig. 413.
which is attached to one end of the same crank d
to which the spindle a
a
is. In theory, the strain upon the instrument, while in action, should
6
be along the spindle a, d
from the book to the
crank d ; but in practice it acts in a line from the hook to the handle
ANOTHER FORMOF C, causing an uncom THROW - CROOK . fortable strain upon the
left hand, while the right one works the crank -handle with difficulty. 4602. I think the best form of throw Fig. 412.
THE STRAW - ROPE SPINNER .
crook is represented in to contain the machinery, consisting of five fig. 412, where the strain light spur -wheels, about six inches diame
of the straw -rope is in a ter, placed as seen in the case c d . Of these, straight line from the the central and the two extreme wheels a
hook a , along thespindle are mounted upon axles, which terminate e to the handle d. The in the hooks eee ; the other two wheels left hand holds the being merely placed intermediate, to pro swivel-ring c , and the duce revolution in the three principals in
right hand causes the part one direction. A winch - bandle f is fixed ebd to revolve round the upon the axle of the central wheel, on the line a a d by means of side opposite to the hooks ; and to prevent the handle b, which is the machine from moving with the strain
coveredwith a loose hol- ofthe ropes, a few stones,orother weighty low cylinder of wood, substances, are laid upon the sole- frame. the rest of the instru- The machine is then put in operation by THEBEST FORM OF ment being made of the driver turning the handle, and the THROW -CROOK. iron . three ropemakers, each with a quantity of straw under his arm , commences his rope
4603. The straw -rope spinner is an by binding a few straws round the book instrument of recent introduction to the appropriated to himself. He then proceeds farm , and is of considerable importance in backward, letting out the straw as he
facilitating the process of straw rope- advances; and the rope takes the twist, making on large farms. Comparing it until the length required is completed, with the old and primitive instrument,the when each man coils up his rope into an throw -crook, fig. 410, the advantage oval ball. The price of a spinner is from is considerable, inasmuch as two persons £2, 5s. to £2, 1ās. are engaged in the making of one rope with the throw -crook ; whereas, with the
4604. Another form of this machine is
spinner, four persons are only required to that which is strapped to the body of the
make three ropes, thus effecting a saving driver, he moving away from the station of one-third of the time occupied by the ary ropemakers. Thismethod is attended old practice. Fig. 413 is a view of this with inconvenience, especially to the machine, consisting of a sole frame a a , driver, who, having the machine strapped with an upright post 6 tenoned into the in front of his body, the handle being at sole, and carrying the cross - head cd. The the end, and the machinery consisting of
361
STACKING,CORN.
bevel gear, having the external form of straw ropes are made, otherwise they will the cross- head alone of fig . 413, the handle be picked and appropriated by the twist is brought so near to his body that much ing-rope. Afterthe rope has been let out
of the muscular force of the arm is lost by to thedesired length, the spinner winds it its misapplication.
firmly in oblique strands on his left hand and arm into an oval ball, the twister ad
4605. Straw is twisted into ropes in vancing towardshim as fast as the spinner this manner : The left hand of the twister, coils the rope, which is finished, and made a field -worker holds by the swivel ring at firm by passing the end of it below one the end of the shank of figs. 410 and 412, of the strands. In the Borders the spinner
and by the cylinder 6 of fig . 411. Her works the straw into form with both hands,
right hand grasps the middle ofthe shank while stooping with hishead down and his of fig . 410, and of the handle c of fig. 411 , and of b fig. 412. On the spinner, a man, placing a little drawn straw in the book, the twister causes the hook to revolve round an axis, as described in (4600,) and
back turned to the twister ; but the rope thus made is always thick and rough, com pared to the mode described above. If thistles have been negligently left in the straw , the spinner will besure to suffer
walks backward, along a path swept clean, severely by their stings. Fig. 414 repre in a shed or the stable. The spinner sits on sents the process of making a straw -rope, a stool, or on bundles of straw , and nearly as just described . closing the left hand, lets out the straw gradually between the thumb and the fin4606. The best sort of straw for rope is
gers, retaining it till sufficiently twisted, that of the common or Angus oat, which while the right hand is engaged supply- being soft and pliable, makes a firm , ingsmall portions of straw in equaland smooth, small tough rope. sufficient quantities to make the rope uni form in thickness throughout, the twister
4607. The ordinary length of a straw
drawing awaythe rope asfastas the spinner rope for a large stack may be taken at lets it out.
Where the rope is let out thirty feet. Counting every interruption ,
unequally, it breaks at the small part; a straw -rope of this length may take five when twisted too much, it snaps asunder in the making — that is, a hundred when not twisted enough, it comes asunder; minutes and twenty ropes in ten hours. A man's at any place by the least pull ; and when wages, 20d., and a woman's, 10d., making the twister does not keep the rope straight together 28. 6d., will make the cost of as fast as it is let out, it twists into loops, making a single rope just one farthing.
which are not easily made straight again. As three spinners let out to one twister, and as Fig. 414.
a machine spins as fast as a
throw -crook, the cost of making each rope with the machine, fig. 413, will be as much less than one farthing as the saving of the wages of two twisters.
4608. In using the throw - crook the spinner sits, while with the spinning machine he walks backward, and in coiling
up the rope walks forward again to the machine, where he is ready to begin to spin
again. Inconveniences attend theuse ofthe machine, fig. 413 : when one of the spinners breaks bis rope, he is thrown out of work
till the others begin a new one ; and all the spinners must let out with the same
velocity, otherwise alonger and softer, and a harder twisted and shorter rope will be THE PROCESS OF MAKING A STRAW - ROPR .
inade at the same time.
All loose straws and other material should
be swept away from the walk in which
4609. Fig. 415 represents a straw-rope
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
362
coiled up in the neatest and most convenient form . Fig. 415. When the ends are made smaller than the middle, the rope can be easily taken hold of,
about fifteen inches in diameter, the man makes a thumb-rope, by twisting a little of undrawn straw round the thumb of his right hand, drawing it out with his left and twisting it with his right alternately, until a short rope is made, one end of which he places on the floor and puts his foot upon by the side of the drawn straw ; and,
and carried, and keeping hold of the other end in his left when the form hand, puts the drawn straw into the rope is oval rather with his right ; and then, holding both ends of the rope, than spherical, Fig. 416. the coil can be
the more easily thrown upwards
binds the straw into a bunch as
greater
firmly , and
to
a
in the same
height, such as to the top of a A STRAW-ROPE COILED UP.
stack . A BUNCH OF DRAWN STRAW.
manner, as a bandster does a sheaf
4610. Among the other things required of corn , ( 4479.) Fig. 416 represents a to be in a state of readiness before the crop bunch of drawn straw . is led into the stackyard, is straw drawn in parallel reeds and bound up in buncbės. 4613. The carts, forks, straw , and ropes, Straw is drawn and bunched in this man- beingin readiness at the steading, andthe ner :-The straw was mowed in the straw- corn fit for carrying to the stackyard, the
barn, ( 1763 ;) and in commencing to draw first thing is to provide an efficient person it, the man takes a wisp from the mow, and
to fork the corn in the field to the carts ;
places it across his body, and after making and a man is the best for this work , as he the straws straight first with one hand and is able not only to wield the sheaves with then another, he takes hold of each end of ease, but possesses dexterity to place them
the wisp, and on spreading out his arms in the positions most convenient for the separates the wisp into two portions. carter to build them on the cart. Throw
Bringing both bands together, he lays holding the sheaves in an indiscriminate man ner, or too quickly upon the cart, makes
of the severed wisp with the left hand, and
on taking hold of its other end with the the work no easier for the forker ; while right draws the straws asunder, as before. the carter has the additional trouble of turn
Bringing again both hands together, he ing the sheaves to arrange them as a load, goes through the same process, and as often when his footing upon the cart isatbest inse until he sees that the straws are parallel and cure. A loss of two orthree minutesincurred
straight, when he lays down thenow drawn in any way, in loading each cart, makes a wisp carefully upon the floor of the barn .
4611. The state of the straw , and the
considerable loss upon the day's work.
4614. In carrying the crop off the
kind, render the drawing more or less easy ground, the object is to do as little injury and expeditious. When it has been much as possible to the land with the cart-wheels, broken in the thrashing, it requires the particularly to the young grass ; for which more drawing to make it straight; and of reason, as well as for forming an unerring
allthe kinds ofstraw that of wheat, being guide,the horses shouldwalk in theopen long and strong, is the most easily and furrow between the ridges, while the quickly drawn, ( 1964,) barley straw being wheels pass along their furrow -brows,
the shortest and the most difficult to draw, (738.) When corn is cut with band ( 1968.) Oat straw is the most pleasant win reapers, the stooks of two ridges being placed on one, the cart clears of any to draw , (1972. ) the produce of two ridges ; and the same 4612. After as much has been drawn may be the case with the mown corn,
and laid down as to make a bunch of provided the bandsters are instructed to
STACKING CORN .
set the stooks in the same position upon the ridges. When the stooks are set on the furrow -brows of the ridges, on each side of the centre open -furrow of the four ridges occupied by two band -wins, as suggested in (4481,) the carts would at once
363
or shelvements of the cart, other sheaves are laid across them in a row along both
sides of the frame, with their but-ends projecting as far beyoud the outer rail of the frame as the band, the particular
sheaf on each corner of the frame being
clear the stooksof four ridges. In thrav- held in its place by transfixion upon a spike ing, the stooks being set on every ridge, oftheelongatedbolt which secures thecorner the forker is obligedto go from one ridge ofthe outer-rail frame, fig . 407 f. Another to another to clear two ridges, thereby oc- row of sheaves is then placed upon these casioning much loss of time.
last, and their corner ones are kept in their places by a wisp from each sheaf being
4615. In forking a hooded stook from ſaid under and held fast by the weight the ground, the hood sheaves are first of the adjoining sheaf. Sheaves are then taken, and then the leaves from the placed along the middle of the cart with
ends, to hold body of the stook as they were placed in their but-ends to both its to fill up the setting the stook — that is, the sheaves at in those below them ,and the ends are taken before those in the hollow of the load. Thus row after row
middle, and one pair is taken away before a sheaf in the next pair istouched. More loss of time is involved in disregarding this order of removal of the sheaves than might appear without consideration, for if the centre sheaves are taken away before the endones, not only more force is required
of sheaves is placed, and the hollow in the middle filled up, till as much is built on as the horses can conveniently draw, 12 full stooks being a good load. Be fore finishing, it should be ascertained that the load is neither too light nor too heavy upon the horse's back ; and
to do it, but the end ones will likely fall if the cart has been evenly laden ac
down in the exertion to extricate the cen- cording to its form , there is no risk of tral ones ; and if one side of a stook is either inconvenience being felt by the taken away before the other, the remain- shaft-borse. A load thus built will have ing side will fall down. In either case the but -ends of all the sheaves on the the sheaves will be reached by the fork with outside, and the corn ends in the inside, inconvenience. When stooks have stood as may be seen at f eg in fig. 417. long upon the ground, they require more 4618. The ropes keep the load from force to remove them from the ground than
those which have stood for a shorter time. jolting off the cart upon the road, and in crossing gaw -cnts on the head -ridge of the 4616. On forking gaitins from the field, fields. They are thrown across the load they must first be bound into sheaves, diagonally to the opposite shafts at the
which is done by loosening the slack band front of the cart, and an end is made fast from its tying, and slipping it down the to each shaft, the forker on the ground body of the gaitin to theproper place, and holding on the slack, while the ploughman
then binding it in the manner of a sheaf on the load gives efficacy to the rope, by when reaped. A number of hands are re- pulling it tight from behind, and trampling quired to bind gaitins as fast as they are on the sheaves to make them the more carted off, and they are not stooked when firm . The crossing of the ropes at the bound, nor left scattered on the ridgesas centre prevents the load splitting asunder
they stood before,but are laid in heaps, with over the sides of the cart, while shaken
thecorn ends away fromthe cart, on alter- along the road . Some ploughmen profess nate ridges, as near the furrow brow as to to show their dexterity in building loads
be mostconveniently placed for the forker. of corn, by bringing them to the stack but yard without the assistance of ropes ;
4617. A corn -cart is loaded with sheaves there is no use of running the risk of los
in this way : - The bodyis first filled with ing time by breaking the load and strew sheaves lying with their but-ends towards ing the road with sheaves. Such a fate,
the shaft-horse's rump at one end, and the even with the assistance of ropes, attended back - end of the cart at the other. When the first load I tried to build. When the these sheaves come to the level of the frame corn is mown, a woman should be em
364
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
ployed to rake the ground on which the first stacks are built on the stathels, stooks stood , as they were set before the fig. 132, arranged on the outer margin ground was raked at the time of mowing of the stackyard along the fence, and require no peculiar preparation for the
4619. When corn is fit for stacking, the reception of the stacks. The steward should build the stacks unless he be to twilight, provided there be no heavy specially engaged with the reapers in the
carrying is continued from break of day dew at morning or evening.
From a little field, when another man should be hired
after sunrise to a little after sunset, the to do it ; but on a large farm more than corn may be taken in with great safety. one stacker will probably be required at all It is customary, in some parts of the times. When more than one is employed, country,to keep the horses in the yoke each should have a head of carts leading to
all the time employed at leading during him, in conformity to the distance the corn bas to be brought; and when both heads are nose -bags while the carter is dining, and leading from the same field, both should the day, and tofeed them with corn in
also to give them green food, such as tares, have the same number of carts. The same
while the cart is unloading at the stack . carts and forker should serve the same In other parts, the horses are taken out of builder, that the corn may be brought to the yoke,watered, and put into the stable, each in a regular routine.
where they receive their corn while the men are at dinner.
This is the easiest
4622. In filling a stackyard, the barley
plan for the horses, in which they will work being first thrashed their stacks should be the longest day's work with less fatigue, placed nearest the barn ; and wheat being thoughit usually occupies an hour of the the last thrashed, their stacks are placed best part of the day before they are again on on the statbels round the outside of the
the road, whereas half an hour, spent inthe stackyard.
Oats being required at all
other case, is sufficient for the men to dine, seasons, their stacks may be placed any. and the horses to feed on corn. Some horses where. The stacks of pease and beans
are apt to take fright, when the bridles either fill up the heart of the stackyard at are temporarily slipped off their head for last, or are placed in a convenient place the purpose of taking the bit out of their
mouth, to allow them to eat the tares with freedom . Such an occurrence is doubtless
the result of bad breaking in. To avoid it, in the case of a horse known to be easily frightened, the bit should be fastened with a small strap and buckle to the near side of the bridle.
on the outside.
4623. In setting a loaded cart to the stool or stathel of a stack, it should be studied to let the ploughman have the advantage of any wind going in forking the sheaves from the cart. The stack should be built in this way :-Set up a
couple of sheaves against each other in the
4620. A load of tares is brought to the centre of the statbel, and another couple steading fresh in the morning, forthe horses employed at leading. Tares are not fit for borses until the pods are pretty well filled with grain, as prior to that state they are apt to purge and weaken them, when working much in the cart, which they are obligedto do when carrying in the corn.
against their sides. Pile other sheaves against these in rows round the centre, with a slop downwards towards the cir cumference of the stathel, each row being placed half the length of the sheaf beyond the inner one, till the circumference is completed, when it should be examined ;
and where any sheaf presses too hard upon 4621. While the first cart is going to another, it should be relieved, and where
and loading in the field , and returning to a slackness is found, a sheaf should be in
the stackyard, the builder of the stacks troduced. Keeping the circumference of
collects his forks and ladders, (1743 ) and trimmer, fig. 418 ; and his assistant, a field -worker, who pitches the sheaves conveniently for him on the stack, fetches
the stack on the left hand, the stacker lays the sheaves upon the outside row round the stack, placing each sheaf with his hands upon the hollow or intermediatespace be
a few straw -ropes, fig. 415, and a hand tween two of the sheaves laid in the preced rake, fig. 345, into the stackyard. The ing row, close to the last one, and pressing
STACKING CORN .
365
it with bothhis knees, as represented ath, row , along the bands of the outside one, fig. 417. When the outside row is thus laid, with a few sheaves crossing one another in the centre, make such a stack com
Fig. 417. k
pletely hearted. Where long wheat is raised, as in the Carse of Gowrie, which often reaches from 5 to 6 feet in length, the stack should beatleast 18 feet in diameter,
to give room toa few sheaves for the hearting. 4625. A stack of 15 feet in breadth is rather too much for the carter to fork
heavy sheaves across to the stacker, when m
the stack has attained the beight of his bead, and when the load in the cart becomes as low as the load - rail.
The
stacker should always receive the sheaves within easy reach, as he cannot rise from his knees to take them without much loss
of time, and without the risk of making bad work . To expedite the building, a field -worker k should stand on the stack, to receive the sheaves on a short fork from
the carter, and to throw them to the stacker THE BUILDING OF A STACK OF CORN .
an inside one is made with sheaves whose but-ends rest on the bands of the outside row as seen at i, thereby securing the outside sheaves in their places, and at
in the position they are wanted by him, as the sheaf I is shown, in order to save him the trouble of turning them. By a little management, the field -worker might re ceive every sheaf as the carter pitches it from his fork upon her fork; and, to pre vent it falling from the fork, she should
the same time filling up the body of the catch the coming sheaf at the band with sheaves may be required as an inmost anced, and most easily wielded, being its stack firmly with sheaves. A few more her fork, at which point the sheaf is bal
row , to make the heart of the stack its centre of gravity, and throw it in its proper highest part. It is of immense benefit to position a little before and at the right a stack to have its centre well filled with
hand of the stacker, with the but- end
sheaves, as it is the heart sheaves which always pointing to the circumference of retain the outside ones in their places in the stalk . That the work may go on in the circle, with an inclination downwards the most regular order, the carter should from the centre to the circumference ; and pitch the sheaves from the cart just as fast it is this inclined position of the outside as the builder can use them, and no faster,
sheaves that prevents the rain finding a having only one sheaf in reserve on the
passage along the straw into the very stack in advance of the builder — for any heart of the stack , where it would easily more is of no use to him, and he must leave find its way, were the sheaves inclined them behind him . It will also be easier downwards to the centre of the stack , and where it would soon spoil the corn. The sheaves that are so spoiled are said to have taken in pen -wet.
work for the field -worker, as well as for the better laying of the sheaves to the builder, that she is able to use the fork equally well with the right and the left
4624. The number of rows of sheaves required to fill the body of a stack, depends on the length of the straw and the diameter of the stack . For crops of
hand, as otherwise she will be obliged to swing and throw the sheaves across her self for half the round of the building of the stack. The field -worker remains on the stack as long as she has a footing to
ordinary length of straw , such as from 4¢ hand the sheaves to the builder. to 5 feet, a stack of 15 feet diameter is
well adapted ; and in which one inside
4626. As each cart is unloaded, the
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
366
stacker descends to the ground, by means the same angle as a common roof, one foot of a ladder, such as fig. 143, and trims the below the square, as explained in build stack , by pushing in with a fork the end of ing the top of a hay -stack , (4045.) any sheaf that projects further than the The bevelled bottoms of the sheaves,
rest, and by pulling outany that may have acquired by standing in the stook, answer been placed too far in . As the stack rises in height with cart-load after cart-load, the trimming cannot be conveniently done with a fork ; a half-inch thick flat board about 20 inches in length, and 10 inches broad,
the slope of the top pretty nearly. The hearting of the top of a stack should be attended to particnlarly, as on rain obtaining admission from the top of a stack it cannot be prevented descending
nailed firmly to a long shaft, fig. 418, is through its entire heart. After the area Fig. 418.
an appropriate instru- of the top has contracted to a space on
ment for beating in the which 4 sheaves only can stand upright, projecting ends of the sheaves, and giving the body of the stack a uniform roundness. It seems
they are so placed erect, with their but- ends spread a little out, and their tops gathered in so as to complete the figure ofthe cone. These top sheaves are held in their posi
to be considered by build- tion against the effects of wind, by means ers necessary to make the of a straw rope wound round them , the
stack swell out as it pro- ends of which are fastened to the stack . ceeds in height, if we may judge from common 4629. When stacks are built on the practice; but no such ex- ground, stools of loose straw are made for
pedience is necessary for throwing off the drops of rain froin the eave, as the eave itself, on
them to stand upon, to preserve the sheaves at the bottom receiving injury from the dampness of the ground. A stool for a stack is formed in this manner :-Stick a
the stack subsiding after fork in the ground, on the spot where the A STACK TRIMMER,
being built a few days, centreof the stack is desired to stand, as a , projects sufficiently out to throw off the fig. 419. Put a quantity of dry straw round drops. The leg ofthe stack should, there Fig. 419. fore, be carried up perpendicularly . As a stack of 15 feet in diameter should ulti
inately stand 12 feet high in the leg to maintain a due proportion, an allowance of about one foot for subsidence, after
the top is finished, is generally made. The height is measured with the ladder, and allowing 2 feet for the height of the
stathel, a 15 -feet ladder will just give the desired measure of the height of the leg before the top is built up. Fig. 420 represents a stack built upon a stathel. MAKING THE STOOL FOR A CORN- STACK .
4627. The eave of the stack is formed the fork, and shake it up with a fork as according to the mode in which it to be the litter of a horse in a stable is shaken, thatched. If the ropes are to be placed and then spread it out in equal thickness lozenge-shaped, the eave row of sheaves is over the area the stack shalloccupy. Then
placedjust within the topmost row of the taking a long fork b, with the radius of the leg. If the thatching ropes are to run from stack notched upon its shaft, embrace the the crown of the stack to the eave, the shaft of the upright fork a between its eave sheaves are made to project 2 or 3 prongs; and push in and pull out with the
inches beyond the topmost row of sheaves. foot the straw , so as in walking round the circumference of the stool to give it the form
4628. In building the top of a stack, of a circle, e, c, d , 1, having a diameter every successive row of sheaves is taken equal to twice the radius notched upon as much farther in as to give the slope the sbaft of the fork .
STACKING CORN .
4630. Sheaves cut with the sickle hav-
367
4634. The thatching of a stack is done
ing a more uniform stubble end than when in this manner - I shall first describe the -
mown with the scythe, are more easily lozenge -shaped thatching, as being the built into a stack, and give it a more most common : On thethatcherascending
handsome appearance; but being close, exclude the external air, and cannot be so soon stacked. A stack of mown sheaves is rough but open, and can be put up in safety in a state of dampness which would be disastrous to shorn sheaves. When sheaves aremown by inexperienced hands, a considerable quantity of grain is exposed
to the top of the stack by means of a lad der, which is immediately after taken away by an assistant, a bunch or two of drawn straw, fig . 416, are forked up to him by one of his assistants, a field worker, which he keeps beside him behind a graip, stuck into the top of the stack , as
noticed in covering the hay -stack, (4049.)
on the outside of the stack, owing to the The strawis first laid upon the eave, be straws having been irregularly laid in the swath and into the sheaves ; but with dexterous mowers the quantity thus ex posed is very trifling, and will only hap -
yond wbich it projects a few inches, and then in an overlapping manner upwards to the top: Where a but- end of a sheaf pro
jects, it should be beaten in, and where a
pen when the wind bas blown in a direc- hollow occurs, a but-end of a sheaf should
tion contrary to that in which the crop be drawn out, or filled up with a little ad has been partially laid, and yet not suffi- ditional straw. In this manner the straw ciently strong to turn it completely back. is evenly laid all round the top of the stack, to the spot where the thatcher be 4631. A rough stack of mown sheaves gan. Supposing he has thus put the may easily be made smooth, and free from covering on the top of the stack, fig. 420, projecting ears of grain, which need not be lost. A man can dress a stack in an
Fig. 420 .
hour with a scythe-blade fixed to a fork shaft, causing the shorn heads to fall on a barn -sheet spread on the ground to receive them . A field - worker should assist in shift
ing the sheet round the stack, emptying it, and carrying it from stack to stack . Such
a shaved stack is represented by c, fig. 143 .
4632. Seldom is leisure found to thatch
stacks as long as there is corn to carry in, and the finer the weather the less leisure
presents itself. A damp day, bowever, which prevents leading, answers very well
for thatching, as the thatch straw is not the worse of being a little damp ; but in heavy rain it would be improperto thatch and cover up so many wet ends of sheaves as the top of a stackcontains. 4633. The materials should all be at
hand before commencing the thatching of stacks - drawn bunches of straw, coils of straw - ropes, ladders, forks, hand -rakes,
THE LOZENGE MODE OF ROPING THE COVERING OF A CORN- STACK .
and graips. To get on with the business quickly, a man and two assistants are requiredfor each stack — the most convenient and thrifty assistants being field -workers,
all round to the line from a to b, before closing up which he makes the top a , con sisting of a small bundle of well-drawn long straw, tied firmly at one end with a
who fetch straw and ropes when wanted, piece of cord ; the tied end is cut square supply the thatcher with straw, and tie with a knife, as shown at a ; and the loose the ends of the ropes. end is spread upon the covering, and forms
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
368
the finishing to it. To secure this top in straw -ropes not in a coiled state, they could its place, a straw -rope is thrown down by not be thrown down by the thatcher within the thatcher from a to d , the end of which
reach of the assistant . Thus the thatcher
his assistant on the ground fastens to the puts on every rope parallel to each other side of the stack , asfar up as she can con- below g, till the last one on that side
veniently tie it. After passing the other has reached h. To give the ropes a end of the same rope round the top, he closer seat, they should each receive a throws it down in the same direction ,
tap here and there with a fork, from the
where it is also fastened to the stack . In thatcher, whilst the assistant is pulling
like manner be throws down both the the last end tight.
ends of a rope from a to c, and they are also fastened by the assistant. The returning parts ofthese two ropes are seen at e and f. Having thus secured the top, the thatcher closes in the covering from a to b, where the ladder is placed to let him down. Taking a longer ladderto c , he inclines its upper part nearly parallel to the
He then takes the
ladder to d , and placing and fastening it there, as he did at c, he puts on every
rope parallel to each other below f, till they reach the last one, i. Ropes thus placed parallel from opposite sides of the top of a stack cross each other in the diamond or lozenge-shape represented in fig. 420. On a stack 15 feet diame
covering of the stack, and secures its lower ter at the base, 16 feet diameter at the end from slipping outwards by a graip eave, 12feet high in the leg, and 6 feet thrust against it into the ground. He then high in the top,10 ropes on each side are mounts and stands upon the ladder at a re- quite sufficient to secure the thatch . quisite height above the eave c, where he receives a number of coils of ropes, fig. 415,
from his assistant, which he keeps before him between the steps of the ladder. To give the thatch -straw smoothness, it should bestroked down with a long supple
4635. The ends of the ropes are fastened to the stack by pulling a small handful of straw from a sheaf a little out of the stack ,
and winding part of the rope round it ; and the ball thus formed is pushed through rod of willow, before the ropes are succes- between the rope and the stack , which
sively put on .
Holding on by the keeps the rope as tight as would a knot.
loosened end of a coil of rope, he throws the coil from where he stands on the lad-
4636. Windy gusty weather is very
der above cdown towards the direction of unfavourable for the thatching of stacks, d to the right of the top a, to his assistant, the thatching being ruffled up by every who, taking it in the hand, allows the gust. thatcher to coil it up again upon his hand, without ruffling the covering of 4637. Another method of roping the the stack , till as much of it is left as to thatching of a stack is shown in fig. 421 . allow her to fasten it to the side of the
Fig. 421 .
stack , while the thatcher adjusts its posi tion parallel to the rope he formerly placed round the top a, and the round of which is seen at e.
The thatcher then
throws the newly coiled end in the same direction of d , to the left of the top a , where, on his assistant taking hold of its
end, he retains the rope in his hands by the double, and adjusts it in its position
parallel with the former rope round a, and keeps it there till the assistant pulls it tightly down, and makes it fast to the stack like the other end. The return of
this last rope is seen at g. The reason
THE NET -MESH MODE OF ROPING THE COVERING OF A CORN-STACK ,
that the thatcher is obliged to throw down
the rope at first coiled, and to coil up The straw is put on in precisely the same again the second end before it is thrown manner as described for fig. 420. The
down, is, because, were the ends of the ropes are then all crossed over the crown
369
STACKING CORN.
of the stack, and are so arranged as to of short straw is placed upon them , to subdivide the top into equal similar triangles, as b a c, c a d, and their ends are fastened into the side of the stack. The ropes, at their crossing over the top, are fastened together by a rope, which is tied
serve as a cushion for the ropes to rest
upon, and wbich is put into its place after most of the covering has been laid on. The thatcher then perches himself upon
the top of this hard bundle, where he re above them, and cut off in the form of a ceives the ropes as they are wanted, on rosette, as at a. The ropes which cross these the prongs of a long fork, on being thrown are eitlier put on spirally from the top a , up to himn. Some dexterity is required till they terminate atd, as represented in the to throw a coil of straw -rope fig. 415, to figure,and to which form it is well adapted, the top of a stack. The best position to
as every turn round the perpendicular rope do it is to stand as far from the stack brings the horizontal one to a lower level; as to see the thatcher entirely clear of
or separate ropes are put on in bands, its bead; and then, taking a cuil by parallel to the eave, and twisted round each
the small end, pitch it upwards with a
crown-rope, at equal intervals of space, full swing of the arm , parallel to the
from the top a to the eave-rope e f. This covering
of
the stack ,
towards the
mode of roping requires fully more ropes thatcher's feet, and be will catch it firmly than the last method, though the crown- on the prongs of the fork ; if aimed at ropes may be fewer in number than shown a higher level or to either side, the fork by a b, a c, and a d ; but it perfectly se- will be alınost certain of missing it, the
cures the thatch against any force of wind, and is therefore well adapted for exposed situations. It is not unfrequently to be seen in the Highlands of Scotland,
critical position of the thatcher not allow ing him the freedom of bis body, and only lis arms. He thus receives a number of coils, and places them at his feet. Un
and in other northern counties.
coiling the half of a rope, by coiling it on bis right band, the thatclier throws the 4638. Another mode of roping the band -coil over tlie ea ve tobis assistant, who
covering of a stack is applicable to all holds on by that end while he throws the stacks whose eave is formed of a row of other coiled half down in exactly theoppo sheaves projecting beyond their bodies. site direction, across the top of the stack, It is shown in fig . 422, and was once in to the other assistant, who lays bold of Fig. 422.
its end : then both assistants pull the
с
ends of the rope, the thatcher tapping it 9
firmly with the fork, and the ends are fastened to the opposite sides of the stack .
One assistant may suffice, by tying first one end of the rope, and then the other ; but with two assistants the roping is not only conducted with greater celerity, but much more firmly. Thus rope after rope
is thrown, at equal intervals of space, to the number of 30, from c to d , e, f, be fore the top of the stack is sufficiently THE BORDER METHOD OF COVERING AND ROPING A roped. The ropes, where they cross at the CORN- STACK. top, are tied together with a piece of straw common use in Berwickshire, but now rope, to prevent their slipping off. A ladder
seems confined to Northumberland. The is placed upon the thatching, down which first thing done, is to put a strong eave the thatcher then descends to the ground.
rope round the stack, below the projecting The straw is 4639. Another method of thatching then put on in a similar manner to that stacks, most common in England, is the row of sbeaves from a to b.
last described, but rather thicker, and it insertion of handfuls of well-drawn wheat is made to project farther down than the straw into the buts of the sheaves on line of the eave-rope. The tops of the the top of the stack, and which are kept finishing sleaves of the stack are pressed down with stobs of willows, or sewed on
down, and a somewhat large hard bundle with tarred twine, being in imitation of VOL. II .
2 A
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
370
the thatching of cottages. In this method e , is first put round the stack. The no straw ropes are nised ; and, finished by crown- ropes a b, a c, a d , are passed at a dexterous thatcher, it gives the stacks each end round the eave-rope e f, and are
a remarkably neat and permanent appear- fastened to the stack immediately under ance.
I am not sure that this method the straw projecting from the eave in the
would resist the force of much windy manner described in (4635. )
The pro
weather, though its smooth surface would jecting straw at the eave is cut short with
detain the snow upon the tops of the a knife, in the fashion shown from 6 to d . stack a much less time than any of the ropings described above.
4643. The difficult part of roping, in fig.
422 is in finishing the eave, which , if well 4640. It is seldom that the thatching of done, looks remarkably neat ; but, if other a stack is finished when the straw and wise, has a very slovenly appearance. The
ropes are first put on ; the object of thatching being first to place, in the shortest time, as many stacks as possible beyond danger from rain ; so that most of
eave is finished in this way : - The eave rope having been already put up,the ends of the ropes are loosened from the stack, and passed from below between the eave
them are covered to a safe state, and the rope and the stack, and , on being brought finishing is left till more leisure is found, upwards, are passed behind the ropes and until the stacks subside to their full- themselves, about 8 or 9 inches above the est degree. Stacks to be early thrashed, eave-rope. The end ofthe first rope , sup
such as those of barley, seldom receive pose cd, being thus fastened, the part of finishing at all ; and many farmers only the thatch straw which projects beyond finish the outside rows of stacks, and some the eave is brought horizontally along particularly so only if conspicuously seen its face ; and the second rope ce, on being
from a public road. It is a mark of loosened from the stack, is placed over the slovenly management to leave stacks un- horizontal straw , before being passed below
finished in the thatching, and in windy the eave-rope, and then brought upwards weather unfinished stacks are liable to be and passed behind itself, as the first rope stripped of their thatching altogether. It was . The end of the first rope, and that
is excusable to leave a few of the stacks to of the second, as also the projecting be earliest thrashed unfinished in the thatch straw , are then placed horizontally
thatching; and for the same reason theymay along the face of the eave; and the third safely be built on stools instead of stathels. Bnt finishing should be the rule, and it is inexcusable to neglect it when both weather and time permit it to be done.
rope cf, loosened from the stack, is placed over these, and also passed below the eave- rope and brought up and passed behind itself like the two preceding ropes ; and thus every rope all the way round
4641. The finishing of the thatching in the stack, at both ends of the 30 ropes, are is spun long and strong enough to go ropes roundthe eave, they terminate suc round the stack at the eave, from k tol. cessively till their length is exhausted ; fig. 420 is done in this manner :-A rope treated. In carrying the ends of the
Wherever two ropes from opposite direc- and it will be observed that, while the tions cross the eave -rope, they are passed end of one rope fails to go beyond its end of another one is gained , round it, and, on being cut short with a length, the band of ropes along theface of the so that the knife, are fastened to the stack manner described in ( 4635. ) After all the eave remains of the same breadth the ends of the 20 ropes are thus fastened round the stack . When ropes are so long to the stack, the projecting part of the as to become cumbrous, they are broken
thatch at the eave is cut with a knife all off. The last finish is made by bringing round the stack , to the effect shown along the ends of the 2 or 3 last ropes along the d , b, c. Of all the modes of thatching, I face of the eave, behind the 2 or 3 first
see none more efficient and better looking ropes, where the finishing commenced. The than the lozenge shaped.
stretch of the ropes between the eave and top are prevented from being shaken with
4642. The mode of finishing the thatch- the wind by 4 or 8 ropes being put on, ing of fig. 421 is this: -An eave -rope, as a h b, and i k and i gare, and which in
STACKING CORN.
371
fact quarter the top of the stack, on their down to the ground to cool my feet. Heated wheat is bitter to the taste, (1859.) ends being fastened to the eave -rope.
4644. Of the cereal grains, barley is 4647. Partial heating is induced in most liable to heat in the stack, partly the compressed part where stacks lean owing to the soft and moist quality of the over soon after being built. To prevent a
straw, and partly because clover is always stack leaning to one side, props, made of mixed with it ; on which accounts, it is the weedings of plantations , should be advisable , in most seasons, to make barley loosely set around it, to guide its subsi stacks smaller than the others, both in dia- dence, especially if it has been rapidly
meter and height, and to build them upon built ; but in using props, the caution is bosses. Much care should be bestowed on requisite, that, if oneis pushed harder in building barley stacks to heart them pro- than the others, it will cause the stack to
perly , which is the best expedient to pre
swerve from it.
Some stacks begin to
vent beating. The least heat spoils bar- sway the moment their top is finished, when
ley for malting, and it should be remem- props should be immediately set to keep bered that malting barley always fetches them upright. the highest price in the market. Besides injuring the grain, heating compresses
4648. To push a prop firmly into a
barley straw very firmly, and soon rots stack requires the strength of two men, it. When a single stack only is seen to one to pull backwards between the stack heat, it may be instantly carried into the and the prop, with both hands clasped
barn and thrashed , the ventilation attend- upon the outside of the prop, the other to ing which will cool both grain and straw ; push forward with the shoulder planted but when a number show symptoms of against the outside of the prop, immedi
leaning to one side, about 24 hours after ately below the other man's hands. being built, or exhibit a depression in the top, a little above the eave, you may sus-
4649. As a safeguard against heating, pect heating not only to have commenced , a structure of wood is erected, around and
but to have proceeded to a serious de- upon which the stack is built. These gree. Incipient symptoms of heating structures are in Scotland named bosses, are when moisture is observed on any part which signify hollows ; and the object of
of the top of a stack early in the morning- using them is to occupy the space which delicately indicated on cobwebs — before would otherwise be filled with the collected the sun has evaporated it, or when heads of the sheaves of corn, with a void heated air is felt, or steam is seen to rise.
into which air shall be conducted from
Heated barley lubricates the thrashing- the exterior of the stack. When stacks are machine with a gummy matter.
built on bosses erected on stathels, fig. 132,
the air finds ingress into them through the 4645. Oats are less apt to heat than frame-work of the stathel; but when built
barley, though their heating is stronger. upon the ground, a conduit, in the form of If the least sap remains in the joints of a tressle, is formed of wood-work, by which the straw , oats will be sure to heat in the
the air is led into the interior of the
stack. Heating gives to oat straw and stack . When such tressles are placed at grain a reddish tinge, and renders the both sides of a boss, a ventilation is main
straw quite unfit for fodder, and the grain tained through the body of the stack . bitter and unpalatable, both to horses as
corn, and to people as meal.
4650. The most common form of boss
is a three-sided pyramid , formed of three 4646. Wheat seldom heats, but, when small trees, weedings of a plantation, of it does, the heat is most violent. I never larch or Scots fir, tied together at the saw stacks of wheat heated but once, smaller ends, and the thicker.ends placed
when they were foolishly led into the at equal distances upon the stathel or the stackyard the day after being reaped. I ground. Fig. 423 represents one of these cast down one of those heated' wheat
common bosses, where the three trees are
stacks, and such was the intensity of the tied together at the top, at a , standing heat that I was frequently obliged to come about 8 feet in height and 3 feet
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
372
asunder from each other; and 6 6 are ground it requires two tressles as well fillets of wood nailed on the trees, for the as the other sort of boss, to complete Fig. 423. e
the ventilation of the air within the stack . This has the advantage over the other
kind, of supporting the top of the stack evenly, when it subsides upon the upper
end of the prism, relieving the body of the stack of the weight of its top. 4652. Other means than a boss are
employed to form a hollow in the heart of a stack, by setting the upright sheaves which form the foundation of the stack , around a long cylindrical bundle of straw ,
firmly wound with straw -rope ; and as the stack rises in height, the bundle is drawn up through its centre to the top where it is removed , leaving a hole through the height of the stack. This hole creates
a current of air through the stack, allow ing the heated air to escape, while the cool air enters from below by means of a tressle, or statuel. A PYRAMIDAL BOSS AND TRESSLE ,
purpose both of retaining them in the 4653. In wet weather corn is built in pyramidal form , and of preventing the small stacks even in the stackyard ; and
sheaves falling into the interior of the boss. A tressle c,about 2 feet lighı, is placed on one side to conduct the air into the boss. The inconvenience of this form ofboss is, that, as the stack subsides,
should the weather prove settled wet, a dry moment should be seized to put 2 or 3 stooks into what are called hand-huts in the field, that is, small stacks built by hand, by a person standing on the ground.
the sharp apex a penetrates through the sheaves lying above it, and , in thius disturbing their arrangement, disfigures the form of the upper part of the stack .
Sometimes corn is built on a headridge of the field, instead of being carried to the stackyard , as the same strength of men and horses will stack more corn there in
a single fine day, than when it is carried to 4651. Fig. 424 represents a form ofboss the stackyard ; and the stacks derive more which I prefer to benefit from the air in the field than in Fig. 424. this. It consists of the yard . Such stacks are also thatched 3 stems of trees, -
in the field, and carried to the thrashing
of weedings —7 machine during the winter. It is not an feet long, held to- unconimon practice of some farmers to
gether in the form build a portion of their crop in the field of a prism, whose every year ; but the practice is not com side is 3 feet in mendable in ordinary circumstances, as,
width, by fillets of besides the trouble and waste created in wood of that length carrying straw for thatch to the field, much
being nailed to confusion and loss are experienced iu car them. The prism rying the corn to the steading in winter, is set on end, and when some of it cannot fail to be shaken on a stathel only out of the sheaves, and when the stacks
A PRISMATIC BOSS.
w
requires to be nail- wanted cannot, perhaps, be brought in ed to it at the bot- for a tract of bad weather, or through deep tom ; but as a far- snow . A scheme may be justifiable under
ther means of sta- peculiar circumstances which would be
bility ,aspur from each tree should be nailed wrong in ordinary practice, and the build to the stathel within the prism . On the ing of stacks in the field is one of them .
STACKING CORN .
4654. The bundles of pease are turned in the field till they are win, and they become smaller by being tied with a wisp of their own straw . Pease straw is very
373
in of the corn , and with the thatching of the stacks, are finished. It is left for a long time littered with the refuse of the thatching straw, which, when it becomes
apt to compress in the stack, and to heat, wetted with rain, is not only nseless as and should therefore be built with bosses, either in roundstacks or oblong ones, like a baystack. The largest stackI ever saw was one of pease, at Beauchamp in Forfar-
litter elsewhere, but soon heats, and causes an unpleasant odour around the stacks. The spare straw should be removed, after
it is of no nse in the stackyard—that to
shire, wbich was 150 yards in length ; the straw-barn which is drawn and a tressle, under which a person could have walked upright, was erected through the entire length of the stack . When pease become very dry in the field before they are led, the pods are apt to open and spill the coru, particularly in sunuy weather; and to avoid such a loss, the crop is usually brought quickly into the stackyard, and built on bosses.
bundled, and that to the sheds of the ham mels which is loose, to be ready as litter for the cattle which will soon occupy
them for their winter quarters. The ground should then be raked clean. After this cleaning, the air will become sweet,
the stacks have free circulation of it amongst them , and the poultry will have the opportunity to pick up every particle of grain that may have fallen upon the
4655. Beans are a long time of winning ground. in the field in calm weather. As it is desirable to have the land they grow on ploughed up for wheat, they are not unfrequently carried to a lea -field and stooked
upon it, till ready to be stacked.
After such a necessary act of
cleanliness is done, the stack yarı gate should be closed, which brings the labours connected with the ingatlering of the crop to a termination.
Being
bard and open in the straw , they keep
4658. Where rough grass grows on a farm ,
pretty in the small though not such as ona bog which is partially dry in sum quite winwell ; and risk stacks, of keeping isworth mer, I would suggest its being mown and running in dry weather after much rain, insheafed,for covering stacks. A day or two spent mowing such grass, after the harvest is over,
when the pods are very apt to burst and spill the corn on the ground. In building both pease and bean stacks, the sheaves are laid down with their corn end inwards, and tramped with the feet; and the stacks receive but little trimming, the
are well spent, even at the rate of wages and
food of ordinary barvest-work. Not only does such vegetable materials save the drawing of clean straw when it is scarce,but of itself forms good covering for stacks which are soon to be thrashed ; and by the time ithas served the pur pose of thatch, it becomes dryenough to litter
pease none at all, the beans with the courts. Bog-reeds, Arundo phragmites, might be used in the same way , where they do not tind back of a shovel, fig. 83. a profitable market as thatch for cottages.
year I caused a large quantity of such materials to be mown, immediately after the 4656. The thatching of pease and bean Every
stacks is conducted in the same nianner reaping of the harvest was finished. The reapers
the workas a sport and relaxation un enjoyed as described for those of grain ; but less the winding up of the harvest, and the produce of
pains are bestowed in finishing them off. As, however a good deal of corn is ex their work added many tons to the manure heap. posed on the outside of both pease and 4659. “ The soil of the great Nankin cotton bean stacks, the thatching is not unfre country," says Mr Fortune, " is not vuly remark quently brought down their legs, and kept ably fertile, but agriculture seems raure advanced, on with straw - ropes.
and bears a greater resembance to what it is at home, than in any part of China I have seen. One here meets with a farmyard containing
4657. I would advise you not to imitate stacksregularly built up and thatched, inthe the practice of those farmers, wbo, because same form and manuer as we find them in Eny
gratified to have their crops safe in the same land ; way the land, too, is ridged and furrowed in the ; aud were it not for the plantations of
stackyard, seem regardless of the statein bamboo, andthelongtailsand general costume which thestackyard itself is left, afterall of the natives, a man might almost imagine him the operations connected with the leading self on the banks of the Thames ." * Fortune's Wanderings in China, p. 126.
374
PRACTICE - AUTUMN . ON REAPING BUCKWHEAT.
for stacking. It requires turning and moving severaltimes , in preparing it for
4660. The buckwheat is a plant re- the stack ; and these should be done gently
markably dependent on the weather. It and in the dew, to disturb the seed as requires dry weather immediately after little as possible, as many of them will being sown, and it springs up during the time of greatest drought. But after putting forth its third leaf, it requires rain for the development of its flowers. During the long time it continues in flower it re-
be lost, although the plant does not easily spoil when lying on the ground. To allow it to be early carried, it should be built in small stacks with bosses, (4651. )
quires alternate rain and sunshine, to enable the flower to set. The flower drops off in
4664. A considerable diversity of
thunderstorms, and they wither in violent easterly winds. After flowering, the plant again requires dry weather to bring the seed to maturity.
opinion exists as to the productiveness of buckwheat—Thäer considering 20 bushels an acre an extraordinary crop very rarely to be obtained ; while Mr Hewitt Davis says that he has reaped 70 4661. “ The ripening of the grain is quarters from 12 acres, which is rather very unequal ,” says Thäer, “ for the plant more than 46 bushels an acre.t is continually flowering and setting. We must therefore cut it at the time the
greatest quantity of grain is ripe.
4665. The straw of buckwheat makes
It excellent fodder for cattle, as long as it
sometimes happens that the first flowers is fresh ; and the green plant, when raised do not set, or that they produce nothing with manure, affords such a forage in but barren seeds, destitute of farina, while
summer
as causes
a great increase of
those which come out later yield better milk in cows, but it produces a stupifying seed. But the grain will ripen, and even effect on them. The green plant is also the flowers set, while the crop is lying on a valuable manure for wheat.
the ground after cutting, especially if rain fall. This occurrence is therefore considered favourable.” *
4666. No grain seems so eagerly eaten by poultry, or makes them lay eggs so soon and abundantly, as buckwheat. It
4662. In the south of England a con- is also relished by horses amongst oats. siderable period of both bot and dry weather Its meal fattens both poultry aud pigs. is necessary in autumn to harvest it. It Its flour makes good unleavened cakes, may be reaped with the sickle or with the which must be eaten fresh, as they soon scythe, or it may be pulled up by the roots turn sour. Its blossom is considered, in
-which last method is recommended by Flanders, to afford the best food for sonie, as less likely to shed the seed when bees. fully ripe. In dry weather it should be reaped early in the morning, or late in the 4667. buckwheat farinaof of is yel evening when the dew is upon it,andshould low, like “theThepollen thethecedar,” saysM.Ras not be inoved too much in the day. It may pail. “ The grains of its fecula are so small that sheaves, made be tied up in
or
into bundles they rarely attain to .0004 of an inch. The cel
like pease ; but, in either way, it should lular texture which contains them breaks down under the pestle into angular fragments .0055 be protected from birds, wbich are very
fund of the seed.
of to .004 of an inch in size, which, by their facettes and their yellowish appearance, resemble fatty grains. By a certain degree of maceration the
4663. Owing to the thick knottystems grains of fécula may be rendered discernible in of the straw , the green state in which it is the interior of these fragments.I cut, and the late period it comes to har 4668.5th TheJanuary1850, import of buckwheat, for the ;and year was 308 quarters vest, a succession of fourteen or fifteen ending fine days are requisite to dry it sufficiently of buckwheat meal 1095 cwts.§ (3472.) 得*
Thäer's Principles of Agriculture, vol. ii. p . 484 -Shaw and Johnson's Translation. + Davis' FarmingEssays, p. 68.
Raspail's Organic Chemistry, p. 122. $ Parliamentary Return , March 15, 1850.
HARVESTING MAIZE . ON HARVESTING THE SUNFLOWER .
375
colour, but it should be left standing as long as the weather is favourable for ripen
4669. When the stems and discs of the ing ; and even an occasional day's rain or sunflower become withered, and the seeds frost will not damage the grain . shining and dark -coloured, the plant is ready to be removed from the ground. 4674. When ripe, the cobs sbould be It may simply be pulled np by the roots pulled off the stem , thrown into the cart, —which in a strong crop, however, may and carried to the barn, where it should require considerable force ; but the stem be husked as quickly as possible, else the may be easily cut over at the ground with grain will become musty. The cobs a sharp sickle, fig. 392. should not be pulled off at one time in
quantities thanwhat can be husked. 4670. The discs are afterwards easily larger Six people in the field - men, women, and cut off the stems with a sharp knife, and
boys — will, in one hour, break off the cobs
the seeds must be rubbed out with any with a downward pull, from two rows, suitable instrument, such as the Ameri-
and throw them into heaps on the ground,
cans use for rubbing out the maize. Mr from one acre of maize.
The same num
Lawson informs me that from 30 to 40 ber of people require the same time to
bushels of seed, per acre, may be deemed a fair crop of sunflower. These will yield 50 gallons of oil ; the refuse will make 1500 lb. of oil-cake ; and the stalks burnt into ash will afford half
cut off one acre of the stalks by the groundwith a sharp knife, and laythem in small heaps. The pulling off the cobs and the cutting down the stalks are done simultaneously. Carts then follow , the
a ton of potash. Professor Johnston men- cobs are thrown into them, and the stalks
tions that the seed yields 15 per cent of are also removed to the dung stance . oil .
4675. The busk is taken off in this 4671. “ The seeds of both the common and
dwarf sunflower ( 3475 ,) yield an oil little in manner : - In the evening of the day the ferior to that of the olive for domestic purposes,”
says Mr Lawson. " In Portugal the seeds are
cobs are brought from the field, three people, for every quarter of maize to be
made into bread, as also into a kind of meal ; and husked, sit down in the barn floor against, in America they are roasted , and used as a sub
middle of the floor, or if the heap is in the theirbacks to the the heap, with stitute for coffee ; butthe purpose forwhich they around
seem best adapted is the feeding of domestic
fowls, pheasants, and other game. Thegreatest objectionto their culture is, that theyrequire very superior soil, and are a most impoverishing sort, Helicrop, particularly the taller growing circumstance the
maize, and a two bushel basket before every four of them. Putting the band behind, they pick a cob of maize from the heap, bring it before them, pull off
anthus annuus ; from which
dwarf species, Helianthus Indicus, has been pre the husk, spread it open , and whisk it off
ferred by some cultivators in France,who assert by the jerk of a little pointed stick, held dwarf habit growth admits of a
in the right hand, and throw the husk on
greater number of plants being grown on agiven
the floor before them and the bead of maize
space , it is not so much inferior to the other in quantity of produce, as, from its appearance, one would be led to expect.
before them rises to about two feet in
that, as its
of
into the basket. When the heap of husk
height, the people face about and sit upon it, having the maize and the baskets before tioned, some French authors assert that the leaves, either in a green or dried state, form ex them ,when they throw the heads of maize their cellent food for cows, and that they are greedily into the baskets, and the husks over eaten by them. The stems also form good fuel, shoulder upon the heap. Two men carry away the baskets as they are filled, and and yield a considerable proportion of potash .* empty them in a corner of the barn. 4672. “ In addition to the uses above men-
ON HARVESTING MAIZE.
4676. So long as the heads of maize are
kept in the barn, it is sufficient to turn 4673. About the 10th of September the them over occasionally, raising what is at entireplant of the maize assumes a drystraw the bottom of the heap to the top. Much * Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual, p. 292.
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
376
air existing among the heads, there is high-flavoured flesh like the pheasant. no danger of thie grain heating ; but if not When so fed, their eggs are of superior turned to change the sides, and let the
colour and flavour. Hams are in high
dainp out, the corn will acquire a musty repute from pigs fed on maize. smell. So treated, they will keep for any length of tiine. 4683. In detailing the culture of buck wheat, maida, and maize, my object is not
4677. The grain may be taken off the beads, when in a fresh state, by pressing or rubling them against any blunt-edged instrument, and after having been gathered two or three months, they may be beaten out with a stick or fail, fig. 350. In
to recommend them as constituent crops of the farın — for I greatly fear none of them will find such a climate in the British isles as will allow their full de velopment and consequently, their pro duct, whatever it may be, would not
America , I believe, the heads of maize are compensate for the labour and expense
put into a trough like a cart body, having both ends open ,and a number ofauger holes perforated in the bottom ; and on their being beaten with a stick by a man at each
bestowed upon their culture; but, as the potato cannot now be depended on to yield a constant return, I would direct yonr attention to such crops as these, that,
end of the trough, the grain falls throngh should you possess some favoured spot, the auger holes into baskets, or on the enjoying a good soil and genial warmth, floor. One bushel may thus be beaten you might endeavour to raise one or all of out in ten minutes. them, and raise a supply of food for the poultry .
4678. After the grain has been beaten from the heads, it should be kept in a dry place, where are both light and air, and frequently turned over ; and here it may
That object is of less im
portance now, in 1850, that the price of oats and barley has descended so low , as to beonly a little more than a halfpenny per lb., whereas maize here is three far
be kept for any length of time, if free of things. The ordinary grains of your own damp, and taken away as it is ground into raising may therefore now be given to meal, which ought to be used fresh, other- poultry without stint, as the cheapest food you have to give them.
wise it soon becomes sour.
4684. The average quantity of nutritive mat 4679. The produce is about six quarThe bushel of maizeweiylis ter derived from an acre of maize yielding thirty
ters an acre.
60 lb., and affords 100 lb. of maize bread . *
bushels an acre, or 1800 lbs., is of busk or woody fibre 100 lb.; starch, sugar, &c., 1260 lb.;
gluten, &c. 216 Ib .; oil or fat from 90 to 170 lb.;
4680. The husks of maize may be used and saline matter 27 lb.t to stuff mattresses, to make door-wats or
brown paper. The pith of the cob makes
4685. America is the great field for the cul ture of maize, and of
United States, Ken excellent fuel, and the produce of an acre tucky, Tennessee, and the Ohio raise much the will furnish a family fire -lighting for a largest quantity of any of the other counties in the whole winter. The stalks, when burnt, States. The quantities raised in the entire
were as follows : afford the best smoking for bams. The Union In 1841 leaves, as taken off in summer, when dried 1842 1843 make a way of the finest odour. .. 1844
494,618,306 421,953,000
. 1815
417,899,000
4681. The produce of an acre of maize may be estimated thus:
4686. The money value of the produce of 1845, 417,899,000 bushels at 25 cents , is 104,474,500 dollars ; and reckoning 5 dollars to 0 10 0 L.1 British currency, the amount is L.20,894,900. £10 13 0 The quantity of maize raised, as compared with wheat, is in the ratio of 4 to 1 , on account of the growing fondness of the people for it as an Poultry fed on maize acquire a article of food, more than for exportation.I * Keene's Facts for Farmers, p. 8-16. + Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 928.
6 quarters, at 28s. per qr., in 1850 ,
10cwt . leaf bay, at 3s. 6d. per cwt., Pith and stalkfor firing,
4082.
387,380,185 bushels. 441,829,216
£8 8 0 1 15 0
Journal of Agriculture, March 1850, p. 360-2.
BIRDS DESTRUCTIVE TO CROPS.
377
4687. " Almost all the grains of the fecula of 4690. The Jerusalem artichoke, Helianthus the maize," observes M. Raspail, “ are damaged tuberosus, occupies the same place in the botani by the mill, on account of the great hardness cal system as the sunflower, (3475.) Its leaves which the seeds acquire by drying, from the oil, are rough ; stem six to ten feet in height ; root the gum, and the sugar they contain. The tuberous; perennial ; native of Brazil ; introduced greater part are agglutinated together, and pre- in 1617. Seldom or never produces its flowers, sent the appearance of a cellular texture, with which are yellow , in this country, except the small meshes . They are folded, and more or less wrinkled and irregularly rounded. The
tubers be carefully removed when they begin to form . The naine Jerusalem is a corruption of
largest of them scarcely exceed .000,98 of an inch, and but few are so large. But if, instead of examining this fecula as it is found in the farina, it be taken out of the unripe seed when the perisperm is, so to speak, yet milky, the grains have a totally different appearance. They are perfectly spherical, smooth, and entire ; and it appears to me that more fecula could be obtained, by expression of the seeds a little before they are quite ripe, than by grinding the ripe seeds. For by the former method the unruptured grains fall to the bottom of the liquid ; while in the latter, being torn and bruised by
Girasol - turning to the sun - an imputed pro perty to this genus of plants.
esteem , as itis even yet on the Continent. Fowls, particularly pheasants, are remarkably fond of
the mill, they give out their soluble substance to the water, and remain suspended in the liquid,
stock, has been recommended. They might also be planted in woods and waste places, on good
4691. ^ Before the introduction of the potato into this country,” observes Mr Lawson, the common Jerusalem artichoke was held in much its tubers, as are also swine, cattle, hares, rab bits. The tubers are produced in considerable
quantities ; and as they are not liable to be injured by slight frosts, their limited cultivation, instead of potatoes, for feeding the abovementioned live
being as light as simple membranes. This is lightish soil,not too much shaded,as winterfood the reason why Parmentier, who analysed the farina of maize by the second mode, obtained so
for game. The tubers, as is well known , are alsoeaten at table, cooked in various ways. " I
little fecula from it." *
4688. The import of maize, for the year end-
4692. “ When the bulbous roots of the Jeru salem artichoke are bruised and expressed , a
ing 5th January 1850, exceeded that of 1848, being 2,249,571 quarters ; but the import of Indian corn meal decreased in that period , being 102,181 cwt. (3495. ) +
mucilaginous liquid is obtained . When heated to 212°, this liquid coagulates so strongly , that it may be employed to clarify other li
ON THE COMMON JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE.
the following ingredients :
quids. " 4693. The ash of the tubers of the Jerusalem
artichoke, according to Boussingault, consists of
4689. Although some farmers raise the common Jerusalem artichoke to feed their
pigs with, and as a relish to their horses , for which purposes it is well adapted, I have refrained to recommend it for culture in
the fields, because when it gets possession
Potash , Soda,
54:67 traces
Lime,
Magnesia , Oxide of iron, alumina, &c.,
Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid, Chlorine, Silica,
2.82 2-21 6.39
13.27 2.70 1.97 15.97
of the land no weed is so difficult to era 100.00
dicate. Where a piece of ground is de
tached, and is not appropriated to a
Percentage of ash in the dry state,
6-00 11
better purpose, this plant might be cul tivated; and its culture is in all respects like that of the potato on the flat ground
in every third furrow of the plough, (2774.)
ON THE BIRDS DESTRUCTIVE TO THE
Its stem rises from six to ten feet in height,
GRAIN CROPS.
and when it has withered it is cut off, and the crop raised out of theground by means
4694. Of late years the opinion seems
of the spade or graip. The tubers may be to gain ground, that birds do more good
pitted, but are more conveniently stored to the farmer and gardener, by devouring in an outhouse when in daily use by destructive insects, than harm in eating and
stock. They should be cooked before spilling every kind of seed. A closer obser being given to the pigs.
vation of the habits of birds may have
* Raspail's Organic Chemistry, p. 120. + Parliamentary Return, 15th March 1850. # Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual, p . 234. ſ Thomson's Organic Chemistry , Vegetables, p. 843. || Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 384.
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
378
caused such a change in opinion, and it is rally more shy tban the chaffinches, but less conducive to the cause of truth that obser-
so than the corn -buntings.
vations on the subject have been made ; for the prevalent opinion formerly was,
4697. The seed -bunting, or black -bon
that every bird which consumed grain did net, Emberiza schæniculus, mostly lives so much unmitigated mischief; whereas it on seeds, though the small patches of oats is now ascertained beyond doubt that on the crofts in the upland districts are every
bird feeds its young on animal, and almost certain to attract its notice ; and
not entirely on vegetable food. Like most
flocks of black - bounets will devour the
changes of opinion, however, this one is half-ripened oats on such moorland crofts likely to reach the opposite extreme, and as late as October. Not being shy, it is the tendency at present inclines to the not easily scared from its food. It is
denial of birds doing any damage to the migratory in mostparts of Scotland,depart products of the fields— always excepting ing in October, and reappearing in the game birds. The confirmed truth is, that birds are neither entirely insectivorous nor entirely granivorous, but that they generally feed their young with insects and molluscs, while the adult bird itself eats such fruits and seeds as are found to their liking in the products of the gardens and
beginning of April. 4698. The corn -bunting, Emberiza miliaria , feeds wholly on grain, and in early spring, together with the yellow hammer and others, devour considerable quantities of the newly sown seed -corn,
the fields. This being the real state of particularly oats and barley . After the the case, let us consider which of the birds breeding season it feeds on the ripening are most destructive to grain in the fields. seeds of beans, pease, wheat, oats, and barley, while during the autumn it feeds
4695. The greenfinch, Linaria chloris, on the stubble lands; and at this season it in the seed season, accompanied by their sits as close as the skylark, although it is
young brood, will attack almost every usually shy. It does not omit to visit the sort of seed that is ripe or ripening, but new-sown wheat on the fallows and after
are more particularly destructive to turnipseed and flax, where these are grown, and to oats among the ordinary grains. Oat fields, and even wheat fields near woods
potatoes. In winter it becomes remark ably fat, and is superior as an article of food to most of our small birds. “ It could hardly be supposed ,” observes Mr
and hedges, suffer considerably, the green- Knapp ,“ that this bird , not larger than a lark , iscapable of doing serious injury ; seldom idle, shelling and munching from yet I this morning witnessed a rick of finch being a great eater, its bill being sunrise to sunset.
barley, standing in adetached field,entirely stripped of its thatching, which this bunt
4696. The yellow -hammer, or yellow- ing effected by seizing the end of the
yite, Emberiza citrinella, prefers for its straw, and deliberately drawing it out to own eating grain and seeds, particularly search for any grain the ear might yet oats ; and in new -sown fields of oats, as contain ; the base of the rick being en
well as wheat, it may be seen busily pick- tirely surrounded by the straw , one end ing up the grain from the moment it is resting on the ground, and the other
sown till the period of its brairding. By against the snow, as it slid down from autumn, when the broods are reared and the summit, and regularly placed as if by the corn crops begin to ripen, they assem- the band ; and so completely was the
ble with sparrows and corn -buntings, thatching pulled off, that the immediate corn became necessary. and other plunderers, which leave little removal of the and other birds burrow into
alongside the hedges but empty husks on The sparrow the standing straw. When feeding in the the stack, and pilfer the corn ; but the deli stubble fields, they advance by very short berate operation of unroofing the edifice
leaps, with their breasts nearly touching appears to be the habit of the bunting the ground ;when apprehensive of danger, alone. " crouch motionless ; and when alarmed,
Such a circumstance as this
shows the risks which stacks built in the
give intimation to each other by means of field run, when they might have been
their ordinary short note. They are gene- safely secured in the stackyard.
BIRDS DESTRUCTIVE TO CROPS.
379
4699. The common skylark , or laverock, to search among horse-dung for undigested Alauda aroensis, is much more destruc- grain. The chaffinch devours more seeds
tive than the corn - bunting, both to the newly sown seed - corn and the ripening crops, inasmuch as the species is greatly more numerous; but who wonld grudge the laverock all that he can glean from the fields ? In winter larks assemble in vast flocks, grow very fat, and are taken in
of weeds than of grain, and in that respect is useful in keeping them down, and may be ranked as a benefactor to the farmer on the same footing as the goldfinch, Car duelis elegans. Dr Bechstein says “ that the passion for this bird is carried to such an extent in Thuringia, and those which
great numbers for the table. They cannot sing well are sought for with so much be considered of much importance as an activity, that scarcely a single chaffinch article of food, yet vast numbers are sent to our markets in winter , especially in London, and some other English cities; but in Scotland they are in little request. They taste well — not better,however,than
that warbles tolerably can be found throughout the province . In Rhul, a large manufacturing town in Thuringia, the in habitants, who are mostly cutlers, have such a passion for chaffinches, that some
the corn-bunting, and are decidedly infe- of themhave gone ninety miles from home riorto the blackbird, fieldfare, and thrush. to take with bird -lime one of those birds, At Bonneville, on my way from Geneva distinguished by its song, and bave given to Mont Blanc, I was obliged to dine on one of their cows for a fair songster ; from
larks for want of more substantial fare. which has arisen their usual proverb a chaffinch is worth a cow . A common
4700. The grey or brown linnet, rose workman will give as much as 16s. for a lintie, Linaria cannabina, does much more chaffinch he admires, and will willingly damage to corn than is generally sup- live on bread and water to save the money
posed. In the first place, it visits the for this purpose." *
The peasantry of
patches of fields of turnips left to ripen for this country do not regard the song of the seed, (4188,) and then frequents the newly chaffinch as remarkably attractive. sown turnip - fields. When the young families begin to wander in small com-
4702. The house -sparrow , Passer do panies as the grain becomes ripe, they mesticus, is a well-known depredator in
devour large quantities of the standing our corn - fields. As the crop ripens, it corn, voraciously living upon it from the feeds upon grain and pease, which it moment it begins to whiten until led to the abundantly obtains during several weeks stack yard. After this period the smaller in autumn on the standing corn , and less families associate in larger flocks, fre- profusely supplied in winter when it
quently combining with the greenfinch, searches thestubbles. As Buffon observes, and subsist on the stubbles, until the “ sparrows follow the sower in seed - time,
autumn wheat is sown, when they frequent the newly sown fields and thin the seedcorn in detached patches so much, that the scantiness of the braird is ascribed to the attacks of some grub. This linnet, however, is easily scared by watching.
and the reaper in harvest ; they attend the thrasher at the barns, and the poulterer when he scatters grain to his fowls; they visit the pigeon -house and pierce the craws of the young pigeons to extract the food.” It is supposed that a sparrow eats its
own weight of corn every day, when it
4701. The chaffinch, shilfa, Fringilla can get it for the taking; and Buffon coelebs, frequents the vicinity of houses in the estimates that a pair of sparrows will eat autumn, searching for food in thefields and 20 lb. ofcorn every year. When as many farmyards, which consists of seeds of various kinds, but especially of oats and wheat. As the winter approaches, they collect in large flocks, and associate with green-
as 3000 have been caught on one farm in a single day with a net, one may calcu late from such data the quantity of grain they consume on a single farm.t
finches, grosbeaks, yellow -bammers, and sparrows, and other speciesof this order fre-
4703. These are the principal small or quenting the farmyard, and settlingon roads passerine birds which infest the corn - fields. * Bechstein's Cage Birds, p. 183, note.
+ Quarterly Journal of Agr
ure, vol. vii. p. 284-98.
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
380
Others of a larger description also frequent pease, and of the field -mustard and char such haunts, and among these the common lock. In spring it also feeds on the leaves pheasant, Phasianus colchicus, is accused of the turnip, and picks the young blades of committing great havoc amongst grain of the red and white clovers. At this crops.
Its true habits are thus described
season , I have several times found its
by Professor Macgillivray : “Its favourite crop distended with the farinaceous roots
places of resort are thick plantations or of Potentilla anserina, obtained in the
tangled woods by streams, where, among ploughed fields. This root is highly nu the long grasses, brambles, and other tritious; and formerly,in seasons ofscar shrubs, it passes the night, sleeping on the city, was collected in the West Highlands ground in summer and autumn, but com- and Hebrides as an article of food, and
monly roosting on the trees in winter. eaten either boiled or roasted in the peat Early in the morning it betakes itself to the ashes. In summer they eat grass, and search for its food , which con- other vegetable substances ; in autumn,
openfields to
sists of the tender shoots of various plants, grain, beech-mast, acorns, and leguminous and acorns they grasses, bulbous roots, roots of grasses, seeds. The beech -masts bill not being suffi
and Potentilla anserina, turnip tops, as swallow entire, their
well as acorns and insects. In autumn, ciently strong to break them up." * and the early part of winter, it obtains a
plentiful supply of grain, acorns, beech
4705. The wood -pigeon destroys the
mast, and small fruits. In severe weather, growing cropin this manner, as described however, especially where great numbers by an eyewitness : — “ The wood- pigeon are kept, the pleasants require to be fed has a weak bill, but nature has provided
with grain, when they learn to attend to her with very strong wings; when the the call of the keeper.” In the natural flock, therefore, settle upon the lying por state, and in small numbers, pheasants tion of a wheat field, instead ofbreaking
prefer insects and the young shoots of off the heads and carrying them away, plants, to corn ,ofwhich they pick at a time only a few grains ; but when semi-domesticated, and congregating in large numbers, they assume the habits of the domestic fowl, and will eat and trample down ex-
they lay themselves down upon their breasts upon the grain, and using their wings as flails, they beat out the pickles from theheads, and then proceed to eat them . The consequence is, that, the
tensive patches of the growing corn, in the pickles having been thrashed out upon a immediate vicinity of their preserves — and matting of straw , a great proportion of this they do between the ripening and the them fall down through it to the ground,
reaping of the crop. The remedy against and are lost even to the wood -pigeon : in their short, they do not eat one pickle for their destructive effects is to restrain numbers within moderate bounds. Their twenty which they thrash from the stalk .
numbers have multiplied greatly in Scot- I have repeatedly watched this process land within my recollection, and are now from behind the trunk of a large willow
certainly too numerous even for sport.
tree, growing in a thick -set bedge on the edge of a wheat field, and scen the opera 4704. A far more destructive bird, indi- tion go on within a couple ofyards of me. vidually, than the pheasant, is the ringed The pigeons descend first singly ; but, hav
dove, or cusbat, or wood -pigeon, Columba ing left a watcher upon the highest tree palumbus. Its powers of destruction may
in the neighbourhood, the whole flock are
be estimated by the wholesale levy it soon at work on the same spot, and the
makes on the products of the fields and of the woods, as thus enumerated by Professor Macgillivray : From its roost in the larger branches of trees, “ it issues at sun-
loss of grain to the farmer is very great. They are also gluttons in quantity." + Tbis bird bas increased to incredible num
which consists of seeds of the cultivated cereal grasses — wheat, barley, and oats ;
4706. The common partridge, Perdix
bers in Scotland within the last thirty rise to search the open fields for its food, years.
as well as of leguminous plants - beans and cinerea, doubtless devours grain in the * Macgillivray’s BritishBirds, vol. i. p . 123 and 263. + Burn Murdoch's Obsertations on Game, p. 11.
BIRDS DESTRUCTIVE TO CROPS.
381
fields; but however plentifully it inay breed learnt that the wind first breaks a stack at in any locality, it leaves no marks of its the eave, and not at the top, while, on the effects upon any crop, and is always a other hand, the top is the very part the favoured bird with people in the country. rook always breaks into, because it knows,
probably by the smell, that the heads of 4707. The rook or crow , Corous frugi- sheaves stand accumulated there. These are legus, has a bad reputation amongst far- all facts which I have myself observed of
mers, and not without cause ; for how- the rook, and they are sufficient in number ever sedulously it will follow the plough to support the assertion that it is a destruc and harrow, in search of worins and in- tive bird to the farm . At the same time, the
sects, as long as it has to support its rook, in moderate numbers, would do no young, there is no doubt that, after that material injury in the fields, and it is only period, it becomes omnivorous, and will when it is nourished in excessive numbers, eat anything that conies in its way. It will pick meat clean off the bone - it will pick horse-flesh, as long as it is fresh - it will eat fish-it will go to the sea -coast in search of shell-fish, when food is scarce on the land - it will carry off and eat the stray eggs it may happen to find at the steading — it will eat the boiled potatoes and oatmeal porridge set down for the
in large protected rookeries, that it does sensible injury. It is no palliation of their injury that rooks do no greater injury the neighbourhood of large rookeries than elsewhere, for, although they may not feed near their rookeries, they must go to find
food somewhere. He who asserts that the rook does no harm to crops, and does good aloue by the removal of insects from the
poultry - and when a bowl of barley broth soil, must either be a prejudiced or inac comes within its reach, it will soon empty curate observer of its habits. it, and the sooner, the thicker the bar ley is in the broth — it will eat the boiled
4708. As to insects existing in the
barley and pease out of the horses' mash- ground, there must be very large num tub — it will take up the young plants of bers in it every spring ; and of those potatoes after they have sprouted for which might do harm to crops, that are their own sake, being then in a sweet removed from the soil, by whatever means,
state, ( 2809,) and not merely in search of any insects in them, as I have particularly determined — it will pull up the young plants of turnips, to get at insects that may bappen to be near their roots in the manure, and it is poor consolation to
the agents that remove them save the crops to that extent. But it does not follow that, because insects always exist in the soil, they niust necessarily injure the crops sown in it ; for, if they did , since insects
always inhabit the soil, the crops would
the farmer to be told that the plants were invariably be injured to the same extent destroyed that insects might be captured every year — à result not in accor -it will eat fruit off the trees - it will dance with the experience of any far
alight upon laid corn of all kinds, and pick mer. My belief is, that it is only when and scratch out much more than it can
insects increase in any year, by circum
eat_it alights also on stooks of corn , and stances unusually favourable to their exis pulls out the ears, and eats the grain- tence, beyond what their ordinary food it will fly to a great distance to eat the will support them , that they subsistonthe
crowberry, Empetrum nigrum - it will sown corn to an injurious extent. That break into the beads of stacks to get at the some corn is every year devoured by in grain ; and in this respect Mr Waterton is sects in the soil is a matter beyond doubt,
not correctwhen he saysthat, “ in winter, the and the loss not being estimable any season , it is not complained of.
rooks will attack the corn -stacks which have
lost part oftheir thatch by agale ofwind."* 4709. Many devices have been formed fariners of Yorkshire for being slovenly in to scare destructive birds from corn - fields
And be takes the occasion to rebuke the
delaying to repair the damage done by the and green crops, and the most common wind ; whereas, if he had observed more one is the scarecrow . Scarecrows are
closely and accurately, he would have made of various forms and materials ; but Journal of Agriculture, July 1844, p. 505.
382
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
we all know that every tatie -doolie or serves, for the purpose of destroying shoy - hoy is habited in the similitude pheasants and other birds. During the of men or women . Pieces of bright last spring, ( 1846, ) two blackcocks were in are made to flicker in the sun- sent to me for examination from the ex
beams, at the end of a string. Lines of tensive preserves of a nobleman in Scot threads are hooked on from one object to land. They had been found dead on the another. But as soon as birds become ground. A quantity of arsenic was dis familiarised with the permanent form of covered intermixed with oats and the
any scarecrow, it loses its terrors. The shoots of the larch in the crops and gizzards contempt shown for them by birds is thus of each bird, and arsenic also existed in described by Cobbett, in his own peculiar the pectoral muscles and soft organs. “ Shoy -boys , he observes, There had been previously a very large “ exercise their influence but for a very destruction of game on the estate, as it
manner :
short space of time. The birds quickly was inferred, from poison. There is hardly perceive that their guardianship of the a doubt that, when the animal dies soon treasures of the farmer is a mere sham ; and, like the sparrows in my neighbour's garden at Botley, they will, in a short time, make the top of the hat of a shoy-
after the ingestion of poison, and ob viously from its effects, the flesh would be poisonous to man , although it might re quire a large quantity of the flesh to pro
hoy a table, whereon to enjoy the repast duce a fatal result. " Professor Christison reports a case which renders this opinion
which they have purloined."
highly probable." * 4710. Poison has been recommended for
the destruction of sparrows, but in taking 4712. Gunpowder is the most effectual their lives by this means, the lives of valu- means of any of scaring birds from fields, able birds might be destroyed at the same ( 2809. ) Rags steeped in a solution of time. Where ivy is plentiful, in which gunpowder, dried, and placed on the wind sparrows delight to harbour, a net has ward side of a field, will act as a scare as
captured as many as 3000 in one day: long as they last, but the renewal of them Sparrows are easily shot with a gun loaded is a troublesome business. I contrived an with sparrow -hail, when congregated on a apparatus, which I named a rook battery, bare piece of ground, lured thereon by a to keep up a fire throughout the day, favourite sort of food being strewed upon it. with little trouble. It is seen in per spective in fig. 425.
4711. In regard to the use of poison in killing birds , Dr Taylor makes these ob
It consists of a cir
Fig. 425.
servations in answer to the important
query , “Is the flesh of poisoned animals poisonous ? This is a question which it is necessary to consider, because poultry and game are not unfrequently poisoned
wilfully or accidentally , and in this state they may be eaten unsuspectingly. It is well known that grain is often saturated with a solution of arsenic for agricultural
purposes before it is sown : if this grain be eaten by poultry, it will destroy them ; and a question may arise as to the effects which the flesh ofthe animals so poisoned
is liable to produce on man. In other in
0
0
0
TO
07
stances, poison has been placed in theway
THE ROOK BATTERY,
of these animals with the malicious object
of destroying them . Thus oats saturated cular plate of strong tin, a b, eighteen with arsenic, or with that poison inter- inches in diameter, upon the circumference
mixed, have been placed in game pre- of which is soldered a hoop of equally 基
Taylor On Poisons, p. 164 .
BIRDS DESTRUCTIVE TO CROPS.
383
strong tin , three inches in height, and ther intimidate the rooks, and cause the through which are pierced twenty -four discharge of the captions at longer inter embrasures, three quarters of an inch vals to suffice. Both these means would
square each, at equal distances from one also intimidate pigeons and small birds. another. At each embrasure is mounted The position of the battery should be a brass cannon, four inches in length, upon changed every day, and a piece of laid a carriage soldered to the bottom plate, corn is the best spot for erecting it on to and removable at pleasure by means of a be most seen from a distance .
It may be
clasp. The plate and rim are covered by set amongst potatoes, as also in a plotof a conical tin top, c, similar to the cover turnips growing for seed, (4188. ) The
of a street lamp, with an eave projecting number of such an apparatus required for one inch to prevent the drip of rain run- a farm would depend on the number of ning down the rim . The cover is sur- the corn - fields subject to the attacks of
mounted with a cylindrical lantern d, 24 inches high, pierced with holes. The cannon areloaded with finegunpowder, and wadded with woollen wadding to prevent its ignition. They are fired with a match consisting of cotton thread dipped in a solu-
birds, and also on the succession in ripen ing of the different crops. Batteries could be made of any size, and to fire as often as desired ; and the smaller-sized ones, when longer in use than all the cannons
can reach the time, the cannons might tion of saltpetre ; and the thread is brought be loaded oftener than once a - day. over and held upon the touch-hole of each cannon, by a bit of copper-wire attached 4713. No wild birds are so destructive
to the carriage. The match-thread is to standing corn as the poultry of all kinds made longer and shorter as the time is at a farm -stead. Hens pull down the determined on between the discharge of standing stalks of corn , and, after shaking each cannon ; and to dispose of it for this a few grains out of an ear, leave it and purpose, the central part ofthe plate a b is pull down another stalk ; and where the divided by perpendicular partitions of tin, corn is laid they scratch the straw and so arranged asto form numerous alleys, ears with their feet, and cause many more
along which the match-thread is made to grains to come out than they consume. traverse at that length as to burn it down Turkeys, being tall, are fully more de in time to reach thetouch-bole at the given structive than hens, and are less easily Plate a b is affixed to a circular satisfied. Geese pull down standing corn, board e, nine inches in diameter, and one and nibble the grain out of the ear ; and bour.
inch in thickness; and in itscircumference being stout birds they munch the ears are attached three legs, f ff, which sup- pretty clean of the grains, but they tram port the apparatus in tripod form , at a ple laid corn quite flat, and entirely de height to elevatethe apparatus above the stroy the straw .
Ducks usually content
standing corn. The battery is placed in themselves in shovelling off the ground the the part of the field most frequented by grain the hens and turkeys have spilt, but the rooks, and where it may best be seen. they also trample laid corn flat. The Suppose that the guns are loaded and common pigeons rest much on the laid par
the match lighted at five in the morning, ticles of wheat, and pick the grains clean and that by eight at night it is time to out of the ears by shaking them in their cease firing, which is fifteen bours, in bills, when numbers of the grains fall be
which time thirty-seven and a half mi- tween the straws to the ground, ( 1606.) nutes will require to elapse between the discharge of each of the twenty - four cannons.
4714. The only means of saving the
Such discharges are much more to growing crops near the steading from
be depended on for regularity than the destruction by the poultry, is to confine
firing of any fowling-piece by a herd -boy. them all within the steading for a In addition to the discharges of the guns, period before the corn is ripe, until it is if a piece of woollen rag , steeped in a solu- cut down, as they do comparatively little
tion of gunpowder and dried,were placed harm to stooks. An excellent and con in a cup of tin at d , immediately below venient place to confine them in summer the lantern of the cover, and set fire to,
is in the court I, in the Ground-plan of
the smoke arising from it would still fur- the steading on Plate II., which should
384
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
be covered over with netting. The sheep time; but only those gimmers and ewes nets, fig. 44, will answer the purpose by which have been selected from the drafted
lashing their edges together, and suspend- ones ( 4007) are pnt to the tup. In ing them as high as to allow a person to a small flock, when both gimmers and ewes walk under them . Subdivisions could be do not exceed in number what one tup can
made both in the shed D aswell as in the serve, they are classed together to be served
court, by means of hurdles, fig. 40, to keep by the sanie tup ; but in larger flocks the the different sorts of poultry separate from gimmers and ewes are kept separate dur each other. Food and water must be ing the tupping period , and served by given them daily while under confine- different tups. ment, as well as sand and gravel to swal 4719. Both the ewes and gimmers low, and dry earth or ashes to burrow in, and no harm can overtake them. If a should have been for two or three weeks on
number of the courts of the hammels M fresh grass, or rape, before the tup is put
were covered over with netting, they to them , in order to bring the season upon would form convenient divisions for sepa- them more quickly and simultaneously, rating the different classes of poultry. (4011.) Thus the farmer possesses ample means of accommodating the poultry in the 4720. Before the tups are put to the steading at a season when it is not occu- ewes, the under part of their brisket is
pied by the other stock, and thus saving the crops of the neighbouring fields from destruction. The value of all the corn and straw destroyed by poultry may not amount to much in value, and it will cost as much, and more perhaps, to maintain them
coloured with keil or ruddle, ( 3591,) in order to let the shepherd know which ewe he has served by leaving the red mark of the keil upon her rump. The keiling requires to be daily renewed when the tupping is active, and when the weather
under confinement; but the neglectful man-
is damp.
agement evinced in allowing the poultry 4721. A shearling tup ( 925) will serve corn field is near, is discreditable to every 60 ewes or ginimers, and an aged tup 40 ;
to roam at large when the temptation of a fariner.
and these numbers should never be ex
ceeded when produce is desired to be strong and bealthy. When tups are too fat they ON PUTTING THE TUPS TO THE EWES .
becoine lazy, and serve the ewes reluc tantly ; and when such is the case with a
4715. When the 8th to the 11th of Oc- favourite tup, he should be put with a few tober has arrived, the tups should be put ewesinto a sınąll paddock of grass, where amongst the ewes for the purpose of pro- he will have little occasion to travel about.
ducing lambs to support the standing Gimmers are more restless in the serving flock of the farm , as also for disposal in than ewes, on which account, should an the market.
aged tup serve them, he should receive the fewer number. Tups that have served
4716. The ewes now tupped may be ewes long are apt to become spavined in
expected to lamb ( 2546) about the 8th to the bind hocks, in consequence of having ilth of March following — the period of to sustain the great weight of their carcase gestation of the ewe being 5 months, or at in the act of serving. least 151 days. 4722. Tup - hoggs (924) are never al
to serve ewes or gimmers, not hav 4717. About the beginning of October lowedattained maturity in any particular ;
ing though one is at a time made to stimu late the activity of an aged tup ; and whenever he dares approach a ewe, he is driveu off by the old fellow . To pre vent bim effectually from serving a ewe, 4718. The gimmers, ( 924 ) as well as a piece of cloth named a brat, or apron, the ewes, (925) are put to the tups at this is sewed to the wool below his belly.
the skin on the flanks of the tups (924) becomes red, which is best observed when the animal is turned up ; and this redness is the certain and only symptom that the tups feel the desire to serve the ewes.
385
TUPPING EWES .
When particular ewes are not desired to notice what ewes are tupped in succession, be served until a specified time, a piece of and which of them return in season, that cloth is sewed on the wool behind them , to be may know the succession in lambing hang over the tail. When fastened on of every ewe, ( 2546.) below the tail, as is sometimes done, the ewe is interfered with in making water. 4727. After 3 weeks have elapsed from
putting the tup amongst the ewes, he 4723. Tups are not selected for ewes should be withdrawn ; as lambs begotten by mere chance, but for such qualities as so long after the rest, will never coincide
may improve those in the ewes. When with the flock . After serving, tups should ewes are nearly perfect, they may be be put on good pasture, as they will have selected for breedingtups. A good ewe lost much of their condition, feeling indis flock should exbibitthese characteristics : posed to eat their ordinary quantity of food a strong bone, which, supporting a during the tupping season. roomy frame, affords space for a large 4728. The ewes and gimmers may now development of flesh, — an abundance of
wool of good quality, which clothes all be put together on such ordinary pasture the body in inclement weather, and in- as the farm affords. During the antumnal
sures profit to the breeder,-a disposition months they will find plenty of food on
to fatten early, which enables the breeder such; and for the winter, a rough pasture to dispose of his draft-sheep readily , - field should have been reserved for them. and prolificacy, which increases the flock When none such bas been reserved, they rapidly, and is also a source of profit. will require a few turnips every day ; but Each one of these properties is advan- you should bear in mind, that a fat ewe tageous in itself, and when all are com- always bears a small lamb, ( 2565,) and is
bined in the same individuals, the flock very subject to inflammatory fever after bas attained a high degree of perfection.
lambing ; and from the recovery of which will probably have a scantiness of milk. 4724. In selecting tups, you should Swedish turnips produce fatness on ewes
observe whether or not they possess one or more readily than other kinds, so that white
more of the above qualities, in which the turnips should be reserved for them should ewes may be deficient ; and if they do, they receive turnips at all ; but the rough
their union with the ewes will produce in pasture is greatly more for their advantage their progeny a higherdegree of perfection than any turnip, and a little oil-cake, 1 lb. than exists in the ewes themselves. But, a -day to each in addition, will bring them should the ewes be superior in all points through any period of severe weather. to the tups examined , no such tups ought 4729. On carse , dairy, and pastoral farms, on to be used, as they will certainly deteriorate the progeny, part of which will have to which only wethers are reared , as also on farms
make up the future ewe flock .
in the neighbourhood of large towns, no standing flock of breeding ewes are kept.
4725. Most of the ewes will be tupped 4730. On pastoral farms on which breeding by the second week the tup bas been is pursued, a standing rule should be, not to put amongstthem , and in the third week they the tups to the ewestill such a period that the may not appear in spring before a suffi will all be served. It is likely that some lambs ciency of food is found to support the ewes. of the first served ewes will return in sea
son , and will have to be tupped again 4731. On the middle district of mountain pas amongst the last served , the season return- turage, the Cheviot breed is chiefly bred in Scot ing on ewes in a fortnight. When ewes land ; and their tupping season is from the 15th to the 22d of November, with the expectation of
do not that return season, it may be those con receiving lambs from the 15th to the 22d of April. cluded theyin are in lamb ; and
which again exhibit symptoms of season , 4732. A few days should always be allowed after being served again, atan interval ofa to elapse before the tups are put to the gimmers, less able than ewes to endure the fortnight,will not likelybe in lamb, and will hardships because, being of lambing and of giving suck, their
become tup -eild or barren ewes, (929.)
lambing season should be the longer postponed, until the weather is milder, and the pasture
4726. It is the duty of the shepherd to yields more nourishing food . VOL. II .
2 B
386
PRACTICE -- AUTUMN .
4733. The number of ewes or gimmers to a having occurred amongst both lambs and ewes tup should be 60, but where the grazing is more are of rare occurrence, and confined to seasons than ordinarily steep, a smaller proportion of of unusual severity. ewes would be advisable .*
4737. Letting of tups. — Breeders of tups, besides disposing of them out and out at stated prices, by private bargain , appoint a day in autumn for following observations of Mr Little are very sen- lettingtheir spare tups for the season , by auction , sible : - “ Taking the seasons on an average,” he to the highest bidder, on the condition of being 4734. In regard to the management of Blackfaced sheep on thehighest mountain districts, the
says, “ since I had anything to do withsheep, returned in good health and condition at the end and the average of situations where I have had of the tupping season. Times I have seen, when opportunities of making observations, I consider the 27th November as being the most proper time for letting the tups to the ewes. Those whose situations are favourable for an early lambingtime, might let the tups to the ewes a week sooner ; but very few breeding mountain stocks will derive advantage by their being let so early, as what is gained in size and strength by the lambs is lost in condition by the ewes. Besides,
£50 have been obtained for the use of a Leices ter tup for the season, and 60 ewes were the most he could serve ; now £ 5 is nearer the mark , not because tups were so much better then , but because fine tups are now everywhere to be found in the country. This mode of disposing of extra stock is a good one, both for the breeder, who thereby realises an annual profit, and for the hirer, who thus finds a suitable opportunity for
there is a greater risk of bad weather and less improving his flock. grass, than when the lambing season is later. In bad situations, a few days ora week later in the 4738. But the sheep thus offered to be let lambing-time ought to be preferred , as safest for ought to be presented in their natural state preserving the condition of the ewes and the lives --that is, washed and cared for in every pos of the lambs ; and although the lambs should be a sible way, as to food and shelter, but not
little younger, they can be allowed to suck a lit- trimmed , for the purpose of imposing qualitieson tle longer, asthe ewes are able to afford milk , them which they do not possess. Such a prac without injuring themselves, when the land is tice cannot be too much deprecated ; and I anı full of grass, than in a barren spring. Besides, happy to say that most of our Scottish tup those farmers that have least grass in spring breeders possess more integrity than to be lured have most in autumn, and this brings them nearly into it. The English breeders, however, have on a level with farms that have early grass, fallen into the snare, and carry it to such an taking the whole year round. Whatever time absurd pitch that a novice even, of the points the tups are let to the ewes, all the ewes that of a sheep, could easily detect one of their are intended to bring forth lambs the same sea-
trimmed sheep.
son ought to be let to at the same time, as the best time for the young and lean is certainly the best for the others.
4739. It is necessary to explain to you that Every shepherd trimming, or dressing, consists in clipping away
knows that, among hill sheep, the ewes are much
with the shears the points of the locks of wool over all the body, where they are considered to them, when they are themselves in good condi- injure the appearance, or to affect the symmetry tion and have plenty of milk, than when low in of the sheep ; and the clipping is carried to such condition and scarce of milk. The later in the a degree that, on close -woolled sheep, such as season that lambing-time is, they have a better the Southdown, the trimming is exercised over chance of being in good condition, and having the entire body, so as to produce apparently fine plenty of milk ; and it rarely happens that the points of symmetry in those parts of the sheep older lambs are the best at weaning time.” + in which it is naturally deficient. This is nothing
more kindly to their lambs, and careful about
less than intentional fraud , to take in the igno 4735. Threescore ewes will be enough for one
rant and the unwary ; for no judge can be de
tup, and tups should never be longer than four ceived by it, and no one aware of the practice or five weeks with the ewes, as every ewe tupped later than that period is injured for the ensuing
but must discover it at once. The eye of the in experienced might be deceived by it at first, but
season, and her lamb never turns out to good the handling will dispel the illusion instantly. account.
Such a practice is countenanced at all, I suppose, for no better reason than is the hefting of cows
4736. When overstocking mountain pasture ( 2250) of their milk , because it is a custom. prevailed some years ago, so scanty was the food for ewes in late seasons, that thousands of lambs
For the sake of fair dealing, it is hoped that this fraudulent practice will be forthwith aban
were swept away with a fatal mortality, and the ewes also perished through the dire disease of the hunger rot; but now, when mountain pasture
doned.
4740. The yellows. The yellows is a complaint is stocked, like other pastures, according to its to which ewes are subject in autumn. It is jaun
capability, not only is the stock maintained on it dice,exhibiting yellowness ofthe eye, the mucous all the year round in better condition, but such membranes, and theurine. Bleeding,and purging cases of epidemic death as I have mentioned as
with aloes and calomel, are the appropriate reme
* A Lammermuir Farmer's Treatise on Sheep, p. 73-4 . + Little's Practical Obserrations on Mountain Sheep, p. 74-5.
BATHING SHEEP.
387
dies. Fat draft-ewes which have fed some time
he used to gain 5 or 6 weeks on his neigh
upon aftermath are most liable to the disease. Inflammation of the liver is the cause , in which
bours.”
the pain of the affected part isvery obscure, and the natural language of the sufferer not very ex-
4743. I have already said, ( 947,) that when sheep have access to salt, they are never known
pressive; nor is the symptomatic fever marked. Here a striking analogy is noted between the lower animals and man, inasmuch as there is
to be affected with rot. I have little doubt, that had oil- cake been put within their power in such a wet and cold summer as 1817, they would have
generally a sympathetic pain in the right shoul- escaped the malady. Change of pasture from a wet to a dry situation may be the means of cur for the principal disorder, and treated accord- ing the rot, atan early stage of the disease. All
der, so strongly marked, as often to be mistaken
ingly. Whenever you observe, therefore, a lameness of the right leg of any fat sheep on foggage, you may suspect the existence
land that has been irrigated in summer, and pro duces a rank growth of grass in autumn, should
of yellows, and examine the inside of the eye-
Soft spongy soil, clayey, and never free of mois
be avoided by sheep as much as a pestilence.
lid, and observe whether any yellowness exists ture, in its natural state, will affect sheep with there. 4741. The rot. - The rot is a serious disease, causing the death of numbers of a flock in a
rot when grazed upon it. Draining would ren der such land sound ;and sheep -drains have made many pastures so, that were formerly subject to the complaint every year . When the rot is in
short period. Deficient food in summer, and a
evitable, sheep cannot be long kept on the same
flush of rank wet grass in autumn, injure the
farm , but must be sold in the course of a few
health and constitution of sheep. In the wet and cold season of 1817, when sheep could not obtain a mouthful of good food in summer, and when the autumn arrived , accompanied with a flush of wet herbage, I knew a farmer on the Cheviot hills who lost 300 Cheviot ewes in the
course of a few weeks by this disease . 4742. The early symptoms of rot are very ob scure — a circumstance much to be lamented, as it
months ; and the safest flock, in such circum stances, is a flying-stock , especially of ewes, for
they are the most easily affected with rot. Lime has rendered land sound, which was subject to rot even after it had been drained. Sudden frost and thaw, alternately , in spring, produce rot, according to the old proverb Mony a frost, and mony a thow , Betaken mony a rotten yow.
is in the first stage alone that it admits of cure .
4744. Flukes. — The liver of rotten sheep al.
“ The animal is dull,” observes Mr Youatt ;
ways contains the well-known animal the fluke, so named from its striking resemblance to a
“ lagging behind his companions, he does not feed so well as usual. If suspicion has been a little
excited by this, the truth ofthe matter may easily be put to the test ; for if the wool is parted, and
especially about the brisket, the skinwill have a pale yellow hue. The eye of the sheep beginning to sicken with the rot can never be mis
taken : it is injected, but pale ; the small veins at the corner of the eye are turgid, but they are
flounder.
Its nature has not yet been satisfac
torily examined. It was named Fasciola by Lin næus, and Distoma hepatica by Rudolphi. Its intestinal ducts contain great numbers of grains
of a pale red colour like sand, which are supposed to be its eggs ; and as no difference of sex has been observed, it is believed to be a hermaphro
filled with yellow serous fluid, and not with
dite. It is supposed that its eggs find their way to the grass, from which sheep receive them into
blood. The caruncle, or small glandular body at
their stomach, and thus are supposed to find their
the corner of the eye, is also yellow . Farmers, way into the liver. The eggs are found in the very properly, paygreat attention to this in their biliary ducts, in the intestinal canals, and even in examination or purchase of sheep . If the carun- the dung of healthy sheep ; and they swarm in cle is red , they have a proof, which never fails them, that the animal is healthy . If that body is white, they have no great objection or fear- it is generally so at grass ; but if it is of a yellow colour, they immediately reject the sheep, al.
the dung of rotten ones. The ducts of a single
liver have been found to contain more than a thousand, while the germs are quite innu
nerable . *
though he may otherwise appear to be in the very best possible condition ; for it is a proof
that the liver is diseased , and the bile beginning to mingle with the blood .
There is no loss of
ON THE BATHING AND SMEARING OF SHEEP.
condition, but quite the contrary ; for the sheep, in the early stage of rot, has a great propensity to fatten. Mr Bakewell was aware ofthis, for he
4745. Immediately after the tups are used to overflow certain of his pastures, and when put to the ewes, arrangements are made
the water was run off, turn those of hissheep for a part of the sheep stock to be prepared upon them which he wanted to prepare for the market. They speedily became rotted, and in the
to be fattened on turnips ( 901 ,) and the
fat with wonderful rapidity. By this manæuvre
or in a particular liquid. I have said that
early stage of the rotthey accumulated flesh and preparation consists of bathing them with, * Youаtt On Sheep, p. 445-62 ; Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. v. p. 503, and vol. vi. p.
331-34 ; Parkinson On Lire Stock, vol. i. p. 419 .
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
388
sheep are affected bya troublesome insect , in the proportion of 1 lb. of tobacco to the keb or ked, or sheep -tick , fig. 308,which increase so much in numbers, as the wool grows, as to be troublesome to the sheep in autumn ; and were means not taken to remove them , the annoyance they
20 sheep, it is put into a boiler with 1 quart of water to each 1 lb. of tobacco, and boiled gently for several hours. The tobacco is then wrung out, and the liquor taken out of the boiler; and the tobacco
would occasion would cause the sheep to again returned into the empty boiler with rub themselves upon every object they could half a quart of fresh water to each 1 lb. of
find, to a degree to tear their fleece, and the original weight, and boiled as long as deteriorate its value considerably.
any colouring matter is obtained from it, when it is wrung out and thrown away. 4746. Another reason for bathing sheep The water boils in to 1 quart to the 1 lb.
is, that on experiencing so great achange of the tobacco, and forms a decoction much of food, as from grass to turnips, cutaneous stronger than an infusion. eruptions are apt to appear on the skin, even to the exhibition of the scab,
4749. The soft soap is also used in the ( 1071,) which deteriorates the fleece even proportion of 1 lb. to 20 sheep, and it dis more than the rubbing occasioned by the solves thoroughly in a sufficient quantity ked.
In severe casesof scab, bathing is of warm water.
too mild an application, mercurial oint ment being required.
When lambs are
rubbed with this ointment, inflammation will ensue if warm weather follows, though ewes stand the application much better. But I believe that spirit of tar by itself, or diluted with a little tobacco -liquor, is as efficacious and a much safer remedy.
4750. The flour of sulphur is mixed with the soap in the proportion of 2 oz. to 20 sheep, with which it combines, and assists in preserving the colour of the wool from the staining of the tobacco-liquor. 4751. The tobacco-liquor is put into a tub, and the solution of soft soap is inti
4747. The liquid to be used as a bath , mately mixed with it, the sulphur being to be of service, should combine the pro- put in last, and the whole mixed together. perties of killing the ked with certainty, 4752. A tin flask easily holding one and of preventing eruptions on the skin,
without injury to the staple of the wool ; quart, and provided with a handle and long and both these ends are attained by the spout, small at the end, is used to pour the use of tobacco -liquor and spirit of tar, the bath along the shedded wool of the sheep,, former instantly destroying the ked, and and is represented by fig. 426. Fig. 426 . the latter acting as a preservative to the skin, ( 1070. ) The bath is necessary for all classes of sheep , to kill the keds ; but the spirit oftar is specially useful for sheep bought to fatten on turnips, as travelled sheep are almost always affected with cuta
neous eruptions , and particularly the Black faced breed direct from the hills, after they
have been on turnips for some time. As a matter of safety for a sound and clean
flock , every sheep that is purchased, whether for feeding on turnip or increas ing the flock, should be bathed immediately
A BATH-JUG.
on its arrival on the farm , and before it
4753. The spirit of tar is measured into a wine-glass from a greybeard, and poured
mixes with the standing flock .
into the flask of bath when about to be
4748. The materials used in the bath
used, in the proportion of half a wine- glass
are tobacco, spirit of tar, soft soap, and to 1 quart, and the mixture stirred. sulphur. The tobacco is best in thestate
of leaf, but I understand it is illegal for 4754. Some people mix stale human tobacconists to sell it in that state. Taken urine with the bath to make it stronger,
BATHING SHEEP .
389
but spirit of tar is more powerful than any c, its greatest width being across atd. The ammoniacal gas. legs e e, are 18 inches high, attached by means of iron bolts passing through their 4755. This is an effective bath, and upper part and the frame of the stool, and inexpensive, the tobacco being 3s. 6d. secured with nut and screw . per lb., a bottle of spirit of tar 6d., soft soap 5d ., and sulphur ls. perlb. - making the 4757. Dry weather should be chosen for cost 5s. 6d. for 20, or 2 d .for each sheep. bathing sheep, else the rain will wash away the newly applied bath.
4756. A useful implement in bathing sheep is the bath -stool, fig. 427, which Fig. 427.
4758. Coarse aprons should be worn by
those who apply bath to sheep, it being a dirty process . 4759. The bathing is conducted in this
way : The sheep being penned, one is caught and placed on the stool upon its belly, fig. 428, with its 4 legs hanging through the spars, and its head towards the shepherd, who sits astride on the seat. The staple of the wool is divided by the shep berd with the thumbs of both bands, begin THE BATH - STOOL FOR SHEEP.
ning at the head and ending at the tail of the sheep ; and when he has made one shed, an assistant, a field worker, pours the liquor
is made of the best ash. It consists of a from the flask, following the bands ofthe seat a, for the shepherd to sit on while shepherd in their passage along the shed , bathing the sheep, 1 foot square ; a which he keeps open from the tail to the sparred part 3 feet long, has a frame head of the sheep. Fig. 428 shows the
and bars 30 inches wide in front from b to bathed sheep in a different pen from the un Fig. 428.
SK
BATHING SHEEP.
bathed ; the process ofbathing as described ; measure, the greybeard containing the also the tub of tobacco - liquor, the quart spirit of tar, and the wine-glass, all at hand.
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
390
4760. The sheds made are one alongeach on which account their bathing ought side of the back -bone, one along the ribs on to be conducted with great care , as a each side, one along each side of the belly, twist or rack given to the body in catch
one along the nape of the neck, one along ing, or in lifting them hastily off the each side of the neck, and one along the ground, or in putting them recklessly upon counter. From these sheds the bath will the stool, may causethem to cast lamb ; and, spread over thewhole body. The sheep is in case of such an accident, the sooner they
turned on its sides and its back, to obtain are bathed after being tupped the better, easy access to these several parts. When the the body then not being much under the
sheep is lying on its back on the stool, its influence ofthe fætus. I am not aware that legs are not tied, so the assistant should be any case of ewes casting their lamb can aware of receiving a kick from the hind be traced to this particular cause, but it is
feet on the face, or on the flask. Some liquor is put on the tail, head, scrotum , inside of the thighs, brisket, root of the neck, and top of the shoulder, because
certain that injury to the body of any female in the period of gestation is liable to cause abortion ; and there is no reason why injuries sustained at bathing should
these are the parts most likely to be affect- not produce that effect, as well as other
ed by scab, and are chiefly the seats of occasions of injury. I dare say this parti the nidi of insects. The shepherd and his cular source of injury to ewes bas hitherto assistant will bath 40 sheep in a day. been overlooked both by farmers and shep herds.
4761. Shortly after bathing, the keds will be seen adheringto the points of the
4764. The tups (928) are bathed imme
wool, dead ; and the fleecesof those sheep diately before or after the ewes. which have been much infested by this vermin will be speckled thick with their
4765. A syringe has been recommended
bodies. Sheep exhibit different effects by to be used to bath sheep, because it can be keds: those which recover froma lean to a introduced amongst thewool without dis better condition, on change of food, are turbing the adherenceof the staples of the most liable to be overrun with them , as fleece, which shedding must do. No doubt, some cattle are with lice when improving fleeces that have been shedded are more
in condition on turnips, ( 1375. ) On thisac- apt to be blown asunder by the wind, but count the ked may be expected to increase only for a short time, after which they rapidlyon sheep which have been some time recover their coherence ; and the uncer
on turnips, and hence the necessity of tainty of knowing whetheror not the whole bathing sheep before putting them on tur- body has been covered with the bath when nips. Hoggs are most liable to their applied by a syringe, more than counter
attack, becanse, perhaps, they get most balances any advantage the fleece may rapidly into condition after being weaned , derive from being kept entire. From
and because they bear the largest quan- the viscid nature of the bath, it is pro bable that a syringe will not eject the
tity of wool, (3942. )
liquid at all times with the same effect. 4762. Hoggs (924) are bathed first, Such an instrument, in the bands of a rude
because,being put early on turnips— say operator, might tear off piles of wool un the middle of October - they should bepre- hiddento view, and even abrade the skin. pared before the ewes have returned from I am disposed to believe that the manual the tups.
operation of bathing will not easily be superseded by mechanical means.
4763. Ewes (925) should not be bathed
4766. Instead of bathing sheep in this till after being tupped, as the smell of the bath might counteract the effluvium of the manner, which isone of long standing, it has season, and deceive the tup ; and its effects been recommended to dip them bodily in upon the skin may even prevent the sea- tubs containing a batb-liquor. It is evident
son coming in a regular course upon the that any liquid, to be applied with certainty ewe .
Be the effects of bath wbat they to the entire body of the sheep throngh its
may, the safe practice is not to bath wool, must be as limpid as water ; and, flock - ewes till after being
tupped ; hence, all dipping compositions are dis
BATHING SHEEP.
solved in large quantities of water. A
391
has contrived a dipping mixture, which
solution of corrosive sublimate will easily kills vermin in sheep, and is said to im kill keds and harden the skin, and it is prove the wool. The mixture is sold in
as limpid as water. I would not myself packets.
A packetful is dissolved in 2
employ any composition that contains imperial gallons of boiling water for 10 arsenic.
minutes, and poured into a large tub, con
4767. Mr Bigg's sheep -dipping compositionis sold at 9d. per lb., or in casks of 100 lb., sufficient to dip 500 sheep, for £3, 10s., which is rather more than 14d. per sheep, and is thus a cheap appli
taining 40 gallons of cold water. To this is added 4 lb. of soft soap, and the quantity will bath 50 hoggs. It will destroy all kinds of vermin in sheep in half-an -hour, but at what cost I have not heard. 4769. The apparatus in which the sheep are dipped is shown in operation by fig.
cation .
4768. Mr Wilson, chemist in Coldstream ,
429, which consists of a wooden box for
Fig. 429.
WILSON'S SHEEP - DIPPING APPARATUS.
holding the bath, 34 feet in length at top, for use . The apparatus may be conveyed and 2 feet 9 inches in width, and 3 feet to any given place on cast-iron wheels,
in length at bottom and 2 feet in width, and horse shaftsmight also be attached to it. givingthe box a projection at thetop over the bottom of 9 inches. This box will
4770. Three men and a field -worker are
easily contain 100 gallons of the dipping required to use the apparatus, and they con
liquid. Close to the rightupper edge of the duct the process in this manner :-Every box is a drainer, 18 inches in width, con- sheep is held by two men, one on each side sisting of spars of wood ; and below it is of the box. One man holds thehead with
an inclined plane the lower edge of which passes through the side of the box and conveys the dropped liquid into it again. The sheep are slid down an inclined plane into the pen. The pen is 8 feet in length, and 4 feet in width, and capable of containing 10 or 12 hoggs at a time. A wicket at theend of it allows the sheep to go out. Its floor is boarded and grooved, to allow the liquid dripped from the sheep
the left hand, and the two fore-legs with the right ; the other holds by the two hind legs. They dip the entire body of the sheep, with the back undermost, with the exception of the head, in the bath for a few seconds. They then place the sheep upon the drainer where the field -worker squeezes the bath out of the wool with her bands, which returns immediately into the box by the inclined plane below the
to run to an orifice, from which it is drawn drainer. The sheep is then slid down on off by a cock, and again put into the box its side on the inclined plane into the pen
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
392
by the field -worker, where it remains for
4774. Now the practice of smearing is unsup
a time to drip the bath out of the wool.
ported either by theory or common sense ; for
why should plastering over the skin with an
The third mancatches and brings the sheep adhesive substance protect the body from cold, to the men at the box, to be bathed, from while its natural clothing of wool is incapable the enclosure in which they are confined of affording it the warmth required ? Does
by hurdles, fig. 40, or nets, fig. 44. In this not the plugging up of the pores of an animal's skin injure its health ? Why should an exter way three men and a boy dipped 28 scores nal application to the skin promote the growth
of hoggs in 7hours at Paston,Roxburgh of wool, which derives itssole support from
shire. This is quick work, and is a great the body of the animal ? No doubt, very lean saving of time and labour, as also of bath. sheep may be injured from the united effects of Cheviot hoggs have clipped 6 lb. or 7 lb. rain and cold ; but sheep in such condition are not sufficiently covered with wool to protect
process such dipping,and the of wool leanbodies fromthe elements.Common their of tobaccoto supersedethebath fair after bids sense suggests that a thick covering of flesh and liquor and spirit of tar described above.
fat on the bodies will withstand cold and throw off rain better than tar, while the natural func
of the skin will be preserved ; that a thick 4771. Wilson's dipping liquid being tions covering of flesh and fat will promote the growth poisonous, care is necessary in putting of wool better than butter ; and that a thick
away the last portion of it which is not covering of wool, flesh, and fat, will ward off better than any substitute that used by the sheep, so as none of the pigs cold and rain and the poultry may be poisoned by it. I man can apply. Food and shelter, then , are
alone wanting to free hill-locks from the filthy am not acquainted with the composition process of smearing ; and it is satisfactory to
of this dipping liquid, and therefore can observe hill-farmers arriving at the conviction of not recommend it on its own merits; but the insufficiency of smearing, as an equivalent for Mr Wilson's dipping apparatus is a most food and shelter. But still mountain sheep, like convenient one, and maybe used with any all others,ought to be relieved from the annoy ance of vermin . dipping composition, and has evidently been constructed from practicalexperience, 4775. But another circumstance, extrinsic of and does not impose a peculiar mode of the farm, tends toforce the same conviction on dipping to suit its construction, as other hill -farmers, in the desire of the woollen manu to obtain wool free ofextraneous matter, apparatus does which I have seen , on facturers because it in suitsthetheir purpose better causing manufacture, which account I have noticed it in pre- lesswaste than inthe wool
ference to other forms.
4772. Wherever sheep are kept as a standing flock over the winter in the low country, bathing is requisite ; and when sheep are bought in to be put on turnips in winter, as is most frequently done on farms in the neighbourhood of towns, bathing must there be also practised. On carse farms, where no sheep are kept, the process is
ordinarily supplied from hill- farms. The waste in scouring and dyeing wool that has been smeared is one-half ; and when it is smeared with tar and butter, it is five-eighths of its bulk. Hence the low price always offered by dealers for smeared wool. It might be impolitic to relinquish smear ing entirely, until other means have been con trived as a substitute. The sudden abandonment of smearing might endanger the health and con
unknown.
stitution of hill- sheep.*
4773. Hill flocks are prepared for the winter by putting substances upon the skin, not merely
use, and trials of new ones every year evince the
4776. There are many varieties of salves in
for the purpose of killing vermin, but of protect dissatisfaction of hill -farmers in them, because ing their bodies against the effects of severe cold and rain. For this latter purpose a thin liquid will not suffice ; it must have such a consistence as to withstand melting by the natural tempera-
they have failed , and I have no hesitation in affirming they will all fail, as substitutes for flesh and fat, to raise wool worth the manufac turer's consideration . From the remarks of Mr
ture of the body, and washing away by the most Boyd of Innerleithen, on the efficacy of a new drenching rains. The substances which possess salve approved of by several hill-farmers, it those properties in a high degree are tar and would appear that its chief quality consists in butter. The tar itselfwould effect both purposes, destroying vermin.t That vermin ought to be as its pitchy tenacity prevents its melting at a destroyed at all hazards, is certain , from the cir low temperature, and rain has little effect upon cumstance that when sheep of every sort, and it ; but the butter is added to neutralise the especially those on the hills, are annoyed by
caustic effect of the tar upon the skin, and at the them , they will not settle to their food , but will same time to encourage the growth of the wool. rub against every object they can find — a stone, When the skin of a sheep is covered with such tree -stump, earthy banks, or roots of heather substances, it is said to be smeared . and tear off their wool, and expose themselves
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv. p. 652-62. + Ibid ., vol. xiv. p. 62-3.
BATHING SHEEP .
more and more to the effects of the weather. They will also run about impatiently, and be-
393
position as when the first shed is opened from the ear along the upper part of the ribs, and about
come heated, and then become chilled by the
5 or 6 inches from the back, to a little below the
first blast they afterwards may encounter. Rain makes vermin more active, and the annoyance
loin bone, the mixture, which should be poured
created by their increased activity is almost fit to render sheep frautic.
in double quantity, may run towards the middle of the back , and it will serve to saturate all the
wool left unopened towards the back . Other 3 long sheds on the side, 2 on the edge of the belly ,
4777. The three following salves are recommended, and considered improvements, by the farmers of Peebles and Selkirk shires, on those in The first, at the price of grease butter in 1850, from 34s. 6d . to 36s. per cwt., is as follows :
common use .
8. d .
Ib. crude white arsensic, at 5d . per lb. 28 lb. butter at 39 per lb.
0 33
2 on the shoulder and neck, with a little salve on
the breast, between the thighs, and the front of the hip, will suffice for one side. Then turn up the other side of the sheep, and lay it exactly in
the same position as at first, that is, with the back lowermost, to facilitate the liquid running towards it, which it will readily do. Then pour
8 9
on this side as was done on the other, always
13
taking care not to carry the sheds towards the
5 lb. black - soap , at 3d . per lb., gallon turpentine, at 3s. per gallon,
tail farther than in a line drawn from the top of 16
the loin to the middle of the thigh.
The descent
11 94 from that line being towards the tail, the liquid This compound, with 60 quarts of water, forms a salve for 100 sheep, and costs something less than 14d. a sheep. The water being heated,
will find its way to that part. The principal object to be attended to in the above process is tokeep the exposed parts of the animal as free of sheds in the wool as possible, which will thus
serves to keep the salve in aliquid state during the time it is applied to the sheep ; and too much attention cannot be bestowed on stirring the mixture, as the arsenic is apt to fall to the bottom ;
be done, and yet the whole of the wool be suf ficiently' saturated with the mixture.” * The
and on spreading the salve evenly on the skin.
storm, and as the top of theback is most exposed
hinder part of a sheep bears the coarsest wool,
and as the sheep always exposes that part to the
This salve was proposed by MrBallantyne, Holy to falls of rain, these particular parts being kept lee, in Peeblesshire, and differs from that adopted free of sheds, the wool will there scarcely be by the farmers in 1833 by the addition of the thrown open by the wind. When using this
turpentine, which, having resinous properties, is liquid, the shepherd should protect his legs with said to keep the wool closer over the sheep. 4778. Another of the salves consists of the following ingredients : 6. d. 1 lb , arsenic, at 5d . per lb. , 12 lb. butter,at 37 per lb.,
3 lb. black soap, at 3d. per lb.
2 bottles of best fish -oil, at 3s. per gallon,
.
.
.
0
5
3 0
1
0
a leathern apron, and a man and a boy will pour 70 sheep in a day ; but when everything is con veniently placed, and no delay occurs, they will pour 80 in that time. It should be remarked, however, that all animal oils give a brown tinge, and moss -water, when employed to wash sheep, gives a blue tinge to wool-both of which colours have to be got rid of in manufacture, though
neither may injure the texture of the wool. 5 11
These, mixed with 60 quarts of water, will bath 100 sheep, at a cost of rather more than 4d. a
4780. The third of the salves was proposed by Mr Joseph Stewart, Leslie, in Fife , a practical shepherd. A lengthened experience in the
sheep. This salve is made in this manner :- smearing of sheep has convinced him that the “ To 12 quarts of water add 3 lb of black soap ; greater number of the substances usually em and when it comes to the boil add 1 lb. of arsenic, ployed for that purpose are more or less injuri and let the whole boil together for 10 minutes.
ous, both to the sheep and their wool.
Then add 12 lb. of butter, and 2 bottles of fish oil, and boil the whole 5 minutes longer, stir-
considers to be the effects of tar, turpentine , to bacco -juice, and arsenic ; and as to arsenic in
Such he
ring the mixture all thetime. Then pour in particular, he regards it so deleterious as to be as much water as to make 60 quarts. When used, a little is heated at a time in a pot, as it is too thick for use when cold. It should be poured on the sheep out of a tin teapot, and a long handled tin-ladle should be used for stirring up the mixture in the pot, and pouring it into the teapot. The last quantity of the mixture should
years, the sheep lost their teeth. To avoid such
have a little water added to it, as it will become
an evil, he had recourse to sinipler substances,
too strong by reason of the deposition of the arsenic to the bottom ."
and found that a mixture of oil and tallow , in
inadmissible into any sheep salve—an opinion with which I coincide . He has known sheep, after being smeared with a salve, of which ar senic formed a part, remain in a dull and un
thriving state all winter ; and when the use of the salve was persevered in for 3 consecutive
equal proportions, answers the purpose well. These may be used alone, or in admixture with
4779. This salve, when liquid, is put on the a small quantity of tar ; but he conceives that sheep in this manner : - " The sheep should be the oil and tallow of themselves form the best laid on the smearing-stool, fig . 427, in such a salve for sheep that has hitherto been tried, and
* Prize Essays of the Highland und Agricultural Society, vol. xiv. p. 67-8.
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
394
is convinced, that if the sheep -farmers of Scot- of an arsenical powder for the cure of a schirr ous breast. The arsenic (absorbed ) was dis their advantage in obtaining a third more money cerned in various parts of the body, but especially
land would use that salve alone, they would find for the wool on account of its superior quality, im-
in the liver, which contained as much as is usu
proved partly by the better condition ofthe sheep. ally found when the poison has been swallowed : the quantity was greater than that found in all 4781. In applying tar -salve to sheep, when the other organs together. This case presents thick, it may be taken up on the fore and middle many points of interest. The poison did not be fingers of the right hand, and spread along the gin to produce its well-marked effects until after shed , and worked amongst the wool ; and when the lapse of about ten hours. Death took place
thin, the palm of the hand in a hollow shape is in about six days, and the urine was suppressed used for lifting and pouring it on, and working it in. The stool, fig . 427, is employed for laying the sheep on, though this convenient implement is not used so much as it ought. American tar in 1850 was from 14s. to 15s. 6d . per barrel.
throughout. The mucous membrane of the sto mach and intestines was in its natural state : in the duodenum it was slightly swollen or thick
4782. Besides a covering from the weather, afforded by stells, bratting has been adopted as a substitute for smearing in winter ; and the method of using a brat, and the figure of a bratted sheep, and the utility of bratting, will be
senic has acted as a poison through the unbroken skin . Some of these are of old standing, and do
ened . "
4784. “ Several cases are reported, in which ar not appear to have been accurately observed. If the arsenic be in solution, it may become speedily
absorbed ; but when in powder, absorption would found explained in ( 1038) and (1040 ,) and fig. 61. take place much more slowly. It is well known, that comparatively insoluble substances may be 4783. The effects of arsenic applied externally introduced into the system by the endermic to the skins of animals, is worthy of the consider- method, and arsenic does not appear to present ation of those who employ arsenical solutions for any exception to this mode of operation. The bathing sheep. “ Instances of arsenic destroying thin skin of the human subject appears to absorb life when applied externally,” observes Dr Tay- the poison more readily than the hard thick skin
lor, “ are by no means unfrequent. Two cases of of animals ; but M. Flaudin found that dogs its operating fatally in children , when applied to the skin of the head for tinea capitis, will be
found in the Annales d'Hygène, 1830, ii . 437. In both , the mucous membrane of the stomach was found inflamed, and in one extensively. A trial has recently taken place, ( Reg. v. Port, Chester Winter Assizes, 1844 ), in which a man,
were speedily killed when arsenical ointments were rubbed upon the skin of the abdomen, or on the inside of the thighs. All the symptoms of arsenical poisoning, although not appearing for two or three days, have been witnessed in the
human subject in those cases in which powdered arsenic has been used as a depilatory .”
pretending to cure cancer, was charged with the
death of a female, by the application of an arse4785. It thus appears from the observations nical plaster, as it was supposed, to the breast. of Dr Taylor, that arsenic, whether in solution The woman died in a fortnight. No satisfactory
or in powder, may be absorbed by ulcerated sur faces, such as scab ; by abraded skin, such as oc life, except that there had been vomiting ; and casioned by rubbing from the irritation of keds, the accused had taken care to remove the plasters or the attack of maggots; and even by unbroken
evidence was obtained of the symptoms during
as soon as serious symptoms had begun to appear ; hence there was no direct chemical evi-
skin.
The safest course, to avoid such risks, is
dence of the nature of the substance actually employed. This case, however, shows the great utility of the discovery of the absorption of arsenic into the body. Dr Brett, of Liverpool, was
not free of danger, for although Dr Taylor ob
to render arsenic unknown in all farm operations. 4786. Even the use of corrosive sublimate is
serves, that it is not likely that anyquestion will
able to detect the absorbed arsenic in the sub-
ever arise respecting a poisonous impregnation
stance of the stomach , liver, and spleen : the
quantity detected was less than a quarter of a grain . The æsophagus, stomach, and intestines
of the flesh , from the use of a lotion for the pur pose of destroying the fly in sheep, yet he refers to a case, reported by Mr Annan , of two sheep
. In
which died from the effects of the external ap
were found extensively inflamed .
January 1845, a man in London died apparently plication of corrosive sublimate - a poison , he from the effects of arsenic absorbed through the skin of the arm . He was engaged in the manufacture of candles, to which arsenic was added in large proportion, and it was supposed that an abrasion of the skin had facilitatedthe absorption of the poison . The medical opinion given at the inquest, was decidedly that the deceased had died from the effects of arsenic thus introduced into the system . M. Flaudin states, that on one occasion he had to examine the viscera of a
remarks, which is most easily absorbed .
( Med .
Times, July 25, 1846, 331. ) “ The flesh of these animals might have proved dangerous if it had been eaten ." *
4787. As this is the last opportunity I shall have of speaking of sheep before they are put on turnips in winter, (901,) I would recommend a sheep -rack which was exhibited by Mr James Kirkwood of Tranent, the inventor and maker
woman who had been killed by the application of many ingenious and useful implements, and * Taylor On Poisons, p. 323-5, and 165.
LIFTING POTATOES.
395
which obtained the firstpremium at the Highland Immediately after the fields are cleared of and Agricultural show at Glasgow , on the 1st of corn, the potatoes should be taken up and
August 1850. Fig. 430 gives a view in perspec- secured, to allow the land to be ploughed Fig. 430.
up for wheat . 4789. Two modes are followed in lift
ing potatoes—one with the plough, and the other with the hand by means of the
potato-graip . The plough affords the most expeditious means, though the ground ismost thoroughly cleared of the potatoes by means of the graip. 4790. In employing the plough to take up potatoes, the common one, with two
horses, answers well ; but as the potatoes run the hazard of being cut by the coulter, rack for sheep, to be used either on grass , or on it should be taken out, the sock lifting up turnips in winter. It consists of wire-work, the body being 6 feet long, 2 feet 9 inches wide at the potatoes from the bottom of the drill, KIRKWOOD'S WIRE SHEEP -FODDER RACK .
tive of this elegant, strong, and useful fodder-
top, 8 inches wide at bottom , and 2 feet 3 } and the mould - board turning them out
inches in depth. The cover consists of sheet- upon the surface. The ploughman should iron , curved to throw off the rain, and the fodder take in a feering, fig. 19, of as many
is put into the rack by throwing openthe hatch drills as covers about two ridges ; and in a, in the cover.
refuse
fodder,
The from the such ashay,falls upon the troughs6b,made alsó going up the outside drill he splits it, and
of sheet- iron, and may be eaten by the sheep,
in returning by the outside drill on the
and at all events saved from being trodden into other side of the feering, splits it also, the ground. The troughsare providedwith a throwing the potatoes out of the ground, hole at each end toallow therain to drain off, in both cases, to his right band — but no gatherers
and might be used in dry weather for holding fasterthana band of
, of field
salt, oil-cake, or corn for the day. The ma
chine is mounted on axles andwheels, and may workers, can gather them in baskets. after feering is thus made, and be moved to any desired spot. The iron supports Feering and axles being malleable, the implement is the potatoes gathered. rather costly - being L.4, 4s.—but its strength and durability must be great ; and perhaps it may be made for less money when it comes
4791. The gatherers, chiefly field into general use, which it certainly deserves workers, but assisted by hired women , to be.
labourers, or boys and girls, when their numbers are insufficient for the work , ON LIFTING POTATOES.
follow the plough, each provided with a round basket with a bandle, fig. 235 ; and if
4788. The harvest-work of a farm cannot be said to be completed until the potato crop has been taken out of the ground, and secured against the winter's frost. By October the potatoes may be expected to be ready for lifting. Potatoes indicate their fitness for being lifted by the decay
gatherers fill a basket between them, into which they gather the potatoes as fast as possible; and as soon as any basket is filled , it is taken and emptied into the cart, loosened in a convenient part of the field, to receive them . In light and clean soil, the potatoes easily part from it, and are agree
these are not sufficient in number, two
of the baulms ; for, as long as these are ably and quickly picked up ; but in heavy green , you may conclude the tubers soil, and in all soils in foul condition, the
have not arrived at maturity. In an early plough -furrow is apt to turn over entire, season potatoes ripen before October ; and and the potatoes to be enclosed within it although the weather should then con- in which case a stout field -worker should tinue fine, the best plan is to let them re- precede the gatherers, and follow the
main in the ground until all the grain plough with a small common graip, fig. 82, crops are harvested ; but in ordinary sea- and shake the furrow loose, and free the sons the corn is cut down and carried be- potatoes from the soil and the baulms for fore the potatoes are ready for lifting the gatherers. Every the smallest potato
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
396
should be gathered, not only for the sake of economy, but of removing a weed from
4794. A simple instrument, fig. 431 , which may
be substituted in the plough
The gathering for the mould-board, for turning the po shonld not be continued so late in the tatoes out of the ground, was contrived by the succeeding crop.
evening as that the potatoes cannot be easily seen, nor should it be persevered
Fig. 431.
in in rain .
a
b
4792. After the field has been gathered of its potatoes in this manner , the har rows are passed over the ground a double
tine, to bring up the concealed potatoes to the surface, and to shake the haulms free
of the soil. The potatoes thus after-gathered are usually reserved for the pigsand the poultry.
THE POTATO RAISER OR BRANDER ,
4793. Whenever the field is cleared of Mr Lawson of Elgin. It consists of 6 the crop, the haulmis are gathered by the malleable iron bars, the outer ones g of an field -workers and carried to the compost inch square, the inner ones balf an inch in stance, to be converted into manure, diameter, joined together in the form of ( 2042 ;) and these are the only direct return a brander, 26 inches long from a to b ; 5 which the potato crop makes to the soil,
inches in breadth from b to c, at the fore
except the part which happens to be con- part, where is a plate of iron ; 27 inches in length from c to d ; and 18 inches in
sumed by the cattle on the farm
Fig. 432.
a
THE POTATO - RAISER ATTACHED TO A PLOUGH .
The openings
4795. The gatherers follow this plough
between the rods will thus be rather
with baskets, the same as the common
breadth from d to a.
more than 3 inches at the widest end of plough—but some of them must throw the the brander, between a and d . This baulms upon the gathered ground which
brander is attached to the right side of lies to the right hand of the drill they are
the bead and stilt of a plough, in lieu of gathering the potatoes from ; and the the mould -board, by the screws e e , the fure end b c being placed close behind the sock, as seen ata, fig. 432, which shows the plough mounted with the brander, having its upper angle e , 8 inches, and the
reason why this must be done is, that, as soon as the potatoes which lie on the sur
plane of its face so bent down as to have
ing the earth and potatoes to the right
face are gathered, the plough returns, and proceeds through the remaining part of the drill in which the potatoes lie, still turn
raises tothe the lower angle d only4 inches above the hand. This second operation which the first
sole of the plough. The mode of opera- surface any stray potatoes
tion of the brander is, that wbile the may not have turned up, and which the This plough pulverises
earth partly passes through it, and is women gather.
partly pushed aside by it, the potatoes the soil in an extraordinary degree, and are left exposed upon the surface of scarcely leaves a single potato in it. Mr the ground on the right hand of the Lawson observes, “ I have never before been able to clear my fields of potatoes so ploughman .
397
LIFTING POTATOES.
effectually as by this implement, or at has bought the crop in the ground, the potatoes are measured, fig. 168, or weighed nearly so small an expense." * from the basket on the spot into sacks, and
4796. When potatoes are taken up by delivered out of the sacks. Fig. 433.
manual labour, it is done
by means of the potatograip ,
fig.
433,
4802. When the farmer lifts them to
the send to the London market direct from
prongs ofwhich are flat- the field, the potatoes are first separated tened. To use this graip by wire riddles, through which those under efficiently being rather the stipulated size, 14 inch in diameter, severe work , men
are
pass, and the others are measured into
employed to lift the sacks and carried directly to the ship's potatoes with nian taking
it, one side. a
The potatoes which fell through the
drill riddle are taken home by the farmer.
close beside that of his
4803. The potato- riddle is made of fellow -workmen, while 2 gatherers, women, wire, in meshes of from 1 to 14 inch
boys, or girls, to every square, and when rimmed with oak, costs man , pick up the pota- 28. 6d. each, fig. 160. toes
as he turns them
4804. Potatoes are most commonly put them into the bas- made up by measure in Scotland into kets. what are termed bolls. The boll is a given THE POTATO - GRAIP. out of the ground, and
weight, which varies with the custom of
4797. In using this graip, it is inserted the district. They ought in all cases to be
into the side, not upon the top of the drill, sold by weight. and below , not above the potatoes, with a push of the foot; and the earth thus un-
4805. The boll weighs 2 cwt. or 16
dermined is turned over into the hollow stones of 14 lb. to the stone, in some parts of the drill, exposing the potatoes to view of the country, and double that weight in upon the inverted spit, from whence they other parts ; while in some places it is as are gathered off. The men then pass the much as 40 stones. The lightest weight is prongs of the graip here and there through called the single, and the heavier one the the soil, to exhume and expose to view double boll. It is surprising bow difficult it is to introduce a uniform system of every potato lurking beneath it. weights and measures into a country. 4798. In this manner, 1 man and 2 women will take up, of a good crop of 80 4806. The produce of potatoes varies bolls of 16 stones or 2 cwt. per acre, 20 amazingly, according as the season is very bolls a -day, which will cost 16s. per acre, dry or wet. Even before the existence or rather more than 24d. per boll, at the of the failure, it varied from 30 single bolls
following wages :—1 man 28., and 2 wo-
or 60 cwt.
: 3 tons, in a very dry season ;
men at 1s. each per day, without food. The to 120 bolls or 240 cwt. = - 12 tons to the boll of 32 stones or 4 cwt. will cost, near acre in a moist, growing one. The dis towns, 6d. for lifting. ease has caused a still greater variety in the quantity 4799. Potato -graips cost 2s. 3d., and when bandled 38. each.
4807. The price does not vary with the
quantity, a scanty crop seldom exceeding 4800. When a farmer lifts the potatoes 6s. the single boll of 2 cwt., and the plen on his own account to be disposed of tiful one not under 4s.
Since the disease
afterwards, they are put into the cart the price has risen to 30s. the small boll, without measurementor selection, and car- which I have paid for good seed. ried directly to the pits. 4808. Taking a medium potato crop at 4801. When lifted for a purchaser who 60 small bolls of 2 cwt. each, or 6 tons, * Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. viii. p. 551-2.
398
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
and a medium price of5s. the boll, it yields
4810. I may bint, on lifting the crop, £ 15 an acre ; and allowing 40s. an acre that a few potatoes prove an acceptable
as the cost of all the labour connected with
gift to the lone cot-woman who works in
the disposal of the crop, the return is still your fields, or whose daughter fulfils the £ 13 an acre - a large sum ; but it ought useful office of field -worker. to be remembered that potatoes, when 4811. Those who desire to plant unripe entirely disposed of, leave no manure on the farm , while they require more than an potatoes as seed, should take up the quan
ordinary quantity to raise a crop ; and tity required before the haulm indicates they also incur considerable trouble in the delivery, and, being a perishable commodity, cannot be preserved beyond agiven time. Since the occurrence of the disease,
a ripened state in the general crop . Per haps the small potatoes of the crop would
answer the purpose, as they are the latest efforts of the potato -bearing fibres ; not no particular sum can be relied on from this small potatoes as such, since the entire crop crop ; and in consequence its culture has may consist of small potatoes, and be fully become an uncertain speculation. Hence- ripe, and as unfit for seed as the fully forward the returns from this crop must ripened largest ones. be left out of calculation. 4812. The proportions of the component parts
4809. Where farm -servants have potato of the potato will be found in ( 1255) and ( 1256.)
ground given them as part of their wages, Its nutrient properties are mentioned in ( 1254,) their crop is taken up with the rest of the ( 1259,) and ( 1260.) Its inorganic constituents are given in (1257) and (1258.) The composition field, and the cost of taking it up falls of the ash of the potato leaves and stems is
upon the master. Where they receive a stated in (4159) and (4160. )
stipulated quantity of potatoes, instead of a given space of ground, it is delivered to 4813. Potato-starch may be converted into a them as taken up from the field. The substance having the properties of tapioca. An acquaintance of mine in Forfarshire, the late Mr Beauchamp, raised large quantities qnantity stipulated for is 7 or 8 bolls,of JamesScott, 32 stones each, or from 28 to 32 cwt. The ofpotatoesevery year before the appearance of the
quantity should be measured or weighed, but the body of the cart is usually made the instrument of measurement ; and I believe they prefer taking their chance in this, well knowing the quantity is never under the just amount. Of the two modes of paying servants, in prolific seasons they are well supplied when the ground is planted for them ; but in bad seasons they sufferprivation, which they bear patiently,
knowing that the deficiency arises from
disease amongst them ; and instead of disposing of them in the bulk, converted them into tapioca. For thispurpose he erected machinery in connexion with his thrashing -mill steam engine, to grate the potatoes into pulp , and to wash the starch out of the pulp. The pulp was afterwards dried in tin vessels in an oven.
The
tapioca thus obtained was put up in paper par cels of a pound weight, and sold to a house in
Glasgow at, I believe, 8d. per lb. The delivery of the tapioca at the shipping port of Arbroath
was a great saving of cartage, compared to what would have been the delivery of the potatoes ia bulk.
The refuse of the manufacture, consisting
no circumstance over which their master chiefly of the fibrous matter of the potato , was has a control ; and those who receive a retained to give to pigs ( 1593) and farm -horses.
stated allowance every year, suffer in a bad year by deterioration of quality.
4814. The fecula of the potato presents very
forms, and no other known kind acquires The former class of servants have always varied large a size, observes M. Raspail. “ When a direct interest in the quantity, and both so first obtained from the organs of the plant, it have so in the quality of the crop. Since exhibits concentric wrinkles on its surface, which
the potato failure, instances have occurred disappear when it dries. The largest grains are when it was out of the power of themaster about .0049 of an inch in size. The most com size is from 004 to .0015. They are oval, to pay the stipulated quantity to the ser mon contracted in the middle , like the cocoon of the
vants, and a compromise has been sub silk-worm ; gibbous, obscurely triangular, or
stituted of £ 3 in money, or of 3 bolls rounded, and the smallest are spherical. The = 24 stones of meal, of 14 lb. to the stone. potato is the only plant whose fecula is used for Those who bad the ground planted had no culinary purposes, as it can be obtained at a rate than any other. To extract it, the claim on their master on account of the cheaper tubercles are washed and scrubbed, after which
failure of the crop ; but some allowance,
they are rasped under a stream of water, which
I believe, was made in most cases.
carries the raspings to a sieve, through whose
LIFTING POTATOES .
399
meshes the fecula alone passes into a vessel placed cylinder revolves and takes the potatoes with it below . When the operation is finished, the water is poured off, and the fecula is repeatedly
through the water; and as the potatoes find their way along its inclined bottom in the water,they
washed until the water carries off no soluble
are taken up by a twisted sparred inclined plane, which carries them to the opening f in its
matter ; after which it is dried in the sun or in
a stove. This fecula then hasthe appearance of boarded end, c, to a level of the edge of the box, an impalpable crystallinepowder, having a white over which they run down the inclined plane of colour with a bluish tinge.
The grains are less
the slide g, which conveys them as far as h ,
altered in this than in any other variety of where a tub, barrow , or basket, is placed on the fecula ." * ground to receive them in a thoroughly washed and clean state .
4815. Fig. 434 gives a view in perspective of 4817. The peculiar advantage of this machine
Fig. 434 .
is, that in turning the winch - handle e to the
right, and keeping the hopper d supplied with dirty potatoes, it washes them and throws them out clean in a continuous stream to the
bottom of the slide h.
On turning the winch
handle e to the left, the potatoes are retained within the cylinder, until the washing is effected as completely as you desire ; and then, by turn ing it to the right, you get quit of the potatoes instantly. In machines heretofore in use, the
washing process is stopped to fill and empty the cylinder, which must be raised out of the cistern
for those purposes, and lowered again into it, by a tedious and laborious process. The price of this machine is L.3, 10s.
4818. Potatoes are generally given to cattle in an unwashed state ; and when they are taken up in dry weather from dry soil, but little earth adheres to them ; but in rainy weather they can not fail to take away much of the soil, most of THE SELF -DELIVERING POTATO -WASHER .
which the cattle are obliged to receive. With
an excellent potato -washer, which was exhibited
such a washer as this, the quota of potatoes given to the cattle may be washed every day in a few
at the Highland and Agricultural Society's Show minutes ; and it ought to be washed without fail. at Edinburgh in 1848, by Mr Richard Robinson of Belfast. It consists of two cast-iron frames 4819. “ When potatoes are boiled , they lose a a connected together by means of three round from 1 to 14 per cent of their weight. The malleable iron rods. In the forks of these frames juice which may be separated from them is is inserted a wooden box or cistern b, wider at
sweet-tasted.
The meal is insoluble even in
the top than at the bottom , to contain the water boiling water, though potato -starch forms a to wash the potatoes. The cylinder o, having a transparent solution with hot water. Thus it larger diameter at c than at the other end, is appears that, by boiling, the albumen, fibrous sparred with fillets of wood fastened on with matter, and starch combine together, and form iron hoops, at such distances as to prevent pota- an insoluble compound .” Simple as the process toes slipping through between them . The cylin- seems, it is not every cook who can boil a potato der c is hung on the box b by means of an iron ueil.
axle, which passes through both ends of the cylinder, and turns upon plumber-blocks, the
4820. “ Dr Peschier of Geneva has detected
nearest end being extended as far as to allow
the presence of mucous sugar and of gum in the potato. This explains why it is capable of undergoing the vinous fermentation. The acids contained in potatoes in the natural state were ascertained by Einhoff to be a mixture of the tartaric and phosphoric acids.”
the trough g to be suspended between the box and the winch-handle e,which is supported on its extremity.
The hopper d receives the potatoes,
which pass over a grating in its inclined bottom, through which any earth or sand falls to the ground.
4821. “ It is well known that a spirit can be 4816. The washer is used in this manner :Water is poured into the box b until it is nearly full. The potatoes are then put into the hopper d by means of a shovel or basket, and after pass-
Messrs Bertillon and Guietand extracted a volatile oil, which M. Pelletan found to be a
ing over the grating find their way into the
hot acrid taste, very soluble in alcohol, and
extracted from potatoes.
From this spirit
colourless limpid liquid, having a strong smell,
cylinder. On turning the winch-handle e, the obviously containing much alcohol." + * Raspail's Organic Chemistry, p. 111 .
+ Thomson's Organic Chemistry-- Vegetables, p. 481 and 842.
400
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
4822. I remember seeing potatoes that had for pitting small quantities of potatoes,
neglected forsome time in adamp corner of and is well adapted for small farms and lain & meal mill, which seemed like lumps of brown semi-transparent resin, andaslightin thehand, cottars ; the prismatic is used for storing the skin being translucent though as rough as in large quantities. For both sorts of pits, a the natural state. On boiling a few , I found
tered from the north wind
situation
ground as dry they regained the ordinary meally character of should be selected ; and the fast rain
as it as a good potato, and tasted as well. This incident of itself as to absorb the occurred before the appearance of the failure. falls, or as much inclined as to allow sur
face water to run away quickly. The site shonld be conveniently chosen for opening ON STORING POTATOES.
the pits and admitting carts to them, at the corner or side of a field, so as not to interfere
4823. The object of storing potatoes is with its work in winter, and as near the to place them beyond the reach of frost. steading as possible. No difficulty is found in doing so in the 4825. A conical pit of potatoes is early part of winter, when the temperature is merely low, and not frosty, and formed in this manner :-If the soil is of
vegetation dormant. Potatoes may therefure be kept in almost any situation in the early part of winter ; but if damp is allowed to reach them for a length of time, they will rot ; and if the air finds access to them in winter, the frost will
ordinary tenacity, and not very dry, let a small spot of its surface be smoothened with the spade. Upon this spot let the potatoes, as they aretaken outof the cart, be built by band in a conical heap, not exceeding 2 feet in height; and the
not only reach them, but vegetation will diameter which a cone of that height will be awakened in them in early spring. occupy, so as not to impose much trouble
To place them effectually beyond the in piling up the potatoes, will be about 6 influence of the elements, they should be
feet — that is, 12 foot in breadth to 1 foot in
stored in a dry place, and closely covered height. The potatoes are then covered up ; and no mode affords both requisites with a thick thatching of dry clean straw —not drawn, as is too commonly the case, so completely as ordinary dry soil. but broken.
Earth is then dug with a
4824. Fig. 435 exhibits the two ordi- spade from the ground in the form of a nary forms of pits, one conical, the other trench around the pit, the inner edge a,
prisinatic. The conical form is employed fig. 435, of the trench being cut as far from Fig. 435.
THE CONICAL AND PRISMATIC FORMS OF POTATO- PITS.
the pile of potatoes as will be the thickuess bave upon it, and penetrate into it the less of both the covering and of the earth to be distance.
put upon it, whichmay be about 1 foot. The first spadeful is laid upon the lower edge of the straw , and round the heap of potatoes in a circle; the earth being chopped fine and beaten down with the spade, to render it asimpervious to cold as possible: and the drier it is, the less effect will frost
Thus spadeful after spadeful
of the earth is taken from the trench, and heaped on the straw above the potatoes, until the entire cone a b c is formed, which is then beaten smooth and round with the back of the spade. The sharp apex of the cone at b will be about 3 feet 3 inches in height, and the diameter of
STORING POTATOES.
401
the cone from c to a about 8 feet. The in spring quite fresh and good. Potatoes, trench round by a c should be cleared of I know , have been pitted amongst earth, earth ; and an open cut made from its and kept well enough all winter; but the lowest side, to allow any water to run experiments were conducted on too small freely away a scale to recommend the plan for adop tion on a farm .
4826. When the soil is naturally dry, the site of the pit may be dug out of the solid ground a spade depth, forstoring the potatoes into what is then really a pit , and the height of the heap above
It must be admitted that
the analogy between this mode of pitting, and of preservation in the field in winter, is far from correct. In the pit one layer of potatoes lies above another, with inter vening layers of earth — a relation in which,
the surface of the soil will be proportionally whenone potato rots, it cannot fail to less ; but unless the soil is as dry as sand affect the one lying immediately above or gravel, the potatoes should be piled and below it ; whereas in the field every upon the natural surface of the ground.
potato lies singly , and in one layer, sur
rounded by earth, independently of others, 4827. The prismatic or long pit, d ef and although it should become rotten, gh, fig. 435, is formed exactly in the it cannot possibly affect any other in the
same manner, with the exception that the field. Nor is the condition of potatoes potatoes are piled in a straight line along improved when stored in cellars or out its sides and ends d h and d e, instead of houses; for, independent of the heat, the round, as in a conical heap . The height probable dampness of the cellar may cause
of the pile of potatoes should not exceed 24 feet, and its breadth will spreadout to about 7] feet ; and allowing 12 inches of thickness for the straw and earth, the height of the finished pit will be 34 feet, and breadth 9ļ feet. The direction of a long
many to rot; and constant exposure to the air, ifnot directly conducive to vege tation, will cause as much evaporation of the water of the potato as to produce considerable shrinking. Until, therefore, experience discovers a better plan, the old
pit should always be N. and S., to place one of pitting must be followed ; and if
both its sides within reach of the sun's rays certain bad effects have been experienced in winter, to counteract the effects of frost. by heating, in consequence of the heaps
having been made too large, modificatious 4828. It is found that, when fresh potatoes are heaped together in large quantities, a certain degree of heat arises , which increases as much as to awaken vegetation in the potatoes; and one proof ofsuch heat having existed is evidenced by the long sprouts in the heap when opened in spring.
should be adopted in the construction of pits to avoid the evil complained of. I think that, if potatoes are placed in heaps of the dimensions I have mentioned above, they will run little risk of heating. 4830. It is difficult to explain the diffe
The thick covering of dry straw upon the rent effects which the same mode of pitting potatoes may be the means of retaining the heat thus evolved, and hence it has been suggested to leave openings along the ridgeof the pit for the heat to escape; the openings to be left at intervals through upright bundles of drawn straw, held to-
produces now that it did twenty years ago and upwards. Then, let the pits be formed ever so large, and the cut- sets heaped on the barn - floor ever so high, either for a long or a short period, not a word was heard of failure; but if there is any truth in the
gether by cord, and cut square on the top, conjecture, that the failure is ascribable to before the earth is thrown up and beaten the ordinary mode of pitting, the conclu
down near the ridge. These straw chim- sion is irresistible that some change must neys may be seen at i and k , fig. 435. have come over the potato itself, since there is none in the pitting. Wbat, then, 4829. To preserve potatoes cool in the we all want to know is, why whole pota pits during winter, it has been recom- toes heat now in the pit, and cut ones in mended to mix earth amongst them and to the barn , when no such effects were seen
have no covering above them but earth, twenty years ago ? Since no satisfactory in imitation of the state they happen to be answer can be given to this question, let left in the ground all winter, when found the pitting of potatoes in winter, and the VOL. II.
2c
402
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
treatment of the cut-sets be changed to suit the altered condition of the plant; but the adoption of a safe change in practice should not induce us to neglect the
and preventing the rot. Suchventilators are conduits for air made of laths and slabs of wood, and of pipe tiles ; and although in many cases they apparently circumstance that causes the change, nor checked the first symptoms ofthe disease,
content ourselves with secondarycauses, yet where the disease was decidedly active, although a remedy may seem hopeless. they proved as ineffective as the expedi This leads us to revert to the rationale of ents mentioned above.
the potatodisease, which hasbeen already discussed in (4161 ) and (4162.)
4835. The soil most protective of the potato against disease is moss. Out of 32 4831. As long ago as 1843, a foreign cases of the cultivation of the potato in
cultivator “ found that, five weeks after he moss in England, only 5 suffered much, had harvested a crop from a field planted and 17 little,while 10 escaped altogether ; with diseased potatoes, they began to of 31 cases in Scotland, none were bad ; undergo a dry corruption ; and that, even of 41 Irish cases, only 2 suffered much,
if, externally, they had a sound appear- 24 little, and 15 escaped ; and of Welsh ance, they had internally a number ofthe the one case escaped. It would seem that blue spots, called stagnation spots, which, peat mixed with other manures acts to when the potatoes were boiled, remained some extent as a preventive, 2 instances hard, were rejected by cattle, and which of escape occurring in England, and 15 in
could not be used for the manufacture of Ireland ; while no example of failure oc brandy, as, besides being unsuited for the curred in England and Scotland, and but purpose, the potatoes would not go through
4 in Ireland, and 1 in Wales. The con
the crushing -mill."* These are precisely clusion is-in pure well -drained peat moss, the characters of the disease observed in potatoes suffer very little from disease. our own potatoes, and they afford infallible
means of detecting the existence of the
4836. On heavy land the disease is In England 129 cases suf fered much out of 163, only 34 escaping ;
cousiderable.
disease.
4832. As expedients have been adopted, in Scotland the result was better, 16 cases during the growth of the potato, to evade escaping out of 27, the suffering being the disease on the stems and leaves, and by consequence on the tubers, as has been particularly mentioned from (4153) to ( 4158 ;) as many expedients bave been
much in 11 cases ; but in Ireland there was no escape, and 11 cases suffered much , and the same was the state with Wales, 2 cases suffering much . And where the
adopted in the pitting to ward off the heavy land was also wetthe proportion of disease from the potatoes themselves, but suffering increased : in England it was as none as yet have succeeded in doing so , far 153 is to 34 which escaped ; in Scotland less in staying the plague, after it has ma- 16 to 17 ; in Ireland 13 to 1 ; in Wales 4 to nifested itself.
none ; and on the whole 186 to 51. And if to these rich land is added, the pro
4833. Of such expedients dry materials portion of loss rises still higher, as 237 have been mixed with the potatoes in the to 44. The conclusion is, that potatoes in pita — for no one has entirely condemned very rich, wet, or heavy land are exposed the use of pits -- such as dry sand, sawdust, to disease in a most dangerous degree,
dry powdered peat, ashesof various kinds; as 272 to 9, unless the land is very dry, wet rot, they had no power to retard the formed in the autumn or very early in
and if any of these really prevented the or the climate cold, or the planting per
spring — so that not more than I crop in 30 can hope to escape in such land.
progress of the dry rot . 4834. Ventilators of various kinds be
4837. On light land the results were sides those of i and k , fig. 435, have been recommended in pits, with the view of the opposite to those on the heavy : in evaporating the moisture from the potatoes, England the number of escapes being 313 * Journal of Agriculture, March 1844, p. 395.
SOWING WHEAT.
403
to 79, which suffered much ; in Scotland whole matter may thus be summed up
129 to none ; in Ireland 48 to 1 ; and in thatover-luxuriance,arising from whatever Wales 20 to none, the proportion of great cause, was highly favourableto the progress disease being about one -seventh. The of disease, and vice versa . * conclusion is, that in England the chances
4839. My belief is, that, if we ever shall are 313 to 24 against the appearance of much disease in light lands, unless plant- ' be able to check the virulence of the ing is late, or manuring excessive, or there potato disease, we ought to be contented is a heavy wet subsoil : that is, not more to raise small crops, compared with what
than 1 crop in 13 suffers much in light we were for many years accustomed to land, if moderately manured , planted do before the disease appeared, with small early, and resting on a dry subsoil. In quantities of well-prepared manure ; and
other parts of the kingdom no failures although such a method of cultivation will occurred on light lands, except in one in- not give the pecuniary returns which have hitherto been derived from the potato, we stance near Londonderry. must dispense with large crops and large
4838. The connection between manures profits, for the sake of again enjoying a
and the potato disease is not so easily pleasant constituent of the dinner table. tracedas is the case of soils, the experi- Overgrown potatoes, forced with inordi ence of cultivators being of the most oppo- nate quantities of putrescent manure, are site nature . “ No doubt can exist as to as unpleasant to the palate as precarious the cause of these discordant statements.
to the purse.
The circumstances under which the trials
have been made have not been the same, and therefore the results have also been
4840. “ When potatoes are exposed to the action of frost, it is well known that they be come soft, and acquire a sweet taste. This taste
different. Or, as has commonly happened, is succeeded by a sour taste, owing to the rapid effects bave been ascribed to manures,
evolution of acetic acid, and the root soon passes
which have in truth belonged to other to putrefaction . From the experiments of Einhoff, and unsuspected causes.”
As regards we learn that the sugar is formed at the expense
of the mucilage ; for the other ingredients were guano, the inference is, that, under all cir- found inpotatoes sweetened by frost, in theusual
cumstances, two crops manured with gnano proportion . He considers this sweetening pro have been saved out of three ; that, if cess as connected with the vegetative powers of
applied to autumn and early spring plant- the root." + ed crops, it is advantageous, but that it is 4841. Since the removal of the duty, a consider
dangerous in late planting. The conclu- able trade in the import of potatoes has arisen sion arrived at in the use of farmyard with Holland, Hamburg , Belgium , and France.
manure is, that if used abundantly, in
In 1848 the quantity imported was 940,697
a very rapk condition, and especially in cwt., and in 1849 it increased to 1,417,863 cwt.I this state to late planted crops, it is an extremely disadvantageous application. ON SOWING WHEAT IN AUTUMN . Ashes are a safe manure, when applied by itself, in the proportion of 27 to 4, and when mixed with farmyard dung 54 to 4842. “ How ceaseless is the round of 15. Saline manures have not been pro- rural labour !" may the poet truly exclaim , ductive of injury, and are perhaps benefi- for no sooner does the farmer secure oue cial.
Without manure the results are crop than he cominences to sow
a
new
favourable. In England , 32 cases suffered one ; and his efforts in autumn are exerted much, for 96 which escaped ; in Scotland to prepare as much land to sow with wheat 1 suffered for 11 that escaped ; in Ireland as he possibly can. 1 for 7 ; and in Wales 1 for 2 : the whole
giving 35 cases of suffering for 116 which 4843. We left the working of summer escaped. Nothing is discernible in favour fallow after the land was dunged, (4172 ;) of salt ; nor does sea -weed indicate a better effect.
The conclusion of the
and when it was to receive no lime. It is now our business to finish the summer fal
Gardeners' Chronicle, Feb. and March, 1849. + Thomson's Organic Chemistry - Vegetables,p. 481. I Parliamentary Return , February 12, 1850.
VILLE DE LYON Biblioth . du Palais des Arts
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
404
lowing, by sowing wheat upon the land the dry ameliorated soil upon the surface , so prepared for it. The first process is and accelerate the seed - time considerably. the levelling of the drills which cover the dung, by harrowing them across a double
4848. The land being thus prepared for
tine; and, if the land is strong clay, the seed, the variety of wheat intended to another double tine will be required across be sown just now should have been selected the first one. in time from your own stock, or purchased from that of another. It is quite possible 4844. After the land has been harrowed for a part of the new crop to be thrashed level, the root weeds that may bave been out for seed in time for sowing in autumn ; brought to the surface should be removed, but those who sow early in autumn will but the surface weeds will soon wither in not have the opportunity of procuring the sun and air.
their seed in this way.
4845. The land should then be feered ,
4849. Some farmersprefer sowing wheat
to be gathered up ( 749 ,) into ridges ; and if thoroughly drained , or naturally dry, one gathering -up will make a good seedbed ; but wet land, to lie safe all winter in the ridge, should be twice gathered -up,
on fallow land in September ; and where there are much bare fallow and strong land, that month may be a proper season to begin. The objection is, that, should the later part of autumn and the early part of
(764.) The second gathering -up, how- winter prove mild, the wheat plant will be ever, should not be ploughed immediately come proud ( 2660,) before cold and frosty after the first, but such an interval of time should elapse as to allow the land to subside, and the subsidence will be much accelerated by rain. 4846. Should the fallow land have had
weather set in to check its growth. Octo ber, in my estimation, is the best period for sowing wheat, as it avoids the risk of proud growth, and also of bad weather setting in at the latter part of November, after which no wheat should be sown
until the
the dung spread upon the surface, and spring. ploughed in with feered ridges, the feerings 4850. But although the new crop were had been made to leave a half ridge at the side of the field, (4170 ;) which, now that secured in good time to afford seed for the land is about to be gathered-up for sowing in autumn, it is betterto sow old the seed -furrow , is converted into a whole wheat than new in antumn.
New wheat
ridge, to be uniform with those of the will germinate quicker in the most favour rest of the field .
able circumstances of soil and weather
than old ; but it is more easily affected by 4847. But a practice has come into use bad weather, and by insects ; and in con
since the introduction of the grubber, fig. sequence its braird is generally neither so 215, which possesses advantages on strong thick nor so strong as from old wheat land, in certain circumstances, which is, to that is, from seed of the preceding year ; put the sown wheat into the ground with for very old wheat may bave lost its vita the grubber, upon the gathered -up ridges lity, even in the stack , or have been much
which had covered in the dung of the fal- injured by the weevil, (1859, ) in the low, instead of gathering -up the land again granary. for a seed -furrow ; and to finish the work with a double- tine harrowing along the 4851. The varieties of wheat well suited
ridges.
When the grubber is contem- to be sown in autumn are so numerous
plated to be so used, the land should have that a few may be found adapted for been feered for gathering -up in the summer every locality. Hunter's wheat has long fallow , so as to finish with full ridges over been a favourite in Scotland, on all
the field, as the contemplated grubbing classes of soils. The Chidham white cannot alter the form of ridges. When a
wheat is a favourite in many parts of the
tough waxy clod is expected to arise on ploughing strong land, rather wet below, for a seed -furrow , or when unsettled weather prevails, the grubber will keep
kingdom , on the best loams. Both belong to the class of wheat represented in fig. 177 .. Upon inferior soils it is always safest to sow a red wheat, which, although
405
SOWING WHEAT.
realising a lower price in the market, will Wherever the land is harrowed as fine as always yield a larger increase. Of the red meal, in autumn, the rain never fails to wheats the Danzig creeping has long stood batter its surface into a crust, and the frost
the test as a bardy, tillering, and prolific to heave it up in spring like fermented variety. This wheat belongs to the second dough, in which action the plants are class, represented in fig. 178. As no spe- raised along with the soil, and left on the cific rule can be laid down for a special surface almost drawn out by the roots, after
variety of wheat to be sown in any given the subsidence of the earth on the frost locality, you must exercise your own judg- becoming thawed by sunshine (2660.) Such ment, on heariug the opinions of farmers in an effect can only occur where a consider
your neighbourhood, as to the varieties able quantity ofmoisture, readyto be acted on by frost, has been retained by the sub soil inmediately under the surface-soil. 4852. Wheat sown in autumn is pickled Draining is the only safeguard against in the same manner as that sown in spring, the young wheat plant being thrown out by frost from the ground in that particular ( 2308.) best suited to your own locality.
manner.
4853. Wheat may be sown broadcast, drilled, and dibbled in autumn, and there
4856. When land is naturally strong
is no peculiarity in exercising either process at this season . Sowing broadcast is done by the hand, as has already been described in ( 2319 ) and (2320,) and with a machine in ( 2333) and ( 2334. ) The drilling is effected by the machines represented in figs. 205, and 206. The dibbling may be executed by the machines
enough to grow wheat, and yet is some what soft, and as wet below as to make it probable that the plant will be thrown out, ( 2660 ,) ribbing with the small plough ( 2626 ) and ( 2628) is a better mode of ploughing it, to make it retain the plant, than common ploughing. The wbeat is sown broadcast over the ribs, and harrowed
represented in figs. 291 and 292. Broad- in with only a double tine along, ( 2696. ) cast sowing is still most common in Scot- The ribbing gives the seed a deeper bed land.
Drilling is the usual method in in the soil than mere harrowing, and the
England, as also in the neighbourhood of plant a deeper hold in spring ; and it has one advantage in common with the grubber, of sowing permits the surface weeds being of moving only the dry surface soil for the
large towns in Scotland, because that form
most easily destroyed by mechanical means seed-bed . Ribbing can only be practised, amongst growing crops.
however, on land that has been ridged up for some time, as the small plough goes
4854. The finishing processes of harrow- too deep, and makes the drills too wide on
ing, described from ( 2352) to ( 2358 ,) and new -plougbed land.
Ribbing is never
of water -furrowing (2361 ,) are conducted attempted on land that has not been ridged in the same manner now as in spring ; but up, the small plough being unfit to turn up with this difference in autumn , when water
land in a hardened state.
is more likely to stand upon the land, that gaw - cuts ( 779) must be made with the
4857. Another mode of preventing the
spade, fig. 237, in hollows on the surface, and across headridges ; for, bowever thoroughly drained land may be channels must be provided to carry large falls of rain quickly away .
throwing out of the wheat plant on soft land, otherwise well adapted for wheat, is, first, to feer the land into ridges, fig. 19, sow the seed broadcast between the feer-, ings, cover it with a light seed - furrow ,
with the common plough,either gathering 4855. As regards the harrowing, it is up ( 749,) or casting it (755, ) according of importance to leave the wheat land all
to the texture of the soil, and leave the
winter with a round large clod upon the land unbarrowed and rough all winter. surface.
Such clods afford shelter from
4858. As the ground is desired to be when gradually mouldered by frost, also left in a rough state all winter, no use wind and frost to the young plants, and,
serve to increase the depth of the loose soil, and give the roots a better hold of it .
ought to be made of the roller in autumn .
406
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
4859. The land that has grown beans the subsidence ofthe land before being sown is the next sown with wheat in autumn with wheat, because that plant always after the bare fallow, with the exception thrives better in soil in a firm state than
perhaps of the small space which hadbeen when it is as loose as the plough leaves it. occupied by the summer tares, and which may be in the same field with the beans,
4863. Wheat is sown in autumn in a very
so that both may form one break to be now slovenly manner in many parts of Ireland. The sown with wheat. The land after beans and land is sown in the state in which it is left
tares is usually feered and gathered -upon taking up the potatoes, without being
(749) for the seed -furrow at once, and sown ploughed , grubbed, or dug, and the seed is shovelfuls of earth taken from the immediately, as the season is faradvanced covered trencheswith orshoughs between the lazy-beds or
by thetime the bean -crop is carried in ridges. Thelarge crops grown after such treat and stacked ; but the seed -bed is in a better
ment are surprising. The deep trenches formed
state for wheat when the soil is allowed between the narrow spaces of ground forming lazy -beds keep the land dry all winter, and to subside for a few days before the seed the this may be one means of safety to the crop from is sowu .
the injurious effects of undrained land. In Martin Doyle's opinion, this mode of sowing wheat
4860. Where the soil is strong, and the is better than the English one of sowing upon ridges sufficiently round, the grubber may the ploughed land, because it “ gives far better
be used on the bean -stubble, as on the fallow -land, to let the wheat, sown broadcast, into the ground ; for which purpose a 4 -horse grubber will be required. The grubber succeeds in such a case very well, as far asthe wheat is concerned,and it
and deeper covering to the seed, and thus pre vents the plants from being thrown out in the
the spring, as frequently happens after severe frost, and when the seed has been imperfectly earthed by the harrow ,andalso allows a mould ing to theplantsin spring, if the ridgesbethen harrowed down, as they ought to be, previous to heavy rolling , which is a most important opera
has the advantage, in a late autuinn, of get- tion." ting through the work expeditiously ; but on strong soil, not thorough drained, and 4864. in a comparatively flat state, grubbing is not the best preparation for wheat on bean-stubble ; because the seed incurs
“ It is very common also in Ireland, to sow wheat broadcast on lea, ploughed with as flat and thin a furrow as possible, and to cover the seed by means of the spade and shovel, from
the furrows previously ploughed as deeply as
for the purpose of yielding earth enough. the risk of rotting in such soil, left in possible, that state all winter, and the soil itself is The clover leas,as well as the rich old pastures, latter universally treated chosen almost wherethis in way Ire isthe in thiscrop for wheat, apt to become sour, from which effect are
the land would scarcely recover, even if land.” * bare -fallowed the succeeding year. Soil 4865. I have said that wheat sown in autumn thus grubbed requires of barrowing only a requires to be pickled to protect the crop from double tine along the ridges. smut,
as well as that which is sown in spring , (2307 ,) and that arsenic is a dangerous ingre
4861. The land that has grown potatoes, dient to employ in any operation of the farm , after which wheat is usually sown, ( 2699 ) ( 4785.) In corroboration of the comparative
must be ploughed for a seed - furrow, as upon inefficacy ofarsenic as a pickle for wheat, I the following account of experiments the drills in which the potatoes were may adduce made on purpose to set that point at rest.
grown the grubber cannot be employed “ Public attention ,” says Mr E. H. Durden,
to advantage, that implement leaving the surface in the same form it found it. Only one furrow is given after potatoes, and it is a gathering-up, ( 749) if the soil is at all strong,and a casting (755) if of light
Dublin,“ having been called to the employment of arsenicin agriculture, by a letteraddressed by Dr Fuller , of St George'sHospital, to some of the medical journals, I forward you some remarks on the subject, containing the results of
the investigation of a commission appointed at
texture. It is better that the soil have Rouen in December 1842, having for its object
time to subside a little, although the usual to determine the best process of preventing the in wheat, and to ascertain whether other practice is to sow the wheat upon it as smut means less dangerous than arsenic and sulphate soon as it is ploughed. of copper (both of which are extensively em ployed in Great Britain ,) were productive of
4862. I have frequently recommended equally good results. The labours of this com * Martin Doyle's Practical Husbandry - art. Wheat, p. 501 .
SOWING WHEAT. mission extended over the years 1843, 1844, and 1845, and the experiments were repeated two years following on the farm of M. Fauchet, one
of the commission, at Boisguillaume, in the department of the Seine Inferieure. My friend M.Girardin, Professor of Chemistry at Rouen, and corresponding memberof the Institute, took a very active part as a member of the commission , and drew up a report on the subject, a copy of which he presented to me, and to which I am
407
decided beneficial action than that which they possessed alone ; for instance, lime then becomes very efficacious, and sulphate of copper produces better results than when employed singly : that arsenic does not possess anything like the de structive action on the smut which is generally supposed : lastly, that the mode of steeping the grain in a preparation of sulphate of soda and lime is really very efficacious. "
indebted for the information I now forward to
4867. It is interesting as well as useful to
you. As long ago as the year 1779, M. Duhamel
ascertain if the different plans of pickling the
du Monceau, in his Elements of Agriculture, wheat exert an influence on the produce of the noticed the employmentof arsenic by the farmers of France for the prevention of smut ; and whilst speaking of the dangers arising from the use of arsenic for this purpose , expressly points out
grain and the weight of the straw ; and the conclusions drawn from the results obtained were, “ that in all respects it is advantageous to enploy only sound wheat for seed : that the
the dangers arising from the partridges, pigeons, wheatsleastproductive ofgrain were those which &c., eating the poisoned seeds, and thus endan-
were steeped in arsenic, lime and salt, and lime
gering thelives ofthose who used them for food. alone : that the wheats most productive of grain It would appear that, in the 10 years from 1830 to 1840, there had occurred in France 235 public
were those which were washed in water treated
with sulphate of copper, sulphate of copper and
accusations of poisoning, out of which number salt, sulphate of soda and lime : if the washing 110 were against individuals connected with with water was favourable to the production of agricultural pursuits; and it was considered that grain , its weight is remarkably diminished : the this arose from the readiness with which they heaviest wheat of the same bulk or volume is that
were enabled to obtain poisons, especially arsenic, which has not received any preparation, and next for the purpose of steeping grain ," (4711.) to that the wheat treated with sulphate of soda . ” 4866. The means used for testing their efficacy 4868. Now , as sulphate ofcopper is as poisonous in protecting wheat from smut, were — wheat as arsenic, it ought not to be used ; and sulphate gathered before arriving at maturity whilst the of soda, glauber salts, being innocuous, should perisperm was still in a milky state : unripe be preferred ; and, when associated with lime, wheat gathered when the perisperm was solidi- it proved an almost infallible remedy. But as
fied, but when the epidermis was still green : in no case did the crop escape smut when the wheat gathered when the grain and ear were seed employed was ripe, which is the usual state yellow , but when the grain might still be cut of seed wheat, especially for sowing in autumn , with the nail : wheat gathered when the grains it may be said that there is in reality no specific had acquired their hardness and transparency : or radical and infallible remedy for smut. perfectly ripe wheat, not smutty, nor having re- The conclusions on the entire experiments are : ceived any preparation : smutty wheat washed “ That it is best not to sow seed without steep in pure water : smutty wheat plunged for two ing : that it is best to make use of the sulphate hours in a solution of sulphate of copper and salt :
of soda and lime process, inasmuch as it is more
smutty wheat prepared with sulphate of copper
simple and economical, and in no way injurious
alone : smutty wheat prepared with arsenic :
to the health of the sowers, or inimical to the
smutty wheat prepared with recently slaked lime : smutty wheat prepared with lime and salt : smutty wheat prepared with sulphate of soda
public health, and that it yields the most pro ductive and soundest wheat : that as arsenic, sulphate of copper, verdigris, and other poisonous
and lime. Of all these means none prevented preparations can be advantageously replaced by smut but the first four, with wheat gathered sulphate of soda and lime, the use of the poisonous before it had become perfectly ripe. The re- preparations should be interdicted by the Govern maining are placed below in the order of their ment.” efficacy : Sulphate of copper and salt. Sulphate of copper alone, Sulphateof soda and lime.
4869. With regard to the use of sulphate of soda, perhaps 1 lb. dissolved in 2 quarts of water would answer for 4 bushels of wheat, and the
Lime and salt, Arsenic .
grain then dried with powdered quicklime.
Washing with pure water.
4870. In using old wheat for seed, the pro bability will be that many grains will have been deprived of their kernels by the wheat weevil,
Lime alone.
Hence " that sulphate of copper is one of the most powerful means of preservation from smut : that lime produces but very little effect, and its
use is even less advantageous than simple washing of the seed in water : that cominon salt exerts a very marked influence, as the substances with which it is associated acquire a more
Calandra granaria. In steeping the wheat in
the baskets in the process of pickling, it is a good precaution with old wheat to stir up the grain in each basket with a stick, and skim off all the grains that float to the top, which the empty husks will readily do.
* Gardener's Chronicle, 6th January 1849.
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
408
4871. It is said that “ in granaries the perfect insect may be destroyed by sorting the grain into conical heaps, when the beetles cluster at the top, and may be taken away in great quan tities."
I have observed it somewhere stated ,
that boards covered with pitch suspended in granaries will inevitably drive the weevils away ; and to keep them away the boards have only to be repainted with the pitch. The remedy, being a simple one, might beeasily tried .
8. d .
Seed wheat ,31 tenths ( .375 ) ofa bushel, at 5s. per bushel,
Time of a woman hoeing ruts on the drill,'7 hours, at 10d . per day of 10 hours , Timeof aman sowing the seed by hand, *5 hours, at ls . 8d . a day , Time of a man andhorse covering the seed ,
1 103 07 0 10
3
hours , at 8s. per day,
Cost per acre,
2!
6
6
13
0
4872. Mr Hay of Whiterigg in Roxburghshire This mode would be much better performed if the continued his experiments with dibbling, ( 3533 ) rut were made on the top of the drill, and the with the view of ascertaining the comparative seed sown in it by a machine similar to the bean expense of sowing broadcast, in drills, and with drill, fig. 219 . the dibble. For this purpose he divided in the 4877. The last portion of ground, containing autumn of 1849 two acres of summer -fallowed land (4164) into four portions, each of which was manured with 8 cart -loads of well-rotted farm-
half an acre, was drilled in the same manner as
yard manure, and ploughed in on 4 ridges of 15
wheat sown on the top of the drills with Newing ton's dibble, at the rate of 4 tenths of a bushel
feet in width each .
the last mentioned portion into 30 drills, and ( .4) of seed to the acre, and the cost of sowing was
4873. One of these portions, containing half an acre , was ribbed (2626) into 40 ribs at 18 inches apart, and sown with wheat by the hand (2319,) at the rate of 11 bushel to the acre, and har-
rowed in the usual way, (2352.) the sowing was as follows :
The expense of
Cost per acre,
per bushel ,
1
0
Time of a man dibbling, 44 hours, at is så. per day of 10 hours,
093 95
d.
Cost per acre , .
37
3 104
Time of a man and a pair of horses, sowing, harrowing, and water- furrowing, 4 horses at 8s. per day of ten hours,
d.
8.
Seed wheat, 2 tenths (-2) of a bushel, at 5s.
1 ..
Sced wheat , 74 tenths ( 775) of a bushel, at 5s. per bushel,
as follows :
3 24 7
1
14
2
4878. Some interesting results were obtained by Mr F. King, Thedam , in Essex, on a similar species of experiment. The following are the results of planting 1 grain of wheat to 9 in one hole, allowing 4 holes to the square foot, and taking 14 square feet of ground for the experi of ears No.
the of Weight , ears
always be found a very convenient one on a farm .
. n cor
grains of No. .in holes 56
No. grains of square the foot .in
in grains of No.
ench hole .
No. 14 in holes of feet ,and square the to holes 4
obtained by having a measure which contains the tenth part of a bushel, and such a measure will
foot . square
ment :
4874. The tenths of a bushel are most easily
4875. Another of the portions, containing half an acre , was also ribbed with 40 ribs as the
above lot was, and sown with wheat, on the tops of the ribs with Newington's dibble, fig. 292, at the rate of 5 $ tenths of a bushel ( .525 ) of seed to the acre ; and the expense of the sowing was as follows : &.
Seed wheat, 24 tenths (275 ) of a bushiel , at 58. per bushel, Time of a man dibbling, 64 hours, at 1s. 8d . a day of 10 hours,
d.
1 45 1
Ib . O,
56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56
12
56 112 168
16
226
20 24 28
280 336 392 408 504
4 8
36
205 250 286 300 304 301 358 352
244
3 64 3
94
3 111 3 124 3 13 3 6
3 115 3
2
2
2
1
It will be observed in these results that 7 grains 2 54 Cost per acre ,
4 11
to the hole give the largest number of ears of wheat, 358 in the 14 square feet; but it will be
found that that number does not weigh heavier than the produce from 3 grains in the hole ; and ,
4876. A third portion of ground, containing half an acre, was drilled up in the double way (2397) into 30 drills at 24 inches apart, and
besides, the 3 lb. 11 } oz, weight of the ears from the 7 grains in the hole is in a somewhat preca
sowed with wheat along the top of the drill in a
3 lb. 6 oz. and 3 lb. 2 oz. respectively. The heaviest weight of ears , 3 lb. 13 oz. from 5 grains
rut made by a field -worker with a hand -hoe, fig.
rious position, as the weight above and below it is
266 ,at the rate of 7ļ tenths of a bushel (.75 ) of in a hole, is also in the precarious position of seed to the acre .
as follows :
The expense of sowing was
being next to 3 lb. 6 oz.
So that on the whole
I would prefer the produce from 4 grains in the
* Maunder's Treasury of Natural History - art. Weevil.
SOWING BARLEY.
409
hole, as being likely the steadiest result of any, barley from ( 2690 ,) ( 2693.) The finishing since it is as much as 3 lb. 12 oz., and it is situ process is the same as described in ( 2696 ;)
ated in the safe position of beingsupported by and in (4858 ) is mentioned the state in
3 lb. 11 } oz. and 3 lb. 12 oz. the high weightsis of When the seed as thickly planted as 9 to the which the ground should be left for the hole, both the number of ears and their weight, winter. When sown after beans, I refer diminish very rapidly .
to ( 4859) and (4860,) and after potatoes to (4861.)
4883. Barley which has stood the win ter produces a much beavier grain than 4879. I mentioned in (2702) that when sown in spring. barley cannot stand the winter in Scot land as wheat does, but that it does so in 4884. Barley may be sown in antumn ON SOWING BARLEY IN AUTUMN .
the warm calcareous soils in the south of
as a forage plant for early cutting in
spring, for which purpose it should be sown as early as the end of August orthe 4880. When the winters are mild and beginning of September. Thäer mentions
England.
the spring dry, as in the south of France, a variety of barley, named the Siberian or Italy, and Spain, or where the snow lies quadrangular naked barley, Hordeum deep all winter, and the sun is powerful coeleste, which possesses properties of immediately after the melting of the snow this nature to a remarkable degree — as in spring, as in Russia, Poland, and North when sown early, like autumnal corn , it America, barley may be sown in winter. Wherever the winter. consists of alter
has been cut several times in the course of the summer, and in the succeeding year
nate snows and thaws, and the early part yielded a good crop ; but he regards of spring is wet, as is the case in England, this account of it as exaggerated . This Scotland, and Ireland, winter barley is apt variety requires a rich, fertile, well-tilled to suffer from those vicissitudes, and the soil, and “ it is distinguished from other
spring -sown barley becomes a much more barley by its plants being fuller, more certain crop. In the south of Europe, barley bushy, and putting forth more blades, even is grown for the horses ; but no suchinduce- when both kinds are grown on the samesoil, ment exists for its growth in winter in and the plants sown at equal distances from this country, where the horses are better each other. The stems which bear the fed on oats. ears are much thicker than those of large
barley. The ear is longer than that of 4881. The six and four-rowed , or small barley, and contains a greater number square-headed barley, is what is termed of grains." * These are all valuable pro winter barley , so that the Scotch bere or perties in a forage plant. Its grain is
bigg, fig. a 180, should be the sort best reckoned as valuable as rye for bread and distillation , suited for sowing in autumn. 4882. If you determine to sow barley
4885. I observed in 1849 a rather sin
instead of wheat after beans, potatoes , or gular practice in the neighbourhood of tares,—for no one would think of substitut- Edinburgh, in a field belonging to a cow feeder, who bad sown it with the ordinary fallow — the culture is precisely the same flat-eared barley, and as the ground was as for wbeat described in (4845,) when the rich the crop grew luxuriantly. Instead land is to be feered for ploughing ; or in of allowing it to grow , he cut the herbage ( 4847,) when the grnbber, fig. 215, is to for green food for his cows, and then gave be used instead, or in (4856,) when the the aftermath liberty to grow for grain, land is to be ribbed instead of ploughed or which it did in about three weeks after ing the former for the latter on the bare
grubbed. Barley may be sown broadcast the general barvest, and yet in good time by hand or machine, drilled by machine, or to be reaped and carried in good order.
dibbled by machine, as instanced in the The latest aftermath was thin on the case of wheat in ( 4853,) and of spring ground, but that from the first cutting was * Thäer's Principles of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 430.-Shaw and Johnson's translation .
410
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
a fair crop ; and had the whole been cut for it is better to take a green crop after the forage about the same time, the crop would stubble, such as turnips or mangold -wur no doubt have been nniformly good. zel; and wbere it is strong, beans are a much better crop in every tespect. 4886. “ In genial climates, such as Egypt,
Barbary, and the south of Spain,” says Mr Rham, two crops of barley may be reaped in
4890. Thäer mentions a practice in a
the same year - one in spring, from seed sown in few places in Germany, where “ the far the preceding autumn ; and one in autumn from mers are in the habit of covering a field a spring sowing. This explains a passage in sown with pease with a layer of straw ,
Exodus, chap. ix. v .31, where the effect of the and then leaving the pease to make their hail is mentioned which desolated Egypt, in con
way through it, to vegetate. By this means the weeds are all stifled , the soil barley were smitten, for the barley was in the kept moist ; and those stems which fall ear, and the flax was bolled ; but the wheat and to the ground prevented from rotting. sequence of the refusal of Pharaoh to let the children of Israel depart,- The flax and the
the rye were not smitten, for they were not
come up . Commentators agree that this event happened in March ; the first crop of barley was
Where there is aplentiful supply of straw
but the wheat and the rye sown in spring were
manure.”+
this may be done with advantage, and therefore nearly ripe, and the tax ready to pull : the straw will afterwards be available as not yet sufficiently advanced in growth to be in jured by the hail.” * ON SOWING PEASE IN AUTUMN .
4891. Pease may be sown in autumn as an early forage crop in the ensuing spring, which is the most legitimate use this crop can be sown at this season .
“ In
4887. Pease are not sown in the field Flanders, pease, beans, tares, aud barley in autumn in Scotland, though they are in are sometimes sown thick together, and gardens ; but they are sown in autumn in form an abundant green crop, which is cut the field in parts of England . as soon as the flower is past, and given to the cows and pigs, which thrive well on 4888. Although manure is never given to this succulent food. The surface of the pease sown in spring, (2459) it may be ground is so completely shaded, that no
afforded inmoderate quantity to that sown weeds can spring up, and as there has On clean oat stubble the
been no seed formed , little is taken from
manure, ten cart-loads to the acre, should be spread on the surface, and ploughed in with the common plough ; and in every third furrow the seed should be
the soil . The land is immediately plough ed up, and sown with another crop, such as potatoes and turnips, which sometimes are off the ground in time to allow wheat
sown in the bottom of the furrow by means
to be sown the same year.”
in autumn.
of the bean-drill, fig. 219. The ploughedsur face would be the better for a double tine
4892. Professor Johnston mentions an instance
of the harrow , to close all the openings of a decided discrimination made by the slug in attack on a field of winter pease . “ I lately left by the ploughing, and to protect the its saw ,” he says , “ at the home-farm of Lord St seed and young plants from the frost. The John, at Meshborne in Huntingdon, a field of crop may be expected to ripen a little winter pease, sown in November 1848, which earlier than if it were sown in spring,
had been all treated and manured alike, but on
andthe land worked, cleaned , and manured one half of which the seed sown was the early again for sowing wheat upon it in autumn . maple - - a common field -pea ; on the other half Ringwood marrow dwarf — a white pea . The The after culture of the pea sown now the latter was attacked at Christmas by the slugs,
is the same as that in spring, described and in great part devoured , so as to require fill
in (3987,) and its reaping and carrying ing up with fresh seed; while the former - the the same as in ( 4576.)
grey pea — was untouched by them. There may have been some other reason besides the differ. ence of variety the circumstances limited attack of liabilities the slug ; obviousforthat
4889. Such a course of cropping, how- but it is
or
ever, affords no advantage to the farmer, of this kind may materially modify the effect of for when the soil is light enough for pease , chemical applications made to our crops, and * Rham's Dictionary of the Farm - art. Barley, p. 21. + Thäer's Principles of Agriculture, vol. ii. p . 466 - Sbaw and Johnson's translation.
# Rham's Dictionary ofthe Farm -- art. Pea, p. 378.
SOWING MESLIN .
411
may be the often unsuspected cause of discordan- jured for the others : at all events, if the cies in our results.” * I am not surprised at the seasons of their maturity are not exactly discrimination evinced bytheslugs, as the gar- the same, the entire crop must be reaped den pease, both in the straw and fruit, are much sweeter to the taste than any of the field
when the plant which grows the more pease, which have all a bitter harsh taste, as vigorously, or ripens the more quickly, long as they are unripe.
bas attained the stage of maturity. In
such a case the other plants may ripen after they have been cut down, as does ON SOWING SEVERAL VARIETIES OF GRAIN buckwheat; or they may be useful although TOGETHER. not attained to full maturity, as in the case with oats. Thus, so many consider 4893. On the continent of Europe it is ations which amount to difficulties attend
not an uncommon practice to grow dif- the growth of mixed crops that it is bet ferent sorts of the cereal, and ofthe legu- ter not to attempt it. Were the object minous crops together, and to reap them merely to obtain a rank growth of forage, together. That practice is studiously two or three varieties of plants may be
avoided in this country, the desire being grown together as exhibited in (4891 ;) to have every species of grain as free of but this entirely misses the end aimed at admixture from other sorts as possible. to obtain a superior material for bread, I have heard it recommended to sow more
or food for horses, as well as a greater re
than one variety of wheat together, be- turn. cause bakers aver that the four is in
a better state to make good bread from a 4895. The most common mixtures mixture of two or three kinds of flour grown on the Continent are wheat and rye
than from one kind. I believe there is for bread , which is said to be agreeable much truth in this opinion of the bakers; and nutritious, and the mixture is called
but their object would be more certainly meslin. Flat barley and vats are grown obtained were the varieties of wheat together, the oats always predominating, known to produce the best flour when and both are said to give a large yield. mixed, mixed together in proper pro- Some persons add spriug rye to their portions before being ground into flour, mixture on lightsoils. The most common than if the same varieties of wheat were mixture of cereals and legumes is that of
sown in those proportions in the field ; oats and vetches, which makes good food for, let us sow whatever seeds we please in for cattle when prepared with the chaff
the field, we cannot be certain of obtaining cutter, whether the crop be allowed to from them returns in any given proportion ripen or be mown in a green state ; and to those sown, and the uncertainty in- both barley and spring-wheat are also creases as the varieties of the seed sown sown with vetches. Pease in small quan tities are associated with spring-wheat, and are increased in numbers.
the quantity of wheat, it is said, is not there
4894. It is quite correct in theory to by diminished. On sandy soils, pease are expect an enlarged yield by sowing dif- associated with spring-rye. On calcareous, ferent varieties of grain together, since clayey, and meagre soils, it is usual to sow different varieties of plants take different beans amongst oats. A mixtnre of beans, kinds and quantities of ingredients from vetches, and oats are grown together for soil in different proportions; and the the purpose of a green food for cattle, and the theory is the more strikingly illustrated goes by the name of beans. It is cut by growing plants together of very dif- when the seeds begin to form , and in some ferent natures, such as the cereals and countries the horses are entirely fed on it.
legumes. Experience supports the theory The character of the mixture is determined as being correct thus far : but then , to by the nature of the soil : in clayey soils
obtain the full results of the theory in the beans are increased in quantity, and practice, the different sorts of grain grown in the lighter soils more vetches are used. together must reach maturity at the saine Vetches are also mixed with buckwheat,
time, otherwise one variety will be in- when the crop is to be cut in a green state.t * Johnston's Experimental Agriculture, p. 16 .
+ Thäer's Principles of Agriculture,vol. ii. p. 486-9 - Shaw and Johnson's translation .
412
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
4896. Some farmers in Scotland sow become indifferent, the red wheat pre
different varieties of oats together, and oats vails ; and the white wheat becomes red only of all the cereal grains. The prac- after a few repetitions of sowing it in tice had probably originated in some va- unfavourable circumstances. rieties of that grain having occupied the
ground too sparsely. The Georgian oat, for example , which was brought into notice rather more than twenty years ago,
ON PLANTING POTATOES IN AUTUMN.
always came up and grew thin , whatever 4898. Amongst the expedients sug quantity of seeds were sown ; and even the Hopetoun oat, though otherwise a gested for evading the potato disease, none good variety, indicates a similar habit of has been more confidently recommended growth . To fill up the spaces thus left in than planting the sets in autumn ; but the
the ground by the Hopetoun oat, other suggestion has been but partially adopted . varieties are sown with it in certain pro- The planting of such a crop in autumn portions, according to the situation and cannot, in truth, be practised everywhere,
natureofthe compound ordinarycircumstances; because potatoesin being not only a green , is superior to soileither and of the the single ones.crop I porextensively but a fallow crop, and a green crop being periment to a greater length than Mr always taken after one of grain, the stub
know no fariner who has carried this ex-
Finnie, Swanston, near Edinburgh ; and ble of the grain crop is generally not in the following table shows the results of a fit state to receive the manure, before undergoing the process of cleansing by some of his experiments : means of the plough, the barrow , and Bushels. the grubber, as the land for a fallow Potato oats alone, produced, per acre , 59 Hopetoun , Early Angus, Kildrummie , Dun ,
Blainslie, Grey Angus, Sandy - seed changed, Sandy - seed unchanged , 5 of Hopetoun and 1of Kildrummie produced , per acre ,
52
62 62
61 56 51 49
45 68
5 of Hopetoun and 1 of Sandy, 5 of Hopetoun and 1 of Early Angus,
64 61
5 of Potato and 1 of Early Angus, 5 of Potato and 1 of Sandy,
53
crop ought to be ; and , in Scotland at least, too short time intervenes from the harvest of the grain crops to the occurrence of bad weather in the early part of winter, to permit the land to be cleaned in a satis factory manner. Hence very few cases can occur in which the stubble may be manured in October, for a crop that is to occupy so important a position as every
green crop does. This is one reason , and it is a sufficient one, why so few cases of autumnal planting takes place in the 53 potato ; and the obstacle to it is to be re It is thus seen that mixtures with the gretted, since in the few cases attempted Hopetoun produced larger crops than did the result has provedadvantageous. Out
the Hopetoun alone, and their effects were of 64 English and Welsh returns of the crop of 1849, 53 were in its favour and only 11 against it ; and no bad cases were
the opposite upon the potato oat.*
4897. We constantly read in the foreign corn reports of mixed wheats, the different grades being four - White, Highmixed, Red mixed, and Red wheat. The White is a mixture of pure white wheats. The High mixed has a very small mixture of red. The Red mixed has perhaps
reported in Scotland , while there were 4 good. The conclusion arrived at was, that autumn planting was a greater safe guard from disease than that of early spring. In England, the autumn planted, with that of the months of January and February , was better in the ratio of13 to
a third of red wheat in it ; and the Red 11 ; and in Scotland , March may be taken, wheat is a mixture of red wheats.
In
after the autumn, as the best month, the
Upper Poland, where the finest wheat is ratio of loss being only 7 per cent. The raised, it is nearly all white, or all High general conclusion over the kingdom , in mixed ; and as the soil and climate 1849, was that the earlier the potato * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1850, p. 316.
EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.
413
planting is performed the better, and the The stubble should get one furrow with the plough, in the contrary way the ridges are formed. Harrowing along and 4899. A rather unexpected corrobora- across the ridges a double tine should
later the worse.
tion bas been given , in 1850, of a curious then be given , and any weeds that may and important factobserved in 1846 — that have been brought to the surface by it diseased potatoes may be safely and ad- should be gathered off. If there is time,
vantageously used for seed. Mr Benjamin the grubber, fig. 215, should be used across Smith of Wokingham , Berkshire, planted very much diseased sets of ash -leaved kidneys on the 18th of March , in drills 5 inches deep, and the crop was taken up sound and ripe on the 2d of August, with-
the ridges to cut into pieces the furrows made by the plough ; but should there not be time for this efficient operation, the land must be drilled up in the double way ( 2397) in preparation for the
out disease ; while sound sets of asb -leaved dung.
The farther operations go on as
kidneys and others, a mixed lot, were stated in (2745) and succeeding para planted in February as before, and on graphs. being taken up in August, were found to be much diseased . Very rotten late po-
4902. I think it advisable to use whole
tatoes were planted in November 1849, potatoes for seed instead of cut sets, in the 64 inches deep, covered first with two autumn ; for which the small ones will
inches of earth, then by a layer of half- answer the purpose well, ( 2739,) and the
decayed weeds, and lastly by earth, and time will be saved that would have been the crop was taken up inthebeginning of occupied in the cutting. The whole po- · tatoes must be planted in the drill at wider Wokingham , Abraham Lewis, experienced intervals than cut sets are , —from 10 to the same results on the 8th of August 12 inches asunder.
August without disease. A blacksmith in 1850.
4903. Much attention is required at this
4900. It is the opinion of Mr Smith season, after committing any crop to the that diseased sets are much better for ground, to have surface channels cut with the spade, (779 ) wherever there is a soun rot when the live part has begun to hollow in which the least chance of water grow ; the latter are apt to remain hard, may stand for a time, as also across the fleshy, and brittle, even when the new lower headridge into the adjoining ditch,
planting than sound ones. The former
crop is ripe ; and he thinks tbat, in
or outfall of the field .
the former case, there is an effort of nature to throw off the
disease .
On
this Professor Lindley remarks, that
ON THE EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.
“ it is possible that the morbid matter
which causes disease may disappear in the general decay of the tuber in the one case, and may remain unchanged in the other, prepared to seize upon the haulm as soon as it is ready to receive its influence. At
4904. For a very long period in the practice of agriculture, no other manure was put upon the soil but what was ob tained from the straw of the cereal crops,
from the leaves, bulbs, and tubers of the
least, no better explanation of this curious green crops, and from the dung voided by
fact presents itself to us at present : but the different kinds of animals supported
the fact itself is certainly, in practice, very upon the farm , as also the materials ob valuable. " *
tained from the streets, and houses, and stables and byres of towns. The manure
4901. The method of planting potatoes in autumn is precisely the same as in spring, which has been particularly described from ( 2745) to ( 2754 ;) but there
made upon the farm was, and has always been emphatically termed, farmyard manure, and that derived from towns was called street or police manure. Those
will not be time to stir the land so much
manures served to support the heart of
as is recommended in ( 2733) and ( 2734.) the soil, as long as farmers were contented * Gardeners’ Chronicle, 17th August, 1850.
414
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
to spread over that part of its surface necessary ingredients referred to are the every year what was made on the farm ; compounds of ammonia and phosphorus. and if more or less manure was thus made, Ammoniacal salts and phosphates thus according to the favourable or unfavour- stand at the head of the list of special able circumstances attending the crops in
manures. It is, no doubt, on account of the
different seasons, the soil received all that valuable properties of those ingredients
was made. It is the practice still what it which render farmyard manure, bone -dust, was then, of the street manure being used and guano so great favourites with far only on the farms in the immediate neigh- mers. bourhood of towns, in lieu of the straw, 4907. But although farmyard dung is the grass and the hay, and the turnips
sold by them to the cowfeeders and not of itself a special manure,such manure stable -keepers in towns. But after the cannot be treated of irrespective of that demand for green crops extended— important material ; for experience bas whether from towns, or from the neces- already proved that their value
evinced
sities of the farm itself, in feeding live more as auxiliaries to farmyard dung than stock to heavier weights or at an earlier in intrinsic properties possessed by them age — other manure to assist that of the selves. The same remark applies also to farmyard was inquired after by farmers at guano and bone-dust, which inthis respect a considerable distance from towns, who stand in the same relation to farmyard knew that no such material could be pro manure as the special manures them cured from towns, but at an unreasonable selves. cost.
It is thus that bone -dust was first
4908. In consequence of the great num employed to extend the turnip culture, and at a later date guano was purchased ber and varieties of the special manures at a high price, to attain the same end. which have been presented to the notice of In prosecution of similar ends, at a still farmers by chemists and others, space will later period, many simple substances have not permit me to relate even a small pro
been used with a view to evolve the peculiar portion ofthe results which have already properties of each of the many varieties of been obtained from their application in plants cultivated ; on which account those multiplied combinations to every species substances have obtained the name of spe- of crop raised on the farm . Suffice it to cial or specific manures, (205. ) examine only the largest results obtained from each of the crops, whether the manure 4905. Let it be understood that I do not was applied singly, or in combination with place farmyard manure, bone-dust, and others, or with farmyard manure. It will guano in the category of special manures, be right, however, at the same time, to
as they all possess properties which bene- show in a distinct manner the relative
fit in a greater and less degree every spe- valne,as manures,of farmyard dung,guano, cies of crop ; nor should I call those bone -dust, and the special manures ; but
manures special which have avowedly before proceeding to state particulars, it been concocted as substitutes for bone-dust is necessary to remind you of the compo and guano. sition of farmyard manure, given in ( 2025 ,) ( 2028, ) and ( 2029,) and of that of the 4906. Time has not yet decided which urine ofanimals in (2094) ( 2096 ) ( 2100)
one of the special manures is the most (2101 ,) and (2102. ) The analysis by beneficial to all the crops, although, doubt- Sprengel, in (2094,) gives the general less, some one does possess that property; composition of the fluid and solid excre nor has experience yet proved whether ments of animals ; and the analyses by
special manures are equally beneficial in Boussingault were evidently made from
all soils, situations, and seasons; but sufficient time has already elapsed to decide, that the special manures in which certain ingredients preponderate are not only more
dripping fresh dung, unlike the state it is usually applied to the soil ; but the analy sis made by Mr Richardson was from farm yard dung as it is applied to the field, and
the most interesting to the beneficial generally than those which is therefore It will be found in the accom for the healthy development of plants. The panying table, where all the constituents
want those constituents, but are necessary farmer.
EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.
415
are conveniently given in proportions to capable of dissolving in water . These observations will, of course, regulate us in one ton of prepared dung.* In one ton .
Water,
1455.104 lb.
Organic matter, containing 16.584 lbs. 553-504
ammonia, Potash ,
7.481 6.317 21.427 4 : 337
Soda , Lime,
Magnesia, Alumina,
trace. trace.
Manganese, Peroxide of iron,
the management of the midden.' When ever any moist organic matter absorbs oxygen, its chemical union with its carbon
gives rise to an increase of temperature, which increase enables the surrounding portions to absorb oxygen more rapidly than they otherwise would do ; these parts in their turn become heated, and thus the
Silica,
4.623 62-585
influence extends through the entire mass,
Carbonic acid, with earths,
11 :393
the amount of heat being proportionable
7.571
Sulphuric acid, Phosphoric acid,
17.468 7.280 1.702
Chlorine, Sand , Carbon ,
1.926
to the size of the mass, its degree of moisture, and quantity of air contained
in its interstices. By careful management you can retard or accelerate the fermenta
7.282
Alkali, and loss,
tion of your 2240-000 lb.
midden' to almost any ex
tent, from scarcely any change taking place, to so great arapidity as toendanger
Any other remarks regarding farmyard the whole taking fire from the heat evolved. manure than what are contained in these The most profitable way for dung to fer
references,supposes the dungto be in the ment is slowly but steadily, so that, bythe best state for applying to the land, which time it is required for use, it will readily
is the sappy rich state, neither too wet cut with a spade like soft cheese, and nor too dry ; the utility of which is thus explained by Dr Henry R. Madden:“ Whenever dead organic matter, either animal or vegetable, is exposed to air in a moist state, it absorbs oxygen, which, by entering into combination with its
exhibit a uniform rich brown colour, and emit no smoke unless the air be very frosty. During fermentation, the azote contained in the various constituents of the dungbill unites with hydrogen, and forms ammonia or hartshorn, which being
carbon, destroys its original composi- very volatile, is apt to escape with the tion, and gives rise to the production of watery vapour and other gaseous products various new compounds, which in their of decomposition. Various means have turn suffer decomposition by means of been of late recommended to prevent this,
fresh supplies of oxygen being absorbed, but none of them appear to me at all satis and so on in a continued series, until the factory, and, I believe, have not as yet
whole mass is reduced to chemical com- given very satisfactory results when ap pounds of such stability as to resist the plied to practice. The best condition for further action of oxygen under ordinary a ‘midden' to be in is, when it contains a During this series of changes, the various solid compoundsare converted first into fluid and then into gaseous products ; which latter, by escaping into the air, become lost. Chemists are much divided as to what precise
circumstances.
sufficiency of water to cut moist, and yield a little liquid by pressure, but not enough to run from it spontaneously ; this is easily effected by draining the middenstance, if in the court, so that all superfluous moisture runs off into the drains, which, of
amount of decomposition is requisite to course, must lead to the liquid manure
render organic matter in a proper state to tank, from which in dry weather it should become food for plants ; all agree that be pumped up and scattered uniformly over decomposition must have commenced ; the midden . In this state of moisture,
some maintain that it must be completed. scarcely a perceptible quantity of animonia My own belief, founded on extensive ob- is lost, as it all remains in solution ; and servation and not a few experiments, is, I believe that this plan will be found in that all the products of decomposition, in all cases to be superior to every other
edery stage, are available as food for hitherto devised for preserving farmyard plants, provided they are either liquid or dung." *
Philosophical Magazine, July 1845.
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
416
4909. I know of no more particular a large proportion of the ammonical com
analyses of bone-dust than what are given pounds, as may at oncebe seen by the
in (3331) to (3334. ) . The following following comparison. The ammonia is table may prove useful in applying certain quantities of bone-dust to the acre . An example will best illustrate its use : Supposing that the drills are 36 inches apart, then 10 bushels of bone -dust should manure 484 yards along such a drill to give the land 10 bushels to the acre. The
as follows :
24 to 36 inches, the limits of practice, in
Peruvian guano,
24.12 per cent.
different parts of the country,in cultivat-
Ichaboe, Patagonian, Saldanha Bay,
30.30
In Peruvian guano, ( 32 specimens,) 17.41 per cent. ( 11
Ichaboe, Patagonian ,
( 14 ( 20
)
7.30 2.54
)
1.62
Saldanha Bay, ... The phosphate of lime is as follows in the width between the drills is confined from same specimeus : ing green crops. The bushels per acre do not extend beyond 16, which are found
...
44.60 56.40
to be the maximum quantity that produces As all guanos have no doubt originated When two drills are from a similar source, every ton of the manured at the same time, half the dis- Saldanha Bay may be regarded as two
the greatest results. Number yards of in drill one along
or more tons of the Peruvian, from which fermentation
Number of bushels per acre , which
should extend along the preceding
. acre an
. drills the between
inches of Number
tances in the table must of course be taken .
and rain
have removed
the greater part of its ammoniacal com pounds.
yards on a drill.
4911. Below are four of the analyses of
1
11
10
12
13
14
15
16
Peruvian guano, exhibiting the largest pro
5280 528 480 440 407 377 352 330
portions of ammoniacal compounds and earthy phosphates, out of 44 analyses of specimens imported in 1847, 1848, and 1849, by Messrs Anthony Gibbs and Sons,
32
5445
363 340
nou , 1850, the sole importers of the true
31 30 29
5620 562 510 468 432 401 | 374 351 5808 580 528 484 446 416 387 363 6008 600 546 500 462 422 400 375
true, because other varieties are imported
25 24
6701 670 609 558 515 478 446 418 6969 696 633 580 536 497 464 435 7260 726 660 605 558 518 484 453
36 35 34 33
4840 4978
484 440 403 372 345 320 302 497 452 414 382 355 331 311
5124 512 465 427 394 366 341 320
6222 6453
544 495 453 418
388
622 565 518 478 444 414 388 645 586 537 496 460 430 403
Peruvian guano, (3351. )
I say of the
from South America, from Bolivia and
Chili, which are represented as the Peru vian, although they are more nearly allied to the Ichaboe than it, (3349 ) : 16.16
8.88
Peru vian . 11.24
3 a greatvariety of guanos since the analyses Salts of ammonia , $ 57.1 S of Professor Johnston in (3349,) that I Sand, 1.17 19.46 must abstract a fewof his results, as they Alkali Earthyphosphates, 6.08 ne salts,
58.82
55.17
57.64
1.36
1.46 27.89 4.24
1.12 23.58 8.69
Peru vian .
4910. Professor Way has analysed such
Water,
Organic matter and
.
Peru . vian .
25.27 5.67
Peru vian .
8.97
will be found highly interesting to the farmer. From the small quantity of guano that may now be expected from the African coast and from Patagonia, any
100.00 100.00
Ammparts oni, a from 100 } 18.94
17.86
100.00 100.00
18.27
18.56
other kind than the Peruvian need not at
tract the attention of the farmer, at what
ever price it may be offered in the market.
4912. The following table contains an
Another consideration beside quantity analysis of Angamos guano, a variety renders any guano but the Peruvian of which comes from Peru, and is known little value to the farmer, which is, that there as a recent deposit, and is collected as guano is chiefly employed for the sake by hand . It is very rich in ammonia, and of its ammonia, the African and Patago- somewhat wbiter in colour than the ordi
nian kinds being composed chiefly of nary Peruvian. The other analyses are phosphates of lime, are not suitable as sub- each the best specimen of Ichaboe from 11 stitutes for the Peruvian, wbich contains specimens, of Patagonian from 14 speci
417
EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.
mens, and of Saldanha Bay from 20 spe- of it. We thus have the explanation why
the manufactured guanos have not proved
cimens.
so efficacious as the natural production. Anga
Icha
mos .
Water , 16.29 Organic matter and Šalts ofanımonia, 3.29 Sand, Earthy phosphates, 14.69 Alkaline salts, 6.89
} 58.84
boe.
Pata . Saldan gonian . ha Bay.
26.5
27.0
15.27
4915. It may be convenient to have a
41.0 0.3
28.5 23.28
28.7
41.5 49.01
table showing the quantities of guano ap plied to an acre, when a given small quantity covers a certain number of yards along the top of a drill, at a given distance
6.0
3.07
from another drill.
100.00
Ammonia,
20.07
9.5
3.25
2.49
Number of inches be tween the drills.
the remaining constituents the water and sand are valueless ; and the sulphuric acid ,
36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29
the lime, the chlorine, and the soda, can be
28
4913. Of true guanos, the important constituents are ammonia or its elements, phosphate of lime, and potash ; and of
Number of yards Number of yards along a drill, manured with acre at those dis- 1 lb. of guano, equal to
along a drill in an tances apart. 4840 4978 5124 5280 5445 5620 5808 6008 6222 6453
1 cwt. the acre. 43
44 15
47 48 50 51 53
27 57 easily and cheaply supplied by gypsum and common salt. Estimating the essen- This table requires this farther explanation.
tial elements of Peruvian guano at the As regards the third column, an example market price, and taking itsaverage com- will best explain it. Supposing that 1 lb. position from the numerous analyses men- of guano extends 43 yards along the top tioned above, its intrinsic value per ton of a drill which is distant 36 inches from should be as follows: the nearest one, then 1 cwt. will be given Ammonia , 17.41 per cent, -388 lbs. at 6d. per lb. £9 14 0 to the acre ; if 2 lb. are thus spread along Phosphate
24.12
540 .... 4d.
of lime,
Potash ,
3.5
-783 ..
24d. ..
1 13 9 the same 43 yards, then 2 cwt. will be 0 14 8 applied ; if 3 lb. then 3 cwt., and so on £12 2 5
for any number of cwt. desired to be given to the acre. When the drills are
The only other substances from which am- closer set, the lb. of guano will have to
monia might be easily supplied, are the muriate and sulphate ofammonia . Muriate ofammonia, being at least £ 19 per ton, is too expensive for agricultural purposes ;
extend along a greater number of yards to afford 1 cwt. to the acre : thus, at 27 inches asunder, the pound of guano will require to go along 57 yards of a drill to
and even the sulphate of ammonia, at £12 give 1 cwt to the acre. per ton, is dearer than Peruvian guano at £ 10 per ton, for which the farmer buys 4916. In applying guano, it should be ammonia at the same price as that afforded kept in mind that all seeds, and sets of in the sulphate - while he gets the phos- tubers, when placed in the drill in contact phate of lime and the potash for the extra with it, will be injured, and most likely 6s., between the value of the phosphate of deprived of their vitality. A portion of
lime and potash, £2, 8s. 5d., and the earth should therefore always intervene balance between the above sum and between the seed and the guano. £ 10.*
4917. It is also useful to remember, that
4914. Uric acid being only obtain- a top -dressing of guano to a crop will able from one or two sources, such as
often convert the loss that would accrue
the solid urine of serpents, or the dung of from it to a sensible gain, and therefore sea -fowl, wbich latter in fact is guano, no farmer should grudge to try a top
Professor Way considers guano a manure dressing of guano on any crop, if the of its own peculiar kind, and that it is weather is favourable for its application, impossible to prodnce a perfect imitation which it only is when in a moist condi * Journal of the Agricultural Society of Enyland, vol. x. p. 202-25. VOL. II .
2 D
418
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
tion ; because all organic manures, of what- 20th May 1845, upon wheat sown on the ever kind, become inert, or even mischiev- 27th September 1844, which had been ous, in the soil in the absence of rain or manured with 13 cwt. of rape-cake dust sensible moisture. All mineral manures to the acre, at a cost of £3, 5s., and ob are supposed to act upon organic ones, su tained on the 24th September 1845, 48 as to extend and equalise their action, and bushels of wheat of 52 lb. to the bushel, thus render them more durable in the soil.
and 440 stones of straw .
The land that
had been manured with the rape- cake 4918. Wheat. — Having thus cleared only yielded 36 bushels of wheat of 54 the way in explaining the nature of the lb. to the bushel, and 390 stones of straw. manures most to be relied upon by the The increase realised by the dressing was farmer, and made a few general observa- therefore 114 bushels of wheat, and 50 tions on their mode of application, it is stones of straw , incurring this loss : now time to consider the effects of the special manures upon the crops commonly
114 bushels wheat at 5s., 50 stones straw at 2d.,
£ 2 16
raised on the farn , and we shall begin with
3
4
3
5
£0
0
wheat. Deduct value of nightsoil,
4919. Mr Alexander F. Gardner, steward to Mr Fleming of Barrochan,
3
08
Loss,
7
5
Renfrewshire, applied 5 cwt. of rape-cake The soil was a moderately heavy clay, rest dust to the acre, at a cost of 33s., as a ing on a pure red chattery clay, very
being obliged to top-dressing, on the 12th of May 1843,on difficult to work, the pickwhen it afforded a white Hunter's wheat, sown in October be used in its drainage,
1842, and obtained 48 | bushels of wheat good deal of under water. This experi of 62 lb. to the bushel, and 1224 stones of ment was made on rising ground with a straw from the acre. That which received considerable acclivity to the S.E. Pre
no dressing yielded 32 bushels of wheat of vious to being drained, the ground was 62 lb., and 824 stones of straw. The in- very wet; and now it is of superior quality , crease produced by the dressing was there- and of much increased value. The soil fore 161 bushels of wheat, and 400 stones was to undergo subsoil ploughing in the of straw to the acre, affording a profit ensuing winter.t thus : 164 bushels wheat at 5s., 400 stones straw at 2d .,
Deduct cost of rape-cake,
£4
1
3
4921. He tried the effects of a salt,
3
6
8
saltpetre refuse, obtained from powder
7
7 11
mills, of which he applied 3 cwt. to the acre, at 14s. the cwt., at a cost of £ 2, 2s.
1 13
0
to the acre, and obtained 571 bushels of Hopetoun wheat of 53 lb. to the bushel, and 354 stones 4 lb. of straw . The ground The soil was a stiff loam about 9 inches not manured with the saltpetre refuse Profit,
£ 6 14 11
deep, subsoilstiff yellow till, full of small yielded 40 bushels of wheat of 544 lb.to stones, superincumbent on sandstone, had the bushel, and 217 stones of straw. The been thoroughly drained, and dug. The increase of crop derived from the dressing wheat was sown after potatoes, which was 174 bushels of wheat, and 137 stones had been manured with 36 cubic yards of 10 lb. of straw. The results stand farmyard dung ; was reaped on 15th Sep- thus :
tember, and weighed in the second week of October. *
174 bushels of wheat at 58., . 137 stones of straw at 2d .,
.
€4 1
6 9
5 11
3
2
2
0
£3
9
3
4920. Mr Alexander James Main, stew
ard to Mr Wardlaw Ramsay of Whitehill, Mid - Lothian, applied 13 cwt. of nightsoil to the acre, at £5 per ton, at a cost of £3, 5s. an acre, as a top -dressing, spread on
7 3
Deduct the value of the salt- / petre refuse,
Profit,
* Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1844, p. 238. + Ibid., October 1846, p. 406 and 422.
419
EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.
This experiment was made on the same ground as on that of the preceding experiment. The wheat was sown in October 1846, after potatoes that had been manured with 20 tons to the acre of farmyard dung,
stated as a means of comparison with the
above result. It was 41 bushels of wheat, of 604 lb. to the bushel, and 224 stones of straw ; but as this result is less than the produce of the same field which had re
and which completely failed. The top - ceived no top -dressing at all,we would dressing was sown broadcast on the 18th be induced to conclude that the larger May, and the crop was reaped on the 1st quantity of saltpetre applied at once as a of September 1847.*
top -dressing had had an injurious rather than a beneficial effect. +
4922. Mr John M'Lintock , Harley Works, Glasgow , tried the effects of using 4923. These instances give the effects a similar ingredient, pure saltpetre, (nitrate of the application of single substances. of soda,) as a top-dressing at two distinct Mr Main tried the effects of the combined periodsof the same season on the same action of nightsoil and nitrate ofsoda on field of wheat.
The first top -dressing was wheat : 1 } cwt. of nightsoil at 45. = 68.,
made on the 17th April 1843, on wheat that had been sown after potatoes in 1842, with 28 lb. of saltpetre to the acre, and the second of 56 lb. was applied on the 6th
and if cwt. of saltpetre at 19s. 6d. the cwt. = 29s. 3d., at a cost of £1 , 15s. 3d. an acre, produced 55 bushels of 53 lb. the bushel of wheat, and 363 stones of straw .
of May on wheat sown after turnips , and This experiment being a part of the one the cost of both applications was 21s. 9d. related in ( 4921 ,) where the part undress acre . The produce obtained was ed with special manures gave 40 bushels 52 bushels of 59 lb. of wheat, and 321 of wheat, and 217 stones of straw , the
an
stones 6 lb. of straw to the acre.
The increase received by the top -dressing was
part of the same field that was not top 15 bushels of grain, and 146 stones of dressed, but had been manured with guano ' straw . The results were tbus : for the turnips, and with 10 tons of ash
dung for the wheat, yielded only 44 bushels
15 bushels of wheat at 58., 146 stones of straw at 2d.,
.
.
£ 3 15 1 4
4
4 19
4
1 15
3
0
of wheat of 58 lb. to the bushel, and 225
stones of straw to the acre, giving an ad vantage to the top -dressing of 8bushels of wheat, and 96 stones of straw , which
Deduct the value of the manure , A profit is left of
£3
4
11
may be stated in this manner : 8 bushels of wheat at 5s., 96 stones of straw at 2d .,
£2 0 0 16
0 0
2 16
0
Deduct the value of the saltpetre, 1 1 9
4924. Mr Main tried the effects of the combined actions of several specific
manures on Hunter's wheat, which was raised on light clay soil, resting on an
impervious clay subsoil, many parts of which was full of stones, and naturally The soil was sandy heavy loam , and had very wet. It was drained in 1846 at 17 Leaving a profit of
£ 1 14
3
been drained in 1841 to the depth of 22 feet apart, and 2 feet deep, and a bene inches.
The effects of this experiment ficial change was the
consequence .
would have been more satisfactory had a The field is bounded on three sides with
top -dressing of both the quantities ofsaltpetre at one of the above periods been made with a view to comparison, but as much as both the quantities, namely, 84 lb. of saltpetre, at the same cost of 21s.
woods; the exposure is from S.W. to N.E., and there is a gentle acclivity in the line of exposure. The land was bare
fallowed after being drained, and manured with 18 tons of farmyard dung, and 6 cwt.
9d. per acre, was top -dressed at one of the of rape -cake dust an acre. The wheat above periods — namely, the 17th of April, was sown in the antumn of 1846, and cut on wheat that was sown after potatoes on on the 10th, and weighed on the 15th of the 7th November 1842, on deep sandy September 1847. The special manures loam ofanother field , whose produce may be consisted of * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, March 1849, p. 492 and 513. # Ibid., March 1849, p. 492 and 531 . + Ibid ., January 1849, p. 416 and 437 .
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
420 Bones, dissolved ,
Lothian, tried the effects of nitrate of soda
104 1b. at 73. the cwt., L.O05&
Sulphuric acid , 52 .. at 12s. Carbonate of potash , 26 .. at 358. 17 .. at 12s. Carbonate of soda, Carbonate ofmagnesia , 60 .. at 228.
64
08 11 0 1 94 0 11 94 8
L.1 13
on barley in 1843. The field in which the experiment was tried, at an elevation of 600 feet above the sea , had a southern
exposure, and the soil of medium quality, This mixture was not applied, from for- of a depth of 8 or 9 inches, sufficiently
tuitous circumstances, until the 31st May free for green crops, but rather having a 1847, and drought set in immediately tendency to clay, with a retentive subsoil. thereafter ; but the produce obtained was It had been furrow -drained at 18 feet 54 bushels of 52 lb. of wheat, and 263 apart. It grew turnips in 1842, manured stones of straw , while the land that was with farmyard dung, and with a propor not top -dressed only gave 454 bushels of tion of dairy dung procured from Edin
52 lb. of wheat, and 202 stones of straw- burgh dairymen, the whole crop being the difference in favour of the top-dressing carried off the field .
Common Scotch
being 94 bushels of wheat, and 61 stones barley was sown on 14th April 1843, after of straw . The result stands thus :91 bushels of wheat at 5s., 61 stones of straw at 2d.,
Deduct the value of the manure ,
A profit is left of
£2 7 0 10
6 2
2 17 1 13
8
£1
4
8 0*
the land had received two ploughings, and was reaped on the 1st September. The top -dressing was applied on the 13th May, and benefited by rains immediately after ; 1 cwt. 11 lb. of nitrate of soda was ap plied to the acre, at a cost of 22s., and the crop reaped was 60 bushels of 56 lb. to the bushel, and 316 stones of straw .
What received no top -dressing yielded 49 4925. Barley . - Mr A. F. Gardner ob- bushels of 56 lb. to the bushel, and 212 tained at Barrochan from a soil, upon the
stones 4 lb. of straw to the acre, affording
side of a hill with a southern exposure, of an increase to the top-dressing of 11 bushels
light brown loam of medium quality, rest- of grain, and 66 stones of straw . ing on stiff strongtill of great depth, lying balance stands thus :
The
between trap and sandstone, thoroughly drained , trenched out of lea 12 inches in
11 bushels of barley at 2s. 9d.,
depth with the spade, at a cost of £3, 6s.
104 stones of straw at 2d .,
8d. an acre, and manured with 3 cwt. of guano to the acre, at a cost of £3, 15s.,
a produce of 64 bushels of common bar ley per acre, of 54 lb. to the bushel, and 321 stones of straw. The ground with which the experimental lots were compared
.
Deduct the value of the manure ,
Leaving a profit of
22 10 3 0 17
4
3 1
7 2
7 0
£2
5
7
4927. It is interesting to compare the was dressed with 2 chaldrons of quicklime slaked with water, in which common salt effects of the cheap ingredient saltpetre
had been dissolved, and with 24 cwt. of refuse with the nitrate of soda. Mr Main Turnbull's dissolved bones in muriatic at Whitehill applied it to a soil of mode acid, and the return was 48f bushels of rately strong clay, resting in a retentive barley of 554 lb. to the bushel, and 220 subsoil, having an inclination and an ex stones of straw . The guano procured an posure to the S.E. The ground was very increase of 154 bushels of grain, and 101 wet before being drained, and is now quite stones of straw. The cost of Turnbull's dry. Since the draining, the soil bears fair manure not being given, I am unable to crops of turnips and most luxuriant oats estimate the profit derived from the guano. and barley, on the latter of which the pre The barley was sown on the 14th April, sent experiment was made. The saltpetre
top -dressed in the beginning of May, refuse was applied on the 27th May 1845,
reaped on the 25th August, and weighed at only 1 cwt. to the acre, to try the on the 15th October 1842. +
effects of a small quantity, at a cost of 10s., and yielded on the 20th September,
4926. Mr John Finnie, Swanston, Mid- 614 bushels of barley of 50} lb. to the * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, p. 496 and 532. + Ibid., July 1844, p. 230.
# Ibid ., October 1844, p. 312-13.
EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.
421
4929. Both barley and oats were steep bushel, and 495 stones 6 lb. of straw to the acre. What received no top -dressing ed in differentsolutions before being sown produced 55 bushels of grain of 51 lb. to the bushel, and 291 stones of straw to the acre. The increase caused by the topdressing was 64 bushels of barley, and 204
by Mr Gardner at Barrochan, and the effect was to lessen the yield of grain by at least half a bushel to the acre, while the steeping increased the quantity of
stones of straw to the acre . were these :
straw at the most 80 stones to the acre .
64 bushels of barley at 23. 9d., 204 stones of straw at 2d.,
.
The results £0 16 11 1 14 0 .
4930. Oats .
I shall state the results
of guano from oats, before specifying the effects of any of the special manures. Mr
2 10 11 0 10 0
Deduct cost of manure ,
Finnie, Swanston, applied 2 cwt. 1 lb. of guanoto the
Leaving a profit of
£2
0 11 *
acre,ata cost of 12s. the cwt.or 248. au acre, which produced 744 bushels
of Blainslie oats, of 422 lbs. to the bushel, The costlier nitrate of soda of Mr Finnie
and 400 stones of straw .
Without the
left the larger profit ; but the increase by top- dressing, the crop was 48 bushels of
the saltpetre refuse was large in propor- oats, at 424 lb. to the bushel, and 223 tion to thecost, and was larger than that stones of straw , the increase by the dress
from the nitrate of soda, by £ 1,13s. 3d. ing being 264 bushels of oats, and 177
But the nitrate of soda produced grain stones of straw. The results are : 56 lb. per bushel, while that from the salt petre refuse weighed only 50 lb.
4928. The combined effects of a mix
26 } bushels of oats, at 28., 177 stones of straw , at 2d.,
Deduct the cost of the manure,
£2 13 1
0
96
4
2
6
1
4
0
£2 18
6
ture of nitrate of soda and salt on barley
was tried by Mr John Proudfoot, Pinkie
And the profit is
hill, Mid -Lothian, on good deep loam , on
a gravelly subsoil in very superior order. The field was elevated 600 feet above the It had carried wheat in 1842, and the sea, consisting of soil of scarcely medium
barley experimented on in 1843, so that quality, having a S. exposure, and easily it was the second white crop in succession . affected by drought. The oats were after
One cwt. each of nitrate of soda and salt, pasture , succeeding a crop of barley, im at a cost of 26s., was applied to the acre, mediately preceded by turnips, which had and the produce received from them was 62 bushels of barley of 57 lb. to the busbel, and 276 stones of straw . The ground that received no top -dressing yielded 56 bushels of grain of 57 lb. to the bushel, and 256 lb.of straw, showing an increase by the top -dressing of 6 bushels of barley, and 20
been manured by Edinburgh street manure , and the third part of the turnips eaten off by sheep. The oats were sown on the 20th ofMarch 1843, the guano applied on the 13th of May, rain immediately follow ing, and the crop reaped on the 20th Sep tember.I
stones of straw . The increase isnot large either in grain or straw , but the land was
4931. Mr Charles Chalmers of Monks
in superior order, and could not be expect- bill, applied, on the farm of Rothes Bris ed to be stimulated to an extraordinary bane, in Aberdeenshire ,one special manure, degree. The results stood thus : 6 bushels of barley at 2s. 9d., 20 stones of straw at 2d.,
.
£ 0 16 0 3
sulphate of ammonia, on Scots barley 6
4
0 19 10 1 6 0
Deductingwhich from the cost
oats, on the 18th of May 1843, to the ex tent of 2 cwt. to the acre, at a cost of £ 2, 1s. 8d . an acre ; and the yield was
81 } bushels of oats, of 414 lb. to the bushel, and 473 stones of straw .
The
of the manures , Incurred a loss of
£0 6 27
ground that received no top -dressing yield ed 538 bushels of grain, of 43 lb. to the bushel, and 321 stones of straw , showing
* Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, October 1846, p. 407 and + Ibid ., January 1849, p . 434.
# Ibid., October 1844 , p. 313.
422
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
an increase on the top-dressed part of as a top -dressing on Early Angus oats,
27 bushels of oats, and 152 stones of and the produce was 75 bushels of grain , straw ; but the oats were 1 lb. per bushel and 804 stones to the acre.
lighter. The balance stands thus :278 bushels of oats, at 2s.,
£2 15 1 5
.
152 stones of straw , at 2d., Deduct the cost of the manure,
4 2
6 4
0 10 1 8
The un
dressed portion of the ground produced 704 bushels of grain, and 608 stones of straw , so that the increase from the top dressing was 54 bushels of oats, and 196 stones of straw . The result was thus : £ 0 10 6 54 bushels of oats, at 2s., •
196 stones of straw , at 2d.,
1 12
The crop was much lodged, which may account for the lightness of the grain.
3
2
Deduct cost of the manure,
0 18
9
It also constituted a crop of seven years'
Giving a profit of
Leaving a profit of
£ 1 192
2
£1
4
8
5
rotation, which terminated in two conse
cutive white crops. The field sloped to The farm is 200 feet above the sea, four miles distant from it, and has a S. expo
the S.*
sure .
The soil is a light loam on a mixed
4932. A combination of simple salts subsoil, but sufficiently porous to admit of was
tried onSandy oats, by Mr A. F. being thoroughly drained, in the autumn nitrate of soda and the sulphate of depth and 32 feet apart. The land bore Gardner, at Barrochan, which were the of 1839, with stone drains, 30 inches in
soda, of each lę cwt. at a cost of 9s. 10d. in 1840, potatoes; in 1841 , wheat ; in an acre; and the crop produced was 78 1842, turnips. The oats were sown on bushels, of 40 lb.
the acre, and 303 the 20th March, with the drill-machine
stones of straw . The undressed ground across the ridges,and top -dressed on the gave 614 bushels of grain, and 240 stones 10th of May 1843.I of straw , affording an increase of 164 bushels of oats, and 113 stones of straw . The result was : 164 bushels of oats, at 28.,
£ 1 13 01 0 18 10
113 stones of straw, at 2d .,
2 11 10
Deduct the cost of the manure ,
0
9 10
4934. As a change of top -dressing, Mr Proudfoot, Pinkiehill, Mid-Lothian, ap plied 12 bushels of bone-dust, dissolved
in 292 lb. of sulphuric acid, at a cost of £ 4, 6s. the acre, on a light soil, resting on a gravelly subsoil, on the 24th April 1843, upon oats after lea, at an eleva
tion not exceeding 100 feet above the sea . £2 2 0 Leaving a profit of The crop yielded was 80 busbels of oats, The soil was stiff alluvial loam of good of 42 lb. to the bushel, and 376 stones depth, the subsoil of strong yellow clay of straw to the acre. The undressed part
lying on trap and sandstone. ' It had been gave 68 bushels of grain, of 43 lb. to the drained nine years, and lain some years bushel, and 320 stones of straw, affording in grass, worth £2 the acre.
The ground an increase of 12 bushels of oats, and 56
was trenched with the spade in the spring stones of straw - thus : of 1843, 16 inches deep, at a cost of £ 4 12 bushels of oats, at 28., an acre, the turf being laid on the bottom of the trench, and the subsoil brought up to the top: The oats were sown on the
20th of March, top -dressed on the 6th of May, reaped on the 8th September 1843.t
£1
4 9
0 4
56 stones of straw , at 2d.,
0
1 13
4
Deduct cost of the manure ,
4
0
Incurring a loss of
6
£2 12
88
4933. Mr John Dickson , Saughton Mains, Mid -Lothian, tried a combina-
4935. An instance should be given of tion of nitrate of soda and common salt, the effect of a variety of substances upon 48 lb. each, at a cost of 18s. 9d . an acre, the oat crop, and I shall take one from the * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1845, p. 31 . + Ibid ., July 1844, p. 241.
# Ibid., January 1845, p. 364-6.
§ Ibid., January 1849, p. 435.
EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.
423
practice of Mr A. F. Gardner at Barro- bushels of beans, and 172 stones of straw . chan, who applied, on the 20th of May The result is this : 1845, the following substances :
11 bushels of beans, at 3s.,
cwt. lb.
Peruvian guano , Animal charcoal,
0 at £ 0 10
1 1
0
0
.
1 1
0 0
Horn dust,
.
1
0
6
1 15 10
3 10
4
Deduct the cost of the manure
0
0
0
0
4
8
Dissolved in sulphuric acid, O 56 Common salt, Silicate of soda,
£ 1 14
172 stones of straw , at 2 d .,
4 0 1 0 12 0 2
0 0 0
£ 1 13
8
0
Leaving a profit of
£3
4
4
The field had a gentle inclination to the at a cost of
S. It was trenched with the spade 16 inches deep , in the spring of 1842, ont of on black Tartarian oats, on the 10th of seven years old lea, which had been
April, and obtained 70 bushels, of 411 1b. to the bushel, and 376 stones of straw. The part undressed yielded 47 bushels of grain, of 38 lb. to the bushel, and 242 stones of straw , indicating an increase by the dressings of 23} bushels of oats, and
drained at 20 feet apart, with tiles, and made perfectly dry. " The soil is partly moss or gravel loam ,. mixed sand together which and werepartly in trenching
Besides this, it was dressed with 2% chal dronsof quicklime, slaked in water that
The results are : 23 bushels of oats, at 2s., £ 2 13 6 134 stones of straw, at 2d ., 1 2 4
before the beans were sown on the 6th
3 15 10 1 13 8
the 6th of May, and reaped on the 1st of
134 stones of straw.
.
Deduct the cost of the manure
held common salt in solution, in the pro portion of 1 cwt. to the chaldron of lime,
March 1843. They were top -dressed on September.t
Leaving a profit of
£2
2
2
4937. Mr Gardner tried to top -dress
The soil was drained moss, from 8 to 12 beans with a variety of special manures, feet in depth, resting on a sandy clay such as, bottom . Prior to 1844, it had lain in
cwt. Ib.
grass for two years; and in the spring of Animal charcoal
20 at £ 0
that year it was trenched with the spade Dissolved in sulphuric acid, 1 0 056
two feet deep, laying the top -spading at Sulphate ofmagnesia,
the bottom ofthe trench, and bringing up Nitrate of soda, the peat to the surface. The peat was burned into ashes, which were spread over the surface, and raised a crop of 25 tons
to the acre of turnips.
2 1
0 0
...
...
at a cost of
0 0
9
0
2
0 4 6 0
0 16
0
8
2
£ 1 17 10
The surface was and obtained a crop of 694 bushels, of
pointed over with the spade in spring, and 58 lb. to the bushel, and 629 stones of the oats sown upon it.
To supply the straw ; that which was not top-dressed
want of clay, the silicate of soda was tried , yielding 581 bushels, of 581 lb. to the as former experience had found that sili- bushel, and 483 stones of straw : showing cate of potash gave a strong, clear, shin- an increase, by the application of the top ing straw on moss-land.* dressing, of 114 bushels of beans, and 146 stones of straw .
4936. Beans.-Mr A. F. Gardner, at Barrocban, applied 4 cwt. ofgypsum , at a cost of 6s. an acre, to beans, and reaped
67 busbels, of 64 lb. to the bushel, and
The result is :
11ļ bushels of beans, at 3s., . 146 stones of straw , at 24d.,
£ 1 14 1 10
6 5
3 4 11 1 17 10
Deduct the cost of the manure ,
663 stones of straw to the acre ; whereas
the ground that received no top -dressing
Leaving a profit of
£1
7
1
yielded 56 bushels, of 63 lb. to the bushel
of grain, and 491 stones of haulm : show- The soil was a stiff loam resting on sand ing an increase by the dressing of 114 stone ; was drained with tiles some years * Transactions of the IIighland and AgriculturalSociety, July 1847, p. 18, 35. + Ibid ., July 1844, p. 242-3.
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
424
ago, and has a gentle declivity to the E. of increasing the crop to a sensible degree. It had lain in grass some years, and on By using acombination ofsuch manures, Mr being ploughed in spring the beans were A. F. Gardner, at Barrochan, has been sown broadcast, top -dressed on the 21st enabled to produce large crops of pota of May, reaped on the 8th of October, toes. Thus, with and weighed on the 12th November Farmyard dung, 15 tons at 5s., 1845.*
£3 15
0
Animal charcoal, 1 cwt.,
0
4
0
Sulphuric acid, 56 lb. Carbonate of magnesia, 14 lb.
0
7
0
0
Deighton, Yorkshire, tried the effects of
Common salt, 1 cwt.
0
Gypsum, 1 cwt. Nitrate of soda, 28 lb.
0
gypsum on pease as an auxiliary to farm
1 3 09 1 6 4 0
4938. Pease . — Mr John Hannam, North yard dung.
The soil was a thin lime
at a cost of £4 13 6 stone, worth 16s. the acre, the prior crops being wheat rape-dusted, swedish turnips with manure, and barley with rape-dust. he planted the potatoes on the 29th of The pease were taken in lieu of clover for April 1844, applied the special manures a change, and the land for them received along with the farmyard dung, and pro
4 loads of farmyard dung to the acre ; and duced, upon very stiff clay loam, on the the top-dressing of 4 cwt. of gypsum, at a 7th of October, 20 tons, 3 cwt. 19 lb. on cost of 12s., was spread on the 10th of May 1842, and when reaped yielded 51 bushels of pease, of 61 lb. to the bushel, and 253 stones of straw ; whereas that which received no top -dressing gave 41 bushels, of 61 lb. to the bushel, and 2054 stones of straw - showing the advantage derived from the top -dressing to be 91 bushels of pease, and 47. stones of straw . The results arę :
9f bushels of pease, at 38.,, 474 stones of straw , at 24d .,
£1 0
9 3 99
1 190
Deduct the cost of the manure,
0 12
0
an acre ; while 25 tons of farmyard dung, at a cost of £ 6, 5s., only produced 14 tons, I cwt.-giving an advantage of 6 tons, 2 cwt. 19 lb., which, at £ 2 the ton , is £12, 4s. 4d. an acre in favour of the special manures. The crop itself stands thus: 20 tons, 3 cwt. 19 lb. of potatoes, £40 7 0 at £2 per ton , Deduct cost of manure , 4 13 6
Leaving a balance of
61
£ 36 13
4941. A coarse variety of the potato,
called Connaught cups, afforded MrGard Leaving a profit of
£1
7
04
ner a large return from a combination of
manures as auxiliaries to farmyard dung. Thus, with
4939. In the same experiment, pease were tried by Mr Hannam with a com bination of a half cwt. of nitrate of soda
and 1 cwt. of the sulphate of soda, at a cost of £ 1 , 1s. 3d. an acre ; and the pro
duce was 47 bushels of grain , of 61 lb. to the bushel, and 262, stones of straw - giv
ing a less satisfactory result than with
Farmyard dung, 15 tons at 58.,
£ 3 15
Animal charcoal, 2 cwt.
Dissolved in sulphuric acid, 1 cwt. Common salt, 1 cwt. Sulphate of soda, 1 cwt, Horn dust, 2 cwt. Peruvian guano, 3 cwt.
8
0
0 0
9 1 5 4 5
4 0 0
0
Sulphate of magnesia, 1 cwt. Muriate of ammonia , 1 cwt. .
.
.
0
0
0 0
0
0
0 15
0
1 10
0
£7 12
4
gypsum alone, by only covering the ex at a cost of
pense.
4940. Potatoes. - Any simple salt, ap- the potatoes were planted on the 5th of
plied as a top -dressing to potatoes, pro- May 1845, and, when lifted on the 8th of duces but a trifling effect beyond what November, produced 21 tons, 15 cwt. ; farmyard dung will always produce; but while 30 tons of farmyard dung, at a cost a combination of special manures, as auxi- of £ 7, 10s., only produced 13 tons, 5 cwt. liaries to farmyard dung, has the effect - giving the above combination an advan Transactions ofthe Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1847, p. 19, 36 . I Ibid . January 1845, p. 409, Table C.
+ Ibid . March 1844, p. 200-1.
425
EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.
tage of 8 tons, 10 cwt.; which, at 35s. the yard dung and special manures, the farm ton, being a coarse potato, still gives dung was first ploughed in, and pigeons' £ 14, 17s. 6d. an acre. The field lying on
dung sown broadcast on the surface and
the north side of a hill with a declivity, consisting of a medium soil, has a soil about 16 inches deep, upon a subsoil of great depth of yellow tilī, full of stones. In 1843 itwas drained with tiles, trenched with the spade, and limed with the oats. The special manures were sown broadcast
barrowed in. On the harrowed surface the carrot seed was sown in rows, in ruts, 14 inches apart, covered with the rake head and trampled down with the feet : 16 tons of farmyard dung were used, at a cost of 5s. a ton, or £ 4 ; and 4 cwt. of pigeon dung, at 4s. the cwt., or 168.-in all, £4, 16s.
on the dung in the drills.
per acre .
The produce was 14 tons 5
cwt. 60 lb. , and that from 24 tons of farm
4942. But independently of farmyard yard alone, at a cost of 5s. the ton , or £ 6 dung, a combination of special manures an acre, was 12 tons 13 cwt. 64 lb.; so
produced a large return toMr Gardner of that the increase caused by the pigeons' rough red potatoes, which were planted in dung was 1 ton 11 cwt. 108 lb., which ,
the same field as the preceding on the 10th at 30s. the ton, gives a profit, by the spe of May, and lifted on the 10th of Novem- cial manure, of £2, 7s. 11d. an acre, over ber 1845. The special manures werePeruvian guano, 6 cwt. per acre, £3 0
and above the value of the 8 tons of dung. The case of the crop itself stands thus
0
0 8 0 Animal charcoal, 2 cwt., Dissolved in sulphuric acid, 1cwt., O 9 4 .
Horn dust, 3 cwt.,
0
Sulphate of soda, 1 cwt., : Carbonate of magnesia, 1 cwt., .
0 6 1 10 0 5 0 5
Common salt, 2 cwt.,
0
2
0
£6
5
4
Muriate of ammonia, 2 cwt.,
at a cost of
14 tons 5 cwt. 60 lb. of carrots, at 30s., Deduct cost of manures,
0 0 0
Leaving a profit of
£21
8
3
4 16
0
£ 16 12
3+
4944. Mr J. M. Aynesley, Fern Hill, Tockington, raised two varieties of the and they produced 20 tons I cwt.; while 30 carrot on clayey loam, a foot in depth ,
an acre,onlyproduced,in the same field, restingon stiff clay — a soil notquitesuit .
The varieties were
13 tons 1 cwt. - giving the advantage to the Alteringham and the white Belgian. Alteringham was manured with 6 the special manures of 7 tons 8 cwt.,which, The
at £ 2 per ton, being a fine potato, is bushels ofcommon salt, and 54 bushels of
£ 14, 165.an acre in favour of the special soot, at a cost of £2, 28. 6d. an acre, and manures. The case of the crop itself stood thus 20 tons 9 cwt. of potatoes at £2 = £40 18 0 Deduct cost of the manures,
Leaving a balance of
6
5
4
£34 12 g*
produced 22 tons 8 cwt. 64 lb. of carrots ;
compared with 24 tons of farmyard dung, at 4s. the ton, £4, 16s., which produced 21 tons 18 cwt. 64 lb., giving an advan tage of 10 cwt. to the special manures, which, at 30s. the ton, leaves a profit of 15s. per acre .
The case of the crop itself
4943. Carrots. — Mr Main, at White- is this, hill, tried to raise carrots with other man ure than farmyard dung alone. The 22 tons 8 cwt. 64 lb. carrots, at 30s., £33 Deduct the cost of the manures, .
soil was light sandy loam , resting on sand and gravel. The inclination of the field was from N.E. to S.W. The field was ploughed from old lea in 1844, and oats taken ; in 1845 it was in turnips, man-
Leaving a balance of
12 10 2
6
£ 31 10
4
2
4945. The white Belgian carrot was
ured with farmyard dung, guano, &c ; also manured with 6 bushels of common in 1846 it was in oats again ; and in 1847 salt and 54 bushels of soot, at a cost of turnips and carrots. In using both farm- £2, 24. 6d. an acre, and produced 29 tons * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1847, p. 25 and 27. + Ibid., March 1849, p. 502 and 533.
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
426
8 cwt. 64 lb. an acre ; compared with the crop was pulled at the end of those raised from 24 tons of farmyard October. dung, which produced 28 tons 8 cwt. 64 1b ., giving the advantage to the special 4948. In a similar experiment with 20 manures of just 1 ton on the acre, or 30s. tons of farm dung, and 6 cwt.of Peruvian of profit. The crop yielded guano, sown upon the drills after the crop was up, the produce was 25 tons 3 cwt. 29 tons 8 cwt. 64 lb., at 30s., Deduct cost of the manures,
Leaving a balance of
.
£ 44 2
2 10 2 6
67 lb. of Swedish turnips, while that quan tity of dung alone produced only 21 tons
£42
0
7 cwt. 71 lb. - giving an advantage to the guano of 3 tons 15 cwt. 108 lb., which, at
4
or £10, 10s, the acre more in favour of 10s. the cwt., is £ 1,18s.3d. of profitan acre.
the white Belgian than the Alteringham The crop was sown on the 4th of June, carrot. In both crops the seed was sown and pulled at the end of October 1844.+ on the 19th of April 1842, and pulled
4949. A combination of special man ures produced as marked an increase in 4946. Lord Lovelace, in 1843, gave a Swedish turnips as in potatoes. Mr A. short account of having raised in several F. Gardner, at Barrochan, applied the from the 4th to the 21st of November . *
years, but particularly in 1842, 43 tons following special manuresonmedium loam, 36 lb. of red carrots on the acre, with 15 after a crop of oats from lea, in 1845 : The
cubic yards of farmyard dung alone.
only peculiarity of the cultures seems to have been the subsoiling to the depth of 15 inches between the drills.
4947. Swedish turnips. The power of guano as an auxiliary to farmyard dung in raising a crop of turnips is considerable. Mr A. F. Gardner, at Barrochan, applied
Farmyard dung, 15 tons at 5s .,
£ 3 15
Peruvian guano, 3 cwt. at 10s., 1 10 Animal charcoal, 2 cwt. at 4s., 0 8 Dissolved in muriatic acid , 1 cwt., 09
Carbonate of magnesia, 1 cwt., Sulphate of soda, 1 cwt., Sulphate of ammonia , 1 cwt., Horn dust, 3 cwt. at 2s., Common salt, I cwt.,
.
. .
at a cost of
0 0 0
4
0 5 0 5 0 16 0 6 1
0 0 0 0 0
£7 15
4
18 tons of farm dung to the acre at 5s. the
ton, £4, 10s., and 3 cwt.of Peruvian guano at 10s. the cwt., £ 1 , 108.—together making a cost of £6 the acre, produced, in 1844, on stiff clay land that had been trenched with the spade 16 inches deep in
which produced 46 tons 17 cwt. 6 lb. of Swedish turnips an acre, of value £ 23 , 8s. 6d., at 10s. the ton ; compared with 30 tons of farmyard dung at 5s., £ 8, 15s.,which produced 34 tons 5 cwt.
the winter of 1842-3, 34 tons 19 cwt. of 80'lb., giving the advantage of 12 tons 10 cwt., raised with 35 tons of farmyard amounting to £6, 53. 8d. an acre, at 10s. Swedish turnips ; compared with 29 tons 11 cwt. 38 Ib. to the special manures,
dung at 5s. the ton, at a cost of £8, 15s. the ton. The value of the crop itself stands an acre - giving an advantage of 5 tons 9 thus cwt. to the guano, which, at 10s. the ton, gives a profit of £ 2, 14s. 6d. an acre. The crop itself stands thus 34 tons 19 cwt. swedes, at 10s., Deduct cost of the manures,
Leaving a balance of
46 tons 17 cwt. 6 lb. Swedes at 10s. £23 8 8 15 Deduct the cost of the manures, .
Leaving a balance of £ 17 6
9 0
£ 11
96
£ 14 13
6 0
6
6 0
4950. With 15 cubic yards of farm yard dung, at 5s. the yard, £ 3 , 158.; 4 cwt. of Peruvian guano, at 10s. the cwt.,
whereas the balance left by the farmyard £ 2 ; and 17 bushels of bone-dust, at 25. 6d. The guano the bushel, £2, 2s. 6d., Mr Robert Elliot, was sown upon the top of thefarm dung Hardgrave, Dumfriesshire, raised 28 tons
dung alone was £6 the acre.
along the drill on the 13th of May, and I cwt. of Swedish turnips an acre, in * Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. iv. p. 270.
+ Transactions of the Highland and AgriculturalSociety, March 1845, Table G. # Ibid., July 1847, p. 29.
EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES .
427
1849, at a cost of £7, 178. 6d., the value well as on the Swede, and with similar
of the crop, at 10s. the ton,being £ 14 ,4s.6d., good results. leaving abalance, after deducting the cost of the manures, of £6, 7s. an acre, and making the cost of a ton of Swedes only 59. 60.*
The manures were these
Farmyard dung, 15 tons at 5s., £3 15 0 Peruvian guano, 3 cwt. at 10s., 1 10 0
Carbonate of magnesia, 1 cwt.,
4951. Yellow turnips.- Mr John Finnie, Swanston, tried single special manures as auxiliaries to farmyard dung, on a soil
of rather good quality, having a retentive subsoil, at a depth of 12 or 13 inches. The field is exposed to the N., was under
8
0
9 5
0
5
0
0 15 0 1
0 0
0 0
6 0
0 Animal charcoal, 2 cwt. at 4s., Dissolved in sulphuric acid, 1 cwt., 0
Sulphate of soda, 1 cwt.,
.
Muriate of ammonia, 1 cwt.,
.
0 0
Common salt, 1 cwt.,
Potash , 28 lb., at 28s. the cwt., Horn dust, 2 cwt. at 2s., at a cost of
6 4
£ 7 18 10
wheat in 1842 , preceded by potatoes,
raised with farm dung and Edinburgh and the produce was42 tons, 17 cwt. 10 . street manure in equal proportions. Skir- lb. Compared with 31 tons obtained from 30 tons of farmyard dung, at is. the ton, ving's purple top yellow turnips were sown at a cost of £ 7, 10s. an acre, the advan on the 15th of June, the special manure sown over 16 tons of dung,at 5s. the ton, tage accruing by the use of the special
£4, spread along the drill, and the turnips manures was 11 tons 17 cwt. 10 lb., at 8s. The
were pulled on the 1st of November 1843. the ton , amounts to £ 4, 15s. 1d. Thus , 12 tons of dung at 5s., £3, and 1 value of the crop itself is this cwt. 67 lb. of ammoniacal salts, at 20s.
the cwt., £ 1 , 12s., together making a cost of £4, 12s. an acre, produced 33 tons, 6 cwt. 13 lb ; and which, compared with the produce of 16 tons of dung at 5s., £4, 25 tons 4 cwt., gives an advantage to the special manure of 8 tons 2 cwt. 13 lb. at
42ytonow, andet, 10 lb.Jones} Deduct the cost of the manures, Leaves a balance of
£ 17 3 1 7 18 10 £9
4
3
4954. On the farm of Balgray, in the 8s. the ton, of £3, 4s. 9d . an acre , over parish of Applegarth, Dumfriesshire, 29
and above the value of 4 tons of dung. The tons 3 cwt. per acre of yellow bullock turnips were raised by 35cubic yards of value of the crop stands thus
farmyard dung, at a cost, at 5s. the yard, 33 tons 6 cwt. 13 lb. yellow tur
}
nips, at 8s., Deduct the cost of the manures,
Leaving a balance of
6
6
4 12
0
£13
£8 14
6+
4952. It may be mentioned here, that ammoniacal liquor, obtained from the gasworks, is of greater or less value as it is obtained from the particular kind of coal the gas is extracted from . The purer the coal the gas is derived from , such as the cannel coal, used at Edinburgh, the ammoniacal liquor is less rich in useful ingredients than from coal of a more bituminous character. Hence the ammoniacal liquor
of £8, 158. an acre. The cost of raising the turnips was thus 6s. 4d. the ton.g 4955. White turnips. - Mr John Han mam , North Deighton, Yorkshire, tried
experiments with special manures both as substitutes for and as auxiliaries to farm yard dung. The best substitute was burnt bones, 2 quarters of which an acre, at a cost of £ 2, 1s., produced 25 tons 17 cwt. 1 lb. of Matson's white-globe turnips, of 243 good turnips to each perch ; while the ground that had none produced only 16 tons 1 cwt. of small bulbs—the advantage ob tained by the bones being 9 tons 16 cwt. 1 lb., at 6s.the ton, £ 2, 18s. 9d. an acre . As
of Newcastle or London is better than an auxiliary to farmyard dung, 12 bushelsof that of Edinburgh . bone-dust and 6 bushels of rape -cake dust to the acre, at a cost of £ 2, 6s. 9d . pro
4953. Mr A. F. Gardner, at Barro- duced 26 tons 15 cwt. 5 lb ,of 228 turnips chan, tried the effects of a combination of to the perch, and secured an advantage of
special manures on Jones'yellow turnip, as 10 tons 14 cwt. 5 lb., at 6s, the ton, £3, * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, March 1850, p. 237. + Ibid ., October 1844 , p. 316.
# Ibid ., July 1847, p. 3 ) .
§ Ibid., March 1850, p. 238.
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
428
4s. 2d. an acre .
The crop itself stands
thus in value :
4958. This special manure was com posed of , Organic matter,
26 tons 15 cwt. 5 lb. globes, at 6s. £8 0 6 2 6 9 Deduct the cost of the manure , Leaving a balance of
£ 5 13
Inorganic matter, Water,
9
The soil moderate limestone, worth 24s. per acre, exposed on all sides. Former crops- grass pastured with sheep, wheat rape -dusted, and oats rape -dusted. The
16.3 63.9 19.8
.
•
100.0
To compare with this, 20 tons of farmyard dung, fermented until it could be cut with a spade, were applied to the acre , at a cost of £ 5, and it produced 31 tons of tur
turnips were drilled on the level on the nips, giving an advantage to the special 4th of July, at 12 inches apart, and pulled manure of 6 tons 8 cwt., which, at 6s. the ton, realises a profit of £ 1 , 18s. an acre. The value of the turnips was 3s. 2d. the
on the 5th of November 1842.*
ton .
4956. These special manures, Farmyard dung, 15 tons at 58., Peruvian guano, 3 cwt. at 10s., Animal charcoal, 2 cwt. at 4s.
Dissolved in muriatic acid, 1 cwt., Horn dust, 2 cwt. at 28., Common salt, 2 cwt. at 1s., at a cost of
£ 3 15 1 10 0 8 0 9
0 0 0 4
0 0
4 2
0 0
£6
8
4
This manure consisted of 24.71 Organic matter, 10.06 Inorganic matter, 64.96 Water, 99.73
4959. Some curious anomalies were ob
tained by the use of these alkaline phos phates. We have seen that 4 cwt. ofthem
produced 34 tons 11 cwt. 48 lb. of purple- produced 37 tons 8 cwt. of turnips ; but top white turnips. Compare this with the when an addition of 10 tons of farmyard produce of 30 tons of farmyard dang at dung was made to that quantity of the 5s. the ton, at a cost of £ 7 10s., 33 tons phosphates, the produce shrunk to 26 tons 14 cwt. 32 lb., and the special manures the acre, making the value of the turnip bave only an advantage of 17 cwt. 16 38. 2d. the ton : 26 tons were also produced lb. an acre, which at 6s. the ton is worth by 8 cwt. of the alkaline phosphates alone, 5s. 1d. The value of the crop itself is which made the value of the turnips 2s. 10d . the ton .
this : 34 tons 11 cwt. 48 lb. white, at6s., £ 11 Deduct the cost of the manure , 6
7
4
8
4
£ 4 19
0
But when 10 tons of farm
yard manure were added to 8 cwt. of the alkaline phosphates, the produce was in creased to 31 tons — the same amount as
Leaving a balance of
from 20 tons of farmyard dung alone. The value of the turnips, from the dung alone,
The soil was medium loam . The preced- was3s. 2d. the ton ,butthe dnng and phos ing crop was oats on trenched lea. The phates combined, increased their value to special manures were sown upon the dung 48. Hence we should conclude, that alka in the drills, on the 26th June, and the line phosphates and farmyard dung should
turnips pulled on the 12th of November not be combined, but applied separately. In 1845.7 like manner earthy sulphates, prepared by dissolving magnesian limestone in sulphu
4957. Hybrid turnips - Mr Thomas L. ric acid, and 20 tons of farmyard dung, each Colbeck , East Denton, Newcastle-on -Tyne, separately, produce 31 tonsof turnips; but
applied alkalinephosphates withammónia, when combined, the produce falls to 26 the phosphates being prepared by dissolv- tons, and increases the value of the tur
ing bones in an excess of sulphuric acid, nips to 4s. 1d. the ton . The sulphates are and neutralising by means of an alkali ; 4 composed of , cwt. of wbicb at 8s. 3d . the cwt. at a cost
Inorganic matter,
of £ 1 , 138. an acre, produced 37 tons 8 cwt. of hybrid turnips, making the cost of the crop 10d. per ton .
Water,
* Transactions of the Hig
86.9 12.7
ind and Agricultural Society, March 1844, p. 171 . + Ibid ., July 1847, p. 33 .
99.6
429
EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES .
and they alone make the value of the tur-
acre .
nips only 1s. 9d. the ton .
this :
4960. The turnips were
Sown
in
The value of the crop itself is
36 tons of mangold -wurzel, at 10s., £18 Deduct the cost of the manure , 4
0
0
15
0
May and pulled in December 1847 -the four preceding crops being, in 1843, turnips manured with farmyard
Leaving a balance of
£ 13
5
07
dung ; in 1844, barley ; in 1845, pease in stead of clover ; in 1846, oats. The soil
4962. Lord Lovelace raised, at Oakham
is formed from the disintegration of the upper red conglomerate of the coal series. The neighbourhood is principally formed from the clay slate of the same series. It is consequently a strong wheat soil, worth
Park, large crops of long red mangold wurzel—in 1831, as much as 58 tons 8 cwt. 60 lb. an acre ; and on an average of 12 years from 1831 to 1842, both inclu sive, the quantity was 47 tons, 19 cwt.
40s. the acre, and is considered a tolerably good turnip soil. It does not grow a fine sample of wheat, and is not yet dry enough beneath for turnips, to be eaten off with sheep in winter. It is sufficiently
59 lb. the acre. In 1841 and 1842 he raised 42 tons 3 cwt., and 43 tons 2 cwt. of the orange globe variety to the acre . As the cultivation is peculiar, I shall re late it in his lordship's own words. In
dry for ordinary cultivation without furrow autumn, the stubble is manured with 15 drainage, the outburst of water having cubic yards of farmyard dung and ploughed down. “ In April the ground is ridged been taken off by cross drains. * at a width of 3feet, by a double mould
4961. Mangold -wurzel. — This is a root board going out and returning in the same but scantily grown in Scotland, and the furrow . The subsoil plough follows im source of our information regarding its mediately along the furrow , and stirs the produce must be derived from the ground 15 inches deeper ; and the remain
experience of English cultivators. On ing 15 cubic yards allotted to each acre,
light land, being in part a shifting in all 30 cubic yards, are put in the trench sand, Mr Pusey of Pusey, in Berkshire, associated special manures with 13 loads of farmyard dung ; and although Mr Pusey does not give prices at all,
and covered in the usual manner. The mangold is sown on the newly formed ridge with the turnip- drill, about the end of April or beginning of May. Three or
shall estimate the various manures
four weeks afterwards the furrows are
I
at the usual cost, and say that the subsoiled, (so that the field is thoroughly dung was worth 5s. the load, at a cost of £3, 5s. an acre ; 7 cwt. of rags at 4s. the cwt., at a cost of £1 , 8s. an acre ; and 3 cwt. of guano at 10s. the cwt., at a cost of £ 1, 10s. an acre, each of which pro-
stirred ) and the plants are left to stand at intervals (in the lines) of 14 to 18 inches, the lines being 3 feet apart. I will only add one word more about the second sub soiling. After the plants have come up,
duced 36 tons of mangold -wurzel an acre, and are five or six weeks old, if you exa making the value of the crop 28.7d . mine them you will find that even then
per ton. With 26 and 13 loads of farm- their fibres are nearly meeting ; the sub yard dung an acre, 284 and 27 } tons of soiling in the intervening furrow then mangold -wurzel were produced respec- heaves up the ridges on which they are
tively ; and with no manure at all, 154 growing, and they seem to float upon the tons an acre were obtained — so that the soil : directly afterwards,I suppose, they special manures secured an advantage of dive down in quest of further nourish 8 tons over the farmyard manure , and 204 ment. The plants grow so rapidly as to tons over what received no manure. Esti- take entire possession of the soil, and the
matingmangold -wurzel at the same price shade of the leaves prevents the growth as swedes, 10s. the ton, the pecuniary ad- of weeds ; consequently no hoeing is vantage over the produce from the farm- requisite after they have been once thin yard dung is £4, and over that from the ned out to their proper distance. They ordinary state of the soil, £ 10, 5s. au are taken up in November, and have * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, January 1850, p. 141-62. + Journal of the English Agricultural Society,vol. vi. p. 530 .
430
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
been kept till June, or even July, with Mr John Finnie, Swanston, applied 1 cwt. care . " *
11 lb. of nitrate of soda, at a cost of 22s.
an acre on the 13th of May 1843. The 4963. Tares. — Mr John Finnie, Swans- grass was cut on the 10th, and weighed ton, applied 1 cwt. 221 lb., of ammoniacal on the 15th July, at 344 stones an acre ; salts, at a cost of £ i , 3s. 11d. an acre, while that which was not top -dressed only and obtained a cutting of 1143 stones. yielded 181 stones - giving an advantage The ground that had not been top -dressed to the top -dressing of 163stones, which, at
yielded 967 stones, so that the top -dress- 6d. the stone, for half-made bay that year, ing gave an increase of 176 stones, which
was £4, 1s. 6d., leaving a profit of £ 2, 19s.
at 1 d. the stone is 18s. 4d ., incurring 6d. an acre. The crop itself stood thus: a loss of 5s. 7d. an acre.
The crop it-
self stands thus ::
344 stones of clover hay, at 6d. the stone,
£ 17
4
0
1
2
0
Deductthe costof the manure, 1143 stones of tares,at 1 d . per stone, £5 18 11 Deduct the cost of the manure , 1 3 11
Leaving a profit of
Leaving a balance of
£ 16
2 0
0
£ 4 15
The field was exposed to the S. and the soil was eight or nine inches in depth , sisted of very light soil incumbent on easily pulverised, but having a slight mix The field was exposed to the S., and con-
greenstone. In 1841 it was under turnips, ture of clay, and resting on a retentive manured with rich farmyard dung and subsoil.s Edinburgh street manure; and the third part of the crop was eaten on the ground with sheep
4966. Mr James M‘Lean, Braidwood,
În 1842 barley succeeded top-dressed clover and rye grass with 3
the turnips, and was sown down with grass cwt. 4 lb. of guano, at a cost of £3, 18s. seed .
In 1843, the grass seeds not suc
7d. an acre, on the 7th of May 1842 ; the
ceeding, they were ploughed up on the grass was cut on the 24th of June, and 29th of March, and the tares sown on the the hay weighed and stacked on the 5th
1st of April following, with a mixture of of July, the produce being 3981 stones. four parts of tares to one of oats. The
The ground that was not top -dressed
top -dressings were applied on the 12th yielded 125 stones, so that the top-dress of May, and the tares mown on the 10th ing procured the great increase of 273] stones an acre, which, at 7d. the stone, gives £7, 19s. 6d . an acre, and a profit of
of August.t
4964. Mr James Melvin, Bonnington, £4, Os. 11d., after deducting the cost of Mid -Lothian, sowed beans and tares to the manure. The crop itself stands thus : gether in 1843, with 16 tons to the acre of 3989 stones hay, at 7d the stone, £ 12 12 5 Deduct the cost of the manure , 3 18 7 farmyard dung, and top -dressed the ground afterwards with 1 cwt of sulphate of soda, and 56 lb. of nitrate of soda, at a cost of 13s. 9d. an acre, and the produce was 1760 stones.
The part that received farm
Leaving a balance of
£ 8 13 10 1
4967. Mr A. F. Gardner, at Barrochan ,
yard dung alone produced 1632 stones, applied the following special manures : giving an advantage to the top -dressing of 128 stones an acre, which at 14d . the stone is 13s. 4d., about the same amount
as the extra cost of the special manures. The crop itself stands thus: 1760 stones of tares, at 1 d. per stone, Deduct the cost of the manures,
Leaving a balance of
£9 3 0 13
£8
9
4 9
77
Animal charcoal, I cwt.
£0
4
0
0 0
4 3
8 0
0
0
8
0
1 0
Dissolved in sulphuric acid, 56 lb. at 9s. 4d . cwt.
Horn dust, 1 } cwt. at 2s., magnesia, 14 ib. at 5s. 4d. Carbonateof per cwt.
Sulphate ofsoda, 28 lb. at 5s. per cwt.,
0 Common salt, 56 lb. at1s. per cwt., Sulphate of ammonia, 28 lb. at 16s . cwt. , O 4 0 6 Potash, 28 lb. at 24s. per cwt., Carbonate of soda, 28 lb. at 8s. per cwt., 0 2
at a cost of
£1
3 6 0
0
61
4965. Hay of clover and rye grass. * Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. iv. p. 21 . + Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, October 1844, p . 314-5. # Ibid ., January 1849, p . 439. § Ibid., October 1844, p. 314.17. || Ibid ., July 1843, p. 30.
EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES .
431
This mixture produced 931 stones 4 lb., The grass was cut on the 12th of July, while the ground that received no top- and the hay stacked and weighed on the
dressing only produced 331 stones 12 lb., 15th of August, at 497 stones an acre, giving a balance in favour of the top- while the undressed part only yielded 228
dressing of 599 stones, which at 44d. the stones, giving an advantage of 269 stones stone, or £3 the ton , are worth £ 11, 4s.7d. to the manures, at 4}d. the stone, £5,
an acre, and, after deducting the cost of Os. 10d. an acre, and, after deducting their the manures, leave a profit of £9, 13.10 £ d. cost, leaving a profit of £ 3 , 11s. 114d. The crop itself stands thus : £ 17 91 931 stones hay, at 41d. the stone,
an acre .
Deduct the cost of the manures, Leaving a balance of
6
.
The soil was medium loan .
£ 16
1
30
The crop itself stands thus: -£96 44 497 stones hay, at 4d. the stone, Deduct the cost of the manures , | 8 10
an acre .
Leaving a balance of
£ 7 17
65
It was
cropped in 1843 with potatoes, and in
4970. Rye -grass seed.
Mr Charles
1844 with barley sown down with grass Stevenson , Redside, East Lothian , top seeds. The grass was top -dressed on the dressed the second year's rye-grass for 28th of April, cut down on the 26th of seed , growing on red clay resting on stiff June , and the hay stacked on the 28th of clay. The farm is three miles from the sea, and elevated about 100 feet above it,
August, 1845. *
and theexposure of this particular field 4968. Hay of ten years old lea. — Mr was partly N. and partly S. It was fur
Gardner made experimentsof top-dressings row drained in 1837 at 36 feet apart, with of special manures on old lea, varying in tiles and stones placed above them. The age from 3, 6, 10, 15, to 30 years, the preceding cropswere in 1838 bare fallow ; results of which are all instructive, but I 1839, wheat ; 1840, turnips ; 1841 , bar
shallconfine myself to two of the most ley ; 1842, hay; and in 1843, rye-grass successful instances. In 1843 he top for seed . The top - dressing, nitrate of dressed 10 year old lea with half a hun- soda, 1 cwt. 67 lb., at a cost of £ 1, 15s. 3d. dredweight of nitrate of soda, at a cost an acre, was applied on the 7th of April,
of 8s. 9d. an acre, and obtained 533) the grass cut in July, and the hay weighed stones of hay ; while that which received when maturely won, at 320 stones, while no top-dressing yielded 401 stones, giving the part undressed only yielded 174 stones, the special manure an advantage of 1321 giving an advantage to the top -dressing
stones to the acre, at 6d. the stone, £ 3, of 146 stones an acre. Taking the price 6s. 3d.; and after deducting the cost of of bay at £3 the ton, or 4 £d. the stone, the manure , 8s. Id., left a profit of £ 2, 178. 6d. an acre. The crop itself stood thus : 533) stones of hay, at 6d. the stone, £ 13 6 9 Deduct the cost of the manure , 0 g ģ Leaving a balance of
0
£ 12 18
the advantage was £ 2, 14s. 11d ., and after deducting the cost of the manure, the profit was 19s. 8d. an acre ; but the
crop was worth more as one of rye - grass seed , the quantity not being mentioned by Mr Stevenson . The crop itself, as bay,
The crop yielded 325 lb. of hay from stands thus : every 1000 lb. of the grass cut green.t
320 stones hay, at 4d the stone, Deduct the cost of the manure ,
4969. On eleven years old lea, Mr Gardner applied these special manures as
Leaving a balance of
0
0
1 15
3
£6
£4 4 98
a top -dressing on the 23d of April 1844 : Peruvian guano, I } cwt. at 10s. the cwt, £0 15 0 Animal charcoal, I cwt.
04
0
Muriate of ammonia,56 lb. at 16s. the cwt., 8 8 0 Common salt, 56 lb. at 9d. the cwt.
Gypsum , 1 cwt.,
.
at a cost of
0 0 0 1
4! 6
£18 10.
4971. These are the largest returns, from the respective crops enumerated, I can find recorded ; and it might have
proved interesting and instructive, by way of comparison , bad I given the smallest returns also, and which I would wil
lingly have done had space been avail * Transactions of the Ilighland and Agricultural Society, July 1847 , p. 20. 8 Ibid., October 1844, p. 334 . # Ibid ., March 1845. Table B. + Ibid., July 1844, p . 240.
432
able.
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
It would tend to no good result the observed effects of different manures ; and renders
to draw general conclusions from the the influence of the seasons.
What
re
few cases that have been adduced ; but sults still less available is, that “ the careful sifter of experiments," as Professor Johnston well the effects of certain classes of special observes,*mustbear all such things in mind in manures are so obvious, upon every species comparing results, and in attempting to reconcile
of crop they were applied to, thatno harm
such as differ, or to extract general rulesand
can accrue from noticing them . It seems, principles from such as agree. The maker of experiments, also, must neither be surprised nor
then, that all special manures containing a
discouraged if a series of trials which has cost
expense, should, by large proportion of nitrogen, such as rape- him thought, trouble, and season, by the unsus
cake, sulphate of ammonia, muriate of the chances of one unusual
ammonia , nitrate of soda, and suchlike, pected condition of his land, or by other acci dents, be rendered wholly abortive. Such acci.
reduce the weight of the grain they pro dents form one of those numerous sources of delay duce, while they increase the quantity of to which the progress of scientific agriculture is
both grain and straw ; whereas chlorides, peculiarly liable, which have made its advance so the like, increasethe weight but deterio- and insecure,andhavedisheartened and driven
sulphates, soda, magnesia, bone -dust, and slow, many of its steps in advance so doubtful
rate thequality of the grain in conparison To my view , the prospectofusingthe special with ordinary farmyard manure.
manures as they ought and might be used, is very distant indeed .
4972. It may prove useful to give a list of the chemical and commercial names and current price of the various sorts of manures recom
4974. I am not sure that the following sub stances as manures comprehend the entire num
inended for use. It is useless to specify the quan- ber presented to the notice of the farmer. The tity to be applied ofeach to the acre, as experi- prices in 1850, I have endeavoured to obtain as ence has not yet determined the point with cer correctly as possible from authentic sources. tainty ; and it is equally unsatisfactory to state BALINE MANURES . the quantities used by every experimenter on Soiled rock -sali. ls. cwt. every kind of crop, since the ingredients were Agricultural salt, of am only used experimentally, and such quantities Carbonate 50s. to 56s. cwt. Sal volatile , monia, cannot therefore prove a correct guide for others
to follow , and might rather have a tendency to
Carbonate of mag nesia ,
mislead . The best results hitherto obtained are
Carbonate of potash , American potash , 28s. to 423. cwt. soda ,
the only safe ones the attention can be directed Chloride of sodiuin, to ; and cases of failure would perhaps have been
Muriate
equally instructive : but few of these are recorded with the same degree of candour as the instances
Muriate of potash , Nitrate of potash ,
of comparative success. A long time must elapse ere certainty can be attained in a matter admit
ting of such a variety of quantities, and in the
of
Crystals,
monia ,
16s. cwt.
soda ,
Silicate of potash , Sulphate of ammo
Phosphate of soda,
magnesia ,
158. to 18s . cwt. 2s. cwt. 8s, to 10s. cwt.
12s. to 14s. cwt.
Dry salts,
4s. to 6s. cwt .
Phosphate of am 50s. cwt.
monia ,
::
258. cwt.
CALCINED MANURES .
Soda ash ,
Kelp salt , Clay ashes,
Refined kelp ,
L.11 to L.12 ton . 4s. to 58. cwt.
Burnt clay , coal,
2d . bushel. 2s . 6d . ton .
peaty soil, £3 ton. 2d. bushel. peats, 5d .
Dutch ashes , Peat ashes , Turf ashes ,
sods,
Wood ashes, Kelp ,
wood ,
6d .
sca -ware , 5s . to 6s. cwt.
Charred peat, sawdust,
Peat charcoal, 40s. ton . nominal.
Bone black,
Burnt bones,
20s. qr.
MINERAL ACID MANURES .
counteracting the action of another ; the time, Sulphuric acid,
dient , its state of chemical action , and its ten
Gypsum , Epsom salts,
potash , soda ,
Coal ashes,
manner, and form of the application of the ingredients ; the physical condition of an ingre
L.6 to L.8 ton ,
nia ,
and then the young farmer will reap the advantages secured to him by the experience of his experimenting predecessors.
in which it is one of the ingredients employed ; the previous treatment of the land ;one ingredient
28s. cwt. 13s. cwt.
Nitre, Saltpetre, 298 to 30s. cwt.
Sulphate of lime,
4973. That a long time must elapse, ere the
8s . cwt. Is . 3d . cwt.
am
mean time every farmer must experiment for himself in his own peculiar circumstances. The time will no doubt arrive when a large accumu lation of facts will indicate the substances most to be relied on, and all others will be rejected ;
special manures can inspire the same confidence in their effects as is already placed in those of farmyard dung, bone-dust, and Peruvian guano, will appear from the following considerations : the influence of the varying quality of farmyard dung on the results of comparative experiments,
50s. cwt.
Soda crystals, Common salt,
Muriatic acid ,
Oil of vitriol , 4d . Ib . Spirits of salts, ijd. Ib. NATURAL MANURES .
dency to decompose in a given soil ; the differ
Peruvian guano , Ichaboe guano ,
ent varieties of seed causing discordances in
Patagonian guano ,
African,
* Johnston's Experimental Agriculture, p. 71-2.
L.9 to L.10 ton . L.8, 10s. ton .
L.5 , 10s. tó L.6 ton .
SPECIAL MANURES. Saldanha Bay guano , Pigeon dung,
L.5 to L.5, 10s. ton .
African,
L.4 ton . L.4 ton . 5s. ton .
Poultry dung, Cow dung ,
Chamber lye,
Urine, Cow urine,
5d . gallon. 44 to 6d. butt.
Cow wash , Duy ,
Nightsoil,
4s . cwt.
Dried dung, 40s. to 508. hhd . Fish compost, 2s. ton . Shambles' refuse , 6s. ton. Ground bones , 18s. 6d . to 20s. gr .
Dry nightsoil, Fish offal, Animal offal, Bone -dust,
Bone sawdust ,
Bone powder ,
L.6 to L7 ton. 3d . to 9d . bushel. 4s. 8d . cwt.
Soot,
Coprolites,
Phosphorite ,
MANUFACTURED MANURES . & s, cwt. L.15 ton .
Turnbull's guano , Potter's guano , British guano ,
433
sufficiently pure to answer the purpose of a manure ; but in order to test their value, farmers
on purchasing them, should demand from the of acid that they contain ; and by comparing this with a list of the composition of the salts in a crude state, before the practical chemist purifies sellers a guarantee of the quantity of alkali and
them for the apothecaries, it will be ascertained whether the articles purchased are genuine or
otherwise. These ingredients are generally pro cured from the drysalter, and not from the manufacturers, who desire to deal with pur chasers on a much larger scale than farmers are likely to be.
L.ll to L.12 ton .
Clark's 738. hhd .
desiccated}
4976. The percentage of the alkalis and acids
ed compost , Watson's compost, Ryan's azotised ma
-}
nure ,
Liebig's manure , Lawe's manures , Daniell's manure ,
Lance's carbon , humus ,
Turnbull's humus, prepared bones, Nesbitt's inanures ,
:::::::::::
compost,
Dalton's manure A , Dalton's manure B , Poittevin's desiccat.
12s. cwt.
which enter into the composition of the chief chemical substances in the foregoing as articles of commerce, is as follows, and was kindly furnished to me by Mr Tennant, of the
159. cwt. 138. cwt. 18s, cwt. ton . . to L6,108. {1.6...08 L.10 ton .
L.7 to L.12 ton . 8s . qr .
Bonnington Chemical Works, Edinburgh. The deficiency in the percentage of some of the num bers consist of water ; others are nearly pure,
while most contain impurities.
12s. gr .
Percentage of impurity.
L.4 ton . 4s. cwt. 48. cwt.
Carbonate of ammonia ,
44.09 , ammonia , 55.91 | carbonic acid.
magnesia ,
41.60 / magnesia , 36.58 | carbonic acid .
L.7 to L.14 ton .
Spencerna prepared }
L.8 ton .
Superphosphate of Sulphated bones, L.6, 10s. to L.8 ton. Dry sewerage , Animal black ,
Ditto
polash ,
potash ,
phur. potash , carbonic 55.00 / acid , with sul 25.21 phate and silicate
potash ,
lime, Urate ,
Animalised carbon ,
American
84s. hhd. 38. cwt.
acids, besides sul
dissolved in
9s . cwt.
sulphuric acid , Nightsoil prepared
4s. cwt.
with shells,
Nightsoil prepared
Pearl ashes , 4s. cwt.
of potash and im
with gypsum , Wheat manure ,
L.8, 10s. to L.9 ton .
Animal charcoal,
Os. to 6s. 6d . cwt.
purities.
soda ,
REFUSE MANURRS .
Whale oil refuse, Seal oil refuse , Rape oil refuse , Pollards,
Whale blubber, 5s. to 78. ton. Seal blubber,
Rape-cake, Rapedust, Fine bran ,
Sulphuric urine, Soap ashes, Coal tar , Gas lime , Rag lye, Woolien rags ,
L.5 to L.5, 10s. ton . L.5 , 10s. to L.6 ton . 4s. 6d . cwt.
Muriate of ammonia , potash ,
ton .
Sulphated wash , 16s.cwt. Bleacher's refuse, 28s. cwt.
Nitrate of ammonia , ..
Soap-boiler's refuse, 10s. ton . id. gallon. 78. 6d , chaldron . ls. 250 gallons. L.4 to L. 4, 10s. ton .
Shoddy, Croppings, Singeing dust , Flax waste ,
Tanner's bark ,
Chloride of sodium ,
Waste bark ,
20s. ton . nominal nominal. nominal. 6d . ton .
4975. In the nomenclature of the substances enumerated in the first section of the above list,
3
66.11 { muriatic acid. } 2 52.53 potassium , 47.47 { chlorine. } 40 29.29 , ammonia , 60.64 nitric acid . 46.56 / potash ,
potash ,
53.44 | nitric acid.
36.60 ſ soda , 63.40 nitric acid . 42.29 / ammonia ,
lime,
soda,
Silicate of potash , Sulphate of ammonia , lime,
Soda ash ,
Kelp salt,
}5
}
5
}
5
57.71 phosphoric acid. 44.38 , lime ,
55.62 phosphoric acid , 17.88 , soda , 20.40 | phosphoric acid . 50.54 , potash , 49.46 silicic acid.
50 to
350
39.48 | ammonia , 60.52 sulphuric acid . 32.90 lime,
5
}5 magnesia , 32:40{ sulphuric acid. } 5 potash , 45.93 { Fulphuric acid. } 10 soda , 56.18 { sulpliuric acid. } 10 48 per cent of soda . 10 ofcarbonateof}soda. 46.31 { sulphuric acid . 16.70
The pure salts of those names
would be far too expensive for farmers to em ploy. The cruder ones, being much cheaper, are VOL . II .
15.43 | carbonic acid . 39.66 ( soda , 60.34 { chlorine .
soda ,
Pliosphate of ammonia ,
it will be observed that they assume a strictly chemical character ; but they are not entitled to such a distinction, as the salts sold to the far mers for the purposes of manure are not the pure neutral salts which their names indicate, but salts in a crude state, containing impurities of manufacture .
21.81 / soda ,
58. to 7s . ton .
Sugar refuse , 20s. to 40s. Horn dust, 2s. cwt. Gunpowder refuse, 12s. ton . Saltpetre refuse, Ammoniacal liquor, 1d. gallon. Gas water ,
Chloride of lime,
} 20
( potash , with va | riable proportions 60 per of carbonic, sul cent of phuric , and silicic
,
2 E
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
434
4977. The weight of some of these manures by they would receive a much steadier custom . I do the bushel is as follows : Agricultural salt, Bone- dust, Clark's desiccated compost , Daniell's
manure , Dutch ashes ,
Lance's carbon , Lance's manures ,
Muriate of ammonia ,
Nitrate of potash, soda ,
Poittevin's desiccated compost, Soda ash ,
Sulphate of ammonia,
a manure already made up, in which they can
45
take. But as manufactured manures are pre
65 .. 70
sented to the farmer at present, he has no alter native but to have every sample analysed by a chemist, in no respect connected with a manu factory ; and even then he has no positive assur ance of receiving the stock in as pure a state as the sample. Every other trade that deals in pulverised articles is in the same unsatisfactory state. No one is even certain of purchasing genuine oatmeal in theshops ; and as to tea , it is
..
soda ,
not suppose but that chemists could make up the mixtures better than the farmer ; and were a skilful chemist to make up prescriptions for the land as honestly as he does for patients, or for the domesticated animals, I am sure he would establish for himself a large and lucrative trade; because farmers would much rather receive confide, than run the risk of mixing one, in the doing of which they might commit a serious mis
56 60
Rape-dust,
Urate,
阳阳 即 死 % A % 伍 仍 % B % 如 如 如 如 出
Guano , foreign , Potter's, Gypsum , Humus, Lance's, Turnbull's,
Per bushel Ib. Ib. 70 to 80 42 .. 65 60 50 40 56 65 80 .. 84
..
65
50
45 Watson's compost, 4978. The above is a formidable array of adulterated beyond endurance with theleaves of auxiliaries to farmyard dung for the contempla- other plants ; and they who purchase ground tionof the farmer.' Without a classification, he coffee receivea large proportion in it of chicory.
when classified, the names of many of the manu-
When I mention that many of the saline ingre dients, enumerated above, are rendered heavier
factured ones afford him no information as to
by the addition of water, even to the extent of
would feel bewildered amongst them ; and even
their component ingredients. The natural ones 14 per cent, I speak no more than the truth , and are most to be relied on, as they afford both adduce sufficient grounds to warn the farmers stimulating and fertilising materials. The from purchasing manufactured compounded pul saline are generally impure, as may be seen verised mixtures, whose composition cannot be in comparing their prices with those of the
genuine salts in the shops of the druggists. The refuse manures are numerous, and, being generally cheap, may be employed to advantage in composts, or separately. The manufactured ones are also a numerous tribe, and from their very
number are apt to excite suspicion. I have my-
estimated by sight.
4979. In applying all special manures, certain rules should be followed . It is the safest prac tice to avoid bringing the seed sown in imme diate contact with any special manure, so that a portion of soil should always intervene between
self tried at least one of those to be found in the above list, and found it do as little good as so much black mould applied beside them. Even
the manures and the seed.
and recent decisions in the courts of justice have proved that useless and inexpensive mixtures have been sold to farmers bearing the name of good manures containing valuable ingredients. We
up, whether
4980. Earthy special manures should always the famed Liebig's manure has proved a failure; be sown upon the ground after it has been drilled
have only to look at the composition given in (3351 , ) to learn the nature of many stuffs which are passed off as natural guano. The great objection to concocted manures is, that you can have
ey are used as a substitute or as
an auxiliary to farmyard dung ; and the saline manures may be treated in the same manner, when desired to be so used .
4981. But saline special manures, being easily dissolved, are most efficiently applied to the crop after the plants have developed their
no reliance on the effects to be produced by par- leaves , and in the form of a top -dressing. In cels of them obtained at different times, or even
very dry weather, the saline ingredients will
from different parcels obtained at the same time.
rather injure than promote vegetation, so that a time of rain , or of heavy dew early in the
Those made up in large quantities at once, and
in a limited time, cannot have their ingredients commixed with the desired degree of precision. Hence one small parcel producesone effect, and an other quite a different effect. Were chemists more
morning, should be chosen for their distribution over the soil .
4982. Substances in a highly soluble form , such intent on supplying farmers with well-considered as the sulphates, muriates,and nitrates, owing prescriptions, setting forth the proportions which
to their solubility, ought to be sparingly applied
genuine ingredients should bear to one another, each time, but repeatedly, say in two, three, --- and indicating the crop each mixture is four, or five applications, in order to produce intended to promote, accompanied with such
their greatest practicable results at the smallest
instructions as the farmers themselves might expenditure ofmaterials. This point still wants make up the mixtures in safety — than in con- elucidation, and can only be made practical by re cocting compounds for sale, they would confer far more valuable service on practical husbandry than they have hitherto done. They might not
peated experiments undertaken by farmers with this sole object in view . Three to five years of such a course of experiment would put us in possession
thus make so much money in a given time, but of indisputable data for future guidance.
SPECIAL MANURES.
4983. Every onehasheard extolled the great industry displayed by the Chinese and Belgians, in collecting special manure for every species of crop. Mr Fortune gives a very good reason for such industry on the part of the Chinese : “ Firewood,” he says, “ is so scarce in the country that a great portion of the straw , cotton stalks, and grass, which would go to manure the fields, is used for firing, and therefore the plan of growing manure for the land is forced upon the farmers by necessity. The plan of using manure in a fresh state ,instead of allowing it first to decay, has doubtless been found, from long experience, to be the best for the young paddy ( rice.) Prawns and fish of various kinds are frequently used for the same purpose, and in the same way.” 4984. Black earth.— “ Burnt earth mixed with
decomposed vegetable matter is another highly
435
proprietors have a curious kind of rich weed, which they cut into small square bits, and sell at a very high price for the growing of plants in pots . This is obtained chiefly from the ponds and lakes in the vicinity, where the Nelumbium speciosum grows. This soil is so much esteemed, that the price for the best kind is 1 dollar for 3
peculs, ( 3 cwt. 63 1b .) and for the second best I dollar for 4 peculs (4 cwt. 85 lb.) The inferior sort has frequently been sent to England in plant cases from Canton ."
4987. Nightsoil and urine.-" For crops in a vigorous growing state no kind of manure is so
eagerly sought after as nightsoil, and every tra veller in China has remarked the large cisterns or earthen tubs, which are placed in the most conspicuous and convenient situations for the
reception of this kind of manure.
What would
esteemed manure, and is common in all the agri- be considered an intolerable nuisance in every cultural districts. During the summer months, civilised town in Europe, is here looked upon by all sorts of vegetable rubbish are collected in all classes, rich and poor, with the utmost com- . heaps by the road sides, and mixed with straw, placency ; and I am convinced that nothing would
grass, parings of turf, &c., which are set on fire, astonish a Chinaman more than hearing any one rank vegetable matter is decomposed , and the
complain of the stench which is continually rising from these manure tanks. Almost every Chinese
whole reduced to a black earth .
and burn slowly for sereral days, until all the It is then
town is placed on the banks of a river or canal,
turned over several times, when it presents the same appearance as the vegetable mould used in
and the water is not only generally led around the walls, thus forming a kind of moat, but also through many parts of the city. Long clumsy
gardens in England. This manure is not scattered over the land, but reserved for covering the seeds, and is applied in the following manner :When the seed-time arrives, one man makes the
boats are placed in different parts of the town, into which the nightsoil and urine are emptied,
holes, another follows and drops in the seed, and
fields in the neighbourhood of cities are generally
and conveyed from thence into the country. The
a third puts a handful of the black earth on the supplied with it by Coolies, who go every morn top of them. Being principally vegetable mat-
ing to market loaded with the produce of their
ter, it keeps the seeds loose and moist during the
farms.
period of germination , and afterwards affords
manure, slung at the ends of his bamboo pole. In England it is generally supposed that the
them nourishment.
This manure is used me-
Each brings home two buckets of the
chanically as well as chemically in a stiff soil, Chinese carry the nightsoil and urine to their like that of the low lands of China, where the
tanks, and leave it there to undergo fermenta
seeds are apt to be injured in the process of ger- tion, before they apply it to the land. This, how mination . The young crop thus planted acquires
ever, is not the case—at least not generally. In the
a vigour in its growth, which enables it to assi- fertile agricultural districts in the north, I have milate the matter which forms the strong soil, and
observed that the greater part of this stimulant is
to strike its roots firmly into it.”
used in a fresh state, being of coursesufficiently
This practice
is analogous to the one of putting powdered char- diluted with water before it is applied to the coal near the turnip seed, to retain and collect
crops. And there can be little doubt that in
the moisture about it in dry and strong land in this the Chinese act perfectly right, as the manure dry weather. The Earl of Essex tried charcoal inust be much more efficient in this state than when a great portion of its ammonia has passed in this way with success. * off into the air. The Chinese, as far as I could 4985. Oil -cake.— “ What is commonly known learn , have no mode of disinfecting theirmanure; by the name of oil - cake is broken up and used but they seem to be perfectly aware that,ifallowed in the same manner as the vegetable earth, and free access to the air,a great loss must result,owing is also scattered broadcast over the land . The
to the gases which are given out and dissipated.
oil- cake is the remains or refuse of the seeds of Without waiting, then, for fermentation or putre different plants, such as the tallow tree, various faction, the manure is at once applied to the kinds of beans, and of the cabbage. There is a growing crops. On the afternoons, or in cloudy great demand for this manure in all parts of the days, the labourers are seen carrying water from country, and it forms a very considerable branch
the nearest pond or canal to the manure tank ,
of trade both by sea and land. Bones, shells, old lime, soot, ashes, and all kinds of rubbish, are also eagerly bought up by the farmer for the pur-
for the purpose of diluting its contents. This being done , they fill their buckets, attaching one to each end of their bamboo in the usual way ,
pose of manure.
and carry them off to their destination .
When
this is reached, each man takes a small wooden
4986. “ In the Fatee gardens near Canton , the ladle having a long bamboo handle, and with * Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. v. p. 280.
PRACTICE -AUTUMN .
436
this he scatters the liquid over the growing crop . A strong stimulant like this would probably, in other circumstances, have an injurious effect ; but, by using it only when the crops are young and luxuriant, they assimilate its gases, and a most marked effect is produced upon their growth and productiveness. This kind of liquid manure is generally applied to wheat, barley, and all the cabbage tribe, and other garden vegetables ; but
DUTCH Ashes (grey.) Best
Inferior Worst
quality. quality. quality .
13.6 4.9 6.6 1.0
8.6 1.6 5.4
3.9
7.2 2.0
6.4 0.8
4.1 1.2
6.4 3.0
4.5 47.1 6.6
3.5 55.9
1.0
Lime, Oxide of iron ,
not to rice, which is always flooded during its
0.1 0.4
0.2
Magnesia, Oxide of maganese , Sulphuric acid , Phosphoric acid, . Carbonic acid , Chlorine , Alumina,
growth . This manure is sometimes used after putrefaction and fermentation has taken place, and even in this state it is very efficient. In the gardens near Canton , it is often dried and mixed with the soil taken from the bottom of the Lotus ponds, and used for growing plants in pots, or for enriching any particular tree which may be a favourite in the
0.2 3.9
Potashi, Soda,
Silica ,
Charred turf,
4.3
6.1
4.1 0.2 3.4 1.3 5.5 0.5 4.1 70.4
100.0 100.0 100.08
garden.” *
4988. Dr Radcliff mentions that, in Belgium , collected in the manure tanks ( 2062,) is enriched
4990. Charring peat. - Mr A. Grant, Galson, Stornoway, Isle of Skye, gives what seems a
by the addition of rape-cake in the proportion of from 2000 to 4000 rape-cakes of 2 lb. each to 38,000 gallons of urine, and also with the nightsoil from privies — the mixture being applied in given quantities to the particular crop, varying from 104 to 21 tons to the
good way of charring peat,without incurring the trouble and expense of drying the moss into peats before charring. “ When beginning to cut the sod," he observes, “ I take a man that I know to be an active steady spadesman , and set him to cut a sod right across a given space.
the urine from the cattle byres and horses' stables,
When he has advanced five or six sods I set
acre.t
another to follow him , and so on until there are 4989. Dutch ashes . — Dutch ashes produce ex-
as many as the space will give room to work on.
traordinary benefit to the clover crops in
Holland and Flanders. They are derived from burning dried baked peat in Holland, in the
When the whole are started, it will be seen that there is an equal distance between each man, and that if one works less than another, he is imme
following manner : - “ In Holland there are two
diately cut out by the man following him.
This
kinds of turf or peats used for burning - namely, he will hardly submit to, and the consequence is those cut as in this country from the bogs, which that they all work regularly, and at the same burn easily, but give a whitish kind of ashes, rate as your best man, who is their leader. The which are of little use ; and another kind , more sods should be about a foot square , and if the generally used , as being more durable. Having weather should be dry, they will burn in about witnessed the mode of making this kind,” says ten days or less ; but if it has been showery, you Mr John Mitchell, Belgian Consul, Leith, “ I must take up the sods and place them in small shall here describe it. At those ditches or ponds heaps, along the space dug to dry. When dry , the made by cutting away the common peats, or fires should be lighted at the distance of about upper part of the bogs, men are employed in ten yards, in a straight line along the space. dragging from the bottom , by means of long The size of the fires will depend on the depth at sticks, having hooped bags at the end, the soft which the sods were cut, and the quantity as portion of the peat under water, which they pour well as the quality of the charcoal will depend out on the adjacent ground, where the water is on the state of the sods when burning. If they
allowed to drain off. After exposure to the air, have been wetwhen thefires were lighted,although this substance becomes in a few days sufficiently they will burn, still the fire cannot penetrate so consistent to be cut into pieces of the size of a common building brick , which are dried for use. The ashes from this kind of peat are of a yel-
fast into the centre of the sod, and the consequence
lowish -brown colour, and are of the kind so much
soon as the fire begins to break out through the heap, and you see that the whole mass is pro
prized in Flanders that carts go regularly round to the various houses where this turf is used, and carefully collect all the ashes that can be
will be that a great proportion will be reduced to ashes before you can cover your fires. As
perly lighted, you must begin covering the fire very carefully with wet peat, beginning at the obtained .”I A proverb is known in Flanders in foot, and rising gradually with it, until you have these terms : - “ He who buys ashes for clover the whole covered — just in the way a potato -pit pays nothing; but he who neglects doing so, pays is covered—and if the work has been well done, a double price." Their composition is as fol- very little smoke will escape ; but if there should ,
lows, according to Sprengel :
you must put more cover on that particular spot,
* Fortune's Wanderings in China, p. 308-13. + Radcliff's Agriculture of Flanders,p. 49 and 90.
# Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. iv. p . 108. § Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 629.
-
SPECIAL MANURES.
437
and beat the whole down smoothly with the back hot-in which manner many tons per day may of a spade. In this way you will have a large pro- be done in one kiln. Thus rendered brittle, it portion of fine charcoal, and very little will be may be rapidly crumbled by a water- power burnt to ashes." * In other places, such as crushing-mill. And as turf and water are both Lancashire, kilus of sods are constructed plentiful about the granite, this rough powder for the charring of peat, and the fire is com- might be sold to the farmer at a lower price than peat.t
lime. Turf is the best fuel for the purpose , be: cause it gives a low heat, and the lower red heat
4991. Burning clay. — Burning clay was in great vogue in Scotland about 30 or 40 years since, when all the clay districts in summer
farmers have to burn it in the limekiln, at a dis tance from the turf country, the coom used for lime will do very well, requiring less than half
seemed to be covered with smoking heaps.
the proportion used for limestone ; and it need
inenced in them at the bottom by means of dried
it has the tenderer it becomes.
Like
But where
every impulse ofthe kind, the fires soon subsided, not be in the kiln above one quarter the time but in England the practice is continued in many parts. There are two modes of burning clay sods - in large kilns of sods, and in heaps -- the latter being the simplest and most economical method, and is the one practised in Suffolk and
required for lime. But it must go directly into the water whilst red hot, else it will harden again in cooling. As soon as it is hand cold, it may be
Essex .
lime, the better. It might even be burnt upon
The chief thing to be provided with is a
good body of fire before any of the clay sods are
drawn out of the water, to make room for more. The finer it is crushed before mixing with the the ground in heap, with cinders and coal-ashes,
put on ,and the sods are laid on in the form of and a little coal to light it, (like clay burning ;) conical heaps so as to regulate and restrain the
and when red hot through, the water is throwu on,
fire ; and when all this has been done, little atten- to quench it ; but there would be some parts not dance is required at the heaps. The expense of red hot when the water reached them , and these preparing such clay ashes per 100 loads, has been would not be much softened , so it is better to use thus estimated by a veteran clay -burner, Mr
a kiln if within reach.
Poppy, of Witnesham , in Suffolk : Digging and burning sods at 9d . per load , Filling , Is. 6d. the 20 loads, Carting, 3 horses and 2 men , Filling andspreading after burning, Carting and laying on over 2 acres,
.
.
4993. A ton of this powdered granite, mixed with a ton of fresh lime, being heaped up on a
L.3 15
0
0 7 0 16 0 15 0 16
6 0 0 0
thick będ of earth, and closed in all round with earth, leaving the top open, water is to be poured
9
6
enough to slake the lime entirely, on gradually,covered bed of earth at bot
L.6
Being £3, 4s. 9d. an acre, allowing 50 carts to the acre .
and then all
in, the
tom being about 2 feet thick, and round the sides 8 or 9 inches, making good the cracks produced by the swelling of the lime in slaking. After two or three days it may be uncovered ; the
4992. To prepare Granite manure. - Mr J. granite and slaked lime well mixed up with more Prideaux of Cornwall recommends the burning of granite where that rock abounds, in order to
obtain its potass for manure. This, being a new
water to a soft mortar ; and again all covered in close with earth. In this state it may be left two or three months at least, and better if longer
manure, would require to be tried at first on a
keeping it always wet and soft. When wanted
small scale. From its slow solubility its effect is likely to be rather in the weight of produce, for four or five successive crops, than striking the
to use, the whole heap should be well mixed
together, including the earth, which will be impregnated with solution of potash . It is eye at first. The silica it contains, combined then fit for spreading, or mixing with other with the potass, is likely to stiffen the straw of manures.I wheat and other grain ; and it would seem to be
especially suitable for the peat soils, upon the granite, they being deficient in its ingredients, potash, silica, lime , and alumina. The granite itself is in too hard and compact a state to yield
4994. Rape-cake and Rape-dust.-— Rape- cakes should be of a yellowish green colour when new , but they become dark on being long kept. They should be put past in the apartment allotted for
to the weather fast enough for the purposes of a
their accommodation in a dry day and on a dry clay or wooden floor - and, except by their weight,
manure .
But this hardness is not difficult to
reduce. By turning, whilst red hot, into water, they do no injury to wood ; but they should be it is rendered quite brittle and crumbling ; and, neatly built up, free of the walls, in case they being then mixed with fresh lime and water, is should draw damp from them . The air, and made much more susceptible of decomposition, especially damp air, should be excluded from the and easily yields part at least of its potash. The apartment, as it is the cause of mouldiness, and surface granite, already softened by the weather of losing their light colour. New -made cakes will not do, having already lost a part of its
alkali; the chippings and fragments of the solid stone, accumulating at the granite quarries, may be heated with turf in cominon limekilns, and raked down into water as fast as they get red
* Ross -shire Advertiser, 14th July 1845.
will heat a little after they are built up, but after the sweat they have had in the ship this
will not be great ; and to prevent heating as much as possible, the small dust of the cargo should be kept by itself. + Gardeners' Chronicle, 1844 .
# Gardeners' Chronicle, 9th December 1848.
438
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
4995. It is not likely that you will have occa- oxygen , burning at the same time both the sul sion to keep rape-dust — that is, rape- cake after
phur of the sulphuret and a part of the interposed
it has been crushed to powder ; but in case you carbon, forms sulphurous acid, which is given off, should wish to keep it in that state , the mode of and carbonic acid, of which a certain portion doing so is as follows :- It should not be put together in a thick heap, for, however dry it may seem, and however dry it may be kept, sooner or
later it will heat. When put by dry on a dry floor, it may be three weeks or a month before it will heat ; but if damp it will heat soon, and the
remains combined with the lime, and thus helps to displace the sulphur. In a future memoir, M. Caillat proposes to examine and compare the mineral substances contained in leguminous plants growing on soils of like nature, but some of which have ,and others have not been manured
heat will become insufferable to the hand. When- with gypsum ; and he expects to show that it is ever it begins to heat it should be carefully and probable that gypsum naturally finds its way into slowly turned over in shallow bins to cool it. When heated to excess it becomes burnt as black as soot, and gets into lumps like coal-cinders, from which it is not easily distinguished, and in
the crops which it occasions to grow so quickly. By the above method of treating plants with nitric acid, the silica, which lies in the tissue of the epidermis, was isolated as completely as
which state its efficacy is impaired. Many throw possible: itwas perfectly white. By examining rape-dust into a corner of a cart or turnip -shed where pigs and fowls find their way to it, and
silicious pellicles taken from some grasses, which , as is well known, contain a great quantity of
where it is constantly exposed to the moisture of silica in their epidermis, “ I found,” says M. the air ; a practice to be avoided. You should purchase none but newly crushed rape-dust.
Caillat, " that this silica, moulded in the cells of the skin , is very curiously disposed. It exists in little plates, from one to two hundredths of a
4996. Gypsum . In the first part of his in- millimetre broad, according to the plant, packed quiry into the way in which gypsum acts when employed as a manure, M. Caillat has endeavour-
side by side, but whose edges are not smooth , but indented very regularly ,and thus articulated
ed to show that the method of calcination usually
laterally. This organisation of the silica, which
resorted to, for the purpose of obtaining the inorganic parts of plants ,gives inaccurateresults. The weight of the ash does not represent the mineral parts: in consequence of the high tempe rature to which a plant is exposed when calcined , there is a loss in the quantity of nearly all its
has not, so far as I am aware, been yet remarked, seems to me to be worthy of the attention of physiologists.” * 4998. Shell -fish and Shells. — Ground mussel and oyster shells are used as manure for turnips ;
inorganic components; and the sulphates espe- but double the quantity does not produce the cially are, to a great extent, either decomposed same effect upon the crop as bone-dust ; perhaps or destroyed. M. Caillat, by treating plants, it would require 40 bushels to produce the same such as lucerne, clover, and sainfoin , with effect as 16 bushels of bone-dust. One use made diluted pure nitric acid, succeeded in eliminating of shell-dust is the adulteration of bone- dust. nearly the whole of the mineral matters present; Whelks, cockles, and mussels, 16 bushels per so much so, indeed, that, when the pulp was acre, the bushel weighing ) cwt., have been em afterwards washed and burnt, not more than one- ployed with success to raise turnips. Such man fifth per cent of ash was left. This small residue ure is obtainable by those residing near a rocky consisted of silica and a small quantity of per- shore, where no fishermen have their haven - for oxide of iron, both of which are insoluble in the there they gather and use such shell -fish as bait. acid employed . This method of proceeding
always gave more mineral matter than could be
4999. Shell -marl. - In some parts of the
obtained by calcining an equal quantity of the
country, as in Forfarshire, this substance is found in considerable quantities associated with peat. It occurs in beds in deep peat-bogs, lined
same plants ; and it has been thus ascertained that there exists in many vegetables, especially
in the leguminous plants used as fodder, much more sulphuric acid than has been hitherto supposed.
above and below with a layer of very fine unctu
ous clay. It is taken out of the bogs by means of a boat mounted with a dredging apparatus. When of fine quality, and in a dry state, it is as
4997. M. Caillat has ascertained that the loss
white as lime, not crumbling down into powder
of sulphuric acid in the process of calcination like quicklime, but cutting something likecheese arises from a partial decomposition of the sul with the spade, and adhering in large lumps phate of lime. When, for example, he mixed a
known weight of pure burnt sulphate of lime
when spread. It is applied at the rate of from 40 to 50 bolls an acre, the boll containing 8
with wheat starch in the form of paste, and
cubic feet, and costs 9d. the boll, making the manuring £1, 10s. to £ 1, 17s. 6d. an acre, ex
calcined the whole, the residuary ash did not yield as much sulphuric acid as the sulphate of lime used contained . He also found, by another direct experiment, that sulphate of lime, convert-
clusive of carriage. When applied to land as lime, it is beneficial; but, as is too often the case , when applied solely as a manure, in quantities of
ed into sulphuret of calcium by the action of 35 to 45cubic yards an acre, itnever fails to be organic matter at a high temperature, became, in part, converted into carbonate of lime, under
mischievous. It does not easily injure new fresh land ; but when repeated frequently as a sole
the influence of the oxygen in the air : this manuring, I have seen old land reduced to such * Comptes Rendus, August 1849.
SPECIAL MANURES.
439
a state of pulverisation , that the foot, with a ing is a description of a machine that has proved stamp, sank into the ground as deep as the
ankle, and raised a dust with the stroke. CG Ap plied to lands followed by severe cropping,”
itself useful.
5001. The soot-souing machine, from the limit ed supply of the article upon which it operates,
remarks Mr Headrick, “ it has reduced them almost to a state of utter sterility, which they have not recovered to this day.” .#
can never be ranked amongst the most important class of machines on the farm ; still, owing to
5000. Soot.— Soot is a good top -dressing for grass, though it renders pasture rather distasteful
treme lightness, it cannot, without disadvantage,
to cattle. Being a very dirty article to distribute
be sown by the hand. The machine here de
the powerful effect of the inanure itself, its due distribution is of importance, and,from its ex
by the hand, any machine that distributes it
scribed was the production of Mr Main, factor broad -cast will prove useful on farms where it to the Marquis of Dalhousie. + Fig. 436 is a view can be easily obtained in quantity. The follow- in perspective, the horse - shafts being broken off. Fig. 436 .
THE SOOT - SOWING MACHINE.
The machine consists of a bed -frame a a, to which the horse -shafts b b are attached, and is
5002. The operations of the soot-machine are effected thus :
A charge of soot is put into the
mounted on a pair of low wheels o o, fixed upon cylinder, the chest closed , and the machine put and turning with the axle, around which there
in motion. By the revolution of the upper cylin
is built a wooden cylinder d, futed longitudinally. der, the soot is separated from the stones and A chest e is appended to the body -frame, and
refuse with which it is always mixed, and so
descends so far as to half embrace the cylinder passes into the lower part of the chest, from d, and is surmounted by a semi-cylindrical cover, whence, by therevolution of the fluted cylinder, which is left out of the figure. In the interior regulated by a brush extending the whole length of the chest is placed a cylinder of sheet-iron f, of the cylinder, it is distributed in an equal man perforated all over with holes of half -inch
ner upon the ground.
When the soot has been
diameter, and as much apart,giving to it the discharged fromthe upper cylinder, the cylinder character of a riddle.
The cylinder is closed at
is raised from the chest by means of the knee
both ends, and has a trap-door on one side, jointed bars g 9, and when so elevated, the trap hinged, and secured at each end with hook and An axle of iron passes quite through the cylinder, having journals that rest in two jointed bars 99 ; and on one end of the axle, produced beyond the bar g , is mounted a wheel h . The axle of the carriage -wheels c carries also a wheel, and the two are connected by means of the intermediate wheel i, thus producing motion in the perforated cylinder, as well as in the fluted one that is carried by the axle. The purpose of the perforated cylinder, into which the soot is first delivered, is to separate stones or other hard substances that may be mixed with it ; that of the fluted cylinder is the distribution of it from the machine ; and that of the hinged cover to. eye.
door is opened, and the stones and other refuse discharged , preparatory to the next charge ofsoot. 5003. The machine constructed as above de scribed, has been found liable to the inconveni
ence of ceasing to perform its wonted duties, by the soot being converted into a paste by the ac tion of the revolving parts of the machine, when ever the soot happened to be damp ; but which has been effectually rectified by the adoption of broad -cast distributing -wheels, in place of the fluted roller.
The bottom of the chest is conse
quently closed, except the orifice for each wheel, all the other parts of the machine remaining as they were ; or by a proper adjustment, the inter
prevent it flying off during the agitation by the mediate wheel i is left out of the construction. first cylinder.
It is also to be observed, that the distributing
*Headrick’s Agricultural Survey ofForfarshire, p. 406. + Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xii. p. 535.
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
440
orifices for soot require to be about 14 inch diameter.
Phosphate of lime, nesia ,
5004. No correct analysis of coal-soot has yet been made ; but as long since as 1826, Bracconot made the following one of wood-soot : Ulmin — a hydro -carbon , not well defined Carbonate of lime, and a trace of carbonate of
Azotised matter,
magnesia , Water , Acetate of lime, potash , magnesia ,
Sulphate of lime , Ferruginous phosphate of lime, Silica ,
Asbolin — a peculiar acid and bitter principle, Chloride of potassium ,
59.008 – phosphoric acid , 27.669 * 5007. Mr Lawes has established on the east
20-00
bank of Deptford Creek, near Greenwich , very
14.66
4.10 0.53 0-20
Carbonaceous matter, not soluble in ålkalis,
3.256
30-20
12.50 5-65
ammonia ,
56.752
Phosphate of mag
5.00 3.85 1.50 0-95 0-50 0:36 100.00
5005. Coprolites. - In the lower region of the
extensive works for grinding to powder these false coprolites or phosphates, to supply farmers with a valuable substitute for guano, under the
accepted name of “ coprolite manure .” +
5008. Dried carcasesofanimals.- It is known that large quantities of the hides of cattle and horses are imported into this country annually from South America.
The carcases from which those
skins had been taken are left to be devoured by birds of prey and wild beasts, but their bones are collected and exported to this country. I have recently learned that the flesh of these car cases is now not to be lost but is dried, most
liasthe at the Aust near Passage Cliffs, the left bank probably in thesun, and sent to this country for of Severn, Bristol, is on thewell-known Thus we may expect that a large amount of animal matter may soon be made available for the nitrogenous enrichment of our compost heaps. manure .
bone-bed , where two beds of lias, each from
one to two feet thick, are densely loaded with dislocated bones, and teeth, and scales of ex.
tinct reptiles and fishes, interspersed abun dantly with coprolites derived from animals of many kinds. Coprolites are also dispersed plen tifully through the strata of many other parts of the lias, as on the coast at Lyme Regis ; but neither there, nor in the bone -bed at Aust Pas sage, is a sufficient quantity accessible at a cost
5009. A large skin trade also exists from the cattle of the Ukraine, and there the carcases of the cattle are boiled down for the sake of the fat, which when collected is sent to this country as tallow , and the flesh thrown away . The
however, may be induced to dry that would repay the digging for the express tallowcollectors, the boiled flesh of the oxen and separate it from
purpose of collecting these mineralised fragments of skeletons and fæcal balls of digested bones for use as a substitute for recent bone-dust or guano.
the bones, and send both to this country for man
ure, as well as they do the tallow in commerce.
Geologists have long been acquainted with the
abundant occurrenceof rolled fragments of the
5010. Owing to the very low price of mutton
Australia for several colonists carcases bones and teeth of large quadrupeds, and of in have been induced to boilyears downpast, the the of
many marinefishesin the tertiary bedsofgravel their old sheep,after depriving them of their skin, and shells, called crag , in the counties of Nor folk and Suffolk ; and in 1846 an abundance of
in order to collect the fat and export it to this
Felixton, on the coast of Suffolk, together with
rate the bones, and convert both into an article
the ear shells of whales, in the crag beds of country. They might dry the boiled flesh, sepa
large quantities of rolled pebblesof phosphate of
lime, then supposed to be coprolites, were found among the miscellaneous gravel and shells that compose the bulk of the crag formation .
5006. The following is an analysis of coprolites by Mr T. J. Herepath of Bristol : Water,
Organic matter,: Silica ,
Carbonate of lime,
3.400 trace 13.240 28.400
Magnesia, irohi,nec.} 53.730 – phosphoric acid, 26.615 Sulphate of lime, Loss ,
0.736 0.494 100.000
The idea formed by Dr Buckland with regard to
the nature of coprolites is probably correct, and the supposition is borne out by the following analysis of the bone of an ox, which the copro lite closely resembles in composition, when the
of commerce for this country. Thus large quan tities of the richest animal manures may yet
reach this country from abroad, of much greater value than many of the compounds offered at home as manures to the notice of the farmer.
5011. Sugar refuse. The following analysis
of sugar refuse was made by Professor Johnston, for the Leith Sugar-Refining Company, and the Messrs Schultz have kindly furnished me with it. Water,
60-26
Organic matter, (refuse blood and sugar, containing 1.06 of ammonia,) . Common salt, sulphates and phosphates of potash and soda,
Phosphates of lime and magnesia, Carbonate of lime,
Insoluble siliciousmatter and alumina,
20.77 0.77 8.67 3.55 5.98
100-00
It will be observed that the percentage of water * Journal of Agriculture, July 1849, p . 74. t Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. x . p. 520-3.
bone is deprived of its fat and moisture :
441
SPECIAL MANURES.
is large, on which account the carriage of this refuse to a distance is expensive; and the process of depriving it of a part of its water would be too expensive. The quality of this article varies according to the mode of manufacture pursued.
one gallon of the King's Scholars' Pond sewer age at London affordingonly 85.34 grains of solid matter. This quantity of solid matter is partly
soluble and partly insoluble. The soluble por tion weighs 74.80 grains, and contains of 3.29 grains. Ammonia , 0.62 Sulphuric acid, 0.29 Phosphate of lime, 6.05 Lime, .
5012. Animal charcoal.-- Sugar refiners use a large quantity of animal charcoal ; and as it becomes necessary occasionally to separate the fiuer particles by riddling, they dispose of the
latter for manure , which is found valuable as a top - dressing for grass, and might, no doubt, be used with turnip seed to absorb moisture around
.
10.00
Chlorine,
20.25
Potash, soda, soluble animal and vegetable matter,
it in dry weather in strong land. 5013. Sewerage water of towns. — The water
flowing from the cominon sewers of towns may be regarded as a special manure. It must con tain many very valuable ingredients , such as the
contents of water-closets , the drainings from kitchens, and the washings from many sorts of
...
74.80
...
The insoluble portion weighs 10.54 grains, and contains of -
Phosphate of lime,
•
2.32 grains.
Carbonate of lime,
.
1.94 6.28
Silica,
The Metropolitan Sewerage Manure Company was established in 1846 for
manufactures.
the purpose of delivering the water from the
53.55
10.54
In large quantities, these proportions only afford
sewers of London to parties in the country who
1 ton of soluble and insoluble matter in 560 tons
might choose to employ it as a manure ; and the efficacy of such manure is believed to be great everywhere from witnessing the effects produced
of water.
on the Craigentinny meadows in the neighbour-
rich as thatof Edinburgh. Thus, one gallon of the
5015. The sewerage water of London is not so
hood of Edinburgh. There, the irrigated mea-
clear liquid of the Edinburgh sewers, evaporated
dows are begun to be cut for green food for cows
to dryness, gave 117.05 of solid matter, of which
in April, and continued at intervals until the
78 grains were soluble, and contained of
the worth of the soil has risen in and £6 an acre, to £20 a -year. that the sewerage water ought to effect on arable as it has on grass
rent from 30s. It is imagined have the same land, but such
a result by no means follows ; and a stronger instance of disbelief in its good effects on land
Ammonia,
Sulphuric acid, Lime, Magnesia, Chlorine,
Phosphate of lime,
3.00 6.84 trace .
12.10 1.06
27.45
under the spade, cannot be given than the sim Potash, soda, soluble animal and vegetable matter,
} 50.55 :
ple statement of the fact, of the vegetable gardeners of Edinburgh not using it as manure
4.45 grains.
:
end of November, As a natural consequence,
in raising vegetables, though many have the 78.00 Wher d 39.05 grains, the ever a run from a public sewer passes through The insoluble part weighe their gardens, they convert as much ofthe ground animal matter predominating, and contained of into à ineadow as the water will fully irrigate,
opportunity of doing so if they choose.
Phosphate oflime, coloured } 6.6 grains.
Carbonate of lime, Magnesia ,
Earth and sand, :
2.7
...
0.25
29.5 39.05
...
to supply their cows with green food ; and every gardener keeps cows where he has a byre to ac commodate them ; but, to raise vegetables, they purchase cows' urine and cow and horse dung froin the cow -feeders and livery stable keepers, at a large price. For example, they pay 5s. the ton for the dung, and from 4 d. to 6d. the butt of 102 gallons for the urine ; and they apply 60 tons of the dung, and as many gallons of the urine in proportion to the acre, during the sea-
5016. The cartage of 560 tons of water, in proportion to 1 ton of fertilising ingredients held in it, is so expensive that it is proposed to dis tribute the water over the land by means of cast 5014. To cart sewer water to a distance is iron pipes, laid permanently under ground. attended with more trouble and expense than it When a farm is proposed to be manured with
son, at a cost of £ 15 an acre .
is worth.
To avoid the inconvenience, the
the sewerage water of towns, instead of solid
is required to be laid Sewerage Manure Company propose to pump dung, a system of pipes the water from the sewers by means of steam- down in every field in connection with a main engines, and distribute it for miles into the country through iron pipes, at 25s. the 100 tons of the water. Now a very small proportion of the bulk of the sewerage water is solid matter-
pipe, which originates at tank at the steading, and through which the liquid manure must be propelled by means of the steam power which is used for the purposes of the farm at the stead
PRACTICE - AUTUMN.
442
ing. The late Mr Smith of Deanston gave an that the plant prefers the manure in a liquid estimate of the cost required to distribute liquid state from the hand of man, to that prepared by manure over a farm of 400 acres, both with earthen and cast-iron pipes. The statement in regard to earthen pipes was this : Steam -engine of 10 horse power, including boiler , gearing, &c. ,
L.250 0 O
5600 yards main stoneware pipes , 3 inches in diameter at ls. 4d. the yard laid down , Manure tank , 50 feet long by 12 feet broad, and 8 feet deep built and arched in masonry, 7 roods at L.6 , 10s. the rood , L.45 100 Digging 430 cubic yards, at ls. 21 10 0 the yard,
373 6 8
12 10
quantity of water should be put upon it at once than as it gradually falls from the heavens ? I think we cannot, as long as we do not know the is most acceptable to it. But granting that fluid manure is more efficacious than solid, and that 10 tons in that state tell as sensibly upon
0 79 10
0
meter , at 3s. per yard, Cranes, & c .,
30 8
0 3
5 per cent. for contingencies,
39
0
0 4 0
L.780
0
0
200 yards of gutta percha, bore 2 inches dia
Amount of outlay,
manure is thus in fact a mere question of time, and not one of quality or efficacy. Can we be lieve that it is better for the land that a large
exact periods of a plant's growth when manure
Concrete for puddle, 50 cubic yds. at 5s. ,
the rain -water. The effect of solid and fluid
vegetables as 16 tons in the solid state, let us follow the effects of its application. To receive 10 tons, the acre must be deluged with 5600 tons of water, which would stand to a height of
544 inches. To insure a good and quick braird, suppose that half of this manure is required be fore the seed is sown , 274 inches of water would require to be directed upon the acre — that is, a
Thatis, L.1 , 19s. in the gross, or ls. 11}d. yearly_quantity of threeaboutfourths a wholeofyear's rain on the east the average fall of
interest per acre. Thecost of cast- ironpipes was as follows : L. 250 0 0 Steam -engine as above, 5600 yards of cast-iron pipes, 3 inches dia meter, at 2s. 6d . the yard laid down , Manure tank , as above , Hose , as above, Cranes , &c . ,
5 per cent for contingencies, Amount of outlay,
and coast, thecountry,should
be poured on at one time.
How long would this quantity of water be in subsiding, and where are the drains that would
0
convey it away in time, even although assisted
79 10 © 30 0 0
by evaporation ? The other half of the manure , 27 } inches, should perhaps be applied at two dif
700 0
8 52
3 6
4 8
L.1120
0
0
ferent periods of the plant's growth - that is, 13 inches at each time, equal to about a half of the
average fall of rain over the country. But along with all this watering, we must remember that
That is, L.2, 16s. in the gross, or 2s. 9 d. yearly the rain has been falling in its wonted quantity, still further retarding the absorbing property of the soil, and testing the conductingpower of the
interest per acre . *
5017. That liquid manure proves beneficial to drains. This simple statement of the effects of the grass land of the farm ,and that sewerage applying a very limited quantity of sewerage water has raised the value of meadow land in
water is sufficient to show the impracticability
the neighbourhood of Edinburgh very consider
of the scheme, as regards arable land ; and if 15
ably, is beyond doubt ; but that the sewerage water of towns is a proper application for arable land anywhere has by no means yet been proved. Let us consider the probable effects of using
tons of manure are prescribed to the acre, which ought to be to do justice to the crop, the above results would be increased 50 per cent. But if less than the smaller quantity is sufficient for the purpose of manuring any crop on arable land,
sewerage water upon the land which only con-
tains 1 ton of fertilising matter in 560 tons of what is the quantity of sewerage water just ne cessary to produce a given crop ? I visited Mr receive 20 tons of farmyard dung to the acre ; Harvie’s dairy at Hundred-acre-hill farm , in the but let us take 16 tons as nearer the quantity on neighbourhood of Glasgow, on the 3d of August the average. It is alleged that every kind of 1850, to see the mode he has adopted of distri
water. It is desirable the turnip land should
manure in a liquid form is much more effective
buting liquid manure, by means of pipes through
than in a solid one. This is only assertion - we which it is propelled by a steam -engine. This have no proof of it. No doubt, we believe that
was the instance adduced before the Committee
plants only receive manure into their textures of the House of Commons in 1846, of a suc in a state of solution ; and in as far as the soluble ingredients of the manure employed are concerned , they may be taken up by the plants in a
shorter time than when applied in a solid form . But there is no reason for believing that, when
cessful application of liquid manure by means of pipes, by the Metropolitan Sewerage Manure Company, when they had their bill before Par liament.t The cases are not quite analogous, as Mr Harvie applies cow urine directly upon
the solid manure is dissolved in the soil by rain
the land. He has, in summer, 400 cowsgiving
water, it is less acceptable to plants than if it
milk, which are fed on grass, in pasture, for four
had been applied directly in a state of solution ; hours every day, and in the byres receive twice because, ifwe put greater faith in the dissolved a -day a dry mash of distillery draff, ( 1277 ,) and manure supplied by ourselves, we must prefer twice a -day a drink of distillery dreg , ( 1273,) our own agency to that of nature, and believe
there called pot ale, both at stated hours. The
* North British Agriculturist, March 7, 1850; and Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1850, p. 332.
+ Report - Metropolitan Sewage Manure Company - 13th July 1846.
SPECIAL MANURES.
greatest part of the urine is conducted by drains to a large tank, but part of it must be carried away with the dung, which is wheeled into dung -pits, and part poured upon the pasture field . The urine in the tank is kept in
443
dred parts of wheat grown on a soil manured with cow -dung, (a manure containing the smallest quantity of nitrogen ,) afforded only 11.95 parts of gluten , and 62.34 parts of amylin or starch ; while the same quantity, grown on a soil
motion by means of an agitator, worked by the manured with human urine, yielded the maxi steam -engine when the pumps are in action . mum of gluten- namely 35.1 per cent, or nearly It is The pumps send the urine to the highest part of three times the quantity. the ground, where large reservoirs are erected obvious,” he concludes, " that by collecting both to receive it, and from which it is conveyed in the solid and liquid excrements of an animal fed pipes to certain convenient points, where it rises
upon the produce of a certain surface of land, we
to the surface, and is distributed over the ground are enabled to supply to it nearly the same by means of hose-pipes, which extend to great quantity of nitrogen as that contained in the lengths and are removable at pleasure . Although original produce. Thus, we supply to the land theurine runs fresh into the tank daily, yet it is a certain quantity of ammonia in addition to as old as to be in a state of incipient decomposi- that which may be extracted from the atmos
tion, as is evidenced in the reservoirs by the phere by the plants growing upon it.” + It thus rising of gas bells to the surface, before it is applied to the soil. It must therefore be of considerable strength, and yet cannot be nearly so strong as the liquid manure used in Flanders, where it is applied to the arable land. A tank containing the urine, as it runs from the stables and byres when voided by animals supported on
appears, that to deprive dung of the urinewhich accompanies it, is to render it less valuable as a manure ; and although urine, in the form of
liquid manure, be more valuable than dung, it is so at the expense of the dung.
A farmer who
would only employ the urine as a manure, as Mr Harvie does, and dispose of the dung, may en
green food, holding 30,000 gallons, is enriched rich hisown land, provided he has the command with from 2000 to 4000 rape-cakes of 2 lb. each, of a sufficient quantity of urine ; but he would to every 1000 gallons, and a large quantity of thereby so much impoverish the land to which the contents of privies obtained from the towns,
the dung he sold would be applied.
On a dairy
andthe 2480 gallons of this rich manure are applied farm , such as Mr Harvie's,such a system may acre . * to be pursued ; but in ordinary farming it seems questionable practice to deteriorate the value of 5018. The urine is distributed over grass,
the dung by separating the urine from it into a
turnip land, and garden ground ; and as far as I could judge of its effects, I would say that the
tank, as may be inferred from the statements of Liebig given above.
ground was under-manured, and none of the
crops were remarkably good. Such a system
5020. Coal ashes . - Coal ashes consist in gene
seems practicable on a large dairy farm , but not ral of lime, often in a state of gypsum, with mag where the command of a large quantity of urine
nesia, silica, alumina, and oxide of iron, mixed with a variable quantity of bulky and porous age water could not have produced even so good cinders, or half-burned coal. Its composition an effect as the urine, by distribution from pipes. is as follows, according to the nature of the coa cannot be obtained.
I am satisfied that sewer-
l :
5019. Of the comparative utility of dung and urine in supplying nitrogen to plants, we have the authority of Liebig for saying, that " the solid excrements of men and animals contain
comparatively very little nitrogen," and that the urine of cattle, horses, and sheep, contains far more nitrogen than their solid excrements.
“ Now ," he continues, " as it is evident that the nitrogen of plants and seeds used by animals as food must be employed in the process of assimilation, it is natural to expect that the solid ex crements of these animals will be deprived of it in proportion to the perfect digestion of the food, and can only contain it when mixed with secre
St Etienne. Cantyre. Berthier.
Silica,
45.5
Alumina, insolublein acids, 622 Alumina, soluble in acids,
5
Lime,
6
Magnesia,
8
Oxide of manganese, Oxide of sulphuret of iron,
Sulphuric acid,
Thomas.
16
43.9
3.2 3.3
1.4
.
1.7
Chlorine, Potash and soda, .
0.1 0.3
100
99.49
Coal ashes are admirably suited for absorbing any sort of liquid manure, and of first preserving The liquid manure and then imparting it to any crop it may be top of animals must, on the other hand, be of the dressed upon . Grass lands derive much advan highest value with respect to nitrogen, because tage from such a top - dressing, and when applied it contains all or nearly all the nitrogenorigi- to strong soils, it has the effect of producing a nally present in the food consumed .” Liebig favourable physical change upon them, (2803. ) gives a striking instance of the different effects 5021. Wood ashes.- " Wood ashes lixiviated of dung and urine on a wheat crop. “ One huntions from the liver and intestines.
Under all
circumstances, they must contain less nitrogen than the food .
• Radcliff's Agriculture of Flanders, p. 39.
+ Liebig's Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture, 3d edition, p. 50-3. # Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p . 632.
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
414
with
cold water," observes
Liebig,
con- quarters, or 104 bushels, an acre ; and its
tain silicate of potash in exactly the same pro
straw toabout a third more than the usual
portionasstraw , and that,in addition to the sale quantity. Such a result set other experi it contains considerable quantities of phosphates. Different kinds of wood ashes possess very une
menters to work, but no one has as yet
qual value as manure. Thus, the ashes of the been able to reap similar advantages from oak are of the smallest, those of the beech ofthe similar experiments asDr Forster obtained greatest value . Wood ashes from oak contain 4 from his ; and it is doubtful, in the present to 5 per cent of phosphates ; those from the beech state of our knowledge of the subject, contain the fifth part of their weight of these salts. The quantity of phosphates in the ashes that electro -culture will be prosecuted
of firsandpinesamountstofrom 9 to 15 per cent ; the ashes of the poplar contain 164per cent,and those of the hazel-nut tree,12 per cent. beech, we furnishto the soil as much phosphates
further for a time. Still, it is requisite that I give some account of the means employed for obtaining the assistance of the electricity of the air; but, before doing
as are contained in 460 lb. of fresh human ex-
so, it will be satisfactory to show the
crements. According to theanalysis of Saussure, relation which exists betwixt the elec
100 parts ofthe ashes of grains of wheat contain tricity of the air and of the earth — and I 32 parts soluble, andsoluble 44.5 parts insoluble, or al cannot do sobetter than in the words of together 76.5 parts and insoluble phos-
phates. The ashes of wheatstraw contain in all Mr William Sturgeon of Manchester, who 11.5 per cent of phosphates. Thus, with every
has bestowed much attention to the sub
100lbs.of theashes of beech,wefurnishtothe ject of electricity in all its bearings. field phosphoric acid sufficient for the production of 4000 lb. of straw, (calculating its ashes at 4
5024. “ It may not be out of place to
per cent, according to Saussure ,) orfor 2000 lbs.
of the grains of wheat, (calculating their ashes at remind those not accustomed to the study
1.3 per cent,according to Saussure.) Thedry of electricity,” observes Mr Sturgeon, fruit of the horse- chestnut yields 34 per cent of " that this active element of nature is so ashes, possessingand a of similar composition the universally diffused through every part of ashes ofmaize, the grain of certaintokinds
the terrestrial creation, that it becomes an occupant of every part of the earth's sur
of wheat.”
face , and of the shell of air that surrounds This general definition necessarily
it. ON ELECTRO- CULTURE.
leads to the inference that all the various
objects which clothe the surface of the 5022. Any material that promotes the earth - such as trees, shrubs, plants, flowers, vegetation of plants may be regarded as a and crops of every kind --partake of this
special manure. In this view , electricity, electric distribution, and that each indivi when applied practically to a crop, may dual object is possessed of more or less of be classed amongst the special manures.
this extraordinary element—or, in electri cal language, that each is possessed of its
5023. That some connection exists be- natural share. It must not be understood,
twixt the growth of plants, or the germi- however, that this natural distribution confers upon different objects an equal lution of the electric fluid , has been satis- share, either in proportion to their magni
nation of their seeds at least, and the evo-
factorily demonstrated by M. Pouillet, who discovered that positive electricity was given out from plants when germinating, ( 127. ) As a consequence, it has
tude, weight, or shape ; but, on the con trary, that each object contains a share peculiar to itself, according to its degree of susceptibility of receiving the fluid, or
been suggested to render available the according to its capacity. But whatever influence of the electric agency, in raising may be the quality due to any individual plants on a large scale on the fields of the object, under ordinary circumstances, it farm .
Dr Forster of Findrassie, near becomes exquisitely susceptible of disturb
Elgin, was the first to draw the attention of agriculturists to this subject, in 1844 ; and in that year he published the resnlts be obtained in the electro -culture of Che-
ance when the circumstances vary, and whether these be of natural or artificial occurrence. A disturbance of the electric fluid, in any body, may be accomplished
valier barley, which was increased to 13 either by abstractions, additions, or by * Liebig's Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture, 31 edition, p. 184.
ELECTRO -CULTURE .
445
merely forcing a part of it to some parti. electricity, but a bad conductorof heat. cular side of the body operated on. In the The metals are the best electrical conduc first condition the body would be electro-
tors ; but there are many other kinds of
negative, in the second electro -positive, matter which rank high in this capacity.
and in the third electro-polar. These, Such are trees when full of sap - water, together with the natural electric condi- and consequently all growing plants, by tion, would appear to number four distinct virtue of the water they contain. Moist electric states or conditions that any body land is also a conductor of electricity. or object may assume, according to the Dry sand is a bad conductor, so is dry circumstances in which it is placed; but mould of every kind ; but limestone rock as the terms positive and negative are ex- and dry chalk are still worse ; and dry air pressions wbich, in a strictly philosophical is a worse conductor than any of the rest, sense, imply nothing more than the rela- though moist air is a tolerably good con tide electric conditions of bodies, any indi- ductor.
When the electric fluid meets
vidual body or object may be positive to with a good condnctor, it spreads with another, whilst at the same time it is ne- rapidity over the conducting surface; but gative to a third . Hence the only abso- when it meets with an inferior conductor, lute electric state that any body can ap- it has to encounter a resistance which, in
pear in is the polar-a condition growing some cases, it is unable to overcome, con plants must necessarily assume. The sequently its forces are limited within a various objects which constitute the vege- certain range of locality.” table clothing of the land are now in pre cisely the same electric condition, being 5026. “ Another grand law of electri
continually positive and negative with city, to be noticed by the electro-cultural regard to each other. An oak and an ash physiologist, is the following :-In all tree, for instance, though both in their cases of electrical disturbance, whether the ordinary or normal electric states, are not fluid be in the act of absolute transfer
endowed with the same degree of electric force, one being positive tothe other, and, consequently, the latter negative to the former. A similar inequality of electric
from one body to another, or traversing conducting channels in the character of currents, or spreading itself over sur faces of moist land or other conducting
force occurs amongst growing plants and matter, the transmission is uniformly from their manures, and even amongst the the positive to the negative parts ; for in various elements which
constitute the
no case can the fluid be transmitted from
latter, no two of them being precisely a negative to a positive body, nor from a
alike at the same time. The normal pró- negative partHence to a itpositive part of the is thai those parts
ductions of the earth also , as decidedly as same body.
those just noticed, display a diversity of the prime conductor of an electrical
of electric action amongst themselves, machine, which are in the act of receiving no two of them being found alike. Hence Auid from the revolving glass,are negative the particles constituting each and every with respect to the latter, although, at the variety of soil are endowed with a pecu- same time, the remote parts of the con liar electric force - a circumstance of im- ductor be positive to all surrounding bodies,
mense importance in the contemplation of and whether they be delivering the fluid the vegetable physiologist, and carefully as fast as they receive it or not. There
connected withall electro-cultural opera- fore the prime conductor is electro-polar, tions."
under all circumstances, when the machine
is at work. Now, as this is a universal law 5025. “ When the electric fluid is in when electric fluid is transmitted from one
abundance and in motion, it is accom- body or object to another, it follows that panied by a development of heat which, the electro -positive state of the air, contigu in some cases, is of sufficient intensity to ous to growing plants, canses the latter to
fuse the mostrefractory substances. Elec- become electro-polar,even when they are in tricity, like heat, has its conductors and the actof transmitting fluid to the ground non -conductors, but in some cases they are their upper parts being negative relatively different for the two kinds of force. For to the roots, whilst the latter, in their
instance, charcoal is a good conductor of turn, are positive to the contiguous manure
446
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
and soil, to which they deliver up the table tissue that is formed within and upon fluid - or rather such portions of them as are not retained for the expansion and growth of the plants - as faithfully as the
the surface of the land .”
leaves and stems receive it from the air . "
geon will enable you to understand the
5029. These observations of Mr Stur
principle upon which the electric fluid 5027. “ From this train of reasoning, may be made to operate on vegetation ;
we are led to some of the most interesting points in vegetable physiology. The electro-polar condition of plants qualifies them in an eminent degree for the per-
and the only thing that now remains to render electro - culture intelligible, is to
describe the mode of erecting such an apparatus as shall secure the command of
formance of those operations wbich deve- agreater supply of the electric fluid to the lop electro - chemical phenomena ; and crop than it would naturally receive from
what is very remarkable, the laws of this the atmosphere. Mr Sturgeon's apparatus beautiful branch of electricity are rigidly is simple, and its arrangement may be
enforced and admirably complied within seen in fig. 437. Dr Forster of Findrassie the decomposition of carbonic acid gas by their foliaceous parts ; for, in this process, the electro-positive carbon is drawn to the electro-negative poles of the plants, in pre-
erected bis apparatus in the line of the meridian, from an erroneous idea that an electric current is constantly moving round the globe in the direction of E. to
cisely the same manner as any electro- W. In these latitudes, the E.winds pre negative pole, artificially made, would vailing in the spring,and the W. winds in release the carbon from the oxygen, and summer, Mr Sturgeon erects his apparatus
select it in preference. This remarkable in the direction of N,E. and S.W., and fact, based as it is on the strict principles of electrical action, not only establishes a correct view of the modus operandi by which plants are enabled to acquire food through the instrumentality of their foliage, but appears to be well calculated to
N.W. and S.E., in order that the entire apparatus may receive those winds as near to the right angle as they can. The com ponent parts of the apparatus consist of poles a b c d, fig. 437, which should be Fig . 437.
give a clue to every operation by which
vegetables become nourished and elaborate their food, in all the variety of structure they so abundantly and beautifully assume. But as the electro - physiology of the vege table kingdom has never yetbeen explored
e
beyond the humble examination of an
operation only, any farther remarks on a subject so imperfectly understood would be premature in this place ; although no doubt can now remain respecting the in start 9
fluence of electric forces in rearing, adoru ing, and giving full development to every class of vegetable structure."
ELECTRO-CULTURE APPARATUS.
fixed at least 15 feet above the ground,
5028. “ Contemplations on electro- and they may be of any sort of wood, and chemical forces, thus disencumbered of seasoned or not. Young larch trees would
complexity, lead, by easy gradations, to form good poles for the purpose .
The
many recondite operations of nature , and pole c is set N.E. of a, and d is S.E. of 6.
to the discovery of those hidden actions The tops of the poles a and c are con by which the ever-varying transformations nected by the wire e, and those of b and d of matter are accomplished . They are by the wire f; and as one wire should be well calculated to afford a clue to those not less than 9 inches above the other, the
atomic operations which , in silent seclu- poles which bear it should be raised as sion, select the appropriate materials, con- high above the other poles . The wires are
vey them to their destination, and elabo- twisted round the poles and brought down rate them in the structure of every vege- into the ground , to connect with the sys
ELECTRO -CULTURE.
447
tem of wires under ground. The under ground wire and exterior to it at the ends ground wires connect the poles in the same of the enclosed plot, was much taller, had
manner as those above ground ; the dotted stronger stems and blades, and of a far wire g i connecting the poles a and c, and deeper green colour than any other plot of k h connecting d b. In order to spread the oats on the field.” The influence was per fluid over a larger surface, collateral wires ceptible on the crop as far as the fourth
are made to diverge at right angles from ridge westward, and exterior to the wires. each side of the principal wires g, h, i, As to the barley, “ the ridge within the and k. The ground wires should be sunk wire, even on those parts of it exterior to at least 3 or 4 inches under the sur- the plot enclosed, was the finest barley in face, that the fluid may be the more easily the field ; but the colour was only a mere diffused by the moisture of the ground. shade deeper than that of the other parts The wires should be of copper, becanse of of the crop. The first ridge outside the
its superior conducting character, and its wire was obviously the next best; but the
capability of withstanding the damp air distinction here was nothing like so finely and moist ground.
The upper wires marked as in the oats .” The straw of the
should be elevated as high as practicable ; oats was 6 inches taller under the influence and as tall trees are conductors of electri- of the apparatus than that beyond it ; and city, the apparatus should not be erected although the grains were in no respect near trees. Such an apparatus would superior, the numbers of them on each stalk
answer for a space included within 50 averaged 50, while the rest of the field yards square ; but should the poles be only averaged 35. The barley also showed placed at a much greater distance, the a superiority, but not much . The appa
wires will be apt to stretch and bend down ratus erected in Sir Thomas Trafford's from their own weight, on which account field of oats, sown on inossland not
it would be necessary to place another pole thoroughly dried, gave a greater length of at the centre of bisection l of the ground straw of 10 inches,in the early period of and upper wires. The apparatus should its growth ; but at harvest the entire crop
be erected early in spring, immediately was a fine one, measuring 7 feet in length. after the crop has been sown --and it may Within the wires a splendid crop of this be erected on grass land as well as among tles had sprung up. At Kirby Lonsdale, the cereal crops ; and every repetition of the the apparatus was erected on agreen field,
apparatus of the above dimensions may be and the result may be best appreciated made to comprehend any extent of ground when described in the emphatic provincial desired. style of Cumberland, by William Muckald , one of the hinds, — “ Wy, I niver sa t like 5030. Since it matters not whether the
in o me life ; it beat o t' other eet field far
ground wires receive the electric fluid by enough. John Hodgson help'd ta maa 't, means of the upper wires or the poles, it en when we cam tet thick spot, he sed,
occurs to me to suggest that metallic rods
dam t wires, t' gerss is sa thick I can
might be used instead of the wooden poles, hardly maa't.' En I's sure it capt owght and dispense with the upper wires alto- et iver ) saa ; that it did.” At Casterton gether. A few sharp points would con- Hall, the apparatus produced “ no im
vey abundance of electricity to the rods provement ; or, if any, very slight.” or pillars. But perhaps the cost of these rods would be more than that of the poles
5032. The conclusions that may be legi and wires, and any such difference is a con- timately drawn from the use of electric
sideration for economy.
wires in cultivation are, that in cold, dry easterly winds, the ground becomes so dry
5031. Mr Sturgeon erected, in 1845, and hard that, although the air be chargeil such an apparatus on a grass plot in the with the electric fuid, the dry ground can Botanic Garden of Manchester ; but no neither receive nor distribute it : that perceptible influence on the grass was when the air is dry over the crop , it offers known to occur. He erected another on a considerable resistance to the dispersive the farm of Didsbury on barley and oats, tendency of the fluid, so that the points the third crop from the fallow one ; and of the leaves and stems of the growing “ the ridge of oats, both within the under- crop cannot obtain sufficient quantity of
448
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
the Auid to stimulate them beyond ordinary precludes it from being acted on by the vegetation ; and the only part of the crop organs of plants. that does receive it in excess is that im
mediately round each pole : that genial 5035. Liebig's idea is, that as hydro showers, laden with electric matter, soon gen, oxygen , nitrogen, and carbon , are saturate the land with moisture, rendering liberated in the decomposition of animal
it a good conductor, and supply it abun- matter in the soil, and as hydrogen has a dantly with the electric stimulus : and predominating affinity for nitrogen, am that moist air, losing its insulating quality, monia is formed in the soil, in which the
becomes more uniformly charged with roots of plants receive it in both the gase the electric fuid to a great height above ous and saline states, the latter being
the surface of the land, and yields it with- formed by the union of ammonia with car ont measure to the pointed and sharp -edged bonic acid, generated by carbon and oxy leaves of the corn and grass, as well as gen, and easily soluble in water ; but while
other conductors more elevated in their the roots of plants thus receive ammonia vicinity.* as it is formed in the soil, part of the ammonia escapes into the atmosphere, and 5033. I do not suppose that electro- returns to the soil with the rain, for the culture can be extensively practised, even use of plants — the quantity received di if experience should prove it to be benefi- rectly from the soil being greater than cial, because it cannot be prosecuted near that brought back again by the rain . The
trees with any effect; and the trouble and inorganic constituents of plants are de expense of putting up, taking down, and rived directly from the soil.t repairing the apparatus every year, is attended with more inconvenience than
5036. This is a very probable inodo by
To a which plants receive their nitrogen, an limited extent, however, it does seem suited essential element of their existence ; but to practice. It might promote the growth if it be strictly true, it seems to a practi can be followed out as a system .
of a patch of turnip seed, ( 2476,) or of a cal mind an over-straining of the subject,
small field of clover seed, ( 4379,) or a part to press upon farmers the absolute neces of the potato or turnip crop. It might sity of preventing any escape of aminonia also prove useful around gardens. from their dung heaps. It appears that plants receive more ammonia from the
soil than from the atmosphere; and as the ON THE RATIONALE OF THE APPLICATION
atmosphere supplies nearly all the am
OF SPECIAL MANURES .
monia the cereal crops require, it is no stretch of improbability that the soil con
5034. The rationale of the application tains as much as they do require. If these of the special manures is simple, if the inferences be correct, the necessity for views propounded of their action on plants incurring the expense and trouble of using be correct. You have already seen that the means of preventing the escape of
every plant is made up of two states of mat- ammonia into the atmosphere is not very ter, the one organic, the other inorganic, apparent.
( 198. ) The organic portion is said to be taken by the plant from the atmosphere
5037. Mulder's views of the manner
alone, because its elements, oxygen, hydro- in which the ammonia of the manures is gen, nitrogen, and carbon exist in the at- produced in the soil, are these :- That mosphere in a free state. It is not sup- several organic constituents of the soil
posed, however, that plants derive their namely, the humic, ulmic, geic, crenic, nitrogen from the nitrogen as it exists in the atmosphere, but in the state of ammonia. The nitrogen of the air is considered necessary only as a diluent for the
and apocrenic acids — after being combined with ammonia, are taken up in solution by the roots and assimilated by plants, on the ground that the compounds which
oxygen, and its character of inactivity these acids form with ammonia are very * Journal of Agriculture, March 1846, 271-96. Liebig’s Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture, 3d edition, p. 41-59.
RATIONALE OF SPECIAL MANURES.
449
readily soluble in water, and because the cellular tissue of the plants. Now , it several of these acids possess polybasic properties, by which they are enabled to form combinations with potash or soda, ammonia, lime, magnesia, and oxide of iron , in which several of these bases are present at one and the same time : that ammonia is formed in the soil by the com-
is evident from this, that, as the said pro duction of humic acid is goingon gradually, there are only small quantities present at the same time in the soil, that which is formed being instantly taken up by the roots. There is a continual formation and absorption of it ; and thus, though the
bination of the nitrogen of the air there liquid is always cold and weak, and so with hydrogen in the nascent state, as adapted to the tender extremities of the liberated during the decay of vegetable roots, it is constantly present, and so a and animal substances in the soil.
sufficient and nourishing supply ispresent
5038. Dr Fromberg thus explains Mulder's views of the action of plants upon manures in the soil : “ In whatever way the decay of the organic substances present in the soil be conceived — the main pro . ducts being humic, ulmic, and crenic
whenever required . The beautiful con nection which this theory constitutes be tween the production and use of ammonia and the humic acid in the soil is evident, and certainly not the least of the advan tages of the theory itself. It agrees re markably well with the great rule of
acids — there will always be a large ex- nature, that there is a close relation of
cess of hydrogen, which, being in the causation between any two products whose nascent state, has all its properties un- presence is necessary to each other. The weakened . It is, moreover, set free amidst experiment of Mulder, showing the luxu
a decaying and porous organic substance, riance of plants grown in a mixture of with a limited access of air, and at a low charcoal, asbes, and nlmic acid, superior temperature - conditions essential to effect to those grown in mere charcoal and ashes,
the production of ammonia, and to prevent that of nitric acid, which latter substance iscommonly found in the heatof the tropical regions. The decaying organic matter sets free carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and a little
and, at the same time, the larger quantity of ammonia produced and assimilated by the former, apparently tends to solve two problems at once."*
5039. In whatever way those organic tendency in this condition, forms carbonic constituents of plants, the nitrogen and
nitrogen . The carbon, obeying its strongest
acid, in so far as it can find oxygen enough carbon, are derived, there can be little present in the air, which is continually doubt but that their inorganic constituents circulating through the porous soil. The are derived from the mineral ingredients
small remainder of carbon, if a sufficiency of the soil, which, however, must first of oxygen cannot be procured, will com- assume that state in which they are most bine with part of the hydrogen ; and hence easily dissolved by water, as a condition the quantity of carburetted hydrogen in in which the roots are enabled to absorb marshy places and stagnant waters. The them for use. Wbile describing the cul
remainder of the hydrogen takes the ni- tivation of each plant, I have specified its
trogen, simultaneously liberated from the inorganic ingredients, that they might be plant, and also from its intimate mixture directly referred to when I came to speak with the nitrogen in the atmospheric air ; of the use of special manures ; the theory and thus ammonia is formed . This am being, that the knowledge of the compo
monia, the extraordinary affinity of which sition of plants, and of the soil in which for humic, ulmic, and crenic acids is very they best grow , indicates at once the well known, combines inmediately with exact composition of the special manure
part of the decaying substances, when still which should best promote the growth in a state of humus, either extracting or and maturing of the plants. From the producing huinic and ulmic acids, with vast variety in the proportions of the com which it forms humate and ulmate of am- ponent parts of different plants and soils,
monia, so extremely soluble in water, and it seems almost impossible to concoct a fit for progressive decomposition within special manure that shall produce a given * Journal of Agriculture, October 1845, p. 50. VOL. II.
2 F
450
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
result in each case ; but it is evident, commenced such an investigation, and has where the composition of both plant and already published some interesting parti soil is unknown, nothing but chance can culars on the composition of wheat clays. * guide the application of a special manure.
At any rate , until the composition of all
5042. Possessing such analyses of plants
the cultivated plants, and of the different and soils, agriculture would be made com characters of soils, have been ascertained, paratively an easy art, as appears from no fixed formula of particular manures can these observations of Dr Fownes, — “ If be prescribed with certainty. we were in possession of a set of analyses of sufficient completeness and extent, both
5040. Much of late years has been done, of the proximate organic and mineral con and is now doing, by chemists, to ascertain stituents of all such substances, the pro the composition of the cultivated plants at portion of water, and other things — this
every important period of growth, and a information, combined with a knowledge great deal more has yet to be accomplished . of the gross weight of such crops, raised
But it is feared that the proportions of on a given space of ground, would enable the mineral ingredients of those which us to manage matters that the nature of have been already subjected to analysis the food and the extent of its supply should
do not exist in the plant in the state the be duly apportioned to each class of plants ; analyses represent them to us, nor are best and that, instead of annually loading our suited for absorption into the plant. The lands withmanures, frequently at a great method of obtaining the mineral consti- expense, whose mode of operation we little tuents of the plant by burning, seems to understand, and in which it may bappen imply that all the inflammable mineral that those very substances wanted are
substances must have been destroyed by deficient, while others,already redundant, the fire along with the large vegetable are supplied in injurious excess, we shall portion. Hence the quantity of sulphuric be able to proceed in a more systematic acid is probably always representedbelow manner, and give the quantity and kind the mark ; and such a result alters the of food required, and no more." + proportion which the rest of the ingre dients bear to one another. The only
5043. I have no doubt but that much
way of practically remedying such a de- of the mauure laid upon the land is given fect is to apply a larger quantity of each by farmers without a matured idea ofwhat
ingredient than the apparent wants of the its constituents should produce ; and had plant indicate. Each inorganic matter is farmyard manure been other than a ma
certainly essential to the wellbeing of a terial containing all the ingredients of the plant ; and although its proportion may plants raised on a farm , many more failures
vary relatively to the other ingredients, it than have actually occurredin crops would takes its placeaccording to some fixed law . have been experienced by the general body of farmers. But howevereasy it may be to
5041. The analysis of soils is a tedious apply manures, after the component parts and dilatory process, and ere every variety of plants and soils shall be known, as
can be analysed, ages must pass away. long as the limited knowledge on those But soils indicate distinctive characters particulars exists, manures must continue which canuot be mistaken, at least by to be applied in the same manner they practical agriculturists, (332 ;) and were a have hitherto been , with such gradual im
few minute analyses of each class made, from specimens selected from localities famed for the kinds of crops which they raise, a standard for each class might be established which might answer all practical purposes for reference. Dr Tho-
provement as the light of progressive investigation and inquiring experiments shall direct. In the existing state of knowledge, it seemsincredible to the prac tical farmer that, after all the expense he has incurred in purchasing the best con
mas Anderson of Edinburgh, Chemist to structed implements, and the trouble he has the Highland and Agricultural Society, has bestowed on working the land with them, * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1850, p. 281 . + Journal of English Agricultural Society, vol. iv. p. 535.
RATIONALE OF SPECIAL MANURES.
to bring it to the best degree of tilth
451
5045. "They undergo various chemical
suited to the particular crop it is destined changes in the interior, chiefly while cir to grow — and after the labour of preparing the large quantities of manure which he directly lays upon the land, and the cost which he cheerfully expends in purchasing auxiliaries to his home manure, to be
culating or contained iu the sap, by which changes they are prepared and fitted for entering, when and where it is necessary , into the composition of the solid or fixed parts of the plants. Thus the starch of
used over and above as top-dressings on the seed is changed into the soluble dex
the growing crop - after all this toil has trin and sugar of the sap of the young been bestowed over a large proportion of the plant, (3509,) and then again into the year, it seems incredible to him when be insoluble cellular fibre of the stem or wood, is told that it only secures a proportion as the plant grows; and finally into the
seldom exceeding 5 per cent of the crop insoluble starch of the grain, as its seed he has reaped, while the other 95 per cent fills and ripens. has been derived from the atmosphere
5046. “They each exercise a chemical have at all times without stint or trouble. action, more or less distinct, decided, and
alone - an element which he knows he can
I am sure that every practically-minded intelligible, upon the other elementary man will receive such intelligence with incredulity ; and if the soil is only capable of affording the mineral ingredients of the plants, well wrought and well supplied with manure as it may be , the farmer's exertions must be valued at a small amount; and hence the consideration arises whether the same, or even greater results,
bodies, and the compounds of them which they meet with in the sap of the plant. In regard to some substances, such as potash and soda, the sulphuric and the phosphoric acids, this last function appears to be especially important. These substances influence all the chemical changes which go on in the interior of the plant, and
may not be attainable with less exertions which modify or cause its growth. The than have hitherto been bestowed upon the same is true of the nitrogen which the land. Let chenists decide this point,and plant contains. This elementary body, in in the mean time the farmer will conduct the form of albumen, or some other of the
his practice according to the dictates of numerous protein compounds which occur his own judgment.
5044. Out of the uniform mass of farmyard manure bid under the ground, with the addition of special ones, plants have the power of converting the materials they
in the sap, presides over or takes part in almost every important transformation which the organic matter of the living vegetable undergoes. Thus it is always abundantly present where the starch of the seed or of the tuber (as in the grain of
receive into the ingredients which the wheat or of the potato) is dissolved and functionsof their particular parts elaborate. sent up to feed the young shoot ; and Those materials act on plants at different again when the soluble substances of the times, and in different parts of the same sap are converted into the starch of the
plant, according to theirrespective natures, grain, of the tuber, or of the body or pith as thus propounded by Professor John- of the tree, one or other of the protein ston : - “ They all form, more or less con- combinations is always found to be present stantly and abundantly, a portion of the on the spot where the chemical change in
fixed and solid matterof the plant, taken transformation is going on . as a whole. They may not be found in 5047. “ Besides these general functions, any one part of the plant, when separated
carefully from the rest ; but in the solid the several substances found in plants parts of the plant, taken as a whole, they exercise alsospecial functions in reference are all and always to be met with. When to vegetable life and growth. Thus nitro thus deposited, they become for the most gen is most abundant in the sap of young
part dormant as itwere,and for the time plants, takes part in most of the changes cease to perform an active chemical funce of organic compounds which go on in the tion in the general growth, though, as ves- sap , and fixes itself, as the plantapproaches
sels or cells, they may still perform a maturity,in greatest abundance in the seeds mechanical function.
and in the green leaves.
452
PRACTICE --AUTUMN .
5048. “ Potash andsoda circulate in the the stem , in the case of the grasses and sap, influence chemical changes very corn -yielding plants ; but what chemical much, and reside or fix themselves most functions it performs, if any, in directly
abundantly in green and fleshy leaves, and promoting vegetable growth, we can scarce * bulbous roots in
.
ly as yet even venture to guess.'
5049. “ Sulphuric acid is very influen-
5055. You thus perceive that about 11
tial in all chemical changes, is found in mineral ingredients are removed from the most cases in those parts of the plant in soil by the crops usually cultivated on a
which potash and soda abound, and de- farm . But of these, four - silica, alumina, posits a portion of its sulphur wherever the magnesia, and iron - are usually found in
compounds of nitrogen form a notable part abundance in all ordinary soils, the peaty, of the substance of the plant.
the sandy, and the chalky being the excep tions, and all these are limited in extent. The
5050. “ Phosphoric acid exercises also lime is supplied to the soil as a necessary
much influenceover the chemical changes ingredientin the prosecution of good hus of the sap, and finally fixes itself in great- bandry, so that only 6 substances require est abundance in the seeds and other re- to be replaced which the crops carry off,
productive parts of the plant.
and these are potash, soda, magnesia, phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, and chlo
5051. “ Lime is very important to rine . Let us therefore ascertain , from
healthy vegetable growth, as practical some authority, how much of these ingre experience has long testified . Among dients are removed from the soil by a other duties, it appears to accompany the single ordinary crop of each kind. phosphoric acid in the sap of plants, and
to deposit itself in combination with or5056. Wheat. Mr Prideaux states ganic acids (oxalic, &c.) in the leaves and that the following quantities are removed bark, and with phosphoric acid in some from an acre of soil by a crop of wheat, of seeds and roots.
25 bushels of grain ,and 3000 lb. = 1 ton , 6 cwt. 88 lb. of straw , a moderate crop :
5052. “ Magnesia
appears also to
attach itself very much to phosphoric acid in the sap, and fixes itself in combination
with the acid principally in the seed . 5053. “ Chlorine - the chemical func
By the grain . By the straw . Total . Ib .
Potash , Soda , Magnesia , Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid , Chlorine,
tion of this substance in the sap is less understood even than that of the other substances above mentioned. It exists
7.15 2.73
3.63
lb. 22.44
Ib . 29.59
0.29
3.02 10.52
15.02 0.07 0.00
6.89 5.54 10.49 1.97
28.60
37.62
Gross weight to be returned to an acre ,
20.56
10.56 1.97
76.22
chiefly in combination with soda, and is 5057. Barley. - The quantities removed much more abundantly present in some from the acre by a crop of 40 bushels of
plants, and in some parts of plants,than barley, and 2650 lb.
1 ton, 3 cwt. 74
in others. Though , as I have said , its lb. of straw , are as follows : immediate chemical function in the plant By the grain . By the straw . Total.
is not understood, it forms a most impor tant constituent of the plant, in so far as
the after uses of vegetables in the feeding of animals is concerned.
Ib .
Potash , Soda ,
Magnesia , Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid , Chlorine,
4.32 3.97 20.74 0.05
lb. 10.29 0.92 5.25 5.02 2.66
0.02
1.58
36.34
25.72
7.24
Ib . 17.53 5.24 9.22 25.76
2.71 1.60
5054. “ Silica exists in the sap in a
soluble form , and deposits itself chiefly in the exterior portions of the stems and
Gross weight to be returned to an acre,
leaves of plants. It is supposed there to serve as a defence to the plant against
62.06
5058. Oats. - A crop of 50 bushels of external injury, and to give strength to oats, and 3800 lb. = 1 ton , 13 cwt. 104 * Johnston's Experimental Agriculture, p. 9-11 .
RATIONALE OF SPECIAL MANURES.
lb. of straw , take from the acre of soil the
following quantities : Magnesia , Phosphoric acid, Sulphuric acid , Chlorine,
5063. Cabbages. - A crop of cabbage 20 tons, 8 cwt. 4 lb. carries off from an acre
By the grain . By the straw . Total.
Potash and soda ,
453 .
Ib. 10.88 3.52 14.48 5.28
Ib .
Ib .
64.78 8.95 5.38 9.95
75.66 12.47
19.86 15.23
0.35
8.51
8.86
34.51
97.57
of the soil these quantities : Ib .
Potash ,
105
Soda ,
184 54 112 192 52
Magnesia , Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid , Chlorine ,
Gross weight to be returned to an acre , Gross weight to be returned to an acre ,
699
132.08
5059. Beans. - Beans, of a crop of 25
5064. It will be observed from these
bushels of grain , and 2800 lb. = 1 ton, 5 results, the much larger quantity which cwt. of straw , carry off, from an acre of the green crops, potatoes, turnips, and the soil, these quantities : cabbages, remove of the mineral ingre By the grain . By the straw . Total. Potash , Soda ,
Magnesia , Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid , Chlorine, .
Ib .
Ib.
13.60 4.30 3.15 15.20 0.40 0.30
90.21 2.72 11.38 12.32 1.85 4.35
36.95
Ib. 103.81 7.02 14.53 27.52
2.25 4.65
oats, carry away - the proportion being 4 times as much . This is a result which observation alone would not have antici
pated, because the expanded area of
122.83
Gross weight to be returned to an acre ,
dients from the soil, compared with that which the grain crops, wheat, barley, and
159.78
foliage which the green crops present to the air, would lead us to expectthat their
derived more from the at mosphere thanis the ordinary crop nourishment soil; and, on the other 5060. Red Clover . – Anquantities from hand , the cereal plants, having narrow of red clover takes these an acre of soil : Ib .
Potash , Soda ,
Magnesia , Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid , Chlorine,
sources of the soil than they seem to do.
4.48
But this apparent anomaly may perhaps
8.80 5.98 4.86
Gross weight to be returned to an acre ,
leaves, should depend more upon the re
26.70 7.07
57.89
-The be explained in this manner ::
green
crops weighing so very much heavier than the grain ones, from three to eight times, they ought, as a matter of course, to take
5061. Potatoes. - A crop of 8 tons of a larger quantity of mineral ingredients potatoes, and 1000 lb. 8 cwt. 104 lb. from an acre of soil; and as all plants
of tops, will remove from an acre of the require to absorb a large quantity of water daily, in order to keep the saline ingredi
soil the following quantities :
By the tubers. By the tops.
Potash , Soda ,
Magnesia , Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid , Chlorine,
Total ,
Ib.
Ib .
Ib.
222.56 . 7.44 21.08
50.44 29.27
273.00
50.20 54.48 17.04
372.80
12.76 13.72 12.38
22.19
36.71 33.84 63.92 66.86 39.23
ents witbin them in a constant state of so
lution, it seems necessary that the green crops should be provided with a large sys tem of leaves to enable them to draw , both
through the roots and from the atmos phere, the large supply of water which they
140.76
require to bave in order to hold in con Gross weight to be returned to an acre ,
513.56
stant solution the larger quantity of the saline ingredients they contain .
5062. Turnips. - A crop of 20 tons of turnips, and 1850 lb. = 16 cwt. 58 lb. of
5065. Now let us see by what means tops,will carry off these quantities from these respective ingredients are to be re
an acre of soil : Ib .
Potash , Soda,
Magnesia , Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid , Chlorine,
The best supply of turned to the soil. phospboric acid for the farmer," observes 66
By the bulbs . By the tops.
Total.
Ib.
Ib .
88.82
231.48
46.24 12.24
16.76 9.58 28.80 38.81 49.75
34.07 27.74 54.57 85.05 61.99
262.38
232.52
142.66 17.31
18.16 25.77
Gross weight to be returned to an acre,
Mr Prideaux, “ will be bone -dust, because the fossil phosphates, such as the coprolites, though cheaper, are so uncertain in strength that he would never know how much he
was using.
Genuine bone-dust will con
tain about 25 per cent of phosphoric acid, 494.90
and will require one -half its weight of
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
454
5069. Wheat. The cost of raising salt, and one-third its weight of strong sulphuric acid to soften and render it solu- wheat with these ingredients on an acre ble ; and these will also more than supply will be as follows, according to the prices
the sulphuric acid, the soda, and chlorine.
attached to the list of the articles enume
in (4974.) If the lime used on the land does not con- rated lb. of pearl asbes , at 36s. per cwt., L.0 19 3 tain sufficient magnesia, it may be put in 60 0 0 57 40 salt, at Is. 3d. per cwt , 80 .. bone -dust, at 2.6d. per bushel, 0 4 74 at very small cost, either in crude sulphate 0 2 6 40 of magnesia, Epsom salts, or in the bit.. sulphuric acid , at ud . per lb. 0 4 5$ 50 magnesia , at 10s . per cwt. , tern residual liquor of the salt -works. L.l 11 34 The potash is themost difficult material to procure economically. Foreign pearl ash 5070. Barley. The cost of barley per contains about 50 per cent, and is rather acre is as follows : dear. Foreign potash is a little cheaper and 35 lb. of pearl ashes , at 36s. per cwt., L.0 11 3 stronger, 60 per cent, but not so readily pro curable dry . Wood - ashes, which contain
about 3 percent of potash, vary also,andare
50 100 50 40
salt, at Is. 3d. per cwt., bone-dust, at 2s. 6d. per bushel, sulphuric acid , at $ d . per Ib. ,
0
0 63
0 0
5 3
magnesia , at 10s. per cwt.,
0 3 64
not easy to get sound and genuine. Crushed
LI
94 14
4
3
granite, averaging7 per cent, digested with lime, although the materials are inexhaust
ible, is not yet in the market .”
5071. Oats.
The oats cost this
per
acre :
100 lb. of pearl ashes, at 36s. per cwt.,
5066. The grain and the straw of the
wheat crop enumerated above, containing 204 lb. of phosphoric acid , will require
40 80 40 60
L.1 12 13
salt , at ls. 3d . per cwt.,
0 0
bone-dust, at 28. 6d . per bushel,
0
sulphuric acid , at fd. per Ib. , magnesia , at 10s. per cwt.,
0 0
80 lb. of bone-dust, 40 lb. of salt, and
54 6 4
2 5
L.2 5 02
27lb. of strong sulphuric acid, and which will also more than supply the soda, the 5072. Beans. The cost of the beans per sulphuric acid , and the chlorine. Of brown acre is as follows: sulphuric acid 40 lb. will be required. 208 lb. of pearl ashes, at 36s. per cwt., L.3 6 104
The 29} lb. of the potash, of which three fourths is in the straw, may be obtained from 50 lb. of potash, or 60 lb. of pearl ash , or 5 to 10 cwt. of common wood -ashes, or from 12 to 16 cwt. of crushed granite . Half a hundredweight of crude sulphate of
magnesia will supply 10 lb. of magnesia.
55 110 55 70
salt , at ls. 3d . per cwt. ,
bone-dust, at 2. 6d . per bushel,
sulphuric acid , at 1d . per lb., magnesia , at 10s. per cwt.,
5073. Clover.
.
5
6
The red clover cost L.0 17 44 0 0 21 0
1
2
0 1 lt 0 1 11
Ll 2 83
the soda ,
Clearing also
0
per acre this : 54 lb. of pearl ashes , at 36s. per cwt., .. salt, at Is. 3d. per cwt., bone-dust, at 2s. 6d . per bushel, sulphuric acid , at 4d. per lb. , magnesia , at 10s. per cwt.,
4 lb. of bone- dust, , 2 lb. of salt, 1 lb. phosphoric weofhave to take acid . 2 lb. of sulphuric acid.
7* 44 55
L.2 3 54
18 36 18 22
5067. Thus, for every
0 0 6 0 3
0
the sulphuric acid , the chlorine.
1 lb. of potash , we
nearly 2 lb.of foreign potashes,
have to take 1 lb. of magnesia , we
Tor fully 2 lb.of pearlash . 5 lbs. of crude Epsom salts , 1 or l gallon of salt-worksbittern.
have to take
5068. Hence , the above crops will re
quire these ingredients per acre :
5074. Potatoes.
Potatoes cost
this
amount per acre : 546 lb. of pearl ashes , at 36s. per cwt., 128 256 128 170
salt, at 1s. 3d . per cwt., I.
L.8 15 6 0
1
5
bone -dust, at 23. 6d. per bushel,
0 14 104
sulphuric acid , at 1d . per lb., magnesia , at 10s. per cwt.,
0 8 0 15
0 2
L.10 14 115 Crude
Pearl Common Bone- Sulphur ic Sulphate of acid , ash .
salt .
dust.
Ib. 40 50 40 55 18 128 110 224
Jb .
magnesia ,
5075. Turnips. Wheat, Barley , Oats
Beans, Clover ,
Potatoes ,
Turnips, Cabbages ,
Ib. 60 35 100 208 54 546 462 210
80
100 80 110 36 256 220 448
1b. 40 50 40 55 18 128 110 224
Ib .
50 40 60 70 22 170 140 270
Turnips cost thus
much per acre : 462 lb. of pearl ashes, at 36s. per cwt., 110 salt, at Is. 3d . per cwt., 220 bone -dust, at 28. 6d . per bushel, 110 sulphuric acid , at 4d. per lb., 140 magnesia , at 10s per cwt. ,
L7 8 0 1 0 12
6 12 7
0 6 103 0 12
6
L.9 1 75
ROTATION OF CROPS.
5076. Cabbages.
And the cabbages journ on the coast of Peru, that the greater part of the azotised principles
cost this per acre : 210 lb. of pearl ashes, at 36s per cwt., salt, at Is. 3d. per cwt., bone-dust, at 28. 6d . per bushel,
224 448 224 270
455
L.3 7 6 0 2 6 1 6 03 0 14 1 4
sulphuric acid , at 4d . per lb., magnesia , at 10s. per cwt.,
0
of plants originates in the ammoniacal alts which exist or are formed in the manure.”
14
L.6 14 2
5078. It would seem that wheat and
grass require the most nitrogen of any of
5077. These are the quantitiesand cost the crops ; wheat appears to require five per acre of the mineral ingredients re- times more than it contains, and with a quired to raise the crops enumerated deficient supply of this element, it yields
above, and the quantities are understood poorly both in quantity and quality. With plenty of nitrogen, especially in the be substituted for farmyard dung; but form of liquid manure, rye-grass, and par
to be as much aswould suffice for them to
ticularly Italian rye- grass, bas produced large crops, up to 50 or 60 tons on the
as farmyard manure contains all these ingredients, besides those which were supposed to be supplied by the soil itself, it is better husbandry to afford to the soil as much of farm manure as can be spared from the dunghills of the farm , or procured elsewhere, and to employ the special
gredients in procuring the nitrogen from the atmosphere is thus asserted by Boussin gault : “ Such is their ascertained influence, that tobacco, barley, and buckwheat sown
inanures as auxiliaries to it ; and con-
in soils absolutely without organic matter,
acre in a year. * The value of the saline in
fidence may be reposed in them possess- but containing saline substances, and only ing properties which will secure a uni- moistened with distilled water, produced formity in the growth of the crops, year perfect plants, which flowered and fruited, after year, which the precariousness of and yielded ripe seeds. Whence it follows, the seasons is apt to interfere with when that the presence of saline matter favours
farmyard dung is employed alone. The remarkably the assimilation of the azote farmyard dung supplies a sufficient proportion of nitrogen, which excites growth and forms the most strengthening consti tuent of the food of animals, and also of carbon which is requisite to give the crops It is said that the roots of firmness. plants do not absorb carbonic acid, and perhaps not directly ; but as they absorb large quantities of water, and water is seldom or never found devoid of carbonic acid, the body of the plant cannot fail to obtain carbon through the instrumentality of the roots. The experiments of M.Gazzari, tend to prove that roots natu rally exercise, in their contact with solid
ofthe atmosphere during the act of vege tation.” + 5079. Upon the whole subject of special manures, the rationale of their application may be based upon the certainty of the fact, that a large producewill be obtained, if we only return to the soil the mineral constituents of the crops we cultivate, in combination with nitrogenous substances, and the materials should be in a staté to become fit for assimilation by plants. ON THE ROTATION OF CROPS.
organic matter, an incontestible absorbent
action in imparting solubility ; and these 5080. Experience has demonstrated, observationsof M. Boussingault are found- that one crop after another of the same ed on probability, that “plants possibly kind greatly reduces the fertility of all draw from the atmosphere more
tban
classes of soils.
This conclusion might
agriculturists commonly suppose ; and be drawn from reason as well as experi that the soil furnishes, independently of saline and earthy substances, a proportion of organic matter larger than certain physiologists admit. There is every
ence, since it is reasonable to suppose that crops of the same kind take the same sort of food out of the same kind of soil. Ex
perience has also demonstrated, that one reason to believe, from what I could crop after another, of a different kind, does learn respecting guano, during my so- not materially reduce the condition of * Gardeners' Chronicle, 20 December 1848. + Boussingault's Rural Economy, p. 454 and 490 - Law's translation.
456
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
soils. This deduction, then, seems fair , and the least exhausting of all, permanent that the condition ofthe soil is best main- pasture of the natural grasses. tained by taking different crops after one another ; and, as every crop, though of
different kind, and deriving support from
5084. With a choice of such a variety
of plants, possessingvarious powers of ex
the soil, assists in exhansting it, a limit haustion, there should be no difficulty of must be put to the number of crops that arranging a succession of them, as least to should follow one another. Accordingly, deteriorate, and best to suit every kind of
in practice, a limit is placed on the num- soil. There would be no difficulty of fix . ber of crops taken in succession, of what- ing a succession in an abstract view of a ever kind, and this number and succession rotation ; but such a rotation cannot be is called a rotation of crops. put into practice, as the cultivation of
certain plants is dependent on local cir
5081. Though all crops derive support cumstances. For example, in the neigh from the soil, one kind appropriates food bourhood of large towns, potatoes, turnips, in a different degree to another, and even the same crop takes food in different quantities, according to the state its product is allowed to proceed. In practice, different crops are cultivated for very different purposes. One class is cultivated for their seed, called corn or grain crops
carrots, are cultivated more with a view
to supply the wants of their inhabitants, than the nature of the soil; and stock are not pastured there in summer, because the grass is usually cut for green food, or made into hay and sold. But though circumstances thus operate to modify the
--such as wheat, rye, barley , and oats; rotation in certain localities, the princi in which class may be placed beans and ples upon which all rotations are based
pease, which, although cultivated for may be followed everywhere. The great their seed, their straw and habits differ- object in adopting a rotation at all, is to ing , take a different sort of food. Other preserve the land from deterioration ; and kinds are cultivated for their roots and
as grains must be raised on every species
leaves, and are therefore called green of arable soil - not only because they con crops, such as turnips, potatoes, clover, stitute the chief food of man, but because tares, &c. they also provide provender and litter to live-stock in winter, both which are re 5082. Every plant that grows ripened quisite for their health and comfort in
seed taxes the soil more strongly for its this cold and damp climate, as also are support than that which only produces Hence the cereal leaves and bulbs. grains tax the soil more than clover or turnips ; and yet if green crops are allowed to mature their seed, they tax the soil even more than the cereal
green crops in winter, when grass cannot be obtained, the only practical mode known of counteracting the deterioration of the soil is to raise, between the exbaust
ing crops, others which require manure in immediate contact with them to raise them
grains, since, being biennial, they are the to perfection,as is the character of the green crops ; and such an alternationof cropping longer time dependent for support. just constitutes a rotation. All crops ex 5083. Practically we might arrange haust the soil less or more, so that it is the cultivated plants in the order of their necessary to pursue an enriching course of
probable power of exhausting the fertility manuring, that the crops by the end of the The cereal rotation may not be able to exhaust all grains, perhaps, in this succession - wheat, the manure that has been applied in the
of the soil in this manner.
oats, barley, rye ; then flax, potatoes ;
course of it.
Such a course of cropping,
next the sown grasses, when made into hay or rotation, is of general application. in the green state and tares ; leguninous plants, as pease and beans ; the root-bear5085. It is true that the same sort of ing plants in this order — carrots, parsnips, grain or green crop can be raised on the Swedish turnips, yellow turnips, man- same soil, for years in succession, without
gold -wurzel, wbite turnips ; clover when apparent deterioration of the soil; but it cut, as also lucerne, saintfoin, and crimson must be done by the instrumentality of clover ; the sown grasses, when pastured ; manure.
The Rev. Mr Jaffray raised
ROTATION OF CROPS.
457
wheat for several years in succession on dered dependent on the state of the
his glebe, at Dunbar in East Lothian, by applying manure to the soil every year. Theoretically, if the ingredients taken from the soil by any crop are restored to it the soil will not be deteriorated . This theory is being put to the test at the present
markets; but the profit from the mixed husbandry is not immediately dependent on the markets, since the farmer breeds,
rears, and feeds the same animals, and if any profit is obtainable at any period of the animal's life, he receives it. Extra
time,1850, by Mr John Dickson, Saugh- neous food may assist the crop in produc ton Mains, near Edinburgh, on a five-acre ing a greater profit, but it may not field, in which wheat is to besown for necessarily produce a profit in lieu of a five successive years; and the effect of the crop. crop upon the soil, each year, is to be 5087. Those who purchase stock to ascertained by analysis by Dr Anderson, Chemist to the Highland and Agricultural
suit the quantity of food they raise, may
Society ; and such manure is to be applied raise crops of every kind without a rota to the soil every year, containing such tion, the only limit to their plan being ingredients as the analyses shall have the command of manure : but they who shown to have been taken from the soil follow such a plan are as dependent on by the preceding crop . the purchase of extraneous manure as on that of stock ; and if the manure cannot
5086. But although no doubt exists of be obtained, their plan cannot be pursued .
the ability to raise the same grain in the Such a plan cannot be generally followed, same soil in successive years, by means of for if all farmers purchased most of their manure, a regular course of cropping is manures extraneously, where would the
incumbent to be established on all farnis manure be found to supply them all ? aud
which follow the mixed husbandry of if all purchased stock to consume the crop and stock. A given number of stock, increased crop raised by the extraneous raised every year, requires a given quan- manures, there would be no breeders of
tity of food every year; and that quantity stock, except in the pastoral districts, and cannot be secured but by prosecuting a these could not supply a sufficient number
regular course of cropping. It is evident of animals. So that this significant fact ought not to be lost sight of by the crop be raised in any one year, it must farmer, that whenever he depends upon
that, if an inordinate extent of any one
be done at the sacrifice of as much of the resources of his own farm , he must
another crop, which would have occupied adopt a regular course of cropping. the usurped ground ; and if the one crop is as requisite for the support of the stock
5088. In every rotation of cropping,
as the other, the stock will suffer so much permanent pasture should be left out of for want of it. For example, if more consideration, because, being an unchange grain than usual, and less green crop, is able condition of the soil, it cannot be em raised in one season , the ordinary number braced in a rotation, which implies a fre of stock will either suffer want, by being quent return of the soil to the plough. A
stinted of the requisite quantity of green large proportion of permanent pasture has food ; or part of them must be sold, to suit considerable influence in determining the their nunibers to the food raised for them . rotation on the arable land, which need
If they are stinted of food they will be- not be long under grass; and this is a come of less value ; and if part are sold , common practice in England.
But it
the proportion in the breeding of the stock should be borne in mind, that where a is destroyed, and will require time to re- considerable proportion of the land is cover the number. In reality, the regular under the plough, a large quantity of system of breeding, and the regular sys- manure should be applied to it atone time, tem of busbandry , would both be destroyed and that frequently. So that the practi
by the reckless innovation. The mixed cal effect of having one large portion of husbandry inust therefore be maintained a farm in permanent grass, and another in
by a regular rotation of cropping.
If arable culture, is to crop the grassy por
extraneous food is purchased in lieu of tion easily, and the arable portion severely. raising a crop, the profit would be ren- Whereas, it would be better for the dura
458
PRACTICE -- AUTUMN .
bility of the entire soil to undergo a may be practised for a few years on worn uniform and easy inode of cropping.
out land, until it is brought into good
condition, when it might be relinquished 5089. Rotations for strong land.—Let for a better. us now consider the several modes of
rotation practised in the different classes 5092. The following 4 -course rotation of soils found in this country, and under is very common in England. One
the different systems of husbandry (34 ) fourth of the arable land is in fallow — that pursued ; and I shall first give a few term , in all the rotations, implying the instances of rotation followed on strong period when the manure is applied - one
soils, and you should keep in mind that half in corn , and one-fourth in grass. 10 acres . Potatoes, we are supposed to be farming 500 acres. 10 First year , fallow , 5090. A 2 - course rotation is practised on a few strong clays in England, which places half of the arable land under each Second year, wheat and
member of the rotation . First year, wheat, with manure,
Tares,
125 acres, Turnips, Beans, Bare fallow , 125
Second year, beans, without manure, 250 500
Third year, $ 125 grass,
Fourth year, wheat and
The grass land is permanent meadow. The manure is given to the wheat ; but the land, being naturally fertile, doesnot require much manure at a time.
With so
Winter wheat,
75
Spring wheat,
20
Barley, Hay, Clover, Pasture,. Wheat, Feed oats,
barley, 250 acres .
50 30 25
125
.
30 25 20 80 95 30
oats,
500
500
Wheat is a common crop after clover
much wheat straw for litter, and hay and in England, rare in Scotland. The beans lm er d bean ure - hau
for fodd , part of the man
are manure
in drills .
The potatoes
made by the working and other stock is are manured , as also the tares. The put upon the meadows which yield hay. turnips are well manured . One-fourth of The land requires to have naturally a
the land requiring manure every year,
good stamina before it can bear so fre- and half of it under corn , the farm cannot provide the manure required, so some quent a cropping with wheat . must be purchased. 5091. A 3 - course rotation puts one third of the arable land in fallow , a third Potatoes,
First year, fallow , Second year, wheat and
Tares,
1663 ac .
1663
barley , Third year, grass ,
1663
Turnips, Beans, Rag fallow , Winter wheat, Spring wheat, Barley, Clover, Hay, Pasture,
500
5093. A 4 -course rotation is practised in Scotland in the neighbourhood of towns,
under corn , and a third in grass. 10 acres . 10 50 40
where manure is plentiful. It has one fourth of the land in fallow , one - half
under grain , and one -fourth in grass.
563 1163 20
First year ,
30 20 50
Second year,
963
barley,
500
fallow , wheat and
125
...
10
Turnips, 65 20 Beans, Winter wheat, 80 Spring wheat, 15 30 Barley, 40
Hay,
Third year , J25
grass,
This will answer a poor clay - loam , and on still inferior clay oats should be taken
30 acres.
Potatoes, 125 acres. Tares,
Fourth year, 125
Clover, Pasture, Oats ,
35 .
50
. 125
oats,
instead of wbeat. The beans on the poor 500 500 land will be best raised on drills, and re ceive a little manure. The tares should There need be no bare fallow in the neigb also have manure. The potatoes should bourhood of a large town. Field potatoes
have but little on the stubble. The land being now a precarious crop, early gar should be well wrought for the turnips, den varieties are planted on farms, and the and be manured for them .
The whole ground is more early cleared for wheat in
rotation, being an easy one for the soil, autumu, ( 4788. ) "The turnip break is
459
ROTATION OF CROPS.
now , by the help of special manures, on good strong land on farms which do greatly enlarged . Hay is always in not rear young stuck. It puts one-sixth demand, and cutting clover is now en-
of the farm in fallow , four -sixths or two
couraged by means of top -dressings of thirds in grain of all sorts, and one-sixth special manures in spring. All the fallow in grass. crops are plentifully manured . This is a 8 acres . Potatoes, st year, 104 -83 acres, Tares, profitable rotation on good land in the Firfallow , 65 neighbourhood of a large town .
83
wheat and
5094. A 5-course rotation is very general at a distance from towns. İt puts one - fifth of the land in fallow ; two - fifths
under grain ; and two -fifths in grass, one and two years old. This is, however, just
barley, Third year, 183} grass,
Fourth year, 83
swedes, Sixth year, } 83 }
First year, fallow ,
10 acres. 10
.
100 acres. Tares, 80 Turnips, Second year, Winter wheat, 20 wheat and 100 Spring wheat, 30 50 Barley, barley, .
Third year , 100 grass , Fourth year , grass ,
Fifth year, oats ,
} 100
100
Hay, Clover,
Pasture, Pasture,
.
.
} 500
Beans, drilled, 43 Pease,broadcast, 105 Swedes, 30
Wheat,
83 500
The potatoes, tares, and turnips are all manured.
No bare fallow is requisite.
. 100
The hay is confined to what is required on the farm — the cutting clover being more
60 40
useful in summer, and the pea -straw answers partly for hay in winter. A
.
Potato oats, Common oats,
500
20 15 65
wheat,
13
583 83
...
years.
the 4 -course rotation immediately above,
Clover,
Pasture, Oats,
...
with the grass member extended to two
oats , Fifth year, beans, pease , and 833
Potatoes ,
Turnips, Winter wheat, 18 ) Spring wheat, 30 35 Barley, 12 Hay,
Second year,
500
The potatoes, tares, and turnips are all manured, which it is now quite possible to be done by the assistance of bone -dust and guano to the turnip crop. There is
few swedes in the fifth year, along with the beans and pease a little manured, will be found useful, and keep the land in con dition by the manure. The swedes should all be pulled and stored in the autumn, to allow the land to be sown with wheat along with the bean and pea land. This
no necessity for a bare fallow, the soil rotation might be made a 7 -course one, being better occupied with a green crop. by extending the grass period to two When the land is somewhat strong, a few years; and as the stock would be increased beans with manure may besubstituted for by the extension of pasturage, the turnip a like extent of turnips. The bay might break might be proportionally extended
be confined to the wants of the farm , and in the fifth year, by a corresponding the cutting clover extended in the same diminution of the beans and pease, or by
proportion , or it might be thrown into the the suppression altogether of the pease. pasture of the first year. Some of the lea This is a good and profitable rotation on on the last year might be rag -fallowed, good strong soil. (4183,) and wheat taken instead of oats. Ìhe 5 -course rotation is a profitable one 5096. Red clover fails in the neigh It might be bourhood of towns where the 4 -course modified into a 6 -course rotation by ex- rotation has been long and constantly fol tending the second years' pasture into the lowed. The 4 - course therefore has been
at a distance from towns.
third year. This last course is a good one for the mixed husbandry, as it affords plenty of pasture for the young stock, and the oats yield very abundantly after a three years' lea.
modified into a 6 and 7 course rotation, which have succeeded in restoring the growth of the clover — at least such is the case in the neighbourhood of Dundee. The 4 - course has been modified into a 6 course, which puts two-sixths of the farm
5095. A 6 - course rotation, other than under green crop, three -sixths under grain , the one I have just mentioned, is practised and one-sixth in grass.
460
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
First year, Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth ...
Potatoes, dunged.
Fifth year,
Wheat, half-dunged.
Turnips, dunged. Barley, half-dunged.
oats, Seventh year, 62 ) . beans and
Oats, half-dunged.
20
173 25
Potatoes, decayed . Wheat, half-dunged . Turnips, dunged . Barley.
Beans drilled, Swedes,
623 221 40
.
swedes,
Eighth year, } 62; ... { Winter wheat, 62! wheat,
of the farm to green crop, three -sevenths
Third
.
624 ... { Oats,
Clover.
500
to grain, and two- sevenths to grass : Second
Hay , Cutting grass , Pasture,
Sixth year,
5097. The 4 -course is changed into a 7-course , thus, which gives two- sevenths First year,
62..
grass,
500
The bare fallow is limed .
It and the
potatoes are dunged. The turnips in the third year are half dunged. The wheat Clover. Pasture . after beans and tares, and half -dunged tur Seventh ... Oats, half-dunged . nips, will not be too strong to sow down Though the clover still reverts in five and with clover. The beans in the seventh seven years, the frequent manurings keep year are half-dunged in the stubble, and Fourth Fifth Sixth
the land fresh, and clover is well known the swedes dunged in the drill. This ro to thrive on land in a fresh state.
tation requires good soil to bear so many corn crops, but its yield of straw is
5098. On the fine very strong land of ample. The land should not get sick of the Carse of Gowrie, a 7 - course rotation clover once in 8 years. has been followed for many years. It puts two - sevenths of the farm into fallow ; 5100. Rotations for light soils. A 4
four- sevenths under grain ; and one- course rotation (5093) cannot be safely seventh in grass. It is this : practised on light soils, even with a com First year, Fallow , dunged and limed . mand of manure, these being rendered al Wheat. Second most effete by the too frequent action of Barley. Third the plough. Their best effects are produced Fourth Clover. Fifth Oats . by consolidation, under grass. Near towns, Sixth Beans and pease, stubble -dunged. the necessity of raising green crops, as
It will be observed, that two white crops the most remunerative ones, subjects every class of soils to the plough ; and the change for this deviation from good farming, is, of manure and crops on the same break of
follow in barley and wheat; and the reason
that fallow wheat is too strong to sow land, is the only plan that can be adopted down with clover, while the clover is al- to perpetuate the active powers of the ways good after barley ; and that barley soil. always proves a good crop, and exhibits a fine sample,after wheat. Clover dues suc5101. The 5 - course rotation (5094 )
ceed better after barley than wheat ; still is therefore most commonly adopted on the rotation cannot be recommended on light soils, and the proportion of its crops principle, and in practice it would be bet- are of course the same in light as in strong soils.
ter, I think, to change it.
Potatoes,
First year ,
5099. An 8 - course rotation puts threeThus : First year , fallow ,
Second year ,
27 25
Tares,
102 373
>62)
Winter wheat, Spring
Barley,
10
15
Fourth year, 100
...
grass , Fifth year, oats,
Potato oats, 100
...
Common oats 500
100 60 40
: :
barley,
Clover, Pasture, Pasture,
clover ,
::
62.
Beans, Turnips,
621 .
Hay,
Third year, 100
54 : 62!
tares , Fourth year, wheat and
8 acres .
Bare fallow , Winter wheat,
:::
nips, and
ſ Potatoes ,
10 75 25 25 50 10 15 75
:
wheat , Third year, beans, tur
62) ac.
15 acres .
::::::
eighths of the farm in fallow , four eighths in grain, and one- eighth in grass.
> 100 acres. { Tares, fallow , Turnips, Second year, Winter wheat, Spring wheat, wheat and -100 Barley, barley,
500
On light soils this rotation will not supply
461
ROTATION OF CROPS.
sufficient manure to dung the entire fallow fallow , three-sixths in grain, and one-sixth break. On gravelly turnip soil, 300 acres in grass. First year, in this rotation are unable to manure more than 40 acres out of 60 which was
Second Fourth
Turnips Barley
Fifth Sixth
Clover Oats
Third
the fallow division , even with a good crop of both turnips and straw . Extraneous
Potatoes Wheat
100 acres . 100 100 100 100 100
manure will therefore require to be pur
chased for the remaining 20 acres, and fortunately both guano and bone-dust
600
are eminently suitable to such a soil The potatoes were manufactured into tapi for the raising of good green crops. It oca, (4813) and the refuse given to pigs. is worse than useless to bare-fallow such Their failure would scarcely now war soil .
rant such an extended culture as this ;
and yet, in 1849, a farmer in Wigtonshire
5102. But a preferable rotation to this, ventured to cultivate 92 acres of potatoes on light soil, is a 6-course one, obtained
on a farm of 260 acres, and follows no
by extending the grass division to 3 years, rotation.
Cattle are bought in to con
which will reduce the fallow break from sume the turnips. This 6 -course rotation
100 acres to 834 acres, and extend the is a good one for keeping the land clean. grass from two- fifths to one-half of the farm .
It would be advisable to curtail
5104. If the clover division were ex
the potatoes to 10 acres, and extend the tended to three years' pasture, the expenses proportion of turnips to 673 acres. I con
would be diminished, and the land pro
sider this rotation as the best for the pur- bably yield a larger proportional return . suit of mixed husbandry, as it seems to Such a modification would convert the 6 balance the relation of the crops and stock. course into an 8 - course rotation . In adopting this modification, from the
5105. Adherence to a good rotation con diminish, a little, the number of cattle ducts the operations of the farm with
5 - course shift, it will be advisable to
bred on the farm , and to increase that of regularity and ease ; but a slavish ad the sheep, as of these the ewes are nearly herence to any particular rotation evinces independent of turnips, and the whole want of judgment. The judgment ought flock is almost independent of straw, in at all times to be exercised according to cir winter — which is a consideration, as the cumstances, and the characterof the season ; number of acres of straw will now be re-
and modifications thus introduced will
duced from two-fifths to two-sixths of the most probably benefit both the soil and its farm ; but the melioratiny rotation may occupier. A legitimate mode of deviating sustain the gross amount of both straw from a rotation is this :-The field which
and green crop. A 6 - course shift, on light grew a crop more exbausting than the land, gives one-sixth fallow , two-sixths rest in the course of one rotation, should
grain, and three -sixths grass. This rota- bear an ameliorating crop in the following one .
tion possesses the advantage of being ex-
For example, where potatoes grew
tended to any length by repeating the in one rotation, turnips should be substi grass ; but an undue extension in this tuted in the next ; and potatoes, in like direction interposes a barrier against every manner, may follow turnips. An inter
other crop but itself, by reducing the fal- change of soil should take place between low down to nothing, and occupying the the different kinds of turnips, so that
entire farm . Even a moderate extension swedes being more severe upon the land of grass would too much increase the sum- should alternate with the white turnip.
mer provision of the stock, while it dimi- The bare fallow on strong land should al nished as much their winter food.
ternate with a green crop ; and so should barley with wheat.
5103. A remarkable 6 - course rotation
Even a severer
course is at times justifiable, such was followed on the farm of Beauchamp, taking wheat after lea, where there in Forfarsbire, by the late Mr James Scott. reason to suspect that oats will fail. The farm consisted of 600 acres, and the root crop of a different nature, such
as is A
as
rotation divided it thus : two-sixths into mangold-wurzel, or carrot, or even cab
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
462
bage, should alternate for a season with mediately before the formation and during the
the ordinary roots cultivated. When any continuance of the blossoms;they diminish after development ofthe fruit. Substances con crop fails - and clover sometimes does it the taining a large proportion of carbon are excreted should be ploughed up, and another of a by the roots ,and absorbed by the soil. Through different kind taken in its stead. Potatoes the expulsion of these matters, unfitted for nutri
often fail ; they should be ploughed up, and tion, the soil receivesagain with usury the car turnips substituted. Sometimes the swedes bon which ithad at first yielded to the young
are destroyed by insects ; tben let white plants asfood, in the formofcarbonicacid. The soluble matter thus acquired by the soil is still
turnips be taken as a snbstitute, or late capable of decay and putrefaction; and, by un rape, or bare- fallow the land for autumn dergoing these processes, furnishes renewed wheat. In short, whenever one crop fails, sourcesof nutrition to another generation of
another useful one should be substituted plants, and becomes humus." I in its place ; for if the soil is not occupied
5108. The power of plants to excrete from
with a useful crop, it will be soon taken possession of by a host of weeds. Where a change has been forced upon the rotation, a fieldmay be miscropped to bring it again
their roots has almost been totally denied. Mr Alfred Gyde of Painswick in Gloucestershire, instituted experiments to provethat plantsexpel no excrements from their roots. His opinion is, that though plants haveno power of selection,
under the rotation ; and of all means of but take into their texture any solution offered
miscropping a green crop is the safest, and totheir roots, they have little or no power of with additional manure will recover the again excreting it ; that any excretions are only tone of the land sooner than any other ofthetruesap ; and that plantswatered with excretion receive no injury from it . It cannot be denied that plants do excrete substances from their roots. As Liebig affirms above, that they
device.
5106. No practice of husbandry requires, in excrete substances from their leaves and blos my opinion, explanation by a satisfactory theory, soms, why should it be deemed incredible that that its principles may be properly understood, so much as the rotation of crops, but as yet no
they excrete matter also from their roots ? In dependently of experiments made upon plants
unexceptionable theory has been propounded. placed under unnatural circumstances, the sense The first was that offered by the late eminent of smell alone is sufficient to prove that plants De Candolle, founded on the discovery of Brug-
excrete sensible substances from their roots .
manns, of the excretory powers of plants, which Examine the newly turned up ground where were corroborated by the experiments of M. potatoes, turnips, carrots, have grown, and the Macaire.* De Candolle's theory was, that the peculiar odour emitted by each of these plants roots of plants imbibe soluble matter of every kind from the soil, and necessarily absorb substances not adapted for their support, which are subsequently returned to the soil by the roots as
excrements. As plants cannot subsist on matter which they eject, the more of this matter the soil contains, the less it becomes fit to support plants of the same kind. This excrementitious matter from one kind of plant, however, may be taken up by other kinds from the soil, and even rendered again fit for supporting plants of the former kind; and if the latter kinds also expel substances from their roots which may be ap-
propriated as food by the former kind, both kinds of plants will improve the soil in two ways.t
will at once be recognised arising from the soil. The raspberry bush and the mint have a very powerful odour. Indeed , the peculiarity of the odour at once determines the plant which has been growing on the soil. This existence of the odour will not be explained by saying that plants only excrete simple sap, since, sap being alike in all plants, and not distinguishable froin water, the odour must proceed from something that has been elaborated by the plant from the sap. There is nothing incredible in the excretory theory ; for if the excretions from the roots are vege table excrements, it may be easily imagined that
the excretions, once deposited in the soil, may be as prejudicial to the plant which produced them as would be the excrement of an ani
5107. Liebig at first adopted the theory of De Candolle, but afterwards modified his assent in
mal presented to it as food. But the objec tion to this view is, that it does not explain
these terms : --- “ Transformations of existing all the phenomena of rotations, and there compounds are constantly taking place during fore cannot be received as a satisfactory the whole life of a plant, in consequence of which, and as the results of these transformations, there are produced gaseous matters which are excreted by the leaves and blossoms, solid excrements deposited in the bark, and fluid soluble substances which are eliminated by the roots .
Such excretions are most abundant im-
* De Candolle's Physiologie Vegetale, vol. i.
theory. Its great difficulty is to explain why the excretory matter from one race of plants is not decomposed, and disappear from the soil, long before the recurrence of the same kind of plant in the succeeding years. The excretory matter or matters being organic, they can have no power of conservation, more than other organic sub P. 248-51 .
+ Ibid ., vol. iii. p. 1474-1520.
I Liebig's Chemistry in its application to Agriculture, p. 33. Edition of 1843. Ś Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, October 1843, p. 80.
ROTATION OF CROPS.
463
stances, against the favourable antecedents of fer theoretical provisions. One point in theory that mentation and putrefaction, heat and moisture .
should agree with practice is this — that in no case is it possible to expect more organic matter,
5109. It was then conjectured that different and particularly more azotised organic matter, species of plants require a particular nutriment ; than the excess of the same matter contained in that wheat, for example, requires a different the manure which is consumed in the course of nutriment from barley or oats, or from any of the the rotation. By acting upon another presump green crops; and that, if it were cultivated per- tion , the productiveness of the soil would be in
severingly for a number of years,it would entirely fallibly lessened. Hence, it may be inferred exhaustthe soil forwheat. Upon this idea thepre- how closely the study of rotations is connected sent barren state of the northern coast of Africa, with that of the exhaustion of the soil." and of the island of Sicily, has been attempted to be explained. It has been conceived that the con5111. The sentiments of M. Boussingault,
stant growing of wheat in those countries, to regarding the position which the mineral ingre supply the wants of the Roman people, after they
dients should take in deciding on a rotation, are
relinquished their own agriculture, impoverished sound. “ Professor Liebig,” he observes, “ in the soil to its present condition. Deprived of insisting with the greatest propriety on the use
manure, most soils will become impoverished by fal part played by alkaline bases and saline cropping ; but we have seen (5085) that wheat
matters in vegetation, has shown the necessity of
may be grown in succession on the same soil , if
taking inorganic substances into serious consi
manure is applied. We have no proof that no
deration in discussing rotations. It is long since
manure was applied to the raising of the wheat
I came to the same conclusion myself ; but it
for the Romans in Sicily and Barbary. The progress of botanical physiology soon made it appear that the organs of each plant derive their
discussion mustnecessarily repose on analysis of the action of plants which have grown in the
many juices from substances which concur in the
same soil, and been manured with the same
strikes me that, to be truly profitable, such a
nutrition of plants generally. In effect, plants
dung, the contents of which in mineral elements
the most opposite in botanical character and properties, alimentary as well as poisonous, will live
were already known. There is in fact a kind of account- current to be established between the
and flourish on the same mound of earth, and on the same manure .
Such plants recipro-
inorganic matter of the crop and that of the manure.
Although I give every credit to the
cally withdraw nourishment from one another, fidelity of the analysis of vegetable ashes that which could not occur did each species need dif- have been published up to the present time, I ferent elements of nutrition . have not felt myself at liberty to make use of any of them in the direction which I now indi
5110. As opinions stand in regard to a theory cate. I have not thought that it would be of the rotation of crops, M. Boussingault's fair or reasonable to contrast such heterogeneous opinion appears rational. “ That there is no ab- compounds, as the ashes of plants grown at solute necessity for alternation of crops," he ob- Geneva and Paris, under such dissimilar circum . serves, when dung and labour can be easily stances, with those produced on a farm of procured, is undeniable. Nevertheless there are Alsace, where the point is to be explained, though certain plants which cannot be reproduced upon the results of this contrast had reference to a the same soil advantageously, except at intervals particular species of agricultural phenomena. more or less remote. The cause of this exigence And then my business was not merely with the on the part of certain plants is still obscure, and scientific question ; the manufacturing or com
the hypothesis propounded for clearing it up far mercial element in the consideration also from satisfactory. One of the marked advantages
touched me. I had to ascertain how I was likely
of alternate culture is the periodic cultivation of to stand at some future time, did I presume to plants which improve the soil. In this way a act upon the conclusion to which I came. There sort of compensation is made for exhaustion, was nothing for me, therefore, but to analyse the
The main thing to be secured, in rotation of crops, is such a system as shall enable the husbandman to obtain the greatest amount of vegetable pro-
ashes of the several plants which entered as ele ments into the rotation followed at Bechelbronn , but confining my inquiries to that portion of the
duce with the least manure, and in the shortest plant which is looked upon particularly as the possible time. This system can be alone realised crop - so much of it as remains on the ground and by employing, in the course of rotation, those is turned in again, of course, taking nothing plants whichdraw largely from the atmosphere. from the soil. " The best plan of rotation in theory, is that in which the quantity of organic matter obtained 5112. To these practical conclusions has M. most exceeds the quantity of organic matter Boussingault arrived on this subject. “ In review introduced into the soil in the shape of manure. ing the chief points examined , ” he says, “ it will This does not hold in practice. It is less the surplus amount of organic matter over that con-
tained in the manure, than the value of this
be seen that, as far as regards organic matter,
the systems of culture which, in borrowing most from the atmosphere, leave the most abundant
same matter, which concerns the agriculturist. residues on the land, are those which constitute The excess required, and the form in which it should be produced, must vary widely according to locality, commercial demand, and the habits of people - considerations wholly apart from
the most productive rotations. In respect to inorganic matter , the rotation to be advantgeous, to have an enduring success, ought to be so managed that the crop exported should not leave
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
464
the dunghill with less than that constant quantity flowers, and Papaver somniferum , the of mineralsubstanceswhich it oughtto contain. opium poppy.” Liebig mentions the con A crop which one abstracts the ground a notable proportionof of its from mineral elements, should dition ofthe countryaround Naples, which notbe repeatedly introduced in the course of a
is famed for its fruitful corn -land, that, the
rotation, which depends on a given dose of farms being situated from eighteen to manure, unless, by the effect of time,mineral twenty - four miles distant from one element has beenaccumulated inthe land. A another, and between them there being clover crop takes up, for example, 77 lb. of alkali
peracre."If the fodder is consumed on the spot, no roads, and consequently no transpor the greater portion of the potash and soda will tation of manure, nevertheless, corn bas return to the manure after passing through the
been cultivated on them for thousands of
cattle, and the land eventually recover nearly years withont anymanure— that is, without the whole the alkali. be quite other wise if theoffodder is takenIt towill market;and it is any part of that which is annually removed to these repeatedexportations of the produce of from thesoil being artificially restored to artificial meadows that the failure of clover, as
it. He also mentions that there are large
observed insoilswhich have long yielded abun- districts in Hungary on which, since the dantly, is undoubtedly due. Accordingly a memory of man, corn and tobacco bave means has been proposed, by M. Schattenmann , been cultivated in alternate years, with of restoring to these lands their reproductive power,by applying alkaline manure. If, under out the restoration of the mineral ingre such circumstances, carbonate of soda would dients carried away in the corn and in act as favourably ascarbonate ofpotash or wood- the straw .
In the western parts of the
ial United States of America, wheat to the its commerc ashes, the soda salt, in spite of seviceab le , and extent of 50 bushels per acre has been value (83. per cwt.,) might prove deserves a trial. " *
ON THE FERTILITY OF SOILS.
grown on the same soil without manure for 16 years.
5114. What the ingredient, or combina tion of ingredients, is, which imparts
5113. The fertile state of the soil is a fertility to a soil, is unknown to us ; and I subject intimately connected with that of suspect that the most elaborate analyses manures when arable culture is under con- of constituents will afford us no informa
sideration. Soils may be fertile by nature, or made so artificially, by means of manures. Examples of the natural fertility of the soil have been observed in many parts
tion. Liebig admits that the physical conditions essential to the fertility of a soil are usually neglected in the calculations of the chemist ; and a mere chemical
of the globe. “ I have seen,” observes M. analysis is thus of very subordinate value, Boussingault, “ in the table-lands of the because the existence of all the mineral
Andes, wheat fields which had yielded means of nourishment in a soil does not
excellent crops annually for more than necessarily indicate its value. And al two centuries. Maize may likewise be though the chemical be combined with continually reproduced upon the same the mechanical analysis, which estimates ground without inconvenience. This fact the unequal quantities of mixed ingredi is well known in the south of Europe ; ents — such as coarse and fine sand, and of and the greater portion of the coast of clay and vegetable matters—and data be Peru has produced nothing else, from a date anterior to the discovery of America. Further, potatoes may come again and again upon the same soil: they are inces-
thereby furnished upon which to form more accurate conclusions, than by the
analysis of one class of ingredients ; yet no chemist can tell us, by mere analysis,
santly cultivated at Santa Fé and Quito, whether or not a soil is capable of sup and nowhere are they of better quality. porting the cultivated crops for an uuli Indigo and sugar-cane may be brought mited period, without the use of manures. under the same category. In Europe the This may be conclnded from what Liebig
Jerusalem artichoke produces constantly states ofthe land in the vicinity of Vesu in the same place. To this list might be vius, which may be regarded as the type
added , according to the recent researches of a fertile soil. It is derived fromthe of M. Braconnot, the bog -rose with double disintegration of lava, and cannot possibly, * Boussingault's Rural Economy, p. 459, 490, and 501 -Law's translation.
FERTILITY OF SOILS.
465
owing to its origin, contain the smallest genial; but, fortunately, we have the nieans trace of vegetable matter ; yet every one of imparting a temporary fertility, which knows, as he observes, that when lava or has the effect of producing large crops from volcanic ashes have been exposed for a most of our soils ; and it is generally at time to the influence of the air and mois- tained by manuring so liberally as to afford ture, all kinds of plants grow in them with more nourishment to the plants than they
the utmost luxuriance:" * Wethus see, by appropriate to their use ; and theresidue is Liebig's own showing, that we cannot de- retained in the soil as store for future termine the principle which imparts fer- use, and as a means of establishing a per tility to soils, since the existence of all manent fertility. The process by which the the mineral means of nourishment in a soil soil retains the soluble ingredients of man does not necessarily indicate its value, por ures has been well illustrated by some
does the want of vegetable matters render recent experiments of Professor Way of it less capable of yielding luxuriant crops. London. He ascertained that sand and gravel retained only the mechanical ad 5115. Whatever may be the principle mixture of liquid manure, and that the which imparts natural fertility to soils, soluble ingredients passed with the water observation teaches us that climate is an
in solution unchanged ; but the case with
all -important element of fertility — not clay was quite different; and there can be heat merely, but also the corresponding no doubt that the property of soils to periodic and adequate supplies of moisture. remove colouring matters, and organic - Those who can view nature with a com- matters yielding odours, from solution, was
prehensive glance, and apart from local due to the clay contained in them , and it phenomena," observes Humboldt, “may had the power of retaining the alkalis. see, from the poles to the equator, organic If a quantity of ammonia, highly punyent life and vigour gradually augment with to the smell, was thrown upon a filter of
the augmentation ofvivifying heat.” The clay soil, the water first coming away same idea he thus expresses more beauti- would be absolutely free of ammonia. So fully : “ The carpet of flowers and of ver- with the carbonates of potash and soda. dure spread over the naked court of our This is a valuable property of soils, inas planet is unequally woven ; it is thicker much as it renders rain unable to wash
where the sun riseshigh in the now cloud- out of them those soluble ingredients, form
less heavens, and thinner toward the poles, ing a necessary condition of vegetation ; in the less happy climes where returning and even those compounds, when intro
frosts often destroy the opening buds of duced artificially by manure, are laid hold spring, or the ripening fruits of autumn ; ” and more forcibly in these terms, “ It is under the burning rays of a tropical sun that vegetation displays its most majestic
of and fixed in the soil, to the preclusion of any loss either by rain or evaporation. But more than this, such a property of
clay does not only affect alkalis and
That the constituents of the their carbonates, but all salts of those
forms."t
atmosphere, as sych, have no share in this bases, with whatever acid they are com fertility, is evident from the fact of its bined.
Thus sulphate of ammonia, on
constant movement causing an equal dis- being filtered through clay soil, left its tribution of the gaseous food necessary for ammonia bebind, and the sulphuric acid
the growth of plants everywhere, so that obtained was found combined with lime ; the tropics do not contain more of it than We of these northern latitudes may therefore feelingly exclaim with Liebig : “ Yet how different appears . to be the power of production of equal sur-
hence sulphate of lime had been formed in the process, and brought away in the
faces of land in these regions ! ”
became localised and distributed through the soil, and retained there until they were
the cold zones.
water.
Lime was thus destined, in the
economy of nature, to be the means by which the salts ministering to vegetation
5116. We have no soils in this country required for vegetation. There was no pro that will bear exhausting crops continually vision, however, for the salts of lime thiem without manure, because our climate is un- selves, sulphate, muriate, and nitrate of lime, *
Liebig’s Chemistry in its application to Agriculture,p. 116-18, 3d edition. + Huinboldt's A8;
VOL . II .
of Nature, vol . ii. p. 8-29.
2G
466
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
passing through the soil unchanged ; but new discovery. Henceforth we must re quicklime, when dissolved in water, is re- gard the different salts,those of ammonia, moved by the clay ; and carbonate of lime for instance, as of value in relation to the
in solution is so effectually removed, that price of ammonia, or other base contained hard water may be softened by the process. in them, since they are all alike when incorporated with the soil. This property 5117. It is not to be supposed that the of soils “ explains and confirms," says separation of the salts in solution could Professor Way, “ the variations in manur
go on indefinitely by filtration. On the ing operations which are made to suit the contrary, the limit was soon reached ; and nature of the soil. Clay has been shown though small in quantity per cent, the to be the active substance in repairing
power of retention in reference to the bulk manure, and sandy and gravelly soils not of the soil was great. It was found that pure clay would absorb, perhaps, two-tenths per cent of its weight ofammonia — that is, 1000 grains of soil would separate two grains of ammonia, and well cultivated clay soil wonld absorb twice as much . If
possessing asufficiency of clay will be ex pected to be less retentive of manure . Such is the fact, and soils of this descrip tion are said not to hold manure. On such soils manures must be applied more freqnently and in smaller quantities than
such soil is cultivated to the depth of 10 in stiffer soils, where, owing to the reten
inches, an acre would be capable of retaining two tons of ammonia, a quantity that would require 12 tons of guano to furnish. Now , one -sixteenth of this power would suffice for the preservation of the ammonia of a large dose of guano, and was there fore a power of great activity. The extent of the power of different soils, and for different of the alkalis, was ascertained ;
tive power of the clay, the manure for several crops may be safely deposited .” Again , “ reference has been made to the possibility that clay possesses a power of retarding the putrefactive process. It seems clear that manures in a fresh state are available to vegetation . What other wise would become of the urine of sheep folded on turnips, and to which the success
and the power wasdecidedly a chemical one. of the following barley crop isjustly attri buted? The property of the soil to arrest
5118. In desiring to ascertain the effect pntrefaction and to combine with organic ef of those principles on ordinary manuring, Auvia, is matter of common observation .” * it is obvious that if there is a provision in 5119. Another source of fertility to the soil for the retention of the salts of manure, and for the ammonia and other pro- soils is the quantity of residue left in the ducts of the decomposition of animal and soil after the removal of a crop, such as
vegetable matter, the soil is the proper the stubble and roots of the grain , the place for those decompositions to go on ; leaves of the green crops, and the herbage and, no matter how remote the period and roots of grasses. Experiments over a
when the crop should be taken, it would rotation of four years were instituted by be perfectly safe to get the manure into M. Boussingault, to ascertain the quantity
the manure reached it, it would seem to fol-
low that those compounds furnished the ele ments of nutrition to plants - consequently ,
we should seek to produce them by every means in our power. Liquid manuring, wherever practicable, is an effectual way of securing this distribution. In the case of special manures, such as chemical salts,
Potato tops, Wheat stubble, Clover hay roots , dried in the sun , Oat stubble , Sum of organic
substances,
Hydro . gen
Weight
Residue of crops.
per due .acre
tion was a point also which seemed of con siderable importance ; for, if it was an ab solute necessity that a new class of com pounds was found in the soil immediately
of resi
the land as soon as practicable after its of organic matter left by the residue of production. • Again , the equable distribu- the crops taken, and the results were : lbs . 282 460
lbs. 32 50
189 369
1833
615
75
523
836
299
32
232 1313
lbs . 2632 1283
6584
Ibs .
Iby , 14
Ibe . 112 67
26
178
30
1656
189
3335
391 2403 186 2995
1679
202 1090
46
387
The manure con
tained , Excess of organic matter in the
manure , much simplicity is introduced by the * Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. xi., p. 374-5.
140 2608
467
FERTILITY OF SOILS.
5120. Similar experiments instituted lowing quantities of minerals taken up by Mineral Phos . substances Sulphuphoric ric in the acid . acid . crops.
lbs.
113
13
50 358 284 39 60
24 11 18
} 1st year,
Wheat straw , Clover , Oats ,
3d year, 5th year,
Oat-straw ,
Ibs.
Ibs. 3
GVA
lbs.
Lime.
lbs. 2
70
13
21
3
763
26 .
7582
90
304
16 32
114 533
Excess of mineral matter in manures,
6628
13
1774
16
419
954
Potash and soda.
Silica .
lbs. 58
lbs. 6
19 15 34 77
242 15
3
20
5
Mineral substances in the manure ,
Sum of mineral substances,
Magne sia .
251215
Potatoes , Turnips, half crop, Wheat, ' 2d and 4th years,
Chlo rine.
ఏపనింది
Swi :-ovoce 40
over a rotation of five crops, gave the fol- each crop in its respective year :
11
17
24
56
225
310
136
339
5049
804
114
4739
5121. It appears that the residue of the Had thesecropsbeen powerfullyexhausting, several crops of a rotation represents the we should expect that their residue, how nature, and somewhat less in quantity ever considerable in quantity, could do no than one half of the manure originally put more than lessen the amountof exhaustion into the ground. produced ; in which case its useful influ ence, however real , would pass unnoticed,
5122. It is easy to perceive, from the were it estimated by the produce of the
preceding data, that, what with the orga- succeeding crop. If, on the contrary, a nic matters and the ashes, the land is crop has been but slightly scourging, more than supplied with all the mineral whether in consequence of the smallness substances required by the several crops of its quantity, or because it may have de it produces in the course of a rotation, even rived from the air the major part of its of lengthened duration .
constituent elements, the useful influence of the residue will not fail to be conspicu
5123. The large quantity of organic ous.”
matter restored to the soil, by several of the crops in the series, explains how the
5124. “ The excess of mineral matters
be closed without its being found indispensable to supply any additional manure in its course. It seems indubitable that, without this addition of
introduced into the ground over those that arise with the crops — an excess that ought always to be secured by judicious manage ment — enriches the soil in saline and al
rotation may
elementary matter, the fertility of the soil kaline principles which accumulate in the would decline much more rapidly than it lapse of years, just as vegetable remains does ; the residue of each crop is nothing and azotised organic principles accumu
more thana portion of the crop itself re- late under a good system ofrotation.” * stored to the ground : it is as if we only carried off one portion, the larger portion
5125. The only mode, therefore, in our
of the crop, and returned another portion green. We “ learn that the visible appreciable influence of the residuary matters of preceding crops upon the luxuriance of
power to render the soil fertile, after it has first been drained and wrought, is to give it good manure more in abundance ofevery kind of ingredients than are removed from
succeeding ones does not result solely from it by the several crops would amount to ; their mass, even supposing each to be possessed of equal qualities; but they have a favourable influence out of all proportion with its quantity ; and this depends especially on an influence exerted on the soil by the crops which leave them.
for, unless the manure is in excess, the soil will become sterile under the severe cropping which the cereal grains usually inflict on the arable land. With grass lands in pasture, the effect is different, for constant pasturage increases the fertility
Boussingault's Rural Economy, p. 458, 489, and 501-Law's translation .
468
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
of the soil. In this process, the grass which at the same time contains theeartlıy plants themselves must have some effect and alkaline salts, ammoniacal salts, ani
upon the soil, for it is evident that the mal matter in a state of putrefaction, groundcannot receive so much matter back humusalready formed, and vegetable re into it, in the form of dung and urine voided mains in a state of transformation . by the animals supported on the grass, as had been taken from it in the form ofgrass, 5129. “ In valuing a manure, it is ne since the animals fattened on the grass cessary to take into consideration not only must carry off a considerable proportion the quantity of nitrogen furnished by analysis, but also the state in which that of its products. nitrogen exists in the manure ; also the
5126. Whatever functions the bumus state of the ammoniacal salt,orof the put may perform in the soil in regard to vege- rescible animal matter, and the state of
tation—andgreat diversity of opinion ex- the soluble ammoniacal salt, or of the am ists on the subject amongst chemists - prac- moniacal magnesian phosphate. tically, there is no doubt of the fact that, the nearer the soil of the field approaches 5130. “ The analyses of fermented dung in character to garden mould, the best which have hitherto been made are defec of which contains a large proportion of tive, in that they have not taken into cal
humus, the more fertile it becomes. M. culation the loss resulting from the action E. Souberain , in his treatise on humus, of carbonate of lime on the salts with an
describes the part which manure plays in ammoniacal base, during the drying of the nourishment of plants ; and his senti- the manure. The result is, that the tables ments are these :- " The woody fibre,which which have been published, representing undergoes decomposition in contact with the proportion of nitrogen inmanures, give air and moisture, is converted into humus, only approximate results. The compara and at the same time furnishes carbonic tive value of manures cannot be estimated
acid, which is perhaps absorbed by the by simply reckoning the quantity of nitro roots of plants. The proportion of carbon gen afforded by analysis ; because, on the in humus and manures never exceeds 56 one hand, the nitrogenous matters are not to 57 per cent. This is the extreme limit the only active principles of manures ; and which the decomposition of woody fibre on the other hand, because the value of can attain to in contact with air and moisture.
manures depends much on the state of the
nitrogen contained in them - and, conse quently, it is impossible to frame a table
5127. “ Pure humus contains 24 per cent of equivalents for manures. of nitrogen , which appears to be essential
to its composition. Humus is scarcely altered in contact with air.
Humus,
scarcely soluble of itself in water, acquires solubility by its combination with ſime; but the principal agent of its solution is the carbonate of ammonia, which reacts equally on free bumus, and on humus combined with calcareous matters. Humus rendered soluble is absorbed by the roots of plants; it serves in a direct manner for the nourishment of the plant. Humus bas
also a favourable action on vegetation, by attracting and retaining the moisture of the air and ammonia, by facilitating the solution of the earthy phosphates, by
ON THE DISPOSAL OF THE FAT PIGS.
5131. We left the young pigs at their weaning state in ( 2861,) and mention ed the probable number that might be disposed of every year from two brood sows, after supplying the farm -house with pork and ham , (2866.) . At whatever age the pigs are disposed of, ( 2865,) and what evernumber ofbrood sows arekept, ( 2867 ) the young pigs when weaned are put into the court m, Plate II., and supported until the milk of the sow bas dried up, and also sufficient food is ready for them in the
ameliorating the physical qualities of the grass fields. soil, and by moderating andregulating the decomposition of decaying animal matters.
5132. Newly weaned pigs ought to re ceive nourishing diet ; and if weaned early
5128. “ Manure par excellence is that in the season, the larger proportion of it
469
DISPOSAL OF FAT PIGS.
should be warm , until the mild weather ar- them there regularly with food.
rive, when cold food will suffice, although it should be cooked as long as they are confined in the court . To prevent indigestion arising from excessive action of the acid secretions of the stomach,
They
will no doubt thrive under such treatment, but not so well as when they are at free dom to go about at all times in the courts, and to graze in the fields ; nor is their flesh so good — it will lack flavour, and the
which young pigs are liable to, salt fat be laid on disproportioned to the lean. should always be put into their troughs Such a breed of pigs as is represented in
with the food. The court should be well Plate V. will always be ready for slaugh provided with litter under the shed, ter, even when allowed to go about and and the courtyard cleared of the dung pick up what food they can, assisted with a
every day . A trough of clean water little food at morning and in the afternoon . should be placed in the court for them to They are always delicate porklings at any
drink out of, besides the troughs required age,andmay be slaughtered foruse at any for the wash they may receive from the time without the preparation of feeding. house. Should one litter be weaned be fore another has left the court, both may 5135. Farmers usually dispose of their be placed together in the court; and, both young pigs at home : dealers coming round being fed at the same time in troughs to purchase them , pay the money and take placed at opposite sides of the court, each them away. From 5 to 7 stones are the herd will keep by themselves - provided favourite weights for porkers, and pigs are
both get plenty offood, which they ought worth most money at that periodin pro to receive as long as they remain in the portion to their weight. Some, however, court. For fear, or in case of quarrelling, may prefer to drive them to market to the younger litter may be placed in one of dispose of them ; and in that case they the brood sties b', Plate II., as it is not must be driven to it, or to the nearest rail
likely that both will be occupied at the way station. Whether or not you ever same time by the brood sows. Failing send pigs to market, you should be made
these, the younger litter may be put into acquainted with the mode of managing the feeding sties a' ; and should all these them upon the road.
It is a common
be also occupied, which is improbable, opinion in the country, that pigs will
they can be put into an empty hammel neither lead nor drive — and the opinion is, M or N, or even into the out-house g'.
no doubt, founded on observation ; but
they may be managed by an appeal to the 5133. Whenever green food becomes appetite. If the drover walk before his abundant on the farm , in the beginning of drove, having a small bag of beans under June, the elder of the young pigs should one arm, and drop a bean now and then
have a ring put into their noses, ( 2869,) to upon the road, his eager charge will follow
prevent them digging in the ground, and him in search of the desired morsel. An turned out during the day in a grass field -giving them some food before they go , and after they return home in the afternoon . On being driven a few times to a grass field, and herded for a few days at first, and not annoyed by dogs, they will
old steady dog following the drove will easily prevent any straggling into fields ; but a young one, from his eagerness for work, will annoy the pigs much more than assist the drover. In summer, pigs, when driven, should get leave to drink at any
willingly go to it in the morning and re- brook or ditch on their way , or pluck main all day grazing, but will desire to grass on the way -side. In the market
return homeearly in the afternoon, as pigs field, pigs are retained intheir stances by love to retire early to their litter, even in dropping beavs now and then around a the longest and hottest days of summer. circle circumscribing the drove, when they
Notwithstanding their early retirement to will place their heads outwards to pick up bed , pigs are not astir so early in the the beans, and are easily kept back by a tap on the nose with a switch . I have morning as poultry. seen large lots of pigs managed in this 5134. It is the practice in some places way at the great fairs of Newcastle-upon to confine the young
const
in Tyne. It is said by seamen that the best
courts during all the summer, and supply mode of shipping live pigs is to attempt to
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
470
prevent them getting upon the gangway, live pigs in Great Britain in 1836, at 18,270,000, and the value of one - third of them at £2 each ,
when they evince a determination to run along it, and in doing so gain the deck .
and of the other two-thirds at 10s. each, made the sum of £ 18,270,000 .* Of this number a large proportion belongs to Ireland ; and as large
5136. To judge of pigs, we have only to herds were no doubt sacrificed there in the year put many of the rules for judging of oxen of dearth , 1847,it is questionable that the number into practice. On looking at the pig, has yet been regained, with the attending the culture of the potato. fig. 438, we are convinced of the nearness Fig. 438.
uncertainty
5138. The number of pigs presented for sale
b
a
at Smithfield in London , in 1848 and 1849, in each month of the year, was as follows: January,
February, March , April, May, June,
July, August, September, October ,
November,
VIEW OF THE SIDE OF A FAT PIG,
December,
1848 .
1849 .
2435 1935 2225 2818 2581 2641 2350 2443
1185 1247 1820 1840 2193
2322 2040 2200
3153
2310
3140 2326 1649
2085 2116
2139
which the form of a well-made fat pig 23,497 29,596 approaches that of a fat ox. The rectan guiar wooden frame a b c d placed against 1847, 30,125 the body of a fat pig is nearly filled up in The falling off in the numbers between 1847 and the same manner as is the frame by that 1849 will be observed to be 6628, no doubt of the ox in fig. 296, the only points of owing to the circumstance I have alluded to
difference beingin the hind quarter, where above. the pig usually droops rather suddenly to 5139. The number of foreign live pigs im the tail, as from e to the tail, as also the ported into London, dutyfree, in 1848 and 1849, hains fall in more suddenly to the hough, in each month of the year,was as follows: as from the tail to f, than in the ox. On
1848.
looking at the pig both from before and behind, the carcase appears of a rounder form than the ox, the square frame on being applied having spaces at the angles more
January , February, March ,
so than in figs. 297 and 298. On looking
June,
down on the back of a pig, as fig. 299 does on that of the ox, it will be observed
August,
that the body carries its breadth fully from the shoulders to the haunch.
The
1849 .
I
April,
19
May, 104
July, September, October, November ,
December,
20 55 116 8
302 290 243 409 128
hand is of little use in judging of a pig, 199 1511 as the skin, being generally thick , and al ways tight, does not easily yield to the 1847, 4487 touch ; although in a good pig theskin and It will be observed that the trade in foreign live
fat yield on the pressure ofthe fingers, and pigs into Londonis very trifling, though an in regain their position by elasticity immedi- creasing one. ately on the removal of the band. The body 5140. The number of live foreign pigsking shouldbewell coveredwithlonghairslying ported,duty free,into all the ports of the im close to the skin. The shoulder, hooks, dom in 1847, 1848, and 1849,wasas follows: back, behind the shoulders, and the flanks,
are points which are well filled up in a good pig.
1847,
1242
1848 , 1849 ,
2119
2653 I
Even for the whole kingdom the trade is a tri 5137. Mr M'Queen estimated the number of vial one, but it indicates an annual increase. * M'Queen's Statistics of the British Empire, p. 23 . + Bell's Weekly Messenger, January 1849 and 1850 .
I Parliamentary Return, February 1849 and 1850.
MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.
471
5141. Indigestion . - Should indigestion appear ficial, according to Mr Youatt's opinion. He in the young pigs when confined in the court, from the cause indicated in (5132), after salt
says that measles " sadly injures the quality of the meat, rendering it insipid , flabby, pale, and
had been used, the following drench should be indisposed to take the salt." We should say that given to each pig:-carbonate of magnesia, 1 oz., the flesh of measly pigs is positively unwhole some, although perhaps there are no cases on dram, warm water, 12 oz. This is sufficient for record in which it is proved that bad effects 8 doses, which ought to be administered to an have resulted from the use of it." * tincture of rhubarb, 2 drams, tincture of opium,
empty stomach.
5142. Every one has observed that the tails of young pigs are always curled, but very few
5146. Dr Taylor remarks “ that the flesh of animals over.dricen, as well as newly killed meat in general, is liable to produce violent gastric
know that the curl is always to the right, and irritation, and even cholera.” + very rarely to the left side. 5143. “ The skin varies in density in different breeds of swine,” observes Mr Youatt. 66 In some of the large old breeds it is thick, coarse, tough, and almost as impenetrable, in compari son , as the hide of the rhinoceros; while in many of our smaller breeds, and particularly in those
ON THE MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.
5147. We left all the young broods of the domesticated fowls after they were
which have a considerable admixture of Asiatic hatched, from (2880) to ( 2932 ) to be blood, and in the Chinese pigs themselves, it is cared for in the progress of their growth soft, fine, and delicate, and bears no slight re in summer. I have still a few observa semblance to the skin of the human being. It tions to make on their management after is not to be wondered at that the structure so delicately organised as the one we have been the hatching season , and on the treatment describing, should be subject to disease. In the hog it is peculiarly so ; many of the most serious maladies to which he is subject have their seat in the skin .”
ofeggs.
5148. Hens. — The practice is that the hatching of thecommonfowl shall notextend
5144. Mange.— “ This cutaneous affection ," beyond the end of August or beginning of September, andshould notbecarried beyond
observes Mr Youatt, " which was formerly attributed to want of cleanliness, or to some peculiar
that period, unless more than ordinary care
state of the blood, is now generally admitted to be bestowed on the rearing of the broods. arise from the presence of certain minute in sects, termed Acari. It is identical with the The chickens then batched will be in excel
scab in sheep (1071,) and the itch in the human lent condition for Christmas and New Year, being.” The hog ” does not appear to suffer and be valuable in a pecuniary point of
much from the mange ; the pustules are usually view, should the farmer choose to avail chiefly developed under the arm.pits, and on the himself of such a market. But for the spots at first, rub into large blotchy sores. farmer's own use, and the presentation of Where the mange is recent, a tolerably strong a delicacy at his own table, beyond the decoctionof tobacco or digitalis will often prove power of most to have, thehatching may be an efficacious wash for the diseased parts, or a
interior of the thighs, and from being simply red
solution of corrosive sublimate ; but if the erup
continued until the coldest weather of winter arrives. This I have already
tion is of long standing, an ointment of sulphur
and mercurial ointment, in the proportion of alluded to in ( 1617.) The natural hatch 1 oz. of sulphur to 1 drachm of mercurial oint- ing of fowls proceeds most successfully in
ment, carefullyand thoroughly rubbed into the spring and early autumn, there being a
skin , must be resorted to."
cessation in the warm months of June and
5145. Measles. — This is rather a subcuta- July. It would be well to attend to this neous than an actual disease of the skin, con- hint from nature, though of course it is sisting in a multitude ofsmall watery pustules, quite possible to continue the hatching in developed between the fat and the skin. Its the warmest months, by preparing cool . appearance is of reddish patches somewhat retreats for the broods. raised above the skin, on the groin , the arm pits, and the inside of the thighs first, and sub sequently on all parts of the body, and is seldom
5149. Notwithstanding all the care
fatal. Flour of brimstone put into apples out bestowed on fowls, the hen will make her of which the cores have been scooped, given to
own nest and bring out broods in the corn
pigs every day to the number of five or six, after having fasted for three days,and continued for fields, at the root of hedges and under the
five or six days, is very likely to become bene* Youаtt On the Pig, p. 98, 102-3.
cover of shrubs.
After being missed for
+ Taylor On Poisons, p. 555.
472
PRACTICE-AUTUMN.
a time, the hen will return to the home- mon practice is to whelin a large tub stead with a fine healthy brood, all alike over more than one ben, with its mouth
in size and colour, to establish her right raised at one side a little from the grondd, for subsistence both for herself and nume- which allows as much light to enter the
rous progeny ; and joyous is the welcome she receives on her return home with her When such a brood is brought treasure . forth, as long as there is plenty of food for them in the fields, the hen will rear them there in preference to bringing them home, and when they do return , the chickens will be strong and well fledged. But when the hatching has been late, and
tub as to let the hens see to fight with each other, when their scalps are often bared to the bone, and one of them probably pecked and trampled to death. Some writers re commend the hens to be indulged in their desire for hatching, but as most laying bens bave a desire to sit when the ovarium for the time has been emptied of its con tents, the number of broods would be
the food is comparatively scarce, the re- increased beyond the powers of the house with the requisite care, hold to superintend turn of the brood will be early, and the were this desire generally gratified. demands for attention to their wants the more clamorons.
5152. A hen will lay eggs when she is
5150. All fowls that venture to hatch tending her brood, and if she has chosen their broods in the fields are liable to
a nest for herself , she will leave the brood
be destroyed by vermin, and many an when the desire for sitting overtakes her.
anxious mother-ben, after feeding her But if her roost be known, and the eggs brood for some time, has been destroyed regularly removed, the desire for sitting with all her young ones, by the ruthless will still come upon her, at the appointed fox. But as far as concerns myself, so time ; and then she must be treated as just high do I value liberty to fowls, on directed, to remove the desire. the score of health, and strength of body, and flavour of flesh, that the occasional luss
5153. Autumn is the season for select
of a hen and her brood would not induce ing the bens for laying eggs in winter ; me to deprive fowls of their liberty. and they ought to be young, but of dif ferent ages, that a succession in the laying
5151. Many cruel experiments are may be maintained . Hens readily take exercised by conntry people to prevent hens clucking, when they do not wish them to sit on and hatch eggs, such as dipping thein in water for a few seconds, pulling feathers from a particular part of their body, and such like barbarities -- all alike
to the nests made for them at this season, evincing no desire to betake themselves to the fields. 5154. Autumn is the season of moult
ing for fowls. The only care they require,
ineffectual ; at least, I never heard of a in this periodic visitatiou, is to keep them single instance of their success. The only warm at night. The nights of September effectual plan I know, without giving become chilly. bodily pain to the animal, is to place them
5155. Eggs.-- Hensbegin to lay abont the beginning of March, and continue to the beginning of October. They do not lay every day, that is, every 24 hours, some laying every other day, and some missing each just large enough to hold one hen one day in three. They lay about two within it when standing on her feet, with dozen of eggs at one period, then cease its top and sides pierced with holes to let for two or three weeks, and again lay in air, but to exclude bright light, which is other two dozen, and so on for the num done by giving the holes such an inclination ber of months mentioned . Of all these in darkness, and there deprive them of food and water for two days and two nights, and, in obstinate cases, for the third day. The simplest means of accomplishing this is to procure a nuinber of light-made tubs,
as to prevent them being directly seen months, they lay most constantly in ward over asingle hen, in a quiet out-house, laying they are inclined to sit.
through. Such a tub, placed mouth down- March and April. After each period of not in the hen-house, for the time specified, will remove the desire to sit. A not uncom-
5156. One of the daily duties of the
473
MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.
hen-wife, in summer and autumn, is to will afford easy access to nestssituated collect the eggs. Whenever a hen is ob- above reach from the ground. Nine eggs
served to indicate a desire to lay, a nest weigh about a pound. should be provided her in a quiet and
convenient place; and if directed to it at
5159. Neither dogs nor children should
the cominencement of her laying, she will be allowed to run after laying bens, as
continue to frequent it ever after, if un- the chasing and fright make them part disturbed. But a nest is not required for with their eggs before they are provided every laying hen, as several will lay in with the shell. Guinea - fowls are inces succession in the same nest, some hens sant chasers of hens. Eggs may be laid
laying earlier in the day than others ; and by fowls, portions of which are devoid of so tenacious are they of theirright to parti- the shell ; and if such be derived from a cular nests, that two will not unfrequently breed which you desire to preserve, the occupy the same nest at the same time. only way of rendering such an egg prolific is to cover the part wanting the shell with
5157. Every place is not equally suit- paper and yum , or with a paste of stucco. able for a ben's nest.
In other places
than the ben -house, hens are not fond of
5160. The Rev. Mr Dixon has these
laying their eggs on a level with the true remarks on the form of the eggs laid ground ; though a quiet corner in a shed, by the same hen .
" To every hen," he
under shelter, is not unfrequently selected observes, “ belongs an individual peon by themselves for the purpose. But they liarity in the form , colour, and size of the prefer to lay elevated above the ground, eggs she lays, which never changes during such as in the mangers of stables, in a her whole lifetime, so long as she remains
trough of a shed or hammel, in the straw- in health, and which is as well known barn on the top of a mow of straw , in a stack of straw in the stack-yard, on a compost dung-hill, or upon the top of the wall of a stable, byre, or outhonse, under the roof. When nests are made in such places as bens would themselves prefer, they are much more likely to be frequented
to those who are in the habit of taking her produce as the handwriting of their nearest acquaintance . Some hens lay
smooth cream -coloured eggs, others rough, chalky, granulated ones. There is the buff, the snow -white, the spherical, the oval, the pear -shaped, and the emphati
by them than when a determination cally egg -shaped egg. A farmer's wife is taken to make nests for them. One reason, perhaps, for their preference to the manger of the work -horse stable is, that, in picking up the grains of corn , left there by the horses while the latter are at work in the field, the manger affords the
who interests herself in the matter, will tell you with precision, in looking over her stores, “ this egg was laid by such a hen - a favourite perhaps this by such another;' and it would be possible that she could go on so throughout the whole flock
most convenient place when the pressure of poultry. Of course, the greater the for laying overtakes them .
number kept, the greater becomes the diffi
culty in learning the precise marks of each . 5158. The hen -wife should visit every From a basket of thirty eggs, gathered in nest, and collect the eggs every day ; and a farmyard as they came to hand, eleven ,
the time for collecting the largest number laid by one or two hens whose race we of eggs, and disturbing the poultry the were desirous to continue, were selected least, is in the afternoon between 2 and 3 in about two minutes by the friend who
o'clock, before the birds begin to retire to supplied us with them. If four dozen eggs, roost. A nest-egg should be left in every laid by no more than four different hens, nest, as it is an established fact, that hens were put at random on a table, the chances prefer to lay in nests containing eggs to are that it would be as easy to sort them
those which are empty — not because hens as the four suits in a pack of cards.” * will sit the earlier or closer for that. Egys are most conveniently collected in small
5161. Whether eggs are used at home
hand -baskets, and a short light ladder or disposed of to the egy -merchant, they * Dixon On Ornamental and Domestic Poultry, p. 152.
474
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
should be treated so as to be kept in a by the fowls. Suet, to be nsed in this way, This end is ought to be quite fresh, and rendered pure attained by preventing the air penetrating by melting on a slow fire, which has the the pores of the shell, and the yolk com- effect of separating it from any muscular fresh state for some time.
ing into contact with the shell. There is or tendonous matter associated with it.
just one way of preventing the air enter- After packing the eggs on end in the vessel ing the pores of the shell, which is of destined to contain them — as a barrel smearingit, whilestill warm , with butter or jar — the melted suet, in a warm , not hot This is not the general state, is poured over them, and which mode of treating eggs in farm -houses, , is removed from the vessel, and used for
or melted suet.
whether intended for use at home or for domestic purposes, as the eggs are taken
sale — they being keptin promiscuous heaps, out. Eggs preserved in either of these and in the state as taken from the nests. The methods I have found fresh for some
only means of preventing the adherence months, even so as to contain the milk in of the yolk to the shell, is that of change them—which is the popular criterion of a
ing the position of the egg every day, from fresh egg, but is not so, since an egg may one side or end to the other.
If used on contain it which cannot be fresh or new
the day they are laid, noparticular care laid. Lime water is used to preserve eggs, need be used with eggs. When all trouble and answers the purpose ; but any dry is desired to be avoided with eggs, they material is more agreeable than a wet are sold to the dealers every week, one. In truth, anysubstance that will pre who go about the country with panniers vent the air entering the pores of the shell,
or boxes, and purchase, pack , and take together with anymeans that will pre them to the exporters in the nearest sea- vent the yolk adhering to the shell, will port town.
The price thus received in preserve them in a sweet state for a con summer is very low, not exceeding per- siderable time. haps 4d. per dozen — a price unremune rative for the trouble bestowed on the 5164. Turkeys.- Although the turkey fowls. At the most abundant season , eggs hen is a watchful mother, the brood will
are never below 7d. per dozen in Edin- require daily tending from cold blasts and burgh ; and in winter,at Christmas, when heavy showers, until they are robust theconfectioners use large numbers, they enough to withstand the weather, which
are as high as from 14d. to 18d. per dozen. may be in five or six weeks. When the disposition to lay overtakes ber, the hen 5162. When eggs are desired to be sent to a distance for the purpose of being hatched, they should not be smeared, and should be packed on end in hard-wood sawdust — not in fir saw-dust, because of its smell of turpentine— or in bran, in small boxes or casks, such as oyster barrels,which should be as little agitated as possible.
slips away from her poults and forms a rude nest under a bank , or among weeds ; and although the egg be removed every time she lays it, she will continue to lay in the same nest until the contents of her ovarium are exbausted, ( 2906 ,) not heed ing whether or not a nest egg is left in her
nest. Turkey eggs are justly regarded as a delicacy.
5163. To render eggs a remunerative item of farm economy, they should be preserved fresh , until the scarce season ar-
rives, when they realise a fair price, such as 8d. the dozen. It is easy to preserve eggs in summer, by first smearing them , while still warm, with butter or melted
5165. The turkey should not be allowed to sit to bring out a second brood, as the birds will be too late to be of use the same season ; and in winter the cold will be apt to dwarf their growth, whatever may be the care bestowed on their protection .
suet, and then packing them on the small end in barrels in salt, oats, or melted suet.
5166. Geese. — Goslings are easily injur Salt will impart a salt taste to eggs, if ed with hailstones and heavy rains, until
fresh ones, unsmeared with butter, are they are five or six weeks old, and ought packed in it ; but certainly not if first to be looked after and placed in shelter until the storm subsides. A later brood
smeared with butter or suet. Oats form a
good packing, and may be afterwards used of geese may easily be brought up through
MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.
475
the winter, and will become fine large and contained, like the vitreous humour of the divided in an; extremely birds by the Michaelmas of next year. eye, thickmembrane, into cells the yolk,a thin andalmostsolid
The goose egg is seldom eaten, being yellow matter, enclosed in a peculiarmembrane;
strong tasted.
this membrane, by two ligaments, called chalare , is tied tothe membrane of the albumen, and thus
5167. Ducks. — Ducks are great layers, the yolk is kept in the centre of the egg." dropping an egg almost every day . They The constitution of these various parts , as appears from an analysis of Dr as follows commence at the beginning of April, and is 5171. cease in July. They are very careless Prout. The shell of the commonfowl consists of layers, leaving their eggs wherever they Carbonate of lime, with a little of carbonate of seek their food ; and these, on being dis
covered by the pigs, are champed up as
Of} 97.1 . 22 .
magnesia ,
Phosphate of lime and magnesia , Animal matter , .
the most delicate morsels that fall in their
way.
100 .
To secure the eggs of ducks, the
birds should be examined before being 5172. The membrana, according to Hatchett, let out in the morning ; and those indi consists of coagulated albumen. cating hard with egg confined in the 5173. The white or albumen coagulates into a house till they have laid, and afterwards set at large. They are easily examined firm white solid, when heated to 159° Fahrenheit; and when evaporated to dryness, leaves about by suspending them in the left hand by 14per centof albumen . Dr Bostock has shown
the wings, and simply applying the points thatit contains also alittle mucus.
The consti
of the fingers of the right hand a little tution of the white, according to him, is under the tail.
Ducks should be hatched
Water , Albumen ,
neither too early nor too late, as they can
80 . 15.5 4.5
Mucus,
not withstand cold when young. Many people enjoy the flavour of a new -laid
100 .
duck egg . They are used in cookery as Dr Prout obtained , by combustion, the following fixed constituents in 1000 grains of the white of egg, from three different eggs :
freely as hen eggs.
5168. Pigeons.— The dove -cot should be examined as frequently, all summer
Sulphuric acid, Phosphoric acid , Chlorine , Potash , soda, and carbonates of potashi and soda , .
0.45
0.15 0.46
0.48
0.94
0.93
0.87
0.29
0.18 grains.
2.92
2.93
2.72
young pigeons are tobe obtained. Young Lime,magnesia, bonates of limeand andthecar. mag pigeons grow so rapidly in warm weather nesia ,
0.30
0.25
0.32
that, unless the time is considerately
4.90
4.72
4.57
and autumn, as probability implies that
marked when any particular pair will be ready to be taken , they may have be- M. Mulder has proved that the sulphur and come sufficiently fledged and taken flight. phosphorus are inthe state of sulphurand phos phorus, and not in that of acid ; and this was to expected, from ofthe well- known alkalinebeen reaction 5169. The pigeons should be regularly have of the white an egg.
fed with the poultry, and, over and above 5174, Dr Prout's analysis of the yolk of an egg they will go to the fields in search for a variety of food , such as all the species of which was hard boiled in distilled water, grains, turnip seeds, and seed wheat, and and weighed 316.5 grains, gave these results : upon the stubbles in autumn.
Water , .
Albumen , Yellow oil,
170.2 grains, or 53.78 per cent. 55.3
17.47
91.0
28.75 ::
5170. “ The eggs of allbirds,” says Dr Thomson , “ so faras theyhavebeenexamined , havea striking resemblance to each other. They consist of four parts, -the shell, which is white in the eggs of the common fowl and of many other kinds, but is often coloured or spotted of various colours,
According to Planche , 1000 parts of yolk of egg furnish, at an average, 180 parts of oil. This oil
so as to give it a beautiful appearance ; the mem-
paper like oil. He found this stearin and the
316.5
100.00
consists of stearin 10, and of elain 90 parts ; the
stearin is white and solid, and does not stain
brana pataminis, a thin transparent pellicle , im- fat of fowls to agree very nearly . The elain mediately within the shell - at the great end of possesses the character of a fixed oil. Chevreul the egg this membrane is detached from the shell, found two colouring matters in the yolk, the one leaving a certain distance between them, which red and the other yellow . Lecanu, besides the is filled with air ; the white or albumen , a glairy stearin and elain, extracted from the yol liquid , consisting of albumen dissolved in water, crystalline matter,which melted at 293° Fahren a
PRACTICE-AUTUMN .
476
heit, and which he considered as of the same It is strongly alkaline, and yields traces of all the nature with cholesterin from the brain . Dr. fixed principles found to exist in the egg ; but Prout determined the quantity of fixed constitu-
the carbonate of lime is most abundant, and is
ents in 100 grains of the yolk , by incineration, in three different eggs, thus :
obtained by evaporation in the form of white
0.27
0.51
5179. The source from whence is derived the
bones of the chick while in the egg, is still an
:
4.00 0.44
Potash, soda , and the car. } 0.50
Chlorine,
: :
0.06 3.50 0.28
Phosphoric acid ,
tion important changes in the constitution of the egg are completed. “ The albumen , " as Dr Thomson observes, “ has disappeared , or is re duced to a few dry membranes, together with
bonates of potash and soda ,
Lime, magnesia, and the 0.68
0.61
0.67
5.34
4.72
5.81
carbonates of Time and
magnesia ,
powder.
0.19 grains.
0.21 3.505 0.39
Sulphuric acid ,
5.81
5175. When we compare the fixed consti-
object of research.
At the full term of incuba
earthy matter. The yolk is considerably reduced
in size, and is taken into the abdomen of the chick, while the animal has attained a weight nearly
tuents of the white and yolk, we cannot avoid equal to the original weight of the albumen, being struck with the difference. The white together with that lost by the yolk, minus the contains a much greater quantity of fixed al- loss of weight sustained by the egg during incu kalis than of any other fixed constituent; while in the yolk the most abundant constituent is phosphoric acid , which amounts to from 3.5 to 4 grains ; or, if we suppose it to exist as phosphorus, it varies in different yolks from 1.55 to
1.77 grains.
bation. The alkaline matters and chlorine have diminished in quantity, while the earthy matters During have considerably increased . the last week of incubation , the yolk has lost most of its phosphorus, which is found in the
animal converted into phosphoric acid, and, com
bined with lime, constituting its bony skeleton . 5176. The specific gravity of a new -laid egg This lime does not exist in the recent egg, but is varies from 1.080 to 1.090 ; an egg, therefore, is derived from some unknown source during the
heavier than sea-water, the specific gravity of process of incubation. Mr Hatchett made the which is 1.030 . When kept, eggs rapidly lose weight, and become specifically lighter than water, this is owing to the diminution of bulk in the contents of the egg ; the consequence of which is, that a portion of the inside of the egg comes to be filled with air. Dr Prout kept an egg two years, and found that it lost weight
curious remark, that, in the ova of those tribes
of animals the embryos of which have bones, there is a portion of oily matter ; and in those ova whose embryos consist entirely of soft parts, there is none. In what way the oily matter con tributes to the formation of bone it is iinpossible, in the present state of our knowledge, to con
daily, at an average rate of 0.744 grains. The jecture. Nor can any source of the lime of the original weight was 907.5 grains, and after two years' exposure to the atmosphere, it weighed only 363.2 grains. The total loss amounted to 544.3 grains, or considerably more than half the original weight. The loss in summer was some what greater than in winter, owing, no doubt, to the difference of temperature. When an egg is,
bones be pointed out, except the shell ; and it would be difficult to determine whether the
shellloses lime during the process of incuba tion ." *
5180. M. Raspail, in investigating the nature of animal albumen by the microscope, as exem
therefore, employed as a test of the strength of plified in the white of an egg, observes, that brine, the newer it is, the stronger is the brine that floats it.
16 the albumen of the pullet's egg is composed of an insoluble and regularly -organised texture, which contains in its cells a soluble substance
5177. The relative weights of shell and mem-
brane, albumen, and yolk, are very different.
much more susceptible of alteration than the texture is. Chemists had previously acknow
Supposing the original weight of the egg to be ledged the existence of an albumen soluble in 1000 grains, Dr Prout found the relative proportions, in 10 different eggs, to be as follows : Shell and membrane 106.9 , albumen 604.2, and yolk 288.9 grains. 5178. When an egg is boiled in water, it loses
water, and of another which was insoluble ; but had not remarked that these two sorts of albu
men existed together in the white of eggs, and they had considered this substance as a variety of the insoluble albumen. But the in soluble substance of the white of an egg is ren
weight, particularly if it be removed from the
dered apparent only by degrees, and accordingly
water when boiling, and be permitted to cool in the open air. The water will be found to contain a portion of the saline constituents of the egg. The loss of weight from boiling is not con-
there is a period when it can scarcely be distin guished in this respect from the soluble sub stance, and this is when the egg is fresh — that is,
stant, varying from 20 to 30 grains, supposing the original weight to have been 1000 grains.
recently laid. Hence, as I have already pointed out regarding the vegetable textures, the tex
The quantity of saline matter obtained by eva-
tures are formed by the aggregation of the par ticles ofthe solublesubstance, or, in other words,
porating the distilled water in which an egg was
the soluble substance is converted by solidifica
boiled, amounts, at an average, to 0.32 grains. tion into the parietes of cells. All these circuin * Thomson’s Chemistry of Animal Bodies, p. 446-55.
MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.
stances establish a complete analogy between gluten in vegetables and albumen in animals.” *
477
operation . Since then I have seen a small prac tical treatise on the art which deserves atten
tion, inasmuch as by the use of proper instru.
5181. Of the nature of egg and of seed, the origin of animal and of vegetable individuality, and of the natural analogy between them , M. Raspail thus expresses himself : " The egg and
ments, and appropriate appliances for securing the animal while under the operation, the opera tor may go through the process of caponing by himself with certainty, and with comparatively
the seed are cells detached from the texture of little pain to the animal . The chicken is placed the mother, in consequence of an influence of an with its left side downwards, and secured in that opposite kind. This influence may proceed from position by a strap confining the wings, and a an external body which we call the male, or from an internal cause which we altogether ne-
glect to notice. The egg and the seed may more
lever holding down the legs a little asunder. An incision is then made in the side of the chicken with a peculiar form of knife ; and held open
particularly attract our attention , in consequence be of blunt hooks to allow the testes to by seen. a pair These are then remov from their seat, ed
of their forms and dimensions; but the slice of a
polypus, which becomes an entire animal , and
one after the other, by means of a scoop, which
the fragment of a potato, which produces a
divides the membrane that covers them, and it is
complete plant, are sufficient to teach us that the generative faculty is preserved by the whole
provided with a noose of horse hair, whose action, operating as a saw , cuts asunder the ligatures
organic system , and that the whole organised which bind them to the back -bone. The operation being is complete in any one of its cells.” of 5182. Putrid eggs.— “ Dr Marchal has re
is represented so certain that fifty chickens may be caponed without killing more than one or two .
ported a case in which four persons were seized
5188. Chickens intended for capons may be
with well-marked symptoms of poisoning, after eating for their supper some eggs which were decomposed. One man appeared to be in a state
two and three months old is considered the most
of coma, from which it was difficult to rouse
favourable time.
him : his face was livid, his lips blue, his eyes
operation . At five or six months old they are
operated ' upon at any age, though between Old fowls seldom survive the
open and fixed, limbs flaccid, and respiration less liable to have the testes burst in the opera slow . His wife , brother, and one of his sons were affected , although in a less degree, with similar
tion than younger ones, but they are more apt to bleed to death than those from two to four
symptoms— complaining of vertigo, weight and months old. They very seldom die after the pain in the head, pains in the limbs, and disin-
operation, unless they have received some inter
It appears that the eggs
nal injury, or the flesh of the thigh has been cut
clination to move.
which had been eaten in a pudding had a dis- through. The wives and daughters of the agreeable and slightly putrid smell , and the poultry farmers in Sussex , Essex, and Herts whole of these persons were taken ill soon after constantly practice the art of caponing. the meal .
The symptoms were not those of
irritation, but of narcotism : they all recovered ." I
5189. Previous to the performance of the ope ration , the chickens must be kept entirely without food and even water for about thirty - two hours,
5183. Mr M'Queen estimates the value of the
poultry, rabbits, &c. in the kingdom in 1836 at from £ 9,000,000 to £ 10,000,000.9
as that time has been ascertained by experiment to be the best to secure the greatest chance of
success, by causing the bowels to be empty, and lessening the tendency to bleeding.
5184. The value of the poultry, dead or alive, 5190. The effect upon a chicken being converted imported into this country in 1849 was L.31,795, and the duty paid on them was L.1771 . The into a capon is, in about a twelvemonth, nearly to duty from British possessions is L.2, 12s. 6d . per treble or quadruple the size of the bird . It has been . cent ad valorem , and L.5, 5s, from foreign coun- ascertained that a pair of capons of the Dorking breed once reached the enormous weight of 25 tries. || lbs ., a weight far superior to the majority of tur
5185. The importation of foreign eggs into the kingdom was as follows, in number 1847, 1848,
1849,
.
.
77,485,487 88,097,277
97,903,151
keys. The capon generally brings double or treble the price of common poultry . 5191. The writer remarks that, “ in regard to the feeding of capons, we wish we could say much in favour of the metropolitan, or even of many of
5186. The duty payable on the import of the provincial feeders. The fine large fowls foreign egys is 10 d . on 120 in number, and on which are seen in the poulterer's shops have those fromthe British possessions 23d. undergone the process of castration, and then they are placed in some dark place, enclosed in 5187. In (2957) I mentioned a method of con- coops, and crammed with barley or other meal, verting cock chickens into capons by a simple
forined into a paste by means of hot liquor; and
* Raspail's Organic Chemistry, p. 243-4. + lbid., p . 75-6. # Taylor On Poisons, p. 562 . § M'Queen’s Statistics of the British Empire, p. 25. | Parliamentary Returns, 15th March 1850. | Ibid ., February 1819 and 1850.
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
478
this mode offeeding is repeated several times in return to their haunts and carry off one is, thatthebird becomes indisposedtomove, and abducted. The season in which he is most a day. The consequence of this overloaded crop after another, until a large number be is half put to sleep, and is soon quickly covered with unwholesome fat. The capon feeders are
active in his predatory excursions is in
very much belied if they do not go farther than this : they mix ardent spirits with the paste with which the birds are crammed, and that and the darkenedplace in which they are confined, dispose
the summer, when he has his young cubs his roamings tothe shades of night, but willalmost boldly frequent the steadings to support; and he does not confine
them to be stupid and half asleep,and they be inthe afternoons when theanimals are at literally bloated process, come
with fat. The
however, cannot be long continued,for fevermust pasture, and the people at work. Just of necessity ensue, or apoplexy willcarry off the before the poultry go to roost, he frequently
bird,or thewhole of the carcass willbereddened pays a visit to thesteading, and snatches and spoiled by the redundancy of blood. ” up a goose or a turkey, and runs off with 5192. In regard to determining the sex of eggs it to his earth. The abduction is so
noticed in (2883,) this writer says,“ As in breed- quietly done, that the fowl may not be ing with a special view of making capons,male missed until next morning, unless it hap chickens are required, those shouldmales be se lected to alone set under hens which produce
pen to be a particular bird, such as the namely, such ashavethe sharpest points. The principal cock , oldestgander, turkey -cock, men who were formerly employed in the rearing or peacock. Contrary to bis practice with of gamefowlswere so expert in their selectionof lambs, he does not carry off the young of
the male eggs,that we knew one instance ofa poultry ifhe can conveniently lay hold of breeder employed by a Mr Storer of Notting ham , who out of 13 eggs would select 11 from theolder bird. The loss must be putup which he undertook toproduce male birds. "
with ; for, whatever precaution the farmer may use in spring for the protection of
5193. “ It is rather singular," farther remarks his new -dropped lambs (2545,) be wonld this writer,“ that the emasculation of theyoung acquire an unenviable character amougst
gander has never been tried in this country:for sportsmen were he to lie in wait with a
there is no reason why as perfect a capon (if one
may be allowed the expression) should not be gun for a fox. But such watching would made of a gander as of a cock. It is a practice at any rate be useless, for the fox is too
followed in some parts of Germany and Russia, cunning to return to the same place for and vicinity in the latter country particularly and of Larko-Lelo, we once insawthea town flock of goose capons, the lightest of which must have weighed 15 lbs. at six months old . The Russians, however, entertain a strong prejudice
some time to try his chance at another capture ; and he takes care to keep off a rival from a distance ; so that the missing bird is almost certain to have been stolen
against making capons even of fowls, on arelie by a fox from the nearest covert. Foxes gious principle ; but this is,likethe majority of scent hens and turkeys to their nests in prejudices, founded in ignorance and supersti tion ."
The same may be said of caponing the the fields, and carry them off. On losing favourite birds, such as a turkey -cock , Chinese gander, and young peacock, I have discovered their remains, chiefly the
male turkey, (2958. ) 5194. Mr Cantelo's hydro -inoubator was ex hibited in Edinburgh in 1850, and I observe that
improved in construction since Imenhas been ittioned its operations in (2948.) The tray in which theeggs are hatched is now coveredwith a plate of glass instead of water-proof cloth ,and immersed in water at the temperature of 1080
feathers, in the coverts in the neighbour hood, where the foxes bad formed their
earth for many years. Like the dog which buries his bone, the fox buries his plunder in the earth to preserve it fresh .
Fahr., and beside being a safer receptacle, it
affords the opportunity of noticing the process of incubation from first to last.
5196. The Polecat. - Polecats or fou
marts, Mustela putorius, visit steadings ON THE ANIMALS DESTRUCTIVE TO
under night, and if a hole in the door, or a slit in the wall, by which poultry enter ,
POULTRY.
be left open, they will creep in and com mit great havoc among the grown -up 5195. The Fox . — The common fox, Vul- fowls, sucking the blood and leaving the pes vulgaris, is the most formidable des- carcases. It is only by the negligence of
troyer of poultry. If undisturbed, he will the henwife that they can find access into * Practical Instructions in the Art of making Capons, 16-28.
ANIMALS DESTRUCTIVE TO POULTRY.
479
Polecats may be caught on their eggs, is very considerable. The old by placing a steel-trap immediately behind black rat of the country, Mus rattus, is now the inside of the holeof the door of a hen- nearly extirpated ; and the fiercer, dirtier,
the hen-house.
house, in such a way as that the intruder more mischievous, and dangerous brown cannot escape the trap, which need not rat, Mus decumanus, has taken its place. be baited, but only covered with a little 5200. Of the many plans devised for chaff, and will spring whenever the animal places its fore -feet upon it .
the destruction of the rat, I suspect that
the box -trap is the most ineffectual. A 5197. The Weasel. - Weasels, Mustela new trap may capture a few rats at first, oulgaris, frequent steadings, and do both but it soon becomes recognised, and scru
harm and good . They do good in des- pulously shunned, however luring the bait troying rats and mice, by sucking their it contains may be. blood .
I once observed a weasel and
brown rat meet under a shed, and, from
5201. Steel-traps are much more effec
the attitudes they both assumed, I antici- tual, and when used with skill occasion pated a fight. The weasel, however, was ally, not constantly, will destroy large evidently to be the aggressor ; and on ap- numbers of rats in a short time. Of all
proaching near the rat, the latter squealed the feats of rat killing I ever witnessed, so in utter fear that he apparently could not run away. On making a spring, the weasel seized the rat by the throat ; and although the struggle between them was violent, the rat was soon silenced in death.
none equalled that of a Yorkshireman, of
the name of John Featherstone, by means of steel-traps. He had 21 small traps, which he always kept clean and bright.
On commencing his operations, he traced
When a weasel takes up its abode in a the tracks of the rats along the floors to corn -stack, not a mouse dares remain in the tops of the walls, leading commonly by it ; and if a pole is placed from such a the corners of the apartments to the parti
stack to the window of the granary , the tion walls, which they surmounted below weasel will find its way into the latter, and the slates. After he had discovered their
effectually deter any rat or mouse from different runs, he made a number of small entering or remaining in it.
firm bundles of straw, which he placed
against the bottom of a wall in the apart
5198. But unfortunately weasels do ments in which runs had been traced upon harm as wellas good, in killing young the floor, and also upon the tops of the poultry, by sucking their blood — a chicken, walls where runs were observed under the a duckling, or a gosling, being in an un- roof. He used 7 traps at one place at a safe place, if basking in the sun at the bot- time, and a greater number of bundles of tom of a dry stone-wall facing the south. straw were used than merely to conceal
They steal eggs too. One day I observed the number of traps at each place, em a weasel crossing a road at some distance ploying his entire number in three places,
from the steading, rolling an egg before at a little distance from each other, and it with its fore -paws. On allowing it to proceed, I traced it to a lot of felled trees at the road -side, amongst which it had accumulated a store of i7 hen eggs ; and
in different apartments. The traps were set in a row , behind the bundles of straw, and not allowed to spring at first, and baited with oatmeal, scented with oil of
it must have done so in a short time, as rhodium , with a little chaff strewed over them . They were thus baited for two
the eggs were all quite fresh .
days, the baitsbeing renewed as soon as it 5199. The Rat. - Rats, however, are the was discovered, by inspection, that they most troublesome vermin, because they had been consumed. On these days, people harbour in the steading. They not only were prevented as much as possible from
make every place they frequent dirty, but disgustingly so. The mischief they do in cutting holes in boarded floors, in undermining stone pavements, gnawing harness, consuming and wasting every edible thing,
frequenting the apartments in which the traps were placed , and dogs wereentirely excluded. Removing the check from the springs on the third day, and arming him self with a short stout stick, having a
and killing hens and pigeons when sitting game- bag slung across his shoulders,
480
PRACTICE - AUTUMN .
Featherstone was on the alert ; and the of partition walls in steadings, I have re moment he heard the click of a trap he ran commended them to be beam - filled ( 1687 ; )
to it, removed the bundle of straw, and under the floors of apartments I have knocked the rat on the head if alive, threw also recommended a mode of constructing it out of the trap, set it again , replaced floors ( 1681 ,) and of laying pavements the bundle, bagged the rat - all in a few ( 1687.) seconds — and then resumed the watch .
In the course of the day, from morning
5204. Together with building up the
to afternoon , he had collected 385 rats; tops of partition walls, I believe there is and, allowing every trap to have done
no way of scaring rats and mice from
equal execution , each had caught more than 18 rats. lle bargained for 1d.a rat, and his food ; and in three days he earned in money, £1 , 12s. 1d . All the rats were of course not cleared off by this capture ; but
a steading so effectually as by cats. Let one or two cats be brought up in different
parts of a steading, according to its size, and if situate at a distance from dwelling bouses, they will become vigilant guards
they received such a thinning, as to prove against these vermin; and if the steading comparatively harmless for years. Feath- is very near, the house-cats will perhaps
erstone's first business, on the day follow- frequent it sufficiently often for the pur ing the capture, was to clean each trap pose. When kept in the steading, let each bright, before setting out on his journey; cat receive daily, at its own particular and he seemed to place greater reliance on
place, and at a stated hour, say 11 o'clock
the cleanly state of his traps than on any A.M., a mess of new milk and porridge, and thereby no when it will attend to receive it as the other circumstance ,
doubt, the suspicion of therats was allayed. hour arrives ; and let each have a soft, warm , comfortable bed made for it in some
5202. Besides such mechanical means, quiet spot of the steading. At night, and others have been devised for the destruction early in the morning, they will watch and of rats. It is said that coal-tar smeared hunt on their respective beats ; and in the around the mouth of their holes will course of a short time, provided access be drive them away. Poison is a favourite freely afforded to every apartment of the
instrument for the destruction of this ver- steading, the vermin will be seldom and min. Rabbit flesh chopped up with arsenic, more seldom seen , until they disappear or carbonate of barytes, is recommended altogether. Cats are quite common about
by one party ; and a salt herring so used steadings and stables ; but they are gene is recommended as strongly by another. rally neglected of food, on the erroneous The following is a recipe for making rat idea that, if fed , they become lazy and will phosphorous poison, which, it is said, has not hunt. So far from this being thecase, a proved efficacious: Take of lard or drip- regularly fed cat makes the best hunter,
ping 14 lb., of phosphorus 1 drachm, because it then hunts for sport ; and not spirit of wine 1 gill. Put the whole into feeling pressed by hunger, it will watch a clean pint bottle. Melt them gradually, at the same spot for hours.
Being in
by immersing the bottle in a bath of hot stout condition, from its daily wholesome water. When dissolved, cork the bottle,
food , it feels itself strong enough to en
and incorporate the ingredients by shak- counter any vermin, and will destroy
in thecourse of a day. A starved ing. When cool, pour off the spirit of numbers cat, on the other hand, which hunts for wine. Take flour and rub wbite grated sugar in it, and make a paste with the food, eats the first prey it catches, and, contents of the bottle, melted. Divide the gorging itself lies down to rest, in accord Inmp of paste into two portions. Flavour ance with the habits of the feline race to one with a small quantity of the oil of which it naturally belongs ; and neglect rhodium ; the other with oil of anise. a cat of food — let it depend for sub
Make balls of both portions of the dough, of sistence entirely on its own powers the size of marbles each. Place them in the and hunger in the long run will prevent way at night where rats most frequent.,
its watching altogether. The great use of the cat is to scare away, not devour ver
5203. As a means of the prevention of min; and, when obliged to leave the stead rats lodging and breeding upon the tops ing in search of food, it will most likely
ANIMALS DESTRUCTIVE TO POULTRY.
481
go to the hen-house for an egg, to the with injustice; but it sometimes carries
hatching-house for a young chicken, or to off a chicken or duckling, and sucks an the dove-cot fora young pigeon.
It will egg that may have been dropped abroad.”
even hunt the fields for game.
I have The Professor relates several marauding
caused my greyhounds to run down and anecdotes of the magpie from various worry many a cat in the fields.
The authorities, and one is from the work of the
truth is, most people will not take the trouble to feed a cat daily and regularly in the steading ; and the consequence is, that none will remain in it, to destroy
late Bishop of Norwich : “ The female was observed to be the most active and thievish, and withal very ungrateful ; for although the children about the house had
and scare away vermin, when food can be often frightened cats and hawks from the spot, yet she one day seized a chicken , obtained more easily elsewhere . and carried it to the top of the house to
5205. The Greeks used to tie bunches of rue under the wings of their fowls, to prevent cats worrying them , as cats, it seems, bave a strong aversion to that herb. 5206. Rooks. — Rouks, Corvusfrugilegus, watch for stray eggsthat may havebeen laid among the litter in the courtyards, or
near the watering pond, and carry them off
eat it,where the hen immediatelyfollowed, and, having rescued the chicken,brought it safely down in her beak ; and it was remarked that the poor little bird, though it made a great noise while the magpie was carrying it up, was quite quiet,and seemed to feel no pain while its mother was carrying it down." * Two striking anecdotes are related by Mr Weir of Bog head : “ Mr Wark , farmer at Hardhill,”
in their bills.
he observes, “told me that his brother,
5207. The carrion crow, Corous corone,
upon his property of Old Hall, in the
also carry off eggs and young poultry ; parish of Dunlop, shot off the leg of a but its art in effecting the destruction of magpie as she was carrying off a chicken poultry is simple compared with the cun- from his house. She was not seen during ning and vigilance of the magpie. the winter and spring, but appeared again in summer.
Lame though she was, she
5208. The Magpie . — The habits of the still carried on her murderous operation . magpie, Pica melanoleuca , are thus de- One day he perceived her in pursuit of a scribed by Professor Macgillivray : - “ The duckling; it immediately ran to the water
food of the magpie consists of testaceous mollusca,slugs,larvæ , worms, young birds, eggs, small quadrupeds,carrion, sometimes grain, and fruits of different kinds , in search of which it frequents the fields, hedges, thickets, and orchards, occasionally visits the farmyard, prowls among the stacks, perches on the house- top, whence it sallies at times, and examines
for protection. So intent, however, was she upon its destruction, that she ventured too far in after it, and got herself so wet that, before she was able to rise in the air, he knocked her down with a stick. A few years a go a boy told me, that while he was tending his cattle, he heard several lond screams in a young plantation in the neighbourhood. Being anxious to ascer
the dunghill and places around . Although tain the cause of the noise, he immediately it searches for larvæ and worms in the ran to the place whence it proceeded,
ploughed fields, it never ventures, like the and, to his astonishment, he beheld a rook and several species of gulls, to follow magpie standing upon the back of a bare
the plough as it turns over each successive almost half-grown, picking out its eye, furrow . It has been accused of picking the other having been torn out before his the eyes of lambs and sickly sheep, Ithink arrival.” + * Stanley's Familiar History of Birds, vol. i. p. 251 . + Macgillivray's British Birds, vol. i. p. 566-72.
VOL. II.
2 H
1
re
482
REALISATION .
ON THE DIFFERENCES IN THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF FARMS.
5211. The causes which have operated so to diversify the systems of farming in this country are perhaps these :-Sheep
5209. On the supposition that the pupil can occupy thewhole range of pasture from in practical husbandry has acquired a com- the mountain tops to the plains. Cattle petent knowledge of farming to conduct are confined in their pasture from the
a farm on his own account, by having secondary mountain tops to the plains. familiarised himself with the entire rou- Hence, the highest mountain range is tine of operations throughout the four occupied solely by sbeep, andthere, in con seasons upon a farm , under anintelligent sequence,pastoral farms which breed sheep farmer, and by having consulted the in- only are found ; and these are the hardy, structions contained in the preceding pages, mountain, heath-sheep, commonly called as a safe guide in leading him to anticipate the Black -faced breed. From the high and understand the several operations as elevation of sheep pastoral farms, they are
they bad occurred, the time has arrived, in necessarily subjected to much wind and
pursuance of the object I had in preparing rain , occasioning both wet and cold ; and this work of its being useful to theyoung were it not that the tops of mountains
farmer, for me to point out to him the face differentdirections - onepart affording particulars to which he should specially shelter and comparative warmth, while the
direct his attention in looking out for å opposite may be experiencing the fiercest farm for himself — in judging of the land onsets of the elements — such farms would in bargaining for the lease — and in provid- be unfit to be inhabited by even the most ing the stocking for his farm . Beyond hardy breed of sheep. these, it may be necessary for him to en close and drain the farm , and to erect
farm -buildings upon it ; and in case be adopt any kind of farming which undertakes the breeding and rearing of livestock, he should be made acquainted with the correct principles upon which the breeding and rearing of all the domesticated animals may be pursued with success .
5212. On looking at such a farm with the view of taking it, the ground should in the firstinstance possess diversified aspects, and not one long stretch of inclination either to the S. or N .; because, in winter, even the south face of a hill will often be
covered deep with snow, while the north is almost clear, where the sheep will subsist on the young shoots of the heather. Steep 5210. The farms of this country occupy slopes are also of use in winter, as the snow
every available space of ground, from the cannot lie deep upon them. The geological tops of the highest mountains, to the structure of the surface should beattended
lowest level of the plains. On a diversity to.
Where debris covers the rock the
of ground implied in such a wide range, subsoil will be porous, and the pasturage it is not to be expected that the same green with little heather ; and where no system of farming can be prosecuted. On debris occurs, the rock will be covered with
the contrary, in consequence of such a peat-earth and heather, encouraged by diversity, the different kinds of farming the presence of water constantly descend I described from (36) to ( 51 ,) and the ing upon the face of the rock . Such water operations adapted to each, which I have proves useful in giving origin to springs treated in detail in their respective of pure water,which grateful to the seasons, have long been pursued with equal sheep in the drought are of summer. The skill and success . rocks on such farms are generally of the
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF FARMS.
483
primary formation, and where granite or ample, and drain pipe-tiles affording an clay slate prevails, debris may be looked easy means of filling them. for; but neither gneiss nor mica slate is usually covered with debris, and only with 5215. Were arable culture extended further than it is on such farms - upon the peat- earth. best haugh ground, for example, and on 5213. Since sheep can occupy the whole the slopes adjacent thereto — and a commo range of farm grounds, and cattle only dious steading set down, both cattle and
from the secondary hills to the plains, sheep might be raised with advantage as it follows that both sheep and cattle may well for the tenaut as the land, inasmuch as,
be reared on the second description of where pasture is judicionsly managed in pastoral farms, (36.) The farms occupy- summer,by a proper admixture and distri ing a lower range of hills than the preced - bution of stock, it raises a porportionally ing, have their surface diversified with large quantity of food for both cattle and large round -backed hills, suited to afford sheep, than for either alone. Sheep follow good shelter to every kind of stock. And and bite the pasturage closer than cattle,
as hills cannot exist without corresponding valleys, valleys possessing considerable breadth, and abundance of haugh land along the banks of a river, are well suited
and the grass springs up afresh after the sheep. But, to derive the greatest advan tage from such an arrangement, the land should be drained, and the pastures en to the rearing of cattle, either by them- closed, to allow of the confinement of the selves or in company with sheep; but in stock in one place until the grass grow
narrow and steep valleys, sheep alone in another. Such an arable pastoral farm should be preferred. The sheep best suited should have as much S. exposure as for such pasturage are theCheviot and the possible, which will be determined by Southdown breeds, and the cattle are the the circumstance whether it is on the N.
North and West Highland breeds, (35.) or S. of a high mountain range. The Instead of rearing both cattle and sheep on such farms, commonly either the one or the otber is preferred, the cattle being reared on those having most low grounds, and
direction of the valleys in which the steading should be situated is a point worth considering,-- for as our greatest winds are from the S.W., and the greatest
sheep having most high grounds. Even colds from the N.E., every valley run wbere extensive haughs are found, sheep are often reared in preference to cattle ; and fewstore-masters desire to be troubled with both cattle and sheep breeding, where accommodation for stock of every kind in steadings is limited, and variety of winter
ning S.W. to N.E. will be much more exposed , both in winter and summer, than
in any other direction. A plantation thrown across such a valley bothabove and below
the arable land would screen it, the stead ing, and the farm-house effectually ; and food not abundant. the shelter besides of a higher hill to windward, or to the N., ought not to be 5214. On reviewing such a farm , it overlooked in choosing such a farm .
should possess as much green pasture as
possible, which it is enabled to grow by
5216. On the slope of the ground from
the subjacent rocks being of slaty struc- the foot of the secondary mountains into ture, such as greywacke slate, and slate the plains, will be found the sites of all clay, through the fissures of which the the systems of farming in practice, with
water passes as through a porous subsoil. the exception of the two kinds of pastoral The less debris that covers those rocks the farming which we have just been con drier will be the pasture, for water passes sidering. The soil on sucha slope rests on
more easily through their slaty structure trap alone, red sandstone alone, mountain than their debris, which consists of a limestone alone, or on red sandstone and
large proportion of clay.
Where de- limestone, containing projecting eminences
bris exists, extensive portions of flat sur- of trap. Such a situation is eminently
face may be expected to be occupied by adapted for growing turnips ; and accord
swamps and bogs, which grow heather , ingly we find prevailing there the mixed, but which, however, may be easily dried (49 ) the dairy, ( 45,) and that system of by drainage, the fall for drains being farming practised at adistance from towns,
484
REALISATION .
in which no breeding of stock is attempted in the best state of health on the farm all (48.) Generally on such slopes, though diversified by undulations, the soil on all the different kinds of rock requires draining ; and where it does not, the dry soil
the year round, but when disposed of, being in fine condition, would fetch larger prices ; while in the low country, they would be quicker fed both on pasture in
consists of travelled gravel and sand, con- summer, and on turnips in winter. The stituting the debris of rocks brought from carse farming cannot be materially altered ; a distance .
and the farming in the neighbourhood of towns must preserve its peculiar
cha
5217. On the plain, towns and villages racter, as long as the demand for straw , are found on the margins of rivers which hay, grass, potatoes, and turnips, con are makingtheir way to the sea or to an tinues. While milk and butter and cheese
estuary. The soil is either thin clay or are wanted , the dairy farming must be gravelly — both travelled materials — but pursued. The only change, then, that can mpervious to be effected in the general farming of the resting upon diluvial clay, impervious water. Draining is absolutely requisite country, is the extension of the mixed
to render the soil fertile ; and the farming husbandry which includes the breeding there is generally different from that on the preceding locality, occasioned by the demands from the towns and villages the inhabitants of which derive alltheir vegetable food from the adjoining farms and gardens, ( 42. )
of cattle and sheep, to the extinction of that species of farming which avoids breed ing and subsists on the purchasing of cattle and sheep from pastoral farms. It may be deemed impracticable for farmers to be come breeders of stock in the low country, as long as pastoralfarmers breed stock, and 5218. Where the plain extends to the dispose of them before they are fit to be bank of a large river or estuary, the soil slaughtered. I am not of that opinion ;
changes to a uniform mass of alluvial because, although a farmer breeds stock strong clay, unfit for any of the preceding modes of culture, and is cultivated in a manner peculiar to itself, called carse farming, (39.) Such soil requires draining;
on his own farm , he need not necessarily be prevented purchasing stock to fatten in winter on turnips raised on all his fallow
break ; or in summer, on pasture or soiling
but, even after being drained, it is unfit to grass. be worked, or even meddled with, in winter, in rain, snow, or frost, on account of its unctuous aluminous character. It will grow turnips after being drained, but will
Besides, where breeding cannot
with propriety be adopted, as on carse farms and those in the neighbourhood of towns, cattle have to be purchased to be fed on turnipson carse farms; and both cattle and
not receive sheep upon it in winter; and sheep may be profitably fattened, in the hence no sheep are bred on such land. It neighbourhood of towns, on the turnips and cannot be pastured in summer, in a wet grass which have not been sold to the season , in case the surface be poached with townspeople. Thus a large demand the beasts' feet ; and hence no cattle are would always be found in the low country
bred upon it. It is chiefly devoted to the for the surplus stock of the pastoral farms, raising of grain, straw , and hay, which it curtailed as these would necessarily be by does abundantly, and is well adapted for an extension of arable culture. the soiling of cattle in bammels, in sum
mer, upon the clover which it grows in luxuriance.
5220. In addition to these views of the
physical geography of a farm , when it is
examined, other circumstances affect its 5219. Such are the various physical value, such as of the following character : causes which have given rise to the different modes of farming practised in this country. No change can be introduced into the pastoral farming of either sheep orcattle , except the extension of arable
The land may have such a steep inclination as to require increased strength to work it. The soil may be too strong or too loose. It may be in too wet or too dry a state. Its natural condition may be poor. The fields
culture, for the purpose of raising a suffi- may want water in summer,though there ciency of winter food. Were this done, may be abundance of it in winter or the stock would not only be maintained spring. The water may be only supplied
CLIMATE .
485
from the surface, instead of from springs. torrid, temperate, and frigid – names The fences may be either injudiciously exclusively indicative of different degrees formed, or in a state of dilapidation of temperature. The position of the farm , in respect to exposure, to the N. or S ; the form of 5224. The torrid zone contains the
the surface of the fields, whether each space inscribed by the ecliptic, and com slopes in more than one direction ; whe- prehends 23° 28' on each side of the equa ther the farm is exposed in an open tor, or one belt of 46° 56' in breadth . It country all round, or sheltered on one or is the hottest portion of the globe, the sun
all sides by natural or artificial objects ; being over the zenith, and the mean tem whether coal and lime are far off, or near perature ranging from 84.2° to 78.8° Fah at hand ; whether the market town is
renheit.
distant or near, and whether it possesses
the means of supplying a considerable
5225. The temperate zones lie one on
quantity of manure ; whether the roads each side of the tropical, embracing a range are well planned, and kept in good repair, or a railroad is to be found within a reasonable distance ; —what effect all these circumstances of a physical character, in dividually and collectively, have upon the money value of the land, it may not be easy to determine ; but that they have
of latitude in each hemisphere of 43° 4', and extending to latitude 66° 32'. Its mean temperature varies from 78.8° to 39.9º. 5226. The frigid zones each compre hepds as many degrees from the poles as the tropical zone extends from the equator
such an effect is most obvious to the —namely, 23° 28'. Their mean tempera understanding
ture varies from 39.9° to 31 °.
5227. Within 10 ° of the poles the tem ON CLIMATE AND ITS EFFECTS .
perature differs little ; and the same is the
case within 10° of the equator. The mean 5221. The state of the climate is too temperature of different years varies very little attended to by farmers when they little near the equator, butmore and more are on the outlook for a farm ; and yet so as the latitudes approach the poles. their dailyexperience teaches them that cli mate hasa marked effect upon vegetation . 5228. Thus the temperature of the air diminishes gradually from the equator to
5222. The distribution of heat over the the poles. This diminution is found to
surface of the globe constitutes climate ; take place in an arithmetical progression , and as every place is affected by the dis- which is, that the annual temperature of tribution of heat, every place possesses a all the latitudes are arithmetical means
climate in common with every other place between the mean annual temperature of
in similar latitudes. This constitutes the the equator and the poles. This law was general climate of the place ; but every first discovered by M. Meyer ; and by place also possesses a local climate, occa- means of an equation founded on it and
sioned by the particular configuration of the locality which affects the distribution of heat, and which may render the local climate better or worse than the general one.
afterwards rendered more simple, Mr Kir wan calculated the mean annual tempera
ture of every degree of latitude between the equator and the poles, and of every month of the year.
5223. General climate is measured from
5229. It appears, from these calcula the equator to the polar circles in spaces, in each of which the longest day is half- tions, that, of the annual mean temperature an-hour longer than that nearer the equa- of the months, January is the coldestmonth tor ; and from the polar circles to the poles, in all latitudes above 48 ° ; and that, in
it is measured by the increase of a month . The breadths thus assumed for these spaces are quite arbitrary , as is most ofthe zones into which the surface of the globe is subdivided, and these zones are classified into
latitudes below that, August is the warm est month . In the northern hemisphere, thetemperature rises from about the middle of January , slowly at first, more rapidly in April and May, to reach its maximum
486
REALISATION .
point in July and August, when it begins below zero ; while in the Faroe Islands, to fall again until mid January, when it in latitude 62°, theponds and lakes never freeze in winter, the winter temperature being only 40°
is at its minimum.
5230. The difference in temperature between the hottest and coldest months
5235. One of the grand characteristics
increases in proportion to the distance of a maritime climate is the small difference from the equator . At the equator the between the mean temperaturesof summer mean temperature is 84.2° ; at the ecliptic and winter. At Edinburgh that differ
it is 78.8° ; at Paris, in latitude 48° 50' it ence only amounts to 19°, while at Mos is 51.4 ° ; at London, in latitude 51° 31 ', cow, on nearly the sameparallel of latitude, it is 50.7° ; at Dublin, in latitude 53° 23', it is 50° ; and at Kasan, in latitude 56 °, it
it is 49.1°; and at Edinburgh, in latitude is as much as 56.3º. 55° 57', it is 47.4º.
5236. “ The climates of different parts 5231. The hottest temperature which of the earth's surface are unquestionably has yet been registered for the open air owing in great measure to their position
was that observed by Buckhardt in Upper with respect to the sún. At the equator, Egyptat 117°, and the lowest by Captain where the sun is always nearly vertical, Back in North America at 68.8° below any given part of the surface receives a zero , the difference between the two cases much greater quantity of light and heat being 185.8. than an equal portion near the poles ; and
it is also still more affected by the sun's 5232. Modifications of temperature oc- vertical
rays, because
their passage
cur in accordance with a difference of con- through the atmosphere shorter than figuration of the earth's surface. Were that of the oblique rays. As far as the
that surface uniform , the power of the soil sun's mean altitude is concerned, it ap toabsorband radiate heat would be every pears from Simpson's calculations, that the where alike, and the climate of a place heat received at the equator in the whole would depend on its geographical position : year is nearly 2} times as great as at the the isothermal lines would all be parallel poles ; this proportion being nearly the
with the equator.
But the diversity in same as that of the meridian heat of a
the surface causes the soil to be dry in one vertical sun, to the heat derived at 231° place, and swampy in another; to be from the poles, in the middle of the long
here a moving sandy desert, and there an annual day at the poles. But the differ umbrageous forest, all which cause cor- ence is rendered still greater by the effect
responding varieties in climate, in pro- of the atmosphere, which intercepts a portion as the surface becomes heated in greater proportion of the heat at the poles
different degrees in one or other of those than elsewhere. Bouguer has calculated , upon the supposition of the similarity of the effects of light and heat, that inlat.
conditions.
5233. In penetrating great continents 450, 80 parts of 100 are transmitted at from the sea - coast, the temperature both in noon in July, and 55 only in December.
summer and winterbecomes extreme, the It is obvious that, at any individual place, mean between them being great ; and there the climate in summer must approach in
are places which with different latitudes some degree to the equatorial climate, the have nearly the same mean annual tem- sun's altitude being greater, and in winter to the climate of the polar regions." *
perature.
5234. An island, a peninsula, and the
5237. But, how interesting soever it
sea -coast experience a more temperate and may be to know the annual mean tem equable climate-the summers less sultry, peratures of places, they are not sufficient
the winters more mild - than a continent. to make us acquainted with their climate, OntheContinent, at Königsberg in Prussia, as it affects the products of the farm .
in latitude 55°, the cold in winter is 18Ó These mean temperatures are derived from * Polehampton's Gallery of Nature and Art, vol. iv. p. 42.
CLIMATE.
487
observations made on thermometers placed it gives 9385 °, being no less than 2430° in the shade. But as our crops are not more than is required at Turmero, and
placed in the shade, and are exposed in 2175° than at Truxillo. the day to the full force of the sun's light and heat, and at night to a much reduced
5239. Boussingault informs us, that in
and it may be a chill temperature, what Alsace, with a mean temperature of 590, we desiderate, before we can determine wheat requires 137 days, or 8083° to the agricultural climate of any place, is a ripen ; at Paris, with a mean temperature series of observations from thermometers of 56°, 160 days, or 8960" ; at New
placed exposed in the open air to all the York, with a mean temperature of 63 °, influences of the weather day and night, 122 days, or 7680°. summer and winter, from which we may
deduce, not mean temperatures, but actual temperatures occurring in any month of the year during the day and the night. A comparison of mean temperatures will, no doubt, let us know which of two places
5240. In Egypt, on the banks of the Nile, with a mean temperature of 70°, barley requires 90 days, or 6300°, to ripen ; at Santa Fé de Bogota, with a mean
temperature of 58.5 °, 122 days, or 7137°.
enjoys the greater heat on the average of 5241. In South America, maize comes days or months ; but it does not tell us the greatest and lowest degrees of heat felt to maturity in 92 days, with a mean tem at the place in the course of any season ; perature of 81.5°, or 7497° ; or in 183
and it is this knowledge that most in- days, with a mean temperature of. 59', or 10,797º.
terests us in the cultivation of our crops.
We know that a given number of days, at
5242. At Maracaibo, near the lake of bring a certain crop to perfection , and Valencia, potatoes require 120 days, with
a certain temperature, are necessary to
that another certain temperature will destroy that crop ; but the mean temperature alone will not tell us whether or not that crop will thrive in any given place. 5238. Thus, at Venezuela, according to
a mean temperature of 78°, or 9360° to
ripen ; and at Antisana, they require 276 days to be in the ground, with a mean temperature of 52 , or 14,352°. 5243. From these and similar data, M.
M. Codazzi, wheat requires 92 days to Boussingault comes to the conclusion that
ripen at Turmero, at a mean temperature
the duration of vegetation appears to be
of 75.6 °, which is equivalent to 6955º ; and a hundred daysat Truxillo, the mean temperature being 72.1 °, which is equiNow , in Scotland valent to 7210°.
in the inverse ratio of the mean tempera ture; so that if we multiply the number of
days during which a given plant grows in different climates, by the mean tempera
neither of these amonnts of temperature ture of each, we obtain numbers that are
nearly equal. The result is not only re markable, in so far as it seems to indicate that upon every parallel of latitude, at all elevations above the level of the sea, the pected to be reaped before the 15th of same plant receives in the course of its ex
would suffice to bring wheat to perfection; for, suppose wheat to be sown in autumn, and that active vegetation commences at the 14th of February, it cannot be ex-
August — that is, in 182 days;and as the istence an equal quantity of heat; but it mean teinperature of Edinburgh we have may find itsdirect application by enabling seen to be 47.4 °, ( 5230,) the number of us to foresee the possibility of acclimating
degrees of heat required to ripen it would be 8625°, being 1670° more than are required at Turmero, and 1415 more than at Truxillo. But if we take the case of spring wheat, the difference will be still greater; for, suppose it is sown on the 14th of February, when vegetation begins to
a vegetable in a country, the mean tem perature of the several months of which is known .” In coming to this conclusion, we perceive that M. Boussingault does not take the mean temperature of the year of any place, but that of the seasons in which the particular crop cultivated
quicken, it cannot be expected to be reaped grows, and which, in truth, comprehends before the 1st of Septe ber, wbich is 198 all the temperature of the growing period
days, and at 47.4° of mean temperature of the crop.
REALISATION.
488
5244. Another conclusion arrived at
has a close connection with that of the
by M. Boussingault is, “ that plants in air immediately above it, and is mainly general, those of tropical countries very affected by the extent of the thermometri obviously so, spring up, live, and flourish cal variations in the superincumbent air in temperatures that are nearly the same. in the course of the year. In the higher In Europe and in North America, an latitudes, where the variations of the tem
annual plant is subjected to climateric in- perature of the air is great, the variable fluences of the greatest diversity. The depth of temperature in the ground is con cereals, for example, germinate at from siderable. N. Arago found that a ther
43° to 47° or 48 °; they get through the mometer buried at 261 feet under the sur winter alive, making no progress; but in face at Paris did not remain absolutely the spring they shoot up, and the ear at- stationary. Below a limited distance, tains maturityat a season when the tem however, under the surface, the tempera perature, which has risen gradually, is ture ceases to be affected by variations in
somewhat steady at from 74 ° to 78°. In the temperatureofthe generalatmosphere, equatorial countries things pass differ- and the point where the affection ceases is ently : the germination, growth, and called the point of invariable tempera ripening of grain take place under degrees ture. In climes of great constancy, the of heat which are nearly invariable. At point of invariable temperature will be Santa Fé, the thermometer indicates 79° found near the surface , and about the at seed as at harvest time. In Europe equator the point is about the surface.
the potato is planted with the thermome ter at from 50 ° to 54°, and it does not
5247. Drainage raises the temperature
ripen until it has had the heats of July under the surface — that is, it permits the and August. temperature of the atmosphere to pene trate deeper into the soil. In one quoted 5245. “ Germination, and the evolution case, in a garden in Hampshire, the tem of those organs by which vegetables per- perature of the heavy soil was said to have
form their functions in the soil and in the been raised 15° by drains of 4 ! feet deep. " air, take place at temperatures that vary But drainage not only permits the heat to
between 32° and 112°; but the most im- penetrate deeper into the soil, it enables portant epoch oftheir life - ripening - gene- the soil to retain it a longer time. In rally happens within much smaller limits, March 1850, the temperature was very and which indicate the climate best low - for 7 nights out of the first 18, the
adapted to their cultivation, if not always thermometer sunk to 26 ° —and yet the fol In high lati-
lowing table shows a greater degree of
tudes, the disappearance of vigorous vegetation in plants may depend quite as much on intensity of winter colds as on insufficiency of summer beat. The equable cli-
warmth, at 1 and 2 feetin depth under the surface, than for several years preceding in the same month, by 1.17° at 1 foot, and 1.44º at 2 feet :
to their growth . ...
mateof the equatorialregions is therefore much better adapted than that of Europe
1 foot deep. 2 feet deep .
to determine the extreme limits of tem Mean of March , 1838 ...
perature between which the vegetable spe cies of different kinds will attain to matu
rity."*
1839 .
1840 .
99
Following up this idea in regard 9
to the plants of the farm , the extremes of the temperatures of the following plants may be stated as under :
99
99
1844 . 1845 . 1846 .
1847 .
41 ° .48
410.46
41 .46 39 .24 41 .55
41 .71
41 .93 42 .14
37 .79
38 .37
44 .47 40 .22
45 .55
41 .03
Mean ofthese preceding} 41.16
41.74
Mean of the first 18 days
43.18
years.....
Wheat from 78° to 44º Barley, 80° ... 59 ° 52° 78 ° Potatoes, 740 54 ° Flax, ...
...
5246. The temperature of the ground
in March 1850 .......
42 , 33
5248. One great cause of the reduction
* Boussingault's Rural Economy, p. 647-59 —- Law's translation. + Gardeners' Chronicle, 20th October, 1849.
489
CLIMATE .
of the temperature of the surface of the
5249. Another disturbing cause of the
ground isthe evaporation of the water equable temperature on thesurface of the in it. Rain falls and penetrates the earth, is the inequality of surface into bill ground by its gravity, and as it is gra- and dale. As we ascend a mountain the
dually absorbed, a sncceeding rain de- heat rapidly decreases, and it decreases more rapidly during the day than during
scends still lower, until an equilibrium as regards moisture is established from top to bottom of the ground. Whilst this is going on interiorly, the air which rests on
the night, during summer than during winter, where themountain is abrupt than where it rises in steps, and near the surface
the surface of the ground, and which is than at a distance from it. If we take imperfectly saturated, tends also to take 5904 feet as an average height, under the
from the upper layer a portion of its humi- circumstances mentioned above, to be dity, and evaporation takes place. The ascended to obtain a decrease of 1 ° of upper layer, dried in consequence, draws temperature, we shall not be far from the
moisture from that which is more moist truth .
This height corresponds nearly
beneath ; and this moisture, in its turn, is with a depression of the barometric column also taken up by the atmosphere. “ Hav- of 7 of an inch, (86. ) The cold which
ing observed for several days," observes Mr R. Thompson of the Chiswick Gardens, “ the relative amount of evaporation from a surface of water ,and that from
prevails among lofty mountains is ascribed to the dilatation which the air from the lower regions experiences in its upward ascent — to a more rapid evaporation under
earth completely saturated , in the month diminished pressure , and to the intensity of August 1849, and under a temperature of nocturnal radiation. of 730 to 75°, the following were the re sults : Evaporation from Evaporation from the Water .
Ist day ,
.590 inch . .531 .452
2d
the Earth . .
.161 inch.
.097
5th 6th
.460 .433
7th
.370
.070 .051 .051 .047 .051
3.308
0.528
3d 4th
.
.472
5250. As the temperature of the atmo sphere constantly diminishes on ascending above the level of the sea, the temperature
of congelation must be attained at a cer tain height above every latitude ; conse quently,mountains which rear their heads above that limit must be covered with perpetual snow. The elevation of the ...
frozen region varies according to the lati
tude of the place, being at all times highest
We see from the above with what rapi- at the equator and lowest at the poles. dity evaporation goes on when the soil is In the higher regions of the atmosphere, completely saturated. On the first day it especially within the tropics, the tempera is more than one -fourth of the evapora- ture varies but little throughout the whole tion from the surface of water ; but it year ; and hence, in those brilliant climates,
diminishes, and at the end of seven days it is scarcely one- seventh. When the surface becomes dry, the evaporation is almost inappreciable. On the second day the upper layer of soil is dried, under the
the line ofperpetual congelation is strongly and distinctly marked . But in countries remote from the equator, the boundary of frost descends after the heat of summer, as the influence of winter prevails, thus
above temperature, to the depth of one- varying its position over a belt of some tenth of an inch ; and at the end of eight days, plants of which the roots extend
considerable depth .
only to the depth of four inches begin to 5251. Beyond the line of congelation suffer, and require watering. From some is another, which forms the boundary of observationsmade by Hales, on the amount the ascent of visible vapour, and this point
of evaporation from soil, he concluded it is obvious must be less liable to change that it was in the proportion of 3 to 10, than the point of congelation. At the as compared with that from a surface of equator the highest point of vapour is water . " 28,000 feet, at the pole 3432 feet, and in * Gardeners' Chronicle, December 1849. + Kaemtz's Complete Course of Meteorology, p. 211-16.
490
REALISATION .
N. lat. 54• it is 6647 feet. In tracing
elevation will bring one to the climate of
this point successively along every lati- Lapland .” tude, we learn that heat diminishes, as we ascend, in an arithmetical progression . 5254. The meteorological habitudes of Hence it follows, that the heat of the air plants being extremely various, one germi
above the surface of the earth is not owing nating at 38°, a little above the freezing to the ascent of hot strata of air from the point, and another requiring a heat of
surface, but to the conducting power of 100° or 120 °, the geographical distribu the air itself. *
tion of plants is a consequence of the distribution of heat over the surface - that
5252. Plains present only one species is, of climate. Applying this principle to of climate, which differs in its seasonal the temperature of the British Isles, M. A. characters alone ; but mountains exhibit Petermann delivered a discourse on the every variety, from their latitude to the isothermal lines of Britain , and the distri
polealong the meridian of the quadrant. bution of its plants, to the British Asso For this reason, high mountains, situate ciation for the Advancement of Science, in
in the tropics, present every variety of 1849, of which the following is an abridged climate .
“ If we take each mountain ,”
form of the introductory part :
The
says Mr Mudie, “ which rises above the climate of Western Europe is compara line of perpetual snow , as the index to its tively milder than all other countries of a own meridian, we shall find that each one similar latitude. The isothermals of 70° expresses, by its vegetation, all the and 30° Fahr. were in North America varieties of climate between it and the from 30° to 57° N. lat. ; in Asia, from 30° pole ; and thus those lofty mountains be- to 50° N. lat. ; but in Europe, from 30° come means of far more extensive infor-
to 71 ° N. lat.
The British Islands are
mation than places which are situated placed almost in the centre of the latter near the main level of the sea , and more zone . Tbe isothermals for January give
especially than plains, which, when their surfaces are nearly flat, have no story to tell, but the same uniform and monotonous one, for many miles .” “ Upon each particular rock of the rapid slope of the
a general direction from N. to S., instead of from W. to E., as might have been inferred. Between the Shetland Islands and the southern coast of England, except Cornwall and Devon, there is no differ
Cordillera,” observes M.Humboldt, “ in ence in the winter temperature ; but the series of climates superimposed in between the E. coast of England and the stages, we find inscribed the laws of the W. coast of Ireland the difference amounts
decreaseofcaloric,andofthegeographi- age toabout 10°,theformer being at an aver of 35 °, the latter probably 45°. The
cal distribution of vegetable forms."
coldest portion of Britain extends from
5253. Elevation above the surface has the same effect in diminishing temperature as ascent in latitude. “ Say thatthe altitude of the mountain under the equator,"
theNaze to the Firth of Forth, comprising to the west all the Pennine chain : in this district an average temperature of 35° to 36° prevails. The average direction of
observes Mr Mudie, “ upon which the the isothermals of the hottest month (July) seasonal action is displayed, is a little is from S.W. to N.E. The highest summer more than three miles. Then, estimating temperature in the British Isles — indi in round numbers, one foot of altitude on cated by the isothermal of 64 °—occurs in
the mountain will correspond to about the central portion of the S. coast of Eng
16,000 feet on the meridian — that is, a land, the lowest in the N.W. part of single foot of elevation on the mountain Scotland, and the difference appears to be is equivalent, in difference of temperature, at least 10 ° ; while the difference between to about three miles, or more nearly three the W. and E. coasts is much less. The
minutes of a degree in latitude, and there- isothermal of 62° extends to Lincoln, fore 20 feet are equal to a whole degree ; Birmingham , and the southernmost por and when one once arrives at the mean
tions of Wales.
All Ireland, Wales, the
temperature of London, 400 feet more of northern part of England and Scotland, to * Encyclopedia Britannica - art. Climate, 7th edition .
+ Mudie's World , p. 132-6.
CLIMATE .
491
the foot of the Highlands, lie between the the radiation of heated plains of consider isotbermals of 62º and 60°. North of the able extent, the nature of the colour of the
Highlands the temperature is very con- rocks, the thickness of the forests, the siderably lower, Inverness having only moisture or dryness of the soil, the vicinity
55°. 7'. The author then alluded to the of glaciers, the prevalence of particular influence of temperature on the distribu- winds, botter or colder, moister or drier, tion of plants, the districts of which he the accumulation of clouds, are so many had found to be strikingly corroborative causes which tend to modify tbe meteoro of the general correctness of his isother- logical condition of a country, whatever mals. be its geographical position . In no other part of the globe is the diminution of
5255. Notwithstanding the marked in- temperature occasioned by a rise of level terest commonly attached to the subject of above the sea
more
remarkable than
general climate which we have been illus- among equatorial mountain ranges ; and trating, the characteristics of the local it is not without astonishment that the climate engages the attention of the farmer European , leaving the burning districts much more than those of the general climate which produces the banana and cocoa nut
of the country which he inhabits. Local tree, frequently reaches, in the course of a climate may be defined to signify that few hours, the barren regions which are peculiar condition of the atmosphere, in covered with everlasting snow . regard to heat, moisture, and wind, which prevails in any given place . The diversi5257. There is a phenomenon which fied character which it displays has been has a materialeffect on local climate—the
generally referred to the combined opera- darting of cold pulsations downwards from the upper region of the atmosphere, and of all, however, reducible to these two - dis- warm pulsations upwards from the earth.
tion of several different causes, which are
tance from the equator , and height above This is different from radiant heat. Pulsa
the level of the sea ; so that latitude and tions of temperature are detected by a elevation form the great basis of the law recently -discovered instrument called the
of local climate ; and the modifications of æthrioscope ; and although the experi this law by other causes have generally ments with it have as yet not been suffi but a partial and limited influence. ciently numerous to insure implicit confi dence in its powers, the experience of all 5256. The climate of every individual who bave paid attention to the varieties country may be regarded as local, in refer- of circumstances which affect local climate ence to thatofall other countries in the same
degree of latitude.
intimates that many influences exist, in
Thus, islands are the atmosphere, to produce complicated
warmer than continents.
The E. coast of effects which cannot be indicated by the
all countries is colder than the W. The W. instruments in common use.* coast is moister than the E.
Countries
5258. From all these facts and reason lying to the windward of great ranges of mountains, or extensive forests, are warmer ings, it appears that a slight difference of than those to leeward.
Small seas are
elevation in a mountainous district of this
warmer in summer and colder in winter country, which has so high a parallel of
than portions of great oceans, they being latitude, may make a considerable differ affected by the condition of the surround- ence on the local climate ; and that, other ing land. Low countries are warmer than things remaining the same, that farm
high, and level plains than mountainous which is highly elevated has a greater regions. Places situated upon the same chance of being affected by changes of mountain -chain, nearly in the same lati- climate than one on a lower level; yet tude and at the same height, have often local circumstances bave a material influ
very different climates. The temperature ence in rendering the general position of isolated, is necessarily modified by a con- to a lake or marsh, or a leeward position
which would be proper to a place perfectly any farm less desirable, such as, vicinity siderable number of circumstances. Thus, to a bill or large wood in reference to the * Encyclopedia Britannica — art. Climate, 7th edition.
492
REALISATION .
direction from which the wind generally of the year,and under all circumstances ; blows — both which tend to lower the temperature below that of the mean of the country. Any position in a long narrow valley, or on the haunch of a large isolated hill, or in a pass betwixt two mountains separating plains, is more subject to vio-
and no doubt whatever remains on my mind, but that our winters are generally a good deal less severe than formerly, our springs more cold and ungenial, our sum mers — particularly the latter part of them -as warm at least as they formerly were,
lent gnists of wind than the mean of the and our autumns considerably warmer. country, the wind acquiring an accelerated He adds, “ I think that I can point
velocity in such localities. An elevated out some physical causes, and adduce table -land being subject to a lower tem- rather strong facts in support of these perature and higher winds than a plain of opinions." the same extent on a lower level, is to be avoided .
The windward side of a hill
5260. Of the physical causes of these
or large wood, or on flat ground backed changes, Mr Knight conceives that the
with hills and woods to the N. and E., clearing of the country of trees and brush insure a higher temperature and less wind wood, the extension of arable culture, and than the mean of the country. An exten- the ready means afforded by draining to sive plain or valley, through which no carry off quickly and effectually the rain
large river passes, or in which no large as it falls, have rendered the soil drier in lake or wood exists, is very little subject May “ than it could have been, previously to violent winds. In exposed situations, to its having been enclosed and drained the snow lies long, and the winds are and cultivated ; and it must consequently keen ; while in sheltered positions the absorb and retain much more of the warm snow soondisappears, and the wind is summer rain ( for but little usually flows gentle. These different circumstances off) than it did in an uncultivated state ; produce a sensible effect on the local and as water, in cooling, is known to give
climate of a small country like Great out much heat to surrounding bodies, much Britain ; and varied as it is in its physical
warmth must be communicated to the
geography, and surrounded on all sides by ground, and this cannot fail to affect the water, they have the effect of dividing the temperature of the following autumn. The warm autumnal rains, in conjunction with are varieties of surface and differences of those ofsummer, must necessarily operate position . Such local influences, in most powerfully upon the temperature of the
country into as many climates as there
seasons, have a greater effect on the time succeeding winter.” Hence, a wet sum of growth , quantity and quality of the produce of the earth, than the general climate of the country ; although the latter exercises a predominating influence in some seasons, by excessive heat or rain, so as to overcome all local influences, and
mer and autumn are succeeded by a mild
winter ; and when NE. winds prevail after those wet seasons, the winter is always cloudy and cold, but without severe frosts ; probably, in part, owing to the ground upon the opposite shores of the
to stamp a generality of character over Continent and of this country being in a the season .
similar state . The fact adduced by Mr
Knight in support of this opinion is that
5259. I may here advert to a generally of the common laurel withstanding the received opinion amongfarmersand others winter, notwithstanding its being placed who are much exposed in the air, that the in a high and exposed situation, and its weather of Great Britain bas changed wood not being ripened in November. materially within the memory of the present generation. I am decidedly of this opinion ; and I observe that Mr Knight, the late eminent botanical physiologist, expressed himself on this subject in these words :- .“ My own habits and pursuits, from a very early period of my life to the present time, ( 1829,) have ledmeto expose
“ Supposing the ground ," continues Mr Knight, “ to contain leas water in the commencement of winter, on account of the operations of the drains above-men tioned, as it almost always will and gene rally must do, niore of the water afforded by the dissolving snows and the cold rains of winter will be necessarily absorbed by
myself much to the weather in all seasons it ; and in the end of February, however
493
CLIMATE .
dry the ground mayhave been at the win- the mean level of the sea.
It is from the
ter solstice, it will almost always be found mercury being above or below this point of saturated with water derived from those 29.610 inches,which is the supposed mean unfavourable sources ; and as the influence of your farm , that you are to conclude what
of the sun is as powerful on the last day weather may be expected there,Thafromsam thee t
of February as on the 15th day of October, changes of the barometer. and as it is almost wholly the high tem- elevation will also make a difference of perature of the ground in the latter period half a degree in the mean temperature of which occasions the different temperature the year. of the air in those opposite seasons, I think 5262. On looking at a farm , it is your it can scarcely be doubted that, if the soil
has been rendered more cold by having absorbed a larger portion of water at very near the freezing temperature, the weather of the spring must be, to some extent, injuriously affected.” Hence, the springs are now more injurious to blossoms and fruits than they were thirty years ago.
duty to apply the principles adduced above, as regards climate , to its particular circumstances — a mode ofjudging which is too often neglected by those who value farms, and is the cause of much discontent to the tenant , after he has discovered the character of its climate by dear- bought
Hence , also, the farmers of Herefordshire experience. Let us run over the parti cannot now depend on a crop of acorns culars which require a serious attention on from their extensive groves of oaks. * this subject . The temperature of the locality has a considerable influence on all 5261. Since elevation of position above crops . The late Professor Playfair as the sea is a material element in determin- sumed that the lowest temperature at ing the local climate, it is of some im- which corn will vegetate is 40°, and that portance for you to ascertain the height of corn will not ripen below a temperature your farm above the level of the sea.
If of 48º.
you know that byother means namely,by trigonometry — the information is sufficient for your purpose; but should you not be acquainted with its elevation, which is
He proposed to date the vege
tating season from 20th March to the 20th October, and considered 66° as the mean temperature of a good vegetating season.I It may therefore be assumed, that if the
usually the case with farmers, the mean mean temperature of a place, between height of the barometer will ascertain it March and October, is below 56 °, it is not by a series of simple observations, made likely to bear good crops. The altitude
at a given time, over a year or more. For of aplace affects its temperaturemateri example, “ the sum of one year's observa- ally. We have seen that an altitude of tions, madeat 10 A.M. and 10 P.M. in 1827, 5902 feet makes a difference of 1° of mean was 21615.410 inches; and this number, temperature — making the effect of ele
divided by the number of observations, vation the same as anincrease of latitude. 730, or twice the number of days in that This is a point which is very liable to be overlooked in the interior of the country,
year, gave 29.610 inches as the mean
height or changeable point of the baro- where an elevation is insensibly gained meter. ” + Now, taking the mean height much beyond belief. The country may
of the barometer at 29.948 inches at the appear pleasant, and everything indicative mean level of the sea, where the atmo- of a good climate, but, on inquiry, it may sphere always indicates the greatest den- be found to be 600 or 800 feet above the sity, deduced from nine years' observa- level of the sea - an elevation in which
tions at the mean temperature of the air, wheat will not ripen, and at which even with a range from 28 inches to 31 inches, barley will be a precarious crop, in many it is seen that the instance adduced above
seasons .
At such an elevation it is not
of 29.610 inches gives .338 of an inch improbable that one or two crops may be
less than the mean, which, by the table lost in the course of a lease of 19 years. in (86) indicates an elevation of the place In such situations, the daily range of the of observation of about 265 feet above temperature is great, descending low at *
Knight's Horticultural Papers, p. 307-9. + Quarterly Journalof Agriculture, vol. iii . p. 3. I Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh for 1800.
494
REALISATION .
night, after having indicateda high degree the crops will exhibit unequivocal symp during the day ; and every farmer knows toms of its poverty. that a low temperature during the night
has a most injurious effect upon the crops : for warm nights, in effect, double the number of warm days, and a continued existence of heat saves plants from the injury arising from checked growth by cold . In travelling at night in England in summer, there is no circumstance so striking to a Scotsman, as to find the air as warm as it usually is in the daytime in his own country. Hence, the barvests in England are always much earlier than in Scotland ; and such a superiority in
5265. When the farm is unknown to
you , the best season to look at it for the first time is in spring — in March — in dry weather - after the largest proportion of the soil has been turned over by the plough, and when its natural state, in regard to dryness and wetness, and even condition, cannot be concealed. This is the only season to indicate whether or pot the soil
is in need of draining. 66. But when you look at a farm , to
climate will more than counterbalance have it valued for a lease, it is impossible
superior skill.
The distribution of rain for you to undertake such a task , until you
in the vegetating season - it falling frequently being less favourable to vegetation, than in greater quantities at longer intervals — is deserving of inquiry ; also, whether the locality is affected by vapour, thereby experiencing more clondy than clear days. The lowness or highness of the dew point has a material effect upon
have farmed practically, for a number of years. The only safe course for you is to obtain the assistance of an experienced friend , who is well acquainted with the part of the country in which the farm is situate ; or any one well versed in farming will answer the purpose.
crops. The relation between local climate
5267. I should mention , that it is con and the growth and productiveness of the sidered amongst farmers a dishonourable differentcrops, you thus see ,is deserving act to look ata farm until you are assured of your utmost attention . What effect it it is in the market, by the knowledge that has upon the money -rent of land it is not the tenant is to leave it, or by advertise
easy to determine ; but that land so situ- ment in the newspapers - otherwise it is ate is of less value than that which is not an unfeeling act, and regarded as equiva affected by such local influences, cannot lent to taking the farm over his head. admit of doubt.
ON THE JUDGING OF LAND .
5268. On judging of the soil, the sub soil requires as much attention as the soil, and it cannot be reached but with a spade. Pits must be dug through soil and sub
5263. Land cannot be judged of at all soil, to ascertain the nature and texture of seasons, or at any given period. It may both, and whether they are similar or dis
be covered by snow , when it is shrouded similar in character. Most commonly they
from all inspection . It may be saturated are dissimilar ; for, although they may by rain, when it is impossible to walk over have been originally similar, cultivation
it. It may be hard frozen, when it will and the application of various manures, not yield to the foot or the spade. It may and the effects of the roots of growing
be covered with a crop , when the texture plants, will have so changed the proper of the soil cannot be examined . Practi- tiesof the upper soil as to render it quite of cally, the soil cannot be exainined when
placed under any of these circumstances.
a different character from the subsoil.
From the nature of the deposit in the
Carse of Gowrie, it is probable that the 5264. When the soil is well known, agricultural soil and subsoil (344) were perhaps the best season to inspect a farm at one time similar, and that any diffe
is just before harvest , when every species rence remarked now is the effect ofcul of crop is in the fullest luxuriance — in tivation only.
The following analysis
which case you do not require so much to of the soil and subsoilby Dr Anderson , know the nature of the soil, as the condi- Chemist to the Highland and Agricultural
tion it is in ; and if it be out of condition, Society, of a soilfarmed by Mr Walker
JUDGING OF LAND .
495
Rannie of Inchyra, on the bank of the easily rendered fertile, and kept so by the Tay near Errol, will show what I have
numerous
just stated :
What is on the retentive subsoil, requires draining before it can be rendered per manently fertile with any kind of manure ; but, on being drained and manured, it is capable of yielding good crops, whether green or of grain .
ash , Soda , Lime,
Magnesia, Peroxide of iron , Sulphuric acid , Phosphoric acid , Carbonic acid , Chlorine, Alumina,
Silica, Organic matter, Water,
Soil .
Subsoil .
2.8001
2.1761
1.4392
1.0450
0.8300 1.0200
1.2756 1.3938 6.2303 0.0396
4.8700 0.0911
0.2400 0.0500 0.0098 14.0400 63.1954 8.5508
2.7000 99.8364
manures
now
at command.
0.2680
5271. A thin hard clay is often met
0.0200 14.2470
with , and almost always on a retentive
61.6358
subsoil. This invariably requires drain ing and manuring, and at first, even after
6.8270 4,5750
99.7032 *
the draining, requires much labour to render it loose and friable. Ultimately it becomes a tolerably good soil , and will
It will be observed that the soil contains bear fair crops every year, provided it is more potash and soda than the subsoil, liberally manured in the course of the which have no doubt been added to it by rotation. the ingredientsemployed as manure. This soil has never been known to have been
5272. A thin loose soil, resting on a
limed, and hence cultivation has taken retentive subsoil, is also often met with.
away a portion of its lime ; and the same It requires draining and manuring, but remark applies to its magnesia. No doubt, also, that cultivation would decompose a part of its peroxide of iron. The silica would be increased by cultivation, and so
not so much work as the last mentioned. It is weak in constitution , and hungry as to
manure, nor is it easily satisfied — not that it has capacity to take a large dose at a
would the organic matter even in greater time, but will take it frequently. A little proportion ; and the subsoil may be sup- mixture of the subsoil by trench -ploughing posedto have always more water in it than does it much good, and ultimately, by the soil, part of the moisture of which is kind treatment, in eating off turnips with constantly exposed to evaporation. (457.) sheep, it will carry fair crops. 5273. A soil is not unfrequently met 5269. A considerable diversity of soil may be expected to be found on most with which is deep enough , in as far farms. Those which exhibit the most as the operation of the plough is con uniform soils are on diluvial deposits, as in cerned, but is of black colour. It is deaf, the Carse of Gowrie, as also peaty soils very soft, and apt to be carried forward on high pastoral districts ; and the great- on the breast of the plough. The straw
est diversity is presented by sandy and grown by this soil is thick enough, but clay soils, both which may be found in the soft and brittle, and apt to lodge inwet same farm. Diversity of soils is no objec- weather ; and the grain, though suffici tion to a farm , as it admits of variety in the ently abundant, is thick -skinned and light.
rotation of cropping, a change of crops, and Such a soil, though deep, often rests upon a chance for them to meet the exigency of a difference in seasons. To possess a diversity of soil in the most convenient form, they should occupy separate fields.
retentive clay, and is easily affected by wet, although it will withstand dronght for a long time. This soil has at one time been a moor, and yields crops readily at first, but does not continue to improve. 5270. The soils commonly met with in It is much improved by thorough -draining, farms are, a tolerably deep clay loam and trench-ploughing the subsoil amongst resting on a porous or a retentive subsoil. it. That which rests on a naturally porous subsoil is a good soil for every kind of crop,
5274. A soil of quite an opposite char
whether green or of grain, and may be acter may be found a sharp gravel upon a * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1850, p. 296.
496
REALISATION .
gravelly porous subsoil, which is admirably will be found the thinnest, and in the adapted to raise turnips with bone-dust, hollows the thickest part of the soil. The forms the best lair for sheep on turnips in spade thrust into the bottom of an open fur winter, and never fails to lay thick fat on row will show at once whether the soil is
the kidneys. Both straw and grain from thick or thin ; and if thick in the furrow, it this soil, though not abundant in quantity, cannot fail to be so on the ridge. It is not easy by words to describe the characters of a good or bad soil, or to point out the 5275. The most uncommon soil is a deep distinction in regard to their state of fer unctuous clay of uniform texture, both tility. It is only their physical properties on the surface and under the reach of that we can ascertain ; and as I have the plough. It is capable of growing already given these very minutely, from are of fine quality.
large crops of grain and straw , and is less (333) to (343,) they need not be repeated
adapted for green crops. It is difficult to here; and to judge of these the land re work, though this property might be quires to be in the ordinary workable greatly altered by draining.
state - not saturated with rain, nor frozen
hard, nor burnt up with drought.
All
5276. Another kind is deep, dry, rich clay soils feel hard , or rather firm under
alluvial deposits, either in flats along the the foot ; loams feel soft.
Smooth deep
banks ofrivers or in the bottom of valleys, soils feel as in walking over a thick car constituting haugh -land. This soil is equally fit to grow grain and green crops, is easily maintained in a high state of fertility, and is easily wrought. It requires
pet, and thin soils as over a thin one on a hard floor. Soils in high condition (349) possess friability ; in poor condition , they are either hard or too loose. The mark
little or no draining.
of the foot in soil in good condition is soon
obliterated, by the elasticity of its par 5277. A thin peaty soil is found in ticles ; but when in poor condition, it is large extent upon many of our pastoral either indelible or remains a long time
farms, and is much improved in its capa- impressed. In low condition, soils seem more bility to grow natural pasture by sheep bleached by the weather, are
When diversified in colour , are in want both so drained it is rendered sound land for of labour and manure, and are generally
drainsupon and under the surface .
sheep ; when not, they are apt to take the foul with weeds. Very thin clays (350,) rot upon it in certain seasons.
hungry, (351 ,) and deaf soils (356,) are of doubtful character, and yield returns
5278. Boggy soils are also met with only according to the artificial condition to pretty large extent in parts of the
into which they are put. As to this condi
country in hollows, whether on a low tion, it will be requisite to ascertain whether level or elevated plain. They are of no or not they have been drained, wrought, use to the plough , or for live -stock, until and limed , and well farmed ; and if they
first drained; and then most of them yield have been so treated, and still indicate large returns in grain, green crops, or weakness, want stamina, exhaustion, or in meadow.
5279. Pure sands are met with in cer-
a bleached appearance, it may be con cluded that they will bear little improve
ment; but should they have been neglected
tain parts adjoining the margin of the sea , under these symptoms, draining, manuring, or on estuaries. When cultivated with the and good tillage may make them assume
plough, they yield pretty good crops with a much better appearance in the course of w
à constant supply of manure ; and when in pasture, supply a short sweet herbage
a fe years.
for sheep
5281. If a considerable variety of soil exists on the farm , it should be observed 5280. All these varieties of soil are whether they occupy different fields, which judged of in the same manner. Every is a favourable arrangement, or whether field must be walked over, and when the same field has a great diversity of diversity of surface exists, the knolls and them , wbich will be found troublesome. hollows must be traversed . On the knolls The amount of the good and bad soils
ESTIMATING THE RENT.
should be summed up separately, and seen which prevail. If the bad only occupy from a fourth to a third of the whole, the farm may be regarded as a good one, and
497
the public road . Shelter by high land or woods from the N.,whence come cold winds and frost ; and from the SW., whence blows the strongest and most shaking
its character for excellence will depend on wind.
Market town of a moderate size to
the quality of its good soil ; but should supply the luxuries of life. Coal and lime,
half of it be bad , the proportion is too and extraneous manures, at a short dis great for the good soil to do justice to itself, and assist the bad ; and where the proportion of bad increases beyond the half, the value of the good falls very rapidly. Whether on good soil or bad, it
tance from a railway station, which if on the farm , so much the more convenient. Grinding-mill of wheat and oats in the vicinity. It is barely possible for one farm to possess all these advantages, and
is better to succeed a slovenly farmer than it is not possible for every farm of a a tolerably good one : for the latter has country to possess them all ; but the more sufficient skill to make the land do its
of them
are conjoined, the better for
utmost, with the least means of ameliora- the farm . It is not easy to determine the tion, and to wear it out, and no state of land difference in the money value, caused by is so difficult to recover its tone as when the presence or the want of all these con worn out. A slovenly farmer may leave veniencies, but it cannot fail to be con
the land in a dirty state, and unpleasant to siderable. the eye, but he has rarely the skill to wear it out.
But the fortunate chance is to suc
ceed a farmer who has brought his farm
ON ESTIMATING THE RENT OF A FARM .
into, and has kept it, and leaves it, in full bearing.
5284. All the varieties of soil mentioned above are to be found on the various sorts
5282. Part of the farm may be in an of farms existing in this country. It is uncultivated state, which is not the most not to be supposed that the value of all objectionable part in a worn -out farm. these soils isto be estimated on the same Its soil will be fresh, and will be brought principle, since some only produce grain, to bear well sooner than old worn-out and others only support live stock; but land. This portion may be useful in per- whatever may be the nature of their pro mitting the older land to lie in grass to re- ducts, it is clear that the value of every
cruit for a longer period than an ordinary soil must depend upon their capability and amount .
rotation, whereby it will recover its tone, and bear better crops afterwards.
5285. The fixed money -rent of arable 5283. The most desirable appointments land may be estimated by taking the gross for a farm of mixed husbandry to possess amount of corn the farm is capable of are these :-Extent from 200 to 800 acres. growing, and the number of live stock it
Soil, deep light clay -loam , capable of can fatten in the course of a year ; and
bearing turnips and wheat, incumbent on deducting therefrom the expenses inciden a naturally porous subsoil. A turnpike tal to cultivation and the care of stock ; and a parish road crossing at its centre. and on allowing a reasonable percentage Fields rectangular, and comprehending on the capital invested by the tenant, the ences of der is regarded as the sum payable em Ground gently sloping, or to the landlord in rent ; but as this last
from 20 to 30 acres each.
thorn hedges.
undulating to the S. Elevation not exceeding 200 feet above the sea. Water from springs or rivulets, accessible to every field . Steading situate near the
sum, on this supposition, would vary ac cording to seasons, a fixed one is sub stituted in its stead, as the rent to be
annually paid for the farm . This mode of
centre of the farm , capacious enough to estimating the rent is applicable to carse contain all the cattle in winter, andcon- farming, to farms in the neighbourhood of venient for every barn-work. Two or towns, and at a distance from towns where
three paddocks near ' the steading for the mixed husbandry is not practised. calves, & c. Comfortable farm -house and neat garden, not far from the steading, and VOL. II.
5286. The fixed money -rent of a pas 21
498
REALISATION .
toral farm may also be estimated by the duce upon which the fluctuations in price gross number of stock , whether of sheep can be made to bear is the grain, whether or cattle, or of both, the farm can support it be of one kind or of all the kinds
in the course of a year ; and in deducting usually cultivated on the farm .
Wheat
the expenses attending the rearing of the was at first chosen as the grain whose
stock, and a percentage on the capital price should regulate the fluctuating por invested in them , the remainder is the tion of the rent ; because , although the
rent due to the landlord. But as this sum absolute Auctuations in its price were would also fluctuate, as well as that in great, the relative fluctuations in reference
the case of the arable farm , the practical to the price of the other sorts of grain were result is either to pay a fixed sum an- not so great, not exceeding 100 per cent. nually, or a sum per head for all the stock But on many farms no wheat was raised, the land can support during the year. and the possessors of them were naturally apprehensive that the price of a grain
5287. The fixed money-rent of a dairy which they did not cultivate would not farm may be estimated by the gross fairly represent the priceexigible on the sort amount of butter and cheese it will yield or sorts of grain which theydid raise . At in the course of the year ; and, on deduct- the same time, the price of wheat could
ing the expenses attending its manage- not be disregarded, as it no doubt fixes ment, and the percentageof the capital the relative prices of the other sorts of
invested in it, the remaining sum should grain ; and that species of grain, besides, be given to the landlord in rent ; but, as in the other cases, a fixed sum is named for the fluctuating one, or a sum is payable for every cow the farm will support during
constitutes a large proportion of the crop of the kingdom . All inconveniences in the matter were disposed of by adopting the price of the three grains most com
the year — in which case the landlord has monly grown in thecountry - wheat, bar the farm in his own hands, and supplies ley, and oats and their cumulative prices the cows with food .
per quarter afford data by which to estimate the gross value of the grain raised
5288. The fixed money -rent of a farm on the farm . for mixed husbandry may be estimated
5291. But a rent paid entirely from in grain, andof the draft cattle and sheep, the fluctuating price of grain is satisfactory and wool sold ; and, after deducting the to neither landlord nor tenant. When the expenses and percentage of capital, the price sinks very low, either from an ex by taking the gross amount of the produce
sum to be paid in rent is found.
traordinary crop or from extraordinary competition by the importation of foreign
5289. Were the price of farm-prodnce corn, the landlord will receive less than a fixed element, a fixed money rent would his just proportion of the crop ; and, on be most convenient for the tenant to pay,
the other hand, when the price rises to a
and the most equitable for the landlord to great height, from a large deficiency in receive ; but as price has fluctuated to an the crop at home, together with a limited inordinate degree in the course of years— importation from abroad, the tenant will from 1771 to 1842 that of wheat bas pay a much larger sum iu rent than be
absolutely fluctuated 364, of barley 391 , can realise from his crop. and of oats 314 per cent — and as price
bas gradually fallen from the end of the
5292. A compromise seems necessary
war in 1815 to the present time, 1850, to meet the cases of both parties, and it is it seems reasonable, on the part of the effected in this manner :-Let one half of tenants, to desire to have the rents so the estimated rent be always paid in cash ,
adjusted as to become the true exponents and the other half in grain, the value of of the Auctuations in price oftener which at the cumulative price per quarter at least than the fixed money-rent has of wheat, barley, and oats, fixed by the
hitherto been, if it cannot certainly be done fiars, or the general average prices of the at all times.
country , shall be equal in amount to the half paid in cash at the time the rent was
5290. The only part of the farm - pro- estimated. The grain half of the rent will
ESTIMATING THE RENT.
499
fluctuate thereafter with the average price, and, calculating these at the current prices, For example - sup- the total value of the produce is ascer
as it rises or falls.
posing the rent of the farm had been esti- tained, and the rent determined which the mated at £ 1000 a - year, and that the farm can afford to pay. Although they average prices of grain at the time were, estimate the rent of the land in its exist
for wheat 40s., barley 22s., and oats 16s. ing condition, they judge, besides, whether
per quarter, so that about 128 quarters of the land is capable ofproducing more by each sort of grain at those prices respec- better farming, and give the rent a lati
tively would make up half the rent, thus :- tude in the offer to be made. Upon this last uncertain element, however, many The Rent,
£ 1000 0 0
rents have been offered beyond the intrinsic
: £ 500 0 0
In Cash , In Grain
value of the land ; and when seasons be come uppropitious, or prices fall, or the new
Wheat, 128 qrs . at 40s. £ 256 0 0 22s. 140 16 0 Barley, 128 163. 102 8 0 Oats , 128 128
78s.
499
4 0 499 4 0
999 4 0
tenant proves himself an indifferent farmer, the rent he promised is soon found to be too high for his skill.
In future, no change would take place in the £500 paid in cash ; but the £ 499, 4s., raised from the 128 quarters of each sort of grain , would vary every year, more or less, with the average prices. Or, the conversion of a money rent into a grain one may be done in another way. Sup-
5295. “ One of the chief arguments in favour of a constant money rent," says an intelligent writer on this subject, “ in opposition to every kind of Auctuating rent, is this—that, however ill the former may be adapted to the times, or however
pose that the £ 1000 a -year is 25s. the widely it may differ from the natural rent acre, then 78s., the cumulative price of of the farm , the tenant, from knowing its wheat, barley, and oats, per quarter, : 8, exact amount, can regulate his other ex the bushels in a quarter, : : 25s. : penditure accordingly, and the proprietor 2.564 bushels of each kind of grain , which, receiving such rentknows exactly what he at the respective prices per quarter, give has to spend. Now, as to the tenant, it 24s. 11 d. per acre.
appears to us that he is better enabled to
regulate his expenditure by knowing the
5293. The rate of interest on money quantity, or nearly so, of his produce - say should enter as an element in the calcula- the number of stacks of wheat which he tion of rent; because, the rate of profit must lay aside as rent — than by knowing derivable from the capital invested in the the sum of money when he is yet ignorant farm should vary with the general rate of interest. Thus, if the farmer expects 15 per cent on his invested capital when the rate of interest is 5 per cent, like other people in trade, he should be content with 12 per cent wben the rate falls to 4 per cent. If the rates of profit and interest bear a different relation in the country, the farmer, of course , must submit to the
general conditions of trade.
5294. But rent is seldom estimated by such a roundabout method, since experience has taught practical men to cometo a conclusionat once, as to the capability
what proportion that sum will bear to the gross return from his farm . As regards the proprietor, again, we conceive that the virtual value of his income is fully as steady when made up of produce- rents as money -rents. This results from the fact that the staple products of the country, such as corn, butchers' meat, and wool, are the chief regulators of the value of money. Thus, if the proprietor's income be regulated by these, or even by the most important of them, be may calculate on being able always to obtain out of it pretty nearly the same quantities of the necessaries, and even of the luxuries of
of every soil, in the condition they view it; life. But even if it were someadvantage, and it is this criterion of the maturity of their judgment that stamps an intrinsic value on their advice. They estimate the acreable amount of grain which the land
in ordinary cases, for both parties to know the amount of money in place of produce which they have to give and receive, such knowledge would be of little consolation
will produce, and the quantity of stock it to the tenant, when that money becomes will support, in the condition they see it ; double of what he would have to give, or
REALISATION .
500
to the proprietor, when it is only half of engaged in raising corn, a grain -rent what he would have to get, were a new seems almost indispensable for it, to pro
bargain to be made. That such cases tect both landlord and tenant from the have often happened with farms let in great Auctuations which beset the corn fixed money -rents, during the last half inarket. century, no one in the least acquainted with the history of British agriculture will 5299. A pastoral farm has nothing to do
deny. There appears, therefore, to be no such advantage in a constant rent over a fluctuating one, from the sure fixedness of the one over the variableness of the other,
with a grain- rent, its principle of rent being so much money per acre for the pasturage, or so much money per head for every sheep or ox it can support.
as to make us prefer the former, if the
latter can be better proportioned to the means of paying it.
5300. When calculated in the manner I have described, rent may be regarded as the natural value of the land .
It is based on the supposi
theland is worth the sum at the time 5296. “ The propriety of making the oftionthethat estimate. It also takes for granted that rent fluctuate evidently depends much on the farm is complete in all its appointments the duration of the agreement, whether as the house, the steading, the fences,and also that
originally determined, or as tacitly pro- the land is in fair condition. It may also be re longed. The natural rent of land for a garded as a rack -rent — that is, the highest value single season can be calculated with a pro the land can bear at the time. bability of sufficient accuracy to justify 530 ) . But when these appointments are in the offer and acceptance of a fixed rent for complete -- the house bad or awanting — the it. For a period , however,such as that to steading incommodious - the fences dilapidated, which leases usually extend, it is difficult or the land in wretched order,—the rent must to suit the particular state of the to estimate rents with an approach to be modified . What proportion of the rent ought to be accuracy , even during the most undis farm deducted for a bad farm -house, a bad steading,
is not easy to decide ; but from agri- bad6dfences,it and ofdinary turbed progress of legislationextraor 2s. . to 5s. an acre may not be unreasonable .
culture .
During
the
And for bad condition of the soil, from 5s. to 10s. changes which this country has experi an acre is not too great a deduction, since it may enced in its agricultural, as well as com require from L.5 to L.10 an acre to put it into mercial, political, and social condition heart . The estimate of the deterioration by
within the last half century , the calcu-
such exigencies, in the shape of pecuniary de
converts the rent into a covenanted lation of rents for the period has been ductions, and it assumes that character also when the little else than wild conjecture, and the one, tenant undertakes to build , or fence, or drain ; pecuniary condition of proprietors and but when the landlord undertakes to supply the tenants have in many instances been re- deficiences, the covenanted rent is still acted
upon, because it is a covenanted one, and a per centage is paid over and above by the tenant,
versed .
5297. “ It is obvious that excessive
as the deficiences are all remedied ; but when
ever the entire rent, including the percentage, gain or loss to either party — both prej- is payable, it becomes the naturalone. dicial to the advancement of agriculture -would have been avoided, or at least
5302. Both the natural and covenanted rents
greatly modified, bad rents been propor
may be either constant or fluctuating ; and I have shown above that the partially fluctuating rent is
tioned to the balance of income over ex penditure, out of which balance rent is
the safest for the tenant.
payable. The necessity of making rents
5303. But the method of arranging the grain
fluctuate was thus most felt where leases
rent, as enunciated above, ( 5292,) is not quite
were granted. It was therefore in Scot
correct, because it includes the value of the
stock, which ought not to be regulated by that grain ; for, although a correspondence land, and the parts ofEngland where this ofthe
mode of tenure prevailed, that a system of more or less close may no doubt be observed , rent regulated by the price of grain ori- over an average of years, between the values of ginated, and still exists to a considerable grain and stock, yet there is often such a extent." *
discrepancy between their prices in different seasons, as to render a rent calculated from the
one a very false representation of that payable
5298. A carse clay - farm being entirely from the other. The natural rent payable for Journal of Agriculture, January 1846, p. 137-9.
ESTIMATING THE RENT.
501
stock is the value of the stock in the market, or
true and proper elements in the calculation of
the value of the stock -feeding crops, such as turnips, grass, hay. The market value of the stock would be extremely difficult to ascertain, since stock are brought into the market at all ages, and inall conditions, and both dead and
fluctuating grain rents ; and in like manner, in calculating the fluctuating rents payable on cattle andsheep, the average acreable value of the stock -feeding crops throughout the county ought to be taken rather than the average price
alive ; but the value of the stock -feeding crops is
per stone of beef, mutton, and wool. I do not say that this plan would entirely compensate for the great depression of price occasioned by free
as easily estimated as that of grain itself, and their fluctuation also as easily estimated as those
of grain. On these accounts, the value obtained foreign imports. I think it would not ; but it by selling the stock -feeding crops to be eaten on would certainly cause less loss to the tenant than the ground and in the steading, ought to deter- any system of grain rents in existence, and much mine their portion of the rent ; and this mode would have the advantage of being a simpler guide than the value of the stock sold in any one
less than any existing constant money rents .
5304. From what has been said, it is price
5306. The difficulty of determining the sta tistical facts of the annual average acreable pro duce of grain and of stock -feeding crops in each county, is the only considerable obstacle to the adoption of this theory of grain rent in practice;
alone that has hitherto been attended to in regu-
and it is evident that, until those facts can be
year, because their intrinsic value seldom corresponds exactly with the money received for them.
lating grain rents. “ This we consider a glaring ascertained, it will be impossible to institute the defect in the system now followed ,” observes the system of grain rent recommended. writer formerly quoted , “ as applied to the pre sent, and more especially to what we hope will 5307. It may be well to recapitulate the ad be the future state of our grain markets. We vantages attending the recommended system , as consider such a system in many instances to be well as to meet the objections against it. l . It unfair to the proprietor, and in others to the tenant. It is unfair to the proprietor when the
would give the landlord and tenant their just
shares of profit and loss from the general im
crop of the county, and therefore presumably provement of agriculture,without influencing the that of his own property, exceeds the average gain or loss due to the tenant for his peculiarly quantity of many years' crops in a greater degree good or bad management. 2. When his land is than its price falls below the average ; and for let on a constant money rent, the landlord's only the tenant, when the crop falls under an average benefit from the inward produce of the country, quantity to a greater degree than its price rises on account of general improvements in agricul above the average. But, suppose the fluctuations ture, depends on the frequent disproportionate
in price to be exactly the reverseofthe fluctua- increasein the value of money. When it is let tions in quantity, the present method is far from being a proper one for adjusting rent ; because, were the price to fall in the same proportion as the acreable produce increased , the tenant ought
on the present mode of grain rent, an increased produce by such means is rather a loss than a gain to him, by its reducing the price of grain more than that of other commodities, and, con
still to have the same income from his farm , sequently, it lowers his rental more than it raises which being obtained at a smaller outlay, he
the value of money. I see no reason why the
would have a greater balance to pay rent from a
proprietor should not share with his tenant in thevariations of the productiveness of the soil, whether occasioned by the weather or by the ap
large cheap crop than from a small dear one.
Hence thepresent system of grain rents is particularly unfavourable for the landlord when the plication of science, as well as in the variation crop is abundant and cheap, and equally so for
of the prices.
the tenant when scanty and dear. Its only proper and justifiable tendency seems to be, to
the additional advantage of choosing skilful tenants, who, by increasing the produce of their
3. By it landlords would derive
give the proprietor a share in the benefit from a rise in prices, when the rise is not produced by
farms, would raise the average produce of the district, and consequently establish the means by
a deficiency of crop , and to protect the tenant which their rents would be increased . 4. An against the entireloss from an unlookedfor inestimable benefit would result to the commu reduction of price through an inundation of fo- nity from the adoption of this practice, by giving reign corn ." ** This latter casualty the tenant proprietors a more immediate pecuniary interest
was guarded against by protective duties ; but in increasing the produce of their estates, and of now that they are removed, no such guard exists to protect him from any and every casualty that
the country around them , as also by its thus cre
The sooner, therefore, that the
their estates. 5. By proportioning their income to the state of the country, such a mode of rents
may befall price.
mere element of price, in estimating grain rents, is abandoned, the better for both landlord and tenant.
ating a strong inducement for them to reside on would deprive proprietors of the most plausible argument against granting leases, and would, therefore, induce the practice, with its numerous
5305. The only remedy for this danger, which
good consequences, to be greatly extended.
is now imminent under Free Trade, is to take the
acreable average of the county, as well as the arerage price of the regulating grains, as the only
5308. The only objection against the proposed system is, that by reducing rent as the average
* Journal of Agriculture, January 1846, p. 145.
REALISATION .
502
produce diminishes, a premium on bad farming grain one is by the same rule as that already would be established . Such would no doubt be given in (5292.) * the case were the rent merely to vary with the produce of the farm for which it is paid ; but 5312. Not unfrequently one sees in the news when it is mainly dependent on the produce over papers schemes forcalculating the value of a given a large district, the objection is not a good one ; crop per acre by the prices as they fluctuate . for the influence of a scanty crop of one farm in When such schemes are intended for England, reducing the average of the district would be so wheat alone is the grain used as the basis of cal small, and the lossfrom it to the farmer so great, culation. Such schemes usually display little
that the increasing productiveness of hisfarm ingenuity. A pivot, as it is called, is fixed upon, would be as much an object to him as any other and it is any sum which the concocter may system of payment, and it would thus present choose to adopt. As the price of wheat rises or falls one shilling a quarter, the rent for a given number of bushels per acre rises or falls two 5309. After so lengthened an exposition of shillings, and as the produce increases or dimi the grain rent, it may be deemed superfluous to nishes by one bushel per acre, the rent rises or adduce any more instances of it ; but the one falls three shillings per acre. Such is the usual enunciated by the late Dr Coventry, having sliding up and down, backwards and forwards, found considerable favour amongst agricul- of all the schemes referred to, which are evidently turists, it may be proper to mention it. He con- based on no principle whatever; are as imaginary structed a formula on the produce of oats — the as any scheme can be ; and are inapplicable, as a species of grain most commonly cultivated in general rule, even to the circumstances of the Scotland -- and the terms of the formula were : most limited districts. Divide the produce per acre in oats by two, and multiply the product by one- tenth of the produce. 5313. The old rule of dividing the produce of Thus : a farm gave one-third to the landlord, one-third Take the produce of oats at 8 quarters per acre. to the labourers, and one-third to the farmer ; no temptation to relax his energies.
but it is now well understood that the tenant
does not receive as much of the produce as the
4
Which divide by 2 is
Multiply 4 by to of 8, And the amount is,
.8
landlord does, nor so much as the labourers and other costs demand . While the profit of the
3.2
tenant has diminished, the rent to the land lord has increased, and so have the costs of
That is 3.2 quarters per acre for rent, which at 16s. per quarter, gives 518. 2d. in money per acre for rent. Carrying out this rule to various amounts of produce per acre , it appears that land capable of yielding 10 quarters per acre pays half its produce in rent, while that which only yields 2 quarters per acre pays only onetenth of its produce in rent. The principle upon
management. The tenant has been most liberal to the land in bestowing increasing labour and manure upon it, whereby its fertility and pro ductiveness have been very much promoted, and the landlord has thereby profited largely by arise of rent. To this liberal spirit of the tenantry is to be ascribed the high state of cultivation which the land in Scotland generally exhibits.
which this great difference in the proportions of produce is founded is, that the cost of labour in
managing land which only grows 2 quarters per acre is fully greater than that of labouring and managing land which yields 10 quarters per acre, whilst the return is only 1 : 3.
Now it
seems but fair, that if, with poor land, the tenant has due allowance afforded him, on account of its inferiority, the same consideration
should be awarded to the landlord, on account of the superiority of the land he has to be let. Were this principle carried to an extent much beyond 10 quarters, too great a proportion of produce would seem to accrue to the landlord for rent ; but it might, perhaps, hold good, to the extent of productiveness we are accustomed
5314. I think that the county average , or Fiars prices of grain , as estimated at present in
Scotland, give only a rude approximation to the real average of the entire sales in the county for the season, which arises chiefly from the cir cumstance that about one-half of the grain remains unsold at the period, February and March , when the averages are taken. Should any unforeseen change take place thereafter in
the prospects of the succeeding crop, it is evident that the latter half of the grain may be sold at a very different price from the previous half. Even in districts where the rents are not regu lated by the value of grain, and where conse
quently no desire can exist to depreciate its
to receive in this country.
value, the grain thrashed inspring and summer
5310. One advantage this rule is said to possess is, that should the capability of the land to
is of better quality than that thrashed in the early part of the winter, and farmers generally sell their lightest and least valuable grain in the
produce what is estimated be correct, the mode by which the quantity taken for rent is appor-
wheat only becomes fit for grinding by itself
tioned , will be found never to charge the land more than it can fairly be conceived to bear. 5311. The conversion of a money rent into a
early part of the season .
It is well known that
after March , and thence realises a higher price ; and although it shrinks much in the stack after
that period, it does not so more than it would have shrunk in the granary, and being sweeter
* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. viii. p. 545.
OFFERING FOR A FARM ,
503
and fresher from the stack, it is worth more
that his rental should be as much dimi
money in summer from it than from the granary.
nished as amounts to the interest of the
money required to put the farm in order.
5315.
Although a more just striking of the fiars could be easily devised, it would be unjust It is true that he has a perfect right to
to alter the mode entirely, until all the existing present bis farms to the market in any agreements, which depend upon of time. fiars prices, state he pleases ; and it is also true, that had come to an end in the coursethe Until tenants will be found to take farms in
that period arrived, it would be incumbent to continue the striking of the fiars as at present, every state of deterioration ; but in such
while, at the same time,another strike should circumstances, no lease can present the
take place at the end of the season,when it slightest guarantee for the regular pay might reasonably be concluded that all the grain ment of rent, or for the respectability of of the preceding crop had been disposed of. The average of the two strikes should regu
the tenant.
It were to be desired that
late the terms of new agreements ; and every proprietor would put his farms into
after it was understood that allthe old agree- proper order, as regardsthe buildings and ments had terminated, the fars ought then to be strack at such a season as wouldembrace the sales ofMany all theyears corn ago of the year and crop. the preceding fars werestruck both at Candiemas and Lammas. It may be insisted on thattheproposed change would operate more in favour of the landlord than the tenant; I would say, be it so , if justice is thereby better dispensed.
fences, before offering them to be let. Such a course would redound to his ad vantage ; for a complete farm will com mand a higher proportional rent than an incomplete one, and it will enable the tenant the better to pay the higher rent.
5318. The conditions may affect many subjects ; but those which are indispensable
ON THE MODE OF OFFERING FOR A FARM.
are, when the farm -house requires exten sive repairs or additions to render it suitable for the wants of the farm ; when
5316. The common practice for the candidates of a farm is, to present to the landlord or his agenta written offer of the rentwilling to be paid by them ; and should
the steading requires additional acconimo dation in conformity with the size of the farm ; when the fences require completing, or renewing, or extensive repairs; and
the farm be complete in its appointments, when the farm -roads require to beput into of them be incomplete, the offer is gene- jects which it is the immediate duty of no conditions arespecified; but should any a serviceable state . These are all sub
rally accompanied with such conditions, the landlord to put to rights. If the offer as shall either cause the landlord to com-
has been estimated irrespective of these
plete them, or shall fix the rent in accor- particulars, it is but right that the tenant dance with the actual state of the farm .
pay the landlord, over and above his offered rent, the legal interest on the sum
5317. That any conditions accompany required to put them right ; but when the an offer arises entirely from the state of rent has been estimated on the condition
the farm . Where the buildings and fences of a complete farm , the tenant ought are in good order, no conditions in an offer not to pay any interest on the sum re
are requisite. But as farms are generally quired to put the farm in the completed presented in the market — with the house in bad repair, or the steading inadequate
state .
5319. Other conditious may also be re or incommodious, or the fences inconpleted or in a state of disrepair - condi- quisite which are not indispensable, such tions become imperative. Too many pro- as the thorough drainage of the farm ; the prietors seem to think that a farm may formation of a large drain or outlet for the be sent to market in any state, and yet drainage, where such is necessary ; the expect such a rent as if all its appoint- improvement of waste land ; the substitu ments were in the best order.
It is evi-
tion of one sort of power to the thrashing
dent, however, that no proprietor bas machine for another, as steam or water for
reasonable grounds for expecting a rackrent for a farm in an incomplete state. If he will spare his own pocket in completing the buildings and fences, it is but right
horse-power, when suitable buildings are required for the change. These all con stitute permanent improvements in the farin, and belong rather to the landlord
504
REALISATION .
than for the tenant to undertake ; but the ket. When a farm is ready for a new tenant may be willing to undertake the tenant, the circumstance is advertised in larger proportion of them, on receiving the newspapers. To this proceeding there the landlord's consent, -and if he can can be no objection, since no better mode
secure the landlord's assistance also, he exists of giving publicity to the fact. should endeavour to obtain it. When the In the same advertisement it is announced tenant has abundance of capital to stock that offers for the farm will be received
the farm desired, and to pay for such im- until a certain day, which is objectionable,
provements, it is well for the farm and inasmuch as it puts the farm up to pricate for its proprietor; but when such operations auction - one candidate being pitted would cripple the means of the tenant to against another in the dark. In a public undertake, the landlord ought not to con- auction, all the competitors hear the bid sent to his accomplishing them alone, to the dings announced asthey are made, and
detriment of the otherwise good manage- bid accordingly; and,at all events, the suc mentof the farm : he should rather assist him, by advancing or procuring money, and cause him to pay a little more than the bare legal interest for it. Such a course of proceeding would not only secure the improvement of the farm by a zealous tenant, but would reserve bis capital so as to enable him to put the land in the high-
cessful competitor only pays for the article competed for a very little above his rival. Inthe private auction for a farm , no can * didate knows the offers made by the others,
nor whether any or what conditions are annexed to them , nor how much the ac cepted offer is above the next highest. Of the two modes of auction, the private
est state of fertility, by the purchase of one is the less satisfactory to the candi lime and extraneous enriching manures. dates, because they are purposely kept in
The draining and the improvement of the the dark and in suspense, and the unsuc waste land would soon repay themselves, cessful ones have generally no intimation while the expense of the erection for the sent them of the issue of the concealed
change of power would also be repaid the contest. During the period of conceal tenant, by the saving in the wear and tear ment the most unfair influences may have of horses and harness.
been exercised in favour of a particular candidate ; and such a one, if possessing
5320. Offers are thus received by the capital and skill, may have been induced proprietor from any number of candidates to raise his offer to the pitch of some ad that may choose to offer for the farm . venturer, who will offer any amount of
When all the candidates are on an equal rent to secure the possession of a farm . footing, as to the amount of rent offered, In accepting of money offers, proprietors and as to respectability of character, the virtually yield the valuing of their pro one who specifies the fewest conditions on perties to other parties - implying that the proprietor to render the farm complete, they are themselves incompetent to value is accepted as tenant. It is not probable their own land : that a stranger from a that all the candidates, or any two of distance, who knows nothing of the soil them , are equal in capital, skill, and re- of the district, of its farming, its peculi
spectability ; but, generally, the one who is arities, is more competent to estimate the willing to take the farm as it stands, and offers the highest, or about the highest rent, is sure of being accepted, and all conditions are as much avoided as pos-
value of his land than himself and his friends, who have lived upon it all their days. It is grievous to see proprietors thus acting as if they did not know what
sible, as if it is not the business of the pro-
to do with their properties; and such a
prietor to put his farm into complete order. predicament doubtless arises from the evil The accepted offer is intimated to the suc- which I formerly pointed out, of pro cessful candidate by letter from the pro- prietors generally neglecting to make prietor or his agent. themselves acquainted with their profes
sion at an early period of life, (543.) In 5321. This I think a favourable oppor- every other profession, the disposer of
tunity for making a few pertinent re- goods puts a value upon them, and when proprietors to present their farms to mar- the price he had fixed, he lowers it to suit
marks on the mode usually chosen by he finds he cannot procure a purchaser at
COVENANTS OF LEASE .
505
the public demand and opinion ; but he landlord . Such a collision might have never demeans himself by asking his cus- been avoided by previous inquiry into the tomers what they will give for his goods. character of the candidates, or by follow Such a custom the country chapnian only ing the course of letting a farm recom is in the habit of following. mended above in ( 5322,) but not by the strictest conditions, without inquiry , that 5322. By far the most dignified course could be imposed . When such an event
for a landed proprietor to pursue, is to happens, the proprietor is more desirous of put a rent on the farm , which he is sure any industrious and skilful tenant could pay, and fix such couditions of lease as will protect the farm from the effects of avarice, while affording ample liberty to the skill and judgment of the tenant, and
obtaining an inordinate rent than a respect able tenant; and if he thereby finds him self in difficulties, he has himself or his
agents alone to blame. Honest tenants require no conditions ; but, as the world is constituted , it is necessary to insert re
then invite farmers to become candidates, strictions in all bargains about farms not as valuers of land, but as capitalists extending over a series of years. Such who can stock the farm , and as farmers conditions as are actually concocted by
who can manage land skilfully; and, from legal advisers are minutely harassing to such who have offered themselves, select the tenant, siinply because they are inap
the one who has the most capital, the best skill , and the greatest respectability. Were such a system generally adopted, instead of the prevailing auctioneering
plicable to the character of the particular are kept stereotyped for the farms of an entire estate, and have been drawn up by farm '; and wherever a set of conditions
one, I am persuaded that better farming persons unacquainted with farming, they would prevail, a more generally diffused are certain of being inept. Each farm respectable tenantry established, rents ought to have conditions suited to itself;
more easily and surely paid, labourers more and although they may be rather restric steadily employed, and a better under- tive, a good farmer will not be long in standing and greater cordiality exist be- concluding a bargain, knowing that suit tween landlord and tenant.
ON NEGOTIATING THE COVENANTS OF THE LEASE.
ably restrictive conditions, like good penal laws, are only applicable to offenders. 5325. The conditions of a lease may be
soon adjusted, if both parties are desirous of meeting on fair terms, or in terms of
5323. On large properties, the terms of conditions previously understood between lease are usually printed, and a copy is the parties. But in many cases, after the given to every one who chooses to apply for rent has been accepted, on the understand
it, when looking at a farm . Should any of the terms be deemed objectionable, they are commented on when the offer is given in, and the alterations desired indicated. On small properties, the conditions
ing that the conditions exhibited were un objectionable, the candidate endeavours to negotiate for other conditions, which will serve, in his estimation, to mitigate the rent he has offered, and which he feels
are obtained verbally or in writing from conscious the farm cannot pay. Allow the proprietor or his agent. ances for draining are stipulated for, and
is a proper subject for negotiation at first,
5324. In any printed conditions I have when the farm requires it. The steading seen , the covenants are much too strict requires more extensive repairs than the upon tenants, as much so as if they must outgoing tenant is bound to uphold ; and be rogues.
Precautions are no doubt re- even additions and alterations are sug
quisite between strangers — for candidates gested, such as the removal of the horse for farms will be found as unprincipled as course, and the erection of a boiler -honse to offer any amount of rent, and accept any and chimney - stalk of a steam -engine forthe
conditions of lease, to get possession of a thrashing -mill, or the construction of a farm that is in good order ; and, when they dam for a water-wheel. A new set of
have gained possession of such vantage- feeding hammels are required, or the ground, give incessant trouble to their courts fitted up with turnip -troughs for
506
REA
. LIS
ATI
ON injured at all seasons by an inordi young cattle, or rain -spouts put round the crops
eaves. Though the outgoing tenant is bound to leave the fences in tenantable repair, a new fence may be wanted to run across a field to make it smaller, or along the side
nate quantity of game, protected for no apparent purpose than to afford an un sportsmanlike battue once or twice in a year. Let the landlord, after all, enjoy sport
of a wood, or public road . A farm -road is as he pleases ; but if he delights in breed
required for access to certain fields, which ing large quantities of game, let him con cannot be reached but by trespassing fine them and feed them within his own through other fields. An embankment is domain ; and should any wander beyond required along the side of a rivulet which it to feed, let him compensate his tenants occasionally overflows its banks, and who maintain them. I have long been of
damages the crops of a haugh, or the opinion that tenants would make the lower parts of several
fields. Proper best protectors of game, were they al
watering -pools are required in some of the lowed to take a shot. The indulgence is fields. All these are improvements of a not great, as they cannot enjoy it without permanent character, and ought to be un- taking out a license, and keeping a dog dertaken by the landlord ; but they should and paying duty for it - taxes which many
have been stipulated for in the offer, and farmers will not pay for the sake of sport; When demanded aſter-
but were the privilege generally granted wards and acceded to, injustice is done to not as a rigbt, but on the ground of good
not afterwards.
the other offerers. Had they, when they feeling — the game might devour as much gave in their offer, understood these were corn and turnips as they please, without to be conceded, they would all have been a complaint being uttered by the tenants,
placed on the same footing ; but it is whether they be sportsmen or not, (4703) and (4706.) Tenants who grudged to pay large concessions afterwards to one party, for a game-certificate and the duty on since the others might probablyhave offered sporting dogs, would bave themselves to more largely, had they had reason to blame if they were not sportsmen ; but they scarcely fair towards them to make so
believe that propositions, which involved would take good care that no poachers the outlay of so much money, would have came near them . Within these two years,
been favourably received by the landlord. hares are placed on the same footing as rabbits, and may be shot without a license. 5326. It is customary, in leases, for the
landlord to reserve for himself the right of
5328. The periods at which the rent is
opening quarries or mines, of making paid are specifically mentioned inthe lease. roads, of entering into woods through The most favourable terms for the tenant fields, and of doing anything on the farm
are Candlemas and Lammas - February
that would benefit the estate , with the pro- and August. By Candlemas, the farmer
viso of giving damage to the tenant where has had time to dispose of a great part of his crop or the land is injured.
his corn ; and by Lammas he has sold off his fat cattle, sheep, and wool. Both 5327. Reservation is also made for these terms being intermediate between
hunting and shooting game for the land- Whitsunday and Martinmas — May and lord and his friends . The question of November — when the half-year's wages game bas hitherto caused many heart- of the farm -servants, field -workers, and
burnings between landlord and tenant; labourers, become due, he escapes too many much of which, I am persuaded, bas ori- large demands at any one term . In Eng ginated in the severe restrictions imposed land, rents are paid at Lady -day and on the tenants against killing game on Michaelmas — April and October. their farms, who know that the crops 5329. One of the principal clauses of a they raise feed the game, and yet are
debarred from sporting amongst them . I lease is that which relates to the cropping am sure that tenants are desirous to witness
the sports of the field , and gratified in seeing their landlord and his friends partaking of them in a manly way. But they naturally feel displeased at seeing their
of the farm . It is customary to bind the tenant to follow a particular rotation of
cropping. Such a restriction is inimical to the tenant's interests, and may even prove detrimental to the farm itself.
COVENANTS OF LEASE .
507
For example : should a crop fail, such as ever the tenant chooses to leave more of clover or turnips, in the early part of grass, so much the better for the landlord the season, the tenant would not be at and the land.
liberty to plough those fields, and try another kind of crop ; and as the ground 5330. I do not know why it is that that should have been covered by a crop leases run for the particular term of 19 becomes a receptacle for weeds, the inte- years, as that period corresponds with rest of the farm suffers by such a restric-
none of the rotations in existence. I think
tion, while the farnier cannot avail himself of a better mode of cultivation. Restric-' tions were necessary at a time when miscropping was the practice of the day, and
it desirable for the farm , that the fields be left under the same or similar crops they were entered to ; and to secure this
farmers are so unreasonable as to take
rotation which best suits the soil, multi
end, the lease should endure such a num they are still necessary in all cases where ber of years as would be those of the advantage of the land. All restrictions plied by a given number of rotations. necessarily imply that the farmer cannot For example : A farm in the neighbour
manage the land properly, and requires a hood of a town where the four -course disciplinarian in the lease to keep him shift is practised, should bave a lease of right. It is possible, however, to impose 16 or 20 years, the rotation having been such a single restriction as to preclude the four or five times repeated ; a farm ofmixed
possibility of advantage being taken of the husbandry under the five -course shift, one land, while it shall not interfere with the of 20 or 25 years, and under a six -course free agency of the farmer ; and it is this shift, one of 18 or 24 years ; and for an
—thatno two grain crops shall follow each eight-course shift, suchas a carse clay other — the land growing grain and green farm, 16 or 24 years. The advantage of crops alternately. With this restriction, such an arrangement would be, that as it is impossible to injure the land, provided
the same fields would be in the same or
the fallow -crops are adequately manured ; similar crop at the endof the lease as at the and although it is as easy to neglect man- commencement, an easier comparison could uring those crops under the least as the be made whether or not the farm were in
most severe restriction, the salutary check, better or worse condition at the end of this that green crops will not grow without lease than at that of the former ; a result manure, is always in force against the which would enable the landlord to deter tepant. By such a clause, the tenant is mine whether the land would be improved not bound to follow any system of rota- under a different course of cropping, or tion ; but as he must take a green crop only under more skilful management. In
between two corn ones, he cannot possibly the latter case , a better tenant would be follow a severer rotation than have half the land in corn ; and he will soon find that he cannot sustain the land in heart with that
an acquisition to the estate, whilst in the
former, a change of rotation would effect the improvement with the same tenant.
proportion of corn , without purchasing 5331. The conditions of lease are gene not keep the land in heart, the means of rally the same for all the arable farms of paying his rent will rapidly decline. To an estate, except a particular farm should wards the latter end of the lease, it is contain strong clay soil ; but, to be really probable that the tenant may take advan- beneficial to soils, it is clear that all con extraneous manure , and that if he does
tage of the land, by declining to purchase extraneous mannre, especially if he wishes
ditions should be made suitable to the circumstances of the individual farm . I
to quit the farm . To meet such an exigency, it becomes necessary to impose
am convinced that inattention to this mat
ter causes many a farm to be ill- farmed ,
severer demands upon him on the subject and disappointment and loss of capital of manuring ; and moreover, still without to many a good farmer. A weak soil insisting upon any particular rotation, it cannot endure the cropping of a strong will be sufficient to stipulate that not less one, nor a deaf soil support stock like a than a given proportion of the farm shall sharp one ; each class of soils requires dif be left in grass, laid down with a grain ferent treatment—why, then , should all be crop , after a manured fallow one. Whep- placed un the same conditions ? Simi
REALISATION .
508
larity of conditions is a simple mode of human food, profitable to the tenant, and placing all the farms of an estate under raised necessarily on manured soil, I do one class ; but its adoption displays no not perceive the justice of this restriction.
judgment, and evinces want of discrimi- The hay crop is inore injurious to land nation on the part of its owner.
No than potatoes, and yet it is usually per
stronger example thanthis can be adduced mitted to be sold . I expect to see the day for the propriety of allowing a good far- when no hay shall generally be made upon mer to exercise his skill according to the a farni, unless it be from grass in a succu nature of the soil ; and where the exer- lent state, and from permanent meadow, cise of judgment is granted, the farm im- and to no greater extent than to supply
proves, and the tenant prospers. But such its wants, which are not great when a liberty cannot be granted to one tenant cooked food is easily made. In the without extending it to all, is the narrow neighbourhood of towns, where manure view taken of the subject ; so that the skill can be obtained at will, the sale of hay
of a superior tenant is purposely cramped, and even straw to their inhabitants is for the sake of maintaining a check upon permitted ; but straw is generally probi an unskilful one. Much better, let it be bited being sold, as also farmyard manure. obviously known, that the skilful tenant is purposely encouraged, and the slovenly
5334. Penal clauses are inserted into
one kept under restrictions, than follow such a depreciatory system . The good that would arise of discriminating the capabilities of farms, and also the pro-
every lease, and seem necessary for the protection of the landlord . In cases of miscropping, by taking two corn crops in succession, a penalty of £5, or £ 10 an
priety of choosing the tenant and not the acre, over and above the rent, is threat rent, is thus clearly made apparent. ened ; and a large fine is required for this purpose, otherwise the advantage gained
5332. There being no rotation of crop- by miscropping would be very consider ping on a pastoral farm , except on the able. An obligation is made imperative small portion of ground available to culture, the number of years of the lease may be left indefinite; but should the farm retain its stock, whether of cattle or sheep, until they are two or three years old, the principle for calculating the duration of the lease might be the
upon the tenant to remove from his farm at the time specified in the lease, without the exhibition of the usual legal instru ments of dismissal ; otherwise the eject ment of a tenant reluctant to leave his farm might be attended with much trouble and considerable expense. The subletting
multiple of those periods ; but usually of a lease to another party is prevented, pastoral farms have not so long leases as well as its assignation to trustees as arable, there being a mutual desire for behoof of creditors; and when either is
between landlords and tenants to adjust permitted, it is by consent of the land rents according to the prices of stock ford — which are proper restrictions, other and wool every 7 to 14 years.
wise the farm might be alienated from the proprietor for the whole course of a lease,
5333. Other clauses, in regard to crop- for the benefit of parties with whom he ping, besides those relating to rotations has no concern . andgeneral management, such as classing flax among the
corn -crops, are sometimes
5335. In Ireland , leases are frequently
introduced into leases ; as also in regard granted for a long series of years — from 21 to manuring Half manuring on the to 31 years — accompanied most commonly oat-stubble in autumn, or in the drills with a life-time of some young prince or
in spring, will suffice for pease and nobleman, or of three persons mentioned beans ; but it is too much exertion for any in succession, as they bappen to die. land, even in the highest heart, to produce It is probably owing to this long aliena
a crop of oats, then of beans, and then of tion of his property by theproprietor, that Potatoes are the feeling of proprietorship so strongly
wbeat, without manure.
sometimes prohibited being sold off a farm , exists in the minds of the Irish tenants. unless dung be brought in return , as they
leave no refuse for manure ; but being
5336. The subletting of farms is gene
COVENANTS OF LEASE .
509
- rally permitted in the leases of Ireland ; more wealthy, more respectable, as a class, and such a permission seems almost neces- under a leasehold tenure, than under that sary when long leases are granted, and of tenancy -at-will ? The question will
when it may be inconvenient, in their not be answered by a mere reference to course , for the successors of the deceased
the condition of Scotland under the lease.
tenants to retain them with advantage to Scottish agriculture has prospered under themselves.
A worse species of sublet- the lease, probably because the tenants,
ting than this exists when the proprietor true to their national character of trusting sublets the whole or a part of his ren- implicitlyin no one, would not confide in
tal to a middleman, who, to procure the their landlords; and the Scottish land largest profit to himself, lets small holdings lord has no doubt also acted on the same to poor tenants at exorbitant rents, or lets principle. Where two suspecting parties fields from year to year, atstill higher rents, meet, nothing but a strict agreement will on what is called the con -acre system. answer their purpose. The lease guaran
Fortunately for the tenants and the coun- tees possession for a given number ofyears ; try, themanifold evils of this system have and insures a certain amount of returns, given rise to a desire for its abandon- at least for the capital expended in the skilful and liberal treatment of the soil.
ment.
English agriculture has, perhaps, not pros
5337. The subdividing of farms was pered so well ; because the English tenant, long permitted in the Irish leases, and its acting in the spirit of the national char effects were worse even than subletting, acter, has much confidence in the im inasmuch as its tendency is to fill a pro- plied faith of his landlord's family , in perty with poor tenants, possessing as return for which the landlord demands a little skill as capital. To obviate the evil rent in a similar spirit; and the conse
consequences of the system , those proprie- quences have been all in favour of the tors who have to support their tenants on
tenant- for, if the land has not been so well
the poor- roll are impelled to eject them farmed , the tenant has been the more in numbers; otherwise, they would retain enriched. Although I am sure that the
possession of the land, and pay no rent. lease is indispensable in Scotland and Ire Time alone will be able to counteract the land, I am not sure that it would produce effects of so objectionable a system as the similar effects in England. However subdivision and the subletting of land. this may be, let the parties most interested discuss the question between themselves. 5338. In the north of England leases are common, and upon conditions pretty
5339. The lease is not without its alloy.
similar to those in Scotland. In the mid- It binds the family of a deceased tenant to land and southern counties leases are the the farm , when it might be for their in exception, and tenancy -at-will the rule. terest to give it up and divide their patri
A strong aversion exists in Scotland mony. It may prove injurious to an un against tenancy -at-will; but, from the man- fortunate tenant, who cannot appoint a per in which it has worked in England, it trustee over it to wind up his affairs in cannot be so unmitigated an evil as repre- the most economical way . It renders the sented. Families offarmers have sojourned position of the tenant unpleasant, when it
upon the same farms for generations, and binds him to a rent fixed in conformity have become in the end independent yeo- with prices much above what he is likely men.
Any system that produces such to receive in the future.
It causes a sud
effects cannot be essentially bad ; and den rise of rent at the termination of an bad it has certainly not been for the tenant's interests, otherwise they would have endeavoured , long ere this, to have got rid of it; and I question much that if the
improvable lease. It tempts an injudi cious tenant to expend more of his money upon the improvement of land, than it affords bim time to receive it all back
alternative of their present condition, and again.
tbat of a lease were placed before them, the majority of the farmers of England would wish for a change.
5340. Although a tenancy - at - will
The avoids all these inconveniencies, a lease
question is, would they have been happier, is of benefit to the tenant, by insuring
510
REALISATION .
him a certain home for a given number of proper system of fluctuating rents would
years — by affording him, most probably, as at-will practicallybe as useful in cases of tenancy much time as to receive back what he as on lease. Such a system seems, may have expended upon the land — by however, in a theoretical view, to be most securing to him the fruits of his enterprise
required on leases ; and its establishment
for a given time ; but as to the political would therefore, we think, remove the independence said to be afforded by the most plausible argument against that lease, I am doubtful that a tenant in practice.” Scotland is any more of a free agent
5342. Many trifling conditions still exist in leases, indicative of the spirit of
than a tenant in England.
5341. In reference to the application feudalism — one of which is the payment of the grain rent to a tenancy -at-will, I of kain or cane fowls. If the landlord would again quote from the writer to whose
desires to have the fowls for domestic
opinions on this subject I have already made so many references. “ What we wish to point out is," he observes, " that the injustice of fixed rents is most gene rally felt in cases of farms let on lease,
use, he will have a much better choice of
good poultry, of all ages and kinds, amongst those who have poultry for sale, than in kain fowls. From the general dislike to deliver kain, the fowls are fre
and this, in our opinion, forms the only quently delivered old and lean, and when strong argument against leases; and there-
objected to , the shame of detection, fol
fore the establishment of a proper system lowed by worse feelings, is felt by the of fluctuating rents would, besides its tenant ever after.
It would be well to
other advantages, be the most effectual abolish the paltry impost altogether. way of extending throughout England 5343. Personal services, such as driving this tenure, which, even on a less perfect system , has been of immense advantage to coals for the landlord's use, are still im the agriculture of Scotland .
We do not, posed in leases.
however, mean to say that it would be
Such a service is con
venient for a landlord who has no work
useless to adopt such a system in cases of horses of his own, and is regarded as trivial by the tenants, if demanded at are often allowed to remain, nominally at a time when field - labour is not urgent.
tenancy -at-will. The rents in such a case
least, unchanged for generations, so that Such a service, nevertheless, ought to be
they become as ill suited to the times as convertible into money at the option of those of tenants on lease. The loss, how- the tenant, rather than of the landlord . ever, from fixed money -rents at will is
chiefly felt by proprietors when rents are 5344. In Scotland, the public burdens naturally rising ; for they, being felt gene- on land are paid by the proprietor, and rally as a harsh measure, do not raise the the tenant has nothing to pay but his rents of respectable tenants, however justly stipulated rent. In England, all the
they are entitled to do it. On the other public burdens are paid by the tenants. hand, when rents are naturally falling, of the two methods,the Scottish is much tenants-at-will get reductions, though the fairest for both parties, it being no their rents may be nominally continued at the original amount. Tenants- at-will, therefore, need not suffer heavy pecuniary loss from a fixed rent, as they have always the alternative of quitting their bargains should there be no reduction.
more than reasonable that the proprietor
should рау.the burdens of his own land ; and it is certainly unreasonable to make the tenant pay those burdens, when he has no voice in the affairs of the county . It is
In such true that the amount of the burdens is
circumstances, however, tenants are in an ignominious state of dependence on the generosity of their landlords, and these, on withholding the customary and necessary
taken into account in determining the rent at the commencement of the lease ; but as they vary considerably, and are always on the increase, it is not possible to know
reduction, have a ready means of getting what their amount will become by the quit of tenants.
It thus appears that a termination of the lease. * Journal of Agriculture, January 1846, p. 139.
If the burdens
COVENANTS OF LEASE .
511
are paid by the tenant on stipulation, be responsible for the outlay ; and the tenant, does so merely for the convenience of the when he made the request, would no landlord, who deducts the payments from doubt intimate to him that he looked to the rent.
him for repayment. But if he laid out the money without asking his landlord's
5345. But some of the public burdens consent, is it reasonable ,is it common are paid by the tenant as such. He gives sense, is it justice, that the landlord shall the labour of his men and horses, for a be obligedto reimburse money in the out
given time, upon the statute -labour roads lay of which he had no voice ? Would through the property, or commutes it by such an obligation not be tantamount to payment in money; and he pays his share making the landlord lay out money in of the poor-rates, which is now consider- improving land whether he willed it or able in Scotland, is very onerousin Ire- not, or whether he was able or not, and land, and but little abated in England . to lay it out, too, in a manner not to please himself, but to please another party ? No 5346. Of late years the claim of “ ten- legislature would confer such a right," ant right ” has been agitated both in Eng- which would amount to tyranny. When land and Ireland, and should the subject a tenant leaves a farm in better state than be settled in any form by the legislature, he got it, the landlord will receive a it must enter as an element in thenegotia- higher rent for it from the new tenant. tion of the covenants of a lease. Taking Whether the outgoing tenant has a claim a general view of the subject, according for compensation , in such a case , depends to my notion, in regard to any “right upon circumstances. If the tenant paid connected with land, it must be conferred as much rent for the land it was fully by statute, or by special contract betwixt worth at the commencement of his lease, the owner and the cultivator of the soil. and no rise of prices had taken place dur
Until, therefore, an Act be passed confer- ing it, I should say that the landlord is ring it,or an agreement be entered into by obligated to him, and should make him landlord and tenant, no “ right ” can exist some compensation for his liberality to in my opinion. It will be time to talk of the land; but if he got the farm at a low a “ right” after it has been conferred, but rent, according to theterms of an improving the attempt is made to have the “ right ” lease, and prices had risen in the interval, conferred . Let us therefore see what the
then I say he has no claim for compensa
“ right” is which is demanded , and whether tion . He has enjoyed the possession of or not it be reaso in itself. nable
rent less than the rack- rent, and the rise in
price, which would of itself have raised the
5347. I understand that the right rent during his entire lease. Where the claimed in England for a statute is that, tenant bas voluntarily undertaken build whenever the tenant shall have laid out ings, fencing and draining, even by his land money upon his landlord's land, which
lord's consent, that landlord would be un
has obviously improved it, he shall have reasonable who would refuse him all com the “ right " to make his landlord reim- pensation. But all these matters oughtto
burse him the amount when he leaves the have been settled in the lease, and it is only farm . For example, if he shall lay out within the covenants of that document that money in erecting buildings, forming the " right" ofthe tenant should be found .
fences, making farm -roads, draining, The claim of “ right ” is specially put liming, manuring, and so forth, he shall forth for the tenant-at-will, in order to be reimbursed for one and all of these induce him to improve his farm ; but such outlays when he leaves the farm , or when an expedient is but a poor substitute for he dies. The claim does not in its terms the security conferred by a lease.
The
seem unreasonable, but the obvious ques- struggle, therefore, should be for the lease, tion arises, whence came it that he in- and not for the “ tenant right.” curred these outlays ? Did he lay out all that sum of money upon another's land, 5348. The “ tenant right ” claimed in without his consent being asked and Ireland is of a different nature, its preten granted ? If the consent were asked and sion being of an extravagant character,
granted, then the landlord tacitly became and if granted would virtually render the
512
REALISATION .
tenant the proprietor of the soil. I have tion for the delivery of kain fowls, which are by the made remote produce payment ;in and advocates of “tenant right claim liberty customary lessees offisheries in theis more
seen the claim put in these terms :- “ The also called flying customs. In some districts, a
to sell their possession to the highest bidder. They state that by the erection of buildings, draining, and other improvements, they have expended their capital on the
partsof Scotland, it is understood that there still exist customary returns in produce of various kinds, which ,being regulated by the usage of the district, or of the barony or estate, cannot be
When by any general rule. question with regularsuc treating of rents’in land, which they have a right to be repaid ; comprehended
or, if they have not done these things themselves, they have paid to their predecessors in the occupancy of these farms a sum of money for possession, including the improvements which the former occu pier may have made : and for this they expect compensation. They demand, not only compensation for any improvements which they make, but also for those which
cessors, itwas recommended that such returns should be made convertible into money at the option of the lessor, and the lessee ought to have the same power.” +
ON ENTERING TO A FARM.
5351. The usual period of entry to a
have been made either by themselves or farm in Scotland is at Whitsunday and their predecessors, and they require the Martinmas, or at the separation of the legislature, in any act which may be crop from the ground. These terms of passed, to provide security for both. This entry are not equally favourable for the
renders the question both difficult and tenant in every species of farming. Entry
complicated, and the difficulty is still tothe housesand grass at Whitsunday is more increased by the fact that, at the convenient for a tenant practising mixed present rent of land, the mere tenant husbandry, as it enables him to sow tur
right ' which the parties in possession believe they have acquired, either by the improvements which they have made,or for which they have given compensation
nips for his stock in winter, and to fallow land for autumn wheat. Were he to enter wholly at the separation of the crop from the ground, he would have no turnips for his stock but what he purchased, either
would produce no to their thing, andpredecessors, that in many cases the posses- from the way -going crop on the farm or sion of the farms would not be accepted elsewhere. Entire entry cannot be given to even
as a free gift." The relation of any incoming tenant at Whitsunday, as landlord to tenant in Ireland is by no he cannot enter the ground on which the
means in a satisfactory state, but it is not way- goingcrop is growing. The second by such claims as these that it will ever be entry at Martinmas enables the in-comer
amended. In Ireland, the tenant is too apt to plough the stubble land in time for the to get into the notion that he is all but ensuing green crops. proprietor of the ground he occupies, and 5352. Entire entry at the separation of
to act accordingly.
the crop from the ground, is convenient enough for the tenant who breeds no live 5349. A minute of lease, missive letters, must be “stamped before actionlikewilllie,and it is stock ,as he can purchase them for winter,
recommended that,before possession, a formal according to the opportunity afforded him to purchase straw for litter and turnips
lease shall be executed." *
for food, either from the way-going crop 5350. “ Where the return in kind made by the tenant was meant to be cons
on the farm or elsewhere.
The carse
in the house
hold ofthe landlord, it consumed isted not onlyof farmer, and the one in the neighbourhood grain , but of other produce . This return was called cana or kain , which has been deemed to
signify merely a certain annual presentation. In more ancient leases, fed cattle were payable. Custom wethers and fowls are specified in the style of the tack given by Dallas. In some leases, comparatively modern, there is a stipula-
of towns, would also find this a convenient
enough term of entry .
5353. A dairy farmer finds it most con
venient to enter at Whitsunday, having the grass in summer, and the power to
* Farmers' Lawyer, Appendix, p. to 331 . + Hunter's Law of Landlord and Tenant, p. 634-5 ; and p. 835-9.
ENTERING A FARM .
513
raise turnips for winter; and so does the not containing more than five acres. As pastoral farmer, whether of cattle or sheep. oats and oat - straw are the most conveni ent sort of crop to purchase, the way -going 5354. The most generally convenient crop consists as much of that species of times of entry, for all sorts of farmers, is grain as practicable. It is obvious that that to the houses and grass at Whitsun- the in - coming tenant has no more chance
day, and to the land at the separation of of securing a part or whole of the crop, th an
the crop from the ground.
an
y other person ; and should it fetch
higher prices than he is disposed to give, 5355. In England the times of entry he will rather purchase straw elsewhere ;
vary much in the different counties. Per- but, in any case, he is obliged to purchase haps the most common entry is at Old corn he may bave no use for, in order to Lady -Day to the houses and grass, and to secure the straw upon which it grows, and the land at Michaelmas ; but entry is also of which he is at the time much in want.
givenas soon as Candlemas insomedistricts. The practical effect of this system upon the in -coming tenant is, that he must pos 5356. In some leases, the out-going sess capital to purchase as much straw as
tenant at Whitsunday is prohibited grazing the new grass in the spring, which is a good stipulation for the in -comer, as it is quite possible for the ont-goer to eat the
his stock will require in winter, and as much manure as will do justice to the
land in summer ; and its effect upon the farm is, that, should the in -coming
newgrass so bare with his stock, by Whit- tenant not havecapital beyond the stock sunday, as to deprive the in-comer the use ing of the farm , he cannot purchase a suffi of it for several weeks after that term . cient quantity of straw and manure, and both his stock and his land must suffer
5357. The out-going tenant has always privation to that extent. It istrue he can a way -going crop, which he can dispose of bring his own way -goingcrop, if he be leav in twoways — onewhen he must leave the ing onefarm to go to another, to the new straw in steelbow , the other when he can
farm ; but unless the two farms are
dispose of the entire crop as it grows. near, it would be impracticable to carry a “ By a declaration that the straw and crop, and build it in the stackyard, at a manure are steelbow, it is assumed that season when everybody is too busy to they are given by the landlord, and are to render him any assistance. In some cases, be returned to him ; or, what is equiva- the lease provides that the out-going ten lent, deliveredto the in-coming tenant, to ant is obliged to offer half the crop in whom the landlord has conveyed his right valuation to the in -coming tenant, or the to them.
A sufficiency of manure, and landlord-and should either refuse the
of the materials for its formation, are thus offer, he is at liberty to sell it ; and in permanently retained on the farm ." * other cases, a private agreement is made for the whole crop between the in-coming
5358. The steelbow is a great boon to the and out -going tenants, irrespective of the
in-coming tenant, it being equivalent to lease. The purchaserbearsthe expense of his possessing as much more capital, at the cutting down and carrying in the part of entry to his farm , as the straw and dung the crop he bas purchased. In any case , be receives are worth in money - for, with- the in -coming tenant is placed in a worse
out them, he would have to purchase both position by this than by steelbow , which, in my opinion, is a principle that ought to be generally adopted in reference to 5359. When theway-going crop is dis- straw and dung, except near towns. posed of by public sale as it grows, the 5360. In regard to the sum obtained sale takes place a few days before the crop should be cut down ; and for the conveni. for a crop as it stands, the value of the
somewhere.
ence of purchasers, the fields are divided grain depends on the price likely to be into lots comprehending two or more obtained for it in the market in the ensu
ridges, according to their length, the lot ing winter. The in -coming tenant who * Hunter's Law of Landlord and Tenant, p. 264. VOL . IL
2 K
514
REALISATION .
enters as a beginner, will consume most of farm entirely by giving up the keys of the the oat crop in supporting his men and corn -barn, and withdrawing his work horses, and in sowing the oat -break of people and horses from the houses and the succeeding crop. The crops are esti- stables. Not unfrequently the in -coming mated by the acre, and after deducting tenant undertakes for the out-going one the expense of reaping, carrying, stacking, the thrashing and delivering of the crop
and thrashing, the value per acre of the to market, on payment for the trouble. grain is ascertained ; and that of the straw is worth so much per quarter of
5362. There are always questions of
grain per acre. Suppose, for example, minor magnitude, though of importance that the crop of wheatis estimated at 4 between the landlord and out-going tenant,
quarters per acre, and is worth 40s. per the settlement of which are usually made quarter and the straw 10s. per quarter, over to the in-coming tenant, as being the the value per acre will stand thus :4 qrs. Wheat, at 40s., Straw , 10s. per qr.,
.
£8 0 0 2 0 0 £ 10 00
8.
Deduct reaping per acre, carrying,
10 6
d.
These con
most pleasant way of ascertaining the fact,
0 0
thrashing, 1s. per qr ., 4 0 100
Value of the crop per acre,
party most affected by them .
sist of the state of the fences, of the gates, of the steading, and of the dwelling houses, all which the out-going tenant is bound to leave in tenantable repair. The
£900
whether these are left according to the terms of the lease, is by arbitration, un dertaken by friends mutually chosen by the out-going and in-coming tenants, with power to the arbiters to appoint an overs
In like manner with other sorts of grain . man, in case of a difference of opinion aris
The value of oat-straw may be taken at 58. 6d., and of barley-straw 4s. per quarter. 5361. Whenever the way-going crop is sold on its foot, and it has been cut down
ing between them. When thefences and buildings are obviouslyin a tenantable state of repair, the business is soon settled ; but when otherwise,thearbiters appoint trades men, acquainted with the respective sorts of
and removed by the purchasers, the incoming tenant ' enters and ploughs the stubble land, and the out- going tenant takes his departure ; but when the straw
works, who are paid to inspect the state of the particulars under arbitration, to calcu late the costs of repair, and to report their opinions in writing, or in evidence. The de
is held in steelbow by the farm , the out- creet ofthe arbiterscontaining their awards, going tenant has a right to be accommo- results in the out-going tenant paying the dated in the stackyard and the steading expenses of repair to the in -coming,who until the crop is thrashed and delivered, thus becomes obligated to leave the same for which purpose he must have the con- articles in a tenantable state for his suc
trol of the thrashing-mill, as much of the cessor. These are the ordinary subjectsof work -horse stable as will house as many the arbitration ; but any other, such as the horses as the thrasbing-mill requires and value of the way -going crop, may also be if it be moved by power, as many as will arbitrated by the sameparties.* be required to take the grain to market ; 5363. The greatest difficulty which the and as inany cottages as should be occupied by one man and at least three women, young farmer experiences, on assuming the to take charge of the crop for thrashing management of a farm , is in distributing
and sending to market. The out-going and adjusting labour. To accomplish these tenant must not thrash bis crop faster than correctly, both as regards the work and
the in -coming one can consume the straw the labourer, a thorough knowledge is re with his stock, to save it from waste ; nor quisite of the quantity of work that can must the in -comingtenant use the straw be performed in a given time by all the more slowly than will allow the out- going means of labour, animate and mechanical,
one to have cleared the stackyard by the usually employed. It is the duty of the Whitsunday following, when he leaves the youngfarmer to have acquired this know Parker's Notes on the Law of Arbitration .
ENTERING A FARM .
ledge with all correctness ; for a skilful distribution of the workers enables the work to be performed in themost perfect manner in regard to the soil, with the smallest exertion as regards physical force, —and with the greatest celerity in regard to time ; and a judicious adjustment of workers to one another, places every one in a position to perform his own share of
515
Value of the pro duce of arable acres to each labourer .
England,
Scotland, Ireland, England,
Scotland, Ireland,
£ 77 14 9 107 14
3 5 0 0
Pasture .
Total.
£61 12 3
£ 139 7 0
52 18 10 0
9 0
160 24
2 0
2 0
Labourers. 1,000,000
£ 27,508,675
170,000 2,000,000
4,243,772
£ 139,350,000 27,218,416
15,000,000
48,000,000
Wages .
Total value .
“ The ' foregoing tables,” observes Mr Burness,
" fully bear out the truth that a similarity of
the work and no more, ( 60 ) (66,) and (69.) kingdoms practice has notyet been established inthethree , sufficiently clear to be recognised as 5364. There are few things that strike a prac
a common index to the state of their agricultural
industry ; that differences exist, not onlyat tical manmore forcibly, in comparing the agricul- variance with science, but of a character and ture of England and Scotland,as the distribution of thework -people in the fields .In England, it magnitude affecting the health of theempire
isnot uncommon to see them employedinseveral differences,too, not onlybetween the long de fieldsofa farm atthe same time,and the ploughs gradedsistercountry and England,butalso be working scattered hereand there. Now ,thegreat tweenEngland and Scotland. Every labourer of Scotland, it will be perceived, returns his
principle kept in view in Scotland, as regards
the employment of the work-people of afarm , employer, from the comparatively poor soil of the is to concentrate the energies of them all as
north, L.20 annually more than do those of
much as possible. Many operations require the England from her richer soil ; and were the conjoint labour of the teams and field -workers, fertility of the soils equal, the difference would and when so employed, they are confined within be still greater. But, even as it is, such a differ a given space of the same field, that the work ence for each labourer is obviously a national
whichamountstoa sum equivalent may be performed in as short a time aspossible; shortcoming, to little short of Old England's rent-roll. In and it is not possible to accomplish that end
unless the labourers, of whatever kind, are so
Ireland , again , were the whole of her produce
distributed and arranged, that one party shall
divided among her agricultural labourers, allow
push on another, and should one individual ing nothing for tradesmen's accounts, tithes,
fag ,those who follow are prevented proceeding rates,and the interest of capital investedby in their work. When labourers are scattered landlord and tenant, it would not advance them It would those ofdidEngland."* withcredible, to a levelseem over different fields,doingdifferent sorts of scarcely the foregoing figures work , as is too much the case in England, no
emulation can arise, and no effectual superin tendence can be exercised ; and the consequence is that less work is done, and not so well done. In Ireland the case is still worse, for there no
arrangement of the labourers in the
methodical fields seems to be attempted, or at all understood.
5365. I have recently seen the following state
ments by Mr W. Burness of London, of the pro duction and value of each class of labourers in
each of the kingdoms of the empire : Arable acres to each labourer .
Pasture .
to 159 acres of arable land produces an annual value of L.107, 3s. 5d., while one labourer to every seven arable acres in Ireland, produces only L.14 of yearly value of produce. No wonder that paupers swarm in Ireland !
5366. In regard to the establishment of steel bou , Mr Hunter says that, “ the noted statute 1449, c. 17, laid the foundation of an important
change upon the condition of the tenantry of Scotland. By it the tenant was secured in pos
Total,
session against purchasers, creditors, and all singular successors of the landlord. But the terms of that statute prove that, at the date of its enactment, the cultivators were in a degraded
England ,
134
17
304
Scotland , Ireland ,
1931
1711
3714 67
27
not bear testimony to the fact, that one labourer
Arable acres to
each ploughman .
England, Scotland , Ireland ,
England , Scotland,
Ireland ,
50 50 26 Arable acres to each common labourer . 30 159 7
Arable acres to
each boy.
England, Scotland ,
Ireland , England , Scotland, Ireland ,
84 84 11 Arable acres to each woman , 351 186 11
Total,
state . They are called in the statute 'the puir
74 44 41
124
peopel that labouris the grund ,' which empha
Pastare .
Total.
40
70 301
Pasture .
142
94 67
10
17
Pasture .
Total.
109 77 16
Pasture . 459 166 16
tically conveys the idea of the want of capital Although there are indications , pre
and skill.
vious to this period, that the tenantry were in possession of a certain portion of stocking, and
of the implements of tillage, yet it is difficult to ascertain the precise nature of the right in them which they were entitled to claim. There is a probability so great as to approach to certainty,
193 161 27
that the cultivators were of that class who were
Total.
altogether extinct, was practically alive until
810 352 27
afterwards called steelbow tenants, which, if now late in the 18th century. These tenants received from the landlords, upon their entry, implements
of husbandry, cattle, and grain, and were bound,
* Journal of Agriculture, July 1850, p. 450.
516
REALISATION .
upon the expiration of the lease, to return the same number and quantity in equally good con dition. A qualified right of property was thus possessed by them . Cultivation by such means almost always exists in an early age of society, as may be gathered from numerous facts. In Greece, the cultivators were apparently of this class. In Rome, the coloni partiarii must be ranked under it. And on the Continent almost
any other class was unknown, not only during
5368. December 1849. - Supposing that entry to the fallow - break is at Martinmas, and to the grass land and
houses at Whitsunday, with the exception of the barns,
stackyard, and two cottages, retained by the out-going tenant, for the convenience of managing the way-going crop , the first expense incurred is the ploughing of the fallow -break , which , if done by hired labour, will cost 8s. per acre, but iſ done by the goodwill of neighbours in a “ ploughing- day,” which is the custom of the country , and is regarded as the earnest of a hearty welcome to a stranger , the cost will consist of ale and bread to servants ,
and a dinner to their masters, say 90 persons at 23. 6d. each ,
£ 11
50
the middle ages, but in some of the most civilised
nations down to a very recent period . In many of the provinces of France and Italy they were, under the name of metayers, the sole cultivators, so late as the end of the last century ; and the treatises on French law abound with rules for
5369. March 1850. - Attendance at hir ing -markets , for the engagement of farm servants for one year , from May 26 , 1850, with cost of arles ,
1
the guidance of the contract. In those Eastern
shepherd , cattle -man , hedger, 5 ploughmen , and a stout lad to work an
countries where agriculture is considerably advanced, this mode of culture is practised. Traces
Select 11 work -horses, from 4 to 6 years old , at £ 30 a - piece,
also exist of its having been known in England,
A brood -mare in foal,
for ancient leases were formerly cited, by which both live stock and grain were thus conveyed to the lessee. In Scotland, a similar state of manners
must be presumed to have induced a similar result.
But while the technical term steelbow
which signifies in the Teutonic, goods placed on a farm or attached to it - establishes the exis
tence of this species of contract, yet there are, in the earlier records, fewer certain notices of it than might have been expected. This probably arose from the fact that, as all the tenants were ranked under this class, the execution of a lease implied that implements, cattle, and seed were to be furnished to the tenant." *
ON THE STOCKING OF A FARM .
5367. Having valued the farm ; made up your mind as to the rent it is worth ; made offer of the rent, and been accepted;
agreed to the conditions of a lease ; submitted questions of arbitration between yourself and the outgoing tenant; waited
at least a part of the farm ; the time has arrived to purchase the requisite stocking. To give the most practical view of stocking a farm , it will be necessary to enumerate the implements of husbandry requiredto bepurchased atsuc cessive periods, until entire entry has been fully obtained, and the live stock and corn re uired at starting, to suit a five -course
A harness-horse, 5 or 6 years old , 6 Sets of work -harness ,each to contain the following articles : 2 Bridles, 2 collars, 2 cart-saddles and
ent place according as they are purchased at sales, s,or from an implement maker and
manufacturer. I have given the prices of new ones in Edinburgh, and it was neces sary to state a price in order to make the statement intelligible.
330 0
0
30 25
0 0 00
breeching, 3 back -bands,2 pairs oflong and 1 pair of short-chains, 2 pairs of cart and 2 pairs of trace-chains, 2 cart and 1 trace belly -band, 2 iron back bands, 1 leading-chain and belt , 1 pair of cart -ropes, long and short cart and
plough reins, 2 nose -bags, at £8 each 48 0 0
set,
i Setof gig -harness, riding-saddle and bridle , and stall-collar,
1 Corntun for work -horse 'stable, : 1 Corn tun for riding - horse stable, 10 Whole - bodied single-horse carts, at £10, 2 Tilt -carts , at £12,
6 Corn -carts, to mount on single-horse cart-axles, at £3, 10s., 2 Cart-frames, at 30s.,
5 0 3 10 1 10 100 0 24 0 21 0
6 Iron ploughs, at £ 4, 4s., 6 Slides for ploughs , at 2s,each , 2 Iron small ploughs,at 50s ., 1 Iron double mould - board plough,
25
2 Iron scufflers, at 50s. ,
0 0 0 0 0
00
3 00
6 Stretchers for trace -horses, at 1s.,
6
0
40
0 12 5 0 3 10 5 0
0 0 0 0
12 12
0
6 Pairs of harrows, with master swing -tree, at 42s. ,
1 Carriage for harrows, 6 Full sets of swing -trees, at 123., and an extra one ,
3 Long swing- trees , for drilling, at 2s. 6d ., 6 Feering poles, with iron points, at ls. 3d ., 1 Pair ofharrows for grass-seeds, 1 Finlayson's grubber,
2 Two-horse rollers, of metal, at £ 12, 1 Presser roller, 2 -wheeled , 1 Wheelbarrow ,
1 Broadcastsowing-machine, with 3 wheels, 1 Turnip double-drill sowing -machine, 1 Bone -dust and turnip double -drill sow ing machine,
7 Graipsfor dung, at 3s., 4 Spreading graips, at 23., 7 Lime shovels , at 4s.,
3 00 4 4 0 0 7 6 076 17 0 7 0 0
24
0
0
6 10 1 0
0
12 0 6 10
0 0
11 10 1 1 0 8 1 8
0 0
0
0 0
2 Ditching shovels, at 4s. 6d .,
090
3 Ditching spades, at 4s. 6d ., 1 Hedge spade,
0 13
6
0
6
0 2 0 10 0 4
6 6 6
1 Dutch hoe,
7 Stable forks, at 1s. 6d .,
rotation on a farm of 500 acres. The prices of implements may differ in differ-
0
odd horse .
.
until the period that entry is given to
0
The men hired should be a steward,
2 Long do. at 2s . 3d ., 4 Half- long do. , at ls. 9d .
4 Field and stack forks, at ls. 9d . , 3 Dung -hawks, 1 with 2 prongs, 1 with 3 prongs, and I with 4 prongs for cow byre, at 4s.,
2 Mud hoes, at 29. 3d., 1 Metal trough for pigs, with divisions, 1 Hedge - knife, large , 1 Pruning-knife, Carry forward ,
* Hunter's Law of Landlord and Tenant, p. 40.
070 7
0
0 12 0 4 1 1 0 7 0 3
0 6
8
6
0
£ 741
0
6 0
STOCKING A FARM . Brought forward,
£ 741
1 Breasting -knife, 1 Grindstone, 1 Axe , 1 Saw , 1 Mattock ,
Iron foot-pick , Small stone- hammers, Iron lever and wedges, Tar-kits, Cows' bands, Bull's chain, Imperial bushel and strike, Double-quart, or tenth -bushel measures, Sowing sheets ,
Ruskies for carrying seed , at 5s.,
20 Corn - sacks, at Is. 6d ., 2 Stable - pails, .
2 Horse - sheets, 1 at 20s. and 1 at 10s., 1 Set of Phlemes, Blood -stick , Clyster- pipe, and Drink -horn , 1 Pump and trough ,
i Boring-rod and spirit-level for draining ,
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
£ 1975 5 6 60
.
5372. June 1850. 3 Scythes for mowing grass, at 10s. each , 8 Hay-rakes, at ls. 6d . each , 1 Horse hay and stubble rake ,
1 Long ladder, 20 feetlong, at 9d. per foot, 2 Half-long do., 12 feet long , at 9s., 6 Short do ., at 5s. each , 1 Sheep - crook ,
5 0 7 0 2 0 18 0 5 0 2 0 10 0 10 0 9 0 10 0
1 Bathing -stool, 2 Tubs for pickling wheat, and for bath for sheep, 2 Pickling baskets, at 3s. each ,
1 0 3 0 0 1 0 0
10 12 15 15 18 10 3 10
0 0 0 0 0 0 6 0
0 15 0 0 60 0
1 Beam , scales, and weights, for wool, 1 Buisting -iron and tar-kettle for sheep, 2 Hangers, and skewers for sheep when slaughtered ,
2 10 0 0 30 0
10 Turnip-hoes for women ,at1s. 24. each , £ 757 11 6
0
2 Pair of wool -shears,
5373. July 1850. 2 Potato-graips, 9 Baskets for potatoes, at 9d .,
06 0 5 00 1 0 0
0
10 00
ear's poor -rate,
0 15 0 050
2 Oil - tins,
7 1 1 2 2 2
Brought forward , 75 qrs., at 169.,
0 5 0 0 10 0 0 3 0 06 0 0 60 0 12 0 0 6 0 0 8 0 0 3 0
1 Sledge -hammer , 2 Hand - picks,
1 2 1 2
8 6
517
10 Weed -hooks for weeding corn , at 6d . each , 4 Rope -twisters, at 25.,
6
2
0
0
0 6 0 0 6 9 0 11 8 0 5 0 0 80
5370. April 1850. — The tillage land of 500 acres will be apportioned in this manner : 100 acres of new grass . 100 2 - year old grass. 100
5374. September 1850. 6 Straw -racks for cattle in courts , at 108., 1 Turnip -rammer, 148., and trochar , 3s.
oats .
80 acres turnips. 100 100
3
11 Turnip -cutter for sheep , Do. cattle ,
potatoes. bare - fallow .
10 10 50 150
6 Turnip -pickers, at 23. each,
barley. winter and spring wheat.
at ls. 6d . each ,
0 90 3 0 0 6 0 0 1 5 0 7 10 0 0 2 6 0 5 0 0 36 8 10 0 0 7 0
500
20 300 20 1
Grass -seeds 7 lb. of red clover , 5 lb. of white clover , 1 bushel ofperennial rye -grass per acre , which , over 100 acres, gives of -
Sheep -troughs, at 6s., Net-stakes , at ld. each , Sheep -nets , at 7s. 6d. each , Mallet for driving stakes,
1 Driver for stakes,
White clover , 4 cwt. 52 lb., at £11 13 0 52s. per cwt.,
1 Hay -knife,
Red clover, 6 cwt. 28 lb., at 21 5 0 68s. per cwt., Rye-grass, 18 qrs. 6 lb., at 20s., 18 30
2 Stable lanterns, at 3s. 6d. each ,
.
1 Chaff- cutter,
3 Others,1 for steward, 1 forshepherd, and 1 for cattleman , 1 Horn for blowing'atfodder time,
51 1 0
Men's wages from March unt
0 0 00 8 0
May 28, 1850,} 28
O
7 Men 8 weeks, at 10s. per week ,
Field -workers , from do. to do ., Blacksmith's work , from do. to do. ,
0 7 8
3 Qrs. 5 bush . of seed -wheat, at 45s., 5375. May 1851. 2 Sows, 1 boar, and 4 shotts, 14 Calves for rearing, at 25.,
7 3
0 0
0 0
2
0
0
Seed -oats, 100 acres, at 5 bush . per acre 623 qrs. at 16s.,
Cost of 120 lb. Swedish turnip-seed, at Is per Ib. , 61 10o yellow
0 0 6
Seed -wheat, 40 acres, åt 3 bush. per acre = 15 qrs. at 45., Seed -barley, 50 acres, at 3 bush. peracre -
.
5371. May 1850. .
30 lb. , at 1s. per lb., 90 lb. globe , at 9d . per lb. ,
3
12 Tons guano ,at £10,
7
120 00
200 Bushels bone-dust, at 28. 6d. per bushel, Poultry ,-geese at 2s. 6d ., goslings at 1s., tur. keys at 35 , young turkeys at ls., ducks and hens at ls ., and ducklings and chickens , 6d ., 1 2-year old colt or filly, forthedraught, 1 1 - year old do . do. do .,
25
0
0
50
0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 Short -horn bull ,
9 Sbort-horn cows, at £14 each , 20 Short -horn calves, part unweaned , at £ 2,
00
181 12 0
50 0 0 33 15 0 22 51 20 5 20 5 1 2 1 1
18 grs. 6 bush ., at 24s. per qr., Clover seeds same as last year , Lime for one year , Tolls,
1 1 1 1
Do. Do. Do. Do.
road -money, schoolmaster's salary, assessed taxes , insurance ,
1 Do. mole -catching, at 7s.6d. per 100 acres,
10 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 10 0 10 0 17 6
1 Do. blacksmith work for 6 pair of horses , at 55
15s, each ,
00
20 Short-horn 1- year old steers and heifers, at 120 00 £6 each , 120 Leicester ewes and their lambs, at 46s. each , 2700 0
160 Leicester ewe and wether hoggs, at 328. each , 256 0 0 10 0 0 2 Leicester tups, Servarts'corn paid at May 28, 1850, in advance, 10 Servants at 1 qr . i bush . barley each , * ll qrs. 2 bush ., at 248., 3 bush . pease each , 3 qrs. 6 bush ., at 26., Carry forward,
0 0 0
Oats for 6 pairof horses 1 year, from April last year, at 34 qrs. per pair – 204 qrs. , riding-horse, 23 qrs., in all - 227 qrs.,
1 Year's poor-rate, 18 12 25 126
2 0 3
10 00 21
at 16s.,
Share of the expenses of arbitration on fences and buildings,
0 10 6
1 Drill-machine for sowing corn , 15 32 8
4Tons 4 cwt seed - potatoes, at £ 2 per ton,
0
6 Knives for topping and tailing turnips ,
2 Hay-racks for sheep ,at 30s. each,
Hay for horses until they go to grass at the end of May , 5 tons, at £ 3 per ton , Oats, 40 qrs., at 16s.,
0
0 17 6 5 00 1 10 0 0 12 0
6d ., for cattle ,
13 10
0
4 17 6
£1975 5 6
60s. per pair, also for riding-horse and otherjobs , 60s.,
Oil, grease, and tar, for one year, Bath for sheep , 440 sheep at it each , Money-wagesof 10 men -servantsfor the 1st year, Do. of 8 women , £ 6 each for the 1st year , Do. of other field -workers in summer , Corn for 8 men , 5 year ,
2100 2 10 0 2 15 0
74 0 0 48 00 5 0 0 24 0 0
Oats for horses from May to harvest, 45 qrs ., 36
at 16s.,
Carry forward ,
0
0
£ 2747 13 11
REALISATION .
518
Brought forward ,
28 Pairs of reapers' blankets, at 78., 6 Porridge kits forreapers, at 3s. each , 140
bruiser, 6 -horse water power,
If ofhigh pressure steam ,
Brought forward ,
£ 2747 13 11
5376. TO Harvest 1851.-
Thrashing machine, with hummeller and 00
120 7 0 6 0 0 10 4 10 1 10
Dressing-fanners,
1Baru -steelyard andweights, 1 Hand -hummeller ,
60 Corn -sacks, at ls. 6d. each, I Sack -barrow , with wheels,
0 0 0 0 0
1
0
0
4 Barn weights forfilling corn , at Is.6d. each ,
0
2 Datwire-riddles, at 2s. each , 2 Barley do., at 2s. 4d . each , 2 Wheat do ., at 38.3d. each , 2 Sieves do., at 2s.6d. each , 1 Slap -riddle, at 25., 1 Barn -stool,
0 0
6 4 4
0 0 8
10s. each ,
1 Large barn -sheet , 2 Chaff-sheets, 6 Barn brooms,
2 Corn shovels, at 3s. each , 6 Sack needles, and clew of twine,
1 Furnace pot and grate , I Meal ark,
10 Cwt. of oatmeal at 9s. 7d . per bag, Carry forward,
1 Gantress for large beer barrel, Joiner and mason's work for 14 year ,
9 0 0 0 0 10
16 18 12 18 3 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
10 625
0 0
0
50 30
0 0
0 0
Tenant's share of the expense of drawing out the lease ,
Half-year's rent,paid Lammas 1851, Reapers' wages upon 200 acres , 5s, per acre ,
Incidental expenses for 14 year ,
2 Hand -barrows for lifting sacks of corn , at
1 Wooden hoe , for corn ,
6 Milk tins, 2s. each ,
6 Small -beerbarrels, 3s. each ,
£ 210
If of horse power ,
£ 2920 6 11
0
£ 3657 13 11
0 6 6 0 5 0 0 2 0 0 3 0 0 1 0 0 12 0 0 7 0 0 3 0 0 6 0 0 2 0 1 5 0 3 0 0 4 15 10
5377. During the expenditure of the above sums, the following products have been sold off the farm
2 Years clip of wool, 270 fleeces each year, 540 at 6 lb. each - 3240 lb., at ls. per lb. £ 162 0 0 150 Sheep sold at 358. each, 262 10 0 20 Sheep died , sold for
20 Fat cattle , at £15 each , Pigs sold ,
10 300 20
0 0 0 0 00
5 Cwt. cheese, at 50s. per cwt ., 12 10 7 767 00 Making the balance of outlay to amount to
£ 2890 13 11
£ 2920 6 11
5378. The sum actually passed through little leisure for any amusement until the hands of the new tenant in the first 15 year after entry to the farm is £ 7 , 6s. 3 d .peracre, andthatactually laid out by him is abont £ 5, 15s. 8d . per acre; beside the sum required to furnish his house.
they are finished . I will suppose, then, you have all these things to do, and in doing them they must be undertaken in the order I have enumerated them. I say nothing on the building of a farm -house, the form and appearance of which being a matter of taste, with the exception of the working ON CHOOSING THE SITE, ON BUILDING, part of it — the kitchen, scullery, milk
AND ON THE EXPENSES OF ERECTING house, and cheese-room - on which my sentiments have already been expressed in (4192) and (4193.) Let us proceed, 5379. In ordinarycircumstances, after a then, to the erection of the steading, which farmer has stocked and fully entered on of course must be suited to a 500 -acre THE STEADING.
his farm , he has little to do but to manage farm of mixed husbandry, the kind of it in the best manner in the mode of farming we proposed to follow ( 52.) farming he has chosen, or been obliged to adopt, (52, ) and very few farmers have 5380. It is a necessary condition, to its the opportunity of laying out a farm en- proper use, that every steading be conde tirely from its commencement; but al- niently placed on the farm . To be most
though you may not be involved in the conveniently placed, in theory, it should necessity of originating a farm , it is not stand in its centre ; for it can be proved improbable that the one you have engaged in geometry, that, of any point within may require either a new steading, new the area of a circle, the centre is the
enclosures, draining, subsoil and trench- nearest to every point in the circumfer ploughing, or waste land to improve - in ence. In practice, however, circum which case, you should be able to meet stances greatly modify this theoretical whichever of those exigencies may occur. principle. For example, if an abundant I had to meet them all ; for on the supply of water can be easily obtained for
farm of Balmadies, which I occupied in the moving power of the thrashing-ma Forfarshire, I had to build a new house, chine, the steading may be placed, for the new steading, form new fences, con- sake of economising horse labour, in a struct embankments, make new farm more remote and hollow spot than it roads, trench - plough, and improve waste should be in other circumstances. For land . He who has more than one of the purpose of conveying the manure these operations to undertake, will find downhill to most of the fields, some think
BUILDING THE STEADING .
519
the highest ground near the centre of the several apartments containing the live farm as the best site for the steading. stock should be placed, in respect of dis
Others prefer the lowest point near the tance to it, according to the wants of centre, because the grain and green crops the stock for straw , in order to save
being then carried downhill to the steading, labour in its carriage; for so bulky and the labour would be less than carrying them uphill, and they are heavier than the grain crops and manure. In selecting either of these sites, it seems to be forgotten that loads have to be carried
beavy an article as straw should in all cases be moved to short distances, and not at all from any other apartment than the straw-barn;so that the thrashing-machine, ( 1738,) which deprives the straw of its
both to and from the steading ; so that grain, should be so placed as at once to either position will answer, provided there be no steep ascent to or descent from the steading. The lower situation, however, is more consonant with experience and reason than the higher ; though level ground affords the easiest transit to wheel-
deposit the straw into the straw -barn , ( 1690.). The stack -yard, containing the unthrashed straw with its corn , should be contiguous to the thrashing -machine. The passage of straw from the stack -yard to the straw -barn through the thrashing
carriages. It is desirable for the farmhouse to be situated so as to command a view of every or most of the fields on the farm ,that the farmermay have constantly
machine being directly progressive, it is a material consideration in the saving of time to place the stack -yard, thrashing machine,and straw -barn in a right line.
a bird's eye view of them ; and if circum stances permit, especially a plentiful sup5383. Different classes of stock require ply of good water, the vicinity of the different qnantities of straw , to maintain farm -house should be the site for the them in the same degree of cleanliness and
steading ; but if a sacrifice of the position condition, so that those classes which re on the part of either is necessary, the quire the most should be placed nearest the farm -house should give way to the con- straw -barn. The younger stock, including venience of the steading. those in the hammels N, requiring most straw , receiving it largely for fodder as
5381. On referring to the accommodation required in the steading for the cattle in ( 1082 ;) for the horses, in (1389 ;) for the pigs, in ( 1574 ;) for the poultry, in (1598 ;) for the grain, in
well as litter, the courts which they occupy should be placed contiguous to the straw barn, one occupying each side of it. The older or fattening cattle requiring the next largest quantity of straw, the ham
( 1678 ;) for young calves, in (2271 ;) for mels M which they occupy should be wool, in (3940,) in the respective apart- the straw -barn. Horses and cows requir
farrowing sows, in ( 2845 ;) and for the placed next to the courts in nearness to
ments shown in the ground - plan in Plate ing the smallest quantity of straw , the
II., I need here only refer to thoseplaces stables 0, and byres Q and Y, may be for the mode of fitting up each of these placed next farthest in distance to the apartments, and shall proceed to enunciate hammels from the straw -barn. the leading principle on which these ar. rangements should be made ; and being
5384. The positions of other two apart
simple, it will best be understood when ments are necessarily determined by that looking at the ground -plan in Plate II.
of the thrashing-machine, the one being the upper barn , which contains the un
5382. Straw being the bulkiest article on the farm , and in daily use by every kind of live-stock, and, although heavy and unwieldy, having to be carried and distributed in small quantities by bodily labour, it should be centrically placed, in regard to the stock, and at a short distance from
thrashed corn from the stackyard, ready to be passed through the mill ; and the other the corn -barn, which receives the corn immediately after its separation from the straw by the mill. The granaries should be in direct communicatiou with the corn - barn, to save the labour of carry
their respective apartments. The straw- ing the clean corn to a distance. Fig. 133 barn, its receptacle, should thus occupy shows the relative positions of the corn the central point of the steading. The barn and granaries on a larger scale than
520
REALISATION .
the plate, where x is the corn -barn, m and construction is a secondary consideration,
p stairs to the granaries, e e, fig. 130, r the and theproperaccommodation for live stock window in the corn - barn, t the chaff- house, and s the straw - barn . The granaries should always be elevated above the ground, to keep the grain in good condi-
ought never to be sacrificed to it. For, suppose that, by inadequate accommoda tion, cattle thrive by 10s. a -head less in the course of a winter, than they would
tion, and it enables their floors to form have done in well - constructed courts and
convenient roofs for cattle or cart-sheds.
hammels, and suppose that the farmer is
The elevation which the granaries give to prevented realising this sum on three lots the building should be taken advantage of twenty cattle each of different ages, of to place them so as to shelter the cattle there is an annual loss to him of L.30 ;
courts from the N. wind in winter ; and in order to afford the warmth of the sun to the cattle, all their courts should be open to its light and heat. The courts being
and had the capital sum, of which the annual loss of L.30 is the yearly interest, been expended in constructing the stead ing in the best manner, the loss would
open to the S., and the granaries forming à not only have been averted, but the cattle screen from the N., it followsthat the gra- would have been in much better health and naries should extend E. and W. on the N. condition to slaughter or to fatten on grass. side of the courts ; and as it has been
so little is such a result anticipated in con
shown that the cattle-courts should be structing steadings, that in many parts of placed on each side of the straw -barn, the country, the cattle courts are placed
it also follows that the straw -barn, to be within a quadrangle, the southern range of out of the way of screening the sun from which prevents the rays of the sun ever the courts, should stand N. and S., at entering them ; and on account of that
right angles to the S. of the granaries. peculiar form the chilly air rushes over the The fixingof the straw -barn to the S. of the granaries, and of course to that of the thrashing-machine, the position of the stackyard is necessarily fixed to the N. of both, where it is favourably situated for the preservation of the corn in the stacks.
corners of the roofs into the courts in wbirl
winds, which, if accompanied with rain or sleet, is sure to engender in the cattle the most insidious diseases. 5387. It is easy to apply the principle spoken of to the construction of steadings
5385. The leading principle involved in suitable to all the other modes of farming the above arrangement is as comprehensive as simple, and is applicable to every size and kind of steading. But, obviously correct as the principle is, it is seldom
besides the mixed husbandry . For exam ple, the steading for the arable part of a pastoral farm , where its extent is consider able, should be arranged as one for an
adopted in practice ; and I may safely arable farm situate at a distance from a assert that the greater the deviation from town, as in fig. 55. Most of the straw being
theprinciple, the less desirable steadingsbe- required for thestables g and i, the straw come as habitations for live stock in winter. barn e is placed nearer them than to the byre 1,—the young stock of cattle, should 5386. One reason why steadings are cattle be bred on the farm , being accommo
not constructed on correct principles is, dated in an appropriate steading with any possibly architects who supply plans are number of courts-such as n and m in fig. unacquainted practically with the use of 95-by itself, not far off. the respective apartments of steadings; 5388. Where the arable part of a pas and they commonly bestow too much
attention on their symmetrical propor- toral farm is small, the steading should tions, on constructing them at the least contain all the stock in aggregate. Fig.
possible cost, and within the least space, 95 represents such a steading,where6 is as if a few sqnare yards of ground were of the straw -barn near the courts m, which
much value in the country. No doubt contain the cattle that consume the economy is enforced on them by reluctant largest proportion of the straw in fodder
proprietors, as well as by poor tenants, and litter. The stables d and f, and byre when either have to construct the stead-
h, are situate farther off, as they require
ing at their own cost ; büt economy of less straw than the courts ; but to render
BUILDING THE STEADING .
521
the carrying of the straw to those still as experience and reflection may have sug more convenient than is shown in the plan, gested ; although the plan may have ap the straw -barn b might be made as much peared well enough adapted for the pur longer as to allow a door on each side of pose, but which may have overlooked many it, outside the courts m , to afford access essential particulars of accommodation and to the straw from the more distant of comfort. The contractor cannot complain those courts. when he is paid for the work he has actually executed. An ordained surveyor, mutually
5389. On a carse farm the straw is the chosen by both parties, then measures the
chiefingredient at the steading, and the work, calculates its several parts accord principle means of using it are the horses, ing to the prices stipulated for with the of which a large number is required on contractor, and draws up a report of the
such a farm . The stable f , fig. 96, is value of each kind of work, the total sum placed near the straw barn d , to which two constituting the cost of the farmstead. doors give access outside the courts l, in Instalments of payment are made to the wbichthe cattle pass the winter, and are contractor at such periods of the work as also near the straw . The byre i is at no were agreed upon . This plan may give you no cheaper steading, but a dearer great distance.
one than the common plan of contracting
5390. The construction of a dairy farm by a slump sum ; but cheapness should not steading is peculiar, as is shown in fig. be the principalobject of building a stead
384. The principal part of the steading, ing, that being the convenience of thework the byre a , is so situate as to be near the people, and the comfort of the live-stock . cooking house b, and the fodder house e, in which the hay is chopped by means of the 5392. What I mean by essential parti
cutterf, and which is necessarily contigu- culars of accommodation and comfort in ous to the moving power at p. The straw a steading are such as these :-In giving being most used bythe stables w and y, a foot or two more length to a stable or the straw barn 8 is placed near them ; and byre, by which each animal may have two it would there be also near any hammels or three inches more room laterally, when
that might be erected in the open space it would enjoy more ease and comfort. A within the ranges of the building, for the window, instead of looking to the cold
young queys coming forward to renew the north, may be made with as much ease to stock of cows.
The byre a is situate at look to the warm south. A sky-light
no greatdistance from the door of thestraw- might be made in the roof, to afford suffi barn s which affords it litter.
cient light to a place that would otherwise be dark ; an additional drain to remove
5391. The best way of building a moisture or effluvia, wbich, if left undis steading is not to contract for it in a turbed, might cause considerable annoy slump sum , because, whatever alterations
ance .
A door opening one way instead
may be made during the progress of the of the other, may direct the draught of work, the contractormight take advantage air to a quarter where it can do no barm .
of the change, and charge whatever he A door madeof a whole piece, instead of chooses for them , without your having a being divided into leaves, may make a
check upon his undefined rates ; nor, for chamber gloomy ; and the leaves of a door the same reasons, should the mason , car- formed horizontally, instead of vertically, penter, and slater works be contracted for when left open, may give security to an separately in the slump. The prices per apartment against the intrusion of every rood or per yard, and the quantities ofeach passer-by. These and numerous such
kind of work ,should be settled beforehand small conveniences may be obtained during with the contractor . The advantage of the construction of a steading, without this arrangement is, that the work will be which it would want much of its com
finished according to the views and tastes modiousness and comfort — and which it of the party for whose use the farmstead would most likely want, were the farmer
has been built, he having used the power bound by a contract to a specified sum. of adopting such slight modifications of the plan, during the progress of the work,
5393. Before the prices of work to be
1
522
REALISATION .
executed can be fixed on between the em- are reduced to a standard of 12 inches.
ployer and contractor, specifications of Rubble work is always charged by the
every species of work should be drawn up rood of 36 square yards.
In measuring
by a person competent for the task . Å rubble, allowances for levellings connected vague specification, couched in general with joists, bond timbers, and wall -plates terms, will not answer ; for when work are now abolished.
As to hewn work ,
comes to be executed under it, too much ribats of doors and windows, sills, lintels, liberty is given to both parties to interpret corners, copes of chimney-stalks, skews,
the termsaccording to the interest of each Hence arise disputes, which may not be easily settled even on reference to the person who drew up the specifications, as he possibly by thattime may have either forgotten his own ideas of the matter, or, by intimating his original intentions, may so affect the interest of both parties as rather to widen than repair the breach. Far better have every particular embodied in
and wall-head copes aremeasured and priced by the linealfoot. Coursing, chim ney -head ashler, and every other work of similar description, is measured and priced by the superficial foot. In insidework, pavements, flats of stairs, and hearths, are measured and priced by the superficial foot. Steps and jambs are priced by the slump. Stone skirtingsare measured and priced by the lineal foot.
the specifications, than have explanations and modifications to make afterwards.
5395. The following specifications are applic able to every size and plan of steading ; and as they accord with my own experience, which has
5394. The principle of the measurement on this subject, I submit them to be applied to the work is another item been with considerable the greatest confidence . They embrace the to be embodied in the specifications. It particulars of mason work, carpenter work,
is too much the practice, in some parts slater, work, plumber work, smith work, and of the country, to tolerate a loose mode painterand glazier work, which are not drawn up
usually employed in specifications, the phrases of measuring work ; such as measuring inbutare illustrated by examples and by the eluci
voids, as the openings of doors and win- dation of principles. Proper specifications could dows are termed , that is — on measuring a easily be drawn out from the data furnished wall for the rubble -work, to include all here. the openings in it, and then to measure 5396. mason-work Mason-work .is the Thedigging first thing to bea of thefound the lintels and ribats and corners. In like donein
manner, chimney -tops are measured all tions of thewalls. When the site of thesteading round as rubble, and then the corners are is not obliged to be chosen on a rock , the depth measured over and above. Now the fair of the foundations of all the outside walls should plan obviously is to measure every sort of never be less than two feet. Judging by usual
work by itself: where rubble is, let it be practice, this may be considered an inordinate
depth, and as incurring much expense in build measured for rubble ; and where hewn work ing an unnecessaryquantity of foundation walls,
is, let it be measured as such. The hewn which are immediately after to be buried out of stones assist the rubble building, and as sight. But this depth is necessary
account of they cost more at the quarry than rubble the drains which should be madeonaround the
stones, let a fixed price be settled for them.
outside walls, to keep all the floors dry in winter ; and it is scarcely possible to keep them drý
Thus the work actually done would be paid with drains of less depth than 30 inches, which • for ; and more should not be paid, let the afford the water a channel of 6 inches below price of the work be what it may . I the bottom of the foundations. The ground floor by of elevating dwelling -houses may be kept in above a dry height am glad, however, to add that the practice state it a considerable
now, in all the towns of Scotland, is to
the ground; but such an expedient is impractic
measure all work in nett measure ; that
able in a steading where most of the apartments,
as is to say, in measuring rubble work the being occupied by live stock , must be keptand cubical contents of both rubble and hewn
near as possible on a level with the ground;
not wood- floors alone that must be kept dry, work are measured, and the daylight of itbutis those of sheds, ,barns, and byres, all voids deducted . The exceptions are, made of composition of causeway, or ofwhether earth.
in the wall presses, fire-places, window- The injuriouseffects of damp in the floors of bossings, and flues ofchimneys are included stables, byres,and hammels,on the condition of of in the measurement.
All walls above 18
the animals inhabiting them in winter, or
on the state ofthe straw , corn, or hay in in . Its malign too much overlooked them, are inches thick are reduced to a standard of barns
2 feet, and all walls below 18 inches thick
Auence on the health of animals, or in retarding
SPECIFICATIONS.
their thriving, not being apparent to the senses, it is apt to be ascribed to constitutional defect
523
course of such foundation , whilst the higher walls should have two such courses .
in the animals themselves, instead of, perhaps, to the truer cause of the unwholesome state
5398. All the walls, both external and inter
of the apartments which they occupy, (5386.)
Dal, should be built of the best rubble work, the stones being squared, laid on their natural beds, closely set in good lime mortar, and well headed and packed. Headers, or band -stones, should go through the thickness of the walls at not more than five feet apart in every third course. The walls should only be built one course in height on one side, before the other side is brought up to the same level, the first of the courses to go through two -thirds of the wall, besides the headers.
The truth is, the floor of every apartment of the
steading, whether accommodating living creatures, or containing inanimate things, cannot be too dry ; and, to render them as much so as is practicable, there seems no way of attaining the end so effectually as by digging the foundations of the walls deep, and surrounding them with still deeper drains. There are many substancesupon which walls are usually founded, which , from their nature, would make walls constantlydamp, were expedients not used to counteract their naturally baleful properties. Amorphous rocks, such as granite, which are impervious to water ; trap rocks, which, though frequently containing minute fissures, being deliquescent, become very damp in wet weather ; clay, and tilly clay even more than the unctuous, retains a great deal of water : all these substances form objectionable ground upon which to found any building. Stratified rocks, such as sandstone, not retaining the water long,form drier substances for a foun.
dation than any ofthe amorphous rocks or clays. Pure sand is not always dry, and is apt to form , in some situations, an insecure foundation. Pure
gravel is the driest of all foundations, but not the most secure .
From the nature of these
various substances, excepting the gravel, it would appear that no wall founded on them can assuredly be kept dry at all seasons ; and there. fore drains are necessary to render and keep them so . A foundation made in a bank of even the
5399. The external walls should be 2 feet in thickness, and the internal division walls,as also the walls composing the fronts and subdivisions
of the courts and hammels, 1 foot. In exposed situations, the walls should be 2 feet 3 inches thick . The low external walls should be raised
9 feet, and the high external walls of the middle range, as well as that of the straw -barn, 15 feet above the ground. All the gables of the external walls, and all the internal division walls, should rise to the pitch of their respec tive roofs, and be filled up to the sarking. The front and side walls of the large courts and bulls' hammels, and the subdivision walls of the courts of the hammels, should be raised 6 feet,
and the front walls of the hammels, as also those of the cows' and calves' courts and pig -sties, 5
feet above the ground. All the walls which carry roofs should be beam - filled with rubble work, as a precaution against the lodgment of
driest gravel will prove damp, unless the precau- vermin , (1681.) tion of deep draining betwixt the foundation and 5400. The external fronts of all the outside choose a site for your steading which is overhung walls, as well as those of the front walls of the by a bank, make a deeper foundation on more courts and hammels, should be faced with ham the rise ofthe bank is resorted to . Rather than
level ground, and drain it thoroughly, or even
build some height of waste wall, and fill up a
mer -dressed rubble in courses, not exceeding 6 inches in thickness, with the vertical and hori. zontal joints raised or drawn in hollow. Or
part of the ground that is low around the stead. ing. I have experienced the bad effects of dig.
the rubble work may be neatly snecked, and
ging a foundation for a steading in a rising groundof tolerably dry materials, and also the
carefully drawn in with a quarter inch key , and pointed. The tops of the front and subdivision
good effects of fillingup low ground at a part of walls of the courts and hammels should be another steading, and have found the airin the apartments of the latter at all seasons much
more agreeable to the feelings than in the former.
finished with a coping of hammer-dressed round headed stones, 12 inches in diameter, firmly set close together in good lime mortar.
The bad effects of the former I endea
voured to counteract by deep draining, but it was not so effectual as in the latter case.
I am
therefore warranted in concluding that dry apartments are much more healthy for animals, and better for other things, than are those which feel cold and damp. Acircling of substantial
5401. To test if rubble masonry is well built, step upon a levelled portion of any course, and , on setting the feet a little asunder, try by a
searching motion of the legs and feet whether any of the stones areloose, and whichever is so rides upon others. Where a stone rides, it has
drains around the steading, between it and the
not been properly bedded in mortar.
bank , will render the apartments to the feelings,
tain if any hollows are left, pour a bucketful of
in a short time, in a comparatively comfortable
water on the wall, and those places which have
state .
To ascer
not been sufficiently packed with small stones, will immediately absorb it.
5397. The outside walls should be founded with stones three feet in length, two in breadth , and eight or nine inches in thickness, so laid, in reference to the line of foundation, as to form a scarcement of six inches on each side of the wall
above them. The low walls may stand on one
5402. The width of all the doors should be 3 feet 6 inches, and their height 7 feet, with the exception of those of the work -horse stable, corn -barn , straw -barn, and saddle-horse stable, which should be 7 feet 6 inches in height. The
REALISATION .
524
width of the arches of the cattle - courts should
should be elliptical, with a rise of 2 feet, with
be 9 feet ; that of those of the hammels, 6 feet;
broached soffets on both fronts, an inch -droved margin , and radiated joints. The pillars of the cart- shed and calves '- shed should be 2 feet square
and that of the ports of the cart-shed, 8 feet; and all 7 feet 6 inches in height.
in the waist,of broached ashler, with inch -droved 5403. The width of all the windows should be 3 margins, and built of stones 12 inches in height. feet, and their height four feet, with the excep- Those of the former should have a droved base tion of those of the granaries, which should be 4 course, 12 inches in depth with 14 inch washing, feet in width and 3 feet in height. The windows should have a bay inside of 6 inches on each
side .
Slits of 1 foot 3 inches in height and 3
chamfered on the angles.
5409. The tops of the walls of the pig-sties,
inches in width in front, with a bay inside like
calves'-shed, hen -houses, and turnip - stores ,should
the windows, should be left in the walls of the
have a 6 -inch droved plinth 12 inches in the bed.
straw and upper barns for the admission of air to the straw and the corn in the straw . All the
voids should have substantial discharging arches over the timber-lintels, to be able to support the wall above, even although the timber - lintels should fail.
5404. All the door- soles should be laid 3 in.
5410. The fire-places in the boiling-houses and gig-house should have a pair of droved jambs and a lintel, 3 feet 6 inches of height in the open ing, and a droved hearth - stone 5 feet in length and 3 feet in breadth . The boiler should have a
hearth -stone 4 feet 6 inches in length , and 2 feet 6 inches in breadth, and it should be built with
ches above the ground or causeway, and those of fire-brick, and have a cope of 4 inches in thick ness of droved ashler. Fig. 114 in (1467 ) repre
the stables and byres and calves'-house should be bevelled in front, that the feet of the animals
sents a common mode of finishing the boiler
going out and in may not strike against them.
without the coping ; but the stone coping makes the strongest finishing. The flues from
5405. The corners of the buildings should be all the fire-places and the boilers should be of broached ashler, neatly squared , 2 feet in length, 12 inches of breadth in the bed, and 12 inches in height, having 1 inch chisel draught on both fronts. The windows and doors should have ashler ribats, the outbands 2 feet in length ,
carried up 12 inches clear in the opening, and have chimney -stalks of broached ashler, 2 feet in height above the ridges of the respective roofs, 2 feet square, and furnished with a droved check plinth and block 12 inches in depth . What is
and the inbands at least two-thirds of the
better is, to make the flues of fire-clay tubes, 10
thickness of the walls, and both 12 inches of inches in diameter inside ; and at this size breadth in the beds, and 12 inches in height. they can be put in at 10d. per lineal foot. They should have 1 inch of the front, 5 inches of ingoings, and 4 inches of checks, clean droved. The tails of th: outband ribats should
be squared and broached.
The doors of the
5411. The gates of all the cattle and hammel courts should be hung on the droved ashler cor ners when close to a house, but on droved built
work -horse and saddle -horse stables, upper and pillars when in connection with low court -walls. corn -barns, hay-house, bulls' hammels, byres, and calves' house, should have droved giblet5412. The riding-horse stable, if laid at all checks, to permit them opening outwards. The with flags, should have them 4 inches thick, of window sills should be droved, projecting it droved and ribbed pavement behind the travis inch, and 6 or 7 inches in thickness. The poste, having a curved water -channel communi
lintels of both the doors and windows should cating with a drain outside. The travis-posts have 1 inch of the front, 5 inches of ingoings
of the work-horse stable should be providedwith
clean droved, and be from 14 to 15 inches in height.
droved stone sockets 12 inches in thickness,and 18 inches square , founded on rubble work , and a
5406. The skers should be broached when such
stone sockets of each pair of head and foot tra
droved curb -stone should be put betwixt the
are used, having 1 inch chisel-draught on both vis-posts, provided with a groove on the upper edge to receive the under edge of the lower 4-inch check -plinth, having an inch of back -rest travis -board . For the better riddance of the margins of the front, and the inner edge with a
under it.
urine from the work -horse stable, there should be a droved curved water - channel 6 inches in
5407. The holes in the byre-wall, through which the turnips are supplied, when such are used, should be 20 inches square, with ashler ribats, flush sills and lintels, having broached fronts and
breadth, wrought in freestone, 18 inches in breadth , all the length of the stable, with a fall at least of 14 inch to every 10 feet of length. The water-channel in the cow -byres, and in the feeding -houses, when such are used, should be
droved giblet-checks to receive their shutters.
of droved curb-stones 6 inches thick, 12 inches
5408. The side corners of the arched opening deep, and laid in the bottom with 3-inch thick of of the cattle-courts and hammels,and those of droved pavement, placed 6 inches below the top the ports of the cart-shed , should be regular out of the curb-stones. and inband, 2 feet in length, 12 inches of breadth in the bed, and 12 inches in height, and dressed 5413. The water-troughs should not be of less in a manner similar to the other corners , but
should be chamfered on the angles. The arches
dimensions than 3 } feet in length, 2 feet in breadth, and 18 inches in depth over all ; and
SPECIFICATIONS.
525
they should be clean droved outside and inside. composed of water-worn fragments of the primi Wood or pavement may be substituted for stone when that cannot be easily obtained .
tive and secondary as well as of trap-rocks ; but round boulders of micaceous sandstone, usually found in gravel pits, are unfit for causeways,
5414. The liquid manure drains should be being too soft and slaty. A better stone is squared 9 inches in height and 6 inches in width in the clear, with droved curved sills and hammer-dressGlazed earthenware tubes with ed covers. spigot and faucet joints are beginning to be used for conveying the liquid manure to the tanks. A stone 2 feet in length, 18 inches in breadth, and 8 or 9 inches in thickness,with an opening through it, giblet-checked, will contain a grating 15 inches in length and 9 inches in breadth, with the bars oneinch asunder, at the ends of the liquid-manure drains in the courts .
5415. The bottom of the feeding-troughs in the byres, courts, and hammels, should be of 3-inch thick flag -pavement, jointed and scabbled on the face, or of wood. All the window -sills in the
trap, whether of basalt or greenstone, imbedded in sand , such as are used inthe streets of towns. The ready oleavage of trap - rocks into convenient squareblocks render themvaluable depots, where accessible, of materials for causeways and road metal. The floors of the pig-sties and poultry yards should be laid with thick, bammer-dressed jointed stones imbedded in lime mortar, having broken glass in it, upon a bed of 9 inches thick
of small broken stones, to withstand not only the digging propensities of the pigs on the sur face, but to prevent vermin gaining access from below through the floor to the poultry. The areas of the cattle courts, and floors of the sheds, hammels, straw - barn, and cart-shed, will be firm enough with the earth beaten down .
inside should be finished with 3-inch droved or
scabbled pavement.
5418. A method of making the floors of out houses , recommended by Mr Waddell of Ber wickshire, deserves attention. It is this : Let intended to be quite plain ; but should you pre- the whole area of the apartment be laid with fer ornamental structures, their tops may be small broken stones to the depth of nine inches. finished with a 6 -inch droved cope, 15 inches in Above these let a solid body of masonwork , of breadth, with a half -inch washing on both fronts; stone and lime properly packed, be built to the andwith a droved base -course 12 inches in depth, height of 12 or 14 inches,according to the thick having a washing of 11 inch : the pillars of the ness of the substance which is to form the upper gates to the larger courts may be of droved ashler, floor. The lime, which is applied next the in courses of an octagonal form , of 15 inches in walls, should be mixed with broken glass. If a thickness, and 2 feet by 2 feet, with 12- inch composition is to form the floor, it should be laid base , and a 12 - inch checked plinth and block, on 3 inches in thickness above the masonry ; but built at least 18 inches higher than the wall : if asphaltum , 1 inch thick will suffice, the differ and if you prefer an outside hanging -stair to the ence in the height being made up in the ma wool-room , the steps should be droved 3 feet 6 sonry.* This plan of Mr Waddell's seems well inches clear of the wall, with 6 inches of wall- adapted for making a solid and secure foundation hold : and you may substitute droved crow -steps against vermin, for the paving of the seve on the gables for the broached skews, with an ral apartments mentioned above ; but it is not inch back -rest under them . Crow -steps, in my so well adapted for wood - floors, either as a pre opinion, are no ornaments in any case, in a stead- servative against damp, or preventive against ing. They are only suited to a lofty castellated vermin, as the plan described in ( 1681.) 5416. The walls in the front of the courts are
style of building. 5417. Floors, and causeways, and roads. The
floors of the cow -byres, work -horse stable, stalls of the riding -horse stable, passage of the calves' house, gig-house, implement-house, hay-house, and turnip stores, should be laid in causeway with hammer -dressed squared whinstone, upon a solid stratum of sand, on a bed of broken stones, 12 inches thick, under it . The floors of the
5419. Having seen several sorts of concrete used in the floors of barns and cottages, I am now of opinion that any such composition is un suited to the purpose, and is far from durable. 5420. Asphalt floors not being suitable for dwelling-houses, or for any apartment in a stead ing, I do not recommend them .
boiling - houses should be laid with 3-inch pave5421. Another mode of causewaying is wood ment jointed and scabbled on the face , also pare ent. Portions of the streets of London were upon 12 inches thick of broken stones. A laid with this kind of pavement, the blocks hav causeway, 13 feet in breadth , should be made in ing been previously subjected to the process of the large court K, Plate II., to the corn -barn Kyanising, and they made smooth, clean, quiet, door, round to the gate at the work -horse stable, causewaying ; but its surface became so slippery for the use of loaded carts from the barn, with a in wet weather, and many accidents happen declivity from the wall to the dung area of 2 ing to horses, it was relinquished for ordinary inches in the 10 feet. Causeways are usually causewaying. It can scarcely be said to have formed in steadings with round hard stones had a fair trial, because, being confined to a small
found on the land, orin the channels of rivers, space at one place, the dirt brought upon it by or on the sea -shore, imbedded in sand . In those
the wheels of the carriages from the macada
situations the stones are always hard, being
mised streets in its ricinity was the real cause
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. viii. p 373.
REALISATION .
526
of the slipperiness,and notfromany substance that haps in the heat of summer, when they become arose from its own surface. But however unsuc- oppressively hot. I had an opportunityof seeing cessful it may have been on the thronged streets apart of the road near Haarlem laid with these of a large city, it would be a desirable method of clinkers, and observed, as a part of the process, paving the road round the large court K , Plate that, as a certain piece of the causewaying was
II., the straw -barn , work -horse stable, hay -house, finished, bundles ofgreen reeds werelaid length cow -byres, passage in the calves'-house, ridinghorse stable, gig -house, boiling-houses, and turnip stores. It would be expedient, when used in a stable or byre, that some other substance than sand be put between the blocks, as it would absorb the urine too readily. Grout formed of thin lime and clean small gravel, or asphalt poured in between the blocks, night repel moisture , as has been tried according to Mr Simms. Gutta
way across the roadover the new laid bricks, to temper the pressure of the wheelsof the carriages upon the bricks on going along the roads, until the bricks should have subsided firmly into the stratum of sand. As the clinkers are small, they can be laid in a variety of forms, some as a beau tiful kind of Mosaic work. The import duty on
percha would be a most effectual binding for
No mention has recently been made of their im
Dutch clinkers is 10s. per 1000.+ The price of
clinkers in London in 1842 was 35s. per 1000.
the wood blocks. Dr Ure says, " that slipperi-
port, in the Parliamentary returns, probably be
ness is not a natural defect in wood paving. The
cause they are now made in England.
accumulations on wood pavement are drawn from the proximate wear of granite and macadam . In granite, the imperfect structure admits of the constant oozing of dust and filth ; in macadam, the surface is always wearing into dust and slop. In very hot or cold weather the stone paved streets of London are proverbially as slippery as glass, whilst slipperiness in wood pavement is altogether obviated by cleanliness ; and that inay now beinsured by the use of Whitworth's clean
5423. Fine smooth durable pavement is made
of the beautifully stratified beds of the inferior grey sandstone, a rock nearly allied to greywacke. It is a rock of fine texture, hard, and impervious to water. It occurs in abundance on Lord Pan mure's estates at Carmylie, in Forfarshire ; and it is shipped at Arbroath, from whence in conse quence it has received the appellation of Ar broath patement . Hard flags from the counties ing machine, which has already been successfully of Caithness and Orkney form very durable, tried in some of the principal streets. It is im- though not always even pavement. Like the possible not to perceive the great amount of Arbroath pavement, it requires very little dress suffering and loss that may besaved in horses ing on the face. The Caithness pavement is, from by the wood pavement. Cabmen and omnibus its hardness, obliged to be cut on the edge with a drivers assure us that, in the winter season , for a saw ; the Arbroath pavement is dressed with month or two only there is very serious cause of common masons' tools. Pavement is also formed complaint, and then there is as much or more
of the stratified portions of the sandstone of the
danger on other pavements ; whereas, during the
coal-formation . Most of the foot pavement of
summer months, the advantage of wood over all the streets of Edinburgh is of this kind. Its other pavements is immense. The great mortality of horses in the streets of London, from over-
driving during the hot weather, is well known ;
face requires to be wrought with tools, and its texture admits water. Arbroath pavement costs from 2d. to 4d. per square foot atthe quarry , ac
so far as wood is concerned, the reduction of cording to the thickness. Both it and Caithness effect must necessarily decrease the destruction in a greater ratio than eren 5 to 2. The strength of wood pavement may be estimated by
the fact that, in Scotland Yard, in London, no less than 78,000 tons per annum of traffic goes over the wood pavement there, where it is confined to a single carriage line - a test of the most critical description .” * Wood-paving could be
done in the country at a lower rate than any incurred in towns.
To prevent slipping, small
sharp gravel is occasionally strewed over the surface of Regent Street, in London ; and it seems to answer the purpose.
pavement cost ls., and common stone pavement Bd. per foot in Edinburgh.
5424. All the roads around the steading, and especially where carting will passalong, should be properly made of a thick bed, of not less than 9 inches, of small broken whinstone metal, care fully kept dry, with proper outlets for water at the lowest points of the metal bed, and the metal occasionally raked and rolled on the surface un til it becomes solid .
5425. Foot-paths of gravel or small broken metal, should be made to the farm - house and ser
5422. Another method still of causewaying is with Dutch Clinkers, a very hard brick made in Holland, of about the breadthand thickness of a man's hand. They are used in that country in
afford much comfort and cleanliness in winter.
paving roads and streets. They are set length-
5426. Drains. — No steading can be dry and comfortable within its walls, unless a well-con
ways on edge and imbedded in sand, and so laid as to form a slight arch across the road. Most
of the great roads in Holland are paved with this brick , and more beautiful and pleasant roads to
travel on cannot be found anywhere, except per-
vant's houses from the steading, where these are not situate along the road -side. Such foot-paths
structed drain is made to encircle all the outside
walls. In the ground -plan of the steading, Plate II., the lines of drains, and the directions they should run, are shown by the directions of the
* Ure’s Dictionary ofthe Arts, Supplement - art. Wood -paving. + Clement's Customs Guide, p. 67.
SPECIFICATIONS . arrows.
527
The outlets of these drains should be in the neighbourhood of Dundee, is a beautiful
as far removed from the urine tank as practice able, and fall into a ditch or rivulet at a level be low that of the foundation of the steading. The drains should be dug as far from the walls as to be clear of the large foundation stones, and as deep as to be 6 inches below their under face,
and as narrow as practicable. If the foundations are 2 feet deep , the drains will thus be 30 inches deep. They should be laid in the bottom
and durable building - stone. 5430. All the sandstones of the coal formation
form excellent materials for building, as is ex emplified in Edinburgh, and many other places. 5431. The limestones make fine building -stone —from marble, as at Plymouth, to the carbonifer ous mountain limestone, to beseenin many parts
with drain pipe-tiles of the size fitted for main of Ireland ; but, in case of fire, all limestones are drains, and be filled to the top with broken apt to be calcined by heat, as was exemplified in stones like road metal : for these drains are not, the cathedral at Armagh, before it was lately like field - drains, intended only to receive water
repaired.
after it has filtered through loose soil; but be sides the water they may receive from the soil 5432. Trap -rocks are employed in building below, they must receive all the rain water that houses, where sandstones are scarce. Whinstone may fall in the course of the year from the eaves is objectionable, inasmuch as it throws out damp of the back part of the roof of the steading ; for it
ness in wet weather, and the walls require to be
is not to be expected that the expense of erecting rones will be incurred for that part of the building, so that these drains must not only take in what water is presented to them below the ground, but also what they may collect from the
lathed and plastered on the inside, to render the house even bearable. Frequently where whin
surface - and it is on this account that I recommend for their conduit the large main-drain pipe-tile. Being situate very near and under
the protection of the high part of the steadingwall, the small stones which cover them will never be disturbed nor rendered impervious to water. 1 express myself thus confidently on
this point, after experience of the thing for several years .
stone is near at hand, and , sandstone can be ob
tained at a little distance, the latter is employed as corners, ribats, and lintels, though the con trast of colour, when the stone is nearly white, betwixt them is too violent to be pleasant to the eye. If sandstone, therefore, can be pro
cured at a reasonable cost of carriage, you should give it the preference to whinstone, for the sake of comfort to your live-stock in their habitations in wet weather. You may, indeed, choose to incur the expense of lathing and plas tering all the insides of the walls of the stead ing ; but a lathed wall in any part of a steading
5427. The kind of stone which should be employed in the building of a steading must be determined by the mineral product of the locality.
will be apt to be broken by accident,and is, on that account, an unsuitable finishing for it.
In all localities where stone is accessible, it
pensive, other materials, such as brick, must be taken. In large flat tracts of country, stone is
5433. The worst sort of building- stone are landfast boulders of the primitive and trap rocks, which, although reduceable by gunpowder, and manageable by cleavage into convenient shaped stones, incur great labour in their preparation
generally at too great a distance ; but in those
for building ; and even after the stones are pre
situations, clay being abundant, brick may be
pared in the best manner they are capable, their
should be preferred to every other material; but where its carriage is distant, and of course ex-
easily made, and it makes an excellent building beds are frequently very rough, and jointings material for walls-and now that the duty on its coarse , and the variety of texture and colour manufacture has been entirely removed , it will exhibited by them, render them at the best un be a cheaper material than it has ever been. Of sightly objects in a building ; but they make a
stone, any kind may be used that is nearest at strong wall. When of sandstone, boulders are hand, though some rocks are much better apt to become splintery, and are unsuited for adapted for building purposes than others.
associating with lime mortar.
5428. Of the primitive rocks, grey granite
5434. Carpenter work. – Of the specifications of
forms a beautiful and durable stone, as is exem-
carpenter work, the first timber that is used in
plified in the buildings in Aberdeenshire, Corn- building consists of safe-lintels, which should be wall, and Newry in Ireland. Gneiss, mica- slate, 4 inches thick, such a breadth as to over the and clayslate, do not answer the purpose well. space they are placed over, and they should have They give a rough edgy fracture, frequently rise & solid bearing at both ends of 12 inches. too thin in the bed, especially in the case of clay -slate; are not unfrequently curved in the bed, 5435. The scantlings or couples for the roofs and at the same time difficult to be dressed with vary in size with the breadth of the building. the hammer. When the building is 18 feet wide, the scantlings should be 8 inchesbroad at bottom ,7inches at 5429. Of the transition series, greywacke top, and 2ļ inches thick. Those for 15 feet wide makes a beautiful building stone, as may be seen buildings should be 7 inches broad. All scant in the houses at Melrose. The old red sand-
stone, though a good building-stone, has a disagreeably sombre aspect, as seen at Arbroath ; but the inferior grey sandstone, which prevails
lings should be placed 18 inches apart from centre to centre, upon wall-plates 8 inches wide by l !
inch thick, firmly secured to bond -timber built into the tops of the walls. These dimensions and
REALISATION .
528
distances of scantlings are suitable for a ronf of port the floor of the upper-barn, forming the roof blue slates. For a tile-roof the scantlings are of thecorn -barn , should be clean dressed, to pre placed 2 feet apart from centre to centre . For vent the adherence of dust. roofing with grey -slates, which are heavy, the scantlings should be 3 inches thick . With tiles
and grey -slates the roofs require a higher pitch than with blue slates, which is given by making the scantlings 1 foot longer. 5436. The ballos of an 18 feet wide building should be 74 inches broad by 24 inches thick, and for the 15 feet one, 7 inches by 24 inches.
5442. In some parts of the country, and par
ticularly in East-Lothian, the floor of the corn barn is made of composition ; but in order to leave a part of the floor clean upon which to winnow the grain , a space 12 feet square is usually left in
the middle of the floor. This space is laid with sleeper -joisting, 7 inches deep by 24 inches thick, and 18 inches apart from centre to centre, sup
In both cases the balks should beof the length porting a flooring of deal 2 inches thick, grooved of one of the scantlings, which will bring its position so low down on the scantlings as to be only
and tongued . As a precaution against vermin , as well as the enjoyment of cleanliness while
handling the grain, I a little more than 3 feet above thewall-heads. winnowing and otherwise an would always recommend entire wooden floor
It is generally supposed that one balk is sufficient for the support of the scantlings ; but I
for the corn -barn, to be laid down in the manner
would always prefertwo balksto one, as in fig. 129, described in ( 1681,) and represented in fig. 129. and the only objection to the two is the expense. When two balks are employed, the lower one will be about 2 feet, and the upper one about 5 feet above the wall-heads.
5443. The windows of the stables should be of
the form of fig. 107 ; those of the byre as in fig. 77 ; and those of the granary as in fig. 131 . The astragals, if not made of wood, may be of
5437. When the slated roof is adopted, there cast-iron or zinc. Cast-iron astragals cost Is., should be a ridge-tree 10 inches broad by lì inch and zinc 9fd. the square foot. thick ; and the tops of the scantlings should be strongly secured to the ridge -tree by spike nails.
5444. The exterior doors, 7? feet high, should
When a tile-roof is preferred, it is sufficient that be of 14 inch deal, grooved, and tongued, and the tops of the scantlings be half checked into each other.
5438. The whole roof should be covered with sarking, 4 inch thick , and clean jointed. A tile roof requires tile-lath, 11 inch square, and 12 inches apart, excepting at the eaves, which should have a boarding from 15 inches to 18 inches broad, and inch thick for slates. lath is also employed with grey -slates.
Tile-
beaded,having three back -bars, 7 inches broad by 14 inch thick ; those of the corn -barn , cow. byre, and boiling -house should be in two hori zontal leaves, that of the upper -barn in two ver tical ones. 5445. If desired, small windows of one or two rows of panes may be placed above all the out side doors ; in which case, the voids of these
doors should be made proportionally high , say 8 feet.
5439. The peands should be 8 inches broad, and lļ thick, properly backed to receive the
5446. The inside doors should be 7 feet high,
sarking or tile-lath of the respective sorts of of inch deal, with three back -bars 6 inches roofs.
The flanks should be 11 inches broad, by
3 inches thick.
broad and 1 inch thick , grooved, and ploughed , and beaded. They should have checks 6 inches broad by 2} inches thick, and keps and facings
5440. The joists of the flooring in the part of 44 inches broad by 4 inch thick. the buildings that is 18 feet wide, should be 10 inches deep by 24 inches in thickness, placed 18 inches asunder from centre to centre, and having
5447. The tradis boarding of the work -horse stable should be 14 inch thick, 9j feet long, 7
a wall -hold or rest of 12 inches at each end.
feet 6 inches high at the fore and 4 feet 6 inches
Where the bearings of joists exceed 8 feet, it is high at the heel posts, dowelled in the joints a more secure and economical plan to have
with oak pins, and of an ogee form on the top,
beams, instead of battens ,laidacross the build- letinto a2-inch deep groove in the heel-post, ing, 13 inches deep, and 64 inches in width, with a wall-hold of 12 inches at each end. Upon these should rest joists 7 inches deep, and 24 inches in breadth, and not more than 16 inches apart from centre to centre, dove-tailed into the beams with a hold of 9 inches at each end. These joists are best cut out of Memel log of first or second qua-
lity, the difference of price between the two qualities being 3d. the cubic foot.
and coped with beading. The heel- posts should be 6 inches square, beaded ; the fore-posts, on
both sides, 5 inches by 24 inches, and both fixed at the top to runtrees, 6 inches deep by 2 inches broad.
The side-walls of the end-stalls should
be finished in the same manner , and firmly secured to wall -straps and bond-timbers.
5448. The travis-boarding of the riding -horse stable should be of the same strength as just
5441. The floors of the upper and corn -barn
described ; but the heel-posts should be turned
and granaries should be of 14 inch thick, of red or white wood battens, grooved and tongued, and well seasoned when wrought and laid. The
5 feet high above the ground, with moulded caps and balls, and let from 18 inches to 2 feet into the ground, through a stone frame 18 inches square and 12 inches thick, firmly built with
under side of the floor, and the joists which sup-
SPECIFICATIONS, stone and mortar. The fore - posts should be 3
529
5459. The doors of the hen -house should be
inches in diameter on both sides to the height of of 14-inch deal, beaded, grooved, and tongued . the travis boarding. Heel-posts, as in fig. 106, are also made of cast-iron, which cost 22s. each .
5460. Wooden ventilators should be placed upon the roof above every alternate pair of horses
5449. The hay -racksof the work -horse stable and cattle, on the stables and byres, of the form should have a hardwood rail, 3 inches deep by 2 inches wide, and the spars of fir, 2 inches broad by 1 } inch thick, placed 2 } inches apart. These spars should be put on both front and bottom.
and dimensions of fig. 81 ; or they may consist of 4 -inch deal, 6 inches square, in an opening above every alternate stall, and furnished,on the upper part above the roof, with bent tubes of
lead, 6 lb. to the squarefoot, or with zinc ones of 5450. The hay-racks of the riding-horse stable should be of hardwood ,and placed high up, with rails, 3 inches deep by 2 inches wide, and turned rollers, 2 inches diameter, set 24 inches
in price, according to size, from 4s. to 78. each.
apart.
granaries, where tile are used for roofing, wool room , and hen-house, should be lathed with Baltio
Cast -iron racks are frequently used in
the corner of the stall, and they cost 15s. each.
the same dimensions. The zinc ventilators vary
5461. The ceilings of the stables, boiling-house,
should be of rounded battens in front, of full
split-lath is of an inch in thickness. “ Laths are sold by the bundle, which is generally called a hundred ; but 7 score, or 140, are computed
breadth of the stalls, placed at a convenient height above the floor, and bottomed and lined with 14 inch deal. Cast -iron mangers cost 15s. each.
in the 100 for 3 -feet laths ; 6 score, or 120, in such as are 4 feet ; and for those which are de nominated 5 feet, the common 100, or 5 score. " * Lath is also made of home wood , usually Scots
5451. The mangers of the riding-horse stable
fir, sawn up into f-inch plank, and split irregu larly with the axe, and, when nailed on, the
5452. In the work - horse stable, corn -boxes are placed in the near angle of the hay- racks.
splits being kept open by means of a wedge ; but
5453. The stalls of the cow or feeding byres
this species of lath should never be used, as it does not stand.
should be made of 14 inch deal, beaded, grooved, and tongued. They should be 6 feet long, and
4 feet high, with 1 inch beaded coping, let into heel-posts, 5 inches to 6 inches diameter, and
held to the wall at the head with a 2-inch fillet, and iron holdfasts on each side .
The heel
posts should either be taken to the height of the byre-wall, and secured to runtrees, 6 inches deep by 2 inches broad, or fastened into the ground with masonry like those of the riding -horse stable, (5448.)
5462. The riding -horse stable should have
saddle-brackets of -inch deal, firmly supported, and two pins let into rails 6 inches wide, and 1 inch thick, for each horse. The work -horse stable should have two similar rails, with large
and small pins for each horse . 5463. Every court and hammel should be pro vided with a gate. 5464. The entrance to the piggeries should be
5454. The doors of the feeding holes of the byres should be of 4 -inch deal, of two thicknesses,
furnished with doors of l -inch deal, of two thick
nesses, crossed, as in fig. 125.
crossed .
5465. Since the introduction of railways, a
style of roofing, capable of affording a great granaries, if of wood, should have 11 inches of space in width at the stations, has been adopted tread and 64 inches of height of steps. A stair for many purposes where room is required under or trap of similar dimensions may lead to the one span of roof. This end has been effected 5455. The stairs from the corn -barn to the
wool-room , from the straw -barn L, Plate II. 5456. The floors of the granaries, upper and corn barns, and wool-room , should havean angu
by using the truss, upon which the scantlings are made to bear by means of screws. Fig. 439
Fig. 439.
lar skirting around them, of 3 inches by 3 inches. 5457. Should the upper barn, or granaries, or wool-room , be ascended by outside stone stairs,
they should be furnished with plain 4 -inch iron b
railing, carried around the outer edge of the
steps and platform , with a bardwood hand -rail, or be enclosed with 4 - inch deal lining the whole
height above the steps, and properly framed. 5458. The interior of the hen -house should be
A TRUSSED ROOF OF WOOD .
represents the section of a trussed roof in wood ,
where a a are the walls at the required distance; b is a beam of wood stretching across the void,
fitted up with rough 4-inch deal shelves and divisions, and roosting -trees 3 inches deep by 2
and having a bearing of the breadth of the wall
inches broad.
upper ends by means of a clamp placed on each
at each end ; c o are couples held together at the
* M'Culloch's Dictionary of Commerce -- art. Lath . VOL. II.
2 1
REALISATION .
530
side, and screwed firm with bolt and nut, and
5468. In measuring carpenter and joiner work,
their other ends are checked into the ends of the the rafters and sarking are measured and priced beam, and held down by iron straps. At the by the superficial yard , and allowance is made of centre of the beam b, two trusses are placed 18 inches by the length on peands and flanks. against each other in a cast-iron socket at one
end, and their other ends mortised into the
centre of the couples at c o. An iron rod , furnished with a head, is passed through a hole at
the upper end of the couples at e, and its other end through a hole in the ends of the trusses, and the centre ofthe socket at b; and on this rod being screwed tight by means of a washer and nut, the beams, couples, trusses, and rod are braced so
Balks are also measured and priced by the super ficial yard. Wall-plates, ridge -rods, valley
pieces, peand trees, lead fillets, &c., are mea sured and priced by the lineal foot, in addition to the rafters and sarkings. Bridlings for sky lights, chimneytops, & c., are also taken in addi tion to the rafters . Joisting is measured and priced by the superficial yard — the length taken from the gables, and the breadth including the The wall- plates of joists are mea
firmly together that the whole forms a rigid
wall-holds.
structurecapable of resisting the downward pressure of the roof.
sured and priced by the lineal foot. The brid lings at the hearths are slumped. Flooring,
5466. The same end is attained by means of iron bars, rods, and cast -iron trusses. Fig. 440 Fig. 440.
deafening boards, and rounds, are measured and priced by the superficial yard. Bond timber, wall standards, and lath , are also measured by the superficial yard. Window sashes and cases are measured and priced by the superficial foot, and an allowance of 8 inches is made to the nett
daylight width, and 2 inches to the height. Window 'fastenings, as soffets, breasts, elbows, and shutters, are measured and priced by the superficial foot ; architraves, facings, and copes,
represents the section of a roof constructed with
by the lineal foot. The ironmongery connected with the joiner -work is estimated by the slump, and ought to be charged with the cost of putting on. Doors and their finishings are measured and
these materials, where a a are the outside walls,
priced in a similar manner to the windows, but
A TRUSSED ROOF OF IRON .
a c are cast-iron flanged bars, serving as couples; no allowanceis made in the height and width malleable iron rods a b, b a, and b are linked of doors. Skirtings are measured and priced upon an end of the trusses at 6 b, which press at by the lineal foot,and shelvings by the super. their other ends, spread outwards both ways to ficial foot ; and the price should include the make a long bearing against the centre of the couples a o ; the ends of the malleable rods pass
supports.
through a cast-iron flanged bar at c, against which the ends of the couples rest, and are screwed up with a nut upon each - the effect of which is that the rods a b and b b are brought up above the level of the tops of the walls, and the couples, rods, and trusses are so braced as to form a rigid framing, fit to bear the weight of the roof.
5469. All the varieties of fir timber imported into the country are employed in the building of steadings, and the kinds most used in localities are obtained from the nearest seaports. Along the east coast, Memel logs and Baltic battens are used for all such purposes ; while on the west coast no timber is to be seen, in the construction
of steadings, but the American. 5467. Such a species of roof is well adapted
5470. Norway and St Petersburg battens, for certain parts of a steading. On a dairy farm , a large byre, capable of containing all the cows being cut to proper lengths and breadths, form of the farm under the view of the dairymaid at cheap and durable timber for all farm purposes.
presented, in connexion with a steading for a
The price of the St Petersburg is, for red from 3d . to 3d., for white from 24d. to 3d. the lineal foot, and the Norway are a shade cheaper. Both reci and white wood battens make excellent floors, and plain deal doors for inside use . Such flooring is beautifully dressed by the planing machinery
dairy farm , in fig. 384. A feeding byre could be
at most of the principal seaports.
one time, might be so roofed in. A byre truss. roofed with wood has been erected at the homefarm of Miss Edmonstoune Cranston, of Corehouse, near Lanark, which contains 48 cows, and its ground-plan is given in fig. 93, and again re-
constructed on the same plan. The thrashing 5471. Memel logs are admirably fitted for mill and straw.barn might be contained under one such roof, affording abundance of room in its joisting, windows, outside doors, and all outside width to the water or steam power, to the clean- work, it being composed of strong and durable ing of the corn in the barn, and to the straw chaff- fibre, imbedded in resinous matter. It sells cutter, and crushing-rollers, in the straw.barn. A from ls. 9d . to 28. 3d. the cubic foot. The roomy and airy granary could be formed under greatest objection to its use for small purposes such a roof. Great accommodation could be is its knottiness, on which account the Norway
afforded by means of such a roof to numbers of battens make handier small scantlings and cattle all winter, and to sheep in the most stormy period of the winter on pastoral farms; and such an apartment would answer for dipping sheep in summer, and bathing them in autumn .
cleaner door -work . 5472. The American red pine is excellent
timber, being clean, reedy, and resinous. Though
SPECIFICATIONS. longer, it is seldom or never of so large dimensions as Memel log, and fetches from ls. 8d. to 2s. the cubic foot. It is fitted for beams, joists, scant-
lings, windows, and outside doors. 5473. American yellow pine is well suited to
all inside work , and especially that which re-
531
may be that the white wood battens are derived from that tree ; but the red -wood kind has, pro
bably, the same origin as the red-wood of the north of Scotland, which is a variety of the
Pinus silvestris, the horizontalis of Don . * 5479. The red pine of Canada is the Pinus
quires the highest finish, such as bound -doors, resinosa, and is a durable timber for all out window -fittings, and mantel-pieces. No wood
door purposes, and for long logs requiring to
receives paint so well. The logs are generally of immense sizes, affording great economy of timber
span wide spaces.
in the cutting up. Its price is, for small sizes,
5480. The yellow pine is the Pinus variabilis or Pinus mitis of Michaux, which towers in lofti.
1s. 6d ., and for large ls. 10d. the cubic foot.
5474. Swedish 11 -inch plank makes good and
ness above all its compeers. It grows to the gigantic height of 150 feet, and inust require
useful timber, but its scantlings are not very
great labour to square it to the sizes it is brought
suitable for farm -buildings. I have seen stout
to the British market.
joists for granaries made of it, with a -inch
cleft taken off the side for sarking. It forms excellent planking for wheeling upon, and for
5481. The larch, Larix Europæa, is a native of the ravines of the Alps of the Tyrol and
It sells, the white wood from 5d. to
Switzerland, where it shoots up, as straight as a
6d., and the red from 6d. to 7d . the lineal
rush, to a height exceeding a hundred feet. The larch forests of Athole are extensive, and were
gangways. foot .
calculated by their planter, the late Duke of
5475. In the interior of the country, at a dig.
Athole, to attain to a great size of timber, and
tance from seaports, home timber is much used
return a large revenue after a given number of
in farm - buildings. Larch forms excellent beams, but its scantlings and joists, though durable timber for rough work, are apt to warp. Well
years. I
grown Scots fir of great age, and cut down in
the combined action of air and moisture, it may
the proper season, if not as durable as the larch, forms good timber for rough purposes.
be preserved for an indefinite period ; but if ex
5476. All the timber I have referred to is derived from the trees belonging to the natural
degrees its hydrogen and oxygen are disengaged , and the carbon predominates more and more. Being formed of one atom of carbon, and one atom of water, as soon as woody matter is sub
order of Conifere ,or cone-bearing trees. The Scots fir, Pinus silvestris, is a well-known tree in the forests of this country , and few new plantations are made without its aid , as a nurse for hardwood trees. In favourable situations it grows to a large size, as is evidenced in the
Memel log, which is the produce of the Scots fir from the forests of Lithuania . I have seen Scots
fir cut down at Ardovie, in Forfarshire, of as strong quality and large size as the best Memel,
and much less knotty ; and sold from ls, 6d. to 2s. per cubic foot.
5482. If woody matter be protected against posed to them, the case is very different. By
mitted to the action of a somewhat elevated
temperature, without contact with air, it experi ences an internal reaction, which tends to sepa rate the atom of water from the atom of carbon .
The water vaporises, and the carbon remains in the form of a black granular residue. The cells of woody matter contain different sorts of sub
stances tending to organise, and these are mixed and modified in many different ways. In the circumstance of the want of ventilation, we thus see that timber must soon decay.
5477. The Swedish plank is of the spruce, Abies
5483. Now, if any means could be devised by
excelsa or communis - a tree which, as treated in this country, comes to little value, being rough
which the substances in the cells of woody mat
which fetched at that time from L.14 to L.15, 10s. the load of 50 cubic feet, was of common spruce, the planks having been recently sawn , and a
of the chloride of zinc of Sir William Burnett, have both a tendency to preserve the natural
small branch left attached to one of them. *
Kyan's process is this :-The cells of wood, and
ter could be deprived of their tendency to orga and full of knots. Inspection of a cargo from nise, when in contact with the air, timber might Sweden, which arrived at Hull in 1808, con- be rendered permanently durable. The solution vinced the late Mr Pontey that the white deal, of the corrosive sublimate of Mr Kyan, and that structure of the wood .
The rationale of Mr
particularly those of the alburnum, contain the
5478. Whether the Norway pine is the same
sap of the tree, which, in its circulation, reaches
species as the pine in the forests of the north of
the leaves, where its watery particles fly off, and
Scotland, I do not know. I observe that some writers speak of the Norway batten as of the Norway spruce, called by them Pinus Abies. It
and the enlarging matter of the tree, called the alburnum, remains.
Berzelius, as long ago as
1813, found that the addition of corrosive subli
Pontey's Profitable Planter, p. 41 , 4th edition.
+ Quarterly Jcurnal of Agriculture, vol. xi. p. 530; and Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xii. p. 122. I Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. ix. p. 165.
REALISATION .
532
mate (bichloride of mercury) to an albuminous less tiles are smooth on the surface, compact solution produced calomel, (protochloride of and ring freelywhen struck , they are porous, and mercury ) which readily combined with the albumen , and produced an insoluble precipitate. This precipitate fills up all the cellular interstices
will imbibe moisture in winter, and decay by the effects of frost. The duty on the manufacture of house tiles was removed in 1846.
of the wood, and becomes as hard as its fibres. I
have not heard lately of either of those processes
5488. Of all these methods of covering a roof,
of preserving timber, so I suspect they have not fulfilled the expectations formed of them .
slating with blue slates has the best appearance,
5484. It is from the Scots fir, Pinus silvestris, and spruce, Abies excelsa , that tar is obtained in
is the most comfortable, most substantial, and even most economical in the long run. Tile roofs, on the contrary , are constantly requiring repairs, and are most expensive in the long run .
the largest quantities. The tar of the north of Grey slates,being always heavy, incur a great of Europe is of a much superior description to
sacrifice of timber in the roof.
that of the United States, ( 4781. ) It is obtained by a process of distillation , which consists of burning, in a smothering manner, roots and billets of fir timber, in a pit formed for the purpose
5489. Blue slate is derived from the primitive clay slate, and, when compact, does not absorb
on rising ground, and covered with turf.
There
is not much tar used on a farm ; but as it is employed for many purposes, the implement-house should never want a barrel of tar.
Tar is now
imported duty -free. 5485. Slater-work . — Blue
slates
should be
selected of large sizes, well squared , and have an overlap of two -thirds, gradually diminishing to the ridge, and be well bedded and shouldered
moisture, but when not so , soon becomes covered with moss and decays. The principal quarries are in Wales, Lancashire, Westmoreland, Cum
berland, Argyle, and Perthshire,
The Welsh
slate of Caernarvonshire is smooth , and often
large ; and when thin, is apt to warp in the changes of temperature . The English slates are not so large as the Welsh, but equally good. The Argyle Easdale slates are small, heavy, very hard, waved, containing cubes of iron py rites, and their durability is endless ; and the
with plaster-lime. The slates are fastened to Ballahulish, though also small, are smoother the sarking with malleable iron nails, weighing and lighter, containing cube pyrites, and equally 12 lb. per 1000, after being steeped when heated in linseed oil. These nails cost 3s. 4d. per 1000, 1300 being required for a rood of 36 square
yards. Cast-iron nails were used until a few years ago , and they were also boiled in oil . The
cost of blue slates in towns, including carriage, nails, and putting on, is L. 4per rood. 5486. Grey slates require lathing like tiles, but not being of a uniform size like tile, they are assorted in sizes in the quarry. The larger and heavier slates are put next the eave, and gradually diminish in size to the ridge, and the course at the eave is laid double, slate above
slate. Every slate is hung upon the lath by a wooden pin passed through a hole at its upper end , and the slates are overlapped at least onethird. Grey slates should be bedded and shouldered either in plaster-lime or on moss, the
durable . The Perthshire slates are inferior. 5490. Blue slates are assorted in sizes at the quarry . The sizes at Bangor, in Wales, vary
from 36 inches in length to 5 inches in breadth. The weight varies from 82 cwt. to 12 cwt. per 1000.
5491. Grey slates are derived from the in ferior grey sandstone of the old red sandstone series. The finest quarries of them are at Car mylie, in Forfarshire, belonging to Lord Pan The Arbroath pavement, as it is called, is from the same rock ; and on being set on
mure .
edge in winter, when taken out of the quarry , the frost causes it to split into slates ; so that when little frost occurs in winter, the output of slates is limited .
latter making the warmer roof. As grey slates
5492. The pitch of a roof varies with the sort
are not adapted for pavilion roofs, the peands should be covered with lead or zinc, but the
of slating. In blue slating the rule is, to have the height of the roof one-third of the breadth of
safest form of grey slating is with upright gables. The ridge is covered withfreestone ridging-stone, which cost ls. per lineal foot. In Forfarshire, grey slates cost L.4 per 1000, 360 being sufficient
the building, outside measure ; and when large
for a rood of 36 square yards.
The putting
Welsh slates are employed, the pitch is reduced to one -fourth . Old -fashioned houses have a pitch of the square ; that is, the height is equal to half the breadth of the building. In grey slating it
on, dressing, holing,pins, and nails, cost 15s. ; is fixedat about one foot below the square. In moss ls., and lime 3s. ; in all, 19s. per rood.
5487. Pan-tiles are laid on lath 14 inch squars, to a gauge of 10 or 11 inches ; and 576
tiling, the pitch may be lower than even in blue slating, and is determined according to circum stances. Taking the rise at 7 feet, on a breadth
lap should be 3 inches ; bedded and shouldered,
of 18 feet inside,the scantlings should be 13 feet thick. Taking the rise at 91 feet, the scantlings
and the under joints pointed with plaster
should be 14 feet long.
will cover a rood of 36 square yards. The overlime.
long each, and the balk as long, on walls 2 feet
There should be 3 or 4 course of slates
along all the eaves, and the flanks, peands,
and ridges, are covered with tile.
The cost of
putting on ,pins, and lime, is 56s. per rood . Un-
5493. Slater -work is measured and priced by the rood of 36 square yards, and tile work in a similar inanner , Ridge and peand tiles are
SPECIFICATIONS.
533
In
from a sulphuret named blende, and a carbonate
pointing skews with mastic or Roman cement, the measurement and price are by the lineal
named calamine, in the mountain and magnesian limestones. The most malleable zinc is derived from Upper Silesia, under the name of spelter ; and is sent to Hamburg and Belgium to be shipped for this country.
measured and priced by the lineal foot. foot.
An allowance on slater -work of 9 inches
is made at all the eaves, and 18 inches on peands and flanks, and 3 inches at the skews.
5494. Plumber -work . — The flanks should be 5499. In measuring plumber-work, the lead covered with sheet lead, 18 inches broad, weigh- on roofs is by the superficial foot, and the price is ing 7 lb. per square foot, the peands with 6 -lb. according to the weight per foot. Where a lead, 15 inches broad. The ridges should be variety of prices occur, they should be slumped covered either with droved angular freestone in common,and charged per cwt. In ordinary ridge -stones, or with 6-lb. lead , 15 inches broad, supported on 24 inches in diameter of ridgerolls of wood . Platforms and gutters should
have 8 -lb . lead per square foot.
cases, 3s. per cwt. for putting on is a fair price. Conductors, and pipes of every description, are measured by the lineal foot, and priced according
In cisterns
to weight. Zinc on roofs is measured by the
lead should be 8 lb. in the bottom, and 7 lb. in the sides and ends, per square foot. Rain
superficial foot, and priced according to weight.
water -spouts of 4 inches in breadth , and conductors of 2 or 3 inches in diameter, should be of 6 - lb . lead per square foot. 5495. Sheet zinc has been substituted of late
years for lead, but with no advantage in use or workmanship ; but the cost is about one-third. The zinc put on flanks should weigh 22 oz., and costs 6 d . per square foot. The peands have 15inch sheet zinc, weighing 22 oz., and costing 6d. per square foot. The zinc covers for peands and ridges are so prepared that they clasp by con-
traction, and thereby hold on by the wooden ridge- rolls.
Zinc is not suitable for gutters and
valleys. 5496. Rain -water spouts, or rones as they are commonly termed, may be made of wood, castiron , lead, or zinc.
Wooden ones may be made
out of the solid , or in slips nailed together. When made out of the solid, with iron holdfasts, they cost ls ; and when pieced together, 6d . the lineal foot. The conductors from both kinds cost 8d, the lineal foot. Wooden spouts should be
Rones are measured by the lineal foot. Brass work is priced by the slump.
5500. Plaster -work.- The plaster-work of a steading, not requiring to be ornamental, should be simple. The ceilings of the riding -horse stable, boiling-house, wool-room, and hen-house,
when tile-roofing is employed, should be finished with two coats of the best haired plaster, hard
The walls of the granaries, corn barn, work -horse stable, cow -byre, boiling -house, calves'-house, wool-room , gig-house, and hen
rubbed in.
house, should be finished with one coat, hard rubbed in. The walls of the riding-horse stable should have three coats , hard rubbed in. Plas ter -work is measured by the square yard, and costs for one coat 3d., for two coats from 4d. to 4fd ., and for three coats from 5d. to 6d., the
square yard. Cornices are measured and priced per lineal foot. Pit sand should be used in mak ing plaster, the alkaline matter of the sea sand injuring the surface of the plaster even after it is dry, unless the sand has been thoroughly washed in fresh water.
At the same time, when
sea - sand has been thoroughly and carefully pitched inside and painted outside. Cast-iron ones washed, it makes the best work. Drift-sand, are heavy, and they cost ls. 9d. per foot if of above sea-water mark , is the best sort of sand, 44 inches diameter ; and the conductors, of but must be thoroughly washed. from 2 to 4 inches diameter, from 9s. to 178.,
of 9 feet in length each .
Lead makes the best
5501. Smith -work . - All the outside doors, in
spout, but is expensive, being ls. 6d. a foot.
cluding those on the feeding -holes at the byre,
Zinc ones, on the other hand, are very light. Stout 4 - inch zinc spouts cost 7d. the foot ; and a 2 ; pipe, as conductor, 6d , the foot. The lowest
should be hung with crooks and bands. The crooks should be fastened into the ingoings of the ribats with melted lead . The larger crooks and bands cost 10s., and the smaller 5s. , per
part of the pipe-conduit should, in all cases , be
pair , according to weight. The inside doors should be hung with T hinges, 18 inches long,
made of cast-iron, to ward off accidents. Every sort of water-spout should be cleaned out at least once a-year, and wooden ones should have a coat of paint annually.
and the opening parts of the windows with 9 -inch
5497. The lead of commerce is derived from the ore galena, which is a sulphuret of lead-
10-inch stock-and-plate locks, which cost 5s. each, except where there are more than one out
T hinges. The former are ls. and the latter 9d . a pair. The outside doors should have good
yielding 87 per cent of lead, and 13 per cent of side door to the same apartment, in which case sulphur. Galena is found in the largest quan- all the doors but one can be fastened by bars tities in the transition limestone. The galena lead mines of Derbyshire, Durham , Cumberland, and Yorkshire, are situate in limestone ; while
from the inside.
The inside doors should have
the same sort of locks ; the common stock-locks are not worth the money. Thumb - latches
those at Leadhills, in Scotland, are in greywacke. are convenient for opening and keeping shut Great Britain produces the largest quantity of doors that do not require to be constantly locked, such as of the corn-barn, granary, boiling-house, lead of any country in the world .
5498. Zinc is derived in the largest quantities
cow -byre, and hen-house. These latches cost from 1s. to 1s. 6d. each. A wooden bar of hard
REALISATION .
534
wood , to open and shut from both sides, is a outside doors and windows, all the gates of the The courts and hammels, and the water-troughs in upper- barn door, of two vertical leaves, requires the various courts, if made of wood,should receive
convenient mode of fastening inside doors.
three coats of good paint. Painting costs 3d . or 4d. the square yard , but three coats can be done for 8d . the square yard . The best standing col ours, and they happen to be the cheapest too, are
an iron stay -band to fasten it. The doors of the riding-horse and work-horse stables should be provided with sunk flush ring-handles and thumblatches, to be out of the way of catching any
part of the harness. The mangers of the riding- grey, stone, or slate-blue : the last seems to be horse stable, and the upper rail of the hay -rack
most commonly preferred, though the stone col
of the work -horse stable, should be provided with rings and staples for the stall - collar-shanks to pass through. These cost 3d, each.
our is the most cheerful. Green is dear, and
soon fades ; and red is distasteful in buildings. White-lead and oil are the principle ingredients in paint, and no colouring matter has power to preserve timber from the effects of the weather.
5502. Various descriptions of nails are used for the different parts of work in a steading. The scantlings of the roofs are fastened together
5508. A substance called lithic paint has re
with double-doubles , which cost 5s. per 1000.cently been found to answer well for country pur The lithic, which costs 2d. per lb., is ground to powder, and mixed in a certain pro portion with cold coal-tar, and the mixture is applied with a brush. It deprives the
Deals of floors are fastened down with flooring
poses.
nails 16 lb. weight, and 4s. 6d. per 1000. The bars of the plain-deal doors are put on with 10. lb. nails, which cost 3s. 6d. per 1000. For finish-
ing, 23. are 6d ., used. and 2-inch coal-tar of its noxious smell, and hardens it sprigssingle-flooring at 2s. to 25. nails 3d. perat1000 into a durable paint in a few days. Such a substance may answer for painting articles at
5503. As a security against burglary, iron a distance, such as field - gates, sluices, and the stauncheons, seven -eighths in diameter, should be fixed on the outside of the windows of the cornbarn, implement-house, and hen-house. Such
like ; but it is not agreeable to use at the steading. The painting of doors and windows, and other things, is very much neglected about a
stauncheons cost 3d. per pound.
steading.
5504. Iron is found, in this country, in the
5509. White -lead of commerce is a carbonate
coal formation. It occurs in alternate beds with oflead,or ceruse,artificially formed from pure lead. coal and sandstone. It occurs chiefly in two It has long been madeat Klagenfurth, in Carinthia , states — that of sulphuret, clay over stone, and
and large quantities are also manufactured in
of carbonate, black -band. Since the discovery of England. Its composition is 1 equivalent of lead, the black -band and the hot-blast, the smelting of 1 of oxygen, and 1 of carbonic acid ; or by iron has been much facilitated, and its quantity analysis , of lead 77.6, oxygen 6, and carbonic in the market greatly increased . Cast- iron usually acid 16.4. costs from 8s. to 10s. per cwt.
5510. These specifications are followed by the 5505. Glazier -work.
measurements of the different species of work re quired to execute such a steading as is repre sented in Plates I. and II . I should mention that the prices of the respective works are put down at those usually charged in Edinburgh for
The windows of all the
apartments should be glazed with best second crown glass, fastened with fine putty.
It costs
6d. per superficial foot. The panes in the windows of a steading should not be large, both
on account ofthe smaller cost ofa small pane, similar work, and that the carriage of all the and of the additional security afforded against
materials used is included.
So great a
change has taken place in the use of glass since
. Yards
5511 . . Roods
the removal of the duty in 1846, that the kind
best fitted for a steading has, perhaps, not yet been determined ; but this I may say, that, glass being now so cheap, the best and strongest should
be used for all purposes. Rough plate-glass is
3302
.Feet Inches .
intrusion by numerous astragals.
14
£ 82 11 3
1
Superficial, rubble in founda tions, reduced to 2 feet thick ,
82
23
Superficial, rubble building in
126
at 252s., 43
21
4
Superficial, rubble in walls 1
100 1068
Lineal , chimneys at 4d ., Lineal , drains leading to the manure tank, at ls. 6d ., Lineal, drains round the build .
foot thick , at 1008. ,
5506. A skylight in blue slating is made of a frame fastened to the sarking. In tile -roofing,
2297
tiles are made on purpose to hold a pane of glass.
35
Lineal, pillars for cartshed , Ż
In grey -slating, a hole is made in the slate to
72
feet by 2 feet, at 6s., Lineal, segmental ring pens for
suit the size of the pane. A dead skylight of zinc, to answer every kind of roofing, costs 4s. Pan tiles of glass cost about Is. 6d. each.
ings, at id. ,
the arches of the cart shed , at 2s ., 11
217 19 1 13
80
6 4
2 0
9 11
5
10 10
0
7
4
0
1
2
0
£ 1280 15
6
Lineal, corner on one end of the cart shed , at 2s., .
5507. Painter -work . - The outsides of all the
70
743 15 0
walls , 2 feet thick , at 180s.,
It costs Is. per
superficial foot. Russell's patent glass tiles cost 8s. per square yard.
Cubic, of digging at 6d .,
10
80 thick and strong that it may be extensively
employed in the roof, for affording light to apart ments, instead of windows.
MASON -WORK .
Carry forward,
SPECIFICATIONS.
14
Brought forward , £ 1280 15 6 Lineal, pillars for the calves' shed , 1 foot 6 inches by 1 foot
16
Lineal, corners for gig-house,
6 inches, at 4s. 6d . ,
3
3
0
with giblet checks , at 23. 6d .,
2
0
0
10
Lineal, segmental arches with giblet check , at 2s.6d .,
1
50
652
Lineal, ribats for doors and windows, at 2s., Lineal, sills and lintels for
510
176 64 114
doors and windows, at 23. , Lineal, corners for the open ings to the hammels, at 2.,
Lineal, pillars between the openings, at 23. 6d., Lineal, segmental arches over the openings, at 2s., Lineal, corners of the gates in the walls of the hammels , at .
231
2s .,
36
at 30s.,
65
4
0
skews for gables, at 23. 286d club .,
51
00
28 stones for heel and fore posts
17 12 8
0
in the stables, at 5s. 6d., 18 stones for heel-posts in the byres, at 5s. 6d ., 20 stones for stakes in the
0 0
byres , at 5s. 6d . 11
8 0
23
2
0
4 10
0
6
0
0
4
4
0
3 100
7 14 0 4 19
0
5 10
0
32 malleable iron gratings for drains in the courts, at 58.,
800
32 stones for the gratings, at 10 8 0
6s. 6d .,
5 stone troughs in the courts,
Lineal, steps in doors, at Is. 6d ., 8 0 6 Lineal, corners of gates in low
112
Lineal, corners, sills, and lin tels of feeding holes in the byre, at 2s,, . Lineal, hammer-dressed ribats,
12
walls, at 3s. 60.,
4 10 0
2 boilers for boiling houses, with furnace doors ,branders, & c ., at 60s ., Buildinginthetwo boilers, at 42s.,
107 70
90
Brought forward , £ 1774 19 8 3 pairs chimney jambs with lintels, hearths, and shelves,
Lineal, pillars between the gates , at 23. 6d .,
535
11
10 10 0
at 42s.,
Allow for jobbing, for other tradesmen , & c. ,
50
327
Lineal, corners of building, at 25., Amount of mason work ,
4 0
10 10
0
32 14
0
£ 1883 8 8
sills, and lintels for narrow 36 30
apertures in the barns, at ls. 6d ., Lineal, corners of chimney
6 15
0
stalks, at 2s.
3 12
0
581
Superficial, of 3 - inch thick
1 10
0
55
Lineal, dressed breast summers for shed roofs , at ls. 6d ., Lineal, of bridle beams for stairs to granaries , & c. , at ls. ,
5512.
CARPENTER WORK.
safe lintels over voids, at 9d .,
Lineal, coping of chimney stalks, at 1s.,
Lineal, of skewson the gables, 14 " by 3 " , at ls. 6d ., Lineal, of coping on walls for 200 sloping roofs, at 23. 3d ., 991 6 Lineal,of semicircular coping on the tops of the low walls, 316
at Is., 5
Lineal, pillar in pigs' court, i
360
Superficial, pavement on floors
23 14
0
33
22 10
0
38
Lineal, of strong dressed beams in barn for machinery, at 2s.
49 11
6
2857
6
Superficial, roofing and sark ing rafters, 64 inches by 23 inches, and 16 inches centres,
1803
7
Superficial, ties of rafters, 7 inches by 24 inches, and 16
1114
4
Superficial, balks 5 inches by 2
1
at 4s. 6d ., of engine-house , &c. , at 9d. , 738 6 Superficial, of pavement in
37
5
28
Lineal, stone sills for the divi
111 6
Lineal, ofgrupein the byres at 28., 11 2 0
6
14
24
Lineal, ringpens for the arch
3
Superficial, causeway in the byres, calves'-house , boiling houses , out-houses, turnip
of the gangway , at 25. ,
stores, hay -house, work -horse stable , passages, & c . , at 54s.,
Lineal, base for the pedestals of the engine stalk , at 2s. 6d ., Lineal, droved plinth on the Lineal, droved blocking for the engine stalk , at 2s. 6d .,
Carry forward ,
Lineal, ridge and peand bat
96
22
by 3 inches , price to include cuttings, at 9d ., Lineal, valley pieces for shed roofs, 9 inches by 2 inches at
6
2
6
3 12 0
0
118
6
8
9
1
4
inches by 24 inches, and 16 inches centres, price to include 666
3
24
8
for wall plates, at 28., Superficial, 14 inch , ploughed and tongued flooring, at 3s. , Superficial, flooring , for dove
361 140
99
190
3 14
8
Superficial, lath on ceilings, 9 06
at 6d ., 3
0
Superficial, sleeper joisting, 7
cot, at 38., 0
96
Superficial, of joisting, 10
9d .,
90
0
8
0 11
6d ., 1
& c., price to include for dwangs and wall plates, at 3s.
10 12
83 11
Lineal, valley pieces, 11 inches
0
6
6
11 16
2
72 15
7
30
tens, at 3d .,
inches by 24 inches, and 16 inches centres, for granaries,
8
0
It inch with billgates, 2 feet
631
Superficial, of wall straps secured to bond timbers, at
top of the engine stalk , at 3s. 6d ., 3 10 0 16
944
0
37 10
25
Lineal, wall plates 6 inches by apart, at 3d. ,
tapered, base 6 feet square ,
20
2438
1 12
Lineal, stalk of engine-house, at 158.,
180
incles, and 16 inches cen tres , at ls. 6d .,
4 18 0
Lineal, drained gutter stones in work -horse stable, 14 " by 7" , at 29.,
50
inches centres , at 2s.,
0
Lineal, corners for the gang way , at 2s. ,
106
8
1 13
price to include fillets, at 3s . 6d ., 500 1 10
Superficial, rubble in the walls of gangway,2 feet thick , at 180s., 16 3 4 Superficial,rubble on the foun dations, reduced to 2 feet 1 19 8 thick , at 78., Superficial, hammer - dressed arch for the gangway , reduced to 1 foot thick , at 3s. 6d .,
16
34
0
144
28
26
6
riding-horse stable and gig house, grooved , at 10d ., 30 15 5 Lineal, of channel in riding horse stable, labour only , at 3d., 09 3 sions of the byres, at 2s.,
1
2
13 10
9
4 2 6
4 15 0
6d . ,
foot 6 inches by 1 foot 6 inches,
21 15
1s.,
7
00
5
9
54 8 Superficial, of windows for 2
0
0
£ 1774 19 8
stables, glazed, & c ., at 2s., Carry forward ,
4
£ 1095 5 3
REALISATION .
536
Brought forward ,
£ 1095 5 3
273 2 Superficial, of windows for byres , at 2s ., 260
27
Superficial, 'of' windows for granaries, at 28.,
Brought forward , £ 1374 16 0 granaries, corn -barn , & c . , at
60
26 0
0
28
9
6d .
Lineal, of feeding-troughs in
36
courts and hammels. includ ing bed of rubble , as 2s., Lineal, straw - racks in sheds
1123 6 Superficial, of 14 inch , plain deal doors, grooved , tongued , and beaded , at 6d ., 346 6 Superficial, of 1 inch thick ,
64
tops of roofs, at 21s. , 2 wooden trap -stairs to grada ries, & c ., each about 18 feet long , with lining , 40
Lineal, door standards. bi
inches by 24 inches, at 5d ., Lineal, door facings, at 3d ., Lineal, door keps, at 3d. 214 6 Lineal, lining for ingoes of doors , 12 inches broad, at 5d .,
15 4 5 10 6 9
room , 18 feet long , with hand rail on one side, at 63s.,
7
5 5 -barred gates, with diagon.
0
als, each 9 feet by 5 feet high , for courts , at 40s.,
0
8 19
9
courts, 4 feet wide and 5 feet
43
dows, & c ., at 3d ., Superficial, of plain deal doors to feeding holes, in 2 thick nesses doubled across , at 9d . ,
1 16
0
8 strong wooden sliding -bars for part of doors , at 2s . , 1 hardwood swivel-bar, with
3 18
0
deal lining on end walls of 2 18
6
5 16
8
beaded liningon walls on fix tures, at 4d ., 68 663
Lineal, 1 inch , beaded coping on top of lining , at 3d ., Superficial, 14 inch deal travis boarding in work -horse stable ,
0 17 0
9
5 18 10
2 turned heel-posts for riding
6
ing on end walls, &c. , on
tures, at 4d ., 220 156
143
144 45
54
153 128 34
same length , a: 48. 6d .,
top of the stakes to the wall,
5
3
top - rails, at 3d .,
1 16 0
Fitting up 20 small manger and hay racks for calves' cribs, at 5S., Fitting up the interior of the
at ls. , 7
Lineal, angular piecesfor heads
dovecot,
1
7
0
788
Superficial, of
do ., at 6d .,
6
6
0
6 pair strong crook -and -band hinges for the gates of courts,
14
8
0
6 strong fasteners for the gates,
spar
.
at 10s., at 2s. 6d ., 3 16
6
3
0
0
10
00 0
00
0 16
0
0 10
0
3
3
0
1
0
0
1 10 0 1
2
2
90
6
0 15 0 0 12
0
1 17
0
0 15
0
0 18
0
1
0
0
5
0
0
7 10
0
7 10
0
7 10
0
3
0
0
3
00
0 15 0
20 pair crook -and-band hinges for the gates of the small
4
courts, at 5s.
20 fasteners for the gates, at 1s., 0 17
0
6 stock -locks for doors to hatch
2
6
6 pair crook -and-band hinges for the hatching-houses, at
ing -houses , & c ., at 5s. 00
divisions
0 0
0 0
1 10
0
5 1
090
ls. 6d .,
38stock and plate locks for all the other outer doors, & c ., at
for calves' cribs, including
5s .
doors and framing , supporting them , at 60., .
batching houses , 2 straw racks in large courts , at 30s.,
5
.
3
Fitting up the interior of the
7
Lineal, of hardwood stakes for
hen -house ,
3
Lineal, of feeding-troughs for
200
3
Fitting up the interior of the 0 11
Superficial, 14 beaded deal di:
byres, at ls. 6d .,
0
20 pieces of wood for bending 0
visions of byres , at 6d ., Lineal, of strong top -rails for divisions, with grooves, at 6d . , Superficial, 14 inch lining on end walls on grounds, at 6d ., Lineal, of top -rail for lining at
6
4 half heel - posts for end walls , 0
7.16
Lineal, rails for pins in work horse stable, at 6d ., Lineal, hay -racks in work horse stable, price to include
6
5 8 0
feet 6 inches long , at 6s.,
Lineal, beaded fore -posts in 2
6d .,
95
18 heel posts for byres, each 4
pieces bolted together, at ls., Lineal, top -rails for steadying heel -posts, & c. , 64 inches by 24 inches , beaded , & c., at 9d ., Lineal, of spars over the top of
the seed - racks at the bottom , at ls. 6d ., 576
riding -horse stable , next the walls , at 78. 6d .,
2 15 0
11 14
of divisions of riding -horse stable, at 3d. ,
84
14 15 6
Lineal,beaded heel- posts of sta bles, 6 inches by 6 inches, at ls . 6d .,
156
horse stable, at 18s. 6d ., 2 turned half heel -posts in
Lineal, 1 inch beaded coping on lining, at 3d .,
0
3 saddle-brackets with pins, 14 small mangers fitted up in work -house stable , at 3s. 6d. , 30 strong pins for barness in work -horse stable , at 6d ., 24 iron hooks for work - horse stable at 6d. ,
237 9 Superficial, 14 inch bended lin grounds, at 6d ., 886 6 Superficial, inch narrow beaded lining on walls on fix
iron mounting for gig -house, 1 large corn -bin in hay-house, with padlocks, hinges, & c., 1 corn -conductor to do. , from granary above , 1 small corn -bin, fitted up in window of riding-horse stable, with padlock , & c., & c. , at 78. 6d .,
19
at 7d .,
7
20
high , at 208.,
Superficial, 14 inch , beaded
riding -horsestable, on fixtures, at 6d ., 350 2 Superficial, 4 inch thick ,
7
20 5 -barred gates to small
Superficial, 14 inch travis board ing in riding-horse stable , dowelled , at 8d. ,
0
1 10
and 5 feet high ,
Lineal, corner beads for win
117
0
1 16
1 5.barred gate, 8 feet wide,
719
117
67 18
1 wooden trap -stair to wool 3
440 516
under granaries, at ls.,
3
7 luffer board ventilators on
plain deal doors in barns, stables, & c. at 5d . , Superficial, of 14 inch , plain deal doors to gig -house, with framed styles, rails, &c., in 2 leaves, at Is. ,
731
1
22 15
679
19 14
910 6 Lineal, skirting on grounds for Carry forward, £ 1374
0
16 0
9 100
38 thumb latches for these doors , at 1s. , . Carry forward ,
1 18
0
£ 1590 18 9
THE FARM -HOUSE .
537
5517. Now as steadings are generally executed Brought forward , £ 1590 18 9 46 pair strong crook -and -band hinges for these doors, at 2s. 6d . ,
5 15 0
2 pair strong crook -and -band hinges for gig -house doors, at 108.,
1
0
2
2 0
0
12 pair crook -and -band hinges for the doors of the feeding holes, at 3s. 6d .,
12 iron fasteners for these 0 18
doors, at Is. 6d .,
0
3cast-iron hay racks for rid ing -horse stable, at 153., 3 cast-iron mangers for riding horse stable , at 158., . 18 manger rings, at 3d ., 6 rings , heel posts, in the rid
2
5
0
2 0
5 4
0 6
0 1 2 10
6 0
by tradesmen resident in the country, the differ ence of wages will have to be deducted from the
above sum, which generally amounts to 10 per cent, and that deduction from £4175, 16s. 2d. will amount to £417. Carriages, also, are com
monly supplied by the tenant who is to occupy the steading ; and in the above case, at the rates in town, these will amount to about £ 1500. The timber in the above estimates is supposed to con sist of the best foreign ; and should a proprietor supply good home timber instead, the cost will
be reduced accordingly : but whatthe amount of the reduction will be, will depend upon various
ing -horse stable , at 3d .,
circumstances. The plumber work is estimated in the best lead ; but zinc is coming into use, and is much cheaper at first, although not nearly so
good for any purpose. If zinc be employed , the difference of the cost will have to be deducted. 15 00 There should be much more plaster -work in steadings than is commonly to be found , it being Amount of carpenter work , £ 1620 19 9 both healthy and cleanly. Taking such of the 20 seals for byres, at 2s.6d., Jobbing for the other trades men , furnishing masons' sheds, scaffolding, & c., .
deductions as can be estimated in money at 5513. 87 19
SLATER WORK.
Superficial slating , at 809.,
£ 350 2 2
once, the cost will stand thus : The above amount is £417 0 Deduct country wages
town carriages
5514 .
PLUMBER WORK.
1795
£4175 16 2
.
15000
0 0
home timber
Superficial, of 6 -lb . lead on rid
1917 0 0
zinc
ges, peands, flanks, flashings,
and tops of ventilators, at 112 39 Is. 3d ., 1943
Lineal, ' of 5 inches, water rones on eaves of roofs of 7 lb. lead, supported by iron straps, 145 14 6
2 feet apart, at Is. 6d., 258
370
Lineal, of 3 inches, rain pipes of 6-1b . lead , supported with iron holdfasts , at 1s. 6d ., 1 pump well, with pipes, & c. , for supplying the different wa . ter -troughs, to
the
7brass sockets for the troughs, at 2s. 6d .,
Amount of plumber work , 5515 .
and finished in every respect in the most com plete manner . 21 12
5
0
00
12
ON THE FARM - HOUSE.
6
8
opinion of the arrangement which the working part of the house should assume, to be convenient for the work to be done,
Superficial, of3 -coat plasterin gig -house, riding- horse stable, boiling -houses, and wool 13
7
4
3 8 Superficial, of 1 coat on the walls of the byres , calves'. house, granaries, hay -house, work -horse stable, & c., at 3d ., 10 3 10 Amount of plaster work,
5518. It is not my intention to say any
0 17 6 thing here on the construction of the farm house, as I have already expressed my £ 297 14 5
PLASTER WORK .
room , at 6d . , 815
£2250 is no inordinate sum for a landlord to pay for such a steading with the best foreign timber ;
different
troughs, at 8d .,
6
£ 2258 16 2
Lineal, supply pipes from the pump
534
Making the cost
£ 23 11
2
and as far separated from the part of the house occupied by the farmer's family,
as to avoid disturbance to them . In fig. 362 is represented the ground -plan of the back jamb of the house, in which is situate the kitchen a, the scullery d , the kitchen pantry k , and the milk -house m , and a lock
5516. The expense of building a steading of up closet c for containing articles in daily use in the cookery. By ascending the
these dimensions and specifications must be considerable anywhere, and particularly so if taken at the rate usual in large towns. It will
stair k in fig. 363, the story above is reached, in which is the cheese - room h, a
amount as follows :
store - room d , two bed - closets for servants
the prices of work, materials, and carriage, are Mason work Carpenter work Slater work
Plumber work Plaster work
£ 1883 8 8 .
1620 19 350 2
9 2
297 14
5
23 11
2
£4175 16 2
a and b, a water - closet i, and a stair to the garret l. 5519. In connection with the
farm
house is the subject of locks. It is very
poor economy to use ill-made locks in any
538
REALISATION.
apartment of a farm -house, and especially in those which contain articles which are usually locked up. In all those places — as the store -room , linen presses, and all wallpresses — the best species of lock should be used, as such locks are not only pleasant
farm -servants are more dishonest than
other persons of their class, but we all
know that to put temptation in the way of a man who has hitherto borne a good char
acter may be the means of corrupting his honesty ; and besides, when people are
to use, but cannot go wrong, and are im- made aware thatthe more precious things beopened but with the proper arereally secured with superior locks,the possibleto key. The outside door of a farm -house is desire to attempt to obtain them, through commonly providedwith a very common the locks, will soon subside. spring-lock, which is always ready to be 5520. The properties of a good lock are opened but when the key is turned in it,
leaving the house in that quarterconstantly strength of materials, simplicity of con accessible during the day, and part of the struction, durability of action, good work evening. Now such a door should be manship, and perfect security. Without provided with one of Chubb's patent locks,
one and all of these properties, a lock is
which has not only a small key, but is worthless; and Chubb's locks possess them easily opened as a check-lock ; is beyond all in an eminent degree. With such qua the power of any one to pick ; when at- lifications, the price cannot be low , but it tempted to be picked, tells it has been so ; is cheap in the long-run .* I have used cannot go wrong ; lasts a lifetime without one with six tumblers for several years in repairs, and affords unspeakable security. the outer door as a check -lock, which cost One peculiarity of this lock is, that it has me 15s. with two keys. a number of bolts, every one of which must be lifted before the door will open,
5521. As a good supply of water is an essential
to every farmhouse, I shall describe the each bolt being a security equal to any comfort sinking of a well, and the construction of a use common lock . Another peculiarity is its ful rain -water cistern . Of so much importance is detector, by which any attempt to pick or one good well on farm , that a considerable open the lock by a false key is imme- expense should be incurred rather than want, at
season , so necessary a beverage as water to diately notified ou the next application of any man and beast. In trap and other amorphous
the proper key, which will not open the
rocks,little watermay be expected tobefound,
lock. İt, however, makes the lock again
and the labour of sinking by blasting with gun
serviceable by being turned the wrong powder renders a well sunk in those substances way, which no false key is capable of do- a very expensive undertaking. When there is
of finding water in stratified rocks ing. The lock has commonly six bolts, probability under trap, the latter may be penetrated by
or tumblers, and a detector; and the ordi- boring with ajumper, with the view of forming nary chances against any key but its own an Artesian well ; but before such a project is
beforehand opening it is 720. But the height of the undertaken, it should be ascertained stratified rock ordiluvium exists below the shortest step in the key is capable of be- that the dip of either is towards the insuperable obstacles When site ofandthethatwell. ing altered twenty times, so that the trap, chances against opening the lock may be exist against finding water on the spot, perhaps increased to 14,400 : each of the six steps the better plan will be either to go a distance
can be as many times altered,so that the to a higher elevation ,where a common well may succeed in finding water, and then convey it to chances may be increased to 86,400. The the steading, by means of earthenware, iron or detector can be altered ten times, so the lead pipe ; or to descend to a lower site and
chances are increased to 864,000.
Fur-
throw the water up to the steading by means of
ther still, the drill-pins of the locks, and pipesdifferent made the of the keys, be easily of three sizes,may so that the number of chances may be increased to 2,592,000. In still larger locks, the chances may be increased to 7,776,000. The corn -barn, granaries, meal-chest, hen -bouse, and im-
a water ram, ( 111. ) Either of these plans may be less expensive, or more practicable, than
boring through a hard rock to a greatdepth. The Bamborough upwardsCastle, land,well wasinsunk feet through of 100in Northumber trapto the sandstone below ; and at Dundee,a bore was made through trap, 300 feet, to the inferior sandstone below, by means of its steam
plement -house, ought all to be protected engine, to obtain water for a spinning-mill.
with such locks. I do not suppose that
5522. In gravel and sand, a well may be
Chubb On the Construction of Locks, p. 15.
WELLS.
539
sunk to a considerable depth before finding water, in order to allow the ring to be built ; but water. Being desirous of a supply of water to
it was unable to reduce the bulk of water, so
three adjoining fields of dry turnip land, resting
that the ring remainsunbuilt to this day. The
on a deep bed of pure gravel, and which had no
water always stands within three feet of the top of
watering pool, I fixed on the most likely spot to the well, and the clay is not much affected by it. contain water, near the foot of a rising ground of diluvial clay, in which to dig a well , and it hap5526. Suppose, then, that the well is to be dug
pened to be a spot common to all the fields. in clay, containing small stones and veins of After persevering to the depth of 22 feet without success, at the imminent hazard of burying the
sand . Let a circle of eight feet in diameter be
men in the gravel, as a despairing effort, at
whose area let the surface -soil be removed to
night-fall, I caused a foot-pick to be thrust down into the bottom of the pit as far as the handle, and on withdrawing the instrument water was seen to follow it. Next morning 3 feet more were
let a winch and rope and bucket be set up to
described on the surface of the ground, from be used elsewhere as compost. After throwing out a depth of eight or nine feet with the spade, draw the earth out of the well. While the dig.
dug ; and, the waterexcavating thegravel around ging is proceeding, let a sufficient quantityof the bottom of the pit , rendering further digging fat stones be laid down near the winch, by a dangerous operation for the men, the ring of which to let them down to build the ring. A the well was built with stones. The water rose depth of sixteen feet will most probably suffice; no higher in the well than 3 feet, but the supply but if no water is found, let the digging proceed was sufficient for the use of three fields.
On
to the requisite depth.
A ring of threefeet in
finding water in this case , in the midst of rather diameter will be a large enough bore for the hopeless symptoms, I would recommend perse- well : the rest of the space should be filled up with dry rubble masonry, and drawn in at the verance to diggers of wells. top to two feet in diameter.
Whenever the
building is finished , the water should be removed from the well with buckets if the quantity is
5523. In very unctuous clay, such as is found in carse land, water is difficult to be obtained by digging to ordinary depths ; but as such a coun-
small, and with a pump if it be large, to allow
try is usually situate near a large river, or on the side of a broad estuary, by digging to the
thick flat stone, reaching from the side of the
the bottom to be cleared of mud and stones.
A
depth of the bed of the river, some sand will ring to beyond the centre , should be firmly most probably be found through which the water placed on the ground at the bottom of the well will find its way to the well ; and though brackish in the estuary, it will probably come into the well sweet enough for all domestic purposes. 5524. Wells dug in stratified rocks, such as sandstone, may be supplied with water at the
for the wooden pump to stand upon, or for the lead
pipe to rest on . If a wooden pump is used, a large flat stone, having a hole in it to embrace the
pump, should be laid on a level with the ground upon the ring of the well ; but if a lead pipe is preferred, the flat stone should be entire and cover
moderate depth of perhaps six or eight feet; but the ring, and the clayey earth thrown over it. amongst regular strata as much risk exists of
losing water as in obtaining it. To avoid disap-
5527. The cost of digging a well in clay, eight
pointment, it will be necessary to puddle the seams of the rock on that side of the well in which it dips downwards.
feet in diameter and sixteen feet deep, and building a ring three feet in diameter with
3525. The substance which most certainly supplies water on being dug into is diluvial clay, a substance that forms the subsoil of the greatest extent of the arable land of this kingdom . This clay is of itself impervious to water, but it is always intersected with small veins of sand frequently containing mica, and interspersed with numerous small stones, on removing which water is found to ooze from their sites, and collect in any pit that is formed in the clay to receive it. The depth to be dug to secure a sufficiency of water may not be great - perhaps not less than
dry rubble masonry, is only L.5, exclusive of carriage and the cost of the pumps. 5528. A larch pump of from 15 to 20 feet in
length costs from L.3 to L 3, 10s., and a lead one L.2, 10, with ls. 2d . per lineal foot for pipe
of the depth of the well. The wooden pump will last perhaps twenty years, and the lead one a lifetime, with ordinary care : and the lead at all times is worth something . 5529. It may happen that a well has to be
sunk in fine sand or loose gravel, when the ordi nary mode of sinking and of building the ring For such a case, Mr James
eight feet, or more than sixteen feet ; but when
will not answer.
the clay is homogeneous and hard, and there is
Wilson, Bonhill, Dumbartonshire, has obligingly
little appearance of water,digging to upwards sent me the specifications and mode of digging of 40 feet in depth will be required to find water. I knew a remarkable instance of a well that was
and building , which he followed in making a well in sand and gravel. The diameter of the
dug in such clay in Ireland , in which 40 feet were penetrated before any water was found ; but immediately beyond that depth, so large a body of pure water was found in a small vein of sand, that the diggers escaped with difficulty
well to be three feet six inches inside of the
in the bed, 12 inches deep, about 213 inches long, in the chord of the arc of a circle on the
A
one side, and 17 inches long in a straight line,
out of the well , leaving their tools behind.
building, and the building, instead of rubble, to be of droved ashler, each stone 8 inches broad
force -pump was obtained to clear the well of on the other side. The outside of the stones to
REALISATION .
540
be formed neatly to a circle, and their inside into altogether about eleven feet six inches, when the an octagon . Beds to be square ; ends properly
water flowed in so much I could not proceed
bevelled and wrought correctly to a mould ; each
further, and it rose to its level of three feet
course to contain 8 stones of equal size ; a ring
eight inches. The building went down steadily,
board to be formed of willow, not to taste the
and did not seem to be an eighth of an inch off the level at which it was first set. Other four
water, 8 ] inches broad, 11 or 2 inches thick , and half an inch larger than the outside circle of the stones. The ring- board could be made stronger in two courses of four pices of equal size. In building upon the ring-board, the first course of stones to have the centres of their face raised
perpendicular to the inside of the ring -board. The centres of each stone of the second course
courses were then built, and the covers put on , and the pump-frame erected several feet froin the side of the well, where an inclined plane and gutter had been formed to carry off the water. The pump I use is a copper chamber, four inches in diameter, with brass boxes, and a two-inch lead pipe attached to the chamber, and laid into
to be placed over the joints of the preceding the well through the side of the building about course,and also perpendicular to the inside of two feet below the surface.” This may be the ring-board .
The inside face of each stone
being a straight line, the inside diameter of the well being 34 feet, and the ring -board being correctly made, the inside ends of each stone will be back 13 inch from the centre of the face of each stone in the course immediately above it, and so on with every course. A small stick made as a guage at one end , of 14 inch length, will be found handy for setting the stones. The outside circle must be most carefully made. The upper course to form a square instead of an octagon for the covers to rest on, and to slope to one side, to carry the water off the top of the well. The covers to be droved, and in three pieces, one of which to cover the building on one side and half of the well, and to be half-checked where the
regarded as an expensive method of forming a well, and it is so ; but it is clear that, unless the ring is made of stones well connected together, the building would not sink without dislocation ; and it is not possible to dig sand out of a well of considerable depth and build its ring, by means less expensive than this.
It will be seen
that the truer the circle and better the workman ship of the outside of the ring, the building will subside the better without risk of having the stones displaced by rubbing against the sand and gravel. This method of sinking permits the well being made deeper, if required, at any future period ; and this method of building renders the well accessible at all times for repairs, by afford ing steps in the angles of the octagon, for
other two stones meet it in the middle, and they plumbers and others, as the means of descending are to be half-checked into it, also half-checked and ascending the well with ease . into each other where they meet in the middle, 5531. Rain -water for domestic purposes is col. and to cover the other side of the building. One of the stones covering a portion of the well to lected in cisterns. The form of a rain -water cis have an iron ring in it, by which to lift it tern , represented by fig. 441 , I have found freely out of the checks of the other two stones. useful for allowing the undisturbed deposition The joints of the covers to be filled with putty of impurities, and at the same time the quick well mixed with white lead, to prevent water flowing off of the purer water, without disturbing the deposition . Let a b c b be a cistern of stone from the surface getting into the well. or wood, placed at a convenient spot of the stead. 5530. The method of sinking the well is thus ing or farm -house, for the reception of rain -water.
described by Mr Wilson :-“ I had the stones I have found that such a cistern, of the capacity dressed , droved to a mould as specified, and all ready before breaking ground, when I made a rod two inches longer than the extreme diameter of the ring-board ; described the circle on the surface with it, and gave it to the labourer as a guage, that he might not take out any more
of 12 cubic feet, holds a sufficient quantity of rain -water for the domestic purposes of an ordi nary family.
A cistern of 2 feet square at the
base, and 3 feet in height, will just contain that quantity ; but, as the size of an ordinary wash tub is 2 feet in diameter, the space between d and
sand and gravel than was necessary to let the d must be made 2 feet6 inches at least, and the ring -board in with ease. I had about five feet of gravel, which I should always like to go
through before laying in the ring -board . There were then two feet of fine sand, when water appeared by taking a shovelful out of the centre.
height of the cistern b would be 2 feet ; but if more water is required than 12 cubic feet, then the height should be 3 feet, which gives a capa
I then ordered the ring-board to be put in and
city to the cistern of 18 cubic feet. Suppose the cistern represented in the figure to contain 18 cubic feet, then the area of a will be 24 feet
levelled, and built upon to the top of seven
square, and b 3 feet in height, supported on two
courses, filling up as it was built the back of upright stones d d of the breadth of the cistern, and 2 feet high. The cistern may either be a shovel, to steady the building when sinking. made of a block of freestone hewn out to the
each course with fine sand, loosely put in with
I then commenced taking gravel out of the rope attached to it to be drawn up with a winch
dimensions, or of flags, of which the sides are let into grooves in the bottom and into each other, and imbedded in white-lead, and fastened to
and handle.
gether with iron clamps, having a stone movable
centre with a short shovel, and a bucket with a In about three hours of an after
noon there was about a foot of water.
Next
cover c. Or it may be formed of a box of wood,
day I commenced taking out a barrowful of securely fastened at the corners to be water sand, and two or three bucketfuls of water alter nately, till in other three hours I had got down
tight, with a cover of wood, and resting on supports d d. Stone, being more
the
541
WATER - CISTERNS.
durable, is of course preferable to wood for pletely out by the washer n. The waste water a cistern that stands out in the open air. Fig. 441 .
runs away through the air-trap o, and along the drain p. It is more convenient to have two small than one large cistern, as, while the water is rising in the one, that in the other gets leave
to settle. The cost of such a cistern, with droved
с
stones, and to contain 18 cubic feet, with the proper mountings, may be about L.5.1 think it right to say, in commendation of this form of water -cistern , that in no case have I known the water about the plug to be frozen , in consequence,
i
perhaps, of the non -conducting power of the mud in thebottom of the cistern . The rod i has some times become fast to the ice on the top of the water at l, but a little boiling water poured down by the
side of the rod through the hole in the cover, by means of a funnel, soon freed it from restraint.
5532. Water for domestic purposes is known as hard or soft. Most water from springs is hard, and that in rivers soft ; because, although most of
a
n
the water of rivers is derived from springs, it be
comes soft by long exposure to the air, when it deposits the materials that make it hard. Water
d
is hard when it holds in solution certain salts,
particularly sulphate of lime, (gypsum,) and the carbonate of lime, even in verysmall quantities. Water can dissolve sto part of its weight of gyp
sum ; but, according to Dr Dalton , Iooo part is sufficient to renderit hard ; and Mr Cavendish р
A RAIN - WATER CISTERN.
says, that 1200 grains of water containing car bonic acid will hold in solution 1 grain of lime stone. Limestone is insoluble in pure water ; but water containing carbonic acid in solution can dissolve it. Water is said to be hard when it
will notdissolve butdecompose soap. Soft water, on the other hand, does not decompose, but com
A hollow copper cylinder g is fastened perpen-
bines easily with soap and dissolves it.
Hard
dicularly into the bottom a, having its lower water is not so fit as soft for many culinary pur end projecting 1 inch below, and its upper 3 inches above, the respective surfaces of the bot-
poses, such as making tea and boiling vegetables. It is therefore of importance for you to know tom . The upper end of the copper cylinder is when water is in a hard or soft state. By plac formed to receive a ground truncated cone of ing a few thin slices of white soap in a clean copperh, called a plug or stopper, which is moved tumbler of the water to be examined, its hard up and down with a lever k, by means of the ness will be indicated by white flakes or curdy copper rod i. The plug h must be made particles around the soap, the effect of decom water-tight with grease , the rod of which passes position, the acids of the salts in the water com
through a hole in the cover, to be connected with bining with the alkali of the soap and leaving the lever k , whose support or fulcrum is fixed on the cover. These parts are all made of copper, to withstand rusting from the water, with the
the fatty matter. 5533. “ To discover whether the hardness be
exception of the lever, which may be of iron owing to the presence of limestone or gypsum , painted. The rain -water is supplied to the cis- the following chemical tests,” says Mr Reid, tern by the pipe e , which descends from the rain- “ may be applied : A solution of the nitrate of water conductor, and is let through a hole in the barytes will produce a white precipitate with cover. The water is represented standing as water containing either gypsum or lime-stone ; high as l ; but in case it should rise to overflow , if limestone have been present in the water, it can pass off by the lead waste -pipe f, which is the precipitate will be dissolved , and the secured and movable at pleasure in a ground- liquid rendered clear on adding a few drops of washer n, whose upper end is made flush with pure nitric acid ; if the presence of gypsum the upper surface of the bottom a. After the caused the precipitate, this will not be dissolved water has entered the cistern, it gets leave to by the nitric acid. A solution of the sugar of lead settle its sediment, which it may do to the may be used in the same way, but the nitrate of +
height of the upper end of g. The sediment is barytes is preferred.” . represented by m, and when it accumulates to h,
the cover c should be taken off, and the waste5534. As to a practical remedy for hard water, pipe f removed, and the cistern cleaned com- boiling will remove the lime. The carbonic acid
* Reid's Chemistry of Nature,p. 199.
542
REALISATION .
in excess in the water is converted into the tracted form precludes easy turning inthe deepest gaseous form ,and the carbonate of lime then be coming insoluble, falls to the bottom of the vessel.
part of the water, none of the rest of the horses can be permitted to drink at the opposite or
Hence the incrustation of tea -kettles.
If the
open end of the pond. A much better form of
hardness is caused by gypsum, a little pearl-ash
pond, I conceive, is with an open side, having
or soda (carbonateof potash or carbonate of the opposite side fenced, and the water supplied soda) will remove it, and the lime of the water clean at the upper end, and made to flow imme will also be precipitated with the carbonic acid diately away by the lower. At such a pond a of the pearl ash or soda.
number of horses can stand in a row to drink at
the same time, and easily pass each other in the
5535. Water as a beverage would be insipid, act of washing the legs after drinking. As to and even nauseous, without the gaseousand saline the depth, no horse-pond should ever exceed the matters usually found in it. They give a natural heightof the horses' knees. The water should seasoning and a sparkling appearance to it ; thereby rendering it not only agreeable to the taste, but more wholesome to the stomach. Every one knows the mawkish taste which boiled water has when drunk alone.
on no account reach their bellies ; for although I am quite aware of ploughmen being desirous to wade their horses deep, and of even wishing to see their sides laved with water , to save them selves some trouble in cleaning, that is no reason
why you should run the risk of endangering the
5536. As i am on the subject of water, a few health of your horses by making the pond deeper words may here be said on the making of horse- than the knee. (1417.) ponds. When a small stream passes the stead ing, it is easy to make a pond serve the purpose ON COTTAGES FOR FARM-SERVANTS. of horses drinking and washing in it, and the water in such a pond will always be pure and clean . But it may happen, for the sake of con 5537. It is as necessary to obtain good venience, there streamcase , thatthea water pond accommodation should be when dug in clay,isinnowhich on the farm for the farm
iu it will always be dirty and offensive, unless servants — the numbers and duties of whom
means are used to bring water by a pipe from a I have already enumerated from ( 55) to distance. If the subsoil is gravelly, the water (69)—as for the farmer himself and his will with difficulty be retained on it, on which account should be puddled Puddlingtheis abottom very simple process, andwith mayclay. be
stock . Until a few years since, however, the dwellings of farm -labourers did not
performed in this manner. Let a quantity of receive that attention, from either land tenacious clay be beaten smooth with a wooden lord or tenant, to render them comfort
rammer, mixing with it about one-fourth part of able as they ought to have had ; not, I deterring wormsmaking holes in it. Afterthe believe, from any disregard towards the mass has lain for some time souring, let large welfare of that useful and indispensable balls of it be formed and thrown forcibly on
the bottom of the pond, made dry for the purpose, and beaten down with a rammer or or a coating 6 if men's feet, formed,ormore, is until in thickness 7tramped inches with
class of servants, but chiefly because they themselves made no formal complaint of the state of the accommodation afforded
them , and seemed contented with such
Then let a quantity of houses as they got, provided they obtained clean gravel be beaten with the rammer into the a situation under agood master, and on a general of the uppersurfaceof theclay before ithas had time good farm . Thesome be yearscharacter ago may
there is plenty of clay.
toharden . Should the pond be large, and the hinds' houses weather at the time of making it so dry as to harden the clay before its entire bottom can be learned from these remarks by Dr Gilly, covered with it, let the puddling and gravelling proceed together by degrees. Above the coating of gravel, let a substantial causeway of stones
Vicar of Norham, in Northumberland : " The general character of the best of the the neigh old-fashioned hinds' cottages in They
and sand beformed to resist the action of the bourhood is bad at the best.
have
horses' feet, and which, if properly protected at
the ends, and finished on the open side of the to bring everything with them — parti pond, will withstand that action for a long tions, window - frames, fixtures of all kinds, time. I have seen a pond recommended to be grates, and a substitute for ceiling ; for
into which the horses enter at one end, they are, as I have already called them, made, and pass through it by the other. This is a con venient shape of pond , in as far as it admits of
mere sheds. They have no byre for their
the uninterruptedpassage of the horses through cows, no sties for their pigs, no pumps or
it. But it is liable to serious objections. Be. wells, nothing to promote cleanliness or ing contracted laterally, the pair of horses which comfort. The average size of these sheds first descend to drink will occupy the greatest is about 24 feet by 16. They are dark proportion of its whole breadth , and while in that
position, the succeeding pair must drink the and unwholesome .
The windows do not
muddy water at their heels ; and, as the con- open, and many of them are not larger
HINDS' HOUSES.
543
than 20 inches by 16. Into this space servants , is to adopt a uniform plan , upon within the shed are crowded 8, 10, and which all are built. The practice is not
How they lie down to founded on sound principle, nor even on rest, how they sleep, how they can pre- expediency ; because it implies that fami
even 12 persons.
serve common decency, how unutterable lies consisting of very different numbers horrors are avoided, is beyond all concep- should, nevertheless, be accommodated The case is aggravated when there within similar spaces. Instead, there
tion .
is a young woman to be lodged in this fore, of afamily accommodating itself to space, who is not a member of the size of the cottage, the cottage ought the family, but is hired to do the field- to be adapted to the size of the family ; work , for which every hind is bound to and there is no way of fixing the propor
confined
provide a female. It shocks every feeling tions between the cottages and their in of propriety to think that, in a room , and mates but by building them with different within such a space as I have been de- extents of accommodation, for families of
scribing, civilised beings should be herding different numbers.
This is the only ra
together, without a decent separation of tional course to pursue ; and in pursnance age and sex. So long as the agricultural of it, it is as easy to build a given number system in this district requires the hind to of cottages on different plans, as on the find room for a fellow -servant of the other same plan. Following out this principle, sex in his cabin, the least that morality I shall give a number of plans, suited to and decency can demand is, that he should families of different sizes, taken from prac have a second apartment, where the un- tical examples, but modified, in some in married female, and those of a tender age, stances, to suit my own notions of the conveniences, comforts, and means of cleanliness which such dwellings should
should sleep apart from him and his wife ." * I have seen many houses of this description upon farnis, but now they are becoming fewer every year. Whenever a lease is renewed, if the cottages are in a bad state of repair, they are amended both by repairs on the outside, and better accom-
possess. 5539. Objections have been made to
accommodating a family in one room ; but
the force of the objections entirely depends modation within ; and when so bad as not upon the number of the family. In some
fit to be repaired, they are pulled down, and parts of the country the hind's family may others of a greatly amended form andnow ap- consist of himself and wife only, in which This
pearance are built instead .
is
case a single room and a single bed will
the rule under adoption by landowners suffice for their accommodation. In other
a female generally, and the contrary conduct is parts the hind is obligedastoa have field -worker, to work in the fields
happily the exception.
when a bed must be procured for her. In
5538. But in the case of some proprie- this case, at least two beds are required in tors, the desire for building very fine large the house ; and even these may be accom cottages is manifesting itself; and such a spirit ought to be deprecated as well as
modated in one room.
Fig. 442 shows
Fig. 442,
the very opposite extreme which Dr Gilly condemns. A larger house than a bind can well furnish is a burden to him ; and 0
h
whatever part he cannot furnish, becomes a dirty lumber room , or is let to some 1
stranger in the capacity of a boarder — a
very objectionable class of persons on any farm . A bouse that will just accommo m
date the number of persons of his house hold is what the hind wants ; and the ob
6
c
ject can only be attained by building cottages of different sizes.
The usual
practice, when building cottages for farm
PLAN OF A SMALL HIND'S HOUSE OF ONE ROOM.
Gilly's Appeal on Behalf of the Peasantry of the Border, p. 19 and 20 .
REALISATION .
544
the manner of accommodating two beds in beds would require wooden partitions to one room : a is the doorof entrance ; 6 the separate m from n ; and i would require one porch ; c the door into the room d; e is the along the back next p, and at the end fire-place ; f the window of the room ; 9 next o. If this cottage were of the same
the plate -rack for holding the crockery, size as fig. 442, the room d would be & c.; h the dresser ; i and k are the two equally large ; but that the lobby b is beds, i entering from the room d, and k taken off it, to make up for which the from the small room n, provided with a size should be 25 feet in length, and 15 in window, which is divided by a partition breadth . between tbis room and the store- room l, which is entered from the porch by the 5541. Box -beds are objected to by door m. The apartment n has a door medical men, as they are too confined and
hinged on the corner of the bed k , if a inconvenient in form when any of the box -bed, and on the wall if not so. If family are sick . Modifications in their the beds are box -beds, which is the most form may be effected chiefly by having common form , the inmates at night will the back and ends to open on hinges, and be sufficiently separated, the married couple entering the bed i from the apartment d, and the field -worker k from the small chamber n. Should the beds be of
the top made movable, to promote ven tilation , as well as to allow freer access to the patient. Curtains suspended from movable rods, made to draw forward in
the tent- bed form , with curtains, farther front, instead of sliding panels, have been
separation might be effected by a wooden recommended, to screen the person dress partition between the two beds, and at ing and undressing, when the beds do not
the ends of k next l and d, and at the back occupy separate apartments; but were the of i next l. Such a cottage measures 22 beds arranged in the manner represented feet in length, and 15 in breadth - giving in figs. 442 and 443, such a contrivance the floor of d a space of 15 feet by 11 , with the curtains would not be required . which is enough for three adult persons. It is questionable, however, that box -beds will be voluntarily relinquished by farm
5540. Even three beds might be ac- servants, and certainly not so until every commodated in one room, as shown in cottage is accommodated with fixed beds; fig. 443, where a is the entrance door ; b the and if these have the alcove forin, which Fig. 443. most fixed beds have, they are equally inconvenient for a sick patient as the box bed itself. 9
h
5542. But it must be owned that, where P
more than one bed is required in a bind's house, a separate room for it is better than
anyarrangement that can be made with the beds within one room , and the feeling
of security and separation is more satis factory in the second apartment. Fig. 444 Fig. 444. PLAN OF A LARGE HIND'S HOUSE OF ONE ROOM,
2
porch ; c the door of the apartment d ; e the fire- place ; f the window of the room ; g the plate - rack ; h the dresser ; è m n are tbree beds, so arranged that m enters from the room d , i from the small closet entered
6
by the door l, and having the window k divided between it and the store - room 0,
which is entered by the passage p,where is
11
a door, and has a bed in it, n. Box-beds would make a complete separation of their
occupants by being so arranged. Tent
PLAN OF A HIND'S HOUSE WITH TWO ROOMS.
1
HINDS' HOUSES.
gives the ground -plan of such a cottage, where a is the entrance porch 3 feet 3 inches by 4 feet 9 inches ; 6 the apartment 15 feet by 14, with a window; C
545
having a window , a boiler, and a back door. This apartment is useful for wash ing clothes in, and doing such things as
to leave the sitting -room c always clean the bedroom 10 feet square, with a win- and comfortable. One large or two small
dow ; d a light pantry , 4 feet 9 inches by bedrooms are placed over the sitting 6 feet 6 inches ; e o are fire-places, 4 room c. feet by 32 feet ; and f a wall- press 3 feet wide. One bed can stand against the 5545. A larger house has an entrance back wall of b for the hind and his wife, and
porch e, which is also the staircase for the
another if required for two children ; and upper story ; g is the sitting -room enter
one bed might be put into the room c , for ing from the porch, and having two win the field -worker, and another for two chil- dows, a fireplace, a pantry k, and enter
dren if required. Thus threeadult persons ing to the back -kitchen h, which has a window , boiler, and back -door, and enters house, along with four children if required. to a light closet i. The light closet f
can well be accommodated in such a
enters from the porch e. Two large or
5543. In such a house as fig. 444 tent- three small bedrooms are placed over the beds and curtains would look neat and be apartments g and h, and the closets ; appropriate. Iron bedsteads are now quite and k. common, and, for convenience of putting 5546. Hinds' houses are most commonly up, and taking down, and avoiding frac-
ture, they are much better adapted for built in long rows, and when several are They also pos- required for a large farm , they frequently
hinds than wooden ones .
sess the advantage of giving no sbelter to assume the form of three sides of a square. bugs. The curtains of beds to be used in When onthouses are afforded, which ought
such houses ought to be made of wool to always to be, much inconvenience is ex resist fire, and not of cotton , which would, perienced by the inhabitants living in long in the circumstances, only be a little less rows of houses, in going to and from them . This row - form originated, no doubt, because dangerous than a covering of tinder.
of a larger number ofhouses being erected
5544. Instead of having the sleeping at thesame expense, than in anyother form , apartments upon the ground-floor, they and economy of the ground taken up by may be placed in a story above. Fig. them had also entered into the calculation. 445 shows such an arrangement, in which For comfort and convenience combined, no form is equal to the double house, having entrancesat different parts, and the fire places in the centre of the building. Fig. 446 represents the elevation of the houses
Fig. 445. 2 i
9
Fig. 446 .
PLAN OF HINDS' HOUSES HAVING BED ROOMS IN A SECOND STOREY .
a is the entrance porch of a small house ;
ਨਾਸਤਾਨ se
the staircase leading to the upper story; ELEVATION OF DOUBLE HINDS ' HOUSES , c the room, entering from the porch a, having a window , a fireplace and wall- whose ground-plans are given in fig. 445, press, and entering to a back - kitchen d , and although here represented in a more VOL . II .
2 M
REALISATION .
546
ornamental style than hinds' houses need The offices to each cottage may cost about be, the construction combines ornament
£ 15.
with use ; and now that the duty is taken off building bricks, the upper story,
5550. Too frequently little attention is paid to the state of the site in which hinds' houses are
the rooms of which partly occupy the built. They are very commonly built along the roof, might be made to have a light and side of the public road, open to the gaze of every elegant appearance, and yet not be ex- passenger, and in the way of accidents to the pensive, if built with brick.
Pairs of children ; and their floors under the level of the
of the road . They ought to be away froin cottages, of whatever construction, should acurve public road, one and foot their floors ought to of be the ele not be built so close together as to give vated abovethe surface at least
force to a current of air between them.
ground. Fig. 447 gives a section of the manner in which the foun dation of hinds
Fig. 447.
5547. A second sitting -room in a hind's
house is an unnecessary appendage to it ; it will never be used as such. When in the second story it will be converted into
a sleeping - room ; and when on the ground floor, into a meal or potato store, beside the beds that may be putinto it. The fire will never be kindled in it, and it will be come damp and cold. It is only when the
a
houses ought to be constructed, where a is the pavement of the floor of the
room resting upon broken
stones
to
keep it dry ; b the broad gravelled footpath alongwall the; of the SECTION OF THE FOUNDATION front OF A HIND'S HOUSE.
c the surface of the labourer is a fixed resident, bolding directly under the landlord, that he will ground on the road, some inches belowthelevel
to carry away d the todrain ; andchance footpath fall uponthefoot that may furnish his second room in the ground- ofthethewater
floor comfortably, and warm it by occa- path. A border of earth may be made along the front of the house, and a fence of low hedg
sional fires.
ing placed between it and the footpath, which in
5548. Single cottages with a ground- thatcase would be made where the road e is. plan such as figs. 442 and 443 would cost 5551. Much comfort may be promoted within about £53, thus : a cottage by a few simple means kept in view at 82 cubic yards of building 151 square feet of hewn stone Roofing and slating
Joiner-work and furnishings
£ 14 7 0 7 11 0
its erection.
One of the means is to have the
fireplace in the centre of the house, and not in
14
60
the gable, because the mason -work absorbs much of the heat from the fire in the latter position ,
£53
0 0
cottage secures the advantage of a central heat
16 16
0
and dissipates it into the open air. A double completely ; but if the fire be at the end of a
If such cottages are made double, they long room , even though it should be in the centre might be erected for £ 100. Such a cot-
of the house, the remainder of the room will de
should there : the fireopening from itNodoor little benefit tage as fig. 444 would cost about £63, rive fore bein a sidewall. into a
and in the double form perhaps £120.
room should be near to or on the same side of the
Figs. 445 and 446 are in too ornamental apartment as the fireplace. On these conditions a style for farms; but in a plain style and being laid down to architects by landowners, with the accommodation afforded by them, cottages would cease to be the uncomfortable
they could not be built undera consider- dwellings which many are to their occupants.t able sum more than I have mentioned.*
5552. No part of a cottage requires so much attention at its erection as the chimney-for a
5549. I do not approve of ash-pits, smokyhouse to a cottager, who has only one
chamber with a fireplace, is positive torture. The privies, and pig -sties being placed near subject of chimney-building, I amobserve,I aware, is think a diffi what I can dwelling-houses. It is highly proper that cultone,butfrom these accommodations should be provided chimneys are made too short and too wide. A for the people, but certainly not close to wide chimney affords room for both a descend
their dwellings. The trouble of walking ing and ascending thecurrent of air, and a short draught materially. A
weakens a few yards to those places is well com chimney long chimney with a contracted top should there pensated in avoiding the nuisance that fore beexpectedto carry off the smokefreely. would be experienced in the vicinage. Tredgold says of the contracting of a chimney * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society,March 1850, p. 275, and Jan. 1848, p. 202. + Journal of Agriculture, July 1847, p. 1.
547
HINDS' HOUSES.
near the bottom ,“ it is like contracting the aper- cal, for preventing the down-draught ofthe air ture of a pipe which supplies a jet.” The con- from above ; and o o are the angular edges for traction depends on the size of the grate for the directing the wind upwards according to their
fire ;and this being kept in view,Tredgold's rule angle. The top may be madeof thin metal of for the contraction at the top is the following : Let 17 times the length of the grate in inches be
any kind, and painted black. Kites' (of London) diamond deflecting chimney -top has been highly
divided by the square root of the height of the
recommended by those who know it.*
chimney in feet, and the quotient is the area for the aperture at the top of the chimney in inches.
5555. The ventilation of cottages I do not
For example, suppose that a grate is 15 inches wide, and the chimney 36 feet high— 17 x 15 = 255 ; and the square root of 36 is 6 ; therefore 255 divided by 6 = 424 inches is the area of the top, and the diameter of a circle of 424 inches in circumference is 54 inches for the contraction.
interfere with, as the door is generally left much
5553. The contraction at the top may be made in this manner : Let fig. 448 represent the section of a chimney. Fig. 448. can , the height of which above the
open in them during the day, and were they
furnished with the windows given in figs. 78, 79, and 80, which they ought to be, ( 1134 ,) the foul air at any time could be easilygot rid of. Back doors are generally objectionable in cottages as causing disagreeable draughts even when they are shut, and violent slamming of the other doors when they happen to be opened in windy weather.
5556. The following are the prices of building materials for cottages in England
stalk is from a to
a ; b is the con
Mason and plaster work :
tracting cone with-
18-inch stone wall, properly,pointed , £ 7 per rood superficial.
in it made of iron, the lower part of
Bevel stone paving,
which is rounded
off, asat dd ; the upper part at oo
being made angu . lar upwards, with the view of facili
7d per foot.
Bath stone for dressings, delivered from the quarry to the builder's 1s. 4d . per cubic foot. yard ,
Bestduchessslating, with malleable } 328. per square rood . metal nails ,
Lathing with best deal laths, “ ren- } 1s. 4d. per square yard. der , float and set, "
Render,, float and whiten getenor, render, } 1s. per square yard.
tating the passing of the wind over it
a
METHOD OF CONTRACTING
THE TOP OP
CHIMNEY .
in an upward direc tion. The chimneytop, if constructed ofthisform at first, might answer as well as any can put up afterwards.
5557. Carpenter and Joiner work : 9 inches by 31 inches. Couples , 6 4 Purloins , of sound dry elm at 7. Wall -plates 2s. per cubic foot, including the saw Flooring joists 8 10 Lintels , ing. Bond timber, 3 of yellow deal at 2s. Door frames ,
3
Rafters ,
3
8d . per cubic foot,
including the saw . ing. of white deal at 2s.
5554. In certain situations, and in certain quarters of the wind, a down -draught of smoke is created in the chimney. Those situations may be in the neighbourhood of tall trees, at the base
of a hill, or in the lee of a large building, against which, if from one direction , and over which, if from another, the wind may be reflected against or bend in a downward direction upon the
top of the chimney. The only safeguard against such a contingency is the placing a top upon the chimney -head , or upon the can represented in fig. 448 ; but in the latter case the iron cone 6 should not be angled upwards as ato, but made Fig. 449.
level, and it should
be placed as much d
lower down the can
deal flooring boards.
The partitions on the landings to be finch white deal, braced .
5558. Plumber and Painter work : The valleys in the roof to be laid with 6 lb lead . All exter nal woodwork , and all internal usually painted , to be well primed and have three coats drab . The windows to be
glazed with leaded lights, in diamonds, and each room to have a casement to open.
5559. No cottage can be kept dry at the foun dation , even with drains, if the rain -water is not carried off with spouts. It would be expensive
to
to make, and troublesome to keep in repair, a
rain -water cistern at every cottage, and it would require a large one to supply the wants of a family; and were more than one claimant allowed to each cistern , it would be a source of end
to
allow it
449 represents such a
top recommended by Tredgold, where a is the part for fixing it
to the can or chimneyPREVENTING THE DOWN- head ; d the cover, TOP OP A CHIMNEY FOR
DRAUGHT OF SMOKE,
ing .
The landings and bedroom floors to be laid with inch white
take in the top. Fig.
as
a
4d. per cubic foot, including the sawa
Ceiling joists, 4
made circular or coni-
Journal of Agriculture, July 1849, p. 45-50.
less quarrels.
A good pump is all that is
necessary to supply water to hinds' houses, and it is a necessary of which they are too often deprived.
+ Wearer's Designs of Cottages.
548
REALISATION .
ON INSURANCE AGAINST FIRE AND DISEASE.
materials should tend rather to increase
than diminish combustion, since a great 5560. Fire. — It is very short-sighted mass of heat can decompose a thin jetof policy in a farmer to neglect to insure bis water, one element of which is actually the stock and crop every year against destruc- principle of inflammability, and the other tion by fire. The premium is only 3s. in the supporter of combustion. “ The im
Scotland, and 4s. in England, per £100 value - farm -stocking being exempt from the duty of 3s. per cent. The premium used to be only 28. per cent ; but siuce the prevalence of smoking tobacco, and the use
mense ratio,” saysMr Phillips, the inventor of a new method of extinguishing fire, “ in which fire is multiplied by time, makes it an important desideratum to have at hand the means of extinguishing a fire as soon
of lucifer matches by the country people, it has been raised . It is not necessary to insure the entire crop or stock, inasmuch as it is not at all probable that the whole
as possible after discovery. The rapidity of its progress over inflammable materials is such, that a fire extinguishable by one gallon of water will in five minutes require one hundred gallons, and in ten minutes, one thousand gallons ;” a supply, it is needless to say, there is generally no means of procuring with the necessary promptness. Where Mr Phillips' Fire annihilator is at hand, a fire may be
would be destroyed by any one fire.
The houses shouldalso be insured, and the landlord ought to pay the insurance, since
they are his property; and they are as safe in the possession of a tenant as in his own, since the tenant runs the risk of losing
bis crop and stock before the buildings can extinguished while a man was mounting a catch fire. The premium of insurance for horse ,in order to search for a fire-engine.
farm -buildings is 2s. 6d., and for farm- As itis not in my power to describethis houses and hinds' houses, 28. per £ 100 machine, or give a figure of it, not having value ; and there are, besides, 3s. per cent
seen it, I shall relate an experiment that
of duty.
was made with one before a party at the
Gag-works, Vauxhall, London . “ Mr Phil 5561. Fire-engines. - I am surprised lips explained that the agent by which he how fire is extinguished at farm -steadings, sought to accomplish his objectwas a mix which contain somuch inflammable mate-
ture of gas and vapour.
After several
rials, since no fire -engine of any descrip- experiments on a small scale, to show the tion is kept on a farm . The ordinary fire- snccess he had attained by these means, engines are generally at a great distance the attention of the company was directed from farms — not nearer than the nearest to a compartment of a large open build town, and probably not nearer than a ing, quite 20 feet high inside, which was
large town. This being the case, it is pe- fitted up with partitions and temporary culiarly interesting to farmers to learn joisting of light wood, well soaked with
that a quick and efficient means ofextin- pitch and turpentine, and overhung besides guishing fire has lately been announced. with rags and shavings soaked in like It has been well said, that “ we are so manner . The torch was applied to this much accustomed to regard water as the
erection, and the flames, which ascended
only available material which can be em- immediately, at length roared with a vehe ployed in case of conflagration, that the mence which drove the spectators back to scientific man has hitherto been diverted
a distance of 40 feet, and was already be
from devising means of applying other yond the power of water. The inventor well-known agents possessing the same then brought forward one of his band power ; and yet water is but a feeble
machines, and threw out a volume of
ally, even when it can be had, while the gaseous vapour, which, in half a minute, having it at command involves such heavy entirely suppressed all fame and combus and costly apparatus, that it can scarcely tion ; and to show that the vapour which be calledavailable, unless in cities. As for now filled the space was quite innoxious,
country houses, villages,or rural property, Mr Phillips mounted into the loft, and that may be said to be, by our present ar- passed and repassed through the midst of
rangements, consignedto almostinevitable it with a lighted candle in his hand. The destruction in case of fire." A small jet of machine with which this effect was ac water thrown on a large mass of heated complished w rather larger than a good
549
INSURANCE
sized coffee- pot, and consisted of three tin of the skin and carcass. He may add to, cases, one within another, and mutually substitute, or exchange his stock under
communicating. There was a smallquan- certain regulations. The office is in the tity of water in the bottom of the machine, Strand, London, and agents are to be and in the centre case was a composite found in the country. cake, of the size and colour of peat- con taining, in the middle of it, a phial of sul-
5564. Hail-insurance. The farmers'
phuric acid and chloride of potassium . In crops, since 1840, have also been insured
order to put the machine into action, this against the loss incurred by hail-storms, phial is broken, and a gaseous vapour is by one of the Fire Companies of London generated so rapidly and in such quantity that it immediately rushes out from a lateral spout with great impetuosity . Mr Phillipsexplained that a machine of any
in the Strand. Sometimes hail does ma the proprietors ofhot-houses ; but in Scot land, such a source of lossis of rare occur
size could be made according to the pur
rence .
terial damage in England, especially to
In August 1850, however, a hail
for which it was intended, and that a storm occurred in a part of Forfarshire, in company was at length formed to carry the neighbourhood of the town of Brechin, the invention into effect, their office being which did much damage to the crop on the
pose
eve of being cut down .
at No. 105 Leadenhall Street." are five sizes of this
5565. Cow -clubs . — These clubs are a
machine made, varying in price from £3 to £7 each. Each charge for each size of machine respectively costs from 4s. to 178. They seem suited to all farm buildings.
sort of insurance against loss ; but I pre sume that insurance with cattle insurance companies are intended to supersede them.
5562. There
Cow - clubs were established and are sup
ported by labourers and hinds whopossess 5563. Cattle insurance.
Since
the
cows, and to whom the loss of their cows
ravages by pleuro -pneumonia amongst the by calving or disease is a very serious cattle, and the small-pox amongst the affair. I once knew a hind thrown into a
sheep became so prevalent, a CattleInsur- great state of wretchedness by the loss of his ance Company was established in 1844 in cow, upon which his large family depended
London, for the protection of individual far- mainly for support. †he following are mers against the loss of stock by disease. the rules of the “ Brocklesby and Little An attempt failed some years ago to Lumber Cow Club ” : The object of the establish a company in Scotland having club is to secure eachmember, by a system
a similar object. By the regulations of of mutual assurance , from sustaining indi the Company, it appears that the stock vidually the whole loss arising from the desired to be insured are inspected by a death of a cow—the loss being thus di
person appointed by the Company, and vided amongst all the members. Rules : on their value being thus fixed, the pre- A treasurer to be appointed , who shall
mium is paid. The premium is 48d in conduct the business of the club, and with the pound, in ordinary cases, of cattle, and whom shall rest the decision as to the ad in that of pleuro -pneumonia, it is 6d. in mission of meinbers. Each member to pay the pound. High-bred stock pays accord- to the treasurer, on the first Saturday in
ing to agreement, andanimals are not in- every calendar mouth, his subscription (in sured under six months old. Sheep pay advance ) of 1s. for each cow he may have
1s. in the pound, and upwards. Horses entered . Any member whose cow shall employed for agricultural purposes pay die, to be entitled to receive from the club 71d. in the pound, and upwards. Hack- the sum of £ 10. No allowance to be
neys and carriage-horses, 8 £d. in the made to any member in respect to any pound ; draught-borses, 9fd. in the pound, cow above 12 years of age. When a cow and upwards. Entire horses, 18. in the dies, the skin to belong to the owner of the
pound, and upwards. Glandered horses cow ; but if the carcass can be sold, the by agreement. The owner of the stock, in case of loss, receives three -fourths of the amount on which the premium has been paid, and one- fourth of the produce
money to be paid to the funds of the club. If a cow dies in calving, the calf to belong to the owner of the cow . Any member neglecting to pay his subscription for three
REALISATION .
550
successive months to be deprived of all 5567. On contemplating the enclosing benefit from the club, and to forfeit what of a farm , the question naturally arises to he may havepreviously paid. Any mem- inquire the purpose for which it ought to
ber leaving the district, or ceasing to keep be enclosed ; and the only consideration a cow, to be entitled to receive from the that would satisfy the inquirer is, whether treasurer his proportion of the funds then or not the farm has any stock to confine
in hand , after deducting therefrom £ 20, within given bounds ?
If there were
which was given by Lord Yarborough to no stock, it would be difficult to satisfy the funds on the establishment of the club. A new member to pay on his admission, for each cow he may enter, such a sum as may be the proportion of the general funds to which each cow in the club would
the mind that any enclosure is required, as is the case with the carse farms, on which they are not wanted ; and even if there were stock, no enclosure within the boundary of the farm seems
be entitled , after deducting therefrom requisite , if the farm consists entirely of Lord Yarborough’s subscription of £20. pasture -land. Thus, then, the necessity If the funds in the hands of the treasurer for enclosure is questionable where there shall at any time not be sufficient to pay is no pasture ; and where a ring -fence
the allowance for any cows that may die, exists around the farm , it is all that is re the members immediately to make up the quisite to keep the stock within its deficiency. The monthly subscriptions to bounds . It does seem reasonable that be discontinued at the discretion of the a ring- fence is requisite, both to pre
treasurer, whenever he shall consider the vent your own stock wandering upon , and his trespass funds in band sufficient as a guarantee, your neighbour's farm Whenever we asso
until reduced by deaths or otherwise. On ing upon yours, the first day of January in every year, the ciate, however, the co -existence of arable
treasurer to make out an account, show- culture and pasture, a subdivision between
ing his receipts and payments during the the one and the other seemsat once neces preceding year, and the balance remaining sary , even if the arable land were kept at in his hands, and cause the same to be one side of the farm , and the pasture on
printed, and a copy supplied to each mem- the other ; but shouldthe two intermingle ber. It will be observed, from the terms throughout the farm , there seenis as much of this club, that these clubs are neces- necessity to subdivide the smaller spaces sarily confined in the field of their opera- occupied by each, however numerous, from tions.
each other, as were the two formerly sup
posed large divisions separated, each of which occupied half the extent of the ON THE PRINCIPLES OF ENCLOSURE, AND ON SHELTER .
farm .
An enclosure uf arable land from
pasture seems as necessary to confine the stock upon the pasture, as to prevent them
5566. The buildings of the farm being trespassing upon the arable. thus provided for, we must look at its sur 5568. The necessity for a ring -enclosure face, and finding it unprotected from trespass from the want of fences, we must now being thus satisfactorily impressed upon turn our attention to have it enclosed in the mind, the extent of subdivided enclo sure must depend not only upon the par
the best manner, so as to place the fields in the most convenient relative position to one another for work in regard to the steading, as the central depot for labour, and to give them that form which is found most economical for conducting the labour therein. But before proceeding actually to lay off and form the different kinds of
ticular system of arable culture to be pursued upon the farm , but whether the rearing of stock is to be associated with it. Hence enclosures are of two kinds : one a ring - enclosure, which constitutes the boundary march of a farm , and separates it froin every adjoining farm ; the other
fences, it will be useful to consider the individual enclosure , which surrounds
principles upon which fields should be every field separately; and every other sort laid out in aspect and form , and to inquire of enclosure is a modification of these two. into the manner fences operate as shelter 5569. Carse farms, and farms in the to crops and live stock.
PRINCIPLES OF ENCLOSURE .
551
immediate neighbourhood of towns, which 5572. The line of a fence is determined are not devoted to the rearing of live stock by the direction to be given to the ridges.
in summer, as well as pastoral farms, The ridges should always, if possible, run which afford a large range of pasturage to N. and S., to allow both their sides to de stock , do not necessarily require to be en- rive equal benefit from the solar rays. On closed in subdivisions . It appears to be flat ground, this direction may easily be sufficient protection for them to be pro- assumed ; but the inclination of the rising
vided only with a ring -fence, and with ground may be E. and W .; and as water fences along the sides of the public roads detained on the surface of the ground, for that may happen to pass through them. however short a time, may do more mis In practice, carse farms are seldom enclosed, on the idea that the ground is too valuable to be occupied by any sort of fence ; but this is short-sighted policy, in as far as public roads are near them , and the walking of travellers across them. To the neglect of enclosure may be ascribed the existence of the numerous foot-paths which cross the fields of England. At most, the subdivision of clay -land farms,
chief than the solar raysdo good to both sides of ridges at the same time, the direc tion of the ridges should follow the incli nation of the ground, to allowthe most rapid egress to surface-water. Where the ground bas an inclination both N. and S., the meridian line should be preferred. Where the inclination is complicated, as many ridges should take the N. and S. di rection as practicable with the other above
and those near towns, need not be carried mentionedmodifications. farther than dividing them into as many 5573. The fences should run parallel to portions as there are members of the rota-
tion of cropping pursued on each : so that the ridges ; for wbenever this parallelism
only dairy and mixed-husbandry farms is neglected, wedge-shaped ridges, or butts, require to be subdivided into individual as they are technicallytermed, are formed fields.
at one or both sides of the fields.
On ac
count of the inequality in the lengths of 5570. The position of a ring -fence is butts, much more time is consumed in
easily determined, which is that of the working them than a square piece of boundary line of the march, whether ground of the same area. Butts are there between two farms of the same estate, or fore highly objectionable in fields : but as between the lands of two conterminons it is scarcely possible to have full-length properties. On adjoining properties, the parallel ridges on every field of a farm , ring- fence is usually a mutual une, main- they are unavoidable. Butts should, how ever, be put on the boundaries of the farm . tained alike by both proprietors.
5571. The individual fences, on the
5574. To preserve neatness and unifor
other hand, are laid off according to seve- mity in the ploughing of the fields, the ral considerations, as, should the farm con- fences should run parallel to one another
tain a variety of soils, clayey and sandy, a in straight lines. A straight fence along leading fence should divide them, so as the crown of a round -backed ridge of each sort of soil may be enclosed accord- ground, affords excellent shelter to both
ing to the system of husbandry best suit- sides of it, whether it run N. and S. in ed to it. The clayey land will bear the the direction of the ridges, or E. and W. best corn -crops, whilst the sandy will yield across their ends. A fence occupying the best green crops and pastures , and elevated ground bestows more shelter to rear the best live stock . Should the sea- fields than in any other position ; and such son prove unfavourable to the one class of a site should always be chosen for the
soil, it may be favourable for the other ; fence, and particularly for a thorn -hedge, as it will escape the crushing power of a pressed, those for live stock may be brisk . heavy fall of snow in a hollow . But it A happy juxtaposition of a variety of soils often happens that the lower ends of and when the markets for corn are de-
on the same farm serves to maintain its
fields cannot be enclosed in straight lines,
value permanently, amidst circumstances a rivulet or hollow between two rising that might much depreciate a farm entirely grounds giving their terminations a ser composed of only one kind of soil .
pentine form ; in which case the fence
REALISATION .
552
must follow the waving course of the cannot be large.
Taking 250 yards
rivulet or hollow ground, in order to pre- as a long enough furrow for horses on
serve a channel at the lowest part of the strong clay, the breaks would be squares of
ground, for the surface-water coming at 13 acres each ; and as many of such times from both slopes. A serpentine breaks could be placed together, to form fence in a hollow affords more shelter a principal division of the farm , as there than a straight one against the wind, are members in the rotation of cropping,
which always comes with force in theline (5080.) But a field of 285 yards square, on of a valley.
A rivulet, or large ditch, loamy ground, being only about 164 acres,
necessary for the conveyance of water,
is too small where live stock are reared.
should run parallel to the fence, and not across an angle or middle of the field, where it becomes a great bindrance to work , cutting short the ridges on both
A field to contain 25 acres, giving it the shape of a right-angled parallelogram , the direction of the ridges being N. and S., and the length fixed at 285 yards, its
sides of it into butts.
breadth should extend to 4244 yards.
5575. The shape of fields is greatly
deterinined by unavoidable obstacles, natural and artificial. A winding river or valley will give an irregular line to the fence at that end, and the march -fence '
5576. A rivulet or hollow between the
sides of two fields, causing irregular butts, when the fence between them takes the line of the hollow , the parallelism of the ridges and fences of both fields might be
may run in a direction to cause butts; preserved, by running a fence on each side and another end or side may abut against of the hollow ground, and shutting it out old ruin , plantation, or precipice. from the fields, and planting it. Where no such obstacles occur, the corners of all the fields should join at right angles 5577. To show the great waste of time with one another ; because the plough can in ploughing short ridges, I will state the
approach nearer to the squarecorners of results of some experiments made for me a field, than to two obtuse and two acute to ascertain it by Mr Hay of Whiterigg angled corners. It is demonstrable that in Roxburghshire, on land in different states the shape conducive to the greatest econo- of cropping. The results were the follow
my iu labour is the square, because fre- ing, on ridges of 15 feet in width. quent turnings on short ridges waste much Ploughing stubblefor barefallow , October 1849. tigues the horses beyond their strength.
The average strength of the horse is, therefore, the measure of the greatest length of ridge that secures the greatest
economy in ploughing the field in every direction. It is, I believe, near the mark to say, that horses can draw a plough through cultivated lea -ground, which is the firmest state of the soil, for 250 yards,
without requiring to take breath. But as ground already ploughed is of more easy
Time taken
Time taken
ridge in yards.
to plough a ridge .
to plough an
319 290 280 139 102 45 37 78 66
280
172 100 112 86 137
182 37
But
292 280 203
clay-soils are of heavier draught, so that 275 yards may be taken as the average length of ridge for all soils. The square shape might be profitably adopted onclay
Hours . Min . 40 2 30 2 25 2 15 1 0 1
25 0 50
acre .
Hours , 8 8 8 8 9 10 10 12 12
Min , 0
204 21 45 30 45 54 4 13
per acre
compared with the standard . Hours . Min . Standard . 0 204 0 21 0 45 30 45 2 51
4
13
Second ploughing for barefallou , January 1850.
there is more loose ground than lea to plough, 285 yards may be taken as the proper length of ridge on light soils.
Loss of time
Length of
2 1 0 1 0
1 1 0
20 30 55 5 50 20 48
25
8 8 8 9 9 9 9 10
265 525 92
23 25
344 54
Standard . 224 0 0 18 19 21 1 2 50
គេនគឺ
draught than lea, 300 yards in the one work as 250 yards in the other. The average is 275 ; and as
case may be as easy
Aeon0
time; and inordinate length of ridges fa
First ploughing after turnips, April 1850.
101 141
2 2 2 1 1
30 25 0
5 30
8 8 9 10
10
17 21 32 3 18
Standard . 0 1 15 1 46 1 2
5578. From these statements it would
farm , whose extent being generally small, appear, that the shorter ridges generally the break of land for each kind of crop take longer time to be ploughed than thie
PRINCIPLES OF ENCLOSURE .
553
longer ones, though some anomalies are saving the wear and tear of carts and har observable in all the results. For instance, ness in winter. in the first statement, 78 and 66 yards took longer time to have the acre ploughed
5581. The size of the fields depends in
than 45 and 37 yards, by 1 hour 19 minutes a great measure on the nature of the farm ; each, which ought not to have been thecase. and yet economy in labour limits both the In the second statement, 182 yards took smallness and largeness of fields. Even longer time to have the acre ploughed than on the smallest class of farms employing 86 yards by 114 minutes. And in the horse -labour, 10 acres seem a small enough
last statement, 141 yards took longer time space to labour land to advantage. There to the acre ploughed than 101 yards, by are many large farmıs on which smaller 15 minutes. These anomalies might per- fields than 10 acres may be observed, but a
haps be explained by supposing, that the smaller space, fenced around, has a con position for being ploughed, as regards dently affected in them . On the other
shorter ridges were in a more favourable fined look, and the grain crops are ovi inclination or state than the longer, or hand, very large fields, from 50 to 100 that the ploughman had taken less time to acres each, take too long time to have the turn the horses at the landings, than those work finished off, even with a large num at the longer ridges. Be that as it may, ber of draughts. I should say that a field
it is in the experience of every farmer, from 25 to 35 acres is large enough, accord that short ridges take longer comparative ing to the extent of the farm ; thongh the time to be ploughed than long ones ; and number of draughts being great on a large therefore, when fields are to be set off for farm , the size of the fieldsshould bear some
enclosure, the ridges ought not to be short- proportion to them. The exact proportion I
er, if practicable, than from 280 to 300 am not prepared to define, although I think yards, according as the soil is stronger or
that less than 10 acres make too small a
lighter. As instances of anomalies in long field for horse- labour to be employed in, ridges, I may mention, in experiments and more than 40 acres toolarge a one for
made for me by Mr M‘Lagan, younger, of quick despatch of work. The size of farm Pumpherston, Mid -Lothian, that an acre most in demand, formixed husbandry, is 500 acres, which give 4 fields of 25 acres, equal with ridges as long as 570 yards, while to 100 acres, for each member of a rotation one with 420 yards took 8 hours 24 min- of 5 crops. Placing the same kind of crop, utes, and another with 250 yards, 9 hours and especially green crop and grass, in took only 7 hours 40 minutes to be ploughed,
36 minutes. I have known a large field moderately -sized fields - say of 25 acres of 60 acres, two ridges of 10 yards in the each-on different parts of the farm , and breadth of which occupied an acre, and most probably in different kinds of soil, a was therefore 484 yards long ; but it was good crop in one of the fields will almost
inconvenient in many respects to be be insured every season ; and the wbole worked, both in time and length, as well as labour of the farm being, for the time, con for the horses and work -people.
fined toonemoderately -sizedfield, a good season for ploughing the land, and a safe
5579. Should a public road, or canal, or seed - time and harvest for its crop, seem to
railway, pass through a farm , the fence be placed within the power of the farmer should be placed on each side of them ; against any great or sudden change of and should an old plantation, quarry , or weather. The same mode of reasoning building, stand in the middle of the land, on the size of fields may be applied to any before it is enclosed, the butts occasioned other sort of farmiug . by them should be placed next the obstacle. 5582. The position of fields is a matter of some importance. I have said that the
5580. A public road along enclosures is ridges should run N. and S., (5572,) and a great convenience to a farm , and it may that about 300 yards are of sufficient
save tbe making of one or more farm- length for the ridges, ( 5575 ;) and as the roads. Easy access to and from the fields fields in general are of the best size for
to roads is a great means of maintaining economy of labour at 25 acres, (5581,) and the health and strength of horses, and of with a form as nearly approaching to the
REALISATION .
554
square as is compatible with these premises acres, ( the size of the fields,) and which can
( 5575,) it follows that the fields should be not rear much stock — single fields should placed with their shorter ridges or breadth correspond in number withthe members in N. and S., and with their length E. and the rotation ; and should a smaller quan W. Were they placed thoughtlessly the tity of grass or green crop be at any time opposite way, the ridges to run N. and S. wanted for a particular purpose than a would eitherbe 425yards long, which would whole field, a temporary fence might be be too long for the horses ; and if made to used in preference to enclosing the farm
lie E. and W. one side only would have into very small fields. With regard to the benefit of the sun .
farms of considerable extent on soil of various textures, quite a different element
5583. Mountain- pastures, exclusively from the preceding case enters into the devoted to the use of live stock, should be consideration that determines the number enclosed in large divisions, because cattle of the fields. On enclosing a farm , where
and sheep are generally reared in large much stock is raised, the mere economy of numbers on pastoral farms. Mountain labouring each field is not so much an live stock possess more active habits, and object of solicitude as the welfare of the
have a stronger instinct to search for food stock ; and as stock always thrive best on than those of the plain ; and as the herb- fresh pasture, and when only a few of the age of the mountains is rather scanty than same kind are berded together, it follows otherwise, stock there require ample space that each enclosure shouldnot be of large to roam over in order to satisfy their wants. extent - perhapsnotexceeding 25 acres - s0 that 285 yards by 425 yards would em 5584. Although very small enclosures brace an enclosure of convenient size for
under constant cultivation are unwhole- the grazing of cattle during the summer, some to grain crops, two or three small en- andthe feeding of sheep on turnips in the closures of from 1 to 5 acres in grass, near winter. Suppose, then,that the enclosures the steading, are almost indispensable on contain 25 acres each, and that the 5 - course
every farm on which live stock is reared. rotation is followed , a farm with 2 en
These may be used by tups when out of closures to each member of the rotation season,-by calves when weaning from the would contain 250 acres, which is as small milk ,-by ewes when lambing,-by mares extent of ground as the mixed husbandry and foals for a few weeks until the mares
can be advantageously practised upon ;
regain their strength , -by a stallion at and with 4 enclosures to each member of grass, —or as hospitals for sick and con-
the course, the farm would contain 500
valescent animals.
acres, and 6 enclosures would give 750
Such small fields are
and valuable in grass acres - which is as large an arable farm as much more useful plough. than under the
most farmers have capital to stock.
5585. The number of fields depends
5586. In enclosing any farm intended
partly on the size of the farm , and partly on the rotation of crops carried on in it ( 5080.) The interior of pure clay -land farms devoted to the raising of corn alone, especially of wheat, should be no more sub-
for the use of live stock, access to good
water should never be overlooked, though it too often is. Should a rivulet not be within reach, spring -water should be ob tained either by sinking wells, laying pipes,
divided than to have a fenced division for or making conduits. The best pasture will each course in the rotation of crops made never improve the condition of live stock up of convenient square -shaped fields of without good water ; and without an the extent determined on in (5575.) To abundant supply, graziers will not hire subdivide a clay -land farm , on which no even the best grass for cattle and horses, stock is reared in summer, into small fields, though they may for sheep. would be to devote an unnecessary waste
of ground to fences. To saveexpense in
5587. The evils of enclosing fields very
working, and waste of ground in fences, closely have been urged against enclosures on smaller farms of loamy soils than 125 altogether ; and it is alleged thatthecrops acres — which are made up of 5 times the are liable to be more injured by being number of members in a rotation of 25 lodged in confined fields than in open ones.
PRINCIPLES OF ENCLOSURE .
555
The allegation is quite true ; but it ap5590. This view explains the particular mode plies rather to an abuse in practice than of enclosing land, once distinguished by the name
against the principles of enclosing. Close ofinfieldand outfield, which prevailed inthis country until a
late period , and may yet be seen fields, of whatever size, should always be on the Continent in full practice. The distant kept in grass for stock ; and in order to part, which was solely appropriated to pasturage
avoid their flies, a shed for harbouring in by the stock, was called the outfield. The nearer will greatly prevent their attacks. Even portion of the land, which bore the grainand for the cultivators and their families and dependents,and as regards corn, a sheltered field ripens vegetables the fodderforthe cattlein
the crops earlier than an open one, which winter,was called the infield. Cultivation was
may arise from the forcing influence of never practised on the outfield, nor were the heat within an enclosure
a fact well
stock ever permitted to enter the infield.
In
was line of demarcation strong a verythe waybetwixt occupations known to all gardeners who force vege- this drawn ofthe shepherd
tables and fruits, but which injures the quality of the grain in comparison with open fields.
and the husbandman , which is maintained even to this day. It was partly on this account,
perhaps, that the agricultural Egyptians held “ every shepherd an abomination " unto them.
5588. From this known fact it has been
5591. The broad distinction then established therearing of stock and the culture of, alleged that confined fields produce greater betwixt
evaporation by the confined heat in them , unusual deand thereby superinduce an pression of temperature. This must be a theoretical objection, for it is obvious that evaporation will be much more promoted by exposure to the wind than by con
grain , served to conceal from cultivators the valuable fact that stock afford greatfacilities for fertilising the soil. As long as this fact remained unknown,cultivators did not imagine that the food of stock should be could cul tivated land,and much less that it raisedbeonraised
finement within fences. *
food .
5589. As one object of enclosing land is pro
most enonomically in conjunction with their own Whenever it was perceived that grain was more productively raised by the meliorating influence of grass on the soil, that grass-land
tection to plants, whether trees,grains, rege- supported more stock when occasionally cropped tables, or grass, against the depredations of men finement for domesticated animals, the use and necessity for enclosures could only have been felt after mankind had made considerable progress in the culture of land, and experienced the consequent depredations committed upon crops. During the pastoral state of society, when men wandered about in communities, and made a fixed abode at one place only as long as pasture could be obtained for their flocks and herds, they tended their stock night and day around their own habitations. Where pasture was plentiful, they pitched upon a convenient spot for themand animals, or a protection to and place of con
selves, and constructed an enclosure to confine
their stock in during the night. The enclosure served the double purpose of relieving the night watches of the shepherds, and of protecting the stock against the attacks of wild animals. The ground nearest their dwellings was first culti-
with corn , and that the exuviæ of stock could manure land better than the art of man , the sys tem of outfield and infield was broken up. The
ancient ring-fence , that only surrounded the cul tivated land, was then removed to the boundaries
of the possession, and in its stead were con structed suitable enclosures for the different crops raised in regular succession . 5592. Enclosures were thus constructed on the
boundaries of possessions by the most ancient nations. It is probable that the lower part at least of Egypt was never a pastoralcountry ; for the great fertility conferred on its soil by the an nual rising of the Nile would render agriculture the first object of the people. Accordingly, we
find it recorded as long since as about 2000 years before Christ, Abram went to sojourn in Egypt, during the famine in his own land, where he had many herds and flocks, and was otherwise wealthy
vated for grain. No enclosure was thought of in gold and silver."
Extensive canals were
for protecting the grain crops, aslong as the formed, to convey the waters of the Nile to irri stock were tended by day and folded by night. In time, however, as the community increased in
gate the parts of the country it did not naturally overflow . The condition of Greece in regard to
numbers, culture encroached upon the range of enclosures was exactly as has been described ; pasture, which, in consequence, became more and from the laws which governed the limits and scanty . The stock became urgent for food, landmarks of landed property, it is probable that whilst the tending of them became more diffi-
fences were only erected on the boundaries of
cult as the shepherds engaged in cultivation. A properties like a ring-fence.I The Romans never fence then was requisite around the cultivated enclosed their pasture-land to confine their cat ground, to fend off the predacious attempts of the tle. They planted fences round gardens, or stock . Hence the probable origin of enclosing chards, and meadows, and also round parks for cultivated land.
the confinement of wild animals ; but in other
+ Genesis, xii., xiii., and xlvi. * Sinclair's Code of Agriculture, p. 171. I Potter's Antiquities of Greece, n. 155, edition of 1697.
REALISATION .
556
respects their lands were enclosed much in the same manner as by the Greeks, with a ring-fence
a hill,
round the boundary of the farm ; and they em-
the means of shelter great or small, the advan .
Whole farms are unaffected by wind when embayed amidst encircling hills ; and be
ployed various kinds of fences for this purpose.* tages derived from them are sensibly felt.
As
an instance of the benefits of shelter afforded
5593. Most of the modern nations of Europe still enclose their land in the ancient method .
by eren a low wall to a park, from the cutting effects of the sea air, fig. 450, on the opposite
Property is so much subdivided in France by the page, shows you one on the estate of Gosford, extinction of the law of primogeniture, that in belonging to the Earl of Wemyss, in East Lothian, at least one half of that country, all to the east- better than words can express. The wall, and ward, no field enclosures are to be seen - a few the wood immediately behind it, are of the march stones, a ditch, a row of trees, or parti- same height ; but in a few yards only inwards, cular single trees here and there, marking the the wood rises to a considerable height, which is boundaries of the small estates.t
Throughout effected by a simple contrivance,namely ,the pecu liar form of the cope of the wall. It is raised
Germany, Bohemia , Switzerland, and Spain, en-
closures are only found near farm -houses and
villages, the bulk of the corn being raised on extensive unenclosed grounds. I have seen a tract of wheat in Bohemia, as far as the eye could reach, without a single fence in sight. In Lombardy the enclosuresconsist of the ditches which
like an isosceles triangle, by which the wind , when it beats against its side, is reflected upwards into the air at the same angle.
Had the cope been
flat, the blast would have cut off the tops of the trees in a horizontal direction . But without the
wood such a form of coping would afford similar shelter. Supposing land exposed on the top of a the other hand, the land in Holland and Belgium high coast, where the wind generally sweeps is so much enclosed with trees and hedges, that along the surface of the ground, injuring every
convey the waters of irrigation to the land.
On
in many places the fields seem half choked by plant it blows against, by a momentum acquired south of England, where much valuable ground is occupied by beautifully luxuriant, but greatly
in passing over miles of ocean ; were a wall built on the top of the crag, at a proper distance from its brow , and of a proper height, having a cope at
overgrown hedges. Mr John Grant of Exeter states, that he has ascertained by measurement
the angle referred to , it would deflect the wind upwards, and cause it to lose most of its momen
them.
The same remark nearly applies to the
that in Devonshire alone the hedges are sufficient
tum before it again reached the ground. Such a
to encompass the whole of England, being 1651
wall, or such a belt of wood, or such a plantation
miles, subdividing only 36,976 acres. The high mounds in that county , if extended in line, would reach from London to Edinburgh. The land in Ireland, particularly in the province of Ulster, is
without a wall, if projected on a large scale, and planted near the top of a sloping precipice, or other rising ground, would shelter a large extent of country against the prevailing winds ; and
also very much subdivided by turf-dykes, which
were such barriers placed in lines, in suitable
are generally in a state quite unfit to confine live -stock . It is only in the north of England
situations, across thecountry, not only its local, but its general climate, would be greatly ame
and the best cultivated districts of Scotland , that
liorated.
enclosures, suited to the improved state of agri 5595. Instances are not awanting to prove the advantages derivable to stock and crop from closure is made proportionate to the uses to shelter. The benefits derivable from plantation which the soil is applied. There, growing crops are far more extensive and important than those
culture are to be found .
There, farms are not
only completely enclosed, but the size of the en-
of all kinds find shelter from the vicissitudes of from stone walls, in improving land. “ Previous the weather, and protection against animals ; and
to the division of the common moor of Methven
the live -stock themselves enjoy peace and plenty, as a recompense for confinement.
(in Perthshire ) in 1793,” says Mr Thomas Bishop, “ the late venerable Lord Lynedoch and Lord Methven had each secured their lower slopes of
5594. Another object in enclosing land is to afford shelter to plants and animals against the
land adjoining the moor with belts of plantation .
changes of weather. That a fence affords shel
service, and in 1798 planted about 60 acres of
ter niust be a fact cognisant to every one. Feel the warmth of a walled garden the calm under the walls of even a ruin, compared to the
for shelter to 80 or 90 acres set apart for culti vation, and let in three divisions to six indivi
howling blast around-observe the forward grass, in early spring, on the south side of a hedge compared to that on its other side—and listen to the subdued tone of the wind under a shed to its boisterous noise in the open air. Sensibly felt
as all these instances of shelter are, they are but isolated cases.
In more extended spheres, cot-
The year following I entered Lord Methven's the higher moor-ground, valued at 2s. per acre, duals. The progress made in improving the land was very slow for the first 15 years, but there after went on rapidly, being aided by the shelter
derived from the growth of the plantations; and the whole has now become fair land, bearing annually crops of oats, barley, pease, potatoes, and turnips ; and in spring 1838, exactly 40
tages stand in a calm in the midst of a forest, years from the time of putting down thesaid come the wind from whatever quarter it may. Farm -steadings lie snug under th : lee-side of a
plantation, I sold 4 acres of larch and fir (aver age growth ) standing therein for £220, which,
* Dickson's Husbandry of the Ancients, vol . ii. p. 330 . + Young's Travels in France, p. 392. # Journal of the Agricultural Society of England , vol. v. p. 424.
SHELTER .
557
with the value of reserved trees, and average mit of Shotley -fell, 16 miles W.of Newcastle amount per acre of thinnings sold previously, *
gave a return of £67 per acre "
upon -Tyne, Mr Burnet of Shotley-bridge en
closed 400 acres of moorland with high stone Fig. 450.
On the sum-
THE SHELTER AFFORDED BY EVEN A LOW WALL AGAINST A CUTTING BLAST.
walls ; and he cropped the ground in an easy manner for the soil. The land was thus kept in
as well as afford shelter and warmth. Already the plantations relieve and delight the eye, and
good heart, but the soil being very poor, stock
spread a beauty and freshness around the scene.
advanced but little, and consequently the land
Muirton formerly looked a bleak and barren
would not have let for above 6d. an acre, even
wild, while the opposite highly cultivated estates of Brahan and Coul were the delight of every passing traveller ; but with these it may now vie both in riches and beauty. The hill of Muirton as a pasturage was not worth 6d per acre,
under the best management, and after all that had been done for it ; but the central part of each field was put within a plantation, and the improvement was then surprising. The cocks -foot
grass grew three or four feet high, and the young cattle were four times the stent they were before the land was planted .+ Besides affording shelter, plantations beautify the appearance of
whereas, by the expending of a small sum , it may be expected to realise from 15s. to 20s. per acre of yearly rent, from the date of planting, even at the distance of eight miles, as Muirton
the country. “ The plantation of Muirton in is, from the shipping -places of Beauly and Ding Ross-shire," observes Mr Mackenzie , " has al- wall. Besides the price of the wood, the value ready, in 1836, and will yet in a greater degree of the enclosure as a wintering for sheep will be
improve the climate of the surrounding district, considerable.” I *
+ Ibid ., vol. xii . p. 51 . Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xi. p. 327 . # Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. iv. p. 843.
REALISATION .
558
ON THE PLANTING AND REARING OF THORN - HEDGES .
5596. The permanent fences of fields in
injury. The ground should be bare - fal lowed, cleaned thoroughly of all weeds, limed early, and manured about a month or six weeks before the planting com
this country are constructed of only two mences, in the same manner and order as
materials, thorn hedges and lowdry stone these operations are performed upon bare walls. In places, turf walls are formed for fallow land, (4164.) permanent fences; but they are only nomin 5599. On commencing the enclosing of ally permanent, and unless protected them-
selves, are easily breached by every kind of an entire farm , the longest lines of the stock . They will stand some years with a plantation one one side, and protected by a deep ditch on the other ; but even then they are only an obstacle, and, at best, a temporary but not permanent fence. A
fences should be staked off, and en deavours made to fence those fields first which are to be fallowed, so that when theycome into grass the palings may be pat up for the use of the grass and the fences
species of permanent fence has of late years at the same time, and thus save the tem been introduced in the wire-fence, which, porary fencing for the grass alone. In the however, from the nature of the materials, case of one or two fences of a single field
cannot be deemed a permanent fence. being only required, the ground should be There are various temporary fences, as fallowed, whatever crop the field may be
palings, hurdles, nets, dead hedges, and a under; but it is evident that , if the ground combination of two or more of these, which to beoccupiedbythe hedge is fallowedalong are all useful in their respective places, with the field which is to be fenced , or the
but not as forming permanent boundaries one adjoining it, the operation will be exe to fields, and much less to an estate. I cuted more easily, and at less expense than shall first treat ofthorn-hedges ; and as dif- by itself. The longest lines will run E. ferent operations connected with them are and W., that direction being thelength of the
done in different seasons, I shall take them fields; and when one long line E. and W., in the order of their seasons. and another at right angles to it, N. and S., near the centre of the farn , are staked 5597. Winter - Winter is the most off, the others will afterwards be set off
proper season for commencing the planting with comparative ease from both sides of thorn -hedges, immediately after the fall of these lines. The base line is the one of the leaf in autumn ; and the operation that runs N. and S. as that is the direction may be conducted through the winter even the ridges are considered best to take, and
to April, when the weather is favourable was determined in (5572,)and should be —that is, when there is no snow upon or first staked off; and the E. and W. line
frost in the ground, and the soil not wet is set off at right angles to it. with a great fall of rain, so as to poach the ground when it is worked.
Moisture in
5600. The N. and S. base line is best set
the ground is requisite for the proper for- off with a pocket compass, allowing for the mation of the hedge bed and bank, and variation of the needle, which in this coun therefore thorns cannot conveniently be tryatpresent is about 27° W. The meridian planted in summer, or in dry weather in line might be marked off by the shadow of
spring. But although the season of planting a pole at mid -day upon the ground, by the may be extended to so late a period of the watch ; but as uo sun may appear when
spring as April, the young hedge will thrive yon are desirous to prosecutethe enclosing, the better the sooner it is planted in winter. the compass is the surest guide. The lines are set off with feering poles, fig. 18; and the
5598. The ground should be prepared right angles ofone lineto anotherbyan opti for the reception of the plants.
The usual
cal square,
which costs 21s., or by a cross
state of the ground chosen for planting is table,which may be purchased for only 7s. on lea, and I believed it the best myself at 6d. The fixed length of the lines are most
one time; but experience hassince shown easily measured with a good tape -line. me that the grass grows upon the face of the
ditch, and even through the inverted turf, up amongst the young plants, much to their
5601. A land -measuring chain will, of course,
swer also for this purpose , but it
PLANTING THORN - HEDGES .
559
is not so convenient as a tape line, which and on the point beingknown whence the is easily rolled up and kept in the pocket. fence is to run E. and W. at right angles Sucha line of 66 feetin lengthcosts6s. 6d. to it, the cross-table is placed on it; and The best constructed chains I have seen having got the line of poles in the N. and
are those made by Mr Thomas Gorrie, S. line of fence through the sights of one wire -work manufacturer in Perth, which arm of the table, the sights on the other
consist of oval rings, instead of circular, arm will direct the line of fence, which
and of three ringsinstead of two between is fixed by setting up other poles. Before the links . Three rings do not catch into taking out the poles from the one line, one another as two do ; and when of drive stakes in the line to preserve its
the oval form , they are not nearly so apt direction; and after the other line has been
to stretch as when circular. With brass straightened by the poles, drive stakes in it also for the same purpose.
handles, such a chain costs 14s.
5602. The compass indicating the meri-
5603. If it be desired to set off a parallel
dian line by setting up one pole at oneside of it, and another in the direction of the needle, the line of fence can be drawn straight by means of the feering poles ;
line of fence at that time, or at any future time before the thorns are planted, let three poles c, d , and e, fig. 451 , be set up in the line of the fence, and let the cross
Fig. 451 .
h
g
n
THE PLAN OF SETTING OFF FENCES PARALLEL TO EACH OTHER,
table be placed near f inthe line between prove greateror less than either, some error c and d. Let g , h, and i be poles set and must have been committed, which can only adjusted to one another by the cross -table be rectified by doing the operation over
in the line f k, at right angles to cu, f k being the breadth of the field, which distance is measured by the tape-line or a chain so as to contain an even number of ridges of
again. The arrows show the directions in which each line should be measured. Great accuracy should be observed in running these lines of fences parallel, for if they are
given breadth ; because, a fractional part of not so at each successive line of fence, the a ridge, or a whole ridge left at either side deviation will prove very considerable be of the field, after it has been ploughed will twixt the first and last lines. Three poles prove inconvenient for work. In like man- only are employed to set off the lines f k ner, let the line lp be drawn from the cross- and I p, the ground being supposed to be
table placed at 1, by setting the poles m, n, 0, p. Then set a pole at q in a line with the polesp k , and measure the distance betwixt q and u ,along the line r s t, with the
nearly level ; but wherever from an in equality of ground you lose sight of one of the poles, as many more should be em ployed as to have three always in view at
tape ; which distance, if the two previous one time. When a new line of fence is
operations have been accurately conducted, desired to be set off parallel to an old one, should be exactly equal to the distance be- the line a b represents the old fence, and twixt f and k , and 1 and p ; but should it the cross-table is placed at about six feet
REALISATION .
560
in the line c u parallel to it, to afford room ground — much better than the square mouthed shovel, fig. 83 ; and yet in some for the observations. parts of the country itseems quite unknown. 5604. Before the line of fence can be be
gun to be planted with the thorns, certain
5605. The plant usually employed in
implements are required for the work : this country, in the construction of a hedge, A strong garden line at least 70 yards in is the common lawthorn. “ On account length, having an iron reel at one end, and of the stiffness of its branches,” says a strong iron pin at the other : its use is Withering, “ the sharpness of its thorns,
to show, upon theground, the exact line of its roots not spreading wide, and its capa the fence betwixt the stakes. It costs 4s. bility of bearing the severest winters
A few pointed wooden pins, with hooked without injury, this plant is universally heads to keep the line steady, whether in a straight line or in a curve. A wooden rule, 6 feet in length, divided into feet and inches, having a cross-head of about 2 feet
preferred for making hedges, whether to clip or to grow at large.” The thorn thus possesses all the characteristics of a plant well suited to make a good fence. 99 *
in length, nailed at right angles to it : its use Thorns ought never to be planted in a
is to measure off short distances at right hedge till they have been transplanted angles. No. 5 spades, fig. 237. An iron at least 2 years from the seed -bed, when they will bave tram-pick, fig. 247. A hand -pick , fig. 452. Fig. 454 . generally ac Fig. 452. quired a girth of stem at the root of 1 inch ;
a length in all of 3 feet, of which the root measures
one
foot, as in fig . 454, which is on a scale of
7
1 } inch to 1 foot.
Picked
plants of that age are
12s.
6d. per 1000 ; or, as they are
A HAND - PICK .
taken out of
Fig. 453. It is 18 inches long in each
the lines, 10s.
arm, and 3 feet long in the
6d. As thorns
It costs 5s.6d . or
are always
helve.
6s. A sharp pruning -knife to
transplanted
each man, to prepare the thorn plants with : it costs 23. or 3s. A ditcher's shovel, fig.
too thick in the nursery
453 : its use is to clean out the bottom and sides of the
room , and draw them up sooner to tall plants, I would
lines, to save
ditch , and to beat the face of
the hedge -bank. Its face is
A DITCHER'S SHOVEL ,
1 foot broad and i foot long,
advise
with a tapering point, and its
being
belve is 28 inches in length. It costs, No. 5, 4s. This
chased
their pur from
the nursery at
is a useful shovel on every
that age , the
farm for cleaning up the bottoms of dunghills in soft
year A GOOD THORN PLANT.
Withering's Botany, vol. iii. p. 561 .
before
they are in
PLANTING HEDGES.
561
tended to be planted in the fence, and change of arrangement. When fewer laid in lines in garden mould, or deep bands are employed, the men must change
By this process the stems from one portion of the work to another ; will acquire a cleaner bark and greater and when more, one will at times be com
dry soil.
strength, and the roots be furnished with paratively idle. The work never goes on a larger number of fine fibres, which will
so well, or so regularly, as when each
greatly promote the growth of the young takes and keeps by his own particular hedge, and repay the additional trouble part of the operation. bestowed on the plants. But when the plants are not so treated before they are 5607. There is nothing peculiar in the
planted, the bundles, containing 200 plants each, should be inmediately loosened out on their arrival from the nursery, and the plants sheughed in,—that is, spread out
dress of the hedger, except in his shoes. In winter, he should alwayswear clogs,having soles of wood, with upper-leathers, and shod with iron on the sides and sole, for an
thin and upright in small trenches in a easy tramp upon the spade and foot- pick.
convenientpart of the field, and in dry earth Such clogs cost about 5s. per pair. well heaped against them , to protect the roots from the frost, and to keep them 5608. The ground along which the line fresh until planted. The plants are taken of hedge is proposed to be planted should be surveyed before a commencement is from the sheughs when wanted. made from the starting point, and if the
5606. With all the materials provided, surface is uniform and level, the work
the workmen must also be engaged. The may proceed at once ; but should beights number of men required to plant a hedge and hollows intervene, preparations must is three - one, the hedger himself, and two first be made to convey away the water
assistants, who have each his duty to per- that might stand in the hollows after the form , and should be kept at it without hedge has been planted.
Fig. 455 will
Fig. 455.
b
d
PLAN TO PREVENT WATER LODGING IN THE HOLLOWS, BEHIND THE BANK OF A HEDGE,
convey an idea of what I mean, in which is rise in the ground, the bottom should be
represented the inequalities on the surface made deeper in the rising -ground, to let of the ground ; and although these seem the water run to the lowest point, that one close together in the figure, they may drain may convey away as much water as be supposed in reality to undulate in con- as is practicable. The conduits, in all
siderable distances . The parts of the such cases, should be founded as low as figure are these : a a is the line of hedge; the bottom of the ditch to be taken out, 6 6 the top of the hedge -bank, parallel having a sole, sides, and cover built of to the hedge; cc the bottom of the ditch,
stone ; and the area of the conduits should
exposed to view by the removal of this be made to contain the largest quantity of side of the ditch, as also the conduits d d d water that will ever flow through them . for conveying the water from behind the The ground behind the hedge -bank bb is
hedge-bank bb ; e is a covered drain from represented as falling towards the hedge. the bottom of the ditch, at the lowest point To prevent the under -water percolating of the lowest hollow. Where the hollows from this ground to the hedge, a common in the ditch are only separated by a small drain should be made in the headridge VOL . II .
2x
562
REALISATION .
about three yards behind the hedge, at least 4 feet deep, and filled with drain - tiles, and its outlet made to discharge itself in the hollowest point to reach the drain e, or elsewhere, if more convenient and efficient.
will probably lie as straight as practicable. Place a rather heavy stone here and there upon the cord, to prevent the possibility of its being shifted from its position. With the common spade then rut the line of
A conduit ofdry stones, baving an opening hedge-bed behind the cord, with your of 16 inches in height and 12 inches in facetowards the ditch that is to be, tak
breadth, with sole and cover, will cost in ing care to hold the spade with a slope building 1s. 6d. per rood of 6 yards. 5609. If the line of fence is to be
corresponding to the side of the proposed ditch, and not to press upon, or to be too far back from , or cut the cord .
Then
straight - which should always be the case , take the wooden rule, and placing its if natural obstacles do not interfere to pre- cross -bead along the cord, set off the
vent it let the poles be set up in as breadth of the ditch at right angles to the straight a line as possible, from one end of rutted line 44 feet - first, at both ends of the fence to the other. Should the surface the still stretched cord, and then at in
be level, this line can be drawn straight with the greatest accuracy ; but should elevations and hollows intervene, however small, great care is requisite to preserve the straightness of the line, because the rising parts of the ground are apt to ad-
tervals ; and mark off those breadths with wooden pins, which will serve to check any important deviation from the true line along the length of the cord . Now , take up and stretch the cord anew along this other side of the ditch, by the sides of the new
vance upon the true line, and the hollows placed pins, in the same manner, and with
recede from it, especially when the the same precautions as with the hedge inequalities are abrupt. Surveyors use bed ; and rut the line with your face to the theodolite to avoid this error, but it wards the ditch, sloping the spade to the may be avoided by using plenty of poles inclination of its side. After inarking out to be set not far asunder from one an-
the ditch thus, secure the continuation ofthe
In case evil - disposed persons line of the fence by means of the standing should shift the poles in the night, and poles, and then remove them and the pins
other.
thereby alter the lineof fence, pins driven along the new length of the cord. The in, at intervals, into the ground, will ditch thus marked out is ready for the preserve the line. Having set plenty formation of the thorn-bed. When about of poles, so as to please the eye, take the forming the thorn - bed, that end of the
reel and cord, and, pushing its pin firmly into the ground at the end of the line of fence where you wish to begin, run the cord out its full length, with the exception of a small piece to twist round the shank of the reel. Be sure to guide the cord exactly along the face of the poles at the bottom ; and should any obstacle to your doing so lie in the way — such as clods,
line should be chosen for commencing the work which best suits the hand of the workman who is intrusted to make it. The rule for this is, whichever hand grasps the eye of the spade should be nearest the thorn -bed, and the workman should work backwards. The ordinary practice is to take the eye of the spade in the left hand.
5610. In forming the thorn -bed, raise a removed, and the ground smoothed with large, firm , deep spadeful of earth with the spade; and then, with your face to- the common spade, from the edge of the
stones, or dried weeds - cause them to be wards the cord, draw it towards you
ditch next the line of hedge, and invert it
gradually, with considerable force, until along that line, with its end towards the
it has stretched as far as it can, and ditch. Having placed a few large spade then push the sbank of the reel firmly into the ground. As the least obstruction on the ground will cause the cord to deviate from the true line, lift up the
fuls in this manner, side by side, beat down their crowns with the back of the spade, paring down their faces in a line of the slope given to the first rut, and then
stretched cord bythe middle about 3 feet cut back their crowns with an inclination from the ground, keeping it close to the downwards and away from you, forming faces of the poles, and let it drop suddenly an inclined bed for the thorn -plant to lie
to the ground, when, by its elasticity it upon, as shown by the angle subtended
PLANTING HEDGES.
563
by the line c b, fig. 456. In like manner attention to these adaptations of means to Fig. 456 . ends is one cause of failure in the rearing d
of thorn -hedges. 5612. The prepared thorn -plant is re
presented by fig. 457 ; and it is prepared in this way. After removing a number of the small branches with a knife, grasp the stem of the full plant, fig. 454, immedi
ately above the root, firmly in the left hand, and cut it across beyond the hand, with a place other spadefuls at the end of those sharp knife, with an inclination towards the last laid down, taking care to join all the top of the plant as at a fig. 457 ; and the cut thusmade will be about spadefuls so as to make one continued bed, Fig. 457. 6 inches above the root as above described, and to proceed thus and fibres. Cut away along the length of the cord of 70 yards. the long points of the THE THORN- BED.
a
5611. Whilst the hedger is thus mak ing the thorn -bed, his two assistants pre
tap -roots b b b, and
pare the thorn -plants for planting. The plants are assorted, according to their sizes, as they are picked out of the
and injured roots, and even injured fibres ; but preserve as many
any other straggling
bundles made up as they were taken from
of the fibres entire as
the transplanted lines, recommended in (5605,) the advantage of which is, that the plants are thereby suited to the situa
possible . Burn the tops thus cut off, or bury them deep in the A THORN-PLANT, PRE- ground ; as they easily
tion they occupy.
On examining the
plants, they will be found to be both stout PARED FOR PLANTING , vegetate, and are and weak . The stoutest cannot derive suffi- quickly blown about by the wind, and
cient nourishment in the thinner and poorer become a great annoyance to sheep in the class of soils, however well it may have wool. Take great care, in frost, to cover been prepared fortheir reception ; whilst up the prepared roots inearth until they the weak ones will thrive well in good soil. are actuallyplanted, for if the rootsare in From this statemeut, it might be con- the least affected by frost they will not
cluded that weak plantsare best adapted vegetate. The safest plan, in frosty wea to all classes of soils. Not so ; for how- ther, however gentle, is to take but a few ever well weak plants may thrive in good plants at a time out of the lines. In dry
soils, stout plants will grow much better weather in spring, put the roots of the than weak in all soils; and were the prepared plants in a puddle of earth and
soil, all good, the most profitable fence water, in a shady place, for some hours would be obtained from the best and before laying them in the thorn -bed, and
picked plants. But as every farm pos- their vegetation will thereby be much sesses soils of various degrees of fertility, quickened. although the class of its soils may be the same, and as plants in a stout and weak
5613. When both the thorn - bed and
state are usually mixed together, the most plants are prepared, the assistants lay the
prudent practice is to put the weaker plants in the bed. This is done by press plants in the best soil, andthe stouter plants ing each plant firmly into the mould of in the worsekindofsoil, thus giving a chance the bed at c, fig. 456, with the cut end of
of success to both sorts of plants and soils; the stem projecting notmore than a quar or else reject the weak plants altogether, ter of an inch beyond the front and upper which would enhance the cost of the edge of the thorn -bed, and with the root
plants. One means of rendering the weak end lying away from theditch,at distances plants strong, is in transplanting them in good soil, and allowing them to remain in it until they have acquired sufficient strength to be planted out. Want of
varying from 9 to 12 inches — the 9 inches beiny adapted to inferior land, and the 12 inches to good soil. Whilst the two as sistants are laying the plants, the hedger
564
REALISATION .
takes up
all the finer part of the mould nearest the thorn -bed with the ditcher's shovel, fig . 453, and dexterously inverts it above the laid plants, securing them in their places with a few pats of the shovel. The
space of time, but the earth may be ren dered as hard by frost as to be unfit for working the next day ; and should the frost prove severe and continuous, and the work be altogether suspended, the plants
two assistants should not lay more thorns evening, and, having finished laying them , they follow the hedger, and dig and shovel up with the spade all the black mould in the ditch, throwing it upon the roots and
thus left exposed will inevitably perish. laid on the thorn-bed only in the forenoon, the afternoon in winter being too short to allow time to lay plants, and to cover them too with a sufficient quantity of earth.
than can be entirelycovered with soil before In frosty weather the plants should be
stems of the plants, until a sort of level In such weather it is better to leave off bank of earth is formed over them , as at work altogether, for the frosted earth will
d , fig. 456. In doing this, one of the assis- chill the tender fibres. When the weather tants lifts all the soil across the breadth of is fresh, and not too wet, the plants may
the ditch, at a, working backwards; whilst be laid in the afternoon in spring. In wet
the other works forwards, face to face, weather the work should also be suspend shovelling up all the black mould he can ed, not only on account of the cloggy state find, whether in a loose or firm state, in of the ground for good work, but the im the ditch. When the hedger has finished propriety of the men withstanding much
covering the plants with mould,and whilst rain in winter. The finishing ofthe top of the assistants are proceeding to clear all the mould from the ditch, he steps upon the top of the mound which they have thrown up above the plants, and, with his face towards the ditch, firmly compresses, with his feet, the mould above the plants.
the hedge-bank will be more uniform, and look better, when a considerable length is finished at the same time, than when join ings are visible at short intervals ; but in frosty or in wetweather, the sooner a piece is finished, the better for the cleanliness of
5614. When any manure is proposed to be given to the thorn - plant at this stage of the operation, the time to apply it is after the hedger has laid the soil above the plants, and before the larger portion has been put on by his assistants. The manure should be well prepared, and as much granulated as possible , to mix intimately with the soil, which should be prevented subsiding, for if it crack by that during winter, the frost may enter to the injury
soil .
the labourers and the condition of the
5616. The rule observed for the depth
of a ditch that stands well is one-balf its breadth, and the width of the bottom one sixth of the breadth at the top. In the case of hedge-planting, the breadth is 4
feet ; the depth is therefore 2 feet 3 inches, and the width of bottom 9 inches. The hedge-bank is always broader than the ditch , being about 5 feet, the soil lying
of the plants. While the bedger is com- loosely upon it ; and the perpendicular pressing the monld, his assistants straw the height of the bank is less than the depth manureover the compressed soil.
of the ditch, being 2 feet. These are, in general, convenientdimensions for a hedge
5615. By the time he has finished the ditch and bank, where no constant run of compression, all the mould will have been
water has to be accommodated in the ditch ;
taken out of the ditch by the assistants. but should there be, though in winter When no manure is applied at this time, only, it should be made proportionably
and after the soil has been fallowed and capacious; for, if not, the water will as dunged in the autumn, this is a good time suredly make it so, to the danger of the to apply lime. When the thorns have thorn-bed. Ditches brought toa point at
receivedthis quantity of earth above them , the bottomare objectionable for many reasons. and the lime covered with a sprinkling of
They do not afford sufficient
earth, the plants may be considered in a materials to form a monnd for the young
safe state from the frost; but it is not safe, thorn - plants; they are easily filled up in frosty weather, to leave them even for with the mouldering of earth from the a night, with less earth upon them - for sides, and the decay of vegetables; and plants may not only be frosted in that short when water gets into them , the bottom
PLANTING HEDGES.
565
either soon gets filled up with mud, or is assistants follow one another, using the deeply guttered. spade ; and the hedger brings up the rear, using the shovel. Should there be
5617. When the work has proceeded more earth at one place of the ditch than thus far, the other implements come into another — which will be the case where use. If the subsoil of the ditch is a tena- inequalities abound on the surface — the
cious ductile clay, the spade alone is the surplus earth shonld either be thrown to best to remove it, as it is useless picking the back of the bank, rather than its top such a substance, especially if somewhat be made higher at one place than another, moist, as no more will rise at a time than
or wheeled away to a spot where a defi
the breadth of the face of the pick. But ciency of earth will assuredly happen in if it consists of hard dry clay, interspersed a hollow. Besides giving the bank an
with veins of sand and gravel - which irregular appearance, it is not desirable to r
compose a very common subsoil in this
cove
country - picking is absolutely necessary , and the spade can make nothing of it. In some parts of the country the handpick is alone used to loosen subsoil, whilst in others the footpick isemployed ; and, from experience in both, I recommend the lat-
5618. If going along the ditch twice finishes the work, the earth must have
the young thorns too beavily with a superfluous load of earth, so as entirely to exclude the air and moisture from their roots.
ter as being the more efficient implement been in a friable state ; but with a hard for such work, and less laborious to the subsoil the work is not so easily done. workman. Let one of the assistants The handpick is almost always used to loosen the subsoil with the footpick, fig.
raise the last 4 or 5 inches of the bottom
247, as deep as he can go for the tramp, of the ditch ; and in removing the soil the working backwards, and using it as same arrangement of the men is main directed in (3149.) When the picker has tained, only that the handpicker works
thus proceeded a short way, the other forward . Whilst the assistants are pick assistant lifts up with his spade what has ing and shovelling, the hedger again been loosened, and throws it upon the top tramps down the top of the bank , before of the mould above the thorn, upon d,fig. throwing up the last portion of earth.
456, taking care to place the subsoil so The poorer the covering of clay is over thrown up continuous with the slope up- the bank, it is the better for the purpose
wards given to the face of the bank. He to resist the vegetation of small seeds. also throws some on the back of the bank, The beating the face of the bank with to cover the whole of the black mould with
the back of the shovel is absolutely neces
the subsoil, and endeavours to make the sary to produce a skin to resist the action
shape of the bank uniform . In doing all of the frost, and prevent the mouldering this, he works backward, with his back to of the earth into the ditch. The necessity
theface of the footpicker, and standing for the beating of the faceshowsthe upon the subsoil which has been loosened expediency of projecting the plants but a by the footpick, though his back would be very short way out of the bank, as it to theback of a handpicker. He paresdown might injure the points of the stems. the side of the ditchnearest his right hand, They might be almost buried in the bank,
which,in this case,is the oppositeone from and still the young sprouts will easily re the hedge. The hedger follows this last lease themselves by the force of vegetation. assistant, working towards him face to Whilst the two assistants are preparing the
face, and movingforwards, shovelling up cord for another stretch of the fence, and all the loose earth left by the assistant's and rutting off both sides of the ditch,
spade with the ditcher's shovel, throwing the hedger pushes back or makes up
it upon the top and fully upon the front two or three inches, less or more, of the of the mound , rejecting all the larger crest of the bank with his shovel, to make the finished top parallel with the row of
stones, paring down the side of the ditch
at his right hand, and making the bank thorns ; and after he has gently beaten equal and smooth, by beating the earth down the front of the top into a rounded upon its face firmly. Should the sub- form , the planting of the thorns is finished.
soil require no picking at all, the two Fig. 458 gives an idea in section of the
REALISATION .
566
work when finished . I have introduced into along each line of fence to the points with this figure the direction the conduit takes in which is to be included the space of Fig. 459.
Fig. 458.
+
m
ブカブカサブランチ
FINISHED HEDGE- BANK . P
h
when formed below and through the hedge bank into the bottom of the ditch , in con nection with the subject treated in fig.
455. Here d f represents the line of the conduit in section, the outlet of which is seen near the bottom of the ditch at d .
MODES OF DESCRIBING A CURVE IN THE CORNER OF A FIELD.
ground allotted for the planting, as from 5619. Large boulders will no doubt be
a to b, to c, to d , and to e.
An arc has
found in the subsoil, when it is of clay, to be described between two of the near most of which may be removed with the
est of those points, and there are three
footpick, with the assistance perhaps of ways of describing them .
From b as a
an iron lever, named a pinch or crow -bar; centre, with a radius greater than half the but the largest ones may be immovable by distance between the points b and c, sweep such means, when gunpowder should be an arc at f, and from c as a centre, with used to rend them to pieces. the sameradius sweep another arc inter secting the first in f ; and then from f as 5620. In ordinary cases, when two lines
a centre, still with the same radius, sweep
of hedges meet, they intersect one another the arc cb. In like manner an arc of the in a point, and at the crossing form a same radius may be swept betwixt c and
junction of 4 fields by their corners. d , d and e, and e and b. This rule gives Should the land not be of much value, or
no pre -determined arch, further than its
the particnlar situation be much exposed radius must be greater than half the dis to the weather, it might be advisable to tance between its extremities, but it is one make a clump of planting of a stellar form which presents a pleasant curve to the eye. at the junction of the four corners. Be 5622. Another plan is to fix the height sides the means of shelter, such a round-
ing off the corners of fields is useful to of the segment of the arc, determined by their ploughing It is however, first a point, beyond which the hedge shall not
necessary to ascertain the quantity of approach towards the centre of theground ground that can be conveniently spared, a . This restriction may be necessary in although it is not worth while to enclose a some cases. It is done by at once fixing smaller space than a quarter of an acre, and the point g, which gives three points, à, the largest space need not exceed one 9, and c, through which the arc must acre in the low country. pass. Its centre isformed by joining g d , which bisect, and from the point of bisec
5621. Supposing the space is deter- tion raise a perpendicular ; also join gc, mined, its enclosure is done in this man- which bisect, and from the point of bi
ner : Áscertain the point where the two section raise a perpendicular, and from lines of hedges would intersect, and fix the point as a centre where the two per a pole there as at a , fig . 459 ; and from pendiculars intersect at h, sweep the arc it measure an equal distance with a tape d c , with the radius h g.
This rule is
PLANTING HEDGES.
567
founded on a corollary to the 1st Prob- themselves to the inequalities of the ground, lem of the 3d Book of Euclid.* and form , on the whole, a suitable figure for the purpose they are intended to serve. 5623. A simple rule, which practical Curves in fields should be made conform
gardeners employ in drawing one line ableto the ploughing of the adjoining land, at right angles to another, is this :
for, if such adaptation be not attended to,
From the given point, measure 6 feet along land may be lost to tillage in the acute the line, and from the same point measure ness of the curves. After large pins are
outward 8 feet; from the further end of set to show the general form of a long curve, the 6 feet, measure 10 feet towards the or series of long curves,smaller ones should
end of the 8 feet, and the point where the be employed to fill up the segments be
8 feet and 10 feet meet is perpendicular tween the larger, which the cord stretched to the given point. This rule is directly upon the face of all the pins will show, founded upon the celebrated 47th Proposi- and the beauty of their curves may be tion of the 1st Book of Euclid. preserved by small pins with hooked heads. If a curve on a ditch is required, the rut 5624. The third method is this : Letting of the breadth of theditch, as also the
l be the point intended to determine the making of the thorn-bed, should follow the curve between d and e, equidistant from cord in its curved position; but great care
each ; then set off the point i also equidis- is requisite to preserve the two sides of a tant from d and e, and join il ; from any point on the line il as a centre describe an arc of such radius as shall pass through l, but will fall anywhere within d ande. Draw
curved ditch parallel ; for if the cross headed wooden rule is not held as a tangent
to each particular part of the curve which the ditch is to have, the breadth of the
do at right angles to the fence d, and make ditch will vary considerably in different do equal to i l, then find a point p on the places, and its form will be twisted . line d o equidistant from o and i. Join i p, The hedge-bank will then be deprived of and produce it towards k, and from p as sufficient covering at places where the a centre describe the ark dk, which will ditch is twisted into broad and narrow
touch the larger circle, of which k m is also portions. There is no error into which an arc, according to Euclid, 3d Book, 11 labourers are so apt to fall as this : they Prob. In like manner, the arc em can
measure, without thinking of the conse
be described by first drawing en, at right quences, at any angle across a curved ditch. angles to the line of fence e, and proceed 5626. A very common practice - recom as before. If the lines of fence run at right angles to each other, the arcs d k and em mended by most writers on hedges — is to
will have equal radii. This is too intricate leave a broad scarcement in front of the a mode of drawing curves for practical thorn-bed, because it is necessary to supply
purposes, but it is well that your ingenuity should be exercised in every possible way, that you may never be at a loss to apply expedients according to circumstances.
theyoung thorns with moisture . It is alleged that thesloping face of the bank conveys away the rain that falls into the ditch from theplants. And what although it does ? The
This method, however, enables you to young thorn does not imbibe moisture by form curves of different sizes, in situa- the point of its stem, but by the fibres of its tions where such may be required on ac- roots, which easily obtain it through the mound, the earth of which is loose enough
count of obstructions.
for the transmission of rain .
But inde
5625. In setting poles for straight lines, pendently of this, a scarcement is evidently ordinary accuracy of eye will suffice; so excellent a contrivance for encouraging but in setting them in curves, where the growth of weeds, that it is impossible
geometrical ones cannot be introduced, to clean a hedge well where thereis one. considerable taste is required by the planner. Such curves can only be formed by setting up large pins, and by judging of their beauty by the eye, so that the sweeps
Earth froni the bottom of the ditch may, no doubt, be occasionally thrown upon the scarcement to smother the weeds ; but its accumulation there must be limited to the
may appear naturally to accommodate beight of the thoru-bed, and weeds can * Duncan's Elements of Plane Geometry, p. 57.
REALISATION .
568
grow as well upon this earth as upon the not look well,trench a stripe ofground with scarcement. The appearance of fig. 460 is the spade, in the intended line of the hedge, at least three feet in breadth, pointing in dung and raking in lime in adequate quan
Fig. 460.
tities some timebefore the period of plant
ing . When that time arrives, stretch the cord in the middle of the stripe, guiding the curves with wooden pins. First, smoothen the surface of the ground with a
clap of the spade upon the cord, and then notch deeply with it by the side of the cord, drawing the earth towards you. Into this furrow carefully place the roots and fibres of the thorn -plants, with their cut stems, fig. 457, leaning against the cord ; and, supporting the plants in their places
with the left hand, fillup the furrowwith earth with a trowel in theright hand. Press the plants firmly against the earth with the BAD EFFECT OF A SCARCEMENT . outside ofthe foot placed in a line with the sufficient to condemn the use of the scarce- stems, and fill up and make the surface
ment in any hedge-work, where the weeds level with the spade.
After the removal
b, on the scarcement a, vie in height and of the cord , press the ground with the vigour with the thorn plant c itself. row of thorns between both your feet, and finish off the work with a rake.
In
5627. Where part of a hedge is desired planting ornamental hedges, you should to be carried across a water - course , an
bear in mind that, for whatever pur
arch or large conduit is often made to span it, its sides banked up with sods or earth, and a quantity of mould wheeled upon it, to form the thorn-bed. I have seen such structures, but do not approve of them , because hedge-banks on stone building do
pose a hedge may be wanted, the thorns should always be planted on the natural surface of the ground ; for if set in tra velled earth, unless it is of considerable bulk and depth, they run the risk of being either stunted in growth, or of altogether
not retain sufficient moisture in summerto perishing for want ofnourishment. Thorns support even young thorn -plants. If the might be planted in this manner in the
nature of the ground will admit of it, it is fields, andwhere the soil is deep anddry better to plant the thorns on the surface of the plan is good, and the plants will no the ground, as near as possible on each side doubt thrive ; but in shallow soils, however
of the water -course, above flood -mark. dry — and especially where they are damp The water-channel, probably dry in sum- below — even thoughdrained ,theplants will mer, when the fields are only used for most probably not thrive. I observe that
stock, can be fenced with paling ; or, what most of the thorns planted along the sides is a better ſence, if stones can be procured of railways, for fences, are planted on the at a reasonable distance, a strong dry - stone surface ; but time is yet wanting to show
wall, with large openings in it to allow the whether or not they will thrive in all water to pass through in winter.
The
cases .
I suspect they will not, for drain
openings can be filled up in summer with ing is very imperfectly attended to on a few thorns, to keep in sheep.
railways.
5629. Forest trees ought never to be 5628. If it is desired to plant a thornhedge on the top of a sunk -fence, or along planted in the line of thorns, for it is quite
the edge of a walk by the side of a shrub- impossible, even with the greatest care, to bery, or to enclose a shrubbery or a clump of trees in pleasure-ground or lawn , the plants should be assorted and prepared as directed above (5611 ); but instead of raising a mound, which in such situations would
rear thorn - plants, to become a good fence, under their drip. Thorns are very im patient of being overshadowed by taller trees ; and trees planted on the top of a mound , betwixt double hedges, not only
: 569
SWITCHING HEDGES.
rob both of moisture at the roots, but pour can only be undertaken in winter. Now
their drip directly upon branches of the thorns. « To plant trees in the line of a hedge ," says Lord Kames, " or within a few feet of it, ought to be absolutely prohibited as a pernicious practice. It is amazing that people should fall into this
that spring has arrived, when the planting in all cases should cease, wehave to attend to the treatment of hedges of older growth, and the first consideration bestowed on them in spring is pruning. The season of pruning is limited, for it ought not to be
error, when they ought to know that there begun as long as frost is likely to occur ; never was a good thorn -hedge with trees nor continued after the sap has become
in it. And how should it be otherwise ? active in the plants in spring. I remem An oak, a beech, or an elm , grows faster ber of a fine hedge in Berwickshire being than a thorn. When suffered to grow in breasted over, in a time of hard black
themidst of a thorn -hedge, it spreads its frost, not so much for its own sake, as to roots everywhere, and robs the thorns of obtain a near supply of thorns for a dead
their nourishment. Nor is this all : the tree, overshadowing the thorns, keeps the sun and air from them. At the sametime, no tree takes worse with being overshadowed than a horn ." Hedgerow trees are strongly recommended, by all the old writers on agriculture, as being the
hedge. I remarked to the hedger that the thorns gave a curious inetallic ring on be ing struck with the hedge-bill ; but he was insensible to the peculiarity of the sound where he stood, beside the hedge. Whether this sound was indicative of
the subsequent phenomenon exhibited
best means of growing timber for the navy, by the hedge, I know not ; but the pruned and giving shelter to fields ; and even a stems put forth very few buds in the sub
recent writer on timber seems to favour sequent springand summer-not that they theplan of planting the oak in hedgerow ,
seemed to be dead from the appearance of
as if that tree could not be sufficiently the bark or of the wood, where the latter
gnarled for naval purposes, and rendered was exposed to view bythe action of the Ledge-bill. The hedge continued in a thick in thebark for tan, in other exposed hedge-bill. situations where they could do no injury, dormant state in the ensuing winter ; but rather than in thorn -hedges.t
in the following spring, more than twelve months after the pruning, it exhibited 5630. Where thorns are made to fence signs of life, and put forth most vigorous
plantations, they should be planted on the shoots in summer, some of them not less outside of the mound, though facing the than 4 feet in length. Although I cannot N., that the air may have free access to explain this phenomenon, there is suffi them ; and no large forest-tree should be cient peculiarity in it to justify the advice, planted near behind them.
that no hedge should becut down in win Fig . 461 .
5631. It is not unusual to see beech mixed
with thorn as a hedge ; but beech is no where a terror to live - stock in fields.
ter in frost, but to await the return of the sap
in spring.
The
sweet briar ( Rosa canina,) too, is frequently
5633. The pruning
mixed with the thorn , and no doubt im parts a delightful perfume to the air after
of well-grown young hedges consists of only
a shower in summer ; but it soon overcomes
one operation - switch
the thorns near it. The crab apple ( Pyrus malus) also displaces thorns in hedges. We have only to view the hedges in the southern counties of England, to be con
ing. Switching is the lopping off straggling
vinced of the noxious effects of intermixing other plants with the thorn.
a hedge than the rest ; and, in doing this, the
branches that
grow
moreprominentlyfrom extreme points of many
5632. Spring . – Our attention has been
occupied with the ſencing of a whole farm
of the other branches
are also cut off.
This
with thorn bedges ; and such an operation
THE SWITCHING-BILL. operation is performed
* Kames' Gentleman Farmer, p. 283.
+ Matthew On Naral Timber, p . 359.
570
REALISATION .
with the switching-bill, fig. 461. It has a curved blade 9 inches long, and if inch broad ; a helve 2 feet 3 inches in length ; and its weight altogether is about 24 lb.
clay on a tilly subsoil — in every case let it grow , and let it afterwards be judiciously pruned, and the assurance of experience
is, thatyou will possess an excellent fence,
It feels light in the band, and is used with and a beautiful Ledge, in a much shorter
an upward stroke, turning backwards over- time than the isual treatment by hedgers head.
5634. Hedgers have a strong predilec-
will ever produce.
5635. I have given, in fig. 462, a repre
tion to use the switching-bill. They will, without compunction ,switch a young hedge at the end of its first year's existence. No
Fig. 462.
new planted hedge ought to be touched with a knife until it is at least two years
old — the great object being to attain en largement of the roots, that they may search about freely for support ; and the only way a plaut has of acquiring large roots is by means of the growth of its branches and leaves in summer, supporting their healthy functions. Even beyond the age mentioned above, the pruning -knife should scarcely be used, until the young hedge has acquired the height sufficient for a fence ; and not freely then, but only to
d
check the inordinate growth of some of the a
branches, and to preserve equality in the size of the plants. There can be no doubtof
excessive pruning curbing the growth of the young roots of hedges, when we observe
the very puny stems which much pruned young hedges always present. Both ex perience and observation bave satisfied me, that to the abuse of pruning should be
A CORRECTLY SWITCHED THORN HEDGE ,
ascribed most of the deaths ofyoung hedge- sentation of the average height which a plants, and theconsequent number of gaps young hedge should attain , in relation to observable in old hedges. No doubt the the height of its hedge-bank andthe depth
thorn plant is placed in a wide range of soil and situation , and it is reasonable to expect that it will grow better in some situations than others ; but having bad favourable opportunities of observing the
of its ditch, before it is switched up ; and although all the plants will not, in that time, have individually acquired the strength of that represented in the cut,
still the form and outline of the hedge, of soils, from the lightest gravel to the obtained . This form is given to the plant heaviest clay — and even in peat-moss—I by switching the face a next the ditch
rearing ofthorn hedges in a great diversity traced by the letters a b and b c , may be can affirm that rational management will enable them to become a good fence, and continue so in any soil, though not in any situation , such as amongst under-water. Let the plant bave peace to grow till it
with a slight batter towards the top, b, which is more perpendicular — more like a walled fence than the face bebind, from c to b — because the plant in that particular
part should be encouraged to cover the
has acquired a considerable degree of top of the hedge -bank with its lowest natural strength, taking a longer or branches, for the double purpose of pre shorter time to acquire it, according to the venting trespasses upon it, and of keeping
circumstances in which it is placed - acquiring it in the shortest time in deep sandyloam, the most useful of all soils, and taking the longest time in poor thin
down the weeds upon the bank, as also of forming a sloping face from the level of the ground at d, to the top of the plant at b. A hedge of such a shape will not only
BREASTING HEDGES.
571
have a broad enough basis from a to - ably adapted to afford shelter, and should perhaps 5 feet altogether over the branches therefore be reared against the storiny -to form a close fence, but also a light quarter of the farm ; and, as pruning is
top to encourage the upward growth of the plant; while the sloping face on each side affordsroom for the naturally upright, straight, stiff, spiny shoots to grow up-
attendedwith trouble and expense where hedges thrive luxuriantly, they may be allowed to grow up where they cannot do harm , as upon heights and in hollows. wards. After having attained its natural height which, in the thorn, may be 10 feet 5636. A seasonal accident, however, the plants acquire thickness of stem,
may befall a yonng hedge in winter - it which, if let alone, will continue to in may be smothered with snow ; and on crease for many years.
But while it be
the mass of snow subsiding by consolida- comes thicker, the plant changes its tion, its great weight may strip off many character, gradually forsaking the form of
of the lateral branches, and break down the hedge-plant, and assuming the more the top shoots. This accident I have seen naturalform of the tree - enlarging its occur, and there is no evading it ; for the head by the lateral expansion of the
strongest branches of the largest hedge upper branches, and elevating its stem by may be stripped off by the weight of snow. a natural pruning of the lower ones In such a case the young plants must be every year thus rendering itself more
pruned in spring by the removal of all the and more unfit for a fence. In observing
injured parts, with a pruning -knife, but no this natural tendency in hedges, the more.
No matter though this necessary hedger should consider, that the thorn
pruning leave the young hedge in an un- plant is not in its natural statewhen placed equal state - someof the plants being much in line as a fence along the side of a field ; crushed, whilst others have escaped injury and, consequently, if he desires to retain - let it grow ; and although the pruned it as a fence, he must restrain its tendency plants may not overtake the others, these
to become a tree.
He has all this in his
latter canbe afterwards pruned to a pro- power, and may even make an old hedge per size one year earlier than they would resume its youthful habits by well-timed have been, bad no accident befallen the pruning, for such is the accommodating hedge. natureof the thorn -plant.
5637. There are commonly two forms
5638. The only sort of pruning suit
of hedges found on farms in Scotland. able for so strong a hedge is cutting it One is the pointed or hog-mane shape, as down ; and there are two modes of doing shown in fig. 462; the other is the more this one by leaving the stems and some natnral form of the plants, assumed by of the branches at a certain height from
having leave to shoot up their tops, whilst the ground, the other by cutting off all the lateral branches are switched off.
the branches and the stems to within a
Though these two forms are also found in few inches of the ground. The former is
England, the country of luxuriant hedges, called breasting over, the latter cutting other forms are met with many pictur down . esque in the extreme, but otherwise not
desirable, inasmuch as hedges with large 5639. The instrument with which a expanded tops occupy much valuable hedge is breasted over is called a breast
ground. Were such a broad -topped forming -knife, and is like a switching-bill, fig. allowed in some parts of Scotland, the first 461 ; but the blade is somewhat shorter
winter's snow would inevitably crush the and stronger, and the implement altogether hedge down to the ground. Of the two heavier. It is used with a single back
fornis referred to, either may be adopted handedupward stroke. It costs from 38. according to circumstances. Along both to 78. 6d. On stating this difference of sides of a turnpike rode, the low hog -name price, I may remark that it arises solely
is most advisable, to allow the free action from the quality of the article. The com of the wind upon the road. A height of mon English hedge-bills, made for sale, from 4£ feet to 6 feet will suffice for the cost only 38. a-piece ; but the probability purpose. The natural method is admir- is, that a good day's work cannot be got
572
REALISATION ,
out of 1 in 10 of them ; whereas the branches amongst those of the plant be Scotch -made 78. 6d . bills will last for yond it. On the stem being severed, the
years, give satisfaction all the time, and hedger seizes its lower end with his prove themselves the cheapest instruments gloved hand, and, with the assistance of in the end.
the knife in the other, pulls it asunder from the adjoining plant, and throws it 5640. On determining the age to breast endways either on the headridge beyond over a hedge, its stems should not be the ditch beside him, or upon the head
stronger thana hedgercan cut through with ridge of the field behind the hedge -bank, one hand by two or three strokes of the whichever place may have been selected for breasting -knife. The hedger, on com- carrying away the thorns from , to be made
mencing this operation — using the knife in hisright hand, and coveringhis left with a ledger's leather-glove - stands on the hedge-bank, near the hedge , with his face
into a dead-hedge. Standing up at the there may be a small splinter of wood and bark, left by the last stroke of the far side of the sloped cut of the stem ,
outwards, and his right hand to the hedge bill, though with a dexterous hand this to be cut down. After cutting a few seldom happens ; yet, to give the cut a
thorns in any way at the end of the hedge, finished appearance, the hedger cuts off the its splinter neatly with his bill, held in both bank, he commences cutting the principal hands. All the lateral branches growing
to make room for himself to stand upon
stem of the plant nearest him , at about the
from the stem are cut off in the same man
height of his knee above the ground where ner as far back as the top of the hedge it is growing. In cutting, he uses the bank, with an inclination corresponding knife, by first making a firm cut upwards to the slope of its face, so that the back upon the stem, the knife perhaps penetrat- most branch preserves about the same ing to the heart ; and if not much exceeding height above the top of the hedge -bank as 1 inch in diameter, he may cut it through the stem in front does above the hedge-line.
at one stroke; but the generality of the The finished breasting may be seen in fig. stems will require more than one stroke, 463, where the sloping cuts are shown in Fig. 463. I have seen a hedger, of by no although s nal
mean great perso strength , cut through thicker stems at a stroke than his appear ance would indicate ability to do. But
supposing the first stroke to penetrate about an inch, the next one is given in a down ward direction to meet the inner end
of the first stroke, so that a wedge of the stem may be cut out. The wedge flying off, the next stroke is given in the exact line of the first, and it will most probably sever the stem ; but if not, another at the furthest corner of the cut, and one at
the nearest, will send the knife through . All the cuts made with a view to remove
A BREASTED OVER THORN- HEDGE , WITH THE
HEDGE BANK AND FACE WORN DOWN , the wedge -shape pieces are comparatively light; but the upward cuts intended to the main stem at c along the other stems sever the stem are given with force ; and from c upwards above the hedge-bank. both sorts of strokes follow fast, until the The hedger proceeds in this manner until stem is cut through . In renewing each the entire hedge is cut down. The cost stroke , the hedger's left band is ready, the for breasting over a hedge is about 4d. per moment the knife is brought in front of rood of 6 yards. If the stems, such as at his body, to receive its back between the c, are strong and hard, the cutting-bill may fingers and thumb, as a rest and a guide be used forthe stems, and the breasting for the next stroke . The cut stem will knife for the branches. A pair of hedger's either drop down on end upon the ground gloves costs 1s. or 1s. 6d. behind the line of the hedge, or will be kept suspended, by the interlacing of its 5641. Breasting is best suited to a com
CUTTING DOWN HEDGES.
573
paratively younghedge, every branch and is cheaper than breasting, thongh initself stem of which will soon be covered over harder labour, because only one stem has to
with young twigs, which will ere long be cut through to remove the entire plant. form a close structure of vigorous stems ;
but an older hedge, one that has reached
5644. A still older hedge, with
its utmost natural height of 10 feet, when stronger stems, requires the hedger's light determined to be cut down should not be small axe, fig. 465, to cut it down. It breasted over, as is too often done, but cut
Fig. 465.
down within a few inches of the gronnd.
weighs 3 lb., and its helve measures 3 feet in length . It costs
This is a very different operation from breasting , inasmuch as it leaves no branches, and only a small portion of the
ranging in size from
stem .
No. 1 to No. 4.
from 1s. 8d. to 28. 6d.,
5642. The instrument used for this Fig. 464.
purpose is the cutting bill, fig. 464.
In
using it, the hedger stands in the opposite direction to using the breasting -knife
It has
and
he has
a blade 7 inches long,
cntting-bill;
and 24 inches broad ; a helve 2 feet in
bedge, and uses
length ; and the bill al
axe with both bands, and directs its strokes
the left hand next the the
together weighs 6 lb.
It is used exactly in
as with the carpenter's
the same manner as the breasting -knife ; but
common
axe.
Tbe
twigs are first removed THE HEDGER'S AXE.
by the breasting -knife. being so much heavier in itself, and employed The cutting strokes are all made upwards,
on stronger plants, it and the obstructing timber is wedged out reqnires greater labour in pieces. to wield it.
7s.6d., the
It costs
highest
5645. In all these cases of cutting over
price of such instru- the stems of the thorn - plants, the incision THE CUTTING - BILL . ments.
slopes upwards from the face towards the back of the bedge. The cuts on the
5643. In cutting down an old hedge
growing stems are made by the hedger
with this bill, the hedger stands upon the not in the plane of the line of the hedge, side of the ditch under the line of hedge. but at a considerable angle to it ;so that, From this position the strokes are given when the cuts are viewed in the direction upwards, but near the ground at first; in which the hedger proceeds in cutting,
and, to give freedom to the Ledger, he first they are not visible, while from the opposite uses thebreasting -knife to clear away all direction they almost face the spectator. the small branches that grow out of and around the stem to be cut through.
5646. Hedges are wofully mismanaged Without this precaution, the operating in the cutting in many parts of the coun
band of the hedger might be severely la- try. Without further consideration than cerated by the straggling branches. " The saving the expense of a paling to guard a stem being thick, many strokes will be re- new -cut-down hedge, or in ignorance of
quired to cut it through ; and many of these the method of making a dead hedge from will have to be given downwards, to cut the remains of an old live one, the stems of away the wood in wedges. The left hand is used to rest and guide the bill, as it did in the case of the breasting -knife. When severed, the stems are laid upon the ground, on either or both sides of the
an old hedge are often cut over about 31 feet high, to remain as the fence. The consequence is just what might have been anticipated from the known habits of the thorn — a thick growth of young twigs
hedge, as the thorns may afterwards be where the hedge was cut over ; and the old hedge is 2 }d. per rood of 6 yards. It standing at 31 feet above the ground upon
required. The cost of cutting down an ultimate effect is, that of a young hedge
574
REALISATION .
bare stakes. The only plan, therefore, .5648. Hitherto the pruning and cutting to make an old hedge a valuable fence, is to have proceeded on the supposition that
cutit over near the ground ,and form a dead- the hedge cut down would make a suffi hedge with the part cut off to protect it.
cient fence when it grew up again ; but this will not be the case if many of the
5647. But another mismanagement is stems are as far asunder as to leave gaps in the mode of making the cuts when between them, even after the young twigs hedges are cut down. The bill is too shall have grown up. In such a state the often used to hack down the stems, in- pruned hedge will never constitute an ef stead of to cut off the branches ; and the ficient fence without further assistance ; consequence to the stems is the opposite and the mode in which that is rendered is
of what is right - the branches, worthless when severed from the hedge, being cut off clean ; while the top of the stems, upon which depend the future fence, are shattered to pieces. This barbarous work
termed plashing, which consists of laying down a strong and healthy stem from the one or the other side across the gap. On cutting down the bedge, where the bedger meets with a gap which cannot be
is occasioned by giving a downward in- filled up by the ordinary growth of the stead of an upward stroke in cutting off young stems, he leaves a healthy supple the branches from the stems. Fortunately for the owner of the hedge, the natural habit of the plant in part counteracts the mischievous work of his own hedger ; for,
plant standing beside it, on the side of the gap next him , that, when plashed, they may all lie in the same direction. After the hedge is cut down, the hedger plashes
backed and split as the stems are, they the stems he left standing in the following conceal, though not cure, the injury the hedge where he began to cut, he first
nevertheless push out young twigs, and manner :-Commencing at the end of the they have received. The difference in the effects of the strokes in cutting a liedge well and ill, is thus truly explained by Mr Francis Blaikie : “ A moment’s reflection,” he says, “ will show that it is im-
prunes off, with the breasting-knife, all the branches from the stem, cuts the stem of the proper length for the gap, and then makes an upward cut in it near the ground, on the opposite side to the direc
possible for an edge-tool to pass through tion towards which the stem is to be a piece of timber without causing a severe plashed, but no deeper than is necessary to
pressure against one or both sides of the bend it to the proper position, which wood, because the tool occupies space. The should be as near and parallel to the teeth of a saw drags the chipsout of the ground as possible ; for, unless the stems cut, and give the space requisite for the are laid as close to the ground as to fill up
tool to pass, but an edge-tool can only the gap from the bottom, there is no use pass by pressure. In cutting the stem of a bedge or young tree which is growing upright, if the blow is struck down, nearly the whole pressure falls on
of plashing. The plashed stem is partly kept down either by a snag on the stem on the other side of the gap, or by wattling it before and behind two or three
the stub or growing stem , which is shattered to pieces, while the stem cut off is left sound ; but when the blow is struck up, as it should always be, the effect is
stems, or by a hooked stick driven into the ground near its point, and partly by a wooden wedge, severed in cutting the hedge, inserted into the cut, which is de
reversed, the stub is then left sound and
fended from rain and air by a lump of
.
smooth , is cut clean , and the stem cut off clay. Plashing is represented in fig. 466, is shattered." The advantage of the pro- where ed is the first plashed stem , cut
per method is, that “ when this latter prac- nearly through at e, and laid along near tice is adopted, the wet does not pene- the ground, across the gap which extends trate through the stub into the crown of beyond d ; ba is a stem passing across the the roots, canker is not encouraged, and large gap bc ; k is the wedge ofwood in
the young shoots grow up strong and serted into the cut of the plashed stem ba healthy, and able to contend against the to keep it down. The stem ba extends vicissitudes of the weather." *
beyond the immediate gap from b to C, * Blaikie On Hedges, p. 33.
575
PLASHING HEDGES.
since there is no means of fastening it of the stem a ; but had there been a means down at c, and its end is wattled in front of fastening it at c, it should have been Fig. 466 .
d
THE PLASHING, AND LAYING OF AN OLD HEDGE, AND THE WATER - TABLING OF A DITCH.
cut off there. It will also be observed, continue a fine hedge perhaps for 500 "' *
that the stem ed originates at e and not at years.'
d , though the gap isreally beyond d, and not between the stems į and a, because
5650. Immediately connected with the
no offshoot was found on a to leave for a pruning of hedges in spring is the scour plash ; and had there been , the stem e ding of the ditches, which serve to keep
would have been cut off altogether, and themdry, and the repairing of the hedge the plash laid across the gap a d from the banks. A ditch which conveys a pretty off- shoot of a.
constant stream of water may have as much mud deposited in it as to require
5649. Plashing herges is much prac- scouring before the space about the roots tised in England, where it is frequently of the hedge is able to accommodate all the very neatly executed ; but I cannot help matter that should be scoured out of it. thinking that many a good hedge is there In this case, as much mud should be needlessly cut down for the sake of being placed between the hedge -roots as can
plashed. Plashes are there laid at all pos- conveniently lie, which will serve the sible angles, and twisted into all possible double purpose of easily getting rid of forms, as if to prove that the thorn plant part of the mud, and of doing good to the
can withstand every possible torture. I hedge by thickening the soil around its cordially agree with the following senti- roots; and the remaiuder should be placed ments on the practice of plashing, and they on the ditch lip on the headridge, to be
also tell us the history of the origin of removed at leisure for other purposes. most of the gaps to bo seen in hedges. “ Plasbing an old hedge,” says Lord
5651. But the more usual practice is,
Kames, "an ordinary practice in England, that, when the ditch is to be scoured out makes, indeed, a good interim fence, but in a thorough manner, the hedge is at the at the long run is destructive to the same time pruned, and the hedge-bank
plants ; and, accordingly, thereis scarcely to be met with a complete good hedge where plashing has been long practised. A cat is said among the vulgar to have nine lives. Is it their opinion thata thorn, like a cat, may be cut and slashed at without suffering by it ? A thorn is a tree of long life. If, instead of being massacred by plashing, it were raised and dressed in the way here described, it would
repaired. The propriety of combining these works will be rendered obvious from the following considerations : After the process of weeding bedges has been con ducted for some years by removing the grass from the side of the ditch, and the weeds as they spring up on the face of the hedge -bank, the earth will be found
removed much below its original place in all soils. The incessant action of the
Kames' Gentleman Farmer, p. 283.
REALISATION .
576
atmosphere, and of rain and snow occasion . length, and lays them aside for the hedger.
ally, upon the inclined surface of the The hedger then places these sods with hedge -bank, sensibly co -operate with the the spade upon their edge on the notch, weeding to remove the soil from the roots with the grass side outwards, and beats of a hedge. The combined effects of these them to the bank, making them all of the causes are, that in time the roots are left
sanie width by paring their upper edge,
too bare ; and if the deficiency is not and keeping them in a straight line The remedied, it will cause the whole hedge to sods unite to each other the more quickly be shaken to the roots by every wind that and firmly when their ends are cut acute
blows. By looking back to fig. 463, it angled, instead of square -- not only in their will be seen that the soil bas been removed thickness, but in their breadth - as is par from the hedge -bank , and the bottom of tiallyshown at fff,fig. 466,which represent
the ditch filled up to the extent indicated the faces of the sod c, fig. 467, when set. below the dotted line b c a, from the centre The reason for putting the grass side of the of which spacethe root of the hedge sods outwards is, that thesods may adhere projects at c. The deficiency of the soil and grow to the bank ; for if they were can be easily supplied, and it is done by put on with the grass side inwards, the frost water-tabling. Water-tabling can only of the ensuing winter would cause them
be executed in the best manner after the to slide down ; and there need be no ap hedge has been thoroughly pruned. It is prehension of injury to the hedge from the begun by making a sharp notch with the growth of the grass from the sod when spade, 3 inches deep, in the side of the it is set at some distance below the ditch, about a foot below the root of the hedge -roots. This is called the set -sod.
thorns, at c, fig. 467. The hedger then pares While the hedger is engaged in setting Fig. 467.
these sods, the assistant raises others 6
inches broad, 4 inches in depth, and of the length of the spade's face. After a few of these smaller sods have been made ready, the hedger lays them, so as to break joint with the set-sods, with the grass side downwards, upon the upper edge of the set-sods; beating them flush with the face of these, and pushing them under the thorn - roots.
This sod is called the
table, and is seen in section at d, fig. 467,
and in face from h to g, fig. 466. The
reason for placing the grass side of the table downwards is to prevent the grass THE
MODE OF WATER - TABLING A HEDGE - DITCH .
growing immediately among the roots of the thorns, whence it could not be removed
away all the earth to that depth from below without frustrating the very purpose for the thorn -roots to the notch, preserving which the water -tabling was performed, the proper inclination of the side of the by taking away the earth from the thorn ditch . If the side of the ditch is found roots. On the hedger proceeding with the worn away to a greater depth than the tabling, the assistant throws the parings required paring, earth should be rather of the sides and the scouring of the bot put on than taken away from below the tom of the ditch upon the hedge-bank, root of the hedge, as seen between e, the behind the table -sod, and amongst the dotted line, and the sods c and d. In the thorn - roots, to fill up every vacant space mean timethe hedger's assistant - forwater- he observes. This filling up is seen from
tabling is most expeditiously and better d to a, fig. 467; and in fig. 466, from d ,e, done by two men than one, in proportion c, b, k , to i. Water-tabling itself costs to the number, though the hedger might 2d. per rood of 6 yards, and the scouring
do all the work himself — the assistant of the ditch additional, according to the raises sods from the best part of the bot- state it is in at the time, and the difficulty tom of the ditch, 9 inches broad, 4 inches of doing it. Cutting, water-tabling,
thick and of the depth of the spade in scouring, and repairing hedge-bank, may
WATER - TABLING HEDGES.
577
5655. The laying of young twigs is be done from 8d. to 1s. per rood of 6 yards, according to the tenacity of the managed much in the same way. The soil.
old soil is removed from the gaps, and is
replaced by the compost. A stout 5652. Water - tabling renovates the twig is brought down from the stem growth of thorns, re -establishes their hold on each side of the gap, cut short and of the bank , as no wind can shake them notched , and held down amongst well
to their roots, and encourages the spring- rotted dung by a hooked stick, and covered ing of shoots around the incised parts of with the compost earth. This process is the stems and branches. It is not needed attempted to be represented in fig. 466, where a bedge has been planted on a scarce- where i is the laid twig from the old stem
ment, because the mouldering ofthe earth from the plants is prevented by it ; but the advantage is more than counterbalanced by the encouragement the scarcement affords to the growth of weeds. (5626.)
h, held down by a hooked stick. After the layer has completely taken root, and the young shoot is growing with vigour, its connection with the old stem should be severed. It is obvious that this plan will fill up a gap no larger than can be occupied by one shoot from each side of it.
5653. It is possible that in the oldest hedges, when cut down , there may be
5656. I observe farmers removing the
gaps of such width as cannot be repaired ordinary hedge-bank behind a thorn by plashing,so that other expedients must hedge to make compost of ; but the prac be adoptedto fill them up, and two pre- tice is highly injurious to the hedge,even
sent themselves to notice ; one by laying after it has grown up, by exposing its young shoots from the old stems into the roots, which grow chiefly in the bank, to gaps, and the other by filling up the gaps wet and frost. If a hedge is cut down
with young thorn -plants. The laying whose bank has been treated in this cannot be done in the same season with the cutting down of the hedge, nor until the young shoots are pretty long ; but young quicks may be planted immediately after the water-tabliug has been finished.
manner, and the roots left unprotected by the removal of the branches above them, it is possible that a few nights of severe black frost will kill every root
nearest the surface. I have no doubt that particular plants of old hedges are killed in this manner, without the cause being
5654. Where young quicks are to be suspected by the farmer. When the planted amongst old thorn roots, the hedge -bank has been thus removed, and scouring from the ditch should not be put the hedge cut down, provision should be
on those places, but rather the old soil immediately made to protect the roots, removed from them , and spread behind which may be done by covering them and between the old roots where are no gaps. New and fresh soil should be pre-
with the scouring of the ditch. If the ditch, scoured to its usual size, cannot
pared for the purpose, by mixing mould, afford sufficient materials to answer the decayed vegetables, and lime together in purpose , it should be made larger. A
a compost ; and, when ready for use, put low turf-wall as a backing, obtained at into the places formerly occupied by the hand or brought from a distance, makes a old soil. The young thorn plants are pre- neat hedge- bank, and saves a good deal of pared as in fig. 457 ; and on a trench soil. Even a double hedge -bank, or a
being formed for them in the new compost large single one, should be removed earth, in the line of the old hedge, they with caution, as many of the best roots are laid upon rotted farmyard dung, and will bave reached through its extreme the earth brought over the dung and breadth. plants, and beaten down ; and should the weather prove dry, or likely to become so,
5657. The buds of the young hedge that
they should be well watered. The young was planted in the early part of win
plants will grow rapidly ; and to preserve ter will show symptoms of life early in them from allannoyance, prune away any spring, by exhibiting curious blistersof straggling twigs from the old stems. VOL. II.
mould upon the face of the bank. The 20
578
REALISATION .
blisters at length fall off, and expose
5660. The hedger meanwhile takes his
the bud. In most cases, assistance should station on the line chosen for the dead be afforded the young buds to break their hedge to occupy, which is either. immedi prison bonds, by removing the blisters with ately behind the hedge-bank or one foot the finger or a small piece of stick, after from the lip of the ditch in front of the which they will soon burst into leaf. hedge, according to the side on which it is intended to fence the hedge just cut down. 5658. When it is determined to cut If placed behind the hedge, the dead -hedge
down or breast over any hedge, the ope- should not be set upon the topof the hedge ration should not be done at random in any season or year. It should not be done in the depth of winter, nor when the field is in grass or is coming into grass, but only when going out of grass; for, hedges being specially intended for fences against stock, it would be absurd to re-
bank, as cattle and horses would then easily reach over it, and crop the young shoots as they grew up, but should occupy its foot. 5661. A dead-bedge should be con structed so as not to be affected bythe pre vailing winds of the locality, otherwise,
move them when they would be of use in it may be torn and even upset by a high that respect. Still it will scarcely be wind, forwhich reason its head should slope possible to avoid giving inconvenience in the direction the dreaded wind blows. to one field or another, as it rarely bap pens that two adjoining fields are under 5662. The first thing the hedger does the same member of the rotation ; and in is to lay a spadeful of earth against the
the case of old grass fields, it is not pos- fence from which the dead-hedge is to sible to avoid it; so that the most that run, and the trench thus made in the
can be studied is to avoid cutting down ground should be as large as easily to
the hedge as long as the field in which it contain the lower end of a bundle of grows continues in grass, whatever may thorns, as a, fig. 468. The first mound thus
be the state of the field adjoining. The
compromise between two grass fields is
Fig. 468.
this, -that, when the hedge of the one going out of grass is cut down, thorns are furnished for a dead-hedge to fence the other that is still to be in grass.
5659. Let us now proceed to construct a dead -hedge. A hedger and an assistant are necessary to construct it, which is done in this manner :-The assistant, pro
tected by gloves, cuts the severed stems of thorns into pieces of about 3 feet in length with the cutting -bill or axe, figs. 464 and 465, according to the strength of the stems, which, when very thick, had better not be
THE DEAD - HEDGE OF THORNS ,
employed for this purpose, the branches laid up forms a lean for the first bundle. they afford being better adapted. He When the hedger is ready with the trench, lays one cut piece above another, until a bundle is formed that he can easily lift from the ground, taking care to add small twigs to it to thicken itssubstance, tocompress it with his foot, which should be shod with a hedger's clog, to make the
his assistant hands him a bundle with a
fork , which should be long -shafted, to enable him to reach over the top of the breasted hedge, when the thorns bave been laid in front of the hedge ; but if they have been laid upon the head -ridge
pieces composing the bundle to adhere to behind the hedge, which they should each other, and to trim it, by notching always be, when to be used there for a the longer twigs in with the bill to dead -hedge, a short-shafted fork is the
improve the appearance of the bundle. most convenient. The hedger receives He thus makes one bundle after an-
the bundle with his gloved bands, and
other.
places its but-end into the trench, pushing it
PALING .
579
with his clogged foot, and making its head at c. Any sort of brushwood, provided it slope from him . A tramp of earth is then reaches from one stake to every alternate raised with the spade, and placed against one, will answer for stake-and -rice; and, the but-end of the bundle to hold itfirm . if the brushwood be naturally short, the
Thus bundle after bundle is set upfirmly stakes can be set the closer together. by the hedger ; and after a few yards have been thus set up, he cuts in all straggling
5664. Such a species of fence requires
sprays with thebreasting-knife, andchops fewer nails, and less good wood, than an the top and outside of the bundles intoa ordinary paling, and is therefore cheaper; neat form of dead - hedge, baving perpen- and it will stand an equal length of time, All
as the stakes have less strain upon them ,
the thorns of a strong hedge will not be consumed by a dead -hedge of the same length. A dead-hedge will last as long as until the pruned hedge again becomes
not having the same weight of materials
dicular sides and a fattish head.
to bear. The branches being warped be
fore and behind, protect the stakes from many accidents to which those of paling
a fence, after which it may be used as are liable ; such as persons climbing over
fuel. The figure does not represent the dead -hedge in so massive a form as it really has, but by giving the ground in section it distinctly shows the position of one bundle with another.
them, swing -trees catching them , cattle and sheep rubbing against them. Stake and -rice forms a much better fence and shelter for sheep than a paling, on which account it should be placed on the N. and W. sides of fields, whence the strongest and
5663. Another form of dead -hedge is coldest winds prevail. Its close structure the stake-and -rice, and it is formed of the renders it at times liable to lodge snow, that
branches of forest trees; and where these would find its way through the rails of a are plentiful and thorns scarce, it is an paling, by the weight of wbich it is apt economical dead fence. Its structure is to be crushed down, but not more so than shown in fig. 469, where a a are stakes a dead -hedge of thorns. Fig. 469.
5665. A very common dead - fence for protecting hedges and grass from stock in spring and summer, is the common wood en paling, fig. 470. If tall grown Scots Fig. 470. THE STAKE - AND -RICE DEAD- FENCE.
fashioned from the longer branches of the tops of trees ; or, should the tops be too
small to afford sufficiently strong stakes, these should be procured from sawn timber, 41 feet in length, and about 4 inches in the side, and after being pointed, driven in line into the ground from 4 to 6 feet asunder, according to the length and strength of the tops. The same principle which determines the inclination of the bundles of a dead-hedge, in the direction
THE COMMON WOODEN PALING .
fir, 8 inches in diameter, can be procured at no great distance, or is grown upon the property of which the hedges are to form a fence, more handymaterials for tem porary fencing ofyoung thorn hedges need not be desired. Trees of that size will cut up into deals, which, besides the outside
of the heaviest winds, is followed insetting slabs, will divide up the middle for rails of the tree-tops in stake-and -rice. They are 34 inches broad and perhaps 24 feet in set in that direction on their but-endsupon length. The same trees, quartered, will the ground b, at an inclination of about make stakes which, if cut off at 4 feet
45°, and each one is wound alternately in length, and pointed, are fit for use.
before and behind the stakes as far as it Weedings of plantations, either of Scots reaches. A neat and stout finish is given fir or larch, are also very convenient for to stake-and -rice , by nailing a single rail cutting up into paling, either entire or of paling along the top of the stakes, as sawn up the middle. A paling should
580
REALISATION .
be on the same site as a dead -hedge, single rail of paling will be required along behind the hedge- bank or on the ditch lip, (5660.) Stakes, as a, should be
Fig. 471.
driven by a mallet, fig. 41 , 12 inches into the ground at 5 or 6 feet asunder, and where hard, a hole may be made by the
foot -pick , 247, or the driver, fig. 42 ; and such stakes will support a paling of 3 feet 3 inches in height. Two rails are sufficient to fence cattle, but three are required for sheep. To give additional strength to the fence, the rails should be nailed on the
face ofthe stakes next the field, and made to break -joint, so that the ends of all the
three rails shall not be nailed upon the same stake ; nor should the broad ends of the rails be nailed together, even though thinned by the adze, but broad and narrow
ends together as at b6 b, that the weight TURF FENCE TO A THORN HEDGE, and strength of the rails may be equalised. To make thepaling secure, astake should the top of the wall; but Leicester sheep be driven as a stay in a sloping direc- will be confined without a rail. tion behind the rails, and nailed to The upper rail
every third stake.
should be nailed near the top of the stakes,
5667. Lord Kames says, and there are farmers who seem to adopt the opinion,
the lowest edge of the lowest one 6 inches that “ the hedge is fenced from cattle on
from the ground, and the upper edge of the middle one 20 inches above the ground. The best vails for paling are what are called “ Scotch made stout paling nails,”
the one side by the ditch ; but it is neces sary that it be fenced on both sides. The ordinary method of a paling is no suffi cient fence against cattle ; the most gentle
from 3 to 3} inches long. Such a paling, make it a rubbing -post, (not if there be where wood is not scarce, costs 1s. 2d . a rubbing - post, which there should always per rood of 6 yards. A stout one with be, ] and the vicious break it down wau three rails, where wood is not plentiful, 28. tonly with their horns. The only effectual per rood. In the Stewartry of Kirkcud- remedy is expensive ; but better no fence bright wood is so cheap that a paling of than one that is imperfect. The remedy 4 rails, with stakes at every 4 feet, can be is two ditches and two hedges, with a high put up for 9d. or 10d. the rood. Charring mound of earth between them .” * We the points of the stakes, for paling or are left to infer from this that a paling stake-and -rice, no doubt incurs some ad- is not sufficient protection to a hedge, but ditional expense, but it renders them much that two ditches and a mound are. A more durable. Painting them with coal fence on both sides of a young hedge , or tar, and letting it dry, as far as they are one new pruned, is absolutely necessary ; driven into the ground, is perhaps as good and the sort of material it should be con structed of depends on the facility or diffi a means of preservation. culty of obtaining it ; but whatever may 5666. When turf is plentiful, it may be be the material, a fence made of it is a
employed to fence one side of a young much better protection to a young hedge hedge. Let a, fig. 471 , be a turf wall 4 than any number of dry ditches. feet high, 18 inches broad at the base, and 12 inches at the top, coped with large turf ;
5668. Summer. — The attention which
and 6 the soil thrown out of the ditch c, in- hedges require in summer is confined to
clined upwards towards the top of theturf weeding ; but the operation is a very wall. For confining Cheviot and Black- important one, not only as regards the
faced sheep, and cattle, a short stake and hedges themselves, but also thecondition • Kames' Gentleman Farmer, p. 278.
WEEDING HEDGES. of the fields near them. I am ashamed to
581
hedge-bank ; and in order that it may get
say that this department of farm - work is between the hedge- roots its face should be much neglected . The hedger himself can narrow It costs 3d. per inch along the do little to the weeding of an extensive face. A small useful implement is the range of fences ; and he is, besides, called hedge weed -hook, Fig. 474. fig. 474. It is formed away, in summer, to many other sorts of from a piece of work which have no relation to his own hooked stick, cut occupation. The field -workers, who assist from any bush or him in weeding, are engaged at field labour; and it is only at intervals that tree ; but it may be made of iron . Its they can be spared from their necessary avocations. I have found it a good plan to employ old men, who are unable
use is topull away the weeds between
to undertake ordinary labour at ordinary THE HEDGE WEED - HOOK . the hedge-roots, in wages, in weeding hedges by the piece; to the ditch, that have come down by the
and if they are diligent, it is surprising Dutch hoe from the hedge-bank. the extent of fence they will keep clean during a summer. Old women might be
5670. The manner of using these im
employed at the same occupation ; and plements is this : The hedger steps into an aged couple might employ a part of the bottom of the hedge-ditch with his face their time every day at this sort of work, towards the hedge, and having in his right with advantage to the farm and their own hand the cross-head of the hedge-spade, and resting its helve in his left above the pecuniary means. socket, he works the spade in a horizontal
5669. The implements are but few that position, removing all the grassy and are required for the weeding of hedges. Other plants growing on the face of the
They consist of a hedge spade, fig. 472, hedge-bank below the lineof thorns along the entire side of the ditch, and pushing Fig. 472. THE HEDGE SPADE .
them into the bottom .
If the thorn -bed
was formed of turf, the grass below the line of a young hedge may be expected to be pretty strong ; but if made on fallowed
having a thin cutting face, of a rectangular ground, the weeds, if not few , will not be Fig. 473.
form , attached to an iron strong. Whatevermay be the state of the shank terminating in a weeds, they should be removed from the
socket, into which is in- young hedge, in time to prevent them serted a helve, 2 feet long, scattering their seed ; for which end the with a cross head. This weeding should be undertaken as early in
spade is held horizontally the summer as possible, not merely before in both hands, and is used to cut away the grassy face of the ditch below the line of bedge ; and to prevent the bands coming
the weeds come into seed, but before they arrive at the blooming period. While the bedger takes the lead of weeding the face of the hedge -ditch below the hedge, a field worker follows him on the hedge-bank,
in contact with the bank, and removes the weeds with the Dutch
the shank is slightly bent hoe along its top and face, stirring the into a form to preserve a whole surface, but not deeper than is neces parallelism between the sary to remove the weeds. Such of the
line of the spade and that weeds as fall on the top of the hedge -bank of the helve. The hedger get leave to lie and rot there ; whilst those
alone uses this imple- on its face, immediately behind the hedge, It costs 4s . or ment. 5s. Another implement
are drawn through between the hedge
stems into the ditch, with the crooked stick, is the common Dutch hoe, by each of the field -workers who follow the THE DUTCH Hog. fig. 473, with a helve 5 feet hedger in the ditch, and the field -worker
long, with cross head. Its use is to re- on the top of the hedge-bank. The field move the weeds from the top and face of the workers take their turn at the Dutch hoe,
682
REALISATION .
as it is severer work than using the crooked Torilis anthriscus, fruit densely clothed stick, which merely saves the hands and with incurved bristles ; zig -zag trefoil, fingers of the workers being scratched by Trifolium medium ; tufted vetch, Vicia
thethorns in reaching the weeds between cracca, with finebluish -purple flowers; the stems.
I could never ascertain the and hedge-vetch, Vicia sepium , with large
cost of weeding a young hedge in that way, leafets. as it depends on the quantity and state of the weeds; but I remember an old man 5672. Numerously as these crowd to taking on the job one summer at 1d. per gether to take shelter in hedges, there are
rood of 6 yards. He first used the Dutch other intruders which insert themselves
hoe along the bank for one yoking, then between the thorn -plants, and, acquiring the hedge- spade for another, and completed strengthfrom the protection afforded them , the clearingthe space previously gone over at length overcome their protectors. Of
Were these, the most destructive to hedge-plants the hedges constantly weeded every sum- are the crab-apple, Pyrus malus, which
of weeds with the crooked stick.
mer, the costwould be very much below easily makes room for itself with its stiff this sum .
When the hedge has attained 3 elbowing branches; the sloe, Prunus
or 4 years old, it so overshadows the face spinosa ; common dog-rose, Rosa canina, of the hedge-bank behind it, that few if and even the favourite sweet-briar, Rosa any weeds get leave to appear ; 80 that rubiginosa, placed as it is in a hedge for
the hedge-spade in front, with only a skimming of the Dutch hoe on the top of the hedge-bank, is all the work required. When the hedge has grown to cover the
the sake of its odour — both these never fail to injure thorn -plants, as far as their spreading arms can reach ; the broom , Cytisus scoparius, and whin, Ulex Euro
hedge -bank entirely, the Dutch hoe is dis- pæa — bothdisplacethe thorn, and, on them pensed with , and only the hedge-spade is selves dying out by old age or severe frost, used. The same old man undertook thislatter leave unseemly gaps ; the common bramble
work at £d. perrood of6 yards, so that the or blackberry, Rubusfruticosus, and the spade-workis about half the amount of the hazel-leaved bramble, Rubus corylifolius,
whole--which, I dare say, may be near being powerful climbers, completely over the cost in hedges not allowed to be over- run thorns in many parts of England. run with weeds ; and where hedges were The common barberry, Berberis vulgaris,
originally planted in fallow ground instead is a well-known intruder into the hedges of of on lea, and where they are weeded con- England. stantly everysummer, the weeding would cost a great deal less than this sum. 5673. Weeds growing in the bottom and on the sides of ditches cause the water to
5671. The weeds which infest hedges fill up the bottom with sediment, and to are numerous, many of which are common break down the sides. Among these the to them and corn and pasture ; but others beautiful yellow corn -flag, Iris pseud are chiefly found in hedges, such as the acoris, takes up its station on the sides of
sticking -grass, Galium aparine ; great ditches, and directs the water to the op bindweed, Convolvulus sepium , a creeper posite side ; the water -cress, Nasturtium
abundant in England ; Bishops' or gout officinale, grows in the bottom of ditches, weed, Ægopodium podagraria, which resists eradication ; ground -ivy, Glechoma hederacea, a creeper; hog -weed, Heracleum spondylium , a coarse rank plant,
and arrestsmud in its progress down them,
but will only grow where spring -water flows ; the common butter -bur, Petasites
oulgaris, with large expanded leaves,
growing from 4 to 5 feet in height; occupies a prominent position on the ditch meadow vetchling, Lathyrus pratensis, a side. Dr Hooker relates,that " the early
strong creeper with yellow flowers ; com- flowering of the plant induces the Swedish mon hedge-mustard, Sisymbrium offici- farmers to plant it near their bee -bives."
nale, flowers very small, pale yellow ; woody nightshade, Solanum dulcamara, in moist situations; hedge-woundwort, Stachys silvatica, flowers purple, whorls of about 6 flowers ; upright hedge-parsley,
The red canary -grass, Phalaris arun dinacea, with its creeping roots, tufting here and there, proves troublesome in un duly hardening the parts of the sides of ditches where it grows ; the reed meadow
THE HAWTHORN PLANT.
683
grass, Poa aquatica , acts a similar part to Exogens; alliance Rosales ; order Pomacece ;
the canary - grass ; the floating meadow- genus Cratægus, of Lindley . grass, P. fluitans, floats its long narrow 5677. The common hawthorn is a very vari leaves down the stream of water in the able plant. Mr Loudon enumerates not fewer
ditch, retarding and stagnating it ; the than 30 varieties. Of these, 7 differ from the curl-leaved dock, Rumex crispus, strikes speciesin the general form and mode of growth ; in the colour of the flowers ; 4 in the develop its roots down the side of the ditch ; while 2ment in structure of the flowers ; 3 in the time
the brooklime, Veronica beccabunga, is of flowering ; 6 in the colour of the fruit ; 1 in found in the direct water -course . The having the fruit woolly ; 5 in the form of the only mode of destroying weeds in ditches leaves ; and 3 in the colour of the leaves. is scouring the bottom , and paring the 5678. Of these varieties, the one I would pre edges with tracting the the common spade, and ex
roots of the obnoxious plants fer forfield-fencing is, I believe,digynous. The
colour of the young wood is dark purple; that of growing in both . the new shoots also dark purple, spotted with minute white specks ; and that of the old wood, 5674. Mr Curtis gives a hint about dark orange-purple. Bark smooth and shining ;
leaves dark - green and shining on the upper face ; destroyingsome speciesofweeds inhedges, spines dark purple, ofmediumlength, fine,and
which seemsto derive its importance as a sharp ; the stemsclose together in parallelrods, means of depriving the turnip -fly of a har- stiff, and upright. Flowers rather large, and bour in the early part of the season, before haws, dark-red ; neither plentiful. The plantis thesowing of the turnip crop . “ Some bene- hardy, and will grow in anysort of soil, from
fit," he observes, “ might be derived from clay to gravel that is not injured by stagnant water. Near stagnant water it becomes covered
destroying these cruciferous plants, Ery with lichens and moss ; will not thrive under the simum allearia and Condamine pratensis, drip of trees, or in company with other plants. to which the Allicc (2390) are so strongly The height varies from 15 to 45 feet. attached , for they grow in abundance in 5679. The hawthorn is a long-lived shrub, every hedge and meadow . They appear and , in somesituations, attains to a considerable
long before the turnips come up, and at sized tree. Thus, at Duddingston, in the neigh tract and give support to the parents of bourhood of Edinburgh, is one which, in 1836, the future swarms that areto sweep away was 43 feet high, the diameter of its branches
the crops of the farmer. As these plants 44 feet ; at a little above the roots 101 feet in
often flower at the beginning of April, and
girth , and at 3 feet from the ground, 94 feet. In
Forfarshire, at Kinnaird Castle, after being 120 produce their leaves at a much earlier years planted, is one 45 feet high , 40 feet in dia
period, it is almost certain that they nurse meter over the branches, and 35 inches across the fly, and are itsgreat resources for food the trunk . It is growing on a sandy loam or and nourishment in the earliest days of clay. spring. The hedge-mustard, and other 5680. On account of the beauty and fragrance cruciferous plants on banks and road- sides, of its flowers, the hawthorn has been a favoured are quite under our control ; and it is a plant among all nations. “ It is said,” remarks dutywhich we owe to our neighbour, as Mr Phillips, “ that thehawthorn flowers not only
well as to ourselves, to keep our fields and regalethe spiritsby their odour, but that they the power also of counteracting poison . It hedges clear of charlock and every other have has been made the happy emblem of Hope,
weed of that family, all of which harbour because the young and beautiful Athenian girls brought branches of hawthorn flowers to decorate the turnip -fly." * their companions and friends on their wedding
5675. The plant commonly used in the hedges day, whilst they carried large boughs of it to the of this country is the common hawthorn, Cra- altar. The altar of Hymen was lighted with tægus oxyacantha , or sharp -thorned cratægus.
torches made of the wood of this tree, and it
The generic name is derived from the Greek
formed also the flambeaux which lighted the
xqatos, meaning strength , in reference to the hardness and strength of the wood. It is the
nuptial chamber. The Romans had also bedecked themselves with branches of hawthorn when they seized the Sabine women. On the first of
aubépine or aubépin, whitethorn, of the French ; the hagedorn , orhedgethorn, of the Germans. May, our ancestors never failed decorating with it the Maypole, which was permanently fixed in 5676. It belongs to the natural order Pomaceae or near every town and village in the kingdom ; of Jussieu ; to Rosaceæ , tribe Romacea , of De and the boldest youth climbed to fix the garland Candolle ; to Icosandria , Di- Pentaginia of Lin- of flowers on the top ; whilst others, less cou
næus ; and to the natural system Perigynous rageous, hung festoons and wreaths of flowers * Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. ii. p. 206.
REALISATION
584
through the garland, and twined them round the in the arts, because it is seldom found of suffi pole. • This rusticamusement was evi- cient size, and is,besides,apt to warp. It weighs, dently introduced by the Romans, as we see in when green, 68 lb. 12 oz.;and , when dry, 57 lb. it the remains of their ancient games, Floralia, 5 oz. per cubic foot. It contracts, by drying, $ of that were instituted in Rome as early as the its bulk . It is employed for the handles of ham. time of Romulus, and which the Phoceans and Sabines observed in even earlier days." * The
mers, the teeth of mill-wheels, for flails and
mallets, and, when heated at the fire, for canes hawthorn is the badge of the clan Ogilvy. and walking-sticks. The branches are used in England for the heating of ovens — a purpose for 5681. The tradition regarding the famous haw- which they are very proper, as they give out thorn at Glastonbury ( C. precox , a variety ofthe much heat, and possess the property of burning oxyacantha ) is thus recorded : “ To the S.W. of as readily when green as in their dry state. " I the town is Weary -all -hill, an eminence ,” says “ The hawthorn is manufactured into clubs for Mr Nightingale, " which , as the monkish writers golf-playing.” § Combs were formerly made of inform us, derived its name from St Joseph (of the wood, particularly from the root. A decoc Arimathea) and his companions resting here tion of the bark yields a yellow dye, and , with when much fatigued in travelling through the copperas, is used to dye black . "The timber of country, during their pious mission in England the hawthorn is often spoiled through inattention for the purpose of preaching the Christian faith. after cutting. If it beallowed to lie in the tree Here it is recorded that St Joseph fixed his staff it soon heats, and becomes quite frush (brittle) in the earth, which immediately took root, and and worthless. It therefore ought to be instantly ever after put forth its leaves on Christmas day. cut up into planks and laid to dry ." || It had, weare informed , two distinct trunks till
the reign of Queen Elizabeth, when one of them was destroyed by a Puritan. The other met the same fate during the Great Rebellion. The blossoms of this tree were esteemed such great
curiosities as to become an object of gain to the merchants of Bristol , who not only disposed of them to the inhabitants of their own city, but exported them to different parts of Europe . The probable truth with regard to this tree is, that
5684. The ancients were acquainted with the hawthorn as a fence. The Greeks called it pyra cantha , or fire -thorn. With regard to the anti quity of fencing with thorns in our own country , it is probable that fields were fenced with thorns before Queen Elizabeth's time, and not so late as the end of the 17th century ; as appears from a quotation by Marshall from Fitzherbert, when
the latter complained, at the beginning of the 16th century , of landlords enclosing, and thereby shutting out their demesnes and meadows from blooms at Christmas, a native of that country .” + the use of their tenants. According to Dr Walker, the first hawthorn hedges planted in 5682. The haw of the hawthorn is very apt to Scotland were on the road leading to Inchbuck heat when put in heaps. It is frequently, not- ling Brae in East Lothian , and at Finlarig at the withstanding, sent in large sugar hogsheads, and head of the Tay in Perthshire. They were so great a proportion becomes heated, that not planted at both places by Cromwell's soldiers. ** above 1 in 20 germinates when sown. It ought it was brought from Palestine by some of the pilgrims, there being a species of thorn which
to be packed innot larger quantities than bushel-
5685. Other plants than the hawthorn have
hampers. When sown, it does not germinate until the second spring, and, on that account, nurserymen are in the habit of decomposing the pulp of the haw by mixing them with sandy earth, in flat heaps not exceeding 10 inches in depth, and which are frequently turned , to prevent the haws heating. Game, and many kinds of birds, particularly the thrush tribe, are very fond of the haw ; and, on that account, the hawthorn forms an excellent low stunted underwood
been recommended to be used for fencing fields. No doubt others, such as the black -thorn, the crab -apple, the beech, the elder, and all the forest -trees that bear pruning, might form such a fence as to mark the division ofone enclosure from another ; but unless the plant so employed is furnished with spines, it will prove a very in efficient fence against the outbreaks of cattle and
horses, irrespective of the trespasses of evil-dis posed persons. The holly, Ilex aquifolium , is
for the protection of game. It, with holly, Ilex the only other plant that possesses the properties aquifolium , and the dog-rose , Rosa canina, forms
of a good fencing plant. It is durable, firm ,
an almost impenetrable barrier against the poacher. Peasants, in many countries, eat the
stands pruning, is highly defensive, and verdant alike in all seasons ; but, being very slow of
haws ; and in Kamschatka they are fermented growth , it would require a long time to attain a into wine.
sufficient height for a fence, and, in the mean
time , would incur much expense in its protec 5683. “ The wood of the hawthorn is very hard and difficult to work . Its colour is white, but with a yellowish tinge ; its grain is fine, and it takes a beautiful polish ; but it is not much used
tion.
It will , therefore, never become a substi
tute for the hawthorn for field -fencing, however beautiful a fence it may form near a dwelling house or shrubbery. The cock’s-spur thorn ,
Phillips' Sylva Floriſera, vol. i . p. 261-4. + Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xiii. part i. p. 504-5 . # Loudon's Arboretum et Fruticetum , vol. ii. p 3 . 37. & Cruickshank's Practical Planter, p . 394. || Sang's Nicol's Planters' Calendar, p. 89. ** Walker's Essays, p . 53. Marshall's Rural Economy of Yorkshire, vol. i. p. 46 .
THE HAWTHORN PLANT.
Cratægus crus galli, and the Virginian thorn, C.
585
stone wall never grows well , and, in consequence,
Virginiana, have been proposed ; but neither becomesan eyesore ; and a wall founded on loose possesses any properties superior to the common earth will remain even but for a very short time, kind. The juniper, Juniperus communis, and the on account of the unequal subsidence of the earth , whin or furze, Ulex Europæa, have been recommended.
The whin does notstand severe frost.
In the spring of 1837 almost every whin -hedge
and the consequent sinking of the stones. A 3 feet stone wall, founded upon the hard ground, behind the hedge-bank, with a single rail of pal
it, until the hedge get up, in Scotland was destroyed from this cause. The ing raised behind a better fence for sheep and cattle.
tala plant, a small thorny shrub, a native of South
would make
America, has been recommended as a good fieldfence ; but there is much doubt of its thriving in our climate. In Germany the hornbeam ,Carpinus betulus, is used as a field -fence. In Holland, it seems that nurserymen have ready -made hedges for sale. “ We have seen,” says Dr Neill ," that a Dutch merchant, retiring from business, may
Another mode of planting a thorn -hedge is to build a stone wall, in which are left holes, about two-thirds of its height, through which the thorns grow which had been planted in the bank of earth behind it. This is also an objectionable mode, inasmuch as the plants, whose roots are ramifying in the bank, have no support for that
purchase fruit-trees which will yield him their portion of the stem which grows horizontally produce the very first year ; we found that he may also surround his garden and shrubbery with ready-formed hedges ! We observed many lines of different evergreen and deciduous shrubs, usually employed for this purpose, trained hedge wise in the nursery ; and these, like the fruit-
trees, being frequently removed from one spot to another, may, almost without hazard of failure, be transferred to a considerable distance, and
replanted . ” * I have seen the common spruce, Abies excelsa , clipt into very neat hedges. Hindoostan possesses a great variety of plants fit for field fences, but whether any one of them would
thrive in this country remains to be proved. It is probable that the temperate region of the Himalaya may afford someuseful hedge-plant.
through the holes of the wall ; and the consequent leverage of the part of the stem which grows up right before the faceof the wall shakes the roots. And should the horizontal stem within the hole rest for support upon the wall, its weight and motion soon bring it down, if constructed of dry stones, or shatter it,if built with mortar. Thorns have been recommended to be planted at the bottom of a wall without a bank, but with a ditch before it as a fence to the hedge, with a paling on its lip. If a stone wall is built in such a situ
ation , there seems no use at all for the hedge as a fence ; and if a turf one, surely the thorns will thrive better with a bank of earth behind them than at the bottom of a turf wall.
5686. There are various ways of treating the
5687. On considering the state in which the fences are usually kept, it must be admitted
In Yorkshire double
thatthe plan of enclosing the land is generally
hedges are not uncommon , the plants being
good ; but the fences are not cared for as
hawthorn as a fence.
plantedin double rows upright in a trench in the they might be. The low country is sufficiently, Double hedges were not uncommon in and , in many places, too densely fenced - too
soil.
Berwickshire and Roxburghshire some years ago,
but no new ones have been added to these. In Norfolk, a high bank is thrown up, without a wall, from 6 to 7 feet in height from the bottom
much ground being occupied, to the detriment of the crops growing within them . A slight glance at the small enclosures of England will convince any one of this, though the smallest
of the ditch, and the thorn -plants are set into the top, among the crude earth taken out of the bottom of the ditch. As might be expected in such a plan, it is not uncommon in that country to see the face of the bank, with the quicks in it, washed down by beating rains ; and as the roots enlarge and the bank moulders down, the young plants hang their heads downwards upon the face of bank. The reason assigned for the adoption of this objectionable practice is, that there is no wood in that country to form temporary fences until the thorns grow ; and, being set upon the top
enclosures are perhaps occupied
of a steep bank t, hey are out of the reach of cat-
cannot be afforded by any single fence in such
Where flat
situations. The shelter of upland districts can hardly be accomplished but on a scale that would render it of national importance; for the attempt on a comparatively small property would confer as much benefit on the property on each
tle from the bottom of the ditch .
stones are plentiful, a sheltering fence is formed by enclosing a space of a few feet in breadth between two walls, and, on filling it with earth, an
upright hedge is planted in it. Such fences may
meadows of
permanent grass. In the north of Ireland the enclosures are too small, though there the uni versal practice of small holdings better justifies the prevalence of small enclosures. The upland districts are very deficient of enclosures through out the kingdom. Most of the hill -farms have even no march -fences, the marches being marked out by natural objects, such as the water-shed line of a hill, the course of a rivulet, a ravine,
or even cairns of stones. The great desidera tum, however, in such farms is shelter, which
be seen in Devonshire, where flat stones of the side of it as on itself, and the proprietor of a primitive clay-slate are obtained in abundance. large estate would not incur the great expense A 24 feet wall on the top of the bank behind the of sheltering it entirely. It would be desirable hedge, which had been thrown out of the ditch, were proprietors of upland districts to have a with a coping of turf, is recommended. There mutual understanding on this subject, and plans are objections to this plan : a turf coping on a could then be adopted which would have the * Neill's Journal of a Horticultural Tour, p. 204 .
REALISATION .
586
effect of sheltering a great extent of country at a comparatively small cost. Were extensive
at the roots, when left exposed for want of water-tabling, in consequence of the wind acting
surveys taken of the form of alpine country, by
on them, by the leverage of its high stems, that
engineers well acquainted with the prevailing after it has been cut down it dies for want of winds there, and competent to suggest lines of power to push out new stems. Such is the sort fences which would be sure to check their course , of treatment which thorn -hedges generally re estimates could be made of the cost ; and no class of engineers seems better suited for the
ceive.
purpose than those engaged in the trigonometrical survey of the country. When the thornfences of the country are minutely examined, they will not be found always in a useful state. Some are allowed to grow in a rambling state, carrying a heavy head and exposing bare stems near the ground ; others are far advanced in old age, and about to decay for ever, or covered with lichens and mosses ; full of gaps, filled up with slabs, paling, or loose stones ; occasionally overflown with water, which gets leave to pass off of
5688. The only accident incident to young hedges in spring is scorching from the sun . It is occasioned by the sudden evaporation of hoar frost, in a calm atmosphere, from the young leaflets of the hedge, by a powerful rising sun . The sudden evaporation causes so intense a cold as actually to destroy vitality in the tender shoots of the plant which have just burst into leaf; and the consequence, in a few days afterwards, is in the young leaves and tender shoots seeming to have been severely scorched by fire . I have
its own accord, which it can seldom do in winter frequently observed this scorching, to a partial before another flood overtakes it ; completely extent, onthe east sides of hedgesthat run N. and overgrown with every weed that gets leave to shed its seeds for miles around ; almost overcome
S., the side next the rising sun ; but in spring 1841 , the affection was so severe and extensive,
with wild plants, which have usurped the place that not hedges only suffered , but large beech of the thorns ; so hacked and hewed with the
trees of upwards of 100 years old , that came
hatchet, that the greater part of it is a long
early into leaf, literally died in the ensuing
time of recovering the butchery, whilst the re.
winter. A hedge so affected will be leafless all
mainder have died in consequence of the rain
summer at the part scorched .
It ought not to
descending thesplit stems and rotting the roots; be switched until it has perfectly recovered its so overlaid with plashing, that the already half- vigour. amputated stems die in a short time ; suspended by the principal root, after the earth has been
5689. The thorn -hedge is subject to the attack
washed away from it into the ditch ; cut over too high, where it has put out innumerable twigs, whilst the stems below are quite bare; so shaken
of many insects, though the effects are different. One of these is the black -veined white, or haw
thorn butterfly, Pieris cratægi, a , fig. 475, an in
Fig. 475.
a
U M sis
THE HAWTHORN BUTTERFLY- PIERIS CRATEGI.
THE HAWTHORN PLANT.
587
sect unknown in Scotland , but frequent in Eng- may then be sown upon a prepared mound, as on land, and at times so numerous on the Continent the prepared level of the ground. The plant
that its flight has been mistaken for a shower of grows very rapidly, and soon becomes a fence snow.
The caterpillar is seen at b, of a dull from its spiny armament. It should be switched yellow colour at first, but changes with moult- into the proper form of a hedge when young , to ings, and is produced from yellow -coloured prevent the straggling form of growth which it cylindrical eggs laid on hawthorn shoots, and is very apt to assume. When allowed to grow rendered waterproof by a coating of strong var- at will, it attains a mature age in a few years, nish . It devours the leaves, and, while so em-
ployed , lives in society under the protection of a silken web. Other lepidopterous insecte disfigure our hedges by defoliation , such as the figure of 8, or black thorn moth, Episema cærulocephala , whose caterpillar is 2 inches long, of a yellowish -green colour, with 3 pale stripes. A still greater pest to our hedges is the browntailedmoth, Porthesia aurifua,whose caterpillars, of a dusky colour, with 2 red lines on the back,
and then dies out, or it is hastened to its end by the frost. The whin does not like very good
and a white streak on the sides interrupted at intervals, occur sometimes in such numbers that,
soil. I tried to raise a hedge upon a small mound of fine black mould, but failed by the young plants dying out. My object was to have a whin hedge for drying clothes upon, as that plantexposes the most convenient and safe sur face, by its small spines, for receiving clothes up onit. The plant likes to push its roots into a clay subsoil. The whin forms a cheap fence around a plantation, and it forms a good nurse for young trees not over-thickly planted, and is well adapted
in 1782, their webs were gathered in one day by the people of a single parish in the neighbour hood of London , that of Clapham , to theamount
late Mr Inglis well described the utility of the whin plant in these words : “ In returning to
of 80 bushels.* Another species of the same
Wexford by another road, I was greatly struck
as underwood to afford shelter to game. The
genus Porthesia chrysorrhæa,yellow -tailed moth, by the gayeffect produced by the furze, or, as lives on a great variety of trees and shrubs in its
they are called in Scotland, the whin hedges,
caterpillar state ; and among these is the haw. which form the only enclosures inthis district. thorn, to which it often causes extensive injury. The farze hedges are very general in Ireland, The small and beautiful ermine moths, so readily and are muchpreferred by the people to any known by their pure white colour, generally spotted with black , often leave the fruit-trees, which are their habitual resort, and attack hawthorn hedges. The caterpillars live in society,
other, and not without reason. In parts of the country where turf is scarce and coal dear, the furze is a ready and abundant fuel. Nor is this the only use to which it is put—the tender shoots and form a common tent for themselves by draw- are mashed, and given as food to the horses, and ing a number of leaves together, which afford the refuse is mixed up, and used as manure. them at once food and shelter. Having con- There is still another use of a furze hedging : sumed the foliage of one spot, they move on to when full grown , it affords, in rainy weather , a another ; and the devastation isoften so complete shelter to live stock, which neither thorn nor that the hedges, for miles, present the appear- any other hedge affords ; for there are no drop ance of winter sprays covered with a cottony pings from a furze hedge. This is a fact of which web. The two species most to be dreaded any pedestrian may agreeably convince himself, are Yponomeuta padella and Y. eronymella. if caught in a shower of rain, in the neigh They are more common in England than in bourhood of a furze enclosure." + Scotland. 5691. Mr Fortune mentions a curious method
5690. As hedges of whin, Ulex Europæa, are
which the Chinese have in protecting the young
common in the upper and poorer parts of the country ,it is necessary to say a few words on
bamboos from the ravages of the wild boar : “ A piece of bamboo wood about 8 or 10 feet long,
them. Whins-or furze, as the plant is named in England - are very frequently sown upon the
and rather thicker than a man's arm, is split up
top of a turf mound constructed for the purpose,
because the young plant is out of reach of danger, and requires no temporary fencing for protection, and where, generally, turf is plentiful. The plants grow well in such a situation, striking their roots down through the mound into the groundbelow , for the sake of meeting with moisture. No doubt, the sharp spines of the plant
the middle to within a fourth of its length. This is made fast to a tree in the bamboo thicket, and at an angle of about 45°, the split part being left loose; a cord, also made of bamboo, is fastened to it by one end, and the other is led to some
convenient place out of the thicket, where a man is stationed.
When the boars come down in the
dead ofnight to attack the young shoots, the man pulls the rope backwards and forwards, and
attract moisture from the atmosphere as well, clank, clank, clank goes the bamboo, producing as the structure of the plant is well adapted for causing the rain to trickle down the branches to
a loud and hollow sound, which on a quiet even
the roots. In raising a whin fence, all that is
ing may be heard at a great distance. The animals are frightened, and make off to their
required to be done is to sow the seed, which costs 1s. per pound, along the line of fence, in a
dens in the hills.”+ Our crow-mills, or great rattles, would probably produce the same
effect when sprung in the hands of a stout small rut made with the corner of the hand -hoe, watcher.
fig. 266, and covered over with a rake. The seed
Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xiii.p. 155. I Fortune's Wanderings in China, p. 179.
+ Inglis' Ireland, vol. i. p. 50-1.
588
REALISATION .
ON THE BUILDING OF STONE FENCES .
every 30 yards of a 5 -quarter dyke will
be 1 rood in length. The usual thickness 5692. The other sort of fence for the of such a dyke is 2 feet at the base, fields, used in this country, is the low dry- and 15 inches under the cover. stone wall. They are named dry -stone dykes in Scotland ; and as the word dyke 5695. A dyke that has two plain faces is short and expressive, I shall use it more is called a double -faced dyke, and a dyke often than wall, with which the idea of a
with one face, as one built against a
high structure is mostly associated .
sunk -fence, is called a single-faced dyke. A double-faced 5 - quarter dyke requires
5693. Very many dry -stone dykes in 1 ton of stones for every square yard of this country are constructed on erroneous its face, so that 36 tons of stones are
principles, the stones being laid promiscu- requiredfor every rood of 30 yards ously , and more with a view to give a long.
The expense of quarrying that smooth face than a substantialhearting to quantity of stones is about 10s. the rood ; the wall. The, coping, too, is often dis- the carriage of them at a reasonable dis
proportionately large for the body of the tance beyond one mile is also 10s ; and wall, which is not unfrequently too nar- the building is commonly undertaken, row for its height. I suspect that many when the stones are good, at 10s. also ;
dry -stone dykes are built by ordinary so that such a dyke costs 30s. the 30 masons, who, being accustomed to the use of lime-mortar, are not acquainted with the bedding of the loose stones of a dry dyke as firmly as they should be, and
yards, or 1s. for every yard in length, or £6, 9s. 6d. per cubic rood, or 3s. 7d . per cubic yard. The best way to contract for the erection of stone-dykes is by the
therefore are unfitted tobuild such a dyke. rood of 36 cubic yards, when every
A builder of dry -stone dykes should be temptation on the part of the builder to brought up to the profession ; and when he lessen the breadth , and make the beart has acquired skill he will build a substan- of the dyke hollow, will be removed . tial one, at a moderate cost, which will 5696. The tools of a dry -stone dyker stand uprightfor many years. A proper sort of stone is a great assistance to the are few and inexpensive, consisting only builder of stone dykes, flat thin ones
of a mason's hammer , a frame as a gauge
being the best : but' flatness and thinness for the size of the dyke, and cords as
are not the only requisites ; they should guides for the straightness and thickness also have a rough surface by which to of the dyke. A ditcher's shovel, fig. 453, adhere to one another in the wall ; and is also useful to him in putting the shivers no material, on this account, is so well of the stones together into heaps, to be the adapted for the purpose as the stones de- more easily removed by carts . rived from sandstone boulders of gravel
deposits, when split with the pick into 5697. A dyker cannot work in wet or flat pieces of the requisite thickness on in very cold weather, as handling stones being taken out of the ground, which , on
in a state of wetness is hurtful to the
being exposed to the air for a short time, bare hand ; on which accounts, dry -stone become dry and hard. dykes are commonly built in summer. 5694. Dry -stone dykes are measured
5698. The line of fence being deter
by quarters — that is, quarters of a yard mined on, it is marked off with a row of 9 inches each. A 5 - quarter dyke is of stakes driven firmly into the ground. the usual measure of a field -fence, that is The upper soil, to the depth it has been 45 inches, or 3 feet 9 inches to the ploughed, is removed from the line to under side of the cover upon which the form the foundation of the dyke ; and it
cope-stones stand - the cover and cope- may be driven away immediately, and not lie in the builder's way, or it should the dyke stands altogether 4 feet 9 inches be formed into a compost with lime, in height. The dyke, when finished , is near the spot, for top -dressing grass. measured by the rood of 36 square yards When the surface consists of old firm
stones usually measuring 12 inches, so that
upon its face under the cover, so that thick sward, the dyke may be founded
589
STONE -DYKE BUILDING .
upon it; but in forming foundations, it for them out of the building stones. should be borne in mind that dykes are These particulars are worth attending to, apt to sink in soft earth of every kind, to save unnecessary trouble afterwards
to its injury - not merely by curtailing in removing or bringing stones, to the its height as a fence, but by twisting its annoyance alike of the dyker and the structure and causing itultimately tofall. farmer. When the soil consists of vegetable mould, 5700. The simplest mode of conveying it should therefore be removed altogether, and its intrinsic value in a compost large boulders is upon a sledge, shod
will amply repay the trouble of removing with iron, which is better than putting it.
them in and taking them out of a com mon cart, the bottom and sides of which 56.99 . After the foundation has been
are apt to be broken by boulders.
А
formed by the removal of the earth, the pair of horses, yoked as in a plough, will draw a very heavy boulder upon as near the line of foundation as practi- such a sledge, on the ordinary surface cable, for it is of considerable importance of the ground. When many ordinary to the builder that the stones be near stones are driven for buildings, of any stones should be laid down on both sides
at hand.
When the stones are laid even
kind, the carts should receive an extra
as far off as two yards, from the founda- bottoming and lining with deals of com tion, the builder loses time in throwing mon Scots fir, or of willow, which is them nearer ; but, on the other hand, no better than any other sort of wood, as being stones should be emptied from the cart softer and less liable to split. into the foundation, as they will bave to
5701. Every preparation being thus be removed by the builder before he commences his work . Large boulder-stones made, two builders proceed to the work, form excellent inaterial for the foundation
one opposite the other—the best number
of stone dykes, and should be laid close to makethe best work, and they assist each to the foundation before the building stones other with stones which one would not be are brought. In laying down the stones, able to manage. the carters should be instructed to put down 5702. They begin by setting up the 18 tons on each side of 30 yards length of the foundation ; and when boulders are frame, fig. 476, at one end of the dyke,
also put down, allowance should be made whether it commences against another Fig. 476.
Place HE BUILDING A DRY- STONE DYKE.
590
REALISATION .
fence, or at a gateway into the field which rain which may have found its way down the figure is supposed to represent, in the through the top of the dyke to be thrown
foundation of the proposed line of dyke. off byboth sides. The frame is made of the breadth and
height of the proposed dyke under the 5705. The stability of a dyke is much cover ; and is set perpendicularly by the assisted by having what is called a
plummet attached to it. A corresponding thorough -band stone, placedacross it at frame should be placed beyond the point about half-way up the building. The which is fixed for one stretch of building, cover also actsas a thorough -band at the or two stakes driven into the ground, top of the dyke ; but in laying the cover, having the same inclinatiou as the sides of the levelling of the dyke to form its bed the frame, to answer the purpose of a should not be made of very small and very temporary one. On undulating ground, thin stones, as is too often the case, as
a space of half a rood, or 15 yards, be- neither have stability, are easily broken, tween the frames, is a sufficient stretch and are constantly in danger of slipping out of building at one time ; but on level from under the cover and cope. Thorough ground a rood may safely be taken in. band stones are frequently left projecting
The cords are then stretched along the from one or both sides of the dyke by some builders, merely to indicate that they
space, and fastened to the outside of
each frame, to guide, as lines, the build- are thorough -bands; but the practice is ing of the side ofthe dyke straight, and objectionable, inasmuch as any projections
to gauge its breadth. The frameis held serve onlyas stepping-stones for trespassers upright and steady by a stiff rail, having to climb over the dykė. a nail driven through one of its ends,
hooked on to the top -bar of the frame, and 5706. A scuncheon should be formed the other end witha stone laid upon it, of in -band and out-band stones, hammer dressed , and firmly bedded upon one or pushed into the ground. another.
5703. When the dyke begins with a scuncheon, as in this case, a large boulder
5707. The covers should project an
should be chosen for its foundation stone ; inch or two beyond the face of the dyke, and if there are no boulders, a large stone to protect the top. They should be two should be selected and dressed for the inches thick, and without a flaw through
purpose, as no better protection can be out their length, which should be two feet given to the end of a dyke-and especially at least, that their weight may keep them
so when the scuncheon forms one side of firm and their size cover a large space of a gateway to a field . Another boulder, or building. large stone, should be placed at a little 5708. In forming the cope, a large distance from the first, and smaller stones used to fill up the space between them , stone should be placed at the end of the
until the building is raised to the height scuncheon to keep down the cover, and of the boulders.
act as an abutment for resisting the
wedging down of the smaller cope-stones. 5704. Great art is required in laying Another large cope -stone should be set the small stones, and it is this art in at a short distance from it upon the join dyke-buildingwhich detects the good from ing of two covers, to keep them secure.
the bad builder. In good dry building, Thinner stones should then be placed the stones are laid with a slight inclination between these on edge — and where they downwards, from the centreof the dyke, meet, a stone should be wedged in by towards each face, and to break band with strokes of the hammer ; but the wedging one another ; and to support their inclina- should be delayed until a considerable
tion, small stones should be wedged firmly length of coping is finished, the better under them in the heart of the dyke; to resist their force. The cope- stones whereas stones that are laid flat admit of should be nearly all of the same height.
no wedging to heart them, and receive On finishing the face of a dyke, small none, to the risk of the dyke bulging out stones should be firmly wedged in with
in both faces. The inclination causes the the hammer, where room can be found,
STONE -DYKE BUILDING .
591
between the beds and the ends of the gap is easily fenced with a bunch of thorns or whins. larger ones. 5709. In building a stretch of dyke, 5713. Such dykes as I have been de such as the rood above referred to, it is scribing, of 5 quarters in height, will fence
customary to carry up the building at both horses and cattle and Leicester sheep, ends, as well as at themiddle of the stretch, but will not confine Black -faced sheep,
to the levelling of the top, before the inter- and scarcely Cheviots. For these, higher mediate spaces are built up, because those walls must either be built, or expedients
primary parts, being built thus independ- used to make ordinary ones confine them . ently, act as pillars in the dyke to support Some of these expedients are shown in the intermediate building plumb ; and they fig. 477, where part of an ordinary dyke are also convenient for pinning the cords Fig. 477.
against while the intermediatespaces are being built.
5710. When a few stretches of dyke have thus been finished, the surplus stones,
endommelmandatarina
if any, should be removed, and laid where they are wanted ; and should there be a
deficiency, stones should be immediately
EXPEDIENTS FOR INCREASING THE HEIGHT OF A DRY -STONE DYKE ,
brought,to allow the builders to finish one with its cope is seen ; and they consist of stretch before they proceed to another. occasional cope -stones ab c d and e, set on
The debris of stones caused by the hammer edge to a considerable height, say 9 inches or 12 inches, above the ordinary ones. Upon
should be taken to the roads.
these areplaced either fillets of wood along
5711. These are all the particulars to notches formed on their top, and wedged be attended to in building dykes for ordi- into them, as at a, b and c, or a strong rope nary fencing ; but modifications are some- of straw is laid somewhat loosely over the
times introduced into their form to serve notches, to dangle in the wind, and to & convenient purpose. For example, an form a scare tothe sheep, as at c, d and e.
opening should be left under the cover of a Another expedient is, where a single
dyke, of a sufficient width and height faced dyke is built against rising ground, to allow sheep to pass from one field into another, when the passage between them by road may be a considerable distance . Where a passage exists be-
consisting of plantation or of cultivated land, to sow a few seeds of whin or broom in the soil behind the dyke, and
the plants in time spread over the cope tween the fields by means of a gate, no stones. Where good stones for covers are
such opening should be made, but only scarce, and turf is tough and heathery, rent farm -roads. When the opening is top of the dyke- and laid firmly and when the two fields are entered by diffi- thick turfs, cut of the breadth of the
not used, it should be stopped up with neatly on with cope-stones upon the turfs, thorns or a wooden board . An opening which afford them a firm bed — will raise
of 31 feet wide and 3 feet high will suffice. a dyke a sufficient height. A more per manent expedient than either of these,
where the dyke is built of large strong a gap at the top of the dyke by lowering stones from a quarry, is to erect a wire 5712. Another convenience is to leave
its cover, and removing the cope at à fence upon the dyke, by inserting upright place where a passage is occasionally re- wrought-iron standards into the covers, quired for foot passengers. By doing this and stretching threerows of wire through the dyke may be saved from much injury. and across them. Such an addition costs A gap near the top of the dyke may be from 8d. to ls. 4d. per lineal yard. Or useful as a stile in the line of a foot-path, stakes might be driven along and close to or at the side of a cover, for hounds and one face of the dyke, in length to reach huntsmen to pass with ease ; and here the above its covers to receive three rows of
whipper-in may stand on the out-look for wires. Where thinnings of plantationsare a burst. When not constantly in use, the abundant, this is the cheapest, though less
REALISATION .
592
durable plan than the preceding ones with supply all the fields with water from it by the wires.
means of a spout into troughs. This expe dient I have successfully used.
5714. When dykes run at right angles to one another, and are erected simultane-
5718. Where the ground is firm , and
ously, they should be built in connection ; but where a new dyke comes against another, the old one should not be touched, and the new built firmly beside it.
no water but shelter is wanted at that
spot, the dyke should be built curved, to en close a space between them to be planted with trees for ornament and shelter.
The land
here will not be wasted, even should it be of
5715. Where two dykes cross, and the place is naturally wet, or water may be easily brought to it, a watering-pool there would serve four fields, and the pools should be formed before the dykes are built. There are two ways of fencing such Fig. 478.
the finest quality ; because the corners of four adjoining fields always contain ground that cannot be reached by the plough, as may be seen between i, k ,whil l and m, fig. 480; plou Fig. 480. 2
e the gh can pass along
a pond : - When
such
the ground is firm ,
near
and
the
water
shallow , the two dykes may cross
M
at the centre of
curves as
to
as a
straight fence. In building cur k vatures in dykes, builders charge a
the pond, as in fig. 478, having holes
half rood
in them to allow the water to pass
plain work. Such
through, to form a
more than
per for
ATHE CLUMP OF TREES WITHIN curves in dykes MEETING OF DYKES . are made by the
watering -pool in same rules as those furnished for hedges FOUR WATERING - POOLS FORMED BY TWO DYKES CROSSING .
each field , as at a , b, c, and d .
5716. Where a pond already exists, and its water is too deep for dykes to traverse, the dykes must terminate at its edge, and convert the pond into a watering -pool common to four fields. When the pond'c, fig. 479, is used by only one field at a time, it should be Fig. 479.
in (5621. )
5719. A stone dyke is in the highest state of perfection as a fence immediately from the hands of the builders ; but every day thereafter the effect of the atmosphere upon the stones, at all seasons, and the accidents to which they are able by trespasses of individuals and the strength
of stock, render it necessary to uphold
fenced from the their repairs frequently ; and this con other three fields
sideration should cause the best materials
by means of hur- and workmanship to be selected for their dles, or paling, at original erection. Dykes should be in
f, g, and h ; and spected every year, before the stock take when it happens possession of the pasture fields, and re to be used by paired, (3570.) When the repairs are not extensive, the most convenient mode of supplying the stones to the dyker is paling should be to loosen a cart-load of them here and more
than
one
field at a time, a
ONE WATERING - POOL COMMON TO FOUR FIELDS.
run
across
the there, and provide him with a wheel-bar
pond, besides those row , fig. 87, to take the stones from it to the particular spot requiring repairs, as he in the fields not occupied by the stock.
wants them ; and what he does not require 5717. Where the ground is firm , and no are left in the cart to be brought away at
prospect of obtaining a watering -pool, once. When stones are laid down, it being
the dykes should be made to cross, and a impossible to estimate the quantity exactly well sunk in a corner of one of the fields, required, those not required are almost with a pump in it of such height as tó certain to get leave to lie upon the ground
593
WIRE FENCES.
for the greater part of the ensuing season, post a at 6 inches from the end c, and has from the reluctance to waste time in doing a notch cut into its upper surface near the such an insignificantjob at a busy season ,
Fig. 481 .
as the removal of a few stones.
5720. Dry -stone dykes are not nearly so picturesque objects in a landscape as thorn hedges, nor do they afford so much
or so comfortable shelter to stock, (1013.) They are easily and quickly erected, how ever, in a country where the materials
suited to their construction are abundant; and after being completed, they satisfy the mind of the farmer that little trouble will
be experienced from them for a series of years to come. b
5721. A sunk fence cannot be said to
have been formed until a single- faced stone SOLE AND STAY UNDER dyke is builtagainst the firm ground, after STRAINING - POST, WITH GROUND . earthnohad beenmeans takencan away front of other end to admit the strut d, which is itthe; and better beinemployed about anywhere for supporting a bank of earth also notched and nailed into the post 4 inches below the surface of the ground. likely to slip down than by building a In setting the post into the ground, the
strong single-faceddykeagainst it.Such a face dyke may be built, including the earth is firmly rammed in upon the sole,
quarrying and carriage of the stones,for and about the strut. 91d. per lineal yard. ON WIRE FENCES .
5724. Another method of securing a
straining -post underground is shown by fig. 482 , where a is the post of the same Fig. 482.
5722. A good many years since, I first saw a wire fence at the late Sir Alex.
Muir Mackenzie's, at Delvin . The struc
ture was neat, but then very costly ; but now that wire is manufactured on a large scale, on purpose to construct this species
of field fence , the price of wire -fencing has been greatly reduced, as is the case with all manufactures for which there
arises a large demand. 5723. Wire -fences consist of three parts — the straining-posts, the standards
or intermediate posts ,and the wires. The straining-posts are made of wood or of
iron ; and in the country, where wood is cheaper than iron, the former will in most cases be chosen , although it can bear no
STRAINING -POST , WITH PLANKS UNDERGROUND .
comparison with iron in durability. A size as the preceding, at the back of which simple form of straining-post is shown in fig. 481, where a is the post 7 feet long, and 6 or 7 incbes in diameter at the smallest end, is put into a pit 3 feet deep ; b is the sole 6 feet long, 3 or 4 inches thick and 6 inches broad, which takes in the VOL. II .
at the bottoin, is fastened a plank b, 2 feet long, 10 inches broad, and 2 inches thick ; and another plank c, of the same dimen sions, is fastened in front of the post about 6 inches below the surface of the ground. The earth is then firmly rammed in until 2 P
REALISATION .
594
it comes to 12 inches of the surface, when made of wrought iron, fig. 484. When another plank d of similar dimensions is wooden straining -posts decay they must be placed opposite to the plank c , firmly into removed, and in doing which the whole
the ground, and then the three pieces of fence must be taken down. Iron posts, wood e are tightly driven in between the such as a, obviate this inconvenience by planks. This is considered a very secure being permanent. They are 18 to 14 inch mode of fixing a straining - post against square, and cost from 2d. to 24d. per lb. the tension of the wires. Each weighs from 22 lb. to 40 Ib., accord ing to the height required. The extreme 5725. A third method still is given in posts require a stay, b, in addition, which fig. 483, where a similar size of post a , to costs according to its weight. The cost of Fig. 483.
a straining -post is this : £0
34 lb. at 2d. per lb.,
Boring in a stone2 holes, 31 inches deep, and 2 inches diameter, a whinstone, 5 lb. lead for batting, at 2d .,
K A R
5 8 9
0
0
0
0 10
£0
7 3
I N
Boulders answer for blocks, if not under 10 or 12 cwt.; and those which have
rounded tops are best, inasmuch as a greater depth of earth covers them, to
the benefit of the grass growing over them .
STRAINING - POST, WITH STANDARD AND STAY
5727. Mr Binning Munro of Auchin bowie, Stirlingshire, uses only iron strain
ABOVE GROUND.
ing -posts and iron standards, and considers
the others, is placed in the pit, having a them as cheap as wooden ones, even at piece of wood, b, 2 feet long, 6 inches first. His straining - posts are round, 2 broad, and 2 inches thick, nailed to the inches diameter, with stays, and weigh back part of the bottom ; e is a standard
68 lbs.
The standards are made of is
driven into the ground, at 4 feet distance, inch by 1 inch bar iron, with 6 boles for and the strut d is nailed at one end into the wires, and weigh 10 lb. each , and they a notch near the top of the post at c, and are not squared at the ends, to admit them
at the other end to the standard e, near the being put into a small hole, as is com ground. Both the posts are fixed in the monly done, and which weakens the iron ground before the strut is nailed to them.
where it should be the strongest, but are
kept broad and flat; and the hole is made 5726. Another sort of straining-post is for them, and not they for the holes. Fig. 484. The straining -posts have a hold in the stem of 6 inches, the standards 4 inches.
After the posts are put into the holes, these are filled with round gravel and melted sulphur run amongst them, at 2d. per lb., which is better than lead, because a
it does not shrink as lead does, and become loose.
5728. The intermediate posts should be made of larch, and the thinnings of planta tions are suitable for them.
For a fence of
34 feet in height, the posts should be 54 feet long, with a diameter of 3į inches at the A WROUGHT- IRON STRAINING- POST.
smallest end. In ordinary fencing, they may be used with the bark on. They should all be charred, which is done in
595
WIRE FENCES.
this manner :-Lay two trees of little value parallel, about a foot or fourteen inches apart, upon the ground. Between them collect chips and brushwood, and set fire to them. Lay the posts directly across the flame, at the part where the surface of the ground will touch, and turn them from side to side until they are ready. They
always to be rejected . It easily bends, and remains so from want of elasticity ; and it soon oxidises, even when painted.
are then smeared with coal-tar as long as
10 feet :
5734. The following table exhibits the comparative qualities of these wires, as tested by the number of pounds each kind sustains before breaking, the length being
they are warm , that as much as possible of it may be absorbed .
Common Wire. No. 8 broke with 590 lbs.
5729. Intermediate posts have a sufficient hold of the ground at 21 inches deep,
No. 6
844
No. 4
1269
...
}
without perceptibly stretching.
Annealed Wire.
and will support the wire sufficiently when
always within the curve, to meet the strain upon the wires. The staples for supporting the wires are partially driven into the posts before these are set into their pits. 5730. The wires used in wire-fencing are of different kinds, and bear different names. They are named common , prepared, charcoal, and annealed wires. The common is the ordinary wire of commerce,
832 1282
No. 6 No. 4
2
Prepared Wire. No. 8 broke with 955 lb., stretched I inch. No. 6 No. 4
...
NAILS
set 7 or 8 feet apart, in a straight line ; but in curves they should be set closer, and
No. 8 broke with 605 ib ., stretched 4 inches.
1380
2163
Charcoal Wire. No. 8 broke with 1274 lb. stretched the same No. 6 1762 . as the prepared wire. 2656 ... No. 4
}
5735. These are the Nos. used in wire
and is the kind which has hitherto been fences. Each bundle of wire is made up mostly employed in wire fences. It is of 63 lb., and each bundle runs thus : made from the coarser sorts of iron, and, as No. 4 extends from 140 to 150 yards. its name indicates, bears a corresponding 180 ... 200 No. 6 No.8 300 280 relation, both as regards quality and price. 5731. Prepared wire is made from a
5736. The cost of the different kinds of
finer description of iron, is more carefully wire of the samesize, from Nos. 1 to No. manufactured, comes out in longer lengths, 6, is the same. No. 1 to No. 6 of common is consequently superior in quality, and wire costs from 8s. 6d. to 10s. 6d. per bundle ; the prepared is 2s.more, and the bears a higher price in the market. charcoal 28. more than the prepared . 5732. Charcoal wire is the best and
strongest of any of the qualities made. It is drawn from charcoal iron , prepared chiefly by wood -charcoal, which isfreer from the impurities known to deteriorate the quality of iron, that exist in a greater
5737. The number of wires employed in a fence depend on its height, but the ordinary height of 31 feet requires 6 wires to make the fence confine sheep andlambs. Fig. 483 shows a portion of a fence having
or less degree in all the fuels usedin the 6 wires, the two upper onesabove d being manufacture of the other descriptions of of No. 4, and the four below it, No.6 wires. A not uncommon arrangement ofthewires is to make the two uppermost No. 4, the
that material.
5733. Annealed wire is the common
two undermost No. 6 , and the two inter
wire softened in the furnace, and sent out mediate, No. 8. The upper wire is first in that state. It is purchased at the same strained, and then the lowest one, and the price as the common, and is in some dis- intermediate ones are taken in succession,
tricts used in preference, from its being the tension of the upper one being the softer and more easily bandled than the guage to the others. other. It is, however, the very worst
that can be put into a fence, and ought
5738. As to the cost of wire-fencing, an
REALISATION .
596
instance may be given of a fence con- they will ever supersede thorn hedges structed in front of a plantation, of or 'stone dykes on farms. They afford curved and irregular form , of wooden no shelter to stock , and, appearing in posts and standards, 34 feet high, having significant to restless cattle in the fields, 6 wires, and extending to 665 yards. have been attempted to be leapt over , The two upper wires wereof No. 4, and and the cattle, not marking the height the four lower of No. 6. The undermost well, have been caught by the upper one was 6 inches from the ground ; the wire in the groins, to their serious injury. second, 11 ; the third, 164 ; the fourth, They are well adapted to the fencing 23 ; the fifth, 314, and the uppermost, 42 of plantations until the trees grow suf ficiently high for pasturage under them . inches. The cost may be stated thus :The grazings of pastoral farms might be 35 straining posts and angle-posts, at ls. 9d.,
£3
.
subdivided by them, much to the advan
3
1
17staysfor ditto, at 472.,
0 6 9
tage ofboththe stock and pasture. They
230 small posts, at 4fd.,
4 15
1400staples, at Is. per100,
0 14
would form a cheap mutual march - fence,
0
even with iron posts, on large hill proper
10 bundles No. 4, prepared wire, and 15 bundles No. 6, at lÒs. 6d. per bundle, 13 2 6 8 16 3 Wages for fitting up,
ties. They might be used instead of paling for protecting young thorn hedges, until
Equal to 665 yards at 10d. per yard, £ 30 1 54 theygrow up to be a fence . 5739. Three wires above the height of
5743. Wire would make a neat fence
a turf or stone dyke cost about 7dd. per between the plateau and a small grass field in front of a farm -house. Movable hur lineal yard.* dles of iron might be conveniently used to 5740. Mr Binning Munro's account of confine a sheep or two to eat up the grass the cost of erecting a wire-fence with iron of a small plat and save the trouble of cutting it. Top -dressing the grass in this posts, per 100 yards, is this: manner is preferable to cutting it with the 6 5 1 £ 3 bundles of wire, at 8s. 6d., i 2 8 scythe and carrying it away, to the im Iron for posts , o06 lo !6 poverishment of the soil. Boring and fitting posts, Straining-posts bored and fitted , Making holes in stones, Other expenses,
.
.
0
1
0
2 0 ON EMBANKING AGAINST RIVULETS.
Equal to 11d. per yard , £4 10 8 5744. It is not safe to have no fence
The stones being heavy, and the posts betwixt arable land and a rivulet. How strong, no stays are required, and the ever peaceful and beautiful such a stream
iron work is put down at cost price and may be in summer, the haugh ground on labour, the entire work having been done its margin is subject to be overflowed by by country smiths.t sudden floodings in winter, when sur charged with melted snows, or dammed 5741. The durability of wire fences is behind piled sheets of broken ice, at the
greater than might be expected. They up-breaking of a storm . It may, there stood upon the estate of Torrance, in fore, be of service to you to be made Strathearn, for twelve years before re- acquainted with the means, in such cir quiring repairs, and then some of the standards were renewed, while the wire would stand for six years to come. On other estates they have stood nearly ten years without repair. Were the posts made of iron, they might stand a lease without
cumstances, of preventing small streams, when flooded, from reaching ploughed land. Where haughs are kept in permanent pasture, comparatively little injury is sustained from floodings,but rather benefit from the deposition of alluvial matter ; repairs. but to be prevented ploughing land, from the chance of the soil being carried 5742. Itis not at all probable, that how- off by water, is an inconvenience which ever durably wire -fences may be erected, no farmer should endure. In one season, * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, March 1850, p. 244-62. + Journal of Agriculture, July 1850, p. 428.
EMBANKMENTS.
597
two acres of wheat on a fine haugh serious character than if their had been
belonging to myself were completely no embankment at all. The best policy carried off, soil and crop, by the sudden is to give the river sufficient room to flow,
eruption of the small river Vinny, in and also to remove all sudden turns in its Forfarsbire, caused by the damming of course, against which the water may the ice at a turn of the rivulet in the breaking up of a severe storm . The devastation seemed irreparable ; yet in a short time afterwards, in spring, there
strike with force, or be deflected with violence against the opposite bank. Let all the curves of the embankment, whe ther concave or convex to the river,
being abundant depth of alluvial soil in present surfaces along which the water
the haugh, the large holes made, and the will flow in unbroken sweeps, although banks of soil thrown up by the water, these may not be in conformity to the were filled up and levelled, and the soil natural form of its channel.
Beside the
ploughed, manured again, and sown with embankment, the form of the channel turnips, as if no such accident had occurred should be made with easy sweeps, by that season. To prevent the recurrence taking away projections of the bank on of similar catastrophes, I made a small one side, and filling up deep bays on the embankment along the whole line of other. the stream , at every place where it was possible for it to overflow , and which com-
5746. The line of the embankment
pletely defended the soil from similar harm should be marked off with pins, and the in future.
turf raised along the breadth of ground to be occupied by the embankment. In
5745. To determine the dimensions of an embankment adapted to the peculiarities of the locality, you should beforeband ascertain, from the best evidence
raising the turf, that intended to cover the face of the embankment next the stream should be at least 1 foot square, unbroken, and tough ; and if the river
you can obtain, the highest point to which bank does not afford turf of this descrip and if your embankment is made 1 foot brought to the spot. The turf to build
the water of the rivulet had ever reached ; tion, it must be obtained elsewhere, and higher than that point, your land may be the face -wall may be ofanydescription
consideredas being placed in safety. The possessing tenacity at all. The turf for next consideration is the distance of the the sloping-bank should be cut with
site of the embankment from the margin bevelled edges, so that each turf may
of the water. In every place where the overlap two lower turfs with two of its bed of the stream is narrow, and where, of edges — the one edge, the lowest, over
course, the flooded current will attain the lapping down the slope of the bank, the greatest height, the enibankınent should not other with the flow of the river. The only be higher, but farther removed from proper and relative position of the turfs thestream . Where the bed of the stream, being settled, the embankment should
on the other hand, is broad, and there is begin to be constructed at the lowest ample space for aslow though deep cur- point of the stream , and carried up its rent, the embankment may be safely course. placed nearer the water's edge. But the safest plan in all cases isto afford ample 5747. I shall suppose that the turf space for the water, and much loss bas wall a l, fig. 485, shall be four feet in
been occasioned by contracting the channel height, next the field ; then a breadth of of a river too much by embankments on opposite sides of it, from a mistaken desire to reclaim pieces of land from the river bank ; forgetting that, in proportion as the river is increased in depth, by confinement between embankments on both sides,
6 feet from b to c being the base of the slope of the embankment, may give suffi cient stability to the structure, and slope to theface. The line bc,however, will vary with the nature of the ground on the river bank. In a steep part, less slope may
its power to do mischief is greatly in- suffice; and in a sudden and narrow hollow creased ---as much as even to overcome it may be necessary to fill it up alto
the strength of the embankment, when the gether, to make the bank uniformly even ; injury committed will be of a much more and the slope may have to be built up
598
REALISATION .
with a gentle acclivity, from the very edge of the water.
5748. The first operation in the actual construction of the embankment is build
Fig. 485 .
a
m
AN EMBANKMENT AND FACE DRY - STONE DYKE AGAINST A RIVULET .
ing the turf -wall a b, the sods of which are of the spade. It will be seen ,from this
laid with the grassy face downwards, on description, that the building of the turf the same principle as breaking band wall ab should bein advance of the laying in masonry . As the wall proceeds, earth of the turf upon the slope c a. is taken from the field in spadefuls to pack behind it, and to fill up the contents of
5749. In conjunction with the turf
the embankment included within a bc. This earth should be free of stones, and, if disposed to rise in lumps, should be chopped small with the spade before it is
work, the building of the stone-dyke, I m, may proceed and finish the whole em bankment at once. The dyke required here is a single-faced one, with suitable
thrown into the space, and then compressed covers and a strong cope; and it will serve After a greatly to strengthen the embankment
firmly with a wooden beater.
sufficient quantity of earth has been placed against the pressure of the water. behind the turf wall, the turfs of the slope ca are begun to be laid at the lowest
5750. The cost of making an embank point c, where the first turf d , with the ment 4 feet high in the wall, 6 feet broad
grass-side upmost, is made to grip under in the base, and casting the turf for it, the and abut against the sward e of the river materials being all at hand, is 1s. 5d. per
bank, by a notch cut out of the latter with rood of 6 yards. If the turf has to be the spade - the object of the notch being to brought from a distance, the trouble of its fix the edge of the turf under the sward, carriage devolves upon yourself. The to prevent the water getting hold of it and cost of building the face-dyke 5 quarters
carrying it away. Another turff is made high is 8s. per rood of 30 lineal yards, to overlap with its lower edge the upper and the quarrying and carriage of the edge of the turf d , just laid ; and the earth stones will each be as much, or rather
is brought behind it with a trowel, or with more - perhaps 98. per rood . the hand, to the inclination of the slope In like manner , the turfs g, h, and
ca.
5751. Au embankment for this purpose
i are laid one after the other, till the should be constructed as early in the sea top of the turf-wall 6 a, is reached by the top of the slope c a, where a thick turf k,with thegrass upmost, is made to cover the top of the wall and of the slope
son as possible, to give the turf time to grow together before the earliest flood in winter.
at the same time. When the turfs are cut
water should occasionally be thrown upon
square, and of the same size, which they should scrupulouslybe, they are quickly and evenly laid . The whole of the turfs are then beaten firmly down with the back
it with a scoop from the rivulet ; and in any sort of season it is possible that a turf here and there will die , when it should be immediately removed and a fresh one sub
Should the summer prove very
dry, the turf may become brown, when
599
FIELD -GATES.
stituted in its place.
Until the turfing inside slope should be one perpendicular to one
becomes converted into a thick and tough of base : for sea -banks, where thewavesdo not sward, it should be frequently inspected, may be6 feet, theslope on theland -side 14 foot and every gap in it plugged up, whether for every 1 foot in height, and on the sea-side4 land occasioned by accident, such as the feet of feet to 1 foot in height. The slope on the
cattle trespassing from the opposite side, or the burrowingof animals, such as rabbits or water- rats. By the succeeding season the grass will have grown luxuriantly upon the slope, when it may be mown early
sidemust vary with the heightof the waves, and should beincreased to 24 base to 1 foot ofper pendicular height : the slope on the water -side should be still more, in proportion to the rise of
tide:for every increase of a foot in height the slope must begreater, so that when thewaves in summer, to give it time to grow thicker mount to 10 feet in heighton the water-side, it should be 10 feetfor every foot in height. When before winter. After this period theearth the earth with which the embankments are will have become quite firm , and the em- formed is of a gravellyor loose nature, it is re
bankment will require nothing more than orquisite to carry up in the middle a wall ofclay, some impervious material; the system of pud a general supervision every year.
dling is now generally adopted, by which the
5752. Should the embankment cut off percolationof thewaters is prevented.” Incon sequence of the unprecedented floods in August the river as a means of watering the stock 1829, the Isla, in Forfarshire, was embanked out
in the fields, a pool should be formed at after a long period of annoyance. the lowest partof each field, the bottom
embankments
5754. “ Within walls of pro of which should be dug below the ordi- visionshouldalwaysbemadeto let off the,land
nary level of the water in the river ; and should the subsoil consist of gravel, the water will ooze through it from the river into the pond ; but should it be of impervious clay, a conduit formed by an
The simplest form is a clap waters. per or valve, hung at the top, and falling over the opening of the pipe or trunk of discharge, which is kept closed as the tidal water rises and presses against it. Sluices are at other times
used , which slide up and down in the frame ;
iron pipe should be laid from the water and theordinary lock -gate either made to re in the river to the pool. In case the volve on a pivot, or to shut like folding -doors river overflow to a height above the against a fixed frame. The passage through the
surface of the field in winter, the end of wall consistsof eithera massof masonry or a pipe of cast-iron ; for culverts the latter is gene the pipe next the poolshould be plugged rally preferred.* up for the winter, after the stock have retired from the field ; and when the field
is not in grass, the plug should remain undisturbed in the pipe.
ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF FIELD -GATES ,
5755. Immediately in connection with 5753. The sort of embankment I have been describing is only applicable to small rivulets enclosures and fences are field -gates; and whichhave little waterinthem in summer ;but their proper construction is an important in case of considerable rivers, a much more sub element in their agreeable use, and intheir stantial embankment will be required,to an durability, irrespective of the material of off their inundating efforts at times. Such
embankment is described, in general terms, in which they may be constructed. the following words by a competent writer : “ When rivers which pass through low grounds are to be embanked or confined, that the floods they bring down may not inundate the adjoining
5756. A field -gate may be described as a rectangular frame, and a simple rect
lands,care must be takentomakethe banks angular frame is the most liable to change sufficiently strong, as, the force increasing as the
of any connected structure of framework .
embankment is raised - in consequence ofthe On the other hand, the triangle is the stream not being able to expand itself in pro portion to the increase of water , the more it is most immutable of any form , and as long allowed to spread, the less occasion is there for as the materials remain, it will never
strong barriers. The slopeof such embankments change. To have the inost immutable should not be less than twice their height ; and field - gate it onght, therefore, to have the
three times are necessary whentheriversthey triangular form ; but in practice, a gate
confine are affected bythe tide, orsubjectto the in the forin of a triangle would be most the thickness at top
force of the sea -wave ;
should not be less than 5 or 6 feet, and the unserviceable ; though a combination of * Cresy's Encyclopædia of Civil Engineering, p. 1558.
REALISATION .
600
triangles will produce the requisite figure various causes to be forced up at the head post b d , however well the diagonal is adap for a serviceable gate. ted to prevent the upper rail from being 5757. If we take the most serviceable depressed, by any undue weight, exerted
form for a gate, the rectangular, and apply a bar to it, in the position of a diagonal of the parallelogram , we immediately convert the original rectangle into two triangles, applied to each other by their hypotheneuse. Such a combination gives us the true elements of a properly constructed field -gate, every other part being
upon its end at b. The advantages of a tie are the converse of a strut. If a tie, therefore, is placed from c to the opposite angled, crossing the strut ab in its centre and an iron bar makes a perfect tie, the cohesion of which is such that a very small sectional area is sufficient for the pur pose — the two antagonistic forces of the
subordinate, and only adaptedtothe prac- wooden strut and the iron tie, acting tical purposes of the gate as a defence or an each in its own sphere, preserve within
ornament.
Thus, then , the essentials of the whole structure the most perfect equi
a field - gate, whether of wood or of iron, librium.
are, a rectangular frame, consisting of the 5760. A very common form of field heel and head posts, and a top and bottom rail ; which four parts, properly con- gate to be seen in this country is shown nected at the angles, are rendered of an in fig. 487 ; and, applying the principles to
unchangeable figure, by the application
Fig. 487.
of one or more diagonal bars, which in no case ought to be applied short of the whole length, between any two of the opposite
C
Fig. 486 represents such a com Fig. 486.
a
11
angles.
6
A COMMON FIELD -GATE .
it which we have been considering, we shall find it defective in several most es
sential particulars. It has a strut ab, but A RECTANGULAR FRAME WITH DIAGONAL STRUT. instead of extending across the entire bination, where a c is the heel post, bd the diagonal to c, it stops short at the centre
head -post, and cb and a d the top and of the gate at b. The part of the top, bc, bottom rails of the rectangular frame of a is liable to be broken off,by any undne
field - gate ; and a b is the diagonal, which force being exerted upon it at c, when it couverts the rectangle acbd into two tri- is converted into a lever, whose fulcrum angles a c b and b ad . is supported at b by the end of the strut a b. It has also a tie 6 d ; which is not
5758. In field -gates constituted entirely only made of a wooden rail, but it does of wood, the diagonal should invaria- not extend across the rectangle to e, and bly be applied as a strut, to rise from the in no part does it cross the strut a b, so foot of the heel at a , and terminate at the as to act with it in maintaining an equili top of the head post at b. Placed brium of forces. The consequence in prac
in this position , the diagonal a b sup- tice is, that this form of gate is very fre
ports the swinging end of the gate bd, quently fractured at the head-post cd, by its resistance to compression ; which and falls to the ground at d. The wood it is well adapted to perform by the of a gate such as this costs, in larch, 9s. area of its cross section being consider- or 10s., and the crook and band, a and able, and hence capable of resisting laterale, 10s. more . flexure .
5761. The principle of trussing has been
5759. But a field -gate is liable from successfully introduced into the wooden
601
FIELD -GATES.
field -gate by Sir John Orde of Kilmory in fitted up with wooden spars, the frame costs Argyleshire. Fig . 488 shows the rectFig. 488.
13s. 6d., and the posts suited for it 13s. 6d. more - together 27s. 5762. But now that iron is forged of sizes suitable for the construction of field
gates, the probability is that, ere long, gates
of iron will altogether supersede those of wood. Fig. 489 gives a simple form of Fig. 489.
THE KILMORY WOODEN TRUSSED FIELD -GATE ,
angular form trussed, so as to make a
compact firm structure .
The heel-post
ab, the head -post o d, and the upper and lower rails a c and b d , form the rect
d
g
angular frame. The truss consists of 4 AN IRON FIELD- GATE WITH IRON POSTS AND STAY. bars of wood, a e , be, ce, and e d , each of which abuts into an angle of the rect- an iron field -gate. It consists of six rails, angle, and all meet at the centre of the so arranged as to keep in lambs in the
gate e ; where, each bar being longer than lower part of it. It is both light and
the half of a diagonal of the rectangle ad, strong. The fore-style bg is prevented they become elevated in the form of a dropping by the diagonal bar, a b, which , pavilion roof. A similar truss is formed on being applied with its flat side, is rivet
for the other face of the gate, whose apex is at f. Through the points e and f, the apexes of the trusses, passes the iron bolt ef, the head of which holds the bars at f; and a screw and nut upon a plate hold those ate ; and when the screw is tightened,
ted to each of the rails ; and the twisting is counteracted by the top and bottom rails, fb and a g being welded flat-ways to the fore and bind styles with strong solid knees. The upright bars, as c d , retain each of the rails in its proper place. The
the trusses arebrought nearer together in gate frame is 9 feet long, and 3 feet 9 the centre, and their ends abut with great force against the angles ofthe rectangular frame at ba c and d. To resist this pressure, it is necessary to connect the posts and rails with an iron clamp at each angle of
inches in height. The gate can be hung upon wooden posts ; but the iron posts, as shown in the figure, correspond better with the appearance of the gate. They are made of malleable iron , and are fastened
the frame. I believe that this construc- into large stones with double bats ; and
tion of gate will admit the frame neither the hanging-post f a is additionally sup
to bendnor twist, and it will bear any ported by a stay e. pressure of stock against its sides ; but its peculiar form is attended, in my opinion, with a practical inconvenience. The trusses rising on each side of the gate og inches above the plane of the frame, the projecting parts ate and f present an easyand ready hold for the foot of a colt,
The cost of this gate
is 30s., and the posts 20s. more — together,
50s.-which price completes all the neces sary bolts and nuts for fixing them to the stone blocks, and hanging the gate on the posts. This form of gate would probably be strengthened by the introduction of a
tie stretching from f to g across the centre
should be disposed to amuse himself about of the diagonal ab. the gate - arecreation which young horses are apt to indulge in ; and the same pro5763. The same species of iron gate is
jection will likely graze against the sides made on the tension principle, as seen in of the cattle, and lay hold of the barness of fig. 490, where the other parts than the
the horses when passing through the gate. tension are different from those in fig. I am therefore doubtful of its utility as 489, in not having diagonals as a b. In
a common field- gate. The interior of the fig. 490 strong iron tension wires pass frame can be šlled up with any light through the cast-iron blocks a and c, material, as wire or spars of wood. When connected together with an iron collar, in
REALISATION .
602
the centre of the frame. These wires are
possesses the stiffness of wood to resist To render the bracing complete, the antagonist diagonal a d is
fastened by heads to the upper bar and lateral strains. Fig. 490.
applied as a tie. The upright bars are all riveted to the horizontal ones, as well as to the diagonals, so that the frame is
rendered unchangeable in figure by any force that might be appliedto the head post c d . Any number of interior bars may be added to suit the objects of the
The figure exhibits the arrange ment adapted to retain lambs, which are stiles at b and d, and drawn as tight as the smallest-sized stock confined in fields. cost of this gate, without posts, is required at the lower bar and stiles at The 258. The frame is 9 feet long, and 3 feet gate.
AN IRON FIELD-GATE ON THE TENSION PRINCIPLE ,
e and f, by means of nut and screw . The cost of this gate, without the posts, is
9 inches in height.
25s.
5766. I have seen a gate constructed by Mr Cbarles Miles, architect, London, seemsofboth to me iron well andwood adapted for fields. tral apparatus of this gate is similar in ap- which It consists has . It pearance to that of the Kilmory wooden cast -iron heel- post, a, fig. 492, gate in fig. 488 ; but their modeof action a strong d a Fig. 492. is the opposite, though the effects produced 5764. It will be observed that the cen
are similar.
In fig . 490 , the wires from a
and c act as ties, drawing the posts and rails towards them from the angles, and
thereby giving to the entire framing a rigid In fig. 488, the wooden struts from e and f, as centres, push the posts
structure .
and rails outwards at the angles against
the clamps, thereby also giving the fram ing a rigid structure. 5765. Angle iron, so extensively used MILES' WOODEN FIELD -GATE WITH IRON HEEL -POST. in boiler-making, ship-building, and other which is round, tapering to the top, and is purposes, has also been used in the con-
batted into a large stone in the ground.
struction of field - gates. Fig. 491 repre- At a is a collar of iron embracing and re volving round upon a projecting bead Fig. 49 ) . encircling the post. To one side of this collar is attached a socket of considerable
depth, and of a form to receive into it the upperrail of the gate, which, when properly seated, the socket prevents from droop
ing at the head d . The under rail style is in every respect fitted up in the same d manner as the upper one. The head style d AN ANGLE IRON FIELD -GATE , islight, and completes the framing. The fill sents a gate made of it. The external ing- up of the frame is left to choice, either frame is composed of 4 barsof angle iron ; iniron or wood. In the figure the filling-up
and, to give security to the joinings at the consists of light wooden spars, nailed on al 4 angles of thetrusses, the ends of the bars ternately uponboth sides of the upper and
are riveted upon cast-iron corner-plates ; lower bars. Were a wooden strut intro those of the heel- post a b being formed of duced into the frame from the bottom rail strong projecting pivots, by which the to the opposite angle at d , the gate would gate is hinged. The diagonal b c is con- be much strengthened, though the deep
trary to the general rule, for it is appar- hold of the sockets makes the rails much ently a strut; but being of angle iron, it more rigid than might be expected. The
603
FIELD -GATES.
receiving post is made of wood, fitted into
5770. Field - gates ought to be painted
an iron socket, which is batted into a before being put to use , and they ought to stone. The cost of this gate without the receive a new coat every year, as with receiving -post is £ 1 , 178. 6d., the cost of out it they will rot in a comparatively that post being 7s.6d .
short period of time.
Iron gates must
of necessity be painted, to keep them from 5767. When speaking of the repairs of rusting. Coal tar does not look well fences in summer, a substantial method of as a paint, and is apt to blacken the
sinking a wooden gate-post is given in fig. hands and clothes after exposure for a time 295, and (3575.) Another method is in to the air . Many compositions are pre
digging a hole 24 feet square, and of the sented to the public notice as suitable same depth; and the post being set into for painting outside work, but there is it, the pit is filled with rubble masonry in nothing better than good white lead and mortar, packed firmly, and grouted round oil. Field- gates painted white have a the post. This is, no doubt, a very effectual lively appearance amongst the dark green mode of fastening gate -posts - a matter not foliage of thorn hedges. 5771. I consider wire an unsuitable be ; and the lime may tend to preserve the wood under ground a longer time than it material for the construction of field would be without it ; but it is expensive, gates, being too flimsy to bear the constant
so well attended to on afarm as it ought to
and when the post has to be renewed, the use of opening and shutting, and the masonry will have to be removed, as no pressure of animals confined in, or going new post can again be fixed so firmly in out of and into fields.
the pit, as when both were put in together. The tops of the posts should always
5772. Large stones set on end form
be semi-spherical, or pyramidal, to pre- appropriate gate-posts, inconnection with vent the lodgment of water upon them . stone dykes ; but built pillars for support gates are generally very short- lived The portion of the post under ground ing should be charred , and afterwards well on a farm . saturated with coal-tar, by a similar pro 5773. In the Isle of Man , although its agricul cess to that described in (5728. ) turists cannot boast more than ourselves of the perfection of their gates, nature has supplied
5768. There is no better mode of hang-
them with an admirable material for gate-posts.
ing a field -gate than by crook -and -band The transition slate with which the island binges at the upper rail, and a beel-crook abounds is found in onelocality, Spanish-head, at the bottom of the heel-post. Both the of a nature that serves all the purposes of beams and planks of wood ; and of this many , indeed band -hinge and the beel-crook ought tobe most, of the gate-posts are formed . In Scotland
double-tailed, to embrace both sides of the
we have now in abundance a material equally
heel-post and of the upper rail.
suitable for the same purpose , in the Caithness
The
upper -crook keeps the gate close to the pavement, which is now applied for gate-pillars,
upper part of the hanging-post, while the heel crook, resting on and working in a hole made in a hard stone, supports the entire weight of the gate. A gate -post
and for which no material can surpass it. They are built into the ground in the same manner as
wooden posts, and look very much like a plank
of wood, but possessing strength, and especially durability, far beyond wood. The crook -hinges
of whatever kind, which has to support are either fixed into them by passing through
the entire weight of a gate, requires tobe may them,beasputbolts through a jumper-hole, or they on in the form of a hoop, and secured very securelyfixed into the ground; but with wedges. when the gate is supported by a heel-crook,
the post may be of more slender form .
5774. It would be desirable to have a sub
stance which would preserve wooden gate-posts as many years as a lease generally runs.
A
5769. The simplest mode of fastening process is recommended by Messrs Hutin and field - gates to the head - posts is to book on
a small linked chain from the stile
Boutigny as fit for such a purpose.
The pro
cess of the decay of wood is thus stated by
: “ Woodsare destroyed by theincessant head of the gate to a hook in the receiving- them post. No animal is able to unloosen this action of moisture and of the oxygen of the atmosphere, which principles penetrate to the
simple sort of fastening ; but horses soon core of the wood by absorption and infiltration. learn to unfasten almost every other sort. By their presence in the wood, and their con
REALISATION .
604
tinued action on the elementary fibrine, they give they would be certainly injured, by the called by Liebigelements eremacausis. penetration of destructive goesonThis exclusively by them , and rendering them useless ; and
rise to a kind of slow spontaneous combustion, roots of the hedges finding their way into the ends of the wood, and in the natural channel
the other objection is, that long runs of
oftheflow ofthe sap.Hence, if weprevent the drains are to be avoided in every system destructive action of thesecauses upon thewood of farm drainage. It therefore appears we can preserve it indefinitely ; and by hermeti- that the safety of the drains demand cally closing the absorbing ends of the wood, we accomplish the end in view . For a considerable
that the land should first be inclosed, and
time we have thought that woods could be best
then the drainage of each field should be preserved by coatings of oily or resinous mat- conducted by itself, and that as many ters. Thisis certainly the most rational mode fields as the figure of the ground admits of
of procedure ; and ifcomplete success has not should be made to discharge their waters been hitherto attained, this is to be attributed
into the same outlet.
Besides securing
rather to the improper methods of applying them . Our method consists in drying the ends
the general safety of the drains, the drain of the woods; neutralising their power ofabsorb- age of each field is attended with the ad ing moisture by slightly charring them ;andher- vantage of laying off and executing the metically sealing them by means of a substance
drains in it, in accordance with the pecu
which penetrates the fibres,the incorporat ing itself with thembetween ,and preventing destruc- liar nature of its subsoil and the form of tive action of the element in which they are
its surface ; whereas none of these neces
placed. The plan of procedureissimple, expe- sary particulars would be sufficiently at ditious, ofsmall expense, and capable of being tended to were a general system draining of
practised by any one, requiring no particular apparatus nor workmen.
It is as follows :
Plunge the ends of the wood to be preserved in any carburet of hydrogen, which rapidly penetrates the fibres.
Set fire to it, and at the mo-
ment when the flame is extinguished, plunge the wood into a warm mixture of black pitch, tar, and gum lac. This cement penetrates some way between the fibres, and forms at each end of the
adopted. 5777. It is possible that the entire sur face of the farni may not require draining a portion of the soil may rest on gravel or other porous material. Where such a case occurs, the expense will be reduced
wood a kind of hermeticalsealing which remains to that extent ; and yet if the open subsoil, unchanged. The wood is afterwards tarred all however dry in summer, becomes damp over in the usual way.” in winter, by water coming then from a distance, it will require to be drained as well as the most impervious, though at less cost.
ON THE DRAINING OF LAND.
5775. The buildings having been provided for, and the surface of theground laid out in suitable enclosures, and fenced with thorn hedges and stone dykes, and furnished with gates, our attention should
5778. It is no difficult matter to deter
mine whether or not land requires drain ing. By the experienced eye, the parti cular parts of a field most affected by superfluous water are easily detected:
now be turned to the improvement of the the peculiar state of the crop the field soil constituting the surface, by the various bears at the time indicates them ; such processes of draining, trench and subsoil as want of vigour in growth, a sickly ploughing, and liming. The primary hue of colour, and none of the parts suff process of all these is draining. ciently developed, which are all strong indi cations of the presence of water - and these 5776. When draining is about to be are more evidentlyexhibited by grain and
conducted on so large a scale asthe drying green crops than by the sown grasses ; of a whole farm , it might be deemed and also by old pasture, which bears best to drain the ground before enclos- coarse , hard, uninviting berbage. The
ing it, with the view of conducting the soil that indicates such a condition of vege operation on a corresponding scale to the tation always feels unelastic under the foot. extent of surface to be drained .
Two
well- founded objections can be stated
5779. Moist land may also be easily de
against the adoption of so general a plan— tected by the inexperienced eye. In March, one is, that it would impose the necessity after being ploughed, when the air is dry of running hedges across drains, by which and keen, largebelts of dark -coloured soil
DRAINING .
605
be observed near the top of acclivi- useful plants, since the excess is usually of a light- brown colour; or marked with luxuriance , of sub - aquatic plants, as
may
ties, whilstthe rest of the field seemsdrier, indicated by the presence, in number and
only small dark spots here and there ; rusbes, Juncus acutiflorus and J. effusus, or only the flat and hollow parts are which only flourish where water is too
covered with dark soil. All these palpable abundant for other kinds of plants. In mistaken ; although they may disappear, apparent ; although observation has shown
bints of water lurking below cannot be what manner the injury arises is not or are much contracted, in dry, and much
that stagnant water, whether upon or
extended in rainy weather. When When they disappear on the approach of summer, it is erroneouslyconcluded that they can do no harm to cultivated plants, and the land
under the surface, does injure the growth of all useful plants. It perhaps prevents, or at least checks, all useful perspiration or circulation, and by affecting the chemi
requires no draining; whereas it is the cal state of substanceswhich largely supply water remaining in the soil all winter that the food of plants. Be the cause of the injures the crops in summer. Superficial injury what it may, experience assures us
symptoms of dryness may not indicate the that draining prevents all its bad effects. true state of the subsoil, for that water The deficiency of crops frequently attri
does lurk in it to a very great extent in buted to unskilful husbandry, on appar this country, and will continue so to do, ently dry land, arises, in my opinion, until vents are made for its egress, is an from the baleful influence of concealed established truth-so much so that even stagnant water ; and want of skill is
naturally dry soil around wet becomes here shown, not so much in the misman
injured by imbibing the stagnant water agement of the arable culture , as in the from it. The mere wetness, which dis- neglect to remove the concealed moisture; appears partially in spring, and alto- for, let the culture be ever so skilfully gether in summer, would not injure grow- conducted, it will never produce so great
ing crops, as it would all be absorbed, and good crops from damp as from natur and more, in the wants of active vegeta- ally dry or thoroughly drained land. A tion ; but when it remains stagnant, and conviction has been forced upon me by long occupies the pores of the soil and subsoil and extensive observation ofthe stateofthe
all winter, it renders them so very damp, soil over a great portion of thekingdom , that most of the summer's beat is required to evaporate it. The heat of the summer is thusengaged in evaporating the moisture, and thereby producing a coldness in the atmosphere, instead of nourishing the growth of the crops,which it would other wise certainly do. Even after the soil and subsoil have been drained, the winter rain passing through them takes some of their
that the neglect ofdraining is the true cause of most of the badfarming to be seen; and that a single farm does notexist, not already thoroughly drained, which would not be much the better for draining. 5781. We cannot inquire too minutely into the extensive injury sustained by the soil, and its products, by the stagnation of
heat, and conveys it away in the drains ; rain water upon an impervious subsoil. but though such an abstraction makes Most of the soil of Scotland consists of loam ,
them somewhat colder, it cannot render of different consistence, resting upon tena them either wet or sour ; and having now
cious clay, of unequal depth . Where the
free access to the air, they necessarily soil is shallowest, it is injured by the stag
assume its temperature. In these altered nant water remaining constantly beneath circumstances, the heat of spring and sum- it ; and where deepest, it is injured by chilly
mer have only to push forward the growth exhalations arising from the water below . of the crops to fill them fully, to make the direct injury done to soil by stag them of fine quality, and to bring them nant water, may be estimated by these effects. Manure, whether putrescent or to maturity.
caustic, imparts no fertility to it ; the
5780. Where the symptoms of wetness plough, the harrow , and even the roller,
are obvious to the senses in summer,there cannot pulverise it into fine mould. The is no doubt of the land requiring draining. Dew grass contains little nourishment for An obvious excess of water may injure live stock ; and in old, the finer sorts dis
606
REALISATION .
appear, and are succeeded by coarse sub- draining may commence soon in autumn,
aquatic plants. The stock never receive the grass should be eaten down by that a hearty meal of grass, hay, or straw , time. Whether or not more than one set
being always hungry and dissatisfied, and of men are engaged in cutting the drains, ofconrse in low condition. Trees acquire they should all be employed in the same hard bark and stiffened branches,and field together, as loss of time is incurred become a prey to parasitic plants. The in driving materials to different fields ;
roads are constantly soft, and apt to be- whereas, with concentrated work, one come rutted ; whilst ditches and furrows field after another becomes drained and fit
are either plashy, or, like a wrung sponge, for being ploughed: and such a course
ready to absorb water. The air always permits the eating down of the grass regu feels damp and chilly, and, from early autumn to late in spring, the hoar -frost meets the face like a damp cloth. In winter the slightest frost encrusts every furrow with ice - not strong enough to bear one's weight, but just weak enough to give way to every step - while snow lies long lurking in shady corners and crevices. In summer, musquitoes, green - flies, midges, goats, and gadAies torment the cattle and the ploughinan and his horses, from morning to night. In autumn, the sheep get scalded heads, and are eaten into by the maggots of the green and carrion flies, during hot blinks of sunshine. These are
larly, field by field, as the draining pro ceeds, so as to sacrifice as little of the grass as possible. These precautions being taken , and the materials laid down, the operations may be carried on through the winter, and as far into spring as to give time to plough the lea for the seed . 5783. When the grass field is not in
tended to be ploughed up — such as a small field in front of the farm -house, or the
lawn around a mansion - house-- the turf should be neatly re-laid over the drains, and somewhat above the level of the ground, to allow the earth to subside, and no exaggerated statements, but such as I a heavy roller made to press it down. have observed in numerous situations — in The turf should be re-laid and rolled in
hill, valley, and plain ; and wherever these fresh weather - or even in damp or wet phenomena occur, toa sensible degree, it weather, provided the grass is dry when may safely be concluded that stagnant rolled. water lurks beneath the soil.
Entertain
ing this opinion, and knowing these facts, 5784. The divisions to be occupied by it is not surprising that I urge the practice oats after lea should be drained every of draining with much earnestness.
year, until the whole farm is dried ; but a greater extent of land may be drained in
5782. Having no doubt of the places anyyear, if desired - such as a portion of be gone abont in a or prepared for turnips. Indeed , some way. In newly made out farm , the power to com- farmers prefer draining in summer to any mence the draining in any given place other season, asthe land can then be carted rests with the farmer ; but on a farm in on with freedom ; the days are long, and a an ordinary state , fields can only be good day's work done - whilst every other
the process should the fallow -break if bare-fallowed for wheat, which require draining, a systematic
drained at a certain period of the rotation.
sort of work is in a state of cessation .
The most convenient, cleanly, and easy condition for the land to be in fordraining is when it is in grass; and when it is determined to drain land while in grass, the season for opening the drains is thereby
These are good reasons for summer drain ing : but unless the entire fallow -break is
bare-fallowed, so large an extent of fallow land as of lea cannot be drained ; and if so large an extent cannot, the operation
determined . It would not be prudent to sacrifice the entire pasturage of summer,
are members in the rotation.
and no stock should be allowed to roam
will be found in spring to drain the part
will necessarily occupy more years than No time
in a field while being drained — both on of the fallow -break to be occupied by account of injuring themselves by slipping potatoes, and certainly not the whole of
into, and of breaking down the edges, or the part intended for turnips ; and it would fracturing the tiles of the drainsso the be placing the sowing the wheat seed in grass should be consumed ; but, that the autumn in jeopardy to drain after the
DRAINING .
607
potatoes and turnips have been removed thereby counteracting the effects of cold from the ground, besides the slovenliness and wet. I have myself thus cured of poaching the ground after it had been burning land by draining. dunged and prepared to serve a whole rotation .
No advantage would thus be
5787. Should the farm be pretty level,
derived by draining in spring and autumn it matters not at what side the draining instead of in summer. A few short drains commences ; but when it has a decided
in a particularly wet spot may be executed inclination oneway, the lowest part should after the potatoes have been lifted in be first drained, to afford the water from
autumn, and the turnips eaten off in spring, the upper parts at all times an outlet ; and but to no further extent. The lea ground, therefore, presents the largest extent of surface for drainage, with the least interference with growing crops and prepared ground ; and the space may be enlarged by draining as much of the fallow - break as is devoted to fallow -wheat.
when the inclination occurs in more than one direction, each plane of inclination should have a system of drains for itself, commencing at the lowest point of each. 5788. In level ground it may not be
easy to determine the fall by the eye ; and as it is of the utmost importance to have a
5785. The fields should be drained in good outfall for the drained water, the fall succession, and the one to commence with should be ascertained by means ofa spirit should occupy the lowest part of the farm. level . A spirit-level of the form of fig.
As drains, however, are most conveniently 493 I have found a very convenient in made when fields are in grass, it may happen that the field which comes next in
Fig. 493. b
d
succession for drainage is not the lowest one in regard to position. Notwithstand ing, it should be selected for commencing
strument for as certaining the
fall in apparently level pieces of ground, and gene rally for taking
the drainage ; and care should be taken not to let the water from it make the field below it wetter.
the falls in fields.
When in use, it is placed in a frame of brass, a
5786. It may seem an indiscriminate advice to recommend the draining of every field, as it is possible that a part of some
projecting part of which ope
of them may not require it ; but it is
rates as a spring
scarcely probable that no part of any field will not require it. Be this as it may, a
to adjust the in strument by pres
system of thorough drainage requires every
sure to the level
field to be examined in regard to its state of wetness throughout the year. Land
position d, on the
large- headed
which retains water in winter is in a bad
brass
state, though it should be burnt up in summer; because the burning in fact re
being turned. A perpendicular
quires draining to cure it. Lands burn when naturally light,thin , and on retentive subsoil. Being thin, they are easily satu
part of the brass
rated with rain in winter; and being light, the water in them is soon evaporated in summer ; and when drought continues, the crop is soon burnt up. Now, draining is the bestpreventive against all these effects, because drains serve asreservoirs for moisture to be taken up to the plants by capillary attraction through the dry soil in
screw
с
stud in the under
framing is pushed firmly into THE SPIRIT - LEVEL SET FOR OBSERVATION .
gimlet-hole in the top of the sharp pointed support
ing rode, which is inserted into the ground whencethe level is desired to be ascertained. Two eye- sights, a and b, surmount the level, a being a small hole
summer, thereby counteracting the effects for the eye to look through, and b a large of drought; ofand they act water as ducts for the wires square crossing opening, atfurnished with two hair conveyance superfluous in winter, Such a the centre.
608
REALISATION .
spirit-level costs 15s., and is made by those sides will show which side is lowest, Adie & Son , Opticians, in Edinburgh. When notin use , the brass frame is placed between the eye-sights over the spirit-tube to protect it, and a inovable cover of wood,
according to the above rule, and by which the general drainage of the field will have to be effected . A very little practice with the instrument will show its use in every
not shown in the figure, is placed over the case of inequality of ground. In ascer
whole. The instrument is 8 inches in
taining the relative heights of distant
length, 14 in thickness, and 1 inch in points of a field, the height of the instru breadth, and so light that it can easily be ment standing on the rod abovethe ground carried in the pocket, whilst the rod may is not taken into account ; but on ascer taining the absolute height of the spot upon which the instrument stands, above or be
be used as a walking cane. 5789. When it is desired to ascertain
low that of any other spot of the field, the
the fall in a flat piece of ground to be height of the instrument is taken into drained, plant the level on stick about the middle of the piece of ground, and
account.
after placing the eye- sights of the level in 5790. There should be a decided fall the direction in which the fall is desired from the outlet of the drain , whether to be ascertained, adjust the instrument, effected by natural or artificial means. Mr by turning the screw c, until the air- Cresy states that, in the case of drains, it bubble d indicates the level position. An should not be less than 8 feet in the mile, or
assistant holds up a rod at the end of the 1 foot in 220 yards. In large deep rivers the
ground in that direction, and marks the fall is sufficient at 1 foot in the mile, and in point upon the rod signaled by the person small rivers 2 feet.* The open ditch which
using the spirit-level. He then goes with receives the outlet water should be kept the rod to the end of the ground in the scoured deep enough for a considerable dis
opposite direction ; and on the level being tance ; and it is better to deepen it at the adjusted and the observation taken , he marks that point also upon the rod. Should both marks coincide, the two extremes of the piece of ground are on a level ; and should those points be of the same height
Jower end than to increase its width, when
the ground is level. A frequent charge of neglect against farmers, isallowing open ditches almost to fill up before they are
scoured out ; and the ready excuse for the
from the ground as the eye-sights of the neglect is, that scouring ditches to any ex spirit-level are, the entire piece of tentincnrsconsiderablelabour and expense ; ground may be regarded as level. What- and no doubt it does, when they are allowed ever difference may be indicated be- to fill up. But were ditches scoured as tween the points, the subtraction of the they require it — and every year, if neces less from the greater height gives the fall sary for the welfare of stock, fences, and
towards the point of the greatest height. drains- little expense would be incurred at
For example, if at the first station the mark on the rod measures 3 feet 9 inches
one time. It would be better to incur the expense of converting an open ditch into
above theground, and at the second 4 feet a covered drain at once, than to neglect
8 inches, the difference --namely ,11 inches the scouring of it when necessary. Should -gives 11 inches as the fall in the ground
the fall from the outlet towards a river be
from the first to the second station .
too small, a covered drain should be car
a more difficult case .
Take
Suppose that a ried parallel as far down by the sideofthe
knoll in the middle of a field renders it river as to secure a sufficient fall. Rather difficult to see the direction of the general incur the expense of carrying the drain fall of the ground, which is flat. Let a under a mill- course, mill-dam , or rivulet,
point be chosen to place the level, from by means of masonry or a cast-iron pipe, which the field on both sides of the knoll
than allow back -water to gorge a drain.
may be seen at once, and then observe from
this point one ormore parts of the groundfirst on one side of the knoll and then on the other - and the differences between 看*
5791. In cold countries in winter, such
as Russia, Sweden, and Canada, where the
frost sometimes penetrates into the ground
Cresy's Encyclopædia of Civil Engineering, p. 1557.
DRAINING .
609
to the depth of 18 inches, a proper outlet carry away the rain -water in the shortest to protect the water from frost, as it issues time, but to convey it away in sufficient
from the drains, constitutes an essential time not to injure the land, and, at the element in every system of drainage. It is same time, not to wash out by its force any
evident that shallow drains of 18 or 20 of the valuable ingredients of the soil or inches, such as are too common in England, subsoil.
Where the inclination of the will not answer in those countries ; the ground is steeper than is necessary, the
water would freeze in them and derange best way to retard the motion of the water their structure, and tiles would be burst is to give the drain a little more breadth ;
into pieces. It is equallyevident, that if for, the shallower the water, it acquires the water were frozen as it issued at the the less force and velocity, these being outlets of drains, the ice would cause the regulated by the square root of the depth. water to stand back in them in a stag
5793. Before proceeding farther, it is drains should have placed the water beyond necessary to ascertain the nature of he
nant state ; and although the depth of the
the reach of frost, the upper part of the subsoil of the field about to be drained ; ground would draw up the water from and in my opinion, no better mode can be
below , by means of the capillary force, and, there becoming frozen , materially injure the surface soil. The only practicable way I can therefore see of retaining the water in a liquid state in such climates, as it issues from the outlet, is to place the
adopted of ascertaining that fact than by making exploratory drains froin the bottom to the top of the field . Those drains may be jnst the ordinary ones cut here and there. When a field presents a uni
form surface, but inclining, and does not ex
outlet at such a depth as to be beyond the ceed 10 acres, let at leasttwo exploratory reach of frost, and to convey the water in drains be cut from the part at the bottom a deep and long covered drain . Much where the main drain should be placed, to foresight is thus required, and much ex- the top. In larger fields one such explora
pensemust be incurred in making drains tory drain for every 5 acres may perhaps in countries where frost penetrates the suffice . Whatever may be the nature of ground to a great depth.
the subsoil, let them be made at once 3 feet deep without hesitation, if the fall at
5792. Besides the fall for the outlet, the the lowest part will allow it ; and as you fall in the field to be drained requires con- proceed np the rise of the ground, let them sideration . In very level ground the na- be increased to 4 feet; and let portions of
tural fall may not be sufficient to carry away the water quick enough ; and in such a situation no way exists of increasing the fall but by artificial means — that is, by
each drain be cut from 1 foot to 2 feet deeper than the above specified depths. Where small undulations exist, the drains should pass right through both the flat and
causing a greater fall than on the surface, rising ground. In very flat ground, no by cutting thedrains deeperat their lower ends than at the upper. Whatever depth of drain, therefore, should be determined on for the whole field, the lower parts of the drains should be cut deeper and the
considerable increase of depth is prac ticable, farther than to preserve the fall. The extensive exposure of the substrata afforded by such exploratory drains, supply satisfactory data for fixing the
upper shallower than the determined proper depth of the drains of the field . depth ; and the fall should be brought up Should the subsoil be pretty similar in to 1foot in 220 yards, if practicable. In level ground theforce of the water should be increased by keeping it in narrower channels ; and its depth will thereby increase as it flows nearer to the outlet of its own drain, wherever that is. Level
all the experimental drains, it may reasonably be concluded that it is so over the whole field ; but should it prove
otherwise in different parts,then the nature of thedifference should be strictly observed . A correct judgment, however, of the true
ground will absorb more of the rain than nature of thesubsoils, cannot be formed inclined, along which, part of the rain immediately on the opening of the drains; always lowsaway above ground, and never for time must be allowed the water from
enters the drains. The object in pro- the adjoining ground to find its way into ducing a fall, however, should not be to them, and several days may elapse ere the 20 VOL
II.
610
REALISATION .
water will make its appearance in some of made you acquainted with the nature of them. When it is believed the drains the subsoil, determined the depth of the
have received as much water as they can drains, and fixed the distances between in fair weather, the part which supplies the them at the different parts of the field, you most should be observed, wbether the water comes into the drain from a line nearer
are provided with correct data to make a bargain with a contractor to execute the
its top or bottom . Should rain fall during drains. As their cutting should be prose the experiment, let its effects be observed. cuted with industry, it is best and most It is better that parts of the sides of the satisfactory to contract with an experi drains fall in during the dry or the wet enced spadesman, at so much per rood of weather, as the new fractured ground 6 yards. The rates of cutting drains are
affords indications of the natural struc- generally well understood in every locality. ture of the subsoil better than the newly In making a contract, only stout, active, cut ground by the spade. Whatever and skilful men should be dealt with ; for, may be the facts observed, it should though men able to do a hard day's work
be borne in mind that the durability of the drains will depend upon their standing on impervious matter, as it prevents the escape of the water by any
may be found anywhere, if nevertheless deficient in skill and experience, incon veniences will arise, and dissatisfaction be experienced. Unskilled men willingly
other channel than the duct ; and such a engage at low rates; but it is wisdom to subsoil should therefore be sought for in give such rates to skilful men as will en the experiment. To make the drain more able them to earn good wages; and the
secure still, it should stand upon the advantages of good work, especially in impervious matter below the level of the draining, can never be over-estimated . stratum or strata which supply the water. Wherever the drains indicate the depth 5795. Another point, as essential as that draws the most water, it should be engaging with a good contractor, is to adopted for the least depth of the drains to secure a careful superintendent to mea be made on the ground on each side of the sure the sizes of thedrains, and to under
particular experimental drain ; and should take the laying of the tiles.
No man's
different experimental drains indicate a wages are better bestowed for the efficacy difference of depth by the same indication, of draining than to a skilful superinten
the difference should be adopted for the dent. Under such a person the following depth in that particular part of the field. state of things can never occur. In bad Thus the same field may have drains of weather in winter, great extents of drains different depths, but all its parts will be are cut and left open for an indefinite drained at depths which have indicated length of time, without tiles in them , in the greatest effects in each of their loca-
the intervals of which rain and snow fall,
lities. In no case, however, should the and bring down parts of the sides into
drain be made less than 3 feet in depth, the bottom . The spade-work is often unless it be found impossible to do so for roughly and unevenly executed, whereas it want of a level; and even means of obtain- should be neatly and correctly done in ing that depth should not easily be relin- every size of drain. Drains are made to
quished. That depth I will show after- pass round by the side of comparatively wards to be necessary to secure the safety small boulder stones, instead of these being of the drain, under a system of deep removed, and the drains carried forward ploughing. The experimental drains are in a straight line. The most clayey or converted into drains themselves, in com- sandy part of the earth from the bottom mon with the other drains near them , of the drain is often placed upon its very though they will require some repairs edge, part of which slips down with rain before being filled with tiles. Thus know- into the drain. The tiles are frequently laid ing the depths of the drains and the down in a careless manner, instead of being nature of the subsoil, data are furnished for placed as near as possible to the hand of also determining the distance between the the person who lays them, on the opposite drains. side of the drain upon which the earth has been tbrown. Soles are frequently notused. 5794. The exploratory drains having Pipe-tiles are frequently laid in without
DRAINING .
611
regard to their continuous contact or to their own feelings, when on day's
straightness in line. And, to reach the climax of negligence in the whole process, a long time frequently elapses, in the wettest weather, before the earth is returned again above the tiles. Every one of these negligent practices should
wages, irrespective of the ultimate conse quences to the work, about which they may entertain no apprehensions at all. They have no desire to do harm ; but as they cannot, and do not think of antici pating the weather beyond the present
be scrupulously avoided ; and as they day, they naturally work to their own entirely originate in neglecting to exer- convenience. It is thus worse than folly, cise a strict superintendence over the on the part of the farmer, to neglect the
labourers who have undertaken the work , constant superintendence of so permanent either on day's wages or by the piece, the an operation as draining.
farmer himself is most blamable for them . Negligence of superintendence can be his blamealone,and no one's else ; for consider what the workmen will naturally do in promotingtheir own interest in the under-
The time of a
grieve or steward is too frequently consi dered thrown away when superintending drainers. The grieve's time may be fully occupied elsewhere, and but little fear need be entertained of men on piece-work
taking. When the same set of men cut the working less than will secure them good drains and lay the tiles, which is too much wages ,but it is not the apprehension of a
the practice , a damp state of weather is small quantity of work being done any morefavourable for cutting the solidground day that causes uneasiness to the drainer than laying the tiles, and therefore they go - it is its quality and efficiency - and
on cutting drains, day after day, as if they to secure these, superintendence over the had nothing else to do ; thereby exposing a large extent of drain to the weather, which, on continuing wet, brings down much of its sides. Should the rain still
workmen is absolutely requisite. Should the grieve have no leisure, another com petent person should be appointed to superintend, and by his laying the tiles continue, the workmen can neither bottom a saving will be effected; whilst, his being out the drain nor lay the tiles, and the constantly on the spot attending to his matter becomes daily worse.
In a season
own duties, the workmen will be directed
when rain may be expected to fall, had a by him to cut the drains and return the superintendent caused the tiles to be earth whenever the state of each is best
laid, or had laid them himself, the drain adapted for the work; and besides, when would have been filled before itwould have they are not bound to return the whole become too wet to work in. Then, should earth into the drain, the superintendent a sudden frost follow , it moulders down intimates to the steward in good time to
still more of the earth from both sides, send the ploughs to do it. With proper which, absorbing the rain or snow that superintendence, the work will be con follows, is converted into sludge that can- ducted with regularity, and executed in the not be taken out until it becomes firm . fittest time, and therefore in tbe most satis On the other hand, fine dry weather oc- factory manner.
curs, and induces the men to lay the tiles; and they continue laying them , as if cer-
5796. Matters having thus far been
tain the dry weather will continue until properly arranged, the commencement in they are ready to return the earth into the actual operations is to fix the position of drain. When they want to return the the main drain to convey away the water earth, it is found too wet one day and too brought by theother drains, from the most hard with frost another, to put into the distant parts of the field . As main drains drain ; and so the laid tiles lie exposed to are only intended to lead away water
whatever change of weather may happen from other drains, they should occupy to come. Every one of these bad effects the lowest part of the field , whether along would be avoided, were a strict superin- the bottom , the sides, or the middle. If tendence exercised over the work and the the field is so flat as to have very
workmen . When left to their own will, they naturally execute the part ofthe work most conducive to their own interest when working by the piece, and most pleasant
little
fall, the water is directed towards the main drain by making it deeper than the general depth of the other drains, and as deep as the fall of the outlet will allow.
REALISATION .
612
If the field bas a uniform declivity one others — who prefer having the mains and way, one main drain along the bottom small drains on the same level. But the will take away all the water, provided greater depth of the main drain has the
the drains are not too long. If it has an advantageof keeping the outfalls of the undulated surface, every hollow of any small drains always clear of any sedi extent, and every deep hollow of however ment that might otherwise lodge in them , limited extent, should be furnished with a and of back -water from the main drain main drain .
No main drain should be
itself.
It is not necessary that the water
placed nearer than 5 yards to any tree in
from the small drains should fall suddenly the field that may possibly push its roots the six inches into the main, for if the into it. The ditch of a hedge should not material of the subsoil is loose, that fall be converted into a main drain, though may endanger the seat of the main tiles.
the roots of the hedge should lie in the All that is requisite is, that the main should
opposite direction, and the ditch merely receive the water with an increased velo receive surface water from the field . The main drain should be cut out of the solid
city by a greater inclination of the last few tiles in the small drains ; and the velocity
ground, and not be nearer than 3 yards should be the smaller the looser the mate to the ditch lip, or 5 yards to the hedge ; rials the subsoil is composed of. and the ditch, now no longer required to collect surface water, should be converted 5798. Should it so happen, from the into a small drain, and filled up with earth nature of the ground, that the fall in a from the head - ridge. main drain is too rapid for the safety of thematerials constructing it, it should be 5797. As main drains occupy the lowest divided into lengths, which should each
parts of fields, the fall along then cannot have a proper fall, and join the next by an generally be so great as in other parts of inclined plane. The inclined planes should the field ; and conveying more water, they be furnished with ducts built of brick or do not require so great a fall as smaller stone, plain, or like steps of stairs. Fig. drains. In the case of a level field , the 494 illustrates this contrivance, where a b
fall may most depend on cutting them is supposed to represent the entire rapid deeper at the outlet than at the farthest
fall on a main drain at 1 in 10, which
end; but whenever the fall is so small, the is more than it should have to convey lower part of the drain should rather be
a considerable quantity of water.
To
deepened than the duct made considerably lessen this fall, let the drain be cut in wider. Should the fall vary in the course
the form
represented by the devious
of the drain, the least rapid parts should line, ch, which consists of, first, a nearly be made the narrowest. The main drain, level part at the highest end, c d ; then on the same level, should be rather an inclined plane, d e ; again a nearly
larger at the lower than at the upper end, level part, ef; again an inclined plane, f having more water to convey ; but should g ; and lastly, of a less level part, g h, to
there be naturally a greaterfall at the allow the water to flow rapidly away at lower end, the drain should still be the outlet. The inclined parts may be larger, to retard the force of the water . filled in in various ways - one with tiles, as from k to l, where they must be so along the last few yards towards the out- broken at the end as to fit those on the
I would recommend an increase of fall
let, to expedite the egress of the water, lovel at k and l. In using open tiles in and promote an accelerated speed along the whole length of the drain, unless the fall is rapid enough throughout, and then no increase of acceleration at the termination is required. With the view of ac-
such an inclination , it is absolutely neces sary to protect the ground with soles, which should be prevented from sliding away at the lowestend l by resting against a strong stone imbedded there in the
celerating the speed of the water from the ground. The best plan is to line such an other drains, main drains, on level ground, inclined plane with troughs of hewn stone,
where practicable, should be made 6 especially if the subsoil is composed of inches deeper thanthe small ones which rather loose materials. Conduits of dry fall into them .
This is objected to by
some drainers — Mr
stones would be stronger than tiles, and
Parkes amongst cheaper than hewn stones. Or the incline
DRAINING .
613
may be protected with brick, built dry, wise on bed, to form one step as at 0 ; one
and laid like tile-soles, or in a series of upon each end of these to form the upright steps, by setting two side by side length- sides, as at r ; and one lengthwise, across Fig. 494.
c
m
n
DIFFERENT FORMS OF DUCTS FOR THE INCLINED PLANES OF DRAINS .
upon the two upright ones, for the cover, easy descent towards the main drain into as at p. Tiles upon the level part easily which they discharge their waters. They connect themselves with bricks, as at n are usually placed in parallel lines up the
and t. The step form is preferable to the inclination of the ground ; not that all in smooth in breaking the fall and impeding the same field shall be parallel to one the velocity of water, especially towards another, but only those in the same plane, the lower part of a drain, where it might acquire too much momentum . It would be imprudent to build these steps with lime mortar, which is easily washed away,
into whatever number of planes the surface of the field may be subdivided. In a field of one plane, whether nearly level orwith a descent, they should all be parallel to one
and would cause masonry with stones to another, and terminate in the same main be less firmly compacted than in dry build- drain. Small drains should run nearly at ing with pinnings of small stones. It is right angles to the main drains. Except seldom that such structures are required ing in confined hollows, having steep in drains, but they may be so in certain ascents on both sides, the drains should cases. run parallel with the ridges which corres pond with the inclination of the ground.
5799. The position of the main drains Drains should be carried continuously being determined, the next thing is to through each plane of a field , irrespective settle that of the small drains, which of the wet or dry appearances of the sur
should be placed and constructed with an face, uniform and complete dryness being
614
REALISATION .
the object aimed at by draining. Portions ploughing and trenching. If the reten of land, seemingly dry at one time, may tive subsoil parts with its water uniformly be wet at another ; and even when always down its whole depth of 6 feet, then that
apparently dry on the surface, may be in depth should be adopted ; but when all a state of injurious wetness below from stagnant water.
the water is afforded at 4 feet, it is inex
pedient to go deeper, because it will then
be out of danger from the work on the 5800. Having had the data furnished surface. If, on the other hand, a retentive
by the experimental drains, let us see how subsoil gives out its water freely, by some these facts should guide us in determining sand -vein, at 3 feet, and continues reten the depth we should make the drains. If tive at a much lower depth, (5 feet,) it it is found that a depth of 3 feet affords as seems inexpedient to go deeper than the much water as 4, or more, it is unneces- 3 feet, except 6 inches more to afford a
sary to incur the expense ofcutting the proper trough for the tile. In such a case, additional foot, unless it afford some other if very porous materials are found in
advantage; and so all the parts of the quantity at the 5 feet, it would be proper, field containing the same kind of subsoil while keeping the drain at 3 feet, to make should have the drains cut of the same cuts here and there through the bottom of depth. If a porous and tenacious part of each drain into the porous material below. the subsoil afford the same results, the 5801. Besides the effects on the interior drains should be cut of the same depth in both. On the other hand, if 4 feet evi- of the drains, the changes upon the surface
dently afford more water from the same should be simultaneously observed. If 4 kind of subsoil than 3, a 4 -feet drain should feet evidently dries a larger surface over
be preferred without hesitation, because we do not know but that the larger quantity of water is required to be extracted from the land to dry it thoroughly, while
the same sort of subsoil than 3 feet, while
the quantity of water in both is equal, the 4 -feet depth should be preferred without hesitation. Attention, under this parti the extraction of the smaller quantity cular, should be directed to the places might effect very little good. On com- where the drains were cut deepest ; and if
paring the flow from porous and retentive they have produced greater effects upon subsoils, if it is found that 3 feet and less
the surface , while the supply of water is of the porous afford more water than 4 the same, the greater depth should be pre feet of the retentive, whatever less depth ferred . We come to the same conclusion than 3 feet the drain in the porous subsoil we did before, ( 5793, ) that wherever all
may be required, the 4 -feet drain in the tenacious one should be made still deeper, until it be seen whether or not the quantity of the water be increased ; and if not so by 1 or 2 feet of additional depth , it is inexpedient to go beyond the 4 feet. On comparing porous and retentive subsoils, the pointfrom which the water issues
varieties of subsoils are found, the drains
should be cut of the depth specified for the particular variety, even within the same field .
5802. The experimental method just
expounded is not usually adopted ; the common practice being, on knowing the
is an important element in determining subsoil of the field to be retentive , to cut the depth of drains. If it is found that the drains of a depth predetermined by
the porous subsoil affords all its water at
the cost willing to be expended on the
not more than 2 feet, where it rests upon operation .
Such an empirical mode of
retentive matter , it is unnecessary to take proceeding is too common in all agricul
it deeper, as far as the supply of water is tural operations, whereas the considerate concerned , than will just afford a trough plan I have recommended is founded on for the tile in the retentive matter, and principle — on observation of facts — and which, being 6 inches more, makes the
incurs no unnecessary expense , inasmuch
entire depth 36 inches ; so that, although as the experimental drains afterwards serve
the whole water of a drain is supplied at the purpose of small drains ; and, although 2 feet, its depth should still be carried to they should cost more than ordinary 3feet, for the drain to be completely out drains of the samelength, the information of the way of working the land by deep they have afforded much more than com
DRAINING .
615
pensates for the additional expense. It water from a distance through a porous may happen that the experimental results subsoil, need not be placed as close coincide with those of the empirical, still
where it comes a short distance through
it is more satisfactory to have reason and retentive subsoil; and as subsoils vary principle to guide us, than parsimony and in the same field, so drains may be placed at different distances within the same field. It is a common practice to
caprice.
5803. The adoption of the most proper occupy the open furrow with a drain, per depth of drain is a more important step in haps because its hollow saves a little draining than many farmers, to judge from cutting , though this is a trifle compared
their practice, seem aware of. By grudg- to the advantage of selecting the best ing tocut half a foot, perhaps only 3 inches parts of the ground for drains ; but, more deeper, the largest amount of benefit may probably, it is selected because surface be unattained ; for it is perfectly true water runs most quickly to the open fur what the late Mr Stephens said, -that
row.
The open furrow , however, has no
“ land may be filled full of small drains, greater claim for a drain than any other so that the surface will appear to be dry; part of a ridge — especially as most of the but the land thus attempted to be drained water received bythe drain is from the
will never produce a crop,either in quality subsoil, and not directly from the surface ; or quantity, equal to land that has been inasmuch as the general surface of a perfectly drained ,” -a result which can field presents a much greater area than "
*
only be attained by sinking the drains to the depths best snited to the nature of the subsoil ; and its nature can only be best ascertained by direct experiment.
that part of it above drains. The dis tance at which 4 - feet drains will not dry a retentide subsoil is not left to con jecture, but has been partially deter mined by experiment. Conceiving that 5804. The experimental investigations a drain in every furrow , in a tilly subsoil, with the drains have brought us to the would be attended with more expense
very important inquiry of the most proper than the anticipated return, a farmer in distance to be left between the drains. It East Lothian put a drain in every fourth is evident that this fact can only be deter- furrow ; and that they might collect water
mined after the depths of the drains have from that distance, he caused them to be been fixed upon, as drains which collect cut 4 feet deep. Fig. 495 will best illus Fig. 495. 1
1 1 1 1
1
1 ! +
d
a
a
d
1
1
THE BAD EFFECTS OF TOO GREAT A DISTANCE BETWIXT DRAINS.
trate the results, where the black lines d , being nearest a, should be more dried in
a a are the drains between every fourth the same timethan the two fartber off ones, furrow , and the dotted lines the interme- c and e, and the result agreed with the ex diate undrained furrows, by which it is pectation. The two ridges, b and d , nearest evident that each drain a has to dry two a, produced 9 bushels of corn more per
ridges on each side, b and c on the one acre than the two more distant ridges, c
hand, and d and e on the other. On and e, which is a great difference of pro looking atthe arrangement of these ridges, duce from adjoining ridges under the we would expect that the two ridges, b and same treatment and crop ; and yet it does Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. iii., p. 290.
REALISATION .
616
not show the entire advantage which may be obtained by thorongh drained over undrained land, because possibly the drain, a had also partially drained the distant ridges c and e. And such being possible,
ping, Hudlow, in Kent, has dried soil of various quality, of clay, gravel,and sandy loam, with 4 -feet drains at 66 feet apart. And even with stone drains, of from only 2 to 3 feet at 30 feet apart, Mr Bartlett,
together with the circumstance that none Butleigh, in Somersetshire, has drained
of the ridges having a drain on each side, clay and stiff loam for the upper soil with and all incumbent on tilly subsoil, they stones in the subsoil.t Mr Mechi renders
could not have been thoroughly drained ; strong clay land dry with drains 5-feet and the absolute or comparative drying power of 4 -feet drains was thus left unas* certained by this experiment.* It may be conceived, however, that bad the drains been put into every other instead of every fourth furrow , the produce of all the
belowrising ground, and averaging nearly 4 feet all over the field, at 40 feet distance ;
while lighter and more porous soils he drains with 6 and 7 -feet deep drains, at intervals varying from 70 to 90 feet . A farmer in the east of Fife, within the last
ridges would have been alike, inasmuch twenty years, sunk a shaft in one of bis as every one would have been placed in fields with a view to working coal ; but
the same position in regard to a drain ; after descending about 40 feet he was and the expectation seems so reasonable, that the practice of many farmers, from what I can observe, is founded upon it. But such an expectation does not contemplate the greatest benefit possible derivable from thorough drainage ; for although the
obliged to relinquish his intention, on ac count of the shaftbeing overpowered with water. The shaft was filled up, and a conduited drain, of about 5 feet deep, formed from it to the sea -side, discharges a very large quantity of water to this day. ridges did produce alike with a drain on After filling up the shaft, he intended to
one side only, the product would be no have drained the field, which consists of 16 criterion of wbat it might be with a drain acres of porous soil resting on clay and on both sides.
This experiment, then, rock, butsoon discovered that the shafthad
only demonstrates that a deep deep drain drain
effectually dried the entire field. It is quite
fora 4 -foot one cannot be termed a shallow reasonable to suppose that if one outlet one-will collect water in a retentive sub- only is made of a sufficient size to run off soil more certainly across one than two the confined water under the surface, more ridges ; and the value of the demonstra- outlets are unnecessary. A shaft for a
tion consists in cautioning others against coal-pit cannot be called a drain, but it imitating the practice of those who indi- operates as a reservoir for collecting water, cate their belief that a drain cannot have from which the water may be discharged
too much to do, by placing them at very by a small drain. wide intervals.
5806. On the other hand, instances
5805. Still , instances might be adduced may be adduced of drains, placed at wide from practice, where drains of moderate intervals, and of 4 feet deep at least,
depth ,though placed at considerabledis
having failed to drain strong clays. Mr
tance, bavedried land. Ridges vary from W. Bullock Webster produces several 12 to 18 feet in breadth ; and as in the case instances, in different parts of England, related above, the distance between the where drains of from 30 to 30 inches
drains might be from 48 to 72 feet, which deep, and from 18 to 22 feet apart, have we are warranted in regarding as too rendered strong clay land dry, when 4 far asunder.
Yet MrThomas Hammond, feet drains at 40 feet apart had failed to
near Penhurst, in Kent, has dried uniform clay land, with drains from 3 to 4 feet deep, at 40 feet apart ; and clay land containing some stones, he has dried with 4- feet drains at 50 feet apart. Mr Kep-
do so. The late Mr Wilkie of Ormiston Hill, in West-Lotbian, put in drains 4 feet deep, and froni 30 to 36 feet asunder,
which failed to dry a clay subsoil, and which his son, the present proprietor, has
* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. viii. p. 539. + Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. vi. p. 126. I Mechi's Experience in Drainage, p. v . - Preface. § Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. ix. p. 237-48.
DRAINING .
617
succeeded in drying with 30- inch deep retained in it by strong affinity, and which drains between the deeper ones .*
must first be extracted and prevented re maining, before any effect can be obtained 5807. The conclusion to be drawn from from either a deep or a shallow drain . It all these instances is, not tbat the experi- seems probable that the deeper drain affords
ment of wide draining in East Lothian the more easy means of removing from
was ill conducted, but that subsoils of clay its natural moisture by offering it
various qualities require drains of various a greater depth for simple gravity to depths and at various distances. It is therefore unwise in a farmer to fix the distance and depth of drains before he has ascertained the nature of the subsoil,
act upon. Water cannot be retained in porous subsoils, because of the free action of gravity, but in clay a certain depth of drain seems requisite to allow gravity to
and he can only ascertain its nature by act sensibly upon the water; and it is direct experiment and observation,some- that power alone which puts it in motion
what in the manner recommended by the through clay towards the drain : and per test of exploratory drains (5793.)
haps a certain depth of drain is also re quisite to cause gravity to act so power
5808. My opinion is, that in a partially impervious subsoil, such as is most common in Scotland, 3 -feet drains cannot be expected to dry more than 15 or 16 feet ridges, but that 4 -feet ones will dry as effectually a distance not exceeding 24
fully as to overcome the natural affinity of clay for water.
With our present
experience, however, I do not see the utility of cutting drains as deep as 6 or 8 feet, merely to extend the space between the drains, when perhaps the same effect
feet. In porous subsoils,3-feet drainsmay might be obtained by 3 or even 4 feet drains dry 20 feet spaces with as great if not greater effect than the above. In deep hazel loam resting on impervious subsoil — a not uncommon combination of soil
at narrower intervals, unless very deep drains at very wide intervals can be executed with more economy. Expe rience has yet much to elicit in regard to
and subsoil in the turnip districts of Scot- the distances that should be left between land — 4 - feet drains will dry , I have no sub -drains of different depths in different doubt, a distance of 30 feet. I would feel soils to effect the best results . reluctance to recommend drains at more
than 30 feet distance , unless the arrange5809. The cutting of the drains of a ment of the subsoil was peculiar, such as field commences with that of the principal
a porous substance of considerable depth, main drain, which occupies the lowest side
subdivided by beds of clay, through the of the field, and the lowest end of the whole of which 4 or 5 feet drains, at double that distance, might dry the soil of a large field . It seems to mesomewhat inconsistent in those who believe that water ought not to enter by the top of a drain, and that strong clay on being dried becomes fissured , to recommend shallow drains of 24 inches in it, since it is evident that the greater the depth the clay is dried , the larger, more numerous, and more connected will the fissures be in it ; and the more readily will the water be brought nearer to them by the duct . Per
main drain constitutes the outlet from which the entire drainage of the field flows, when all the water froin it is led off in one direction . The position of the principal main drain, I have said , is not nearer than 3 yards to the ditch lip, or 5 yards to the fence (5796.) Its breadth is set off with the garden line (5604 ) , by the first workman , whilst his two assist
ants dig and shovel out the surface mould upon the side of the drain nearest the fence, with the common spade fig. 237 and pointed shovel, fig. 453.
haps the plastic clays of Englan do not
fissure, in which case deep drainsd do not
5810. Whilst the mould is thus tbrown
seem to be required in so uniform a texture . out, the carts should lay down the tiles
In draining clay, it is not merely the rain along the open side next the field ; or on that falls upon it that has to be removed , the same place before the drain is begun but the water also which is naturally to be cut, after the line of its direction has North British Agriculturist, November 14, 1850, p. 725.
618
REALISATION .
been marked off. To be certain that the re- follows with the pointed shovel, fig. 453, quisite number of tiles are laiddown , they shovelling out the loose earth and trim ming the sides of the should be placed end to end along the Fig. 496 .
drain . It may happen that the subsoil requires
whole line ; and in the case of tile and sole,
a sole should be placed against the side of every tile nearest the drain : broken soles will do well enough. These preli minary arrangements should be carefully attended to, or much inconvenience may be occasioned in carrying tiles to the person who lays them . The ploughman
no picking, in which case thespade, fig. 496, and pointed shovel are used at once ; but this rarely is the case with
who carries them in the cart should be
the subsoils of Scot It will more land .
instructed in all these particulars, else some
likely require another
mistake may occur, as few ploughmen long reflect on the consequences of what
picking in the lower spit, when the first
they are doing, and only strive to bave their own part of a work as soon off their hands as possible. If, by his inadvertence,
man takes either the
more or fewer tiles are laid down than
required, part of the time of a yoking of a
preparation for the principal man throw
pair of horses will bave been lost in laying them down, and part of another yoking
THE NARROW DRAIN soil with the same nar
afterwards lost in leading away the un
foot or hand pick, and loosens
the earth
in
ing out the loosened SPADE .
row spade, fig. 496,
used ones to another place ; while the tiles, with which he trims the sides of the drain ,
on being so often handled, run the risk of and finishes the bottom neatly. being broken.
5813. In very dry weather drains are
dng with great labour, and prove an un owing to a great fall of rain, or the cut profitable speculation to the contractors. 5811. Should the drain be very wet,
it would be better drawing much water from the porosity of In that state of ground, for the drains them
the subsoil, it is better to leave off the
Fig. 497.
selves to defer cut
digging at this stage of the work , and proceed to set off another length of line
ting them until a
at the top ; and should those circumstances continue , it is expedient to remove the
shower falls.
mould from the whole length of the main
a little deeper at every suddenthough
It is
right to cut the drain
drain in hand, to allow the water time to
run off, and the ground below todry. This precaution is more necessary in digging
small rise, and a little
narrow than deep drains, where noroom can be found for planks to support the
trifling hollow 00
falling sides. When the ground becomes
follow the slight un
dry and firm , the digging may proceed to
dulations of the sur
the bottom at once.
face.
shallower
a
curs, than exactly to
5812. Afterthe mould hasbeen removed,
5814. Should the drain have stood for
the subsoil is loosened by one man, either with the foot- pick, fig. 247, or the hand
some days new cut, immediately before
pick, fig. 452, according as the ground is stony or otherwise, the foot-pick being best adapted for displacing stones. The pick -loosened earth is removed by a se cond man working backwards, with the narrow spade, fig. 496, having a mouth 6
inches wide, following up the picker, and putting aside the earth upon the formerly
where
the man proceeds to lay the sole -tiles, the wet sludgy matter at the bottom should be removed with the
draw - earth DRAW DRAIN- SCOOP.
drain
scoop, fig. 497 ; and
cast out mould. The principal workman dry earth and small stones with a narrow
DRAINING
619
draw - hoe, fig. 498, having a 2 -feet belve, suit itself in the drain to the height of the others, with cross -heads 9 inches long. One Fig. 498. Fig. 500,
staff is held per pendicularly on the ground at the upper
end of the drain , THE NARROW DRAW- HOE FOR DRAINS.
and another
adjusted,
is moved from one end of the drain to the
5815. For convenience and clean work,
gradually
the points where the small drains are to enter the main drain should be marked
off, that when the cutting proceeds y ma
simi
larly at the lower end; and the third,
and mouth, 3 inches in width : costing 1s.
cut at the same time to the depth they
other, the superin tendent placing him
The main drain
self at one end of
should be 6 inchesdeeper than the small ones, if the fall of the outlet permit; if
the drain , and , bringing bis eye on a line with the up per edges of the
the ends of the small
are intended to be.
ones
be
not, the 6 inches must be obtained as near as possible at the ends of the small drains,
where they enter the main drain. 5816. When a division of the drain has
been completely cleared out, the superintendent ascertains that the dimensions and
fall are in terms of the contract, before
THE LEVELLING STAFF ,
cross -heads of the two extreme staffs, observes whether
FOR TESTING THEUNI- the upper edge of FORM FALL IN DRAINS. the third staff keeps
in the line of the other two.
If it does,
any tiles are laid on the bottom . Instead then the fall of the bottom of the drain of taking the dimensions with a tape-line is uniform ; but where it sinks below or foot-rule, which are inconvenientfor the the other two, the bottom has been too
purpose, a rod of thebeform of fig . 499 will much scooped out, and should be filled found most con up with earth ; and where it rises above
Fig. 499.
venient, most certain, them, the bottom is too bigb, and must be
and most quickly ap- cut down. When the staffs are painted plied. The rod, sub- each of a contrasting colour, such as white, divided into feet and red, blue, they are easily distinguished in inches, is put down use . with the arms extend
5818. The fall of the ground may toascertain the depth, be ascertained, by the workmen, by a and then turned gently simple contrivance. Where the bot ing along the drain,
round while resting on tom of the drain is cleared out, a dam
its end upon the bottom of the drain, until the points of the arms touch the earth on both sides. If the arms cannot come round
ming of 3 to 4 inches high will intercept and collect the water seeking its way along the bottom, and where the water line cuts the ground as far up as it should do, the specified fall has been preserved. A suc cession of such dammings will preserve
square to the sides, the drain is narrower
the fall all the way up the drain . When
THE DRAIN- GAUGE ,
than was intended, which cando no harm; the drain is dry, a few bucketfulsof water but if they cannot touch both sides, it is thrown in will detect the fall in the same
wider than necessary, and should be
manner.
It is only, however, on compa
objected to, though it cannot be remedied. ratively level ground that such expedients for ascertaining the fall are at all requisite 5817. The uniform fall in a drain in to be used by the workmen.
uniform ground is best ascertained by means of three levelling staffs, fig. 500, two
5819. In filling drains, it is a common
being about 2 feet in length, and one to practice with farmers to put in the mate
620
REALISATION .
rials as the digging of the drain progresses, than a man , but is most dexterous in
which I consider an objectionable proceed- handing light materials, such as tiles. ing I think the whole length of the 5821. The sole should be firmly laid and drain in band should be cleared out to the specified dimensions before the filling com- imbedded a little in the earth . Should it
mences ; because the work should be in- ride upon any point, such as a small stone spected in the first place, in accordance or hard lump of earth ,the obstacle should be with the specifications, and inspection im- removed with a mason's narrow trowel, fig. plies measurement of the contents in depth and breadth , and ascertainment of the fall of the bottom - whether it be uniform
throughout, where the slope of the ground is so - or sufficient, where the general fall
Fig. 501 . a THE TROWEL FOR DRAINS.
thes,grou of is small prese all 501, 7 inches long in the blade a, 5 inches ensrved place whernde the gronnd- orhapp to bein not uniform . These are not trifling considera in the handle c, and the crank at b 14-inch ; tions, but essential ; inasmuch as the effi -a very convenientinstrumentfor this pur
ciency of a drain as a conductor of water pose. In cast-steel it costs 28.; in com entirely depends upon them . An unan mon steel, 1s. 3d. After laying 3 soles in swerable reason for end, fillingin drains from the length, he examines if they are straight in upper to the lower flatground,
is the face, and neither rise nor fall more
the ease of clearing the bottom down the than the fall of the drain . As a safe guide, natural declivity of the ground ; and on in cases where the fall is not decidedly doing so, it is at once seen whether the cognisable by the sight, a mason's plumb fall has been preserved. In very deep level, such as fig. 502, is a convenient Fig. 502. drains, I was once of opinion that they should in all cases be filled as cut ; but
subsequent observation has convinced me that it is better to risk a little of the sides
falling in than to lose the fall on level ground . On acclivities, drains may be filled in from either end with impunity ; but still cut entirely out before being filled .
5820. The drain is now ready for the reception of the tiles. The person in trusted with the laying the tiles in the drains should be accustomed to the work ,
and otherwise a good workman , possessing a judgment and common sense. If he is not
e
THE DRAINER'S PLUMB- LEVEL .
thesuperintendent or a hired servant, he instrument. A mark at which the plummet should be paid day's wages, that he may line df will subtend an angle with the have no temptation to execute the work in plumb-line de equal to the angle of the a slovenly manner ; and to enable him to fall of the drain, should be made at the do it well, let him take even more time at top of the opening e, which may be sup
first than is deemed necessary . According posed tobe where the plummet f at present to the circumstances of the case , it will hangs ; by which arrangement it is demon soon be ascertained how much work of this strable that the angle thus set off at kind a man 'ought to do in a day. This e d f must always be equal to the angle person should remain much at the bottom bac, which is the angle of the inclination of the drains; and not having too many of the fall. particulars to attend to, be is enabled, with an assistant to hand bim the materials
5822. After 3 soles are thus placed, 2 from the ground, to do the work with tiles are set upon them , as represented in greater precision and expedition ; and the fig. 503—that is, the tiles a and b are so
best assistant he can have is a field -worker. placed as that their joinings shall meet on A woman not only receives less wages the intermediate spaces between those of
621
DRAINING .
the soles ccc ; and this is done for the and if the opening on the opposite side is obvious reason that, should any commo- not occupied by small tiles, it is covered Fig. 503. up with pieces of broken tiles or stones.
A better plan than either is to place the end of the small tile upon the top of the main, when the water will find its way
into the latter ; and this plan implies that с с
DRAIN - TILES PROPERLY SET UPON TILE - SOLRS .
the main is on a lower level than the small drain .
tion disturb one of the soles, neither of the
tiles, partially standing upon it, shall be 5825. Main -tiles are sometimes made disturbed. The man who places the tiles with an opening in one side for the recep takes care not to displace them in the least tion of the end of the small tile ; and to an after they are set ; and, to secure them in swer this purpose in particular situations, their relative places, he puts earth firmily where the small tiles cannot conveniently between them and the sides of the drain conjoin with the larger main tiles, balf and as high as the top of the tiles, the earth quarter lengths of main and small tiles are
being obtained from the subsoil thrown made, which form a good junction with out. In ordinary cases of water in a one another. Fig. 504 represents this main drain, a tile of 4 inches wide and
Fig. 504.
5 inches high inside is a good size ; and from this size they vary to 5 inches in width to 64 inches in height. Although the size of the tile varies, the width of the main-drain sole is always the same — that
is, 10 inches.
Taking the useful tile of 4
inches in width and 5 inches in height, its
thickness being inch , there will be a space left on each side of 24 inches, which is too much .
The width of the drain is
thus regulated by the breadth of the sole,
THE JUNCTION OF A COMMON TILE WITH A MAIN.
which in some cases is too wide.
mode of joining a small with a main tile ; but the small tile b is not actually inserted 5823. It is the practice of some drainers into the opening a of the main tile, the to put a half-sole under every joining of better to show the relative sizes and posi two tiles, leaving the intermediate space tions of both tiles. of the bottom without a sole, imagining thatthe balf-soles give sufficient steadiness 5826. Preparations for the junction of
to tiles on what they call hard clay, whilst the main drain with the small drain tiles it saves balf the number of soles. The should be made during the laying of the clay, when in contact with water, too soon main drain ones ; for if the main tiles are becomes soft to enable the drainer to
disturbed when the small ones are being
adopt this questionable practice ; and laid, they will be displaced , and check the as to the effect of balf-soles, I conceive current of water which is to run in them . that water would act more partially on Whichever plan is adopted for letting in
clay under them, and cause greater inequa- the small tiles, the tile-layer should be
lities and displacement of tiles, than if no providedwith a 6 - feet rod, marked off in soles were used at all.
feet and inches, to measure the distances exactly between the small drains which had
5824. The joining of tiles where drains been marked off (5815. ) When the plan meet deserves attention . The usual prac- of laying the small tiles upon the top of
tice is to break a piece off the corner of the main onesis adopted, no preparation for 1 or 2 main -drain tiles, where those of the the small tiles is required while laying the small drains connect with them. Another main ones, which is one of its advantages. plan is to set 2 main - drain tiles so far asunder as that the inside width of the
5827. The mouth of the main drain at
sınall ones shall just occupy the space ; its outlet, whether in a ditch or river,
622
REALISATION .
5831. The small drains may now be should be protected with masonry, and dry masonry will do. The last sole, which proceeded with. In a field having a uni should be of stone, should project as far form surface, there is no difficulty in bring beyond the mouth as to throw the water ing the drains directly down the inclined either directly upon the bottom , or upon ground into the main drain. Where hol masonry built up the side of the ditch. lows occur, the drainage belonging to each The masonry should be founded below should be distinctly marked off from the the bottom of the ditch, and built perpen- rest, that no interference may arise in the
dicularly in the back, with its face having execution of the work ; and the markings the slope of the ditch. The sloping face should be traced along the water -shed of may be made straight, to allow the water the ground—the line from which the water
to slip quietly into the ditch, or like the will descend to the sub-main. The mark steps of a stair, over which it will descend ings may be made with pins. with broken force.
It is proper to have
an iron grating on the end of the outlet, 5832. Fig. 505 shows the parallelism to prevent vermin creeping up the drain : of the common drains along a field , where not that they can injure tiles while alive, Fig. 505. but in creeping far up, and on dying, their bodies for a time may cause a stagnation of the water in the drain above them .
B
5828. If the ground fall uniformly to wards the main drain over the whole
field, the small drains should beproceeded с
with immediately after the main drain is
c
c
c
с
finished ; but should hollows occur in the field , a sub -main drain should be made
along the lowest part of each, to receive the drainage of the ground around it, and transmit it to the main drain .
The size a
7
of sub -main drains is determined by the
extent of drainage they have to effect; and should any one have as much to do as the main, it should have the same capa city. 5829. Sub-main drains are made in all respects in the same manner as main
drains; but the peculiarity may attend them of having to receive small drains on both sides, when there will be double the d
d
number of joinings. To avoid accumula tion of sediment, the small drains should not enter the sub-main directly opposite to
PARALLEL DRAINS IN THE SAME PLANE OF INCLI NATION OF THE GROUND .
each other, but alternately ; uor should
they enter at right angles, but acutely with a a a a are the four fences of it ; b b and the flow of water. 5830. A sub-main drain should be as
dd the headridges ; d d the main drain
along the side of the lower headridge ; s its outlet at the lowest point ; and ccc
much below the level of the small drains the common drains. as is the main itself when it receives the
small drains directly ; and the main should 5833. When the field has an undulated be as much belowthe level of the sub- surface, the same principle of parallelism main as the latter is below the small ones.
is differently arranged . A sub-main drain
The simple way of effecting the latter is carried up the hollowest part, and the purpose is, to make the main deeper after small ones are brought to it in parallels the sub -main has joined it. down the inclinations. So favourable an
623
DRAINING .
arrangement for the speedy riddance of main drain which should occupy the line
water is not enongh attended to. Thus bc. This circumstantial plan is just as the commonpractice is to run all the small easily executed as the other indiscrimi drains, b c d e b, fig. 506, parallel to one nate one of treating all forms of ground in Fig. 506 .
a field alike.
5834. In commencing the small drains from the fence at the lowest side of the
field, they may be set off from each other at the distances determined on from the
d
nature of the subsoil, as ascertained by the
exploratory drains, (5793 ;) and should it be determined to have a drain in every
ridge, it is not necessary to make the drain in the open furrow ; it may be made in any part of the ridge. 5835. Small drains are made much Fig. 509. narrower than DRAINS IMPROPERLY MADE PARALLEL IRRESPEC TIVE OF THE INCLINATION OF THE GROUND.
mains, to save the expense of
another, through the length of a field, even along hollows,such as are represented by the curved line b a b, so that the parallel da, are run along their declivitous faces, in a horizontal instead of a vertical direction.
T
drains c to e , on both sides of the hollow
digging out an Fig. 508.
unnecessary
quantity of earth . To ef fect this, the narrowest
The probable effect of giving such a direc
spade, fig. 508,
to the drains is to miss the drainage of both sides ; for where any vein of sand dips out at the surface of the declivi
priate instru
tous ground, the drain may run parallel
only 4 inches
is an ment ,
appro It
is
with and just below it and miss it, instead
wide
of dividing it along the dip, as it should
mouth, and is
do ; and though it were not entirely missed ,
provided with
but bisected along its length, and across the dip, the sand would then be brought down from the upper part of the ground into
to press the heelupon when
the
a stud in front
the drain , enter the duct in quantity, and
the workman pushes the
render it inoperative. Such hollow ground should bave the drains placed as in fig. Fig. 507. o
at
THE NARROW EST DRAIN SPADE .
blade into the subsoil. It Eerves to throw out
some
of
the earth that had been loos
ened by the
THE Pushing last
picking,
DRAIN-SCOOP. and to trim the sides of the drain . But the loose earth at the bottom of a drain is best removed 6
DRAINS MADE PARALLEL IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE INCLINATION OF THE GROUND .
507, a
with a scoop . When the earth is dry, a pushing - scoop, fig. 509, will answer best ; butwhen wet and sludgy, the draw earth drain - scoop, fig. 497, is the best .
a, to run right up and down the The scoop finishes the bottom of a drain
declivitous facesfromctoa,towards the sub- neatly.
624
REALISATION .
5836. Small drains are cast out, gauged, a small drain should connect the tops of (5816) and examined for the fall, (5817) the others at the upper end of the field, as
before being filled up, and the filling ma- bb, fig . 505, does the drains ccc ; its ob terials should be laid down in thesame ject being to dry the upper head -ridge, order as in the case of mains, (5810.)
and protect the upper ends of the ridges from any oozings of water that may come
5837. The tiles for small drains are from the ditch or rising ground beyond the smaller than for mains and sub -mains,
field . If the ditch convey no water, and
being from 2 } to 3 inches wide, and from there are no hedges or hedge-row trees, 3 to 4 inches bigh, inside measure, the this connecting drain may be made in the latter being considered a large tile. A ditch itself, as in a, and the ends of the
substantialtile will last much longer than small drains c brought across the head a slight one, and the probabilityis, that ridge b a into a; but should water, or the larger is the more substantial; but this hedge, or trees be connected with the
may not be the case, so it is properto ditch,the drain should be kept on the bead examine them before purchase. Durabi- ridge, not nearer than three yards from its lity is of more importance than cheapness. lip,and be of the same depth as, though Soles are also required for small drains ; not deeper than, the small drains. for give no credence to the absurd assump 5840. When drains are made in very tion, that clay will retain its hardness at the bottom of a drain, because it happened long ridges, much exceeding 200 yards, it to be so when first laid open by the spade.
is recommended to have a sub -main drain
Soles for small drains are of different in an oblique direction across them, as breadths, being 5 inches at some places, represented by ee, fig. 505. It should be and r inches at others : the former, 5 cut the same depth as the drains above it, inches, I should conceive rather narrow
and those below it should be disjoined by
for most purposes ; for take even the nar- a narrow strip of ground ; but a better rowest tiles made, 24 inches inside—these plan is to make the sub-main e e, 7 inches
are moulded at 5-8ths inch thick - and, deeperthan the drains, and intercept the allowing them to shrink 1-8th in the kiln, water by it from the drains, which should the thickness of both sides will be 1 inch. be continued over it. Where the sub The extreme breadth of the tile being thus main e e falls into the small drain bd, at
3} inches, leaves only 14 inch to divide the side of the field at e, the portion of the between both sides of the tiles on a 5 -inch latter below e to s should be converted into a sub -main, and made accordingly.
sole. But as most soles for small drains are
made of the same breadth, take a 3 -inch tile,
and it will be found, by the same mode of calculation, that only half-inch on each side of a 5 -inch sole will be left, which is little enough space to afford perfect steadiness to the tile ; and less than this should not In all be trusted. Fig. 510. other respects, the
5841. I believe that a more substan
tial drain cannot be made than with tile and sole, the overlapping of the tile over the sole giving them a stability which no other arrangement of tiles is capable of affording. They were much used when the tiles were first introduced, but laying of the sole their high price rendered draining with and tile in the small them an expensive process. In later drains is conducted years the pipe -tile has superseded the use in precisely the of the tile and sole, wherever the clay fit
manner as for their manufacture can be found, not in the mains and only on account of their comparative sub -mains, ( 5821.) cheapness, but of their quick and easy
same
handling in the manufacture and use. Its 5838. A finished simplest form is the cylindrical, fig. 511, drain THE SMALL TILE AND SOLE - DRAIN .
with
tile
Fig. 511 .
and sole is repre sented by fig. 510.
5839. In all cases of thorough -draiuing,
THE CYLINDRICAL FIPE-TILE,
1
-
DRAINING .
625
15 inches in length, 2 inches diameter in as much trouble in making and handling the bore, and Iths inch thick. To reduce as a pipe itself, and must be nearly as its cost to the lowest degree, it is made costly ; and unless the collars are sunk into
in many parts of England only 12 inches the ground, to allow the entire length of in length , 1 inch in the bore, and with a the pipes to rest with an equal bearing corresponding thinuess. A good objection upon the bottom of the drain, the pipes
to such pipes is in the attempt toattain may be fractured betweenthe collars by a refinement in economy by using them the weight of the earth above them, or of so diminutive a size, that they might other casualty. A better plan is to con be choked up with the smallest quantity nect the pipes by converting their endsinto of matter, when all thewater they can lobes, as represented in fig. 513, in which convey must flow with but little force. Fig. 513. The cylindrical form is practically objec tionable too, on account of the difficulty
of placing it in continuation in a firm position upon the flat surface of the bottom
of the drain , to which it is scarcely pos
CYLINDRICAL PIPE - TILES CONNECTED BY LOBES .
sible to give a rounded form with the tools the waved line shows the method of in use .
Of what intrinsic value, then, is junction. A machine for cutting these
the cylindrical form ? It is evident that, lobes was invented by the late Mr Smith werethe slightest depression to take place of Deanston, but it has not yet come at either end of a pipe, or were the end into use. Mr James Wallace, Turriff
of one pipe to be placed a little aside tile-works, exhibited at the show of the from that of its neighbour, the continuity of the passage for water would be broken. Small pipes are recommended to be laid in continuity, by means of a rod of iron which goes into the pipe as far as a shoulder permits it ; and its belve, being
Highland and Agricultural Society, at Glasgow, in August 1850, a clever little hand -machine for cutting the ends of the pipe into two or three lobes adapted to each other, and which is a simplifica tion of Mr Smith's machine. The
at right angles, enables the workman to cutting by Mr Wallace's instrument is lay the pipe in the drain, while standing a second process, after moulding, when the r until some it thus increases the expense of the by the pressure of the subsoil earth is thrown upon it by manufacture, the advantage of the lobed another person , after which the instrument mode of joining pipes is so superior to
on the ground, ofand retain it in its place the pipes are partially dry ; and although shoulde
withdrawn. This seems a trifling and that of collars, as to preponderate con uncertain way of performing so important siderably in favourof Mr Wallace's inven awork in draining as the laying of the tion. The increased expense, however, is tiles. Inch pipe -tiles are very properly an insuperable objection to using such a not in so muchfavour as they used to be.
contrivance at all ; and no necessity exists for it, since pipes of other forms than the
5842. Various devices have been con- cylindrical can be formed well and cheap, trived to keep cylindrical pipes in continua- to stand firmly enough in a drain . tion in a drain ,without the trouble implied 5843. A very common form of pipe in the above method ; and amongst others is the placing a short collar to act as a made is that of the horse - shoe, fig. 514, in coupling-box to connect the ends of the Fig. 514.
pipes, as is shown in fig. 512, into which Fig. 512. HORSE -SHOE PIPE -TILE.
which the sole occupies the space between CYLINDRICAL PIPE - TILES CONNECTED BY A COLLAR.
the heels, which is the narrowest part of
collar the water is allowed to pass through the shoe, and the upper part is rounded off holes perforated in it. The device doubt- capaciously in the form of the crust of the answers the purpose, but a collar gives VOL. II.
hoof. The sole is flat enough for the pipe 2 R
REALISATION .
626
to stand firmly upon the ground. There be stated hereafter - clearly show that the
is no obvious objectionto this form , nor to inch -bore pipe is quite sufficient to carry away all the water that can enter the soil after the heaviest rain that ever fell in this
the cylindrical with a flat sole.
5844. But the most perfect form of the country. The experiments of Mr Tweed, orifice for a pipe -tile is,in my opinion, the near Woolwich, prove besides that water
egg-shaped, the sharp end of the egg easily permeates through the substance of making a round and narrow channel for pipe -tiles. Every one knows that clay the water to run upon with force, and dishes would not retain liquids unless they carry any sediment before it ; while the are glazed. It is easier to explain why blunt end provides a larger space for the water gets into clay- pipes, than to devise water when it may rise to the top after means to keep it out.
heavy rains.
Fig. 515 represents the 5848. The next procedure is thefilling
Fig. 515 .
up of the drains with the earth that was
thrown out of them , and this is returned either with the spade or the plough, or with both. Where the earth has been EGG - SHAPED PIPE - TILE ,
thrown out on both sides of the drain ,a large
egg-shaped pipe-tile, having a flat bottom furrow slice from each side will plough to stand upon. Beyond this form , I con- in a considerable quantity of earth ; but,
ceive little improvement can be effected in as theearth is generally thrown upon only the pipe-tile.
one side, andthe plough can then only make it move towards the drain while
5845. A small drain with an egg-shaped going in one direction, a more expeditious Fig. 516. tile is repre- mode of levelling the ground — which, in sented by " fig. the amount of labour of returningthe earth into all the small drains of a field, must
516 .
be considerable — is to cleave down (767) 5846. Main- the mound of earth in the first place, and drain pipe -tiles then take in an equal breadth of land on
are 3 ] inches both sides of the drain , and gather it up in width, and 5 twice or thrice towards it, which then con
inches high in stitutes a prepared feering ; after which the bore. Small- the harrows make the ground sufficiently
drain pipe-tiles level. This laborious plan, however, is
O
are 24 inches only requisite when much earth has been
thrown out at a distance from deep drains ; inch at the wid- but in ordinary thorough -draining, the
high, and 1
est part of the plough accomplishes the work with much
egg -shape in the less trouble ; the first two furrows loosen EGG- SHAPED PIPE - TILE DRAIN. bore.
Both are
the earth along each side of the mouth of
of the most convenient length at 15 the drain and cause it to fall into it, but in The machine-made ones are doing this the horses are apt to slip a hind inches. better formed, more firm and solid, and foot into the drain, and overstrain them
consequently heavier than hand-made selves; and such an accident, trifling as it A pipe-tile small drain, such as in may seem , may be attended with serious fig. 515, weighs 4 lb., so that 560 just injury to the animal. The safest mode in
ones .
weigh one ton. Soles and tiles may be in all cases for the drain and the horses, is used in the main -drains, while pipes might to put the first portion of the earth into the drain with the spade ; and this condi tion should always be made in the agree 5847. An objection at once occurs to ment with the contractor. the mind to pipe-tiles, that they cannot 5849. No implement has yet been in permit the water to enter them so freely as sole and tile. The experiments of Mr vented to turn the earth into drains. One
occupy the common drains.
Parkes, and my own calculations — both to should think that a long mould -board, 35
DRAINING .
627
to 4 feetin length to any common plough, insinuate itself into every crevice through would effect the object. In working such which water passes. The tiles in some ploughs it is necessary to give their sole a drains in Dalmeny Park, belonging to the
slight hold of the firm surface, to resist the Earl of Rosebery ,were covered with sea oblique pressure on the mouldboard by the sand and gravel; and the sand soon choked
earth which is being removed into the drain. up the tiles and had to be removed, and Advantage is to begained also by giving the the tiles re-laid in different materials. yoke an attachment to the long mould- Perhaps it would be better to keep the board as well as to the beam of the plough. soluble portion of the soil as far from the ducts ofa drain as possible, and while thus 5850. It is an established principle, rejecting the uppermould for a commence
that all drains should rather receive the ment to the filling, the subsoil might be water from below , than on purpose from returned into the drain in any order or above through the soil. Were drains state it may happen to be. The earth entirely filled with loose mould , or other should not be returned into the drains too loose materials, it is evident that the rain , soon, but time allowed to the subsoil to
in descending directly through them , crack above the tiles, which it will soon would arrive at the bottom loaded with as
do in dry weather, and they will operate
many impurities of the soil as it could the sooner as a drain after the earth has carry along with it in its downward course ; been filled in ; but in wet weather, the
and as it is a primary objectwith drainers rain will wash down the earth into the to prevent impurities getting into the drains, if they are left long open .
So this
ducts, where in time theymight accumulate, particular ofpractice must be guided by the only way to prevent such a mischance the state of the weather. is to return the clayey subsoil into the drain, where it will again soon consolidate, 5851. A general idea of the arrange
and retard the direct gravity of the rain ; ment of thorough drains may be gained by as has been found when mud deposited among the stones of a drain has proved as impervious to water, and formed as favourable a soil for the growth of sub -aquatic plants, as a naturally impervious subsoil.
a ground-plan of a field so drained, repre sented in fig. 517, where a b is the main
drain formed in the lowest head -ridge ; and whenthe surface is uniform , the drains run into it parallel to one another from
A disposition, however, has been exhibited the top to the bottom of the field , as those by some drainers to carrythe prevention of from a to c, connected asthey should be water through the returnedearth to the duct at the top with thedrain d e running along
rather too far, by surrounding even pipe- the upper head-ridge. But with inequa tiles with the strongest clay afforded by lities in the ground, an irregular surface the drain, in a puddled state, and tramp- cannot be drained in this manner, and ing it in.
Could this puddled clay be must be provided with sub-main drains,
constantly kept in a moist state, it would such as 9 f and i h, which are each con resist the passage of the water, and pre- nected with a system of drains differing in vent it entering the pipes at all ; and I
character; g f having a large double set
can conceive a pipe-tile so luted with wet of drains, k and l, connected with it, and clay as to be as hermetically sealed by it i h only one set, m, connected with it. as the porous nature of the tile will admit. The sub-main ,9 f, is supposed to run up But it is not possible to retain the clay the lowest part of a pretty deep hollow in
always in a moist state, as the portion the ground, and the drains, from k and l, on immediately above the pipe will be drained either side of it, are made to run down the by it, become cracked , and the cracks will faces of the acclivities, as nearly at right
permit the water to enter the tile from angles to the sub-main as the natureofthe abode. It being thus impossible to pre- inclination of the ground will allow, so as
vent water entering a tile at the bottom of always to assist the natural tendency of a drain , it seems to be a matter of indif- the water in finding its way to the hollow.
ference in what state and with what sort There is also a supposed fall of the ground of earth the drain should be filled . Fine from the height above l towards h , which sand , however, is a very unfit substance causes the drains at m to run down and
to cover tiles with, for it will certainly fall into what would be a common drain,
REALISATION .
628
h i, were it not, from this circumstance, has more to do ; but the sub-main, i h, 'obliged to be converted into a sub -main. should be made as small, and not larger The sub -main ,9 f, should be made larger than a common drain from the top of the than the main drain, a b, above g , as it field, until it reaches the point h, where Fig. 517. d
9
8
GROUND - PLAN OF A THOROUGH - DRAINED FIELD .
the collateral drains begin to join it. The draining is to be executed ; and the cost
main drain should be made larger below g per acre depends moreover on the number to i, and still larger from i to b , towards of drains made in that extent of area .
its outlet, than any of the sub -main drains, ' as it has there most to do. It will be observed, that all the common drains from a to c, and at l and m, have their ends curved, those at k not requiring that form , because they enter obliquely into themain,
Tiles cost generally about 20s. per thou sand, and soles are always balf the price of the tiles. Pipe -tiles cost from 12s. to 228. per thousand, according to their length and bore — the length varying from 12 to 15 inches, and the bore from 1 to 2
from the slope of the ground. The dotted inches. Main-drainpipe-tiles vary in the lines give the breadth of the upper and same proportion.
The want of confidence lower head -ridges, and the position of the in pipes is wearing away , so that they are open furrows of the ridges of the field ; now manufactured to the largest extent at
and it will be observed that the drains are the tile-works. Pipe -tiles are now always
not made in the open furrows — that is, the made with machines, and Ainslie's seem
black lines arenot in conjunction with the to be preferred to any other. I have seen dotted . This is done with the view of not it stated that machines thrust pieces of
confounding the open furrows and drains clay into the pipes in the manufacture, in the figure ; but it is a plan which may whereas the pieces found in some and not
be practised with propriety, as the absorp- in all of the pipes consist of the pieces tion of the water towards the drains should of clay which were put under their ends by be effected from the subsoil as far as it is the tile- burner, to make themi stand in the porous, and not directly from the oper most proper posture in the kiln . These furrows. Such a ground -plan of a drained pieces should be, and are easily, removed
field enables the farmer to go directly to from the pipes before being laid in the the spot in case of a stoppage occurring drain. I think it unnecessary to give the in any drain . cost per acre for draining, as it depends entirely upon particulars which are apt to 5852. The cost of draining with tiles
fluctuate ; but it is necessary to give the
depends on the price of labourand of tiles cost of certain particulars of expense which
in the district of the country where the must be incurred in draining, over and
DRAINING .
629
above that of tiles and the cutting These long, and so stiff as not to be easily lodged particulars are furnished by Mr George with wind or rain. The grain is plump,
Bell, Woodhouselee, Dumfriesshire, who large, bright-coloured, and thin-skinned. drained his entire farm from 1837 to 1847, The crop ripens uniformly, is bulky and and they are as follows : prolific, more quickly won for stacking in Carriage of 38,000 common tiles, at 39. 4d. per harvest, more easily thrashed, winnowed, 6 8 £6 1000, Carriage of 1,557 main tiles, at 58. per 1000,
0
31 days' work of man and liorse laying down tiles, at 5s, 6d . per day,
8 10
and cleaned, and produces fewer small and light grains. The straw also makes better fodder for live stock . Clover grows rank,
7 10
30 days ' work of a man laying soles and tiles, 30 days' work of a woman assisting him , at 8d . per day,
2
6 3 0 50
1
0 0
of bright colour. The hay wons easily,
3 days' of plough -work, at 8s. per day,
1
4
and weighis heavy for its bulk. Pasture grass stools out in every direction,covering, the ground with a thick sward, and pro-,
Workof women loadingand unloading thecarts, 2
Cost for 13 acres ,
long, and juicy, andthe flowers large and
0
.
£21 17 0
1 acre of drains 15 feet apart, £ 1 13 7 **
duces flesh and milk of the finest quality .
So that £ 1 , 138. 74d. per acre should be added to the cost of pipe -tile drains at 15 feet apart. The cost of loading and unloading, laying down and laying in pipe-tiles, is only half of that for tiles and
Turnips become large, plump, as if fully grown, juicy, and with a smooth and oily skin . Potatoes push out long and strong stems, with enlarged tubers, having skins easily peeled off, and their substance mealy
soles; but how much less the entire par- when boiled. Live stock of every kind
ticulars should cost I cannot distinctly specify , but should think that £l per acre would be a fair allowance when using pipe-tiles. Mr Mechi gives this statement
thrive, evince good temper, are easily fattened, and of fine quality. Land is less occupied with weeds, the increased luxuriance of all the crops checking their
of the expense draining costs him : “ My growth. Summer fallow is more easily present cost of effectively draining an acre cleaned, and much less work is required
of strong clay land is as follows,-depth, to put the land in proper order for the 5 feet in the rising ground, averaging manure and seed ; and all sorts ofmanures
nearly 4 feet all over the field ; distance, incorporate more quickly and thoroughly 40 feet between each drain
with the soil. Thorough -drained land is easily worked with all the common im
64 rods of draining, at 6d. per rod of55yards,
£1 12 0
1100 inch pipes, 12 inches long, including 44 for breakage, at 12s. per 1000 ,
plements. Being all alike dry, its texture 0 3 0 becomes equal, and, in consequence, the £ 2 9 6 plough passes through it with uniform freedom ; and even where pretty large
Cartage of pipes from kiln , 4 miles, :
0 14
6
The cost may vary a few shillings per stones interpose, the plough easily dis acre, according to the price of labour and lodges them ; and moving in freer soil, it pipes.” + With the exception of the cartage is able to raise a deeper furrow -slice, which of the tiles, this cost does not include all on its part, though heavy, crumbles down
the particulars enumerated in Mr Bell's and yields to the pressure and friction of case ,which should be included ; still, if the mould-board,intoa friable, mellow,
we add 178. per acre for these, £3, 6s. 6d. rich -lookingmould . The harrows, instead is a small cost for drainingan acre of land, of being held back at times, and starting forward, and oscillating sideways, swim if the drainage is really effectual. along, raking the soil into a smooth sur 5853. The physical benefits derivable face, and entirely obliterating the horses' from draining are numerous and impor- foot-marks. The roller compresses and tant.
The existence of moisture in the renders the surface of the soil even, but
soil being easily detected by its injurious leaves the part below in a mellow state effects on the crops, the advantages derived for the roots of plants to expand in . All from draining are also best indicated by the implements are much easier drawn
its good effects upon them. On drained and held ; and hence, all the operations land, the straw of white crops shoots up are executed with less labour, and of course steadily from a vigorous braird, strong, more economically and satisfactorily. All * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiii. p . 510.
+ Mechi’s Experience in Drainage, p. iv. - Preface.
630
REALISATION .
these effects of draining I have observed surface.t Conceiving these views to be in my own experience. Draining con- not quite correct, and as considerable verts bad land — which is land resting in a reliance may be placed on them in practice, natural state on a subsoil retaining sur- they are worthy of inquiry. It is found face-water until it stagnates — into good that the height attained by fluids in tubes land—which is land resting in a natural increases inversely as thediameters of the
state on a subsoil pervious to surface- tubes, sothat with a smaller diameter the water . Draining, in thus curtailing the greater height will be reached by any
limits of bad,necessarily extends those of fluid in any tube. This being the case, good soil ; and itenemy makes rain our friend capillarity bears no evident ratio to the instead
of our . taking all its benefit, and avoiding all its injury. But draining is found to be beneficial not only to the soil itself — to the processes of labouring it - to the climate in reference to the crops — and to the growth of trees,
density or specific gravity of the fluid. But as no tubes are found in the soil, we must regard the fissures caused by drainage as spaces between two surfaces; and in
this case,the utmost elevation attained by the fluid is one-half of that which would
but also to the health of the labouring have taken place in tubes having their Another physical benefit diameters equal to the distance between derived from draining, is the retaining of the surfaces, and this is always inversely
population.
moisture at the bottom of the drains for
as the distances. It is thus equally evi
the use of plants in very dry weather. dent that, between surfaces of fissures, Water is so retained, not in a stagnant capillarity bears no ratio to specific state, for the surplus will pass off by the gravity. The capillary force may seem ducts of the drains, but in a fresh state, stronger at the surface than lower down, sufficient to moisten the subsoil and no because there the soil is driest by evapo more ; which moisture is ready to be carried ration, and receives the moisture most off by the ducts when fresh rain falls, and readily ; but inasmuch as the fissures are to be elevated to the surface in dry weather largest at the surface, there also the mois
by the capillary force. Whenever drought ture will be less minutely diffused through desiccates the surface soil, and conse- the soil by the capillary attraction than quently forms innumerable fissures in it, lower down. Hence the capillary force the prominent points ofsoil readily absorb cannot be destroyed by drainage ; on the the dew and moisture from the air, while
contrary, its sphere of action will be much
the capillary force brings the water from extended by it, on account of the increase and even creation of fissures with surfaces. below to occupy the fissures. 5854. I have seen it stated by some 5855. A still more important physical writers that moisture rises through soils, benefit to be derived from draining, is
not by capillarity but in vapour. But as the equable supply of water for vege
it is commonly supposed that the diurnal tationand thepurposes of machinery. In variations of temperature disappear at the undrained soil, the water remains con depth of 3 feet, I cannot conceive how stantly in it as in a filled sponge ; and a vapour can arise from water of the mean fresh supply of rain , findingno room , runs temperature of 44° Fahrenheit at the bot-
off at the surface to the nearest streanı, so
tom of a drain with such a force as to
that heavy falls of rain are succeeded by
pass through several feet of soil.* Water
large inundations of turbid water.
By
is easily converted into vapour for some drained soil , on the other hand, the rain is inches under the surface in summer-but at absorbed as it falls ; and the deeper the
the depth of 3 feet and beyond, vaporisa- drains are made, the largerthe mass of earth is ready to absorb it. The water is thus retained in the ground for a time after lary attraction is stronger than the force it has fallen, in ordinary cases of rain
tion must act with much diminished force.
Mr Mechi seems to think that “ the capil-
of gravity," and that the capillary powers perhaps 48 hours, and in heavy rains for of the soil are strongest atand near the 24 hours, before it passes off by the drains. * Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,vol. xvi. p. 197. + Mechi's Experience in Drainage, p. 9, 13. # Bird's Elements of Natural Philosophy, p. 17, 18.
631
DRAINING .
So that heavy rains are longer of appearing furnace, and connected with maindrains, from drained than undrained land, and the 36 inches deep, furnished with tiles and drains continue longer to run . In heavy soles. Mr James Howden, Wintonhill, rains some of the water runs even off the near Tranent, in East Lothian , found from
drained surface in a turbid state , though experience, that although drains should in ordinary rains it leaves the ground in a cost as much as £7 per acre, on damp
clear state, having been filtered through heavy land, thorough -draining will repay the soil.
from 15 to 20 per cent on the outlay.*
These instances will suffice for Scotland .
5856. The pecuniary profits derived from draining are not less remarkable than its physical benefits. The most palpable advantage is the profit it returns to the farmer. “ I am clearly of opinion ," says Mr North Dalrymple of Cleland, Lanark-
For England, on the estate of Teddisley Hay in Staffordshire, 467 acres, 9 poles, were drained at a cost of £1508, 17s. 4d. —that is, £3, 7s. 7d. per acre. The for
shire, “ that well-authenticated facts on
ing an increase of 284 per cent on the
mer rent was £ 254, 10s. 9d., and after
the drainage it rose to £689, 3s. 1d., giv
economical draining, accompanied with outlay.t And for Ireland, on the estate details of the expenses, value of succeed- of Castle Shane, county Monagban, be ingcrops, and of the land before and after longing to Edward Lucas, Esq ., 57 acres,
draining, will be the means of stimulating 2 roods, 13 poles, were thorough-drained both landlords and tenants to pursue the for £ 269, 11s. 4d . - yielding an increased most important, judicious, and remune- value of the land of 30 per cent.I rating of all land improvements. The statements below will prove the advan5857. When drains are executed on
tages of furrow -draining; and as to the stubble or lea ground, the first corn crop profits to be derived from it, they are after draining is not sensibly increased in
great, and a farmer has only to drain a produce ; but after the ground has been 5 -acre field to have ocular proof upon the ploughed, properly wrought and manured, point.” Without entering into all the a very sensible increase of crop instantly details of the statements given by Mr takes place.
Thus, in one instance ad
Dalrymple, it will suffice here to exhibit duced by Mr Bell, Woodhouselee, in a few general results :-One field contain- 1839 , the increase on oats was only 5 ing 54 Scotch acres, cost £303, 7s. to bushels on 2 acres, on the drained over the drain, or £ 5, 12s. per acre. The wheat undrained land ; and in the same year, 9
off a part of it was sold for £ 11, and the acres drained produced 258 bushels, and turnips off the remainder for £ 25, 13s. 4d. 6 acres undrained 192 bushels of good per acre . The soil was a stiff chattery oats, being the same amount of produce clay, and let in grass for 20s. per acre ; from the undrained and the drained land .
but in 1836, after having been drained, it Those products are very much less than kept 5 Cheviot ewes, with their lambs, from drained land that has been effectually upon an acre .
Another field of 18 acres
laboured.ş
cost £5, 9s. per acre to drain. The wheat off one part of it realised £ 13, the potatoes
5858. But although the most remark
off another £ 15, 159., and the turnips off able instances of increase and profit are remainder
the
£ 21 per acre.
The land
received from drained land, after it has
was formerly occupied with whins and rushes, and let for 128. per acre ; but when let for pasture, after being drained, Mr Dalrymple expected to get 50s.an acre for it. It may be mentioned, that the drains made by Mr Dalrymple were narrow ones, 30 inches in depth, filled 18
been well wrought, it must not be imagined that the largest ratio of increase will be continued. Effectual draining makes the greatest impression at first on soils most injured by water, whether naturally good or bad ; but,naturally,good land possesses more stamina than bad , and will maintain
inches bigh with stones or scoriæ from a its superiority over bad, even though the * Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. viii. p . 319-21. + Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol . ii. p . 279. # Transactions of the Agricultural Improvement Society of Ireland, 1843, p. 39 and 44.
§ Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiii. p. 510-11.
632
REALISATION .
latter should exert itself more for a few In corroboration of the reniarks just expressed, I give a table constructed by Mr Thomson, Hangingside, Linlithgowshire, which presents the produce from an imperial acre
years after being drained.
that the produce declined from both in the second rotation, and less from the good than the inferior soil ; but still the inferior soil gave a return of more than 25 percent from the corn , and 70 per cent from the grass ; and such percentages from inferior
of inferior and good land, before and after soil ought to beregarded as highly re being thorough -drained ; and the result is, munerative : From inferior land .
After being drained .
Kinds of Crops.
Before being
drained .
drained .
Bush . 23
Oats,
35 L. .
After being drained .
Before being
Barley, .
Grass by the acre ,
From good land .
In the 1st
In the 2a
In the 1st
In the 2a
rotation .
rotation .
rotation ,
rotation .
Pks. Bush. Pks. Bush. 3 33 1 29
27 S.
47
21 | 44
D.
13 9
Pks. Bush . 13 27
13
38
Pks. Bush . Pks. Bush . Pks. 3 38 0 36 2
0
52 L.
14 8.
3 19
50
0
D
3
It would be of essential service to future drainers were those of the present day to ascertain the comparative amount of produce received from thorough -drained good and bad land, for a series of rotations of crops, that it may be accurately ascertained
be carefully taken up from the bottom, and every vestige of the plant removed. Some tile-drains made by Mr M‘Lagan , younger of Pumpherston, Mid-Lothian, in October 1847, were choked up with some substance in March 1848 , and in tracing
whether the smallest profit derived from
its origin, it was only found in those drains
thorough -draining bad land would repay which had received leakage from dunghills the cost.
I have no doubt it would .
collected on a certain part of the field . The substance was gelatinous when wet,
5859. Drains are liable to obstructions and like dried skin , and tough, when byvariousgrowths and depositswbich enter dry. It was pronounced an alga by Dr them. I have frequently met with the roots Greville, the Conferva bombycina, whose of the mare's-tail, Equisetum palustre, on
almost colourlessor slightlygreenish fila
cutting drainswhen they poured out a full ments pass rapidly into putrescence. The run of water for some time ; but on being conclusion to be drawn from this case is, emptied, and no longer receiving a supply that the waste of liquid manures from the of moisture, withered away . In a case field dunghills should be prevented as mentioned by Sir Joseph Banks, the roots completely as possible, not only because of sent shoots upwards, “ along the open- the direct saving of valuable materials ings left for the passage of water,” + which
which would hereby be effected, but be
provesthat as much moisture had beenleft cause of the outlay which willbe prevented in the bog as supported the plant in life , in remedying evils to which the matter in short,that the bog had been insuffi-
that escapes may directly give rise.I
ciently drained ; otherwise, on the priva tion of moisture, the vitality of the roots 5860. Mr Henry Dixon, Witham, says, would have been destroyed. When the “ I have a curious evidence of the facility amphibious persicaria, Polygonum am- with which the roots of trees will destroy
phibium , finds its way into a drain , it drains, if carelessly placed. The mass of chokes it up ; and being a perennial, there fibres are the roots of a willow -tree, grow is no chance of its dying out. Where this ing about 5 or 6 feet from the drain, which weed is suspected to exist, the drain should had been put down only twelve months, * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiii. p. 297–298. + Communications to the Board of Agriculture,vol. ii. p. 349. # Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1848, p. 296.
DRAINING .
and the pipe from which I took it was a 4- inch socketed one ."
The ash and
633
5865. Draining being undertaken in a season when the workmen can scarcely
horse-chestnut send strong fibred roots into keep themselves clean, and certainly not drains ; a remarkable instance of which I dry, any means to render their work more saw at New Hailes, near Edinburgh, in comfortable to them is deserving of atten 1846, where a built conduit, of apparently tion . The Marquis of Westminster supplies 15 inches square, was in several parts com-
his drainers with a dress, which it seems
pletely choked up with the fibrous roots of they readily take to. His words are, “ We ing such accidents that I haveso frequently trousers, which protect the hips and legs those trees. It was with the view of avoid- supply our labourers with a sort of leathern
recommended every sort of drain to be from coming in contact with the wet clay.
placed at a distance from trees and hedges. These leggings are used only by the man who digs the last parrow spit, and scoops 5861 , Besides trees, other substances out the lowest soil from the trench before
obstruct the passage of water in drains. fixing the pipes, In bending forwards, Incrustations of lime stop drains, and are his shoulders also are brought into con
not unfrequent in limestone and chalk tact with the upper sides of the wet trench, countries, where they are deposited some to guard them from which a pair of leathern inches in thickness, and become quite armlets are most useful. These armlets, hard . Common limestone is very difficult as well as the leggings, are taken off and
of solution in pure water, but when the put on with perfect facility, are so far water contains free carbonic acid, it is dis- pliable astocreate no impediments to the solved and converted into the bi- carbon- action of the labourers, fit sufficiently close
ate of limestone, which readily dissolves not to rub against the sides of the trench, in water ; but when, from any cause, the or make it crumble, and effectually keep carbonic acid is again disengaged, the car- out the wet for the entire day. They are
bonate is immediately thrown down in easily rolled up and carried to and from thick incrustations.
the place of work . " The leggings cost 20s., and the armlets 10s. the pair.I 5862. Depositions of oxide of iron also Wooden clogs are moreover a comfortable stop drains. Ochrey water is often seen wear for men who have to work in any issuing from drains in bogs. The water wet trench, (5607.) holds the protoxide of iron in solution, which when it meets the air freely is con5866. I have confined my observations entirely
verted into the peroxide, which, being to tile draining, as it is the principal method insoluble in water, is immediately thrown now practised, to the exclusion even of stone down in an ochrey deposit,that soon forms draining, and still more so of the Elkington where large
cases may occur collections an obstructionto the water, as it is always springs andStill, ofwater may havetobe
associated with much vegetable matter.
conveyed away under ground in built conduits, and no method known is so well adapted for
5863. Fine sand occurring in quantity that purpose as the Elkington method ; and small stones, such as the debris of rocks, may be is apt to choke the ducts of drains. If it so plentiful in some localities distant from tiles
is permitted to accumulate above the out
that stone drains might still be constructed there
leta of main drains, in level bogs, it will at less cost than with tiles. It seems therefore dam back the water in all the drains expedient to relate the peculiarities of both unless the main - drains are lowest.
methods of draining.
The coldest, the most injurious to use 5864. Moles cause obstructionsin drains ful5867. plants, andthemost permanent in its effects,
by their workings in search of their natural food, the earth -worm .
is water from true springs, which continue to
A remarkable flow and retain their place in all seasons; and
instance of this was experienced by Mr where these arecopious, the most effectualway
Hay of Whiterigg, Roxburghshire , where draining. To take away such springs, and cause he had used soles placed a few inches plants to derive their water from rain by means apart. +
of furrow -drains, is therefore an excellent means
* Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. v. p. 603. + Journal of Agriculture, March 1848, p . 373.
# Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. x. p. 51.
REALISATION .
634
of promoting the health of plants. Ponds and
Fig. 518 .
lakes of water cannot be drained by means of small furrow - drains, not only on account of their incapacity to carry away a large body of water, but also of the depth to which the drains suited
for those purposes are required to be made so much beyond that of ordinary drains. The drainage of lakes, or any collection of water, is best effected by means of the Elkington system . We must, therefore, pay some attention to this method.
5868. The drain required to convey away the contents of a copious and deep spring, and of the waters of a lake, may have to be dug to the
depth of from 6 to 10 or 15 feet, according to the lowest depth of the seat of the water to be
removed. It is unnecessary to give directions for the digging of a deep drain , as it is conducted in
the same manner as the drains we have already been considering, (5809.) But however deep the drain may be required, it is loss of time and money making it much wider than necessary for the work to be done in it. A simple calculation will at once show the difference of work to be
done in digging a narrow and a wide drain. Sup pose the drain is 6 feet deep, 24 feet wide at the top, and if foot at the bottom - these dimensions give an area of vertical section of 12 square feet, and in a rood of 6 yards in length a capacity of 216 cubic feet.
If by inadvertence the workmen
make it 3 feet wide at top, and 2 feet at bottom ,
THE POSITIONS OF PLANKS AND WEDGES TO PRE
the vertical section would be increased to 15 square feet, and the capacity to 270 cubic feet
VENT THE SIDES OF DRAINS FALLING IN.
5870. All large deep drains should be fur. inevery rood of 6 yards long, creating 54 more cubic feet in the rood, and giving either unneces- nished with built conduits, to let the considerable sary labour to the workmen, or additional trouble body of water have a free passage in all circum to the employer to fill up such a chasm. How- stances. The building of the conduit should be ever deep the drain should be, its width at the contracted for as a separate operation from the bottom should not exceed beyond giving room cutting of the drains . If both are undertaken by thesame party, the two sorts of work will be to the men to work. so carried on together to suit the convenience of 5869. Should the drain prove very wet, and the contractor, as to deceive the inspector by
danger be apprehended of the sides falling in the work ; whereas, if one sort of work is in the whole division engaged in for the time should be taken out to the bottom without stopping, in
spected and approved before another is allowed to be commenced, both will be executed in a
order to let the conduit be built into the drain satisfactory manner. The building of the con duit will cost from 1d. to 2d. per rood, according tendency to fallin before the bottom is reached to the adaptation of the stones for the purpose. short thick planks shouldbe provided, and placed Flat handy stones can bebuilt firmly and quickly, against the loose parts of both sides of the drain whereas round -shaped ones will require dressing
as quickly as possible. Should the earth have a
in a perpendicular or horizontal position, according to the form of the loose earth, and there kept
with the hammer to bring them into proper shape, and much pinning to give them stability.
firm by short stobs, acting as props between the
The stones are furnished to the builder, and a
planks on both sides of the drain, as in fig. 518,
labourer is usually provided to supply the stones
where a a are the sides of the drain , d d planks
as required . But circumstances may occur in
placed perpendicularly against them, and kept which it will be more convenient to oblige the in their places by the short prop c ;or where it is builderto quarry the stones, and supply himself
necessary to have the planks placed horizontally, with alabourer,thecarriage of the stones only f and its opposite neighbour is so placed, and
being furnished by the employer. A builder of
kept in their position by the props e e. When dry -stone walls is better at buildingconduits for there is no tendency of the earth to fall in, the
drains than a common mason , as he does not
drain may be dug at once to half its depth . It depend upon mortar, but upon pinnings of small is convenient to take off the upper half of a new stones to steady the building, (5704.) division of the drain before digging to the bot tom the division preceding it, in order to leave a 5871. Should the ground be firm , the drain stage upon which to hand down the stones for cut in summer, the length of the drain not very building the conduit in the preceding division great, and the weather propitious, the conduit is which had been dug to the bottom .
most uniformly constructed after the drain has
635
DRAINING . been entirely cut out; and it is then most substantially and satisfactorily built from the top to the
duit is formed of good and selected stones ; and should be protected from vermin by close iron
bottom of the drain , the uniform fall of the
gratings.
After the entire length of the con
ground being then best adjusted. But in duit is built , it is covered with flat stones ; but ground liable to fall in in winter, or when before laying down which, the sole of the con the weather cannot be depended upon for some duit is cleared of all loose earth and stones, days, or when the drain extends to a great with a narrow hand draw -hoe, fig. 498. Im length, the safest plan is to build the conduit mediately after this the builder lays the flat immediately after the earth has been taken out covers, 2 or 3 inches in thickness, receiving them to the bottom . The fall in flat ground is best from the labourer, from the adjoining half-cast preserved by building from the upper to the out division of the drain , and, working back lower end of the division of the drain ; and, wards, and giving them a hold of at least 3 where the fall is decided, it may be built in con-
inches upon each wall of the conduit. The open
tinuation from the preceding division.
spaces between the meetings of the covers, which will probably not be square in the ends, should
5872. , A convenient article in the building of be covered with flat stones, and the space be the conduit is a plank of 6 inches in breadth,and tween the ends of the covers and the sides of the froin 6 to 9 feet in length, to place in the middle drain should be neatly packed with small stones of the bottom of the drain,for a dry and firm to secure the covers in their places. To keep the footing to the builder. The plank is easily drawn finished conduit clear of all impediments, the on from length to length by a short rope -end or builder shuts up its end with a firm wisp of chain attached to each end by an iron staple. straw , which, while permitting water to pass, seethes it of its earthy impurities. 5873. Even on ordinary subsoils of clay, the conduit should not be built without a stone sole, 5875. After the conduit has thus been built, the
as water might carry away the material by earth should be returned into the drain soon, in degrees, and the flat stones thus laid form a permanent foundation for building the walls of the conduit upon. In every case where a run of water is expected in a drain , the bottom ought first to
caserain fall and wash down its sides. The filling in of the first part of the earth of a deep drain is usually included in the contract made with the drainer, and is executed with the spade, as it is
be laid with flat stones before the conduit is built.
not safe for a horse to walk upon the edge of any drain until the earth is filled in nearly to the
5874. Supposing the plank set down in the level of the ground. The whole of the earth middle of the lower end of the cut, and there is plenty of fall, the stones are handed down to the builder from the surface, and it is most econo-
may either be put in with the spade, or the re
mainder with the plough ; but in any case a little mound of earth should be left immediately over
mical toemploy a woman to do so. The conduit the drain, to allow for subsidenceto the origi is from 9 to 12 inches in width , and from 15 to 18 inches in depth, according to the circumstances ; and after the building is finished to the length of the plank, the plankis pulled by the ropes for another of its length, and length after length, until the entire drain , or the next division, as the case may be, is reached. The mouth of the con-
nal level of the ground. There will be much less earth left over the filling of a drain than would be imagined from seeing the quantity thrown out, and the space occupied by the stones ; and in
every case the mound soonsubsides. 5876. But where it has been ascertained that
Fig. 519.
11뿌 THE INSTRUMENTS FOR BORING THE SUBSTRATA OP DEEP DRAINS.
636
REALISATION .
the strata under a collection of water is gravelly, and for the men standing on when performing and the water is retained in its place by an im-
the operation."
pervious stratum of clay over the gravel, the
water will find a vent if a hole be formed through
5878. The proper drainage of public cemeteries
the clay into the gravel, which is most easily
seems little attended to . It is well known that
effected by means of boring -rods. The boring-
animal flesh decays more rapidly in dry gravel
irons are made to open a passage through than in wet clay soils. Cemeteries ought, there various sorts of materials, such as impervious fore, to be formed in dry soil ; but where that is clay, thin rock and hard rock ; and one or all of not accessible in localities, the ground ought to these substances may have to be penetrated ere be thoroughly drained before the ground is made an adequate passage be formed for the detained use of; and as graves are generally made not less water to escape. Fig. 519 shows the various than 6 or 8 feet deep, it is requisite that the instruments used in boring, where the auger, a , drains ought to be below that depth. In most is from 2 to 34 inches in diameter, and about 16 clay subsoils, veins of sand will be found travers inches in length in the shell, the sides of which ing them before reaching that depth, so that the are brought pretty close together. It is used for drains will not require to be very near one another drilling a hole in the ground, and bringing up to render the subsoil sufficiently dry. Such deep the drilled earth . When harder substances than drains will require main-drain pipe -tiles to fill earth are met with , such as compact gravel or them ; and where water seemscopious, two should thin soft rock, a pyramidal punch , b , is used, to be placed side by side, as in fig. 526. In some penetrate into and make an opening for the cases conduits of stone may require to be built auger. When rock intervenes, then the chisel in some of the drains to carry off springs, as in or jumper, c, is used to cut it through; the face of the Elkington method (5870.) which should be of greater breadth than the diameter of the auger used afterwards. There 5879. Small Grains to be filled with stones
are rods of iron, d ,each three feet long, and I
are cut in the same manner as for tiles (5831,)
inch square, unless at the joints, which are lg inch in diameter, with a male screw at one end, and a female at the other, for screwing into any of the above instruments,or into one another, to
only that stones are allowed more room in the bottom of the drain than tiles are. To give the larger room , the common spade is more used than thenarrow -pointed ones of tile drains. Whether
make them as long as to allow the descent of any
stones are obtained from the surface of the land
of the instruments into their working place. The short iron key, e, is used for screwing and unscrewing the rods from the instruments and from
or the quarry, it is obviously an absurd practice to mix stones of different sizes in a drain, as they can never assort; and it is positively injurious to
one another. A cross-handle of wood, f, having the functions of a drain nearly to fill up the a piece of rod attached to it, with a screw to
fasten it to the top of the uppermost rod, is used for the purpose of wrenching round the rods and auger, and for lifting up and letting fall the rods and jumper, when these are used respectively. The long iron key, g, is used to support the rods and instruments asthey are let down and taken
bottom of it with a large stone, where it is sure to intercept water and make a dam. Large land stones should therefore be broken into small
pieces. Stones broken in the quarry are always angular, and in so far are objectionable in shape, because on fitting together, face to face, they be come a more compact body than round stones
up, while the rods are screwed on or off with the possibly can. No doubt, the or ry pressure short key, e. of a body of earth from 2 to 3 feet deep cannot squeeze small broken stones together so as en
5877. Three men are as many as can con-
tirely to compress the spaces between them ; but
veniently work atthe operation of boring a drain, gravity, continually acting on loose stones, will “ Two men,” says MrJohnstone, “stand above,
in time press them nearer ; and heavy work upon the surface, and the subsidence of water
one on each side of the drain, who turn the auger
through the earth, assist by their action to
round by means of the wooden handle ; and when the auger is full of earth they draw it out, and
produce a similar result ; and we all know
and they use the instruments in this manner :-
that macadamisation makes a much more com
the man in the bottom of the drain clears out the
pact road than did the old -fashioned round
earth, assists in pulling it out, and directing it
stones.
into the hole.
The workmen should be cautious,
in boring, not to go deeper at a time, without drawing, than the exact depth that will fill the
5880. Stones should never be broken at the
side of the drain. I agree with the late Mr
shell of the auger ; otherwise the earth, through
Stirling when he says that— “ I prefer breaking
which it is boring, after the shell is full, makes it more difficult to pull out. For thispurpose, the
stones in a bin. It is more easy to check the size, and it is done cheaper, as otherwise each
exact length of the auger should be regularly heap has to be begun on the sward, and many of marked on the rods from the bottom upward. the stones are forced into the ground, which adds Two flat boards, with a hole cut into the side of
to the difficulty of lifting them. There will be a
one of them, and laid alongside of one another saving in carting the stones large, but it will be over the drain, in time of boring, are very useful fully balanced by this disadvantage. I would for directing the rods and going down perpen-
deprecate of all practices that of breaking the
dicularly, for keeping them steady in boring, stones in the field, and filling by the chain . * Johnstone's Elkington's Mode of Draining, p. 111, 870 edition.
DRAINING .
This may be contracted for at a low rate, but it is easy" * to guess how the contractor makes wages .
5881. I am acquainted with no drainer who
637
has bestowed so much pains on the breaking, preparing, and putting stones into drains as Mr Roberton, Ladyrigg, Roxburghshire.
I shall
describe his implements and method of pre paring quarried stones. A portable screen or
Fig. 520. h
g
k THE DRAIN STONE -HARP OR SCREEN .
harp for riddling and depositing the stones, is seen in fig. 520, and it consists of a wheelbarrow a, on each side of which are raised two up
them over the screen with force, as they will not alight sooner than half-waydown Fig. 521 .
the wires, where their efficient
right posts, o c, to the height of 3 feet above
screening will be impaired. The
the barrow . Upon two of these posts is sus pended a screen b, the lower end of which rests
proper method is to rest the shovel upon the top of the screen, which
upon the side of the barrow . The screen is fur
part should be protected with plate -iron , and merely give its
nished with stout wires i apart. To the lower end of the screen is affixed a spout d, and at about 10 inches from the lower ex
tremity of the spout is attached a board e ,
handle a slight turn, when the stones will be released ; the larger ones, rolling down , strike
by means of two broad arms f. Another screen g, of one-half the length, and having the
into the middle of the drain, with
wires about half an inch apart, is hung parallel to , and about 10 inches below the larger one, b,
by means of a small iron bar h, from both sides of the upper end of the larger screen ; and its lower end rests upon the side of the barrow at i,
sloping outwardsfrom the opposite side to that of the spout d. 5882. The stones are put into the drain in this manner . All the earth should at first have been put on oneside of the drain. The barrow -screen ,
fig. 520, is placed on the other side, so that the
against the board e, and drop out disturbing the earth on either side. The smaller stones, at the same time, pass through the upper screen b, and falling upon the lower one g, roll into the bar row at i ; whilst the rubbish in
passing through the lower screen 9 , falls upon the ground on the outside of the barrow . 5883. One man takes charge of the filling of the drain. His
board e, attached to the lower end of the spout
duties are to move the barrow
d, shall just reach the opposite side of the drain k . The cart, with a load of broken stones from the bin, is brought a little in advance of the barrow , and the carter, on removing the tail
screen , fig. 520, forward along
board belonging to the cart, shovels the stones out of it with a fryingpan shovel, fig. 233, and
its side as the larger stones are filled to the required height ; to level them with the iron rake, fig. 521 ; to take the smaller stones from the barrow with the frying
throws each shovelful over the top of the screen
THE DRAIN pan shovel, fig. 233, spread them
b ; but in doing this, he takes care not to throw
STONE-RAKE. regularly over the top of the
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xii. p. 10.
REALISATION .
638
larger, and ram them down with the beater, and twoscreens were employed, and the con Fig. 522.
fig . 522, so as to
form a close and
tractors had some stones ready, and part of the drains were half executed by the 1st July. When
level surfacethrough the filling commenced, 66 roods were finished which no earth may
every day, comprising alength of drain of nearly 400 yards ; and as the weather proved un stones are broken favourable for the work, only 3300 roods, instead in the quarry, to of 4000, were executed under the contract, in pass through a ring, doing which about 2000 cubic yards of stones pass.
When
the
A drain of the dimensions repre
4 inches in diameter,
were buried . *
one -fourth will be
sented in fig. 523 will require a longer time to fill.
as small as to pass through the wires of the upper screen
the water the more quickly away, is desirable in
5886. I think a duct at the bottom , to convey
b, fig. 520, and which
every stone drain , although it should cause some
is sufficient to give
trouble and expense .
Where flat stones cannot
the top of the drain be obtained, a sufficient duct may be made by a covering of 2 or 3 inches deep, on being beaten closely
placing a round shaped stone on each side of the drain , with a similar one upon them to act as
a cover ; but where flat stones are available, a down, in lieu of duct of the form represented in fig. 524 should
straw or turf. 5884. A
Fig. 524 . Bro
drain
completed in this THE DRAIN STONE - BEATER . manner with stones may be seen in fig . 523, which represents one 36
d
the top of the stones, and the stones 18 inches deep. These
dimensions give 23 cubic feet per rood I am of 6 yards . partial to the breadth of the common spade as a gauge for the width of the bottom of a drain to be filled entirely with loose stones, because it
made of three stones -one laid flat on the
ground, and two others set up as a triangle upon it. The sloping stones of the
inches deep, 9 inches wide at bottom, 12 inches at Fig. 523.
be made, where a, a triangular duct, 6 inches in the side, is
duct are held
in
position
by
placed
as
their stones
between wedges them and the earth, and the drain is fin
A
ished by 12 inches
affords abundance of room for a durable
of broken stones , b, covered with small stones, C, and the earth, d , returned THE TRIANGULAR COUPLED above them . The tri STONE DUCT. angle encourages a
stony filter, which 7 inches can scarcely accommodate, and much less 5 inches,
deposition of sediment upon its flat sole, but prevents the descent of water under the sole to any dangerous extent. Having a flat bottom , this drain might easily be cast out with a width
when
at top of only 15 inches.
stones
are
A SMALL DRAIN FILLED broken to 4 inches WITH BROKEN STONES .
in diameter.
5885. Mr Roberton's experience as to the time required for putting the stones into the drains is, that, in drains 33 inches deep, 7 inches wide at bottom, 15 inches filled with stones, and 9 inches wide at the top of the stones — the contents being 15 cubic feet per rood of 6 yards- supposing that a set of carts, driven by boys or women, are able to keep one man employed in unloading them, and another man in taking charge of the screen -barrow , from 60 to 70 roods maybe filled in a summer day of 10 hours ; which amount of work gives from 3 to 310 cubic yards per hour.
5887. A more perfect form of duct is seen in fig. 525, where a is a Fig. 525 . tile duct, either tile and sole or pipe -tile, the latter being the cheaper. In using tiles of any kind for ducts, in a stone drain, it is necessary to fill in the stones
by hand with caution
a little way above the tiles ; and the
remainder b might
These data are derived from large pieces of
be put in with the
work, such as Mr Roberton contracted for in
barrow -screen, fig.
1840, for the execution of 4,000 roods, the filling
on the 1st July, and was having commenced completed on the 12th August. Two sets of carts 卷
520, and covered on the top with small THE TILE AND ETONE DRAIN, stones c beaten down.
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv. p. 37.
DRAINING
639
5889. The cost of thorough - draining with
I consider this a perfect form of drain, inasmuch as its durability is secured by the well laid - in stones, its efficiency made certain by
stones, incurred by Mr Roberton , is as follows. The drains were placed from 30 to 36 feet apart,
the superior tile-duct, while the area of the
as the nature of the subsoil was favourable to
stony portion affords the permeable materials drainage ; and those average distances give 70 of the subsoil to part with their water with roods, of 6 yards, of drains to the imperial acre. much freedom . Few farmers, however, will adopt
Opening drains 33 inches deep and 7 inches
this form of drain on account of its compara-
wide at bottom , at 5 d . per rood of 6 yards,
Commis The Draining sanction this form ofdrain.
Preparing stones 4 inches diameter, at 4d. per
tively expenseto. sionersgreat haverefused
for 70 roods ,
£ 1 12 1
Carriage of stones, at 4jd. perditto, :
1 Unloading carts and moving screen -barrow , 0 at fd . per rood of 6 yards, Filling in earth , at 4d. per ditto, 0 Extra expense in the main drains, 0 Per acre of 70 roods, £4
5888. For a main drain, the expense might be to secure a free conveyance of water incur from red a large surface of stone drainage ; and if
.
one duct is deemed insufficient for the quantity of water to be conveyed, two tiles might be placed together abreast as a and b are shown placed in fig. 526. Instead of placing two tiles abreast, it has been Fig. 526. recommended
3
1 4
6 34
4 4 1 53 10 0
17 64 0 l 4*
Orperrood of 6 yards, :
5890. An important method of draining is that of bogs , which is executed in a different manner from tile or stone draining. I have seen exten
to
sive and successful cases of drying bogs in Ire upon its back on the land, by ordinary drains, especially of Carrick ground, and to set Bog, in the county of Meath,by MrFeatherstone the other upon it, of Castle Rattan; and as I consider his plan an edge upon edge. Un excellent one, I shall describe it. The plan con less the tiles are pro- sists of dividing the bog into divisions of 60 place one of them
vided with broad
yards in breadth, by open ditches of 4 feet in
flanges, or atile-sole
depth and 4 feet wide at top, allowance being
be inserted between
thus made for the sliding in of the sides and
them, so as it shall lie upon the edges
subsidence of the moss by drying, which cause considerable diminution in the dimensions of the drains. The open ditches are connected by parallel drains at right angles, 3 feet 3 inches in
of the under tile, and form the sole for the
90
upper one, it is evi- depth and 18 inches in width. Fig. 527 is a dent that the upper
plan of these drains, where a are the large ditches and b the small drains. The ditch a at the bottom , next the dry land, takes away the water to a river. The fall in the ditches and drains is obtained from the natural upheaving of
one will always run
the risk of slipping TILE DOUBLE DUCT POR A MAIN STONE DRAIN.
down into the under one.
Fig. 527. a
6
b
A PLAN FOR DRAINING BOGS AS PRACTISED IN IRELAND .
the moss at its centre above the level of the
conveniently situated for its improvement after
adjacent ground, and this peculiarity causes all draining in the vicinity of extensive knolls of the drainage water of such bogs to flow towards
limestone gravel.
This gravel seems to be a
the land. This bog constitutes a part of the peculiar feature in the geology of Ireland , and great Bog of Allen, which covers many thou- appears as a gift of nature in those parts where sands of acres. The moss is of great depth, and bogs abound, as if to provide a ready means of
very wet and soft, and most probably floats upon converting their driedvegetable surface into use thesurface of a large lake. 5891. Besides the inclination of its surface-
which much facilitates its drainage — this bog is
ful earthy mould . When spread in a compara tively thin layer upon the drained moss, it soon converts it into an arable soil fit to carry in
abundance every species of produce.
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv. p. 43.
REALISATION .
640
5892. The small drains b are made in this manner. A garden Fig. 528. line is stretched at right
cutting the under part of the upper turf, this instrument is really useful ; but in deep bogs, in the drains of which no man can be supported ,
angles from one open ditch a, to another a,
such a spade is of no use in cutting out the
second and lowest turfs, which are too much below the hand of a man standing upon the rough turf is cut in a per- surface . The three-pronged graip is the only direction, tool he can most conveniently use in such a case . pendicular 60 yards.
The upper
along the line with the
edging-iron, fig.
528.
5895. In the course of the four months, the
The line is then shifted
moss subsides about 1 foot, and the turfs and
18 inches, the width of the top of the drain , where a similar cut is made by the edging-iron .
peats become firm . After the two spits of the shovel have been thrown out, the edging -iron is again employed by one man to cut down both sides of the drain to the depth of about 1 foot, leaving a shoulder 5 inches broad on each side.
While one man is em-
ployed at this, another
The pushing -scoop, fig. 509, is then employed by
cuts a moderately thick
another man to cut the moss below and aeross
turf across the drain with a broad -mouthed shovel, fig . 83. The
this last narrow spit, whilst a third man takes out the cut pieces with the small graip . The scoop is employed to polish the narrow bottom of
drain is then left two
the drain with a few shoves of its back, making
months to allow the
a duct 1 foot deep below the shoulders. The
water to run off, the moss
filling of the drain is commenced after this last
to subside, and the turf
spit has been removed, and is conducted in this manner. The large turf b, fig. 530, taken out by
to dry.
the second spit, THE EDGING - IRON .
5893. At the end of
Fig. 530.
that time the edging iron, fig. 528, is employed by one man cutting
being now dry , is lifted by the
hand, and placed
down the sides of the drain in a perpendicular di rection 2 feet 3 inches deep ; while another man uses the square-mouthed shovel, fig. 83, to cut the moss into large square peats; which being wet,
upon the shoulders e e. If this turf is re
and situate much below the hand, cannot be thrown out with the shovel, but are taken hold of by a third man, with the small three-pronged
in the drain, the moss will have
graip, fig. 218, and thrown upon the surface,
collapse from both sides, and choke up or di minish the open The duct de large turf, a, first taken out, is then lifted by the
placed too tight a tendency to
where their square form is regained by a few strokes with the back of the shovel, and then left to dry and harden . The work is again left
for two months more, for the water to drain off, and the moss to subside still further.
5894. A new spade, which I have named here as the “ horizontal spade, " fig. 529, because it
hand, and put into the middle
Fig. 529.
THE SHOULDERED BOG - DRAIN .
of the drain , as in the figure , with the grass face undermost, and the long nar: row stripes of turf, o C, sepa :
rated by the scoop from the bottom spit, along with any other broken pieces, are firmly packed , by means of the small graip, fig. 218, along both sides and top of the drain , so that the entire num
ber of turfs just fill up the subsided drain to the top. It is not an uncommon practice to put the turf first taken out, upon the shoulders of the THE HORIZONTAL SPADE.
drain with the grass face undermost ; but as the grass is soon converted into mould, and will
works in a horizontal direction, has lately been
fall into the duct, it is better to place the second
introduced in bog -draining, to cut the under turf upon the shoulders, being composed entirely parts of the peats and turfs in making these of fibrous moss, unconvertible there into mould. drains, and assist in casting them out, instead of the small three- pronged graip, fig. 218. In bogs, 5896. When confidence is not placed in drain
where footing is found for the workmen, or foring bogs by their own materials, and when larch
DRAINING
641
wood is plentiful, a species of tile may be made from 2000 to 3000 such tiles every day, which, from it to answer the purpose of a rigid duct. Mr Scot of Craigmuie, in the Stewartry of Kirk cudbright, has used tubes of larch as ducts in bog -draining, and found them to succeed . The
after being thoroughly dried by the weather, Fig. 533.
are fit for use .
In
clayey subsoil they
b
should be set in the drain as shown in
larch -tube finished, represented in fig. 531, pre
the figure ;
Fig. 531 .
but
they may also be used singly in drain
E
DH
ing moss, by being set upon a plank of
THE LARCH DRAIN-TUBE.
larchas a sole, as b sents a square of 4 inches outside, with a clear
rests upon a.t a
water-way of 2 inches. The cost of these tubes, however, exceeds that of clay tiles and soles, and more so of pipe -tiles. Taking the cost of tiles
and soles, of 15 inches in length , at 30s. per
THE PEAT - TILE FOR DRAINS .
5899. In compa
rison to the expense of execution , perhaps no sort of draining has done so much good as
tube contains 1 superficial foot of timber at 1
sheep -drains on hill pasture, which have dried its surface , and made it sound for stock , where formerly disease prevailed to an alarming
inch thick, which costs, for carriage and sawing ,
extent.
I farthing ; the fitting , boring , and pins, other 2 farthings ; the timber , at 6d. the cubic foot, increases the cost 2 farthings more -- altogether 5
5900. The wet surface of pastoral hills com posed of impervious clay may be dried on the
1000, exclusive of carriage , their worth is 1. farthing the lineal foot. A lineal foot of larch
farthing , making the tube more than three princ iple of surface -draining, by cutting numer ous transverse open drains across the face of the of the timber thrown into the bargain,the tubes hills, and receiving the water from them in open
s times dearer than tiles. And even with the cost
would still be double the price of tiles, including , ditches. Covered drains , however, when properly in addition , carriage at 6s. 8d . per 1000 ; and,as formed , are best adapted even for sheep pasture, a consequence , the price of larch -tubes will be as being not only secure from external damage , more than double that of pipe-tiles.* Such but permanent in their structure ; and no sort of Fig. 532.
tubes, therefore , would
drain is better adapted for the pipe-tile. Such
only be used in bog,
drains keep the surface unbroken ; no manure
draining,
from the pasture can be washed into them ; the
where
the
moss is too soft for tiles.
ground is rendered permanently dry ; and I think they are much cheaper made than any 5897. Tiles made of form of drain at present known. Although I
dried peats have been recommended for the drainage of land where peats are near, and tiles
recommend covered drains in hill pasture, yet, as open ones are most frequently in use, it is necessary to describe the best forms of these.
and stones distant.
5901. Open surface -drains in permanent pas ture appear in plan as represented in fig. 534, Fig. 534,
In
case of such a locality
requiring draining, a peat-tile may be made
by a spade contrived by Mr Hugh Calder
wood, bricklayer , Ayr ts shire. It consis
of an
iron cutting part, fig. 532, of a semi-cylin drical form , furnished
h d
with a flange on each edge, and a cutting tongue at the extremity of one of the flanges. It is provided with a cross -headed helve, which is inserted into a
THE CALDERWOOD PEAT- socket attached to the TILE SPADE-TOOL . cutting part.
(1
A PLAN OF SHEEP- DRAINS ON A HILL OF
5898. The tile cut out of the peat by this
IMPERVIOUS SUBSOIL .
spade has the appearance represented in fig.
533, where two separate tiles, a and b, are placed where the leader e f is cut the more nearly less steep the one above the other, leaving a circular opening down the face of the hill the cut across the
in the centre between them .
One man can cut
acclivity is, and the feeders are
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv. p. 99. + Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. vii . p . 247. VOL . II .
28
REALISATION .
642
face nearly in parallel lines, into the leader. In
this way, the water is entirely intercepted by the feeders in its passage down the hill. Where one leader enters another, the line of junction
5904. The drain, in fig. 536, is a covered sheep drain. A cut is first made 6 inches wide at bottom , 16 inches deep, and 18 inches wide at Fig. 536.
should never be at right angles , but at an acute
angle with the line of the flow of water, as cf enters db ; and where small drains enter a large, from opposite sides, they should do so at alter
nate points, as shown by the three drains abovef, and not as the three pairs of drains above these
towards e . The large main drain cbd, or the sub -main ga i, may be left open or covered. Should the sub form the line of separation between
arable ground and permanent pasture, it may be left open, and serve as an assistant to the fence of the hill pasture ; but, if the entire hill be under pasture , it may still be left open, as a catch water drain. The ends of the drains at h show A COVERED SHEEP - DRAIN IN GRASS .
how they lie in reference to the drains from e to f. top. The upper turf a is taken out whole across
5902. There are various ways of making drains in grass. One is to turn a furrow -slice down the
the cut, as deep and large as the spade can make it. Two men will take out such a turf
hill with the plough, and trim the furrow after
better than one, with the assistance of the hori
Where the grass is smooth and the soil pretty deep, this is an economical mode of making an open sheep drain. Every line should be previously marked off with
its grassy face upon the higher side of the drain ,
wards with the spade.
zontal spade, fig. 529. It is laid for a time on
poles when the plough is to be used. Such a
and the earth pared from the other side with the spade, leaving the turf of a trapezoidal shape. While one man is doing this, the other is casting
drain would not cost a halfpenny per rood of 6
out with a narrow spade the bottom b of the
yards. But where the grass is rough and strong, and swampy places intervene, the plough is apt to choke, and come out of the ground, by the long grass accumulating between the coulter and
drain ; and the earth and shovellings are spread The large turf a is then replaced in its natural position, and tramped down, leaving the open space 6 below it for the beam , and make coarse work ; while the horses water to pass along. This is not so permanent are apt to strain themselves in the swampy ground, a form of sheep -drain as the last, nor can it be so that the risk would be considerable . so easily kept clear ; and it is unsuited to pas ture for cattle, as they would inevitably tramp 5903. A better, though more expensive mode, the turf to the bottom of the drain , though it is to form them altogether with the spade. Let would be stronger were the turf a to rest on over the ground.
a, fig. 535, be a cut thrown out by the spade, 9 two shoulders as b does on ce in fig. 530. As Fig. 535.
made thus, it also affords an open space for moles to run along ; and when any obstruction by them
or other burrowing animals occurs, the part ob structed cannot bedetected until thewater is seen 3
to overflow the lower side of the drain , where the turfs must be raised, and the obstruction re
AN OPEN SHEEP - DRAIN IN GRASS.
moved. It forms, however, a neat drain , pos sessing the advantage of retaining the surface whole where sheep alone are grazed ; but it could not be formed for less than fourpence per rood of 6 yards ; and when it is determined to expend so much inmaking sheep -drains, it would be better to employ pipe-tiles at once, which would require a comparatively narrow cut. The pipe -drains could be made for little more than the original cost of the pipes, with carriage.
inches wide at bottom, 16 inches of a slope in the high side, and 10 on the low, with a width
5905. It is surprising how little desire seems
of 20 inches at top along theslope of the ground. A large thick turf b is removed by the spade, and laid with its grassy side down the slope, while the shovellings are thrown upon its top
to be evinced by landed proprietors, to prepare the ground by draining for the reception of plantations. The fencing of young plantations is scrupulously attended to, and very properly,
to finish the bank neatly. Such a drain catches all the water descending the surface between it
because young trees cannot defend themselves against the depredations of man and beast ; but
and the drain above, and leads it to a main or it is strange that it never occurs to the planter, sub-main drain.
Such an open drain may be
that young trees are as little able to defend
formed for about twopence per rood of 6 yards, themselvesagainst the chilling and suffocating provided many obstructions, such as brushwood influence of water about their roots, as their and rank heather, do not encumber the surface. stems and tops can withstand the gnawings and
DRAINING .
643
croppings of animals. The deleterious effects of confined, to contain all the water that will ever water in the case of every large plantation that does not form an important portion of a domain
flow in them .
may be explained - in the freezing of the ground
5908. The small drains should not be made
in winter in one mass around the roots of the
along the fall of the ground, as in the case of
trees, as long as they are young ; inobstructing
covered drains in ordinary arable land drainage,
the sun's heat entering the soil, and finding its way to the roots, in the early part of every year; in preventing the passage of the air to the roots
because the large body of water which they at
of the trees, the presence of air being essential to their good health ; and the particular effects
times will at once collect from the surface would
then be apt to run holes into their sides and bot toms. They should , therefore , be placed with a
slope across the inclination of the ground towards
produced by all these causes may be witnessed the main drains, at such an angle as just to pre in every tree becoming the victim of lichens and mosses, or other parasitic plants, or of being evidently stinted in its growth, or diseased in
serve a brisk enough trot in the water to carry
off sediment and leaves, but not to injure the sides and bottom. In clay soil, the slope may be
the interior of the trunk . The consequences are,
made more inclined than in light soil.
the trees are a very long time of reaching to a
small drains should not be made less than 20
state of usefulness as timber or shelter, and can never realise the price of those grown on dry
inches in depth in clay soil, with a width , of course, of 30 inches, and with 9 inches at the
The
soils. It is not enough to place young trees in
bottom , making the entire width at the top 39
ground that does not become a plashy swamp in the worst winter weather, because rough ground
inches. And on light soils they should not be made less than 14 inches in depth, and 21 inches
will retain as much moisture, in its vegetable covering and spongy mould, as will injure the roots of the young plants constantly remaining
in width, with 9 inches at bottom , making the
No alternative is therefore left, but to
5909. Where slight hollows occur across the
in it .
entire width 30 inches.
drain the ground before it is converted into a surface of a field of small drains, a sub -main , plantation , if the planter desires his trees to drain should be inserted thereinhaving a com attain maturity and usefulness ; and the system munication with a main drain . These sub -main of drainage suited for such ground is neither drains should be of less dimensions than main intricate nor expensive. drains, but larger than the small drains, and of the same proportions as the other two kinds.
5906. Ground appropriated to the use of trees, should be drained by open drains upon the sur. face only, and not with covered drains of any kind ; for the roots of the trees will direct their
5910. The cost of the 14 inches in depth drain in light soil, requiring a little picking at the bot
tom , will be about 1 farthing per running yard ; andthat of the 20 inches deep drain in clay soil, drains, in search of moisture in the summer with extra picking , will be 2 farthings per run season, and their fibres will soon choke up the ning yard . The cost of making the main and orifice of the conduits. Now, open drains upon sub -main drains will be in proportion to the the surface will be quite sufficient to remove all above prices, according to the quantity of picking the water that would remain in a stagnant state earth thrown out and required in the respective in winter, and prove injurious to the roots ; kinds of soils mentioned. The cost of draining first efforts towards the conduits of covered
whilst they allow as much moisture to remain under the roots of the trees as proves beneficial to them in summer and they are not required
per acre will depend on the number of the drains, and the number is determined by the distances fixed on between the drains ; and the distances
to be made so large or so deep as to be objected
between the drains depend on the quantity and
to on the score of expense.
frequency of the rain that falls in the particular
locality. Perhaps I may state, as a guide be 5907. On laying out the drains on such ground, tween two extremes, that the drains need not be it is requisite to observe the form of the surface; nearer in any place than 5 yards, nor be distant and wherever a hollow trough occurs, with rising more than 40 yards ; the distance being closer in
ground on both sides, there cut a main drain clay than in light soils. along the bottom of the hollow. This drain should at least be 3 feet in depth, and have a flat bottom of 1 foot in breadth , to allow the spade
to pass easily along it in scouring out at any time the earthy and vegetable matter that may have fallen into it ; and its width should be 1
5911. Quicksands are troublesome to dry, when met with in drains. Here is a narrative of a successful method of draining them with tiles, by Mr William Linton, Sheriff Hutton, York : “ When the first man has got a few feet from the
foot for every foot in depth — allowing the bottom end of the drain, the second commences taking to be 1 foot in width . Thus, for example, a main out the bottom of it ; and as soon as he has made drain 3 feet in depth would be 4 feet in width ; way for the laying of stones or clay tiles, they
but having 1 foot width in the bottom , it should
are immediately laid by the tile -layer - first lay
be 54 feet wide. The size of the main drain is ing the bottoms quite close to each other, and of course regulated by the probable quantity of upon them the tiles, leaving as little crevice as water it will have to convey away from the small drains which lead into it ; and besides,
main drains, and all other sorts, should be so formed as to be rather too capacious than too
possible, and immediately covering them with about 4 inches of the most tenacious soil that can be procured. Clay would be used, but on ac
count of its being in large hard lumps, it cannot
REALISATION .
644
be made to bed sufficiently close to keep out the sand. Here I must notice that it is essentially
5913. As the clay which retains the water that does the mischief cannot be removed, the only
necessary that the drains be cut 3 or 4 inches expedient left is to remove the water,by convey wider at the bottom than the width of the tile, so ing it away in channels, insteadof allowing it to as to admit this strong soil down the sides to the very bottom. Much mischief is done by the sand getting in at the bottom part of the joinings of the tiles. Other materials have been used for keeping out the sand, but with bad effect. I prefer clay to anything else, when it can be got
take its own course amongst the interstices of the clayey strata ; and these channels may con sist either of open conduits or covered drains. 5914. One method in which these channels are
usually employed, in draining the face of railway
sufficiently loose and malleable, so as to bed cuttings, isto place themin a slanting direction quite close and firm , and leave no crevice. . . down the face of the cutting, in numerous paral After the clay or strong soil is well
lel lines, and, when they slant from opposite
trodden in, and thrust down the sides of the tiles directions, are sometimes made to empty them with a common spade, the sand thrown out in the making of the drain is then filled in , and is
selves in a common channel. Where the entire face of the cutting is a uniform mass of tenacious
firmly beat down by treading, and sometimes by boulder-clay, andthe open channels are made as running a broad -wheeled cart upon it, in which deep as to be imbeddedin it through the inould is put a sufficient weight, in order that the cover returned upon the surface of the cutting, this ing of the drain may become as firm as any other part of the field. This is done to prevent the
method may answer the purpose. In all such cases the channels, to be efficient, should be of
water from descending, or finding achannel to large dimensions, and cut deep into the clay the tilein that direction, or it would be almost impossible to keep out the sand .
one being cut near the top of the cutting, and
sloped to the right and left from its highest
The pipe-tile having been of late introduced into point ; and only another , perhaps, cut about this neighbourhood, I have commenced using them . The drains are cut, and every other part of the work performed, in the same way as when the common tiles are used. But on account of the land being but recently drained by them , my observations are not sufficiently matured to justify me in saying that they are in all respects equally good with the common tiles . I find it sometimes difficult toget them to fit close enough
midway across the face of the cutting, of the same form and size.
The water would find its
way from the surface into these channels more quickly, were the surface raised into the form of ridges ; and as there is always a built drain at the bottom of the cutting, the ridges should be continued below the lowest channel to that drain. But such channels are usually made in the face of the cuttings, whether the clay is of
to each other, the ends not being quite straight, uniform texture or otherwise ; and the conse and some of them curved in the middle ; there- quence is, that the water, in oozing through the
fore it is necessary to apply clay to most of the sand-veins, in time carries down both clay and joinings. Of these running sands I have drained about 500 acres ; and when the plan which has been stated here at large was adopted, which has generally been the case, the average cost per acre was about £5, 58. ; that is to say, 1500 tiles at 26s. per thousand ; 3000 bottoms at Ils. per thousand ; cutting, £1, 10s. ; and incidental expenses, 3s ; total, £5, 5s .” *
5912. Every one travelling by railroad may have observed, in many of the deeper cuttings,
channels in land - slips as it did before.
5915. Another method ofdraining the cuttings consists in making covered drains of tiles, branch ing in different directions, in the places where the water is found to burst out to the day ; and the success of this plan is as uncertain as the other, because the remedy, in both cases, is ap plied to remove the effect, not the cause of the evil.
that the earth had slipt in large masses down the
5916. A recent attempt, I observe, has been
face towards the bottom ; and , on examining the cause of these slips, it will invariably be found to arise from the action of water upon the subsoil.
made to drain the face of these cuttings by means of patented cast- iron pipes, which are so laid down as to convey all the water to the drain at
The subsoil so affected is clay, and it is so affected whether it be of a uniform texture or interstratified with veins of sand. If there were
the bottom of the cutting ; but this plan seems to me to be founded on no better principle than
that of the open channels or covered drains men no clay, there would be no excess or retention of tioned above, inasmuch as it temporises with the water, and of course no land-slips. Cuttings of effect only, and does not grapple with the true railways may be regarded , therefore, as drains cause of the evil. intersecting the substrata to the extent of their depth, and exposing to view the sections of the 5917. The draining of such cuttings, I think, impervious matter upon which the water natu- ought to be conducted in a different manner from rally travels towards the cutting, in precisely the
any of these.
same manner, but on a much larger scale, as the water is seen to issue from the intersected strata of the exploratory drains recommended to be made in every field before being drained, (5793. )
a deep railway cutting, from 20 to 40 feet in depth, rising, as such cuttings usually do, 1 foot in 1 foot. The ground at the top of all cuttings, b, will be found to exist in one of three states, namely, sloping upwards from b to c ; or on a
In fig. 537, let a b be the face of
* Journal of the Agricultural Society of England , vol. vii. p. 117-18.
645
DRAINING .
level from b to d ; or sloping downwards, from b b to o, and the subsoil is of uniform clay, the water on the surface will run from c to b, and thence down the face of the cutting all the way,
to k .
5918. When the ground slopes upwards from from b to a , washing away some of the soil in Fig. 537 .
c I
2
n m
DRAINING THE PACE OF RAILWAY CUTTINGS .
its progress, leaving parallel ruts. But were an
the ordinary mode of draining the face of railway
open channel formed in the face a little below cuttings is erroneous in principle, and therefore b, and another about half-way down at h, and proves ineffectual in practice. It may be that the face b a formed into upright ridges, it is
the sites of the drains at g , o, and k may be be
evident that the open channels at b andh would yond the 100 yards reserved for the use of rail intercept the water and carry it away, while the
way operations; but, to meet such cases, power
ridges would convey it faster into them than ought to be taken in every bill to allow the drainage of cuttings to be effected .
could the plain surface.
It may also be that some of the drains, as from g to è, and
5919. When the subsoil is not uniform , but from i to k , may be required of inordinate depth, veined as from f to g, it is probable that part of 8 or 10 feet, the cost of which should rather be the water will be absorbed by the ground at g, incurred, and accomplish the drainage effectu and find its way out at the face at f ; in which ally, than waste time and labour in petty abortive case , a covered conduited drain a little way above superficial attempts. b , as deep as to intersect the dotted line 9 f, 5923. The railway is at n, and m is one of the would prevent the burst of water at f more effectually than any number of open channels or
conduited drains always constructed along the
covered drains on the face atf could possibly do. sides of a railway, and becomes the great means If more than one stratum exists, as represented of keeping the railroad dry. at g, deep enough to reach by f g and hi, a drain i, would prevent the lower burst at h , as well as the upper one at f.
5924. I also observe that the hollows of rail.
ways are seldom drained before being filled up with the embankment, the weight of which
5920. Where the ground is level from b to d, pressing upon the wet soft ground causes it to embankment to subside, when
vein i h or o a. Instead of using expedients to
slide aside,and the more earth must be brought to make up for the subsidence. Such hollows should always be
remove the burst of water at h, as is commonly done, a drain at i would prevent the burst at h; and if it were as deep as to reach the porous
drained with a main drain in the hollowest part, and small drains running into it from both sides, and filled with stones or tiles. As the embanking
the water will not run off, but be absorbed , and
find its way towards the cutting either by the
stratum a o, it would prevent the bursts both proceeds, its weight will squeeze the wet out into the drains,and no extraordinary subsidence will
at h and a. When a burst is only seen at a, a
drain at o will remove it. When the ground ' is of uniform clay, an open ditch above b , parallel to the cutting, will prevent any water running
thereafter take place.
down the face b a.
draining likely to occur . Other minor modes, such as sod and wedge draining, are only 'mo difications of covered sheep drains. (5904.)
5921. On the ground sloping downwards, from b to k, no burst of water will appear on the face from 6 to h ; and if the ground sloped as far as
e , none could appear in the face of the deepest cutting.
5925. These are all the cases of substantial
There are also plug and mole draining in strong tough clay subsoils; but tiles will supersede all these.
But as the ground commonly stretches
5926. It is improbable that drain.ploughs will from k to 1, any fall of water from b to k upon a veined subsoil, would inevitably appear at a ; ever come into competition with the hand, fur and the only sure way of removing it is to make nished with appropriate tools. I may mention that Messrs William Cadell, Sons, & Co., Cra a drain at k, in impervious matter. mond, exbibited excellent specimens of every
5922. It is clear, from these illustrations, that tool for cutting field drains, as well as in hill
RÉALISATION .
646
pastures, at the show of the Highland and Agri- two portions of a field supposed to have the same cultural Society at Glasgow in August 1850 .
acclivity, and laid off in 6 equal ridges, a , b, c , and d , e,f, down the slope, three of which, a , b, c.
5927. There are a few considerations connected having the drains oblique, and three, d, e, f, down the slope, the drains being equidistant. being necessary to the right understanding of the Now, when rain falls on, and is absorbed by the subject. Most drainers now believethat drains ridges,a , b, c,d, e, f, it naturally makes it way with draining which yet require our attention, as
formed in the line of the inclination of the ground will drain the land more effectually than by
to the lowest level ; and as the ground has the same declivity, it will reach the bottom of the
drains traversing the face of the inclined ground, drains sooner or later, as the circumstances pre but some may still be found to question it as á sented by the two systems of drains accele fact. Without assuming more than one law of hydraulics, that water seeks the lowest level in
rate or retard its motion. Let us see how these circumstances should operate :-On the ridges
all directions, I shall prove the accuracy of the d , e, f, the water will at first take the course on opinion by referring to fig. 538, which represents each towards the open furrows, as indicated by Fig. 538.
the deflected arrows at k ; and as ground has
seldom only one plane of declination, but more commonly one to the right hand, and another to the left, from a to f or from f to a, it follows that the lower side of a ridge thus situated will be
sooner drained than the upper. But both sides will soon be drained, as may be seen by reference to fig. 539, where a and b are vertical sections of drains, and c 1 foot of mould, in which the rain is absorbed as fast as it falls upon the ridge, 15 feet broad , betwixt a and b. What is absorbed , on seeking the lowest level by gravity, will hasten at first perpendicularly towards the line de ; and, in doing so , the portions nearest the
a
b
c
d
j
m
k
drains will find it easier to move towards the
open ducts d and e than the close ground at h . In thus moving, the water will always remain at a higher level at h than at d or e, and , by its accumulation there, cause a constant lateral
pressure towards d and e, and this the more powerfully the greater the supply of water from
THE COMPARATIVE EFFICACY OF DRAINS ACROSS
above.
AND ALONG RIDGES ON A DECLIVITY .
It is believed by some that water finds
Fig. 539.
h
THE DESCENT OP WATER ON A RIDGE INTO A DRAIN ON EACH SIDE .
its way from the surface of a ridge to the drain ficial view, and suppose that d, e, f, and a, l, 9, on either side along the imaginaryinclined planes od and o e ; but no force exists at c to cause it to take so decidedly a diagonal course, in counteraction to the force of gravity which carries it directly from c towards h. The fissures in drained retentive subsoil, having a perpendicular direction, conduct the water downwards with increased velocity to the assistance of gravity; and
are open furrows, the water will only have to
the assistance which the water finds in its way
5929. Trace the passage of the water under the surface, through the substrata. Mr Thom
laterally into the drains d and e, from the centre force at h, is afforded by the fractures formed
move 7 feet, as indicated by the arrows at k, to reach the open furrows d, e, and f; whereas on the ridges a c, 1 m, and gi, it will have to move across the entire breadth of 15 feet, just double the distance of the other, before it can reach the open furrows, a, l, g.
son, Hangingside, Linlithgowshire, drained 150
by shrinkage in the columnar masses of the subsoil.
acres of land having an inclination varying from 1 in 10 to 1 in 30. Portions of 3 fields had
5928. On the ridges a b c, fig. 538, on the other hand , the water will have to traverse, in the direction of the arrows b and h, the entire distance across the drains a and l orl and g, instead of half the distance on d, e, f ; for both sets of drains are should take double the time to reach the drains
drains cut in them in 1828, 1829, and 1830, in the oblique direction, and, finding them less successful than the rest of the fields, he put them in the direction of the slope. “ In order,” says he , “ to ascertain the cause of these failures, a cut was made in the field first referred to, enter ing at a given point, and carrying forward a
at a , l, and g, than at d , e, and f. Take the super-
level to a considerabledepth, when it was clearly
supposed to be equidistant. So that the water
DRAINING . seen that the substrata, instead of taking in any degree the inclination of the surface, lay horizontally, as represented in fig. 540. It is there
647
upon soles. To meet this objection, collars and lobes have been contrived to connect them , all which are attended with trouble and expense. There can be no doubt that in the case of
Fig. 540,
derangement taking place in a drain with tiles VETE
LINNUTULCARRERASEULOLUNULIUMANIUMI
/
THE ORDINARY POSITION OF SUBSTRATA IN REFER ENCE TO THE SURFACE SOIL.
of any kind, from whatever cause, the pipe-tile is a safer means of continuing the flow of the water than a tile without a sole ; for an arched tile is not a duct, but only a cover to a duct, whether a tile sole or the surface of the ground, when no soles are used - and whenever the ground or sole is deranged, so must the duct be. But a
fore obvious, " he justly concludes, “that, in making drains across a sloping surface, unless pipe-tile, however deranged, remains still a duct they are put in at the precise point where the for the water ; and although one pipe may be
substrata crop out (and these are exceedingly completely choked up with mud and rendered irregular in point of thickness,) they may in a great measure prove nugatory ; because, although one drain is near another, from the rise of the ground, none of them may reach the out-crop ; whereas, in carrying a drain right up the direction of a slope, it is impossible to miss the out-crop of every substratum passed through .”
useless, the one before and behind will still ope rate as well as ever : no stoppage of water can take place beyond the undisturbed pipe on each side of the derangement. A figure will best
illustrate this argument. It is obvious that no known species of force can act upon the tiles
from below, to push them upwards ; nor is it pro bable that any force can act upon them from
5930. And although drains in the oblique direction should cut through a vein of sand as
from f to g , fig. 539, and thereby carry off the water it contains, the drains along the inclination would also cut through the same vein and carry off the water as well.
above. The only way that we can imagine a derangement to take place is by the subsidence of the ground below them, or by an inordinate
quantity of water. Now suppose that the pipe tiles b , d e, fig. 541 , are displaced by the sink
So that oblique
drains present no advantage over those on the
Fig. 541 .
inclination, while they are attended with many
disadvantages. This experiment of Mr Thom son's strongly supports my recommendation of
making exploratory cuts before determining the depth and distance of drains, (5793.)
5931. The minimum depth which drains ought to have is easily ascertained by attending to the particulars of ordinary culture. A plough takes
DISPLACEMENT OF PIPE - TILES IN A DRAIN.
à depth of furrow of 7 or 8 inches ; subsoiling ing of the ground below them , andthat the earth and subsoil-trenching go 8 inches below that; a main -drain pipe-tile stands 6 inches high , and less than 3 inches ought not to be left between
the top of the tile and the bottom line of the subsoil plough. Thus 25 inches are the least depth any drain ought to have, to preserve intact the materials with which it is filled .
5932. Although pipe-tiles are coming more into use every year, many farmers still prefer the common tile, and some yet believe that a sole is not requisite on hard clays. It is marvellous how such an opinion should be held by those having daily opportunities of observing the effects of the elements — for every farmer knows that clay is softened by rain at the surface of the ground; and when drains are formed in clay for no other purpose than to conduct water along their bottom, why should they doubt that water will soften clay as easily at the bottom as at the top of a drain ? The question of economy
above them g has fallen down. The water will
continue to run from the pipe f as usual, and will occupy the interior of the pipes c and d, and partially that of b and e ; and although the earth may have fallen in between their ends, the water will still find its way through e and b. The water will saturate the earth ing as high as until it reaches the level of the pipes a and f, which , remaining in their proper position, a will take it away, and it can rise no higher. It matters not whether pipes are upset or not as c is seen to be—it continues a duct as good as ever. In stead of pipes, had there been tiles without soles,
they would instantly have been embedded in the soft earth, and rendered useless as covers to ducts; and even had soles been furnished, the dis placement of them would have rendered them equally useless as ducts.
5934. It is not an uncommon impression that pipes, being close along their sides, cannot take
interferes ; for it is, I suspect, cheaper to use a tile in the water from the drain so quickly as a tile alone than a tile and sole. But a pipe-tile is as and sole . Whether they can do so as fast is of cheap as a tile without a sole, so that the plea of no consequence if it can be proved that ordinary pipe-tiles are sufficient to take away the largest
economy can now urge no objection against them. 5933. Objections are made to pipe-tiles, that on being laid inthe drains, they are not connected together like tiles that are laid to break band
quantity of rain that will probably ever fall in this country. I can prove this in a simple man ner. Suppose that egg-shaped tiles of 2 inches
wide and 24 inches in the bore are used, their cir.
REALISATION .
648
cumference is 10 inches. These tiles cannot be exchequer will allow ; the farm will be goneover placed closer to each other by the ends than an
in as short a time, and much more profitably . "
eighth of an inch apart, so thearea comprised be. The reason Mr Stirling gives for holding this tween two tiles is 14 square inch. Suppose that the drain is 200 yards in length, to furnish which 480 pipesof 15 inches in length are required. Now the joints between this number of pipe-tiles afford openings for water to enter them of ex-
opinion is as practical as it is true ; because “ a tid-proper condition of the ground for harrow ing - cannot be taken advantage of on the drained furrow until the other is dry, and the benefit of an extended period for performing the various
actly 600 square inches, equal to 4 square feet operations of the farm is thus lost.”I Every and24 square inches. Does any one doubt that farmer who has studied the influenceof soil is an opening of 4 square feet and upwards would ready to allow that wet soil does more injury to easily contain all the waterthat could possibly the dry in its neighbourhood , than the dry does come out of one drain of 200 yards long in the greatest rain that was ever remembered to have
good to the wet. I would, therefore, under every circumstance of season and soil, prefer
fallen in this country ? It may be very true having the half of my farm thoroughly, to the from this, that inch-bore pipe-tiles are sufficiently
whole of it only half drained. On visiting a
large for drainage, as the practice of some Eng friend in Dumfriesshire, when he was draining lish drainers demonstrates ; but I do not see the utility and safety of using the smallest bore-
of applying the homeopathic principle to drain-
his land in halves, I recommended the full
drainage at once. After a sufficient trial followed my advice, and thanked me for it.
he
ing - when a much larger bore can be afforded
5937. A pipe-tile of an arch upon a flat sole , fig. 542, was introduced some years ago by Lord
for a comparatively less sum of money.
5935. The bulk of earth relieved of its sur
Fig. 542.
plus water is an effect I suspect but little re garded when the depths of drains are determined ; and yet I conceive this to be the true expression of the work done, as a mere statement of the cost
of drainage per acre of surface conveys but an im perfect idea of the substantial benefit conferred upon the land. Thus, taking the cost of 2 feet
A CONCRETE PIPE - TILE .
drains , in stiff clays , 24 feet apart , at £ 3, 4s. 3d.
James Hay, of Seaton, Aberdeenshire. It was formed of concrete, composed of good lime, sharp
per acre ; of 3 feet drains, in porous soils, 33
sand and gravel, mixed in the proportion of 1
feet asunder , at £2, 5s. 2d. ; and of 4 feet drains ,
bushel of lime-shells to 24 bushels of sand and 4
in soils of varied texture , 50 feet apart , at £2, 5s., the following results in cubic yards as to
bushels of gravel, which, in swelling, gave 8
the depth , and in square yards as to the surface ,
concrete was run into moulds, in which it soon
drained for one penny, at the above mentioned prices , depths, and distances, will be obtained :-
set firm enough to be placed on boards, and the tiles became in a short time, according to the state of the air, in a sufficiently indurated state
Depth Distan ce be tween the
of the
drains in feet . 2 3
drains in feet .
24 33 } 50
Mass of soil drained per acre in cubic yards.
32264 4840 6153
Mass of soil drained for
ld. per cubic
Surface of soil drained for
ld . in square
yard . 4.1 8.93 12.00
yards.
6.27 8.93 8.96
The results are, generally, that double the depth of drain has effect on about three times the cubi. cal contents of the earth, and about half more in extent of surface ; and, particularly, that 3 and
bushels of concrete that made 120 tiles.
The
to be used. One man , aided by perhaps 4 others
to supply the materials, could make 5000 tiles a -day. When the quantity of boarding is taken into consideration, I have great doubts of this process affording a cheap tile ; at all events, it
can only be made in those localities where sharp sand and gravel are found in abundance- sub stances which cannot be carried to a distance but at great expense.
4 feet drains in depth dry about the same extent
of surface, though the 4 feet drain dries one- half more of the ground in cubical contents.*
5938. Drainage has an unexpected effect upon the organic as well as the mineral matter of peat. The proportion of humic, ulmic, and other
alkali, and of resin 5936. The late Mr Smith recommended that, soluble acids taken up bydrained undrained and
“ in cases where time or capital are awanting to
extracted by alcohol from
complete the drainage at once, each alternate drain may be executed in the first instance, and
dried at 212° Fahrenheit, were as fol peat, low s:
the remainder can be done the next time the
field is to be broken up.” + I would meet this recommendation in the words of the late Mr Stirling of Glenbervie, that “ I think it a great error to make at first the half the number of drains required , with the intention of putting one between each at a future period . Let what
Wax and resin ,
Drained . 1.75
Ondrained . 1.63 14.62
Humic and ulmic acids, 6.56 Humic , and insoluble undecayed vegetable matter , 78.18 13.51 Earthy matter , or ash ,
36.60
100.00
100.00
is drained be done as thoroughly as the farmer's
* Journal of the Agricultural Society of England , vol . v. p. 154-6. + Smith's Remarks on Thorough -Draining, p . 17, 4th edition.
# Prize Essays of the Ilighland and Agricultural Society, vol. xii . p. 102.
47.15
649
DRAINING .
“ The difference which the above numbers show to take away a very small quantity of alkaline to exist between these two peats is sufficiently salts. Even in the case referred to above, where striking,” observes Professor Johnston ; " and it the solid matter amounted to 12 per cent, the would be both theoretically and practically inte- surface-water contained 2 per cent of potash and resting, were we certain that it prevailed gene- soda, while the drainage-water only indicated a rally between drained and undrained. peats, and tracing - showing that the subsoil had either been was not owing merely to specific or local causes. clayey, or that drainage -water does not take In the undrained peat there are 144 per cent of away the soluble ingredients of the soil in so acid matter - of those black acids which are large a quantity as might be apprehended. formed naturally by decaying vegetable matter Were drains perfectly made, so as the water - which dissolves in caustic potash and soda,
should go through them in a slow manner, the
and in the carbonate of these alkalis. But as the
spoils it would be able to carry away from the soil would be of very small amount.*
peat contains 365 per cent of mineral matter, the organic part contains 14.62 parts in 633 , or 33 per cent. In other words, one-third of the vegetable matter of the undrained peat is in a state of humic and ulmic acids. The drained, again, contain 6.56 parts of these acids in 100 of the natural peat, or in 86.49 parts of its purely vegetable portion. This is equivalent to 7.5 parts in 100 of the organic matter ; or, instead of }, the acid substances in the drained peat form only 15th of its organic portion. Supposing such
5940. It would be as desirable to ascertain
the quantity, as well as the quality, of the water
discharged by drains at any given time. Mr Milne, of Milne-Graden in Berwickshire, has con
trived a machine by which the discharge may be measured accurately enough for all practical purposes, of which fig. 543 is a view in section, Fig. 543.
a difference to be general, it indicates that the effect of removing the water by means of drains, and admitting the air, is to render the organic
to change the humic part of the peat insoluble, orble d r and ulmic acids into insolu
matte
devoi
of
acid properties. This change is by no means an improbable one, and is consistent with the pre vious observations of Sprengel as to the alteration which the acids of peat undergo by exposure to the air. It is this acid matter in peat which
6
preserves wood, the bodies of animals, and other substances embedded in it, from decay, and
which proves noxious to the roots of plants. One of the immediate benefits resulting from the action of lime, when applied to peaty soils, is
e
g
9
owing to its combining with these acids, and thus depriving them of their injurious action up on the crop sown or planted on peaty soils. If it be made clearly out, by further researches, that the usual effect of draining upon such soils is to change this acid matter, to deprive it of its
• acidity, and thus render it insoluble and unhurtfal to plants, a very considerable light will be
A DRAIN-WATER METER .
where a is the drain -mouth which supplies the water ; b the vessel which receives the water ; o
an upright spindle, which carries a rack that sets in motion a series of graduated wheels and
racks which mark the tenths, hundredths, and
thrown upon this important point of the manage-
thousandths of gallons discharged in a specified time. When the vessel b becomes full of water ,
ment and amelioration of our wet and boggy
it descends towards the bottom of the box in which it is placed, by turning upon the axle d,
land of every kind.” *
in doing which it moves the ratchet -wheele on
5939. A drawback against the advantages of the spindle c by means of a short lever, and dis draining may be founded on the quantity of mat- charges its water by the opening at g. When one
ter, whether chemically dissolved or mechanic halfof the vessel b descends and empties its water, ally suspended, which the water takes out with it in its passage through the soil by the drains.
the other half, f, ascends to receive the water
After a large fall of rain, recent experiments have detected as much as 12 per cent of solid matter that had been carried off by drainage
descends again to its own side of the box, and empties its water by another opening g.
water , while spring-water contains about 8, and filtered water only 4 , per cent . It is very pro
from the drain -mouth a, and , after being filled ,
5941. Mr Milne placed a meter at the mouth of a main drain in connection with a system of
bable that, through loose subsoil, a large fall of drains of different depths, draining each 6 acres rain may carry with it a considerable proportion of earthy matter held in suspension, and a small proportion of saline matters ; but in clay soils we have reason to believe, from the experiments
of Professor Way, (5116,) thatrain -water is able
of ground ; and after the meters had remained
from June 1848 to April 1849, the following re sults were obtained : Gallons per acre,
At 3 feet deep and 15 feet distance, 31
30
* Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, March 1848, p. 237. + Scottish Farmer, 1850.
35,711
46,510
REALISATION .
650
It appears that rather more water had been dis- 15 per cent. The tenant, therefore, should re charged from the 31 feet deep than the 3 feet deep drains, though the latter were twice as numerous
ceive at least 18 per cent for his disbursements,
as the former.
most 8 per cent for his. For, as regards the tenant, the 19 years is the longest period he can calculate upon to receive back his money, and his case is not made better though the lease should be renewed, as new conditions will be made as if he were a stranger — which are good reasons for his receiving 18 per cent on his out. lay. But when a landlord effects improvements,
In the parts of the field drained
while the landlord should be satisfied with at
by the 3 feet drains, more water was left in the land, or went off by evaporation, and there was also less depth of soil to the drains. There was more strawgrown on the land drained with the 3 feet drains, and most grain on that drained by the 31 feet drains. The grain grown on the latter was probably produced with greater dryness and warmth, as the larger quantity of rainthey carried off would impart to the soil a greater amount
period ; and all he can expect in return is the
The subsoil was pretty uniformly re-
common rate of interest he would receive were
tentive throughout the field , and the upper soil
he to invest his money in any ordinary security,
of heat.
he derives benefit from them for an indefinite
was not perceptibly more open in one part than and which seldom exceeds 5 percent. So that in another. So far, therefore, as these experi- to induce him to undertake any trouble greater ments had proceeded , they showed that, if drains than receiving an annual payment of interest, were made 34 feet deep, only half the number some greater temptation than the ordinary rate will produce the same, and even a still better of interest should be proffered to him ; and effect, than 3 feet drains. The expense mak- although the farm to be drained is his own pro
ing the 3f feet deep drains,at 30 feet distance, perty, he cannot be expectedto give himself the was £4 , 6s. 4d. per acre, and of the 3 feet deep
trouble to borrow money and pay the ordinary
ones, at 15 feet apart, £ 8, 12s. 4 d . per acre.
interest for it, or lay out his own money and receive in return no more than common interest .
5942.From the careful experiments conducted
The interest of money fluctuating from 34 to 5 per
by Mr Dickenson, the eminent paper -maker, at Abbot's Hall, near King's Langley, Hertford-
cent, there is therefore nothing unreasonable in his receiving a greater rate than the ordinary one for the time being.
shire, the average quantity of rain which falls there
annually is 26.6 inches, more than the average fall on the east coast of Scotland , and 42% per
cent of it is filtered through the soil, amounting to 11.17 of the 26.6 inches.
5946. Now , what is the conclusion that should be drawn from these premises ? Clearly that the landlord should undertake the entire expense
of draining upon himself ; because his interest in
5943. At one time it was a rather difficult the improvement is permanent — he has the matter to settle the proportion of the cost which the landlord and the tenant should each pay
strongest motives for executing it — his demands upon the land are moderate , amounting only to
the usual rate of interest - and in disbursing a expense. On cogitating on the subject, I came portion of his capital, a smaller portion of the
when draining was executed at their mutual
to the following conclusions :-Suppose a landlord determines on thorough -draining a farm , takes it into his own hands, and disburses every
capital of the country is placed in jeopardy than when the tenant undertakes to disburse the whole expense.
cost attending the operation . When his pur pose has been attained , it is no more than reasonable in him to desire to receive back his disbursements, principal and interest , during the 19 years he is about to dispose of his farm to a
5947. In the preceding suppositions, either the landlord or the tenant is supposed to undertake the entire drainage ; but when a mutual under standing exists betwixt them , its conditions tenant ; for if the farm will not repay the ex- should be based on the principle, that both parties pense of its improvement in the reasonable period should receive their respective rates of interest, of 19 years, little advantage will be derived namely , the landlord his 8 and the tenant his 18 from it. Now , a landlord will receive back all per cent; nor should the tenant grudge his land his disbursements, principal and interest, in a 19 lord his 8 per cent , or the landlord exact a greater years' lease , at 8 per cent on the money ex- rent than will enable the farm to repay the tenant , pended . with ordinary skill, 18 per cent ; and although both these rates are charged upon the land, they
5944. Suppose, again , a tenant disbursed all will not amount to a large annual exaction upon the expense, he would be equally reasonable in it. For example, suppose four- fifths, or £80 out expecting 8 per cent on his outlay during the of every £ 100,are expended by the landlord - and lease . some landlords have willingly expended this pro portion - he should receive £6, 8s. a - year as his
5945. But the positions of landlordand tenant, 8 per cent ; and the tenant, to receive18 per cent on expending the same sum in draining a farm , The tenant is not only entitled to receive the 8 per cent — that is, get back all his outlay — but he is also entitled to a
on his fifth , or £20, should have £ 3, 12s. a -year,
are widely different.
both sums together making 10 per cent on the whole outlay ; which, if exacted as an annual tribute from the land, would only amount to 4s.
profit for his personal trouble in undertaking the
an acre on land worth 40s.-- a sum, it is obvious,
draining ; which profit should be the same as commercial people generally expect on their out lays, which is now 10 per cent, and used to be
which its thorough-drainage would easily repay. 5948. This question between landlord and
IMPROVING WASTE LAND .
651
tenant has been much simplified by the termsof cuted, but much time lost in remedying failures.
the Drainage Act, which einpowers_ parties desirous of draining land to applyto the Treasury for a grantof money adequate to do work, for which 6 per cent interest is payable for 22 years, when the entire debt is liquidated. The
5951. Independently of tree - roots and numerous stones, the roots of brushwood
practice has settled down tothe landlord giving such as of hazel, alder, birch, broom , and the Treasury the security on his land for the repayment of the loan, while the tenant pays pays the the 64 per cent. Few farmers refuse to pay the per
centage, though others conceive it is too much for a tenant to pay.
whin - render ploughing difficult and little satisfactory. I havetried the plough
ing of whinny ground, intermixed with
If he pays the 6 per bushes of birch, with a four -borse plough,
cent for 19 years, the term of his lease, the and been glad to relinquish the work , on tenant has thorough nothing -drained to complain ; for, the farm been whenof he tookhadit,he
seeing the horses stopped every few
would have had to pay more rent for it than the
minutes with sudden jerks, while the
64 per cent would be ; but if he be bound to ground was deeply turned over in many
pay the whole amount of the percentage of the places, whilst inothers it was only scratch 22 yearsin 19 years — which some landlords exacted with the points of the coulter and sock . Employed in such work, the windoftwo
-then in he 19 is in a hardship ; for when lease expires years, the landlord relets the the farm
for other 19 years at the advanced rent of valuable borses of my own was completely thorough-drainedland,while he hasonly to pay destroyed. the 64 per cent for three years.
5952. When the ground is compara tively free of roots of all kinds, and of ON IMPROVING WASTE LAND .
stones in the subsoil, it may be turned over with the plough in all places where
5949. Where the surface of the ground it is practicable, and in the other parts, that has been drained is waste, it may require to be brought into cultivation by other means thanthe plough. When the gronnd consists of thesiteof an old plantation, it is impossible to bring it under the plough but by trenching it with the
however isolated, the spade should be em ployed to trench the ground, which will therewith be turned over at a compara tively small cost.
spade. The smallestroot forms an inextricable obstacle to the plough ; and the destruction in implements, injury to horses, and the time spent in removing the ob-
has been drained froma swamp, contain ing the roots of sub-aquatic plants, as rushes and others, should be ploughed with the four-horse plough - the only ob
5953. Very rough grassy ground that
structions, cause more waste of money and stacle likely to occur being the choking of time than trenching with the spade.
the beam in front of the coulter with tufts
of the grass, which should either be re
5950. In like manner, when it has been moved with the plough -staff, fig. 5, by a
ascertained, by the sinking of pits, that person walking beside the plough; or, what the subsoil contains a large quantity of is better, the grass should have been mown
stones, ofwhateversize, thoughthe ground with the scythe before theploughing com bas not been the site of a plantation, it menced .
The furrow of the four-horse
should be trenched in preference to being plough will be both deep and broad, and ploughed. In ploughing stony ground, though free of other obstructions, the plough meets such opposition from large stones as constantly to stop its progress; and the shock not only endangers the im-
will become much mellowed by exposure to the frost of the ensuing winter. It should not be turned over too early in summer or autumn, to afford time to the grass to con nect the edges of furrow -slices together.
plement, but injures the shoulders of the horses so much as, when frequently so
5954. Smooth grassy land that has lain stopped, they become timid whenever put comparatively in a waste state in conse to similar work ; and even where the nume- quence of inundations of water in winter,
rous stones are small, the plough cannot but is now protected by an embankment,
maintain its hold of the ground, and is (5744,) should be ploughed at once ; and easily and frequently thrown out, so that an ebb and broad furrow - slice should be the ploughing is not only imperfectly exe- well laid over to assist in rotting the grass.
652
REALISATION .
5955. Deep moss that has recently been overplus, “ consumption dykes, " as they are drained cannot at first be ploughed, and called, several feet in height and breadth, must therefore be dug with the spade. The are erected in lien of fences. As many
surface of such ground is often very rongh ; as 800 tons have been trenched out of and the turf, when dried, becomes very an acre in that county. In the southern
tough and difficult to reduce into mould. parts of the county ofAntrim , in Ireland, Deep digging isabsolutely necessary where I have seen large quantities of small trap the surface turf is very rough, in order to boulders trenched out of the subsoil. bury it for decomposition.
5958. On improving waste land that
5956. In trenching the site of an old bad been the site of aplantation, or very plantation, the ground should be marked stony ground, it should be trenched before out in divisions of 30 feet in breadth ; being drained ,because the cost of draining, and 3 men working together will do in such cases, would be very much increased more and better work than when working were it done before the obstructions from alone, as the one assists the others when roots and stones were removed. Where the
extracting the roots of the trees. No im- stones are numerous enough to drain the. plement is so efficient in cutting the land, it will be cheaper to break and use
ramified roots of a tree than the common them for that purpose, than to take them mattock, fig. 544, which on one arm has away and purchase tiles in their stead. Fig. 544.
a horizontal cutting face, and on the other a vertical one.
5959. The ordinary trenching ofground It is with the spade has been described in
used like a band- (3148) to (3150.) Fork -trenching, which
T
pick, fig. 452 ; and is always accompanied with spade-trench one or both cutting ing, has also been fully described from faces are required (3151 ) to (3155.) alternately
to
cut
through a strong An axe would soon be blunted by the earth necessarily A MATTOCK . adhering to the sinaller roots, though a large thick root is easier cut through with an axe than a mattock - care being first taken to wipe off the earth from the part of the root to be operated upon by the axe. All the roots, great and small, should be laid upon the surface of the trenched ground be-
5960. The expense of trenching rough ground 16 inches deep - and it should never be shallower to insure a good plough furrow ever afterwards — is from 10d. to 1s. per pole, according to the roughness of the ground. I have had very rough ground, consisting of the large roots of a scattered wood, with brushwood of birch, alder, wbin, and broom , and con taining as many stones as would have half - drained the ground, trenched 16
inches deep for £ 6, 138. 3d. per acre,
hind the workmen, and the hollows left which is practically 10d. per pole for the by them in the ground filled up, and the spade work alone - a large sum, undoubt surface levelled. edly, independent of draining, clearing away rubbish , and incurring other horse 5957. In trenching very stony ground, and manual labour. But when the ground the foot-pick, fig. 247, is the most efficient was rendered at once from a state of wil implement for loosening them out of the derness to be fit for the manure being
subsoil, (3149.) The iron lever will be applied and covered in with an ordinary required to raise what cannot be effected plough -furrow of mould, the expense was
by the foot-pick ; and the largest boulders not inordinate. Though trenching may
of all will require to be blown to pieces by not be the cheapest mode, in a pecuniary gunpowder, with more shots perhaps than point of view, of rendering land available one. The stones should be laid upon the to the plough, it is, at all events, the most trenched ground. In many parts of Kin- pleasant and satisfactory one for every cardineshire, the stones are so numerous subsequent operation. in the subsoil as not only to afford as many as to drain the land, but, to get quit of the
5961. Trenching may be executed at
IMPROVING WASTE LAND.
653
any season ; but to allow time for subse- the late Mr James Carmichael, Raploch quent operations, it is best and most farm , near Stirling : “ In winter, plough
pleasantly done in the long dry warm ing the land intended to be levelled and days of summer, and should be finished straightened in the succeeding summer, by early autumn. The contractor should the plough was entered in the side of the be bound to spend as much of his time ridge, exactly in the middle between the
amongst the workmen as possible, taking crown and the open -furrow ; and thus one perhaps a lot to himself if he find leisure; fourth of the ridge was gathered up ( 749,) and the farmer should have a person to from the open-furrow on each side of the
superintend the work in the progress of ridge, while the open - furrow was left as
execution, as some of the men will endea- open and deep as possible. The remaining half of the ridge was then cloven down, as high as it ought to be, although the without gore-furrows (767,) the crown
vour to make the trenched ground seem
solid ground may not have been dug to being laid completely bare, so that every the depth it should have been. It will be ridge was divided into two. The work the farmer's own fault in superintendence thus remained high and dry during the if the work be ill executed. winter. In May or June following, the plough gathered up about two feet oneach 5962. If turf is desired for any purpose,
side of the crown of the ridge of the
waste land, when about to be improved, exposed subsoil, which was about 5 feet in affords a favourable opportunity for sup- breadth. After this it was ploughed into
plying it. Good tough turf is not easy to drills, and removed , either by shovels or be obtained, and is at all times an expen- with a 2 -borse levelling-box, into the deep A man will cast from 4 to 6 open furrows. The plough was again cart-loads of one ton eachperday, accord- employedto make drills in the crown,and ing to the smoothness and softness of the the subsoil removed into the open - furrows;
sive article.
ground. The usual thickness of turf is and the same operation was repeated until about 3 inches, when one square yard will the open - furrows were raised apparently weigh 54 lbs., one ton willcover 4i4 square above the level of the crowns. This being
yards, or 14 roods of 6 yards, with turfs of done, part of the formerly accumulated 12 by 18 inches . In the country the soil on the sides of the ridges was cloven
carriage is the heaviest charge against down by the plough upon the recently turf ; and in towns it cost from 8s. to 20s. removed subsoil in the open -furrows, on per ton, according to quality. the one hand, and upon the bared crowns on the other hand. The land was then
5963. In the improvement of waste cross-harrowed , and twice cross -ploughed land, it is desirable to have its surface as and barrowed alternately as deep as pos
even as practicable, by the removal of sible, and every inequality removed before sudden hollows and heights. No hollow the ridges were re- formed straight. The
should be filled up without a drain being whole process is exceedingly simple, and previously made in it, to take away the its advantages are perfectly obvious; for water that will naturally tend towards it ; while every particle of the original surface
and no height should be lowered without is thus carefully preserved, the subsoil is first having the upper soil removed and so sparingly and equally incorporatedwith
then replaced upon the lowered ground. it, that not a doubt can remain of the Taking off and putting back the ordinary beneficial result of the operation. Where
soil of a field costs 4d. per cubic yard the ridges have been very broad and high, for each operation .
it will be found necessary to remove part of the subsoil from the sides of the ridges
5964. In levelling high gathered -up also after the crown has been refilled , crooked ridges in clay soil, much precau- particularly when the subsoil is tilly ; but
tion is requisite, because the soil, exposed this is easily performed by 2 or 3 women after the lowering of the ridges, will take or boys going after the plough, and throw a considerable
time to be brought into a ing the remains oftill turned up into the state offertility. A mode, however,oflevel- furrows; or, should the ridges be too
ling such ridges in drained land, to avoid broad for this, the levelling-box will effect this inconvenience, was thus described by the purpose .”
REALISATION .
654
5965. The labour attending this operation will depend on circumstances, such as the breadth and crookedness of the ridges, and the strength of the clay soil.
surface, minor ones require emendation, the neglect of which renders the surface of improved_arable land unpleasant to the sight. The inequalities i allude to
In dry weather, the operation will be more expeditiously and better done than in wet, the soil being rendered light by the heat of the sun ; and in changeable weather no more subsoil should be ploughed than can be removed during the course of the day.*
are slight hollows, low heights running across several ridges, making one side or part of a ridge higher than the other, or part of the headridge higher than the ridges, and such like blemishes. The best and most economical method of
getting quit of them is by the employment
5966. Besides larger inequalities of of the levelling -box, fig. 545, which, Fig. 545.
THE LEVELLING - BOX , OR SCOOP .
according to the nature of the soil to be for being held in the hands of the con The draught-chains, with their
removed , and the distance to be carried,
ductor.
may be worked by one or two borses. The figure represents one of the latter kind, furnished with fixed handles and draught-chains. The two sides b a, b a, having the same depth where they join
stretcher d, are attached to an eye-bolt or a staple on either side of the scoop. The levelling-scoop is freqnently fitted up in a manner somewhat different in the mode
ofattaching the handles. A strong gudgeon
the back , are curvedoff to nothing at the is fixed in each side at the place of attach front. It is requisite for strength that it ment of the chains ; and the terminations
of the chains being an eye- bolt or link, it willow, from its toughness and lightness, is passed upon the gudgeon. The handles, is perhaps better adapted than any other in place of being fixed to the sides, have
be made of hard wood ; but the common wood for this purpose.
The sole of the
aneye formed in their end and strengthened
scoop is armed with a strong shoeing of with iron, which passes also upon the
iron,terminating in a sharp cutting edge. gudgeon,and are held there by a washer Two skeds or bolsters, are fixed on the and cotrel. A second pair of gudgeons lower side of the sole, thinned off forward are strongly fixed, one upon each corner to give facility of entrance in the soil to of the box at the back, in a position that
the cutting-edge of the scoop, and upon will pass through the handles when they which it runs like a sledge when filled . are at a proper height. The handles are All the corners are strongly bound with here also pierced and defended with iron, iron plates, and the skeds upon which it so as to slide freely off and on upon these runs are covered with strong sheet or hoop second gudgeons, and their extremities iron . The bandles, b c, b c, are bolted to brought as before to a convenient width . the sides, and so fitted as to bring the extremities, c c, to a convenient distance
5967. The method of using the level
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. ix. p. 37-9.
IMPROVING WASTE LAND .
655
the horses for this purpose necessarily ling- box or scoop is after the plough is of first made to turn over the soil lightly on loses much time. An active stout man is the height to be removed, the levelling- required to work either form of levelling box, worked by a pair of horses, then box as it ought to be done.
follows, and takes up, from one end of the ploughed ground, as much soil as it can
5968. Land so drained and trenched
contain , theconductor holding by the stilts and which operations may be continued or handles. The box is filled by the con- during the winter and early spring — should ductor allowing the handles to rise asmuch bear, for its first crop, potatoes or turnips ;
as that the edge a a of the sole shall bite and of these I would prefer the turnips, the ground ; and on these being drawn for- because they, being eaten off by sheep, ward by the horses, the box is filled to will at once put the drained land into a any extent, when by the handles being state of comparative fertility. Oats are a pressed down the front edge is relieved favourite crop, for the first one, with im
from the ground, and the machine travels provers of soil, because it assists in rotting upon its skeds. On arriving at the hollow place to be filled up, the box is made by the conductor to capsize by raisingup the handles, which gets quitof theload of earth; and whenever it is emptied, he levels the earth smooth by passing the box over it.
turf quicker than green crops ; and where grasshas been ploughed, it is the best first crop that can be taken. It is out of the question to attempt winter wheat upon newly brought in soil, in a loosened state, at so late a period of the year, even though
Of the two sorts of levelling -boxes, the a sufficient quantity of manure should be handy. °It is easily filled by raising the pulverised by spring to insure success in
one in fig. 545 is, in my opinion, the most at hand. The soil cannot be sufficiently
handles a little, and giving the scoop barley
Oats do not succeed well on
a catch of the mould. It is as easily trenched ground, their pabulum, the turf, transported to its destined spot, by lean- being buried in the trench. Let it be de ing on the handles, which causes the box cided, then, that turnips are the most to travel on its keel. It is as easily upset, advisable crop under the circumstances.
when arrived at its destined place, by Shouldthe draininghave been accomplished raising the handles a little, when the at a previous period, or early in winter, ground catches the sharp edge and over- to preserve the surface of the land dry, turns the box, the handles striking against the ground should be feered and gathered and resting upon the stretcher d. The box up from the flat, (749, ) with a very light
is returned to its working position upon furrow , the hint-end furrowsneatly cleared its bottom immediately, or it may move out, and gawcuts made in all the hollows,
along upon its mouth, smoothing the sur- and across the lower head -ridge into the ditch ; in which state the face till it reaches the ploughed soil, when, adjoining open by a sudden pull of a rope attached to one land will remain safe all winter until of the handles, it regains its working posi- spring arrive, when it should receive a
tion. In all these movements the horses are not stopped, but proceed from one place to another as directed, while the box is filling and emptying in constant succesThe box having the movable sion . handles, is worked rather differently.
harrowing, after which it will be ready to be formed intodrills, dunged,and sown with turnip seed, as fully described for turnip husbandry, in (3204.) It has been observed that, wbere whins had grown,the turnips are better than after any other natural shrub.
When the bandles are let free of the gud
geons by the conductor, the box easily
5969. It is imagined by some that, where
capsizes ; but unless the horsesare stopped, land is thorough -drained, itis unnecessary there is difficulty in shipping the handles and even injurious to put it into ridges, again quickly upon the gudgeons - which, but rather to have it in a continuous
ifnot quickly done, when the box regains flatwithont an open furrow . The object again bites the ground, and capsizes the allow the rain to percolate through it
its working position, by itself, the edge of keeping land in the flat state is to
empty box again ; which will thus continue alike everywhere into the drains. What to be overturned until the handles are particular advantage the soil can derive
fastened on the gudgeons. The stopping by the uniform percolation of the rain
REALISATION .
656
through its surface I cannot well con- the piece of work appropriated to him over ceive, since the water must leave the twoor four ridges that the work appears
soil soonest where the drains are nearest, distinctive, and each man’s distinctive and thereforeno form of surface can pos- style of work is not obliterated by any sibly cause all the water to leave the soil one following him.
at the same time. The division of the surface into ridges marks it usefully for the distribution of seed and labour; and when labour of whatever kind is bestowed on ridges, appropriated to different labourers, each responsible for the work be does, the work of each is distinguishable from the rest ; whereas, were the
But the common
plough cannot plough the surface without leaving open furrows, and were the attempt made, one open furrow at least must be left either on each side or in the centre of the field ; and in either case, the ploughs must have lostmuch time in going idly from one side of the field to the other. But although the common plough could lay the
ground not laidout into ridges, the ploughs land flat without an open furrow , strong must either follow one another round the land should never be laid flat on any circumference, or one plough be left to do all the work of each field .
account.
Where
5970. The only implement which can
ploughs follow one another, the work
is invariably ill done, one furrow being turn over the furrows in one direction is the broader or deeper than another - it being turn -wristplough : the one invented by the well known that no two ploughmen turn late Mr Wilkie,Uddingston, is represented over the ground exactly in the same in perspective in fig. 546. It has twomould It is because each man executes boardsdd,whose inside faces are attached
manner .
Fig. 546.
WILKIE'S TURN- WRIST PLOUGH .
together by means of two iron bars bb,so as when one mould - board is in operation the other is elevated in the air. These bars are attached at right angles to an iron spindle a, which at one end c is seated in a plummer block, and furnished with a crank -handle, and at the other terminates in the coulterbox e. To the crank-handle c is attached
over to the right hand ; and on coming to the land's end, the other mould - board is brought down on the left hand side of the plough, and by it the furrow -slice is turned over to the left hand—which is still placed in the same direction as when the plough ing was turning over the furrow -slice to the right hand, in moving in the opposite
a spring which falls into a notch on each side of a semi-circle, as the spindle a is turned round to place either mould -board in its position for ploughing; and while
direction. The ploughman requires some practice to become acquainted with the working of this plough, as he does not at first feel at home when the furrow -slice is
doing this it also acts upon the head of the turning over to the left hand . coulter so as to cause its pointto stand over the point of the sock which in this imple5971. It is known that, in ploughing ment is attached to the mould -board in- steep land with the common plough, the stead of the head . This plough acts in soil has always a tendency to come down
the same manner as the common plough, the incline. The turn -wrist plough, laying when the mould-board is set as seen in all the furrows in the same direction ,
the figure, the furrow -slice being turned might be usefully employed in turning the
SUBSOILING .
furrow -slice up the inclination, which, on repetition, would have the effect of retaining the soil
657
5975. The composition of the tussac grass is as follows: RECENT STATE. DRIAD AT 230 °. Lower Upper Lower Upper part. part . part. part .
upon it.
5972. Peaty soil on the sea -shore has been re commended to be planted with the tussac grass, Dactylis cæspitosa. “ This remarkable grass is perennial, and forms, with its densely -matted roots, crowded but isolated hillocks, or tumuli, 3 to 6 feet in height, and 3 or 4 feet in diameter, from which the leaves and stems spring.
Roots
fibrous, the fibres very tortuous ; stems or culms
Protein compounds, Other
nutritious
substances
insoluble in water, but ex tracted by potash , Woody fibre, (cellulose with a little albumen , Saline matter , ( ash ,)
3.07
1.30
86.09
75.27
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
5976. Its ash affords these proportions of in
gredients :
land Islands, and is much relished by cattle and horses . *
5973. Its cultivation has been attempted in the
Chloride of sodium ,
12.21 36.01 14.34 14.16 4.42 0.41
Chloride of potassium , Sulphate of potash , Carbonate of potash , Carbonate of lime, Carbonate of magnesia ,
Island of Lews by Mr Matheson, and by Mr
Phosphate of magnesia, and a little phos
Traill at Woodwick, Island of Ronsay, Orkney.
phate of lime, Phosphate of iron, Silica,
At Lewis it succeeded only at Holm, in 1844, in
}
Percentage of ash ,
Nursery. 2.62 17.29 12.69 17.98 14.37 5.84
14.74
12.96
1.64 3.09
11.84
101.02
99.74
6.29
7.79
101.02
deep brown moss of medium dryness, close to the sea, and on being delved over was cut in small
pieces with the spade, and the seeds of the tussac grass were then sprinkled in and roughly
From Mr Lawson's
From Lews.
whom the merit is due of its introduction into
Europe. It abounds on the shores of the Falk
9.20 18.63
* } 5.68 11.86 40.88 47.94 8.23 1.37 1.14 5.12
Water ,
numerous, rising from the hillocks erect, branch
ed, 3 or 4 feet long, smooth, compressed, leafy, and pale yellow, abounding in saccharine matter, and, when young, esculenteven for men . ” It was observed in 1842 by Dr J. D. Hooker growing luxuriantly on peaty seaward exposures, and to
4.79 17.81 19.38 3.64 23.88 8.93
2.47
;} 3.32 matter , extracted by water,
4.15
covered with a rake, and trampled in with the
The proportions of alkaline salts in both is very foot. Its stools in the second year were almost large ; in this they agree with turnip. with The as strong as those in its third, and it shedits proportion of phosphates is smallthecompared seed in both years. In the spring of 1847, three grass ; in this they resemble turnips and fruits. acres of the same moss, which had been drained The quantity of silica is small for a grass. The with three feet deep drains at twenty feet apart,
of the two specimens are consider with shoulder and wedge drains, were dug 12 differences able; the Lews gives more alkalis and chlorides, inches deep ; and after it was brokenwith a hoe, and lesslime andsilica, than Mr Lawson's, which sprinkling and a of guano applied, single plants mighthavebeen expected from the difference of
of the tussac grass were dibbled in at 3 feet 4 inches apart. The plant was succulent, with
locality.t
broad green leaves, and three feet long, the second as well as the third year, and many of the
stools when planted out were found to have 500 plants. The moss should be dug in January, and the plants set in February, March, and April, with a slight spreading of moss thrown over them toprevent the sun drying the moss too are too late for their much, and May and June are Sea -ware spread on the surface
transplantation.
keeps the leaf greener, and the peat safer ; and the plants must not be more than a quarter of a mile from the sea, to receive its spray.
ON TRENCH AND SUBSOIL PLOUGHING.
5977. Since the general draining of the soil received the assent of the agricul
tural community, deep ploughing has pre sented itself to the attention of the farmer in a favourable light. It was at once
imagined, that, if the soil were stirred to
a greater depth than the common plough 5974. The nutritive matter contained in tussac reached, the drains would operate to dry grass is as follows :
the land sooner and more effectually. In
Analysed Analysed by Dr Voelcker, Sept. 1847 . by Dr Fromberg , Lower part .
Upper part .
Whole plant,
45.50 9.40
86.09 4.34
75.27 3.64
80.68 3.99
17.24
31.17
14.72
22.94
Sept. 1846 .
100 parts of the grass. Water,
Watery extract,
100 parts dried at212°. Watery extract,
this opinion , I conceive, is involved an erroneous view of the effects of deep ploughing. Stirring the ground to a greater depth would make the rain that fell on its surface to descend more quickly to that depth ; but the accumulation of
* Lawson On the Cultivated Grasses, p. 18.
+ Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, March 1848, p. 247-50. VOL. II .
2 T
658
REALISATION .
water there would not cause the drains to dry the land the sooner, unless the ploughing had been as deep as the depth of the drains, which is impracticable: they would therefore only carry off the water that came to them, and no more would reach them in the course of the year than the ordinary proportion of the rain that
more or less of the subsoil with the active soil of the surface. 5980. The subsoil-plough, which was first tried as a modern invention , was the one produced by the late Mr Smith of Deanston in 1829. It was an implement of the great weight of 5 cwt. Recent
annually falls, which is just the same improvements upon it, and particularly after the land had been deep -ploughed as those effected by Mr Slight of Edinburgh, it was before. Deep-ploughing, therefore, reduced its weight to from 2 to 3 cwt.
has another and higher object than to As other subsoil- ploughs of recent intro duction have superseded it, it is unneces sary to do more than give its form in fig. 5978. The great object of deep -plough- 547, drawn by four horses. ing ought to be to increase the depth and pulverise the soil toa finer state, in order 5981. The effect of subsoil -ploughing
convey water more quickly to drains.
to give the plants cultivated a larger range with Smith's plough, being merely to stir for their roots to search for natural, in addition to the artificial food supplied them ; and, in my opinion, the pulverisa-, tion will be better and easier effected by the deep - ploughing, after the drains have rendered the land as dry as theycan, than before that event has taken place. So far, therefore,ought deep-ploughing to be made an auxiliary to drains. As a duct for
the subsoil without affecting its relative position with the upper soil, the best way of performing the operation is, as I con ceive, in the following manner ; and it may be executed either in winter or in summer, according as it is made to form a part of the spring or summer's operations. It is best executed across the ridges : let, therefore , a feering of 30 yards in width
the conveyance of water, it ought to be be opened across them with the common deferred until the drains have performed plough along the upper fence of thefield their legitimate office of drying the land, -and parallel and close to it, if it be
when deep -plonghing will come in with straight - and another at 30 paces distant, powerful effect to deepen and pulverise the subsoil-plough following in both the it into a state in which it will continue
open feerings, with 4 horses — one man
for a considerable time thereafter. To holding it while the horses are driven by attempt to pulverise soil, before it has another. The common plough then closes been thoroughly dried by draining, is to the feerings, and ploughs from one feering begin at the wrong end of the process. to another until the open furrow is formed in the middle of the feering, followed im
5979. Various forms of implements have plicitly allthe time by the subsoil-plough . soil as to stir the subsoil effectually, and ploughed with the common plough, fol they have obtained the name of subsoil lowed by the subsoil, until the whole and trench ploughs, according as they field is gone over, with the exception been devised to descend as far into the Feering after feering is thus made and
affect the subsoil. The subsoil-ploughs
of rather more than the breadth of a
stir the subsoil lying under the active soil, ridge at each side of the field , upon without affecting their relative positions, which the horses had turned. Fig. 547 whereas the trench - ploughs commingle gives a representation of this mode of Fig. 547.
THE MODE OF ORDINARY SUBSOIL - PLOUGHING .
SUBSOILING .
659
subsoil -ploughing, where the ploughs and action in the subsoil uncertain, it is more
borses appear in black, and where the than probable that the surface which it common plough with 2 horses precedes leaves upon the plane on which its sole the subsoil one with 4. The depth taken moves is uneven, both in the direction of
by the common plough is the usual one of the length of the furrow , and in the rela 8 inches in stubble, which is seen as the tion which the sole of one furrow bears to
upper furrow , succeeded by the subsoilplough, which takes usually 8 inches more, and whose furrow is seen in section below that of the other plough , making both furrows 16 inches deep. Care should be
that of another. It is evident that, if its furrow -sole in its length is undulating, and that one furrow -sole, in its breadth, is higher and lower than the contiguous ones, the plane of the furrow - sole across the
takennot to bring the subsoil-plough with- ridges will be so irregular that the water, in 3 inches of the covering of any drain, otherwise the materials of the drain will be injured. The drains in the figure are supposed to be 36 inches deep, filled 12 inches with duct and small stones, and placed in every open furrow at 15 feet - the breadth
of the ridges. This figure is not meant to give the exactly relative proportions of the different objects composing it.
5982. The unsteady action of the Dean-
descending the inclination of the ground, will be interrupted in its progress to the drains. To give the plane of the sole a uniform depth, it is only necessary to in troduce wheels upon the beam , which will cause the sole- furrow to preserve a paral lelism with the furrow -sole left by the preceding common plough. This obvious means of steadying the action of the sub soil- plough was introduced into a subsoil plough invented by Mr Read, which is
ston subsoil-plough rendering it difficult represented infig. 548 as improved by Mr to hold, and the same cause rendering its Slight, and where the alteration will be Fig. 548.
b
READ'S SUBSOIL - PLOUGH .
observed to have converted the plough into in pairs on axles, are attached to shanks the form of a grubber. The implementcon- which pass through boxes in the beam , sists of a malleable iron beam , bf, to which
the same as the coulter -head in the com
at one end, f, are attached two handles, a, mon plough. The shank of the double in the same manner as those of the Dean- feathered share e is affixed in the same
ston subsoil-plough, in fig. 547. To the other end is welded an iron slot, b, placed perpendicularly, and punched with holes, into any one of which thebridle g may be fastened by means of a bolt and cotrel. The bridle g is winged to the land-side, in
manner as the wheels to the beam.
The
dotted line below c d shows the line of the furrow - sole made by the plough which preceded this implement in the work of subsoiling ; and it should never be less than 8 or 9 inches below the surface of
order that the two or four horses which the ground. The dotted line behind the are employed to draw the plough may share e shows its line of motion, and the walk upon the hard ground ; and to sus- distance between these lines is regulated
tain their lateral draught, one end of a by the depth given to the axles of chain is affixed to the extremity of the the wheels c and d below the beam bf, wing of the bridle carrying the draught- which may vary from 6 to 9 inches. The hook, and the other is attached to the beam resting on the two pairs of wheels
beam at h. The wheels d and c, coupled c and d , and the ploughman in the bottom
660
REALISATION .
of the furrow made by the preceding Read's subsoil- plough, that, while its use plough, with a hold of the handles a, ful form was retained, its action was afford so steady a motion to the share e altered from a simple subsoiler, which that it may be regarded as uniform , and merely stirs the subsoil, and leaves it
its work will be much better performed where it found it, to a trenching -subsoiler, than that by the Deanston subsoil-plough. which effects a mixture of the subsoil with the surface soil. The implement is repre 5983. In 1849, the Marquis of Tweeddale sented by fig. 549, by which it will be effected an important improvement on seen that the frame of the implement is Fig. 549.
b
THE TWEEDDALE SUBSOIL TRENCH- PLOUGH.
preserved exactly to Read's form , as im- of dimensions, that render the plough proved by Mr Slight, and the important capable of taking a furrow -slice 12 inches alteration is exhibited in the share and wide and 13 inches deep in the most its appendages. These consist of the share effective manner. This plough, named b c attached to a sbank a b, and produced the Tweeddale Plough, leaves a clean hindwards into the tail-board or elevator and flat -soled furrow ; but the furrow
d. The shank is a bar of the best scrap- slice taken by it, in place of being turned iron, and at bottom is forged with a club- over in an entire form , in the manner end, fitted to receive the attachment of effected by our fine-working ploughs, is the body of the share by welding or by only so far turned, and at the same time rivetting ; and to the hind part of the broken up, as serves to present the soil in
latter the tail -board is strongly fixed by the best possible state to the ameliorating effects of atmospheric influences. In this
bolts.
5984. The Tweeddale subsoil trench-
respect the plough seems to stand unri valled ; and since the extinction of the old
plough having a share 14 inches in width,
Scottish wooden plough, no implement has
a common plough is inadequate to go be- approached the point to which this has fore it, to open a sufficient furrrow for its attained, for enlarging the extent of sur
passage. Lord Tweeddale supplied the face exposed to the atmosphere. want by the true philosophical mode of in duction, with numerous and untiring expe5985. A sectional elevation of both riments on a large scale. By these he con- ploughs, as they appear in actual opera structed a plough having its mould -board tion , is represented in fig. 550, where the formed upon a new system of lines and Tweeddale plough 6 is taking its furrow Fig. 550. 8
THE TWEEDDALE SUBSOIL TRENCH - PLOUGH AND THE TWEEDDALE PLOUGH IN OPERATION.
of 13 inches in depth, followed by the plough, while the tail-board appears do
trenching subsoil-plough a going 6 inches ing its office of elevating the slice of sub deeper, making the trench - subsoiling 19 soil, forming a continuous succession of ' incbes deep. The wheels of the trenching- the void space c under its extremity. This
plough are seen resting upon the sole of the void is with equal continuity filled in , furrow just taken out by the Tweeddale partly with portions of the upper soil,
661
SUBSOILING .
which fall down between the edges of the trench - subsoiling, it is at once mixed
tail-board and the sides oftheopen fur- with the upper soil, and operates with it as row , the remainder being filled up by the return of part of the elevated subsoil, broken and pulverised by falling over the end of the tail -board, as the implement passes from under the subsoil, while other portions of the elevated matter remain intermixed with the upper soil. The trenching and subsoiling effected by these
so much fresh soil. The terror expressed by many farmers of bringing up the subsoil near the surface I deem wholly chimerical,
for although injury may have been sus tained, in some instances, by bringing up the subsoil at an improper period of the rotation — when a white crop, for instance, was to be taken, or before the land had
two ploughs is much more complete than been thorough -drained - no instance, that that done by the spade, and also by the I am aware of, can be adduced of injury
fork, since the usual trenching effected by having been sustained after thorough these leaves the relative positions of the soil drainage, by any green crop, which ought and subsoil the same as they found them , always to be taken after trenching and
though each may be respectively broken subsoiling. and pulverised. In this double process with the ploughs, the subsoil is not elevated
5989. One great advantage attending
entirely to the surface, but to within 4 or 5 this mode of trenching and subsoiling inches of it, and, in its elevation by the is, that in treating the soil so in autumn,
trenching -plough, becomes very intimately the soil requires very little working in mixed with a portion of the surface -soil spring to prepare it for a green crop ; and turned over by the preceding Tweeddale should circumstances prevent the working plough ; and so intimate is the commin- of the land for turnips, such a trenching
gling of the soil and subsoil, that, in digging may be given within three weeks of the to the bottom of the ploughed ground with a spade, they can scarcely be distinguished. The distinction, in fact, can only be observed when the subsoil happens to be of an uncommonly dark red or bright yellow colour ; and when of blue, green, black, or grey, the mixture is not discernible.
time for sowing turnips, with marked suc cess. When a facility such as this is put into the power of the farmer, to work his land in a short time, and in the most efficient manner, two good results must ensue — the whole of the fallow -break may be devoted to a green crop, and a smaller strength of horses will do all the work
5986. One point of excellence attending this operation is the leaving the fur row -sole quite flat and even, as has been demonstrated by the removal of the loose soil to the bottom of the furrow, whereas ordinary subsoil-ploughs leave it ribbed.
that is at present done. 5990. I have bad repeated opportuni
ties of observing the progress of improve ments effected by these valuable imple ments on the farms in the Marquis of Tweeddale's own hands, of Yester Mains
5987. The breadth of the share of the and Broadwoodside. The latter farm has subsoil -trencher being 14 inches in width, been managed for the last six years under
and that of the Tweeddale plough only 12 inches, it follows that an inch of each side of the furrow -sole is twice ploughed, and consequently that no ribs are left
the system of deep ploughing; and it is consistent with my own knowledge that, at the commencement of a six years' course of improvement, the land on that farm
in the subsoil on either side of the
was not worth more than 78. or 8s. per
furrow - sole, which will thus be made
acre .
The present value may safely be
quite smooth and flat - an immense ad- taken at £ 2 per acre.
The rationale of
vantage over every other form of subsoil- this enhancement of value is to be ploughing found in a perfect system of drainage, fol
lowed some years afterwards by the deep 5988. Ordinary subsoiling is recom- ploughing. The manuring application has mended because the air is admitted to the not been more expensive than is commonly subsoil which is kept below and only followed by every judicious farmer. The
brought up, if ever, after it is supposed to general results may challenge comparison have become ameliorated ; whereas, in with those of the best land in the country.
REALISATION .
662
In 1849 the turnips were superior to the
5995. It was stated on the occasion of the
of the Highland and Agricultural Society general crop, and in 1850 they are superb , showGlasgow in 1844, when fork -trenching was while the wheat crop was both bulky and at exhibited under the direction of Mr Houston, of abundant.*
Johnstone Castle, Renfrewshire, that men under
took to trench the ground with the fork for
5991. Upon every farm commanding £ 2, 8s. per acre - which would be very cheap for that in efficient mode of bringing in rough the services of 4 pairs of horses, this pro- But Milne one instancetried Mrground. in 1847,by
cess might be conducted on the same scale
of Milne-Graden, Berwickshire, the cost of fork
of depth as the Marquis of Tweeddale pur- trenching 20 inches in depth was £6, 14s. 5d. sues ; butwhere there are only 3 pairs, the per acre — which is a nearer approximation to Tweeddale plough that precedes the sub- the truth, I suspect, than the other sum. soil -trenching one being drawn by one pair,
5996. It would appear, the the large results of the after fromapplication at Yester, the trenching would be executed to the obtained
depth of 15 inches. The subsoil-plough ordinary quantity of manure, that it is to the
should always be drawn by two pairs of deepening and pulverisation,and perhaps also in horses, to do justice to its searching and part to the freshening of the soil,bythe mixture of subsoil and ascribed the increased effective powers. The two ploughs easily return and that other is to be surface-;soil, if so,(andno turn over an acre a - day, either in autumn reason seems at hand to account for the enlarged or spring, the horses arenot oppressed, and increase,) itshould be the farmer's endeavour to the men are quite able for the work .
5992. A great element of fertility has
keep the soil in a constant stateof pulverisation and deepness, by a repetition of the same process that attained those ends at first. It may be
questioned thatthe process will continue to pro
lately been put into the Marquis of Tweed- duce as good results foran indefinite length of dale's possession, in the vegetable matter time. Jethro Tull, we know , believed that pul obtained by draining the loch at Danskin. verisation and exposure to the air was all that soil required to opinion crops as long as he It can be put into carts out ofthe basin pleased';but his produce did not outlive hisown
of the loch by steam power for 2d. per 15 experience :and had itbeen otherwise, we can cubic yard, and it is applied to the land at not doubt but that it would have been adopted not less than 100 cart - loads to the acre .
by some practical man , and put to the test of
When spread , it is reduced small by the experience, long ere this period.,. Even if expe went a long way to establish the efficacy action of the Norwegianharrow, fig. 246, rience ofpulverisation of the soil, it would be unwise and then ploughed in with a deep furrow to neglect the assistance of good manure ; and by three horses abreast.
Hitherto the
the very utmost we can endeavour, to become
effects of that quantity, in both the field and independent of manure, is to prove that thefarm year produce everyfertility a sufficiency to maintain Ifthe for anindefiniteperiod. its own the garden ,have been equal to the ordinary can
quantity of farmyard dung.
air, as an element, supplies every year as much of the produce as to compensate for what is dis
5993. So very diversified is the opinion of
posed off the farm , the support of the farm is as
farmers on the effects of ordinary subsoil-plough-
much as we can expect from the soil by any
ing, that I suspect some error is committed by one or other party in conducting the process. One likely error in the performance of the process is in being too soon after the draining The late Mr Smith recommended one year to
method of culture. At Yester, the source of perpetual fertility to the soil is available at a cheap rate, in the possession of the vegetable mould at Danskin and elsewhere ; and the best way of using it seems to me to put a large doze
elapse between the draining and the subsoiling. of it in the subsoil by the subsoiling process, while the surface -soil is sustained by the ordinary I should say one rotationought to intervene. manure.
Be that as it may, the diversity of effects experi
enced by it warns me not to adduce any instance of failure or success, in case they might mislead parties into error.
5994. Trenching with the fork is more efficient
5997. I have heard it alleged that there is something particularly good in the subsoil at Yester, which causes it to produce the effects it
does. My opinion of that subsoil is, that it is It consists of clay,
than ordinary subsoil-ploughing as regards the
about the worst I ever saw.
stirring of the soil and subsoil ; and it is a more
and sand , and stones ; the earthy matter being of
perfect operation , inasmuch as it exposes the sub-
different colours, the blue and the red perhaps
soil to view , breaks every portion of it to a greater depth, and frees it of every stone that, from its size, would injure the implements in any future
prevailing ; while patches of yellow , black , and grey are occasionally turned up. Why such a subsoil should be particularly good, it is difficult to believe. Had subsoils andsurface-soils always
operation of culture.
Journal of Agriculture, January 1850, p. 265.
SUBSOILING. been commixed, as is done by the Yester process,
663
substance was examined ; butwhen the matter is
the apprehension about the bringing up of the applied as taken from its sitethe proportion subsoil would have subsided. I express myself thus, because, having used the trench -plough drawn by four horses very much inthe ploughing of my own land, and having brought up in that process much of very ill -looking subsoil, and
must be so much the less. Little doubt, how ever, can exist of the importance of the matter when added to a poor soil, supplying as it does by no means an inconsiderable amountof nitrogen. This vegetable matter, when fresh cut by the
experiencing no harm,but a great deal of good, spade, is of a brown colour, but changes to an from it, I feel no apprehension in the result from
intense black on exposure to the air.
any subsoil. The only precaution I ever saw necessary was to mix the soils only when a green crop was about to be taken, and never when a white one.
5998. The subsoil of three of the fields at Broadwoodside was analysed by Dr Ander-
6000. Lord James Hay of Seaton, Aberdeen shire, has lately invented a subsoil-plough, the working part of which consists only of a coulter or shank brought forward to a point, and fur
nished with a slightly raised feather on each side. It is fastened into a box in the beam , like
The beam the coulter of the common plough.resting son, at the Highland and Agricultural Society's consists on the of a bar of malleable iron ,
laboratory in Edinburgh. The specimen No. I. was taken from land not good , especially for fore part upon an axle, connecting two some wheat ; No. II. from poor soil and stiff to work ; what high wheels, andfurnished at the end with and No. III. from land best adapted for wheat, a slot, to which the bridle is attached by a bolt. the stiffest of the three, and consequently not A pair of handles run up from the hinder part of adapted for turnips. The last specimen had a light colour, while the other two were red . Water, Peroxide of iron , 5.49 2.87 Alumina, Insoluble matter,
No. II .
No, I. 1.52
No. III.
1.82 6.36
1.25 2.11
the beam.
To allow of the coulter being sent
deeper into the soil, the beam can be attached to the under side of the axle.
The action of this
1.04
implement must be confined to the making of a
3.36
single rut in the subsoil when following a com
86.39
80.66
91.94
mom plough in the bottom of its furrow , and one
96.27
91.07
96.34
8.36
8.59
2.23
such rut in the bottom of any furrow must, I
conceive, leave a series of ridglets in the bottom of the subsoiled furrow — a state exactly the
The remainingconstituents, organic matter, lime, opposite left by the subsoil-trencher of the magnesia, alkali and iron , were not determined Marquis of Tweeddale, which we have been con the object being to ascertain the nature of the clay. sidering. No. III. contains a much larger amount of sandy matter, and smaller quantity of clay, than the 6001. Trenching is practised in Flanders, as other two. The sum of the peroxide of iron and alumina, which are specified above, may be taken as the measure of the clay, which amounts to above 8 per cent in No. I. and II., and only a little above 3 per cent in No. III., which lies
we do subsoiling, in the ordinary course of cropping. “ This remarkable practice," says Dr Radcliff, “ is confined to the lighter soils, and is unused where the strong clay prevails. In the districts in which it is adopted, the
under the heaviest soil. The advantage of mix-
depth of the operation varies with that of the
ing the subsoil and urface soil is here obvious. All the soils are poor, and on Nos. I. and II. turnips might be grown, but not wheat ; and wheat but not turnips in No. III., which was too
soil ; but till this shall have arrived at nearly 2 feet of mellow surface, a little is added
stiff.
Now that the commixture of subsoil and
soil has taken place, all the three fields are
to it each trenching, by bringing to the top à certain proportion of the under stratum , which, being exposed to the action of the atmo sphere, and minutely mixed with a soil already
rendered capable of growing both wheat and fertilised, gradually augments the staple till the turnips. Such an investigation of the subsoil of sought-for depth be acquired. In the Pays de other localities might produce equally good results.
Waes there seems to be little necessity for any
5999. The vegetable mould from the bottom of the drained loch at Danskin , has also been
farther deepening ; but the repetition of the prac tice itself is as periodical as the recommencement of the rotation . It is performed with a spade,
analysed by Dr Anderson, with the view of ascertaining the quantity of nitrogen and humine contained in it.
No. I. was taken from the sur-
the iron of which is 15 inches, and the handle 2 feet in length. The labourer standing on the last formed trench, with his left hand at the
face, and No. II. from the bottom of the deposit, which is there about 8 feet in thickness. It is
bottom of the handle, and his right near the top, by the weight of his body, and without the
necessarily wet when first spaded ; but that subjected to analysis was rendered, what in common
assistance of his foot, sinks the spade about 18 inches, and, standing sideways, throws off the
language may be termed dry, but nevertheless it
soil with a peculiar sleight and turn of the wrist,
contained a large proportion of water, thus :
so as to lodge it in an oblique position in the trench , and against the preceding line of work, retiring as he casts it from the spade, and there by effecting some little mixture of the two
Water ,
Nitrogen , Humine,
No. I. 31.78 0.89 6.00
No. II . 49.49 0.85 16.82
strata, though the upper surface is, at the same The object of this
The nitrogen present is to be considered as
time, placed below the other.
decidedly large amounting to 1.5 per cent as the
practice is not only to let a surface rest that has
664
REALISATION .
6003. Subsoil.ploughs, and indeed all ploughs, been 7 or 8 years employed in the production of various crops, but to bring another into action, should always be provided with a useful append , an iron hammer, fig. 551. The head and age reof advantage the which has not merely had are handle pose, but the enrichment of a considerable por Fig 551 ,
tion of manure, which, in a porous soil, cannot have failed to find its way to the lower stratum.
forged in one
piece of mal
To the universality of the habit for ages back,
leable
much of the fertility of the Pays de Waes is to
the
be attributed. It is particularly observable, that
part being formed into a nut-key . With this simple but
in any district where trenching takes place, the quantum of manure is diminished, and the num
ber of ploughings are less, so that, eventually, it is not so expensive a process as at first view it may appear : nevertheless, a fair proportion of manure is considered essential in the first season ; for though the under stratum has not only had a
useful
iron, latter
tool
THE IRON HAMMER NUT - KEY.
the plough man has always at hand the means by which
long exemption from duty, as well as theannual he can , without loss of time, alter and adjust the acquisition of such parts of the manure as may . position of his plough -irons, —the coulter and
have been drained through the upper soil , yet it
share,-and perform other little operations, which
possesses a coldness which requires a stimulant to bring it into action. The soil which has undergone this operation is easily worked, and the
circumstances or accident may require,--for the performance of which most ploughmen are under
the necessity of taking advantage of the first
trenching seems to go forward expeditiously ; stone they can find, merely from the want of this indeed, in any of the light and deep soils,the simple instrument. The hammer is slung in a In the Pays de Waes it is performed by the piece , to the depth of 16 inches, for about L.1 , 12s.the English acre . The cheapness of the execution is a great encouragement to the practice ; but this turns upon the price of labour, which, in this district, is 15d. a -day, and
staple fixed in the side of the beam in any convenient position. This little appendage is confidently recommended to all ploughmen , as an essential part of the furniture of the plough.
chiefly uponthe facility of a loose and pulverised
6004. In removing ploughs from one field to
labour is not severe .
soil. Some have sought to economise, by the use another, or along a hard road to a field, instead of two ploughs, the second working to a con- of sliding them upon their sole -shoe, which is diffi siderable depth ; but the objection made to this cult to do when they have no hold of the ground , by skilful farmers in the vicinity of St Nicolas or upon the edge of the feather of the sock and was, that sufficient depth was not thereby at- the side of the mould -board - which is a more tained, nor were the two strata by this operation easy mode for the ploughman than the former, sufficiently blended ; for though , by the spade, and is consequently more commonly taken — they are made to change places, yet by the every ploughman should be provided with a
oblique manner in which the mould is placed in
plough-slide, a simple and not costly implement,
the trench, a certain degree of mixture of the
as represented in fig. 552. It consists of a piece
upper and under soil is effected , which is con sidered of importance."
wood of hard board 3 feet 4
Fig. 552. a
6002. Digging soil with the spade will cost from 14d. to 2d . per perch, or from 20s. to 268. 8d. per acre ; digging lea at 24d . per perch, or 33s. 4d. per acre ; and trenching lea, 12 inches
LE
THE PLOUGH - SLIDE .
inches long, 8 inches broad , and 2 inches thick, in which a long
staple, a, is driven
deep, 5d. per perch, or 66s. 8d . per acre ; at all
to take in the point of the sock ; and at b are
which rates the men will earn each from Is. 6d.
fastened two small bars of wood, longways,
to 2s. a-day. In digging light soil, or any soil in a friable state, the spade should be driven to
take between them the heel of the sole - shoe
the head into the ground by one pressure of the foot, and thus 20. cuts may be made in one
minute. In Ireland a perch of soil is dug nine inches deep, at the same cost that half a perch of drain , 23 feetdeep, is cast out ; butmore wages
and at such distance from one another as to
of the plough. On the under side of the board is nailed two pieces of flat bar iron , to act as skeds to the slide. Upon this implement the plough may be conveyed with comparative ease along any road or headridge.
should be obtained for casting drains than
digging soil, to provide against the extra tear and wear of shoes and clothes, and the risk of injuring health by cold and wet. The most economical way of digging a large piece of land is to set from 20 to 30 diggers at work together, at so much per acre, and place a confidential man over them to see that every spadeful is properly formed and turned over.t
6005. In like manner, a slide or carriage
should also be provided for removing harrows from one field to another. The usual practice . is to put them as they are coupled together upon a cart one above another, and the proba bility will be that one or more of the tines are lost in the conveyance .
A much safer and more convenient mode of carrying them is on
* Radcliff's Agriculture of Flanders,p. 166-9. + Yule On Spade Husbandry, p. 86, 2d edition.
LIMING .
665
a carriage such as is represented in fig. 553,
spring sends up its water into the subsoil. The
which consists of a frame of wood sparred, in
slow access of air from above, or it may be the
length to take on a pair of harrows coupled with escape of air from the water itself, causes a more Fig. 553.
or less ochrey deposit, which adheres to and gradually cements the stones or earthy particles
among which the water is lodged. Ifthe water contains sulphate of iron, the air from above will impart to its iron an additional quantity of oxygen, and cause a portion of it to fall in a state of peroxide. If the iron and lime be pre sent in a state of bi -carbonate, the escape of
THE CARRIAGE FOR CONVEYING HARROWS, & c.
carbonic acid from the water will cause a deposit
their master swing-tree, and in breadth perhaps 34 feet. The hind part of the frame rests on
of carbonate of iron or of lime. Any of these deposits will cement the earthy or clay particles together. Iron, however, is often held in solu tion by an organic acid (the crenic acid ) which becomes insoluble, and falls along with the iron
crutches supported upon the axle of two wheels,
the upper part of the rim of which is below the level of the top part of the frame; and the fore part rests upon a castor which allows the
carriage to be turned when desired. A horse is yoked to two eyes in the fore -bar of the frame by the hooks of the plough-chains, to draw the carriage by. The harrows are piled one above
the other upon the framing. Such a carriage may convey other articles to and froin the fields.
when the latter has absorbed more oxygen from the atmosphere. Hence the large quantity of organic matter which bog iron ores, moorband pans, and deposits from springs and drains, so often
contain. Thus a layer of solid stone is gradually formed — the moorband pan of many districts which will allow neither the roots of plants to descend, nor the surface water to escape. Hope
6006. The Tweeddale subsoil- trench -plough is
less barrenness,therefore, slowly ensues. Coarse
well adapted for the breaking up of moorband grasses, mosses, and heath grow and accumulate pan in the subsoil. I have not had much experience of the obduracy of this substance, as in any case within my experience it did not exceed 2 or 3 inches in thickness, which were easily ripped
upon soils not originally inclined to nourish them, and by which a better herbage had previ ously been long sustained .” +
up with the 4 - horse plough, and as easily moul dered down to dust on exposure to the winter's
frost; yet there are places in Aberdeenshire and Morayshire where it is so thick and hard that extraordinary means are required to break it up. A remarkable and extensive band of this sub stance was encountered by Mr Roderick Gray, Peterhead , when improving part of the waste
ON THE LIMING OF LAND .
6008. Lime has been directly applied to the land in the agriculture of this country for a very long period of years. land of the property of the Governors of the The object of applying it has always been Merchant Maidens' Hospital of Edinburgh in that neighbourhood. The moory surface was ploughed with 4 horses. “ At first the plough ran upon the pan, which it seemed impossible to penetrate ; various trials were made, and the plan which ultimately succeeded was to have 4 men employed at the plough, and these were engaged as follows :-One with a pick and spade
the same - to increase the crops by stimu
lating the action of the soil. It was sup posed to act in two ways — directly upon the vegetable matter in the soil, and di rectly uponthe soil itself, by altering its texture . When wanted to act upon vege
table matter, it was applied to boggy soil after it had been drained, or to deaf soil hole ; another held the plough ; the third held that had long been under an exhausting down the beam, and kept the plough below the pan ; and the fourth took care of the horses. In course of husbandry, and which had never
made a hole where necessary , until it reached below the pan, and entered the plough at this
this way the upper stratum and pan were broken, and afterwards they were brought into a sort of
been limed, for it is known that soil never becomes deaf that had been occa
mould by the grubber and harrows."* However sionally limed . When the texture was obdurate this substance may be to break up, it desired to be altered from a stiff to a will yield to the air, and moulder down into an
innocuous powder of sand and gravel.
friable state, or from a very loose to a
firmer state, lime was applied. Stiff clay 6007. Professor Johnston thus explains the soils were those which were rendered pul formation of moorband pan. “ It is to the verable by lime, and loose gravelly soils lingering of unwholesome waters beneath, that the origin of many of our moorlands, especially on higher grounds, is in a great measure to be attributed . A calcareous or a ferruginous
were rendered firmer by its action . The
most convenient period for applying lime to the land was when the soil had been
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. viii. p. 169. + Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 556.
REALISATION .
666
bare-fallowed ; and as that process was be absorbed by the lime, which neverthe
the lime wasalways less continues quite dry, thereby indicating extensively practised, laid on in summer . It was the most that it has been taken up in chemical favourite practice with farmers to apply union with the lime, which then becomes lime in a caustic state, because, being then in the state of a hydrate. A great heat in a state of finest powder, it mixed best is evolved during the time the lime takes with every sort of soil. to fall to powder; and when it attains that state, the heaps will have swelled to more
6009. Experience having confirmed all than three times their former bulk. The these practices in regard to theapplication lime is then said to be slaked, and is in
of lime, it isdoubtfulthat many farmers of its most caustic state. the presentdayknow more about the nature of lime and its action than what is implied
6012. While the slaking is proceeding,
in the above statement, and consequently the land that was manured in drills (4172) the practice now is what it was then.
is cross-harrowed a double tine, to make
it flat ; after which the ridges are ſeered ; 6010. When lime is obtained direct and the lime is then spread along the
from the kiln, or from shipboard, it feered ridges. is in lumps, called shells, and light in weight. Limeshells are differently
6013. The lime is spread in this man
treated by different farmers in their ner :-Frying -pan, shovels, fig. 233, are preparation of it for the soil. Some lay the best implements for filling carts with, down the shells in small heaps npon and spreading lime upon land. A calm
the feered ridges, while others lay them day should be chosen for the purpose, in large heaps upon the upper head -ridge. but should there be the least wind, the
It is clear that the mode of laying shells at once upon the land cannotbe adopted until the land had previously been sufficiently fallowed ; and as fallowing occu pies à considerable time to be done in
single-horse carts should be so placed at the heaps as that the lime-powder which rises into the air should be blown away from the horses and men .
Powdered lime
is heavy ; but all that can lie upon a shovel
à proper manner, it is also clear that no is so light in weight that each ploughman takes a heap, and with one of his horses in a cart, for a yoking at a time, fills his own cart, and spreads the lime from it upon the ridges allotted to him. The direction in liming should have the wind a little ahead ; and when a number of men take from diffe rent heaps, they should so arrange them selves along the ridges as that the cart farthest down the wind take the lead in spreading. In spreading lime, the man walks along the middle of the feered ridge, with the carbonic acid of the air, unless a and casts the shovelfuls right and left from good deal of rain shall have fallen to has- the middle towards the feered furrows,
considerable quantity of lime can be driven, after the fallow is ready, unless the kilns happen to be near ; and, at all events, it is unnecessary to lay the lime upon the fallowed land until only a short period before the wheat is sown. Besides, when shells are placed in heaps on the ridges, they must remain a considerable time there to be reduced to powder by the air, when the lime will have lost a considerable portion of its causticity by union
ten its slaking. To preserve the shells which will become, by ploughing, the intact, till needed, they should be put in large beaps, the outer surface of which may become neutralised by the action of the air, but the interior of which will not be so affected .
crowns of the future ridges. The man
who can cast the shovelfuls with either land will spread lime better than onewho is right or left handed only. The lime
While the heaps are thus should be spread evenly over the surface ;
occupying a bead-ridge, the land may be butit may be spread thicker on one part worked as opportunity offers.
of the field than another, according to the On light knolls it may be spread thinner than in hollows, where the soil is either deeper or stronger. Whenever rain falls, the liming should be discontinued.
wants of the soil.
6011. A week or so before the lime is applied, water should be poured on the large heaps of shells to reduce them to a
state of fine powder. The water will all
LIMING .
667
6020. Lime weighs from 75 lb. to 6014. It is proper to put a cloth over the horse's back and the barness ; and the nearly 1 cwt. per busbel, which indicates men shonld cover their face with crape, that it ought not to be laid on by the to save it from the cauterising effects of measure alone, but by measure and weight
the quicklime.
The horses , whenever combined , giving the preference to the
loosened from work, should be thoroughly lightest weight. wisped down and brushed, to free the hair of any lime that may have found its way
6021. Lime is applied at different
into it ; and, should the men feel a smart- periods of the year, according to the state ing in their eyes or nose , sweet thick of the land. On summer- fallow it is cream is the best emollient.
applied immediately before the wheat is sown in autumn . It is also used for wheat
6015. Progressively asthe lime is spread, immediately after taking up the potato ridge after ridge, it is harrowed in a double crop in autumn. It is applied to the land tine, and mixed with the soil ; and imme- cleared of turnips by sheep, just before
diately on the entire field being limed, the the sowing of the barley -seed in spring. ridges are ploughed with a light furrow, It is also applied before the turnip -seed is to bury the lime as little as possible, and sown in the beginning of summer. It which constitutes the seed - furrow of the may be applied to lea immediately before future crop
being ploughed for oats in early spring. I
do not say it is immaterial to the proper 6016. The quantity of lime that should use of lime to choose the season in which be applied depends on the nature of the it is applied, convenience often determin
soil, the lighter soils requiring the less, ing the point as much as propriety ; but
and the stronger the greater quantity. On experience has decided that it is used to light turnip soils, some think 120 bushels the best advantage on summer -fallow , and per acre sufficient, whilst I have used 150 after turnips have been eaten off by sheep. bushels with benefit.
I have seen
as
much as 510 bushels applied to the acre of wheat land, with manifest advantage.
6022. The effects of lime are manifested in a rather remarkable manner.
When
But perhaps from 150 to 240 bushels may ploughed down with an ordinary furrow be considered average quantities, from the by itself, no effect is observed on the first lightest to the heaviest soils. On weak crop ; and when ploughed in deep, a rota moory soils, 75 bushels are enough with tion may pass before it shows any effect. which to commence its improvement. 6017. The sort of lime should deter-
When harrowed in, and the land ribbed
sheep, for barley after turnips eaten off by ploughed it has effect at once.
When
mine the quantity applied , the stronger with a light furrow above the dung in being used in lessquantity than the weak. summer-fallow, even after the lapse ofthea The English lime is much more caustic few weeks it has a sensible effect on than the Scotch . Lime with any magnesia first crop. It has the best effect on the in it is unfit for the land. grass of any crop in the rotation, and most
upon the clover. It has an injurious effect
6018. It is not customary to apply lime on the potato crop. It loses its effect on often to land, it being inexpedient to the same land after several repetitions.
apply it oftener than once in a lease of It has little effect on soils in the neigh bourhood of large towns. It has always
19 years, on account of its expense .
a good effect on fresh soil, as also onmoss 6019. Its common price is 3s. per boll that has been thoroughly drained. It has of 6 bushels, consequently its entire cost, a good effect on all drained soils, and is
at the above quantities, will be from wasted on undrained ones. £3, 159. to £6 per acre for the best sea
borne English lime, exclusive of carriage ; 6023. Lime is usually procured in sum the Scotch sells for 10s. per cart-load of mer and autumn, as the kilns are only 4 bolls of 6 bushels each, including car- kept in activity in those seasons ; so when riage for 10 miles, which makes the cost it is intended to apply it in spring, it is from £3, 2s. 6d. to £5 per acre .
necessary to procure it in autumn, and
668
REALISATION .
keep it all winter. And to preserve it in a the potato land after the crop has been desirable state in winter, the heaps of lifted, it follows the large manuring the shells should be covered with a thick coat- potatoes had received late in spring. The
ing ofearth,and everycrevice that appears Timing land after turnipsin springfollows in it should be immediately filled up.
the large manuring which the turnips re ceived in the early part of the preceding
6024. I am aware of the opinion of summer. When put upon land that has
some farmers, that lime is equally effica- been manuredby sheep eating off turnips, cious in the soil in the effete as in the it is placed still nearer the manure. Lim caustic state, and Lord Kames was of that ing land in preparation of the turnip crop
opinion ; and, therefore, precautions to in the early part of summer, places it as preserve it in a caustic state in winter near the manure. Lime cannot be applied
may, by them, be deemed unnecessary ; but to any of the cereal crops when they are as the general opinion is in favour of quick- growing, and it cannot be put on grass
lime, and which Isupport, I have treated land that is to be sown or pastured in the the subject accordingly, until experience same season . Thus, neither in spring, shall instruct us better. There is the summer, nor autumn, can lime be applied
advantage, however, in using quick -lime, that it is much more easily spread upon, ploughed into, and mixed with the soil than effete lime; and if pulverisation be of
to the soil without coming into near con tact with manure ; and as to applying it in winter, it is out of the question when a large quantity is to be used. Then rain
any use to it at all, it should mix with and snow and frost may prevent its being the soil,and act with it more quickly than harrowed in after being spread, and bad weather may prevent the liming proceed in an effete state. ing at all after a portion of the field had
6025. To the ordinary use of lime, as I been limed. After all, as lime is applied have described it, chemistry might object only once in a lease, it matters little that to its application so close to farmyard it be put upon the land near a manuring ; manure as it is in summer-fallow. It is the important point is to apply it at the entirely right avoiding to apply it with or best and most convenient time, which is
near guano, as it will entirely deprive it on the fallow ; and experience has obtained of its ammoniacal ingredients.
But it is
the best return from its use thus, both in
not easy to avoid its proximity to manure, grain and straw . when it is considered that it cannot be
applied at any time in the course of a 6027. A top-dressing of chalk is one rotation, and that a considerable time is method adopted in several districts of
required to collect as much of it as will England-in Essex,Hampshire, Wiltshire, spread over a large space of ground ; and Lincolnshire, Yorkshire, foraffording cal that if a large space is not limed when it careous matter to the soil.
It has a strik
is applied, time will not be afforded the ing effect at first, particularly upon fresh tenant to lime all his farm , and derive all new broken up land ; but at length it the advantages from it, in the course seems to lose its efficacy. It is applied of a 19 years' lease. Suppose that be again whenever its effect becomes inert. limes the entire fallow -break every year, he cannot go over his farm in less time 6028. The solid chalk of the lower than four or five years, and this space is stratum is preferred to the more porous as much as he can lime in the course of substance near the surface.
It is taken
a year and carry on the culture of the out of pits in lumps, which are put upon farm at the same time. the ground to be limed ; and, the lumps being wet, the frost in winter causes them 6026. If we take the time the farmer to fall down into a powder, which is then
has to apply lime, weshall see that he can spread over the surface of the ground. Dry scarcely avoid applying it near a recent period of manuring. When it is applied on bare- fallow , it must be immediately above the manure ; when placed below it, the
chalk will not fall down, and is therefore useless for the purpose. Chalk is used in Hampshire to render the soil more loose, and in the wolds of Yorkshire more firm .
lime sinks out of reach . When applied to
I would conclude from this that the Hamp
LIMING .
669
shire soil is clayey, and that of the wolds yardif not driven farther than a furlong, and beyond that distance one penny per furlong is paid. Its action producesbetter
of Yorkshire silicious.
6029. The quantities applied vary in quality of grain and regularity of crop. different districts. In Essex, in the clayland district, about 15 cart-loads, of 40 bushels each, are considered a full dressing per acre, at 6s. per load, and 33. 6d . for carting one mile ; but here the expense does not bear carriage farther
The excess of organic matter in a new soil loosens it, which the marling corrects ; the dry and loose texture of sand is rendered more adhesive and retentive of moisture ;
and peat is benefited by consolidation and the supply of inorganic matter.t
than four to six miles, beyond which lime
6032. The following analysis may give is preferred . In Lincolnshire 80 cubic yards of chalk are applied to the acre, at a a fair idea of the composition of a clay cost of 66s. In Hampshire it is dug out of marl. This specimen was found in Ayr pits as deep as 20 feet, and 2000 bushels shire : are wheeled on the land in barrows at a Carbonate of lime, cost of about 45s. per acre. In the district Oxide of iron and alumina,
of Windsor, where it has to be carted ten miles, it costs about £8 per acre . *
Organic matter, Clay and silicious matter,
8.4 2,2 2.8 84.9 1.4
.
Water,
99.7 I
6030. I have already referred to shell
marl as a manure , in (4999.) The com position of peat shell -marl of Logie, in
6033. The lime used in the agriculture of this
Forfarshire - a county which at one time country is chiefly derived from the mountain
afforded and used a large quantity of this limestone of the carboniferous series, as also substance in its agriculture, to a degree to that of the coal formation , The rock forms a broad belt across the centre of Scotland be positively detrimental to the soil, some the centre of England, and in the whole ,ofalong the of which has not recovered its effects to centre of Ireland . Lime in Scotland is mostly this day — is as follows:
derived from the coal formation , where it is asso From the
Carbonate of lime,
Oxide of iron and alumina, Organic matter,
Insoluble, ehiefly siliciousmatter,
From the
top of the bottom of bed . the bed . 77.6 81.7 1.8 0.6 14.6 14.6 3.1 6.0
100,0
100.0
ciated with shales, sandstones, and ironstones. 6034. In Ireland large beds and knolls of limestone nodules , in the form of gravel, are found in many districts. The gravel , when laid upon the land, acts as lime in the course of time ; and it affords a very ready means of reclaiming drained bogs, and of reducing their vegetable into earthy matter, (5891.)
Bog -marl retards the ripening of the grain 6035. The composition of some good limestones crops, while lime hastens their maturity. for agricultural purposes is here given : 6031. The process of marling as prac
Carluke. Cockermouth . Kilnbend . 95.89 94.86 93.91 0.23 0.32 0.85
Carbonate of lime,
Relig .
93.97
tised in England is very similar to that of
Sulphate oflime,
gaulting or claying, already described in (2119. ) The marl is a clay containing particles of chalk , which are quite visible in the mass of clay . The marl is applied both to heavy and light land. On heavy
Phosphate of lime,
1.14
Carbonate of mag nesia ,
2-06
1.26
0.54
1.32
} 1.63
0.73
1.20
1.57
Alumina and oxide
of iron , Silica .
0.41
2.92
2.05
3.14
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
land it is used on new broken up pasture and mixed with farmyard manure in 6036. Limestone , on being broken into handy compost . On light soils it is more exten- lumps, is packed in alternate layers with coal in
sively employed ,and its benefits are chiefly kilns and burned, when a very material effect is
derivedfrom an improved texture of the produced upon its appearance and character. soil.
being a close-grained, hard, heavy stone, From 40 to 50 cubic yards are From it is reduced to a porous, light, splintery cinder.
applied per acre, at a cost of 7d. per cubic One ton of limestone, whenthusburned, yields * Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol.iii. p. 183, and vol.v. p. 34. + Journal of the Agricultural Society of England ,vol. viii. p. 312. # Johnston Ön the Use of Lime in Agriculture, p. 11 .
REALISATION .
670
11 cwt. of the cinder. The cinder is called lime-
the better for agricultural purposes : it is then
shells. The burning has the effect of driving off said to be in the fattest and strongest state. water and carbonic acid from the limestone ; of of the limes whose analysis appear above, it forming gypsum with the sulphur of the coal, and with the pyrites of the limestone ; and silicate of lime with the silicious matter present in the limestone and the coal.
6037. Limeshells have a strong affinity for water : they will extract it from the atmosphere
would seem to me that the Kilphead is the
best for applying to the land. Plasterers like fat lime, as it runs best and makes the strongest putty. When a considerable pro portion of sand occurs it is the better adapted for
common building purposes, as it then requires less sand to convert it into good mortar, and the
and become in time slaked, which is the end aimed at in putting limeshells on the land in small heaps along the ridges ; but they are more commonly slaked by water being poured upon them. The pouring water too quickly upon the shells causes the lime to be gritty, and to contain many small lumps which refuse to be slaked . The
natural union of silicious matter is much better
spontaneous slaking is attended with the least
and docks, where it becomes very hard, and on
trouble as usually practised , but in effect it
that account is called hydraulic lime.
chills the surface and produces much gritty lime ; and it gives sufficient time for much of the powdered lime to absorb carbonic acid from the
these
air, and go back to the state of carbonate and become effete. To succeed well with the
spontaneous mode of slaking the heaps should be covered with sods, which is a trouble which no
farmer will undertake with heaps lying on the field.
than any artificial method of adding it can be devised. Of these the Cockermouth is the best for buildings. Much magnesia in line is hurtful to vegetation, and is therefore unsuited for the land ; but it is a useful ingredient in lime in tended for buildings under water, such as piers limes the Carluke would
seem
Of best
suited for building piers; but the proportion of magnesia in it is but small compared to many of the magnesian limes of England, as at Hartlepool, where it contains about 45 per cent of the carbonate of magnesia, a ton of which affording no less quantity of the calcined magnesia of the shops than 9f cwts.
Farmers will willingly cover large
heaps of limeshells that are to remain over winter, to be spread upon the land in spring , by which time most of the lime will be found slaked in an excellent state for mixing with the soil. 6038. In slaking limeshells, an intense heat is
6041. The practice hitherto has been to apply a large dose of lime at once , and not to repeat it during the lease. The motive for this practice I would look for more to the circum stances in which the farmer is placed in regard to the tenure of his farm , than to any reasonable
produced, a large quantity ofwater is absorbed , expectation entertained by him of the action of much increase of bulk ensues, and a fine powder is obtained, which is called quick -lime, causticlime, hot -lime. The heat insome cases might ignite gunpowder ; the lime absorbs about one fourth of its weight of water ; it increases from 2 to 3 times itsbulk ; and the powder has strong caustic and alkaline properties. The ultimate
lime npon the soil in large quantity . It is felt with the application of lime as with the draining of the farm - the sooner it is done, and the seldomer done, the greater profit to him who does it. The
opinion is gaining ground, however, that it is better for the tenant's interest to lime in less quantity at a time, and more frequently. It
results are, that the slaked lime consists partly of would appear, taking the average of the quan caustic lime, partly of carbonate of lime, and
tities of lime applied in different districts of
partly of hydrate of lime, somewhat in these proportions in the ton : Per cent. Cwt.
the country, that about 8 or 10 bushels per acre per annum are applied to supply the supposed requirements of the land. It might, therefore , be better for the crops, and more prudent for the purse of the tenant, to apply 8 or 10 bushels per acre on the fallow every year during the lease ,
Carbonate of lime, Hydrate of lime,
57.4
115
water, 10.2 } 42.6
89
lime, 32.4
100.0
20 *
than 160 to 200 bushels per acre at one time at its commencement.
6039. The composition of the limes obtained from the limestones mentioned above, (6035,) with the exception of that of Relig, is as follows : Lanarkshire , Cumberland , Dumfriessh , Carluke , Cockermouth , Kinhead , 89.78 89.77 88.64 Lime , 0.38 0.51 Sulphate of lime, (gypsum ,) 1.45 1.93 Phosphate of lime, 1.02 0.43 1.69 Magnesia , 1.98 1.23 Alumina and oxide of iron , 2.76 4.92 3.39 Silica in the state of silicate, 0.70 5.05 2.68 Carbonic acid and moisture , 1.69 100.00
100.00
100.000
6042. There is no doubt that lime is an ex
hausting substance for the land. Long ago it was quite common in Scotland for tenants, who grudged to purchase manure, to procure lime and apply it as manure, just as the bog -marl was used, until the land was rendered almost incap able of growing any crop , when it was laid down to grass to rest for a number of years. The various substances of the soil, organic and inorganic, are more rapidly set free after lime has
been applied than before; and , on being set free, the roots of plants obtain them the more readily and in greater abundance; and then, as the plants
themselves grow more rapidly and to a larger * Johnston On the Use of Lime in Agriculture, p. 44.
6040. The purer lime is it is considered
+ Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1848, p. 299.
-1
WATER -MEADOWS.
671
size, and perfect all their parts more completely, would be purchased at a cost beyond their they will carry off a larger quantity of matter intrinsic worth. A third consideration, of the soil must become exhausted. If more lime an important nature too, is, whether you is applied to correct the evil,the exhaustion will have a right to take as much of the water from the soil, which, if not replaced in some way,
become the more severe .
of a rivulet, which may form the boundary
of the estate in whichyour farm is situate, 6043. Over-liming was an evil which the land as your water -meadow will require ? You suffered in a former generation more than in this ; and when it occurred was confined to poor weak can use the water of a brook which wholly
passes through your farm as you please, of the plough . It is therefore quite correctwhat provided it be not injured in its quality,
soil, that was soon rendered too loose by the use
Professor Johnston says, that “ the evil called overliming is a mechanical, not a chemical one.
nor directed out of its natural channel
The extreme openness of the soil has been brought
when it enters the property below; but
cropping of corn . An opposite procedure must
use more than half the water of a march
therefore be adopted, and mechanical means employed, by which a gradual solidification may
burn . If half the water afforded by it is not sufficient for the purpose of irrigation,
be effected,” among which none is on more the effective land
you should either abandon the idea of form
on by prolonged ploughing, and toofrequent you cannot appropriate to your particular
than theeatingoff turnips by sheep
ing a water-meadow - for a dry water mea 6044. A compost of lime and earth is a better dow is a vexation in fact, as much as a top -dressing for grass land than either separately. contradiction in terms— or negotiate with
Such a compostis usually made too weak of your neighbour for the use of the whole ;
lime: theproportion should beone cubic yard of for itwould be a pity to render all the lime to three cubic yards of earth. The mixing
of such a compost costs 1d. per cubic yard of the
water useless, because either party can
mixture .
legally use only one half of it. 6047. Allowing the quantity of water to be ample for your extent of irrigation, it is better to take it direct from the brook
6045. The appearance of the white clover,
Trifolium repens, on top -dressing healthy soil with lime, is a well-known and remarkable pheno menon .
Lime extirpates the corn marigold,
Chrysanthemum segetum , but it encourages the red than to erect a dam across it, to collect the poppy, Papaver Rheas; and on sinking into strong water, even though you should possess the clay soil it favours the growth ofcolt's- foot,Tussi power to do so ; because, the nearer the lago farfara.
bottom of the brook the water is obtained
from , the better it is for the purpose of irrigation, on account of the sedimentary ON FORMING WATER- MEADOWS.
matter which it contains ; and the more of
clay and vegetable matter the sedime
6046. Several considerations should be consists of, the more richly it will manure carefully attended to ere the formation of irrigated plants. It may cost more to a water -meadow is determined on, the make a channel for the water obtained principal of which is, whether there be a direct from the brook, than to construct a sufficient supply of water in a dry season dam across the same brook, though that is
to irrigate the meadow thoroughly ; and if even improbable ; for unless a dam is very there be not, the desire for possessing a substantially made, so as to resist the force water-meadow should be abandoned, or its of the brook under every state of flood, it extent confined to suit the water at com-
will cost much for repairs, besides exciting
mand. Another important consideration the constant apprehension of blowing from is, whether the water can be spared for below, or bursting out at the sides. irrigation, without depriving other as im
portant purposes of its use,asthe thrashing
6048. Sluices should be formed to pre
of grain and the watering of live stock in vent the water reaching the meadows when
grass-fields. If the water can be used in notwanted, and also to allow one portion irrigation before it is wanted for, or after of the meadows to be watered at a time, it has been used by, the thrashing-machine, while the other parts are kept dry. All when the water can be conveniently em- sluices should be substantially and amply ployed for the thrashing power, then it may built with stone and lime, of which the profitably be employed for irrigation ; but foundations should be sunk to a depth be oth ise, the advantages of irrigation low that which the water has any chance
REALISATION .
672
of reaching The masonry in direct contact with the operating sluice -boards should be formed of droved ashlar. No doubt, sluices of this construction are expensive ; but unless the entire appointments in connection with water are constructed in a
3 feet deep. The drains should be placed apart at distances corresponding to the breadth proposed to be given to the bed work of the meadow , that every bed may bave the same advantage in regard to
drainage. In practice, it will be found
substantial manner at the commencement, that but a very small proportion of the
and on correct principles, their repair will water finds its way into the drains ; never be incessant, and useunsatisfactory. theless, itis necessary to have a sufficient number of drains to carry off all the water
6049. The land to be converted into that may find its way into them from any water-meadow should be thorough -drained, quarter ; and, to insure this result, a drain
unless the subsoil consists naturally of should be accessible from every bed. gravel, which is rarely the case ; because, if irrigating water finds its way through
6050. These preliminaries being deter
the soil to a retentive subsoil, it will re- mined, the next business is giving proper main there in a stagnant state, where no drains are at hand to carry it off; and the consequence will be, the sward of the meadow will in a short time be composed of coarse subaquatic plants, instead of fine meadow - grasses. The best sort of materials for filling thedrains of water-meadows are pipe -tiles; and in case the meadow should afterwards be converted into arable husbandry, the drains should be made at least
form to the water-meadow . Taking, in
the first instance, the simplest case of water-meadow, having a very gentle slope from one side to the other of the field , and also from one end of it to the other, the first business is to make the ditch, which is to conduct the water from the brook , to the highest corner of the field . Where this water- course or lead enters the field , a sluice a, fig. 554, should be put across it,
Fig. 554. b
f
无
9
2
m n
0
P
c
THE BED- WORK WATER- MEADOW.
to prevent the water flowing when it is alike, it should be made narrower towards not wanted . The first operation within b, that, on the water going into the lateral
the field is to form the main.conductor of feeders in succession, no more may find its the water a b along the upper side, not on way to b, at the termination, than is a dead level, but with a very gentle required to irrigate the ground from that descent. It should be made capacious point ; and the water onght to flow along
enough to pass as much water as will the whole of a b, as always to have the cover, at one time, theentire surface of the water at the same height in it. The field with running water ; and in order to bottom and edges of the conductor should give it the power to overflow at all points be made with a uniform smoothness and
WATER -MEADOWS.
673
The earth which comes out other, and of uniform inclination from of the conductor is wheeled away to other end to end, the drains m, n, o,p, q, r , $, t,
inclination.
parts of the field, to fill up hollows. 6051. The next channel made is the
are uniformly 1 foot below the level of the feeders e ,f, g, h, i, k , l. The soil be tween them is worked smooth and even
main -drain c d , whose province is to with the spade, hollows being filled up, carry the water out of the field, after it and heights removed to a uniform inclina has served its purpose in irrigation, and, tion. on that account, its dimensions should be exactly equal to that of the main -conduc-
6053. The ground is now ready to be
tor, but its position and form the opposite sown with the seeds of the natural grasses, at the lowest side of the field. It should which should always be without a corn also have the same uniform inclination crop, to secure a fine and early sward. and smoothness down to its largest outlet
The following is a good proportion of
at d .
such seeds, per acre, for water -meadows,
for the differentconditions of light, medium,
6052. Whilst these two principal chan- and heavy soils : nels are forming with the greatest care Without a Corn Crop . and exactness, the intermediate ground of preparing the field should be Light Mediumn Heavy Botanical and English Names. to be occu Soils. Soils , pied with another species ofchannels, and Lb. Lb. Lb, the preparation for them is made accord- Agrostis stolonifera. Marsh creeping bent -grass or fiorin , 24 23 24 ing to the state of the ground. If the field Alopecurus pratensis. Meadow fox - tail grass , 11 11 14 On
On
On
Soils .
.
has been under culture, the ground should
be ploughed and harrowed, and the weeds hand - picked, as in summer-fallow, (4165,) and the plough used to gather it into
Festuca loliacea . Meadow fescue -grass,
.
Lolium Italicum . Italian rye - grass , Lolium perenne. Perennial ryegrass,
nary ridges of 15 feet. One gathering Phalaris arundinacea. Reed canary -grass,
may probably not suffice, as the crowus
should be 1 foot higher than the open furrows. This is all the assistance the plough
2
3
21
23
13
2
2
24
23
24
Festuca elatior.
Tall fescue - grass, ridges, (749.) The crowns of these ridges Glyceria fluitans. Floating sweet-grass,
are marked by the lines e, f, g, h, i, k, l, and they may be at a distance of 30 feet from each other, the breadth of two ordi
1
23
Darnel-spiked fescue -grass, Festuca pratensis.
6
6
6
7
7
7
1
14
it
2
3
33
24
3
34
2
2
2
Phleum pratense.
Timothy, or cat's - tail, Poa trivialis.
Rough -stalked meadow - grass, Lotus major.
Greater bird's- foot trefoil ,
.
31
can give in the making of water-meadows,
and the rest should be done with the spade 38 354 314 and wheelbarrow ; and by their means the channels e, f, g, h, i, k, l, are made with a uniform inclination from the main -conduc- To protect the young plants, 1 bushel per tor a b to their respective terminations. acre of rye may be sown along with the
These channels are called feeders, and seeds, if sown in autumn, and i bushel of they occupy the crowns of the ridges, barley, if sown in spring. The entire cost now named beds, having a width of 20 of these seeds is 27s. 9d. on light, 32s. 3d. inches at their junction with, and at
on medium , and 36s. on heavy soils.
right angles from , the main-conductor al, “ When desirable,” says Mr Lawson, “ the should they extend as far as 200 yards original expense of the above mixture may in length, and a width of 12 inches at be decreased from 4s. to 5s. per acre, by their termination. Of similar dimensions excluding the Alopecurus pratensis, which are the channels m, n, o, p , q, r , s, t, called is only recommended in consideration of
drains, formed in the hollows of the open its earliness, and half of the Lotus major ; furrows; because their province is to carry under most circumstances, however, it will
off the water from the feeders, for which be advisable to retain the full quantity purpose they should be formed in the opposite direction, baving their widest end at their junction with the main -drain c d. These channels being parallel to each VOL. II .
of the latter, not only fronı its being the best adapted of the clover tribe for with standing excess of moisture, but also from its attaining to full maturity at a late 20
674
REALISATION .
period of the season, when the growth beds — their crowns - should be formed of the grassesgenerally becomes lessvigor- where the feeders are made,wherever that ous." *
may be. Should the ground fall suddenly from a to c, the water will run too fast
6054. When the field to beconverted into down the feeders, as made in fig. 554,
water-meadow has been in permanent pas- to avoid which inconvenience, they ture, the turf should all be carefully taken should go off at such an acute angle from off,in ahandy, well -prepared form ,(5746,) the main -conductor a b as that the water and laid aside for use. The bared surface shall flow in them as slowly and uniformly
should then be ploughed and wrought with the spade in the manner similar to that described above (6052) ; and when theground has been properly prepared, insteadof being sown, the turf is replaced, and beaten
as in the more level case of the ground ; and this angle can only be determined by the spirit-level, fig. 493, to wbich angle the beds should be ridged up, and the drains m, n, o, p , q, r, s, t, made to occupy
smooth with the back of the spade. This the parallel and intermediate spaces at the proceeding makes by far the best finish for proportionate lower level (6052.) a water -meadow , and is, in the end, most
economical, inasmuch as the expense of 6056. Another form of water -meadow the grass-seeds is saved, and the meadow is what is technically termed catch -work ,
is ready for taking on water at once, and from the circumstance of a lower set of will yield a good crop of meadow - grass feeders catching the water in its rapid the ensuing season ; whereas a meadow descent down steep ground, from a higher,
sown with grass-seeds cannot be watered thus causing the same channels to act the with impunity for two years — and even part of feeders and drains at one and the longer, if the grass-seedshad been sown same time. This is necessarily an imper
down with a corn -crop. When the turfing fect mode of irrigation, and should never of the meadow is finished, the water be resorted to but from necessity arising should be let into the main - conductor, and from an irreparably irregular form of the thence into each of the feeders and drains ground ; so that “ to give exact directions
into the main-drain, and discharged off for the formation of catch-work," as is the field for a shorter or longer time, well remarked by the late Mr Stephens,
according as the soil is dry or otherwise, “ is beyond the ingenuity of man ; for no in order to consolidate the soil and the two pieces of land are precisely alike, turfing, that any inequality thereby indi- which renders it impossible for the irri cated on the surface may be rectified gator to follow the same plan in one field before the turfs have grown together.
that he has done in another.
Each mea
dow , therefore, requires a different design, 6055. This is the simplest as well as and the construction to be varied accord the most perfect form of water-meadow ; ing to the nature of the ground and the
but examples of ground of so much unifor- quality and quantity of the water.” Im mity of surface as now supposed is of so pressed with the difficulty of conveying rare occurrence, that modifications must be useful information on this sort of water
made in the position of the feeders and meadows, I shall only give one supposable
drains, to suit the form of the ground. case as an illustration of the irregulari For example, if the ground falls more ties that may be found on some grounds ;
suddenly from a to b, fig. 554, than from but the expediency of attempting the a to c, the feeders e, f, g, h, i, k, and l, formation of water-meadows, where the
instead of being made on the middle of ground is so irregular as to seem unsuited the beds, should be placed a little towards for them, is doubtful. I conceive that the
a , the higher part of the ground, making original trouble and expense of making the lower side of the beds broader than them, and the consequent risk of injuring the higher, as gravity will easily carry the ground by an injudicious distribution the water down the broader sides into the of the water, would more than counter
drains m, n, o, p, q, r, s, and t. Still, in balance all the advantages likely to be such a case, the most elevated line of the derived from so imperfect a structure. If * Lawson On the Cultivated Grasses, p. 41, 3d edition, 1850.
WATER -MEADOWS.
675
the opinion of Mr Stephens, that “ the not wonder it has so often proved unsuc benefit of irrigation depends so much upon cessful," is applicable to bed -work, how the good management and patient perse- much more so to catch -work irrigation ! verance of those who have the superin tendence of a water-meadow , that I do
6057. A main - conductor, a b, fig. 555,
Fig. 555,
d
9
10
g
h
k
P
U
m
A CATCH-WORK WATER- MEADOW.
is as necessary in catch -work , to convey the water to the different parts of the field, as in the most perfect bed -work ; and as it should have the same gradual fall in its course as in that case, it may have to be carried along numerous curves.
On the water reaching its extremity at b, necessarily the highest part of the ground, it should flow, on the one hand, along the feeder b c, and, on the other, along the feeder 6 d, both being true feeders, and not drains. In their overflow the water finds its way to the drain e f, which col-
6058. It is obvious that the water in
cd will impart most of its sedimentary constituents to the ground between it and f e, and by the time the water has reached k, very little foreign matter will be left in it, so that the grass in this upper part of the meadow will be better nourished than that in the lower ; but, the sub - conductor op carrying the water from the main conductor a b directly to all the feeders in connection with the main-drain from 1 to u, the water will bestow equal advan tage to every portion of that part of the
lects all that comes from c to d ; but it meadow. In catch -work, as in bed -work,
is, at the same time, a feeder, and dis- each feeder may supply water for 30 feet poses of its surplus water down the of ground in breadth, if the descent is
descent to g h , which in its turn sends it gradual ; but if more sudden, the breadth to i, and i sends it to k , which lastly sends may be increased to 40 feet. it to the main -drain u m.
Part of the
6059. Where water flows unequally, water finds its way to the drain n, which conveys it into the main -drain at m. whether in conductors or feeders , stops Also, the water issues out of the main- are placed in them to retard the velocity conductor a b into the sub - conductor o P , of the water. The stops are made of vari from which it flows to the right down the ous materials — of pieces of the natural soil
feeders q , r,s, t; and on the left downthose left untouched , of pins of wood driven into of 0, w , x ,y, and z, to both of which classes the middle of the channels, of sods pinned of feeders l u acts as a main - drain . down, of one stone or of stones piled in
676
REALISATION .
heap, and of short boards thrust into the instanced in one case belonging to the late
edges of the channels at an angle. In all Sir Charles Stuart Menteath ofCloseburn, cases of regular bed -work, fig. 554, the in 1826 ; whereas, in a case of Mr Lawson surface being uniform in its descent, no of Cairnmuir, in Peeblesshire, the cost stops are necessary, nor are they required was £ 12 per acre. In one case it cost even in catch-work, where the water flows Mr Simpson of Glenytban, Aberdeenshire, direct to an overflow , as in b c and b d , fig. about £7, and in another case only 36s. 9d. 555 ; but where water is supplied down the per acre. From £7 to £ 9 per acre may
steep sub -conductor o p, they are requisite be taken as a fair average. Unless tlte
to guide it equally into the entrance of advantage to be derived were considerable, each of the feeders q, r, s, t, and o, w , x, But all the kinds of stops just enumerated are objectionable, because pins collect straws and sticks brought by
y , z.
such an expense would not be justifiable ; but in all cases where meadows have been well managed, the yield has at least doubled ; and the land that was not worth
the water ; stones and turfs cause holes to more of rent than from 5s. to 158. an acre,
be formed in the channels by the water increased in value to nearer £3 per acre. falling over them ; and notch -boards in- From the nature of the work connected jure the edges of the feeders, besides with their formation, it cannot be otherwise
causing deep holes by the fall of the than expensive, as Mr Stephens justly water over them . The best form of stops remarks: “ However simple the construc consists of a piece of wood forming two tion of a water-meadow may appear in a wedges with their bases united ; because, superficial view , those who enterminutely when placed firmly to the bottom between into the detail will find it much more
the edges of a conductor or feeder, the difficult than is commonly imagined. It water flows over them in an unbroken mass, is not an easy task to give an irregular with a retarded velocity. A number of surface the equal slope requisite for the such stops of unequal breadth fit any size overflowing of water. It is very neces sary for the irrigator to have just ideas of levels ; a knowledge of superficial forms
of channel.
6060. Where the natural fall of the will not be sufficient. Few people unac
ground admits of the arrangement, it is quainted with the art of irrigation, and quite possible to convey the water in a the regularity of form which the adjust lead from the lowest main -drain of one ment of water requires, have any idea of water-meadow to the main-conductor of the expense of modelling the surface of a another at a lower level ; but, as the field.” water would then be almost deprived of 6062.
Great as are the benefits derivable from
its manuring properties, where there is a water-ineadows in the low country, such mea large supply of water, it would be better dows would prove of incalculably more advantage to convey it at once to the lower meadow ; to our Highland districts, where hay is the most
and where thereis no surplus water, liquid- valuable food for stock in winter that can be manure should be put into the lead , and raised at such altitudes. That the formation of water-meadows practicable in all our the water, as it left the one meadow, could Highland apparent glens isis quite from these senti
carry it by the main-conductor to the ments of Mr Stephens, with which I cordially other.
In my opinion, liquid -manure acquiesce, and earnestly press upon the consider
would be much more profitably applied in ation of such of you as may betake yourselves to
this way than by direct sprinkling on the hill-farming.,“ Fallaws-meadow , on Sir George Montgomery's large sheep -farm , containing
15
soil, as the extraordinary effects produced acres,was enclosed from moorland in 1816 ,and , by the foul -water irrigation in the neigh- by collecting the water from the surrounding bourhood of Edinburgh fully demonstrate. sheep-drains, 5 acres are partially irrigated, and the remaining 10 are top-dressed with the
manure made from part of the produce, which is 6061. The expense of converting land consumed in winter by the sheep of the farm in
into water-meadow varies according to a wooden shed near the meadow . By this simple method of improvement, 15 acres of common Where the ground is nearly level, and the sheep-pasture land gave the proprietor from 3500 circumstances, and is often very great. surface covered with turf, the turf may
be
to 4000 stones of hay per annum , averaging 6d. per stone. In that year of drought, 1826, the
taken up, the ground properly shaped ,and hay ofthis meadow was sold from 1s.to 1s. 3d. the turf replaced for L3 per acre, as was per stone. What an immense advantage to a
IRRIGATION .
677
sheep -farmer ! By this simple process of enclos- in all the feeders is adjusted. Let the ing and cutting afew small feeders and drains, beds of a water-meadow be ever so well
the owner is enabled to providefoodforhis flock; formed, yet, bysome places sinkingmore eitherstarve orbe supplied from the farmyard ; than others, or by the ice raising the sur but I am afraid there are few sheep -farmers who face of the ground, although the water are so fortunate as to have any hay over and along the banks of the feeders has been above what is requisite for stock at home. Sir
ever so nicely adjusted, it often happens that there may be some places between enclosed, and I am fully persuaded that the the feeders anddrainswith too little water, same improvement might be made on almost whenit will be advisable for the manager every sheep -farm in Tweeddale ; for, in almost to make a third round , redressing inequali George fed the same number of sheep on the farm
as he did before the meadow was cut off and
all of them , there are situations where 5, 10, or
ties of the surface so as to give every spot 1 inch deep of water. Every part of the numerous rills which might be easily collected, works being regulated, the water should and used to the greatest advantage, at avery be allowed to run through the whole of 15 acres might be enclosed and partially irri gated , as in every pastoral district there are
trifling expense ; so that,insteadofbeingobliged, October, November ,December, and Janu
climate of the southern parts of Dumfriesshire, ary, from 15 to 20 days at a time without where the owners are obliged to be at the mercy intermission. At the expiration of each of their southern neighbours — not to mention the of these periods, the ground should be very serious injury the flocks receive by so long made completely dry for 5or 6 days, to
and fatiguing ajourney - byadopting the above give it air; forthere are few species of
system of improvement,a considerable portion the grasses which form the most nutritive of the losses generally sustained would be pre
vented ,” * ( 1027 ) and ( 1041. )
ON IRRIGATION .
part of the herbage of water-meadows, that will long existunder an entire immer sion of water. Moreover, if the frost should be severe and the water begin to
freeze, the watering must be discontinued,
“ At the beginning of the month otherwise the whole surface will of October," says Mr Stephens, “ each one sheet of ice ; and whenever become the ice 6063
feeder and drain should be cleansed, and the banks of the feeders repaired where they have received damage by the treading of cattle .” A thorough repair of this
takes hold of the grass, it will undoubt edly draw it into heaps, which is very injurious to meadows. The object of this early watering of the meadows is to take
sort every year will cost about 9s. per advantage of the autumnal floods, which
bring along with them a variety of putres
acre .
cent matter, which is found very enriching
6064. “ The whole worksbeingrepaired , and there being generally water enough at this season either for the whole or for part, the sluice should be drawn , when,
in the course of half -an -hour, the conductor and the upper part of the feeders will be nearly filled. The first operation of the irrigator is to adjust the water in the
to land. It is the chief object of the irrigator, in those months, to collect as much of this manure as possible, and at the sanie time to shelter the land from the
severity of frosty nights. It is therefore will carry without guttering. I believe it would be difficult to give land, with a
requisite to use as much water as the land
conductor ; or, if the meadow is in more dry subsoil and considerable descent, too
parts thanone, the water in each conductor much water before the weather begins to must be first regulated. Then he com- get warın . It is necessary , in those months , mences anew, by regulating the stops in that the meadows be inspected at least the first feeder ; but should there not be once in 3 or 4 days, to see that the equal sufficient water in the feeder, a little more distribution of the water is not obstructed
must be let in, by making the aperture by the accumulation of weeds, ” &c. wider or deeper, till the water flows regu larly over the sides from one end to the
6065. Simple as these directions are ,
other . From the first he proceeds to the the actual management of the water of second feeder, and so on, until the water meadows is not unattended with difficulty, * Stephens' Practical Irrigator,p. 82.
REALISATION .
678
and requires the exercise of considerable another too little ; for on the alteration of judgment and great attention. “ The ad- the apertures, and adjustment of the water,
justment of water flowing over the surface greatly depends not only the quality but of land,” observes Mr Stephens, “ for the the quantity of the crop." purpose of improving the herbage, is a very
nice operation ; it requires a perfect know-
6066. There are many ways of mis
ledge oflevels and thevegetation of grasses, managing water-meadows, such as retain and ought never to be intrusted to an un . ing a moist subsoil, or allowing the grass skilful manager . When the supply of to stand too long before cutting; but there water is, in any state of the stream that is an error committed at this period of the supplies it, sufficient for the whole or one- year, to which I wish to direct your atten half of the meadow at once , the manage- tion, and which is thus characterised by ment becomes pretty easy ; for after the Mr Stephens. “ Another great error works are cleaned, and the water regulated generally committed is, allowing the water in the autumn, the sluices should be fixed to run too long at a time, without properly at such a height as to let in the exact drying the ground. I know some in quantity of water required, when it is stances where the ground is not attempted allowed to run, according to the state of to be dried from the time the water is put the weather and the season of the year, on the meadows in autumn till 8 or 10
for 2, 6 , 10, or 15 days, without any days before the cutting of the hay ; the alteration ;
and it will be found (unless consequence is, that the grass is of the
the water has carried along with it weeds, coarsest quality, and the ground becomes sticks, or wrack of any kind) to run so very boggy that the whole crop
ofgrass
during that whole period nearly as equally is obliged to be carried by people to some over the surface as wben first put on. But other place, to be made into hay. . . All when the stream is small, and rising and dry soils require more attention than moist
falling with every shower of rain, the ones; for, if the water in moist soils should management becomes so much the more
not be so nicely regulated as on sandy or
difficult, that it will require every possible dry land, the crop of grass will not be so attention of the irrigator to watch and defective as on porous soils, where the
change the water from one part of the management has been neglected. I pre meadow to another, or from one bed to sume that all dry land that has been con
another, according to its abundance or
verted into water-meadows, in countries
deficiency. Such meadows are indeed ill where the art of irrigation is not well
managed, although half-an -hour's work known, and the supply of water not abun in a day would put every thing to rights. dant or regular, is liable to more injury, Indeed , let the formation of the meadow from imperfect treatment, than land of a
be ever so perfect, and the supply of water constant and uniform , yet it is necessary that the manager should survey the whole every 3 or 4 days, to remedy any defect
moist nature; for plants must have their food at stated times as well as animals, but this cannot be the case when the water is irregularly applied." *
occasioned by the accumulation of weeds, or by a stop being washed away, and
6067. It is the practice of some, that thereby cause some places to have too when a deficiency of plants is observed,
much water, and others too little ; so that, in a meadow that had been made from old in the former case, the grasses might pasture, to allow the grass to shed its seed
either be killed or very much injured by in the ensuing season in order to thicken the generation of scum , or, in the latter the sward . This should never be done, case, there would be little or no product because very many of those plants which of grass. Small streams are certainly have shed their seed will die out. An much more at command than large ; but idea much prevails, that, because pastures
if the manager, as is too often the casewith
are permanent, the lives of the grasses
a young practitioner, vainly endeavours which compose it are permanent also ; to water too much ground at a time, he but the fact is otherwise. Most of the may give one part too much water, and grasses are perennial, but not permanent ; *
Stephens' Practical Irrigator, p. 20-7.
IRRIGATION .
679
and we do not know the longevity of the water was let upon each for a few days decidual plants of grass which constitute at a time. a permanent pasture, though observation would instruct us, that on permanent pas6070. The produce in the two seasons ture the older plants die out and young was as follows from the same piece of ones take their place. For aught we
ground :
know, then , in regard to the age of any portion of a permanent pasture, that the
we have selected for shedding its seed, for the purpose of filling up gaps, may be the very one which contains the one
Cut in June, July, ...
August,
September, October,
oldest plants, which will die out after having shed their seed. The sure course
1844 .
1845 .
Cart - loads.
Cart-loads. 13
12 32
36
34 30 11
43 42
119
142
for the owner of a water -meadow to
Each cart-load of grass weighed 6 cwt., pursue, when he desires to fill up the and was made into hay in gaps of grass in it, is to sow the barespots 1844,thebyload yielded of experiment waythat
,
?
of earth with new seed, which will assist 104 lbs.; so thatwould the 4 acres, yielded the grass to cover the ground entirely, cwt. 38 poles of meadow have 1 rood, instead of imposing upon the existing 2788 stones of lay of 14 lb. to the stone, plants the exaction to fill up the gaps for or 652 stones per acre, which in 1845 was him. increased to 778 stones = 495 stones of 22
lbs. to the stone, the ordinary method of
6068. The returns from irrigation are surprising ,evenfromunpropitiouscircum- estimatingthe weight of hayin Scotland.
Estimating the 495 stones of hayat 6d.
stances. Mr Simpson in each, the value amounts to £ 12, 78. 6d. Aberdeenshire tells us,of in Glenythan regard to the
per acre, or £52, 17s. 6d. over the whole
statewater-meadow of the ground, that,“ which he converted into previous to the ground, being £21, 9s. 3d. more than ground ground being operated upon for the pur- the meadow .* cost to convert into a water
poses of irrigation, the burn ran through the den in a winding course. The ground,
6071. As it is impracticable to irrigate
at the top of the den, consisted of a few meadows in winter in highland districts, that
mossy hillocks ; and the other part of the process should be delayed till every chance of frost has subsided - until there ground waspretty level, of a dry nature, willstill be sufficient timeMay, for aafterwhich crop ofnatural
and covered with a short grass.
The
hay to grow, be cut down, and won, before the
ground was never cropped with grass, and the grass was not in use to be cut. The cattle were occasionally turned out npon it, when pasture was scarce in the other
departure of summer. Such a meadow is useful in a backward spring for the support of ewes and lambs ;and the sheep belonging to Sir George Montgomery would have inevitably perished in
the cold and backward spring of 1826, had it parts of the farm . The soil, generally, not been for the grass afforded by a water
except the mossy part, is alluvial in some
meadow from the middle of April to the begin
places, and at others gravelly.” There ning of May ; after which latter period the and produced nearly 300 are many such places as this in Scotland, meadow was irrigated, The attention of hill -farmers stones per acre .
that mightbeconverted into water-meadows where there is a command of water.
cannot, therefore, be too strongly drawn to the
subject of water -meadows. Any attempt to irri gate meadows in such situations in winter, and
6069. After irrigation from November to pasture them in early spring, would but injure 1843 to the beginning of May 1844, this the meadow by means of frost,and ,at the same meadow was cut for the first time on the
time, rot the sheep ; but sheep may be pastured, if necessary, in perfect safety on dry meadow
14th of June following, and was continued landin spring, and the meadow , on being after to be cut until the October of the same
wards irrigated, might yield a good crop of hay.t
year. In November 1844, irrigation was again commenced, and continued until
6072. The mode in which water acts, in pro ducing the effects
witnessed in water -meadows, April 1845. In both summers, after the has not yet been satisfactorily ascertained. It
meadow had been cut in portions, the is not the sediment in the water that alone pro * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1847, p. 44-8. + Stephens' Practical Irrigator, p. 82.
680
REALISATION .
duces the effect, for clear water produces similar used in spreading dung upon the soil. The fact effects ; though , no doubt, enriching ingredients seems to be, that whenever the water of irriga carried by the water encourage the growth of tion , or the substances contained in it, act chemi
plants more rapidly than clear water. Professor cally upon the grass or soil, while subjected to Low has theseobservations on the theory of the
the process, that instant irrigation proves injuri
process. “ The theory of the process of irriga-
ous to the plants ; and the injury is evinced by
tion has not been satisfactorilyexplained. That the existence of a white scum floating upon the the effect is not produced by the mere supply of water, which is generated when the water has deficient water, appears not only from the period been too long retained upon the grass in a state
at which the water is admitted, and when in our of the atmosphere tending to too high a temper climate the soil is always saturated with the
ature for the season .
fluid, but from the circumstance, that the effect is not produced when the water is allowed to stagnate, and sink down in the soil, but when it is kept in
tion of the two theories, mechanical and excre
a current over it .
tory ; and the compound theory seems to explain
When the water is suffered to
6075. I proposed , some years ago, a conjunc
stagnate, the soil tends to produce carices, junci, these four great points in irrigation, namely, kept in motion , and drained off at intervals, the
that it supplies moisture to the soil in dry seasons and in tropical climates ; it affords protection to
finest grasses peculiar to the soil and climate are
and other sub-aquatic plants ; but when it is
plants against the extremes of heat and cold ; it
produced. Neither doesthe factof the deposi- disseminates manure in the most minute manner tion of mud, or other fertilising sediment, explain
the phenomenon ; for however such depositions
to plants ; and it washes away injurious matter from the roots of plants. The benefits derived
may increase the effect,it is likewise found that from irrigation I therefore maintained, are purely water, without the least perceptible sediment, mechanical. I stated the case in these terms : may be employed with success. It has been sup- “ The operation of water bringing matter into
posed that the water acts beneficially, bymain- minute subdivision ; the sedimentwhich it con taining the soil at a higher temperature. Water, tains when used in irrigationbeing minutely dis at a temperature of 40° is of greater specific
tributed around the stems of the plants ; water
gravity than at a lower temperature ; and hence, protecting plants in irrigation against the ex as the water tends to the freezing point, the
tremes of heat and cold, by compietely covering
warmer portion of it is next the ground. Much, and embracing every stem andleaf; and the therefore, cannot be ascribed to this cause, in a current so shallow and constant as that which
passes over the watered meadow.
It is proba-
supplying of moisture to the soil and washing excrementitious matter out of it, are all purely mechanical operations.” So that, " could the hand
ble, therefore, that themain effect is produced by of man distribute the manure around the roots a mechanical action of the water, acting upon and stems of grass as minutely and as incessantly and bringing nourishment to the fibrous roots of as turbid water ; could it place a covering of the plants." * woollen texture upon each blade and around each stem of grass, to keep it warm, as completely 6073. The late Professor Rennie, of King's as water embraces each plant ; could it water College, London, explained the phenomena of the grass as quietly and constantly as the slow
irrigation by reference to the excretion of plants. current of irrigation ; and could it wash away He supposed it to be probable that every species
hurtful matter from the soil as delicately from
of grass is not alike affected by its own or the excretory matters from other grasses, and there-
the fibres of the roots of grass as irrigating
fore some species withstood the poison better
husbandman could then command verdant pas.
water, there would be no need of irrigation ; the
turage for his flocks and herds throughout the its descent through the soil , washed and carried year, and in the driest season ; his mechani. away this matter, and on thereby cleansing the cal agency would be as effective as irrigation : soil they grow the more freely by it. Hence the but, as the relation stands at present between perennial verdure of irrigated meadows (5107. ) + man and the action of physical laws, he em ploys irrigation as an instrument of his will, 6074. Sir Humphry Davy's opinion was, that and induces nature to assist him in maintaining “ in the artificial watering of meadows, the bene- his live -stock by her peculiar mode of acting, ficial effects depend upon many different causes, in which she undoubtedly displays in this parti some chemical, some mechanical.” I Now , chemi- cular, as in every other thing, her superiority cal action only commences after the act of irriga- over him, both in perseveranceand dexterity .” than others ; but that the water of irrigation , in
tion has ceased .
No doubt, the effects of the
substances, whatever they may be, which are de posited by the water of irrigation, may be chemi cal, as well as those are of manure applied to grass by the hand of man. But the act of the water, in depositing fertilised materials, can no more be chemical than that of the instruments
ON THE TREATMENT OF DRAUGHT STALLIONS .
6076. We have now considered every
* Low's Elements of Practical Agriculture, p.470, 4th edition.
+ Quarterly Journalof Agriculture, vol.v.p. 24. # Davy’s Agricultural Chemistry, p. 305. § Encyclopædia Britannica, 7th edition -- art. Irrigation.
STALLIONS.
681
subject connected with the culture of the winter it should have a loose-box to it soil. It now remains to attend to some self, as u in the work - horse stable 0, Plate
particulars relating to the treatment II., or a loose -house , and supported on the of live -stock , which only present them- best food, prepared for it according to
selves to notice occasionally, but which the directions given in ( 1431.) Next spring it should be broke in by an experi become acquainted with as with the more enced horse -breaker, and taught to work ; common proceedings of the farm . One of the and although its work should never ex
nevertheless are as incumbent on you to
subjects to which I allude is the treatment ceed its ability, in case its shape should of stallions. For all the foals that any be injured, a little of it, even at an early farmer requires to rear in any year, in age, encourages the growth of bone and order to fill up the blanks that may be muscle, and renders a colt more easily occasioned by death amongst his draught handled and commanded . In spring,when horses, he would never require to keep a in hands, it may be exhibited at a show stallion for the use of his own mares alone ; as an entire 2 year-old colt, to assist in
but
never a superior colt foal is drop- making it known, if its figure be good ;
ped by a mare of superior quality, he may if not, it had better be castrated at once. be induced to rear it as a stallion, notwith- A run at good grass, for a couple of months, standing the trouble which it may impose after this discipline, in a securely fenced
upon him , the danger involved in keeping field, in company with colts, is of great it about the steading, and the expense service ; but if the fences are not trust
incurred in maintaining it in the condi- worthy, it should be supplied with cut tion it ought to be. Taking all these grass in one of the hammels or courts. points into consideration , very few farmers When thus confined, everything loose rearstallions; they prefer engaging the ser- should be removed from the court or ham
vices of one which travels the country,with mel, that it may not blemish its legs by an owner who makes it his business either an accidental stroke upon them . In the fol
to breed them , or to purchase an entire lowing winter it should be supported colt likely to turn out a good stallion.
on the bestfood, in a loose -box (1557;) and
towards spring be well kept, groomed,
6077. But supposing you wish to rear a and clothed, to keep it clean from dust ; stallion, it is necessary that the colt should and regularly exercised, to put it in
possess such properties as to render it high order and condition by April, in time to be exhibited for a prize. When at this A foal does not present many of the points age, not exceeding 3 years, it may ap
probable that it will become a good horse.
found in a good horse ; but as it is kept pear leggy , and want middle in compari until a year old before being castrated, son with older borses, and may therefore time is allowed to show whether or not it be defeated in competition ; but if it have a good shape and well -balanced quarters, is likely to possess the requisite points. it may get a few mares to serve ; and
6078. However many goodpoints a colt should it obtain a district by a premium, may possess, if one or more of the follow- it should not serve beyond the allotted ing diseases be indicated it should be number of mares. Many farmers object to a rejected as a stallion --namely, contracted 3 -year-old stallion serving at all ; and, in feet, founder, sand -cracks, ringbone, bone- ordinary circumstances, it is better to re
spavin, curb, bog -spavin, diseases of the frain from service until next year, when eye, broken wind, roaring, wind -sucking.
as a 4 - year- old it will be in great vigour, and display great increase of substance .
6079. When a colt with promising 6080. When a stallion undertakes to appearances is determined to be kept as a stallion, it should be placed under the travel a district as a premium horse, or on care of a man who will work and attend its own account, it should be provided upon it at all times. While the stallion is with a sheet and roller, with a light wallet
young, say 1 year old, it should be bridled strapped across its back containing corn in spring, and taught to be handled and and beans, a few cleansing instruments, led, and in summer get a run on good such as curry -comb and brush, water
grass, in company with colts. The next brush and foot-pick, mane-comb and
682
sponge, tigs. 116 and 310.
REALISATION .
Besides a and sponge ; and should they feel hot and
bridle with a curb -bar, to keep it in hard when travelling in dry weather on
check, it should be provided with a stallcollar and water-chain, to fasten it at night in a stall when a loose- box cannot be had. Its shoes should be light, and,
dusty roads, a stuffing of cow -dung and clay forms a nice cooling poultice . A bran -mash at night, twice, or at least once a-week, on Saturday night, with 1 oz .
to be durable, they should be steeled in the of nitre, proves an excellent alterative . fore -bits and beels — the former being only Its litter should be ample to encourage
a thickening, and the latter a little turn- it to lie down and rest at night. ing up of the outsides. The shoes usually worn by stallions are very clumsy, and, in case of excited action, are apt to cause tramping, ( 1546) to ( 1556.)
It
should always be borne in mind to give its food at stated hours every day, along with the conviction , that it is its food alone wbich enables the horse to maintain
its condition, and consequent spirit, on its 6081. It is too much fatigue for a man very exhausting travels. A stallion that
to walk with a stallion in all his journeys loses condition and spirit to a considerable
during a season, the only remedy for which degree on its travels — one, in short, that is a pony gelding to ride upon ; but should wants botton—is unworthy of serving the possession of a pony induce him at draught mares, for its progeny will as any time to trot the stallion along the hard suredly prove as soft as itself. road, to make up for time spent in his own indulgence, or to overwalk it in too 6083. The number of mares limited to a
long journeys, the man who so far forgets horse which obtains a prize is commonly his duty should either be dismissed or 60, at1 guinea a mare ; but the number is caused to walk, and be forbid to mount seldom adhered to,
because many farmers,
the horse's back. If the leader has a instead ofpaying the guinea, make a bar proper idea of his work, he will divide the gain, offering less money, or only agreeing district so as to go over it all in regular to pay even the lesser sum, should the order in the time a mare would come again mare prove in foal; and to secure a good into heat should she prove not in foal. He should keep a bookand enter the services of the horse day by day, not merely as a memorandum , but as a detailed docu-
season, the leader of the horse agrees to the terms, and makes up the gross sum he is entitled by the rules of competition to receive, by either taking more mares than
ment, by which to make up his accounts the stipulated number, or by travelling correctly, and, in case of dispute arising beyond the district, or by doing both ; and he' is blameless under the temptation. In this, as in many similar matters, far
from alleged negligence of service, to prove the regularity of his attendance. I have witnessed disagreeable disputes arise from the leader neglecting to keep an account
save a few shillings, they run the risk of
of the services of the horse.
losing a foal, by making their agreements
mers are shortsighted, in attempting to
on such conditions as compel the horse to be 6082. It is customary, when the farmer overworked. The owners of horses which
affords a night's quarters, to do so gratui- fail of obtaining a prize choose districts for tously, and even supply the corn ; but un- themselves, and bargain for any amount of less otherwise arranged, the understanding fee; and it is their conduct which some is that the man supplies the corn and farmers use as a means to beat down the A stallion in fee of the prize -horse. its travels requires at least 5 feeds or 1 6084. The mode of putting a horse to stone of corn a-day, with a proportionate beans from his own store .
quantity of beans, at 5 separate times. It the mare will be found in (3676,) (3677,) should always rest at noon. It should be supplied frequently with water during the day. Whenever it halts, its skin should be wisped and brushed, and its tail and mane combed. Every night it should have its feet searched with the foot- pick, and washed clean with the water - brush
and (3678.) 6085. When the horse's season bas ter
minated, from the beginning of April to the end of June, it will be found to have lost much condition, and no small share of spirits. It should be immediately put
BREAKING IN .
683
in fresh though not in high condition, and insensible to the rein all the time they an excellent means of doing so exists at are apparently tractable ; they seize the
that season on the cutting grass, which is bit with their teeth, and press upon it, daily in hands, (3869. ) with their head hanging down, their neck arched, and their eyes set back, as if sus
6086. Some owners object to working picious of an advantage being about to be stallions out of the season, and when they taken of them.
bave been ill broken -in, and not handled when young, andare therefore easilyexcited and put out of temper, it is proper to refrain from working them ; and some horses have naturally an ungovernable temper,
In this position, in every
yoking they are worked they look liker objects of oppression and pity, than of exultation to the farmer,while witnessing the young noble steed he has bred and reared undertaking its first work . In
that are not safe to put into the yoke;but the end, the dull sulky-looking colt is whenever a stallion is quiet and obedient, confirmed in bis natural doggedness, and work is of use to itself, in giving it exer-
the timid one rendered more afraid .
No
cise and food regularly, and inducing it to doubt, time brings abouta change; but why rest at night. According as the animal should the change be allowed to beeffected works best by itself, or in company by lapse of time, to the discomfort and with another borse, it should be treated. annoyance of the animal, when it might
Perhaps single-horse carting is the work do his work with comparative ease by most compatible with its temper and being broke in ? strength to be put to most constantly, though its loads ought to be compara6088. The easiest plan to make a
tively light to its strength and willing- draught-colt soon work well is to employ ness.
At whatever work it is employed, a good horse- breaker to bridle, and handle,
much of the quietness and good temper of and lunge him - as long as is requisite to the horse depends on the temper and make its mouth yield to the bit - and then judgment of the person who leadsit. it will obey both voice and rein ; and while employing the rein , the horse breaker should be instructed to use the
ON THE BREAKING - IN OF YOUNG DRAUGHT language that will be spoken to it while HORSES.
at work, ( 687) to (694.) The barness required for this purpose is a breaking 6087. Young draught horses are never bridle, a cavesson ,and pad for the back, broke in . They are most frequently yoked all which the horse-breaker brings with with an old steady horse at onceinto the him. Most of the bits I have seen used in
harrows, accompanied with a few re- breaking -bridles seem to me inefficient for strainers of reins and ropes, or an addi- the purpose. They are thick at the tional hand or two to assist the ploughman guard, round, and jointed in the middle to prevent any attempt at a run away ; a construction which gives the horse an
and no doubt, when colts have been hal- opportunity of seizing them with its teeth, tered and led about from the time they when folded back against the sides of the were weaned, by a steady quiet-tempered mouth, by the force of the reins acting on man, they will soon submit to work,
Fig. 556 .
9
and become quite tractable in the course of a few short yokings. But, notwithstanding their quietness, they cannot be said to be broke in, in the
proper senseof the term — that is, they do not yield to the guidance of the
ploughman because they know or understand
what
he
means,
but
simply because they feel they are
obliged to move along with an older and a stronger horse, to which they are attached , as it may choose to lead them. Their mouth is quite
h THE BREAKING-BRIDLE BIT.
684
REALISATION .
the rings. A much better bit, in my so ; while the bunch k lies too far for opinion, is represented in fig. 556, wbich ward upon the tongue to be agreeable. I have seen used many years agoin Ber- After this discipline in the stable for two or wickshire, by the late ThomasMiddlemiss three days, with occasional walks out of
of Norham, who was reckoned in his day, the stable, according as it is seen that the one of the best horse -breakers and grooms colt yields to the bit, it is led out to walk that bad practised his useful art in that two or three hours at a time by the nose
part of the country. It consists of two bits, one twisted and the other square, both 8} inches in length. The square bit c d is half an inch square, and so is the
rein of the cavesson, to learn to step ont, and to acquire a good pace ; and walking is the most useful pace for a draught-horse. A short lunge backwards and forwards
diameter of the twisted one a b, and they both have a play of half an inch between the shoulders of the guards a c and b d. The guards e f, and g h, are 7 inches in length. The ring i on each side is 24 inches in diameter over all, and at k is a bunch of links to lie upon the tongue, and make the horse move its jaws. The straps connected with the bitare the head -stool ; the hand -reins, 4£ feet in length ; the cheek-
round a circle, on red land, will be useful, not to teach him to trot ; but the trotting action makes him more active, and sooner gives the use of his legsin cases of difficulty. It should then be backed, and, while guided by the reins, should be spoken to in the language it will be ad dressed in the yoke. After that, it should be guided along a road with long double reins, while carrying the plough harness,
reins to keep the horse's head in line to accustom it to the noise and to feel
when strapped to the pad, and which pass the motions of the plough chains. Now below the neck -strap of the martingale. all this discipline may be gone through in These three straps are buckled by their ends to the rings i i. A martingale is necessary to prevent the head being thrown forcibly up. The breadth of the straps is 1 inch ; that of the counter-strap of the
the course of a week, or 8 or 10 days, ac cording to the disposition of the animal, the handling he may have received since he was a weaned foal, and the skill of the horse-breaker. The degree of exercise
martingale 11 inch . The bit can be given should be with a discrimination buckled on in the reverse order shown in suited to the condition and physical the cut, having the square bit c d upper-
strength of the animal. The horse -breaker
most, and the bunch k is then screwed to should groom the colt immediately after the twisted bit a b. The cavesson is well exercise, that the animal may become known, its figure and appointments being familiarised with the usages of the stable. The colt's food, too, should be so adminis uniformly thesame. tered as to harden his condition for labour,
6089. It is unnecessary to go through with the understanding however, that, all the discipline of breaking in a draught colt, as is required in the case of a saddlehorse. The playing of the mouth with the bit for 2 or 3 hours in the stable, twice or thrice a-day, the colt standing in the
after the busy season of work is finished in the early part of summer, the young tyro shall be allowed to have a run at grass for a few weeks, and then fall in to take its own share of the regular
reversed position in the stall, has the work . double advantage of making the mouth yield to the bit and of keeping up the 6090. After such treatment and dis horse's head. The bit is buckled on slack cipline from the horse -breaker, the colt
for this purpose, so as to lie upon the will be easily made to understand work. bare spaces of the gums of the lower jaws The sort of harness in wbich it is first between the front and back teeth , where invested is that of the plough, (676 ) to
the square or twisted parts of the bit rub (685.) It is quite possible that the break sharply ; while the bunch of links k makes ing received from the horse -breaker will the lips and tongue play as if desirous make the colt suffer at once to be yoked
of getting quit of the whole constraint. with an old horse to the plough ; but in When the head is pressed forward to get case of accidents, and to err on the safe
hold of the bit with the back teeth, the side, it is best to use precaution, and the
straps, being too long, prevent them doing principal precaution is to attach it to a
-
-
-
--
685
BREAKING IN .
strong steady horse, that will neither bite
6091. The colt should be broke in to It is
nor kick it, and yet be able to withstand the cart as well as the plough.
the plunges the colt may choose to make. yoked into a single-horse cart, but great The attachment is made by a cart-rope care should be used on the first yoking that being first fastened round the girth of the it gets no fright, by any strap rubbing old horse, and then passed round that of against it, or the shafts falling upon it
the colt, leaving as little space between when raised up to allow of its being backed their bodies as is required for ploughing; below them ; for if frightened at the first and to afford no liberty to advance or yoking to a cart, a long time will elapse retire beyond a step or two before or ere it will submit to any yoking quietly .. behind the old horse. Beside the usual The horse -breaker should stand in the cart
rein employed by the ploughman, the using double reins ; and a rein should be horse-breaker should have another in his held by a man walking first on each side hand from the colt's head. Thus equipped of its head, and then at a little distance in plough-harness, the first yoking of the on the side of the road. The chief danger colt should be to an old cart-wheel, placed is kicking, and thereby injuring the hocks on its dished face on ploughed land, fur- against the front-bar of the cart, to pre nished with a swing-tree, with which it vent which a rope should be placed across should be made to draw it, while the the top of the colt's rump, and fastened to horse walks beside him ; and on drawing the harness there, and on each side to this, the reins should be used, and the the shaft of the cart.
There is little
appropriate language spoken, that he may danger of its running away while all associate thechanges of his motions, which the harness and reins are good. It are indicated by the reins while guiding will take to the traces of the cart more
him , with the accompanying sounds. readily at first than with the trams, as Should the colt offer to turn round, the they are similar to the harness it had
gentlest means should be used in putting worn at the plough, and it is conscious of it again in its proper position, as the having its companion behind it. start may have been made from fear, or
from the tickling of a part of the harness. 6092. A young horse may be broke in When a bind-leg gets over a trace chain, for work any time in the course of the the chain should be unhooked from the spring, from the beginning of working the swing -tree, and hooked on again after the turnip -land to its completion. I can affirm
colt has been put in its right position ,and the efficiency of the plan I have recom the leg not attempted to be lifted over the mended by experience, and it is one which trace chain .
Should it offer to rear or
has been unattended with the slightest
kick, from a disposition to break away, accident in its practice. the old horse should be urged in his walk, and made to pull it along,whilst a smart
6093. On the first use of harness by a
tip of the whip will take the courage out young horse, the shoulders and back are of it. According as it evinces a dis- liable to become inflamed , and even the
position to go on quietly in the work, is skin to be broken by the collar and saddle. determined the length of time it should It should first be ascertained whether the work at the wheel. When obedient at collar it is to work in fits it properly ;
this, it should be yoked to the plough, and if not, it should be made to do so
and there his sympathy for his companion before being used,as the first day's use may will soon be called forth ; so that after a few landings he will work with energy and good-will, and should then be kindly spoken to, encouraged, and even fondled. The probability is, that its desire for the draught may be evinced too keenly, in which case the pace of the old horse
injure its skin as much to give it pain for weeks thereafter. The usual affections are heated swellings in the line of the collar and seat of the saddle. A good lotion for those parts whenever the colt comes out of yoke is a solution of common salt in warm water, when it becomes cold,
should be subdued and the keenness miti- and applied as a fomentation with a sponge.
gated by shortening the rein by which The water not only cools the skin, and it is fastened to the rope round the girth keeps down the inflammation, but the salt of the old horse .
hardens it for use ; and in the course of a
686
REALISATION .
short time, particularly if the weather be mer, whena long tail is of service in dry, the skin will become inured to the whiskingoff flies, the vertebræ ought to be pressure of the harness.
kept entire ; but no greater absurdity accompanies the docking off a tail than in
6094. It is the usual practice to shoe the paring of the crust of the hoofs, and
and dock the young horse before putting driving iron nails into them ; and yet, it to the yoke. I think he should first without iron shoes to protect the horny be broke in, and then he will suffer him- feet of the horse, they would be beaten to
self to be shod the more quietly. At the first shoeing it will be useful, in making it stand quietly, and in diverting its attention, to take the old borse it hasbeen
pieces upon hard roads, even at a walking pace. No necessary cruelty attends the act of docking, an operation of thesimplest form when properly done in a joint where
working with to the smithy. By nailing the wound easily heals. a mat against the wall, and making it stand alongside the mat, it will save its skin being ruffled should it rub against
ON BREAKING IN YOUNG SADDLE - HORSES .
the wall, whilst the wall will form a firm
barrier against its retreating farther from the blacksmith. After the fore and hind feet of one side bave been shod, that side should be turned next to the wall to get its other feet shod. Gentle and coaxing means should be used , though a twitch on they nose has a powerful command over an horse. The first shoes of a young horse should be light, with no heels, and
6096. As you may breed saddle -horses as well as draught ones, a few words on the breaking in of them after their treatment as young horses in the hammels, ( 1430 ) and (1431,) may prove useful.
6097. The age of 3 years seems a good one for breaking in a saddle -horse. The
the hoofs should not be pared down much colt should be sent to grass at the end of at first.
Rather renew the shoes, and May, and taken in to break by August at pare the hoofs down again in a short time, latest, by which time the grass will have than encumber a colt at first with heavy operated beneficially upon him as medicine;
shoes and heels, at the risk of trampling and there will be sufficient time to teach himself, to cure the effects of which may it its paces and put it in a working cost much more than the price of several condition before the fall of the year, when sets of new shoes. A severe paring down horses are apt to become soft, and catch of the hoof, too, at once, and at first, is colds.
But were it kept longer at grass,
apt to superinduce tenderness in the feet, its condition might become so fat as to en and may even bring out corns.
danger its constitution, were the fatness
suddenly reduced in the breaking in to 6095. As to docking a draught-horse, I working order. think it a necessary operation, because a
long rump is very aptto be injured when 6098. The first thing, in bringing a horse the horse is yoked in the trams, by coming into the stable, to which it should have against the body of the cart ; and in coup- been accustomed from his foalhood, is to carts especially it can scarcely escape give a gentle dose of medicine to clear the being nipped by the body of the cart, bowels of grass. A second dose may be
when brought down upon the front-bar. repeated in a week. A little new -made Besides, a draught- horse with a long tail hay with oats is the best food as a transi soon gets himself much dirtied in winter, tion from grass to hard food. The first both on the land and the road . A neat
treatment with the cavesson and bridle are
swish is all that is requisite at any time, and in winter even that is apt to become loaded with mud on dirty roads. Some writers affect to believe it presumptuous in man to deprive any animal of six of the joints of the vertebral column which nature has given it; and no doubt were
the same as forthe draught horse (6088.) Much lunging in a circle is not advisable at any time, and not at all at first for a young riding - horse, though horse- breakers
our horses always idle, especially in sum-
are very fond of giving it this sort of
exercise, because it saves themselves much travelling, while the horse may have as much exercise as the breaker chooses.
BREAKING IN .
687
The evil of much lunging is, that the con- pail in the stable, and at the trough of a pump- taking up with a dog in the a young horse to contract a longstep and a stable or on the road - bearing, without short. The circle is most usefulin training a startle, the fall of the pail -handle, the to canter, when a leading foot is requisite broom , or anything else-lifting the feet stant motion round the circle is apt to cause
in that sort of action. The first tuition
at the pail to be washed — hearing the
should be a straightforward pace ,on alea- curry-comb on the legs - being led by the field, and the only pace a walk, which forelock to the door, the pump, or any should be taught to be free with an easy where. These, and many other things, the head, as well as a short one with a tight colt should be taught to know in and out
rein. During the period of the walking-tui- of the stable before he is mounted at all. tion, a greatmany useful lessons should be taught the colt, which circumstances may 6100. Thus familiarised , it will allow suggest, such as turning from you and to itself to be mounted without much
you- backing, whether quickly or slowly trouble ; and the assistance of boys with -being led, whether by the side of the whips, and of men to hold down the op
head with the hand on the bridle-bit, or in posite stirrup, recommended by Mr Youatt, front with a slack rein — standing still, dispensed witb .* Thomas Middlemiss of whether for a short or long time - suffer- Norbam in Northumberland, the horse
ing to be tied to any object, such as a gate breaker and groom before alluded too, or tree--passing objects of terror, or of un- never required any assistance to mount certainty, causing the animal to become a young horse, although he was a stout
acquainted with everything it does not man, seem to recognise — becoming accustomed him him
nor
mount
did one
any person for the
ever
first
see
time.
with the crack of the long, and the slight No fuss should be made about the colt
or touch of the short whip - yielding the fore at any time, whether in mounting ns
and hind legs when lifted - and suffering anything else; nor a number of perso the groom to go about it and arrange,
be collected about it when anything
however minutely, the breaking -harness. With all these matters the young colt will become much sooner familiarised , by the breaker going constantly about with it on foot as a companion on the road and the
is done, else it will become apprehen sive. It will soon confide in one per son, the breaker who is constantly about it, but it will not trust a number of
persons at the same time ; nor will it
field, than when mounted on its back ; but trust even the breaker, when others are
the usual custom is for the breaker to engaged along with him ; and hence no mount that is, to place a burden upon considerate horse-breaker will permit the back of a raw , timid, young colt, any one to be near him, to distract the and to rein it and to irritate it with
attention of the colt, while he is sub
When the spur, which is ever ready, long be- jecting it to tuition of any kind. rsta nd fore the awkward creature knows how to mounted, the colt should bear its ride
set down one foot before the other in the artificial system in which it is abont to be trained. The man, however, must be mounted, which is enough for him , whether or not the colt be fit to be mounted.
ing still for some time before it is urged at all times when mounted until its rider is ready to move. Every one must have felt the annoyance of mounting a horse
towalk, as that will habituate it to stand
that will not stand
being mounted .
be mounted, or after
Its first pace should
6099. In the stable, too, the same sys- again be a walk, which having accom tem of tuition should be followed out, such plished well with a rider, the trot should as suffering a person to go up on either be taught. It is said that trotting is not side, and in any way - suffering to be a natural pace for a horse, that it either
groomed, and rather liking it than oppos- walks or starts off at a canter. However ing it, as is too often the case - going over this may be, trotting is an indispensable to one or other side of the stall,when the pace on our roads. On teaching trotting,
bed is being shaken up — drinking out of a horse -breakers are very apt to degenerate * Youаtt On the Horse, p. 321-4 .
REALISATION .
688
the pace into a jog, the most dangerous of all paces for a young horse in causing it
to trip , and the most difficult to break a horse from , when contracted. A short
ON TRAINING AND WORKING THE SHEP
HERD'S DOG.
6102. The natural temper of the shep
hitching walk , ready to break into the jog , herd may be learned from the way in is as bad as the jog itself, and isa favourite pace with horse-breakers in showing off their pupils as fast walkers ; but the pace is not the proper walking one, and in such
which he works his dog among sheep. When you observe an aged dog making a great noise, bustling about in an im patient manner, running fiercely at a
a pace a young horse is almost sure to dig sheep and turning it quickly, biting at a toe into the gronnd, and if a stumble is its ears and legs, you may conclude, not the consequence,itis not the man's without hesitation,that the shepherd who fault.
Let the walk be a sound walk,
owns it is a man of basty temper. Most
and a trot a fair trot, and let no bastard young dogs exhibit these characteristics pace be permitted to spoil both . It is not easy to teach a young horse to canter from a trot in a straight line, as it is more apt to start off to the gallop. A few lessons in the circle is the surest way of giving it an idea of a canter, and teaching it to point the leading foot. There is risk at
naturally , and they generally overdo their work ; and if you observe a shepherd allowing a young dog to take its own way , you may conclude that he also is a man who loses his temper with his flock . If you observe another shepherd allowing his dog, whether old or young, to take a
first in making a young horse convert range round the fences of a field, driving quickly a canter into a trot; the actions the sheep within sight as if to gather being so very different it seems at a loss them , you may be sure he is a lazy fellow, what to do, and would rather balt. A more ready to make his dog bring the sudden halt should be avoided at first with sheep to him than he to walk his rounds a young horse, as it may throw it upon amongst them . Great harm may accrue
its haunches, and irrecoverably bring it to sheep by working dogs in these ways. over upon its back ; and such an accident Wheneversheep hear a dog bark that is as this the colt will never forget, and , in accustomed to hound them every day, fear of its recurrence, may become restive they will instantly start from their grazing,
whenever pulled up suddenly at any time gather together, and run to the farthest thereafter . Every untoward manœuvre fence, and a good while will elapse ere with a young horse -- and no one knows they will settle again. And even when what it will do—that may occasion any sheep are gathered, a dog of high travel, sort of accident to it, should be carefully
that is allowed to run out, will drive
avoided bythe rider, and counteracted with them bither andthither, without an ap firmness when originating with the colt. parent object. This is a trick practised by lazy herds every morning when they
6101. Thus day by day the young horse first see their flock, and every evening will acquire experience in the management before they take up their lair for the night, of itself on the road, or in the field ; but in order to count them the more easily. a series of experiences, such as these, is a When a dog is allowed to run far out, it work of much time to both man and horse gets beyond the control of the shepherd ;
--of much patience and perseverance to and such a style of working among wether the man - of much endurance and annoy- sheep puts them past their feeding for a ance to the horse.
Above all, much of time : with ewes it is very apt to cause
the benefit derived froin even a good abortion ; and with lambs, after they are horse -breaker will be lost, if the future weaned, it is apt to overheat them, and a rider of the horse does not guide it in a considerable time will elapse before they similar manner, and with equal care , for recover their natural breathing. When some time to come. If considerations ever a sorting takes place among the
such as these do not induce the owners of sheep, with such a dog they will be moved
horses to employ only men of skill and about far more than is necessary; and character in breaking them in, I do not intimidated sheep, when worn into a know a stronger motive that can be placed corner, are far more liable to break off before them to do it.
than those treated in a gentle manner.
--
TRAINING .
689
6103. A judicious herd works his dog strange persons and animals at a consider in quite a different manner. He never able distance at night, and announce their disturbs his sheep when he takes his approach by unequivocal signs of dis
rounds amongst them at morning,noon, and night—his dog following at his feet as if he had nothingto do, butready to fulfil itsduty, should any untoward circumstance require its services, such as breaking out of one field into another. When he gathers sheep for the purpose of sorting, or of catching particular ones, the gathering is made at a corner, and to gain which he will give the sheep the least trouble, making the dog wear to the right and left, to direct thesheep to march quietly towards the spot; and after they are gathered, he
pleasure, short of grumbling and barking, as if aware that those noisy signs would betray its own presence. A shepherd's dog is so incorruptible that it cannot be bribed, and will not permit even a known friend to touch it when intrusted with any act of duty. 6104. As far as my observation extends, I think there are two varieties of the shepherd's dog, one smooth, short- haired, generally black -coloured on the back, white on the belly, breast, feet, and tip of
makes the dog to understand that it is its the tail, with tan -coloured spots on the occasional bark, prevent any of the sheep longer-bodied animal, having longhair of breaking away. When a sheep does break different colours, and longflowing tail.
chief duty to be on the watch, and, with an face and legs ; the other is a larger and
away, and must be turned, he does notallow Fig. 557 is a portrait of one of the latter Fig. 557. the dog to bite it, nor even to bark, but to give a bound at its head, and thus turn it.
In attempting toturn a Black -faced wether in this way, the dog runs the risk of receiv ing injury from its horns ; to avoid which I have seen one seize the coarse wool
of the buttock , and hang by it like a drag,
until the sheep was turned round in the opposite direction, when it is let go . In short, a well-tempered herd only lets his
dog work whenits services are actually re quired, he fulfilling his own duties faith fully, and only demanding assistance from his dog when the business cannot be so
well done by himself; and at no time will he allow his dog to go beyond the reach of his immediate control. Dogs, when
thus gently and cautiously trained, become THE SHEPHERD'S DOG. very sagacious, and will visit every part of a field where sheep are most apt to stray, class in the act of watching. In their re
and where danger is most to be appre- spective characters I conceive them to be bended to befal them—such as a weak part of a fence, deep ditches, or deep furrows into which sheep may possibly fall and lie awalt or awkward ( that is, lie on the broad of their back, unable to get up)—and they will assist to raise themup by seizing thewool at one side and pulling the sheep over upon its feet. Experienced dogs will not meddle with ewes having lambs at foot, nor with tups, being quite aware of their disposition to offer resistance. They also know full well when foxes are on the
very like the pointer and the setter. The small smooth kind, like thepointer, is very sagacious, slow , easily broke and trained, and admirably suited to work in an en closed and low country ; the other, like the setter, is more swift, bold , ill tobreak, and requiring coercion, and fitter for work on the hills. The former answers the habits of Leicester sheep, the latter those of the Cheviot and Black -faced. The latter, re quiring a great range to workin, on account of the nature of the sheep and of the ground
move, and give evident symptoms of un- which they frequent, arebold and rough in easiness on their approach to the lambing action ; still they should be trained to work ground.
They also hear footsteps of with caution, and not with recklessness.
VOL . II .
2x
690
REALISATION.
6105. Most shepherds profess to be able consider,” says Buffon , " that this animal, not to train young shepherds dogs, wherein withstanding his ugliness and melancholy look ,
many display much ignorance of the issuperior in instinct toallothers ; that he has a decided of the particular animal for its peculiar animal born perfectly trained for the service of
character, in which education has com nature of the breed , and of the aptitude paratively little share ; that he is the only
work ; and hence many dogs are ren- others ; that,guided by natural powers alone, he
dered unfit for service. Every shepherd's applieshimselftothecareofour flocks--a duty pup has a natural instinct for working ance, and fidelity;that he conducts them with among sheep, nevertheless they should an admirable intelligence, which is a part and always be trained with an old dog. Their portion of himself ; that his sagacity astonishes
ardent temperament requires subduing, atthe same time that it gives repose to his and there is no more effectual means of master, while it requires great time and trouble other dogs for the purposes to which doing so than keeping it in company with, totheyinstruct are destined :if we reflect on these facts, and making it imitate the actions of, an we shall be confirmed in the opinion that the experienced quiet dog. A long string shepherd's dog is the true dog of nature, the attached to the pup's neck, in the hands of stock, and modelof his species.” “ Theshepherd's
the shepherd, will be found necessary to removed dog,” remarksProfessor Graguier, " the least from the natural type of the dog, lives make it acquainted with the language and maintains its proper characteristics, while
employed to directthe various evolutions of the experienced dog while at work. With this contrivance it may be taught to “hold away out by,” to “come in ,” to
other races often degenerate. Everywhereit theservant ofman,while other breedsvary with priate mission , and that it discharges in the preserves its proper distinguishing type. It is
come in behind,” to “ lie down ,” to “be most admirable way ; there is evidently a kind
quiet," to “bark,” to “ get over the dyke and wise design in this.” Mr Hogg,the Ettrick or fence,” to wear , ” that is, to stand as Shepherd, truly says that" a single shepherd and dog will accomplish more, in gathering a a barrier ; to “ heel,” that is, to drive on, his flock of sheep from a Highland farm , then seventy
to “ kep," that is,to intercept . It will shepherds could do without dogs ;in fact, that,
learn all these evolutions, and many others, without this docile animal,thepastoral life would in a short time, in imitation of its older be a blank. It would require more hands to man companion and guide. It is supposed that ageaflock of sheep,gather them from the hills, force them into and folds, and drive them thebitch is more acute than the dog, tomarkets, thanhouses the profits flock of thewhole
though the dog will bear the greater would be capable of maintaining. Well may
fatigue. Of the two, I believe that the the shepherd feel an interest in his dog : he it quietly disposed shepherd prefers the bitch, is indeed that earns the family bread, of which is himself, with the smallest morsel, always and is careful in working her as little as he grateful and always ready to exert his utmost he can when in pup .
abilities in his master's interests.
Neither
hunger, fatigue, nor the worst of treatment will
6106. The shepherd's dog on a farm drive him from his side, and he will follow him claims exemption from taxation ; and I through every hardship without murmur or believe that a well -trained one costs at repining." least £3.
6107. A volume would not contain what might with truth be said of the sagacity and faithful
ness of the shepherd's dog. Suffice it for me to
ON SLAUGHTERING OXEN, SHEEP, AND PIGS.
give a few general observations,which I know
6108. That man cannot be accounted a
“ Ifhe be but with hismaster," observes the late Mr Youatt, " he lies content, indifferent to any surrounding object,seemingly half asleepand half awake, rarelyminglingwith fromthe notice ofa stranger. But the moment
proficient shepherd, if he cannot slaughter oxen, sheep, pigs, and calves, as well as a professed butcher. This qualification is necessary,notonly on account of slaughter ing the animals used atthe farmer's table,
to be correct.
duty calls,his sleepy listless eye becomes bright- but in case of casualties overtaking the ened, he eagerly gazes on his master, inquires stock, which, if not slaughtered instantly, and comprehends all he isto do, and, springing and dressed, would become a source of up, gives himself to the discharge of his duty with a sagacity and fidelity and devotion too rarely equalled even by man himself.” “ If we
much loss to the farmer were they to die in their blood ; and it would never
* Youаtt On the Dog, p. 59-64.
691
SLAUGHTERING .
answer to have to send to a town for with sticks, or are in any degree infuri the assistance of a butcher.
For his con
ated - or raised, as it is termed - should
venience, a slaughter-house ought to be not be immediately slaughtered, but al
fitted up, of which he is the acknowledged lowed to stand on dry food, such as bay, custodier, and which it is his duty to until the symptoms have entirely disap
keep clean and wholesome; but its key peared. The reason for the fasting before should be kept in the farm - house.
slaughtering is to give time for the paunch and intestines toempty themselves entirely
6109. It is necessary for you to know of food, as it hasbeen found, when an animal the methods in which the different animals
is killed with a full stomach, the meat is
are slaughtered, that you may judge whether or not the shepherd does justice to this part of his duty ; and you should alsobe acquainted with the appearance of good meat, and of the methodof managing
more liable to putrefy, and is not so well flavoured ; and as ruminants always retain
a large quantity of food in their intestines, it is reasonable they should fastsomewhat longer to get quit of it than animals with
it, in order to be able to bargain well with single stomachs. the butcherwhen you may have slaughtered carcasses to dispose of to him.
6112. Cattle are slaughtered in a dif ferent mode in different countries.
In
6110. The slaughter-house should not the great abattoirs at Montmartre, at be in the steading, both on account of the Paris, they are killed by breaking the inconvenience of bringing an animal intó spinal chord of the cervical vertebræ , which
it, and of the impossibility of keeping the is accomplished by driving a sharp- pointed house so free of effluvia as not to be re- chisel between the second and third ver
cognised as the place of slaughter. In tebrw with a smart stroke of a mallet, fitting it up , the floor should be laid with while the animal is standing, when it clean-droved pavement, and have a decided drops down on the floor, and death or
slope to the side at which the drain is insensibility immediately ensues, and the made to take away the dirty water occa- blood is let out by opening the blood sioned by cleansing. The walls should vessels of the neck . This is also the mode also be plastered, and a ventilator, fig. 81 , of slaughtering in Germany. In this placed on the roof, to maintain a draught countrythe plan is first to bring the ox of air. The site chosen should be in a down on his knees, and place his under
cool shady place, and at the same time jaw upon the floor by means of ropes easily accessible to animals, and even to a fastened to his head, and passed through cart, should it bring a dead one to be an iron ring in the floor.
He is then
dressed. A locked closet is useful to hold stunned by blows from the sharp -pointed the knives, steel, and stretchers, and the back of an iron axe, made for the purpose, outer-door should be provided with a good on the forehead , the bone of which is
thumb-latch, lock, and key. A block and tackle should be suspended from a beam extending across the apartment from wall to wall,to hoist up the heavy carcasses by. Water should be close at hand to wash out the house clean every time it is used.
usually driven into the brain. The ani mal fälls on one side, and the blood is let out by the neck. Of the two modes, the French is apparently less cruel, for some oxen require many blows to make
them fall: I once witnessed an ox receive nine blows before it fell.
I have heard
it alleged by butchers of this country, 6111. Oxen . - Oxen are made to fast that the separation of the spinal chord,
before being slaughtered. The time they producing a general nervous convulsion
should stand depends on the state of the throughout the body, prevents the blood so rapidly and entirely out of it animal on its arrival at the shambles. If flowing as when the ox is stunned by a blow on
it has been driven a considerable distance
in a proper manner, the bowels will be in
the forehead.
The skin is then taken off
a tolerably empty state, so that 12 hours to the knees, where the legs are disjointed, may suffice ; but if full, and just off its and also off the head. The carcass is then food, 24 hours will be required. Those hung up by the tendons of the hough , on that bave been overdriven, or much struck a stretcher, by the block and tackle
692
REALISATION .
worked most easily with a small winch, market value of the carcass, bone and which keeps good what rope it winds meat, to the farmer, reserving the offal to up by a wheel and rachet . The loose himself for his profit and risk . tallow isrolled up by itself. The heart, head, and feet are sold separately to fami6115. A figure of the Scotch and Eng lies and hotel keepers. The paunch is lish modes of cutting up a carcass of beef
cleaned and sold to the tripe -cooks. The will at once show you their difference ; and lights — that is, the lungs and liver - are on being informed where the valuable used for dogs -meat.
pieces lie, you will be enabled to judge whether the oxen you are breeding or
6113. After the carcass has hung 24 feeding possess the properties that will hours, it should be cut down by the back- enable you to demand the highest price bone, or chine, into two sides. This is for them. The Scotch mode of cutting up
done either with the saw or chopper - the a carcass of beef is represented in fig. 558, saw making the neatest job in the hands
of an inexperienced butcher, though the most laborious ; and it is the quickest with the chopper, but by no means the neatest
Fig. 558. k с
plan, especially in the hands of a careless fellow . * In London the chine is equally
divided between both sides, while in Scot land one side of a carcass of beef has a
1
d P
f
great deal more bone than the other, all the spinous processes of the vertebra being
9
left on it. The bony is called the lying
h
side of meat.
1
In London the divided
processes in the fore quarter are broken in the middle when warm , and chopped
THE SCOTCH MODE OF CUTTING UP A CARCASS OF BEEF.
back with the flat side of the chopper,
which has the effect of thickening the fore and the different pieces of meat receive and middle ribs considerably when cut up. these names : In the hind quarter . In the fore quarter . The London butcher also cuts the joint above the hind knee, and, by making a,b , The sirloin, orback sey. Ķ,1, Therunner spare, rib, or fore sey. .. hook -bone. buttock , runner :, } large & small. some incisions with a sharp knife, cuts c, .. lar geround, } the rump .nm,, .... ninehol es. the tendons there, and drops the flesh of d, e, .. thick flank . 0, .. brisket.
the hind quarter on the flanks and loins,
thin flank .
9, .. small round .
P, ..shoulder -lyar.
9, .. nap or shin .
1 , .. neck . causing them to cut up thicker than in K, :: hough. sticking piece. the Scotch mode . In opening up the i , .. tail , hind quarter, he also cuts the aitch - bone a the sirloin is the principal roasting piece,
or pelvis through the centre, which makes making a very handsome dish, and is a the rumplook better. Some butchers in universal favourite. It consists of two the north country score the fat of the portions, the Scotch and English sides ;
closing of the hind quarter, which has the the former is the one above the lumbar effect of making that part of both the bones, and is somewhat hard in ill-fed heifer and the ox look like the udder of an
oxen ; the latter consists of the muscles
old cow. Scoring is too much practised under those bones, and are generally in Scotland, and ought to be abandoned .
covered with fine fat,which are exceedingly tender ; the better the beast is fed , the
6114. The carcass consists of the entire larger is the under muscle, better covered
useable meat of the body, which, when with fat, and more tender to eat : 6 the sawn down the middle of the back -bone, hook-bone, and c the buttock, are cut up is divided into two sides, which ,when again for steaks, beef-steak pie, or minced col divided by the 5th rib, make them consist lops — and both these, along with the sirloin ,
of 4 quarters. The remainder ofthe animal fetch the highest price : d is the large consists of offal - namely, of fat, entrails, round, and e the small round, both well bead, and skin. In purchasing fat live- known as excellent pieces for salting and stock, the butcher is supposed to pay the boiling, and are eaten cold with great
SLAUGHTERING .
693
6117. In some of the largest towns in relish : h, the hough, is peculiarly suited for boiling down for soup, having a large pro- Scotland, a difference of id. per lb. is portion of gelatine. Brown soup is the made between the roasting and boiling
principal dish made of the hough, but its pieces; but in mosttowns, and the country decoction forms an excellent stock for villages, all the pieces realise the same
various dishes, and will keep in a state of prices, and even the houghs and shins jelly for a considerable time. The syno- fetch 3d. per lb. vial fat, skimmed off in boiling this piece, 6118. In the English mode, the pieces
and poured upon oatmeal, seasoned with
pepper and salt, constitutes the famous fat are cutup somewhat differently, especially brose for which Scotland has long been in the fore-quarter. Fig. 559 shows this celebrated ; and it was of this piece that the old favourite soup of Scotland, named
Fig. 559.
skink, was made: e the thick and f the mn
thin flank , both excellent pieces for salt ing and boiling : i is the tail, and, insig
k
a
nificant as it may seem , it makes soup of the finest flavour ; but hotel-keepers have a trick of seasoning brown soup, or rather
0
P
beef-tea, with a few joints of the tail, and serving it up for genuine ox -tail soup. These pieces of the hind quarter are valu
c
able for roasting and boiling, not containing a single coarse piece.
THE ENGLISH MODE OP CUTTING UP A CARCASS OP BEEF .
6116. In the fore quarter is k, the spare mode, and it consists of the following
rib or fore sey, the six ribs ofthe back end pieces : of which make an excellent roast, and when taken from the side opposite to the
lying one, being free of thebones of the spine, makes a large one ; and it also
In the hind - quarter. a , The loin . b, rump. aiteh -bone. C, d, e,
makes excellent steaks and beef- steak
..
g,
pie : I and m the two runners, with n the
buttock . hock . thick flank . thin flank .
shin .
In the fore -quarter. k , The fore -rib . middle rib . chuck rib .
1, m, .
clod , and sticking , and neck .
0,
brisket .
P, 9,
leg -of-mutton piece. shin.
nine-holes, make good salting and boiling i .. tail. pieces; and of these the nine -holes is much the best, as it consists of layers of fat and lean without any bone, whereas the foreparts of the runners have a piece of the shoulder-blade in them , and every piece connected with that bone is more or less
a the loin is the principal roasting -piece ; b, the rump, is the favourite steak-piece ; C, the aitch-bone, the favourite stew ; d
the buttock, f the thick flank, and g the thin flank, are all excellent boiling -pieces when corned ; e the hock, and h the shin,
coarse-grained : 0 the brisket between the make soup, and afford stock for various fore -legs eats very well boiled fresh in purposes in the culinary art ; and i is the broth, and may also be corned : p the tail for ox-tail soup - a favourite English
shoulder-lyar is a coarse piece, and fit only luncheon. In the curious case of assessing for boiling fresh to make into broth or damages against the Bank of England for
beef-tea : q the nap or shin is analogous removing the famous Cock.eating -house to the hough of the hind-leg, but not so in Threadneedle Street, it was produced in
rich and fine, there being much less gela- evidence, that, in the 3 years 1837–8-9, tine in it : r the neck makes good broth ; there had been 13,359 ox -tails used for
and the sticking-piece s is a great favourite soup ; and as 36 tails make 10 gallons of with some epicures, on account of the soup, there had been served up 59,360 pieces of rich fat in it, which makes an basins, at 11d. the basin, making the large
excellent stew. These consist chiefly of amount of £ 2720 , 13s. 4d. for this article boiling -pieces, the roasting -piece being alone. These pieces are valuable of their confined to the six ribs of the spare-rib k . respective kinds. * John Bul, 16th January 1841.
694
REALISATION .
6119. In the fore-quarter, k the fore-
ket.
The Short -horns afford excellent
rib, 1 middle rib, and m chuck -rib, are all steaks, being thick of flesh, and the slice roasting -pieces, not alike good ; but in removing the part of the shoulder-blade in the middle rib, the spare ribs below make a good broil or roast : n the neck makes soup, being used fresh ; the back
deep, large, and juicy, and their corned flanks and nineholes are always thick, juicy, and well mixed. The Herefords are somewhat similar to the Short-horns, and perhaps rather finer ; and the Devons
end of the brisketo is boiled, corned, or may be classed amongst the Galloways · stewed ; p, the leg -of-mutton piece, is and Angus, whilst the Welsh cannot be coarse, but is as frequently stewed as compared to the West Highland. So that, boiled ; q the shin is put to the same uses takingthe breeds of Scotland as suppliers as the shin and the hock of the bind- of good beef, they seem to be more valu able for the table than those of England. quarter. Any beef that I have seen of Irish beasts 6120. On comparing the two modes of is inferior, but the cattle derived from cutting up, the English affords more roast- Britain, fed on the pastures of Ireland, es than the Scotch, a large pro- afford excellent meat. Shetland beef is ing -pieces portion of the fore-quarter being used in the finest grained of all, but the pieces are that way. The plan, too, of cutting the very small. line between b and c, the rump and aitch bone in the bind -quarter, diagonally, lays 6124. Sheep . — Sheep are also made to open the steak - pieces to better advantage fast before being slaughtered, and the than does the Scotch buttock c, fig. 558. period is seldom less than 24 hours, unless under extraordinary circumstances. Sheep
6121. Extending the comparison from are easily slaughtered , and the operation is one part of the carcass to the other, in not attendedwith thesame apparentcruelty both methods, it will be seen that the most as with cattle.
In the first 24 hours after
valuable pieces ( the roasting) occupy its fasting, sheep lose 84 lbs. out of 1184 of upper, and the less valuable (the boiling) their weight. They are placed on their itslower part. Every ox, therefore, that side on a stool, called a killing stool — the lays on beef more upon the upper parts of bathing -stool, fig. 427, answers the purpose
its body, is more valuable than one that very well— to be slaughtered, and, requir lays the same quantity of flesh on its ing no fastening with cords, are deprived lower parts . of life by a thrust ofa straight knife through the neck, between the cervical vertebræ
6122. The relative values of the pieces and the windpipe, severing the carotid
differ much more in London than in Scot- artery and jugular vein of both sides, from land. The rump, loin , and fore- ribs fetch which the blood flows freely out, and the the highest price ; then come the thick animal soon dies.
The skin, as far as it
flank , buttock, and middle- rib ; then the is covered with wool, is taken off, leaving aitch -bone, thin flank, chuck-rib, brisket, that on the legsand head, which are cover
and leg -of-mutton piece; then the clod, ed with hair, the legs being disjointed by sticking, and neck ; and, last of all, the the knee. The entrails are removed by an legs and shins. In actual pecuniary value,
incision along the belly, after the carcass
the last may bear a proportion of only has been hung up on a hangrel by the one - fourth to the highest priced.
tendons of the houghs. The net fat is care
fully separated from the viscera, and rolled 6123. Of the qualities of beef obtained up by itself ; but the kidney fat is not froin different breeds of cattle, I believe then extracted . The intestines are placed the best meat is obtained from the West
on the inner side of the skin until divided
Highland breed for fineness of grain, and into the pluck, containing the heart, lungs, cuttingup into convenient pieces for family and liver; thebag,containing the stomach ; After it has been fed in Norfolk for and the puddings, consisting of the viscera twelve months, it cannot be excelled even or guts. The bag and guts are usually in London . The Galloways and Angus, thrown away - that is, buried in the dung when fattened on the English pastures, are bill - unless when the bag is retained and
also great favourites in the London mar- cleaned for a haggis. The skin is hung
SLAUGHTERING .
695
6127. In almost every town there is a skin -side uppermost, to dry in an airy different way of cutting up a carcass of place. mutton ; and it being here impossible to
over a rope or pole under cover, with the
advert to them all, I shall select those of
6125. Butchers have various ways of Edinburgh and London, and distinguish displaying a carcass of mutton. Some them as the Scotch and English modes. fold back the flaps of theflanks, and secure Although the English mode is upon the them with wooden skewers, and fully ex- whole preferable , having evidently been pose the interior of the carcass to view ; adopted to suit the tastes of a people long
others merely distend them with a long acquainted with domestic economy, yet stretcher of wood ;whilst some, folding meat is cut up in Scotland in a cleanly them back, distend them with the stretcher and workman - like style ; but it cannot be
placed across the back. Some distend the denied that the beauty and cleanliness of breast with a stretcher ; others pin the tail meat, as exbibited in London, call forth down to the rump with a skewer ; whilst the admiration of every connoisseur. The many cut a cross with the knife upon the Scotch mode is represented in fig. 560, skin of the shoulder, which, contracting,
Fig. 560,
the whiteness of the fat appear more con spicuons, the skin is first reddened with a lock of wool dipped in blood. Figures are even carved on the neck and other parts of the carcass .
in
fore
back - ribs, and a
d
The
the breast.
jigotis
cut with a part
of the pieces when cut out, and should therefore be abandoned, and the carcass allowed to hang intact after the entrails have been removed — with the exception ,
the
quarter, c the
All these expedients are use
less in themselves, and injurious to the meat, inasmuch as they distort the shape
where, in the
bind -quarter, a is the jigot and b the loin, and,
shows the fat underneath ; and, to make
of the haunch b
or rump, and
perhaps, of distending the flaps of the
the fore-quarter right through
Hank a little with a short stretcher, to
tbe
allow the air to dry the inside of the car cass . The membranous covering of the outside of the carcass has different colours, that of the shoulder and flanks being red, and white along the back. The redness is
into two pieces. The jigot, a , is с
shoulder
the handsomest and most valu
able part of the
brighter coloured in Black -faced sheep
carcass, and on
than in any other breed I have observed,
that account the fetches
and gives the meat a tempting appearance .
THE SCOTCH MODE OF CUTTING highest price. 6126. The carcass should hang 24 hours
UP A CARCASS OF MUTTON.
It is either a
in a clean, cool, airy, dry apartment, before roasting or a boiling piece. Of Black it is cut down cool, for if warm the faced mutton it makes a fine roast, and meat will never become firm ; and dry, the piece of fat in it called the Pope's-eye for if damp a clamminess will cover it, is considered a delicious morceau by which will never become dry, nor have a epicures. A jigot of Leicester, Cheviot, fresh clean appearance . The carcass is or Southdown mutton makes a beauti divided in two by being sawn right down ful “ boiled leg of mutton ,” which is
the back-bone. The kidney fat is then prized the fatter it is, as this part of taken out, being only attached to the peri- the carcass is never overloaded with fat. toneum by the cellular membrane, and the The loin b is almost always roasted, and is kidney is extracted from the suet — the a juicy piece, the flap of the Alank being name given to sheep tallow in an inde- skewered up. Many consider this piece
pendent state. The fat of a sheep weighs of Leicester mutton roasted too rich, and about one-sixth of the weight of the car- when warm it is probably the case ; but a cass . When the sides are divided by the cold roast loin is an excellent summer 5th rib, they constitute the four quarters. dish. For a small family, the Black -faced
696
REALISATION .
mutton is preferable ; for a large, the
6129. The shoulder a, separated before
Southdown and Cheviot. The back -ribs c being dressed, makes an excellent roast for are divided in two, and used for very family use, and may be eaten warm or
differentpurposes. The fore- part, the neck, cold, or corned and dressed as the breast is boiled, and makes the sweetest barley- mentioned above. The shoulder is best
broth of any part of the mutton; and the from a large carcass of Southdown or meat, when well boiled, eats tenderly. The Cheviot, or Leicester, the Black -faced back - ribs make an excellent roast, there being too thin for thepurpose ; and it was not being a sweeter or more varied one in probably because English mutton is usually the carcass, having both ribs and shoulder. large that the practice of removing it
The shoulder-bladeeats best cold, and the ribs warm . The ribs also make excellent chops. The Leicester and Southdowns afford the best mutton - chops. The breast dis mostly a roasting piece, consisting of rib and shoulder, and is particularly good when cold. When the piece is large, as of Southdown or Cheviot, the gristlypart of the ribs may be divided from the true ribs, and helpedseparately. The breast is an
originated. The neck -piece bb is partly laid bare by the removal of the shoulder, the fore-part being fitted for boiling and making into broth, and the best end for roasting or broiling into chops. On this account this is a good familypiece, and in such request among the tradesmen of Lon don that they prefer it to any part of the hind-quarter. Heavy mutton, such as the Leicester, Southdown, and Cheviot, supply
excellent piece in Black -facedmutton , and the most thrifty neck - piece. The breastc
suitable to sınall families, the shoulder is much the same sort of piece as in the being eaten cold, while the ribs and brisket Scotch method, but the ribs are here left This exposed at the part from which the shoul piece also boils well; or, when corned for der had been removed, and constitute what are sweet and juicy when warm .
8 days, and served with onion sauce , with
are called the spare ribs, which may be
mashed turnip in it, few dishes are more roasted, or broiled, or corned. The back savonry at the farmer's table.
end of the breast makes a good roast for
ordinary use. The flap of the loin left
6128. The English mode of cutting up attached to this piece may be used in a
Fig. 561 .
carcass of making broth. The loin d is a favourite
mutton is re-
roast in a family ; and when cut double,
presented in forming the chine or saddle, it may grace fig.561,where the head of the table of any public dinner. in the fore- Any of the kinds of muttonis large enough quarter a
is for a saddle ; bnt the thicker the meat, of
the shoulder ; course the larger the slice. The leg e is 6 b the neck ; cut short androasted. When cut long, taking in the hook-bone, it is similar to a
C the breast
extending be- haunch of venison, and roasted accord neath d
C
6
the
ingly. A fat Black - faced wether, such as
shoulder ; and are bred and fed by Lord Panmure, at in the hind- Panmure, Forfarshire, yields a splendid quarter d is haunch. the loin, and e the leg. The 6130. The different sorts of mutton in leg is cut short common use differ as well in quality as in
like a ham, quantity. The flesh of the Leicester is 2
without any large, though not coarse-grained, of a
of the baunch ; lively red colour, and the cellular tissue and the shoul- between the fibres, contains a considerable der, compre quantity of fat. When cooked it is tender hending the and juicy, yielding a red gravy, and bav scapular re- ing asweet rich taste; but thefat is rather THE ENGLISH MODE OP CUTTING gion, is re too much and too rich for some people's UP A CARCASS OF MUTTON.
moved entire.
tastes, and may be put aside; while it must be allowed that the lean of fat meat
SLAUGHTERING .
697
is much better in favour and quality than in Scotland, the jointsbeing of nice size lean meat without fat. Leicester sheep for family use, and well shaped. generally attain to heavy weights, hoggs reaching 18 lb. or 20 lb., and dinmonts 30
6134. Welsh is the smallest and the
lb. per quarter; but 5 dinmonts which I very highest flavoured of all mutton raised remember seeing,belonging to the late Mr in Britain ; but the moment the sheep are Edward South , Marldown, Northumber- fed in the low country, much of the wild
land, weighed 55 lb. a quarter overbead, favour, which is its chief recommendation, when killed at Newcastle in November, a few weeks after they were exhibited at the
is lost.
6135. Tup -mutton of any breed is always Society. These were the sheep I referred hard, ofdisagreeable flavour, and in autumn to which the four shepherds were unable not eatable. The mutton of old ewes is dry, hard, and tasteless, but of young well to turn in, (3584.) show at Coldstream of the Border Union
enough favoured, but still rather dry. 6131. Cheviot mutton is smaller in the Hogg-mutton is sweet, juicy, and tender, grain, not so bright of colour, with less
but flavourless.
Wether -mutton is the
fat, less juice, not so tender and sweet, meat in perfection, according to its kind. but the flavour is higher and the fat not so luscious. The weight attained by a hogg 6136. The average quantity of fat
may be taken at 14 lb. or 15 lb., and by a wether at 22 lb.; but Mr Fairbairn mentions having fattened 5 wethers in 1818 which averaged 30 lb. a quarter.* Much ofthe prejudice existing in London
afforded by each sheep of every class, sold in any given market in Scotland, is per haps not great. In Glasgow,for example, where heavy animals of all sorts are gene rally sold, the fat afforded by all the sheep
against Scotch mutton arises from the
consisting chiefly, I presume, of Cheviot
hasty manner in which the carcasses are and Black -faced — exclusive of lambs,
packed, and the consequent bruises ob- amounting to 57,520 head, sold in 1822, served on the meat. was only , on the average, 4 lb. 13 oz. per head.I From 8 lb. to 12 lb. is the ordi 6132. Black -faced mutton is still smaller nary quantity obtained from Leicester in the grain , of a darker colour, with still sheep slaughtered on farms of good land ; less fat, but more tender than the Cheviot, and in Edinburgh, I find that7 lb. is con
and having the highest flavour of all. The sidered an average from Black - faced and ordinary weight of a fat wether is about Cheviot sheep , which shows that the 18 lb. or 20 lb. a quarter; but Iremember quality of mutton sold there is better than
seeing a lot of 5 -year-oldBlack -faced that in Glasgow . The quantity, I have no wethers, at a Show of the Highland and doubt, is on the increase.
Agricultural Society at Perth, belonging to Lord Panmure, that averaged 40 lb. a
6137. Pigs.- Pigs, when about to be
quarter. The4 - year-old wethers at Pan- killed, should be made to fast for nearly, mure commonly weigh 30 lb. per quar- a day, to clear their bowels. The season ter. best adapted to the purpose is in the cool months of the year; the flesh in the warm
6133. The mutton of Southdowns is of months notbecoming sufficiently firm , and medium fineness in grain, colour pleasant is then liable to be fly -blown before it is red, fat well mixed with the meat, juicy, cured. For fresh pork, the season of tenderer than the Cheviot, and of pleasant killing does not signify. When you wish though not of so high a flavour as the to make hams for your own use, Christmas Black-faced . The ordinary weight may is a good timefor slaughtering pigs; and,
be from 16 lb. to 22 lb. a quarter ; but 3 in doing it, great care should be taken that wethers exhibited by Mr Grantham at the the animals receive no injury by bruises Show of the Smithfield Club in 1835, before being killed, as the flesh, where weighed, on the average, 411 lb. a quarter. bruised , will becomeblood -burned, marked
Southdown mutton is fast gaining ground with bruises, and will not take with the * Fairbairn's Lammermuir Farmer, p. 123.
+ Youаtt On Sheep, p. 236.
Cleland's Account of the Highland and Agricultural Society's Show at Glasgow in 1828, p. 40.
REALISATION .
698
salt.
Butchers are often reckless reckless in
singeing which scalding cannot afford ; it
slaughtering pigs for this purpose ; some renders the skin dirty by the smoke
stunning them with blows on the head necessarily arising from the flameand before using the knife, which should never combustion of the bristles. The net fat be allowed, as the blows render the head and entrails are separated, and the carcass
almost useless for curing; others, plunging is dressed in the most simple manner, with
the knife into the breast, and allowingthe only a single stretcher to keep apart the pigs to run about until they fall down flaps of thebelly. The entrails arewashed, exhausted by loss of blood , which is a and preserved for sausages and puddings. barbarous practice. Butchers are apt to adopt practices which serve their own 6138. The carcass hangs in the slaugb purposes, when killing animals, and which ter -house until next day , when it is sawn session ; but such hasty and thoughtless
up the back-bone in to two sides. If it is intended for pickled
practices will not do with animals that are
pork, the sides are cut
intended to be cured and kept for
con
up in Scotland in the
siderable time, for the use of a family. I knew of a pig that was to be slain for ham being taken by the hind -leg by the butcher,
same way as the Scotch mode of cut
who, in his recklessness, drove its nose against a wall, and the pig was killed on the spot ; and, although bled immediately, the flesh never became firm , or assumed
560, and is repre sented in fig. 562, where a is the leg, and b the loin, in the
its proper colour.
When the time for
hind - quarter ; c the
slaughtering arrives, the animals should be taken out of their sties gently one by
ribs, and d the breast, in the fore- quarter. The leg a makes ex cellent pickled pork , and the loin b a juicy
may not affect the appearance of meat for
Fig. 562.
the short time they have it in their pos
a long sharp -pointed knife is introduced with a firm hand through the counter
near the bottom of the neck , in the open ing between the ribs at the sternum
AL
one, and placed on their back upon a considerable quantity of straw , and held in that position by assistants, while
ting up mutton , fig .
с
committed in slaughtering pigs; it is called shouldering, and has the effect of collect
roasting - piece, and al
so pork chops, a most delicate dish .
into the heart, care being taken that the point of the knife does not miss the open ing, and go between the shoulder-blade and the ribs. This error is frequently
fresh roast. The back ribs of c make a fine
The
fore - end of c , and the whole of the breast d ,
THE SCOTCH MODE OF are fit for pickling. CUTTINGOF UP A CARCASS The head, split in two, PORK . is also pickled, and
ing a mass of blood under the shoulder- considered a delicacy, as the fat upon the blade, where it coagulates, and prevents cheeks is gristly. the whole shoulder from being cured .
6139. The English mode of cutting up Before the slaughtering commences, a large quantity of boiling water should be pro- pork is different from what has just been
vided, with which to scald off the hair. described , and, upon the whole, perhaps This is effected either by putting the car-
better adapted for family use.
Fig. 503
cass into a large tub of water, or, should gives a representation of it, where, in the there not be a tub of sufficient size, the hot fore-quarter, a is the spare- rib, so called water can be poured on the carcass on the because the flesh and fat are taken off the straw, and the hair scraped clean from ribs for salting ; and the ribs are then every part of the body with a knife. The roasted , and make a savoury dish ; b, hoofs are taken off at tbis time. Another the hand or shoulder, fit for pickling ; C , plan is to singe the bristles off by fire in a the belly or spring, also fit for pickling, state of flame; and this practice is much or for rolling up, when well seasoned
in use in some parts of England, but not with stuffing, for brawn. In the hind at all in Scotland. I see no advantage in quarter are d the fore and e the bind
--
SLAUGHTERING .
699
loin, both best when roasted, the fore through the skin and flesh the whole
one d also making excellent chops ; and length of the blade, and if the resistance Fig. 563.
to it be firm and uniform , the flesh is good ; cut short for pickling, and ifirregular and loose and pulpy, the The neck is called a pork bas not been well fed. The smell crop of pork , and retained by the knife will show whether
f is the leg, which is
when divided into its
the flesh be wholesome or tainted .
vertebræ , is cut for 6141. Caldes. - Calves are slaughtered chops,and called griskins. The head , when by inserting a sharp - pointed knife through divided in two, is the neck, severing the blood vessels, as in again divided at the the case of sheep , or the throat is simply
jaw into an upper cut through to the cervical vertebræ . The part called the face or cheek, and the lower part named the chap. Sometimes the two chaps are not separated. Pork for roasting is best when about six months old ; and
skin is taken off to the knees, which are disjointed, and the head, which is taken off. The carcass is dressed simply, and kept open with a stretcher, though many butchers in Scotland are fond of showing their skill, as they imagine, in dressing a calf, byleaving the lungs, heart,and liver attached, half-splitting down the back
a leg of pork ought bone, spreading the carcass flat with not to exceed ñ Ib., stretchers across the back, spreading the nor less than 6 lb., in net fat in front over the offal, and leaving weight. the skin adhering to the back and sides. The enumeration of these particulars shows
6140. Of judging the absurdity of dressing up a carcass in THE ENGLISH MODE op of pork , " the meat this manner .
CUTTINGOFUP ACARCASS of pigs cut or spayed PORK, when young is the best. That of a boar, though young, or of one of full growth, the flesh will be hard, tough, reddish, and of a rank smell ; the fat skinny and hard ; the skin very thick and tough, and, being pinched up, it will immediately fall again . If it be young, in pinching the lean between the fingers, it will break ; and, if you nip the skin with your nails, it will be dented. But if the fat be soft and pulpy, like lard, if the lean be tough , and the fat flabby and spongy, and the skin be so hard that you cannot nip it with your nails, it is
The hair is scalded off the
head with hot water, and dressed into mock -turtle soup, or a dish, calf's head. The feet are also scalded ofthe hair with hot water, and made into jelly. The sweetbread or pancreas makes a delicate
dish when stewed. It is veryseldom that a calf is slaughtered on a farm . 6142. The carcass, after hanging 24
hours, is divided into either of two modes, the Scotch and the English. The Scotch mode of cutting up gives in the fore quar ter the back - ribs, which , being divided into two joints, give the fore part for boiling, and the hind part for roasting ;
old. If there are little kernels in the fat, the breast, which is also divided into the
like hail -shot, the pork is measly and un- fore part,which is made into soup, and the
wholesome , and butchers are punishable bind, which is roasted ; and the shauk , for selling it. The freshness of pork may which is made into soup. The bind quar be known by putting the finger under the ter affords the knuckle, which is made bone, and smelling it. The flesh of stale
into soup, the fillet, which is roasted, and
pork, also, is sweaty and clammy ; that of the loin, which is also roasted . fresh killed, cool and smooth . Pork fed at
distilleries is not good for curing, the fat be-
6143. The English mode of cutting up
ing spongy. Dairy-fed pork is the best.” * gives, in the fore quarter, the shoulder, A good way of ascertaining the quality of which is roasted, the neck, which is made
a carcass of pork, is to insert a penknife into soup, and the breast, which is roasted. * The Experienced Butcher,
155.
700
REALISATION .
In the hind quarter are the knuckle, which pare with the grass-fed,but its appearance, is made into soup, the fillet,which is roasted, and the loin, which is divided into the chump-end and the loin, which are both roasted. The English mode is the better
at seasonswhen the meat cannot beobtained direct from the fields, enhances its value, which, in its turn , induces the farmer to rear it. The most thrifty lamb for the
of the two, inasmuch as the pieces are
farmer is from a cross between the Black
each more equal in the flesh , and hand- faced ewe and Leicester tup. somer in shape for the table. The English fillet is so cut as to avoid the bone of the
6147. Beef.— The proportion of tallow to beef
rump, which is thrown into the chump-end generally obtained from cattle sold in the Glas gow market, as stated by the late Dr Cleland, is
of the loin.
as 1 to 8, 14,566 head being sold in 1822, averag
ing exactly 44 stones, of 14 lb. to the stone, of
6144. The best veal in Scotland is beef, and yielding 64 stones of tallow. The reared in the clay farms of Stratbaven in experiments recorded in ( 1325) gave the pro Lanarkshire, ( 2293.) The cruel mode of portion between 1 to 7, and 1 to 8; that in
strapping on the live calves upon the tops (1332) , rather more than 1 to 7. A short-horn cow which slipped her second calf, and was sold
of the carrier- carts,on their long journey after she hadbeen fed for six months after hav from Stratbaven to Edinburgh, it is hoped, ing gonedry, I sold to the late Mr Robert Small,
is now discontinued, in consequence of Alesher in Dundee, and the tallow obtained the convenience of carriage afforded by fromher was 27 stonesto 72 stones ofbeef,or railways. The best veal,in the spring, the late Lord Kintore at the Highland and Agri is to be found in the west of England, cultural Society's show at Aberdeen in 1834, only but the constant supply to London is from yielded 16į stones of tallow to 173 stones 4 lb.of
the counties of Surrey and Essex, (2294.) more beef, beingexactly 1to 104.to The offals realise their quality, than in proportion money, But the veal of England will not compare the flesh, (3623. ) with that of Pontoise, a village within 6 6148. Sufficient data , perhaps, do not exist for miles of Paris, for flavour, succulence, and whiteness, ( 2295.) determining the true proportion of offals of all kinds to the beef of any given fat ox ; but ap have been madeiswhich may serve investigated 6145. Lambs . — Lambs are slaughtered proximations the purpose untilthematter by
in the same manner as sheep, by insert- directexperiment,undervarious circumstances. ing the knife throngh the throat. The skin The dead weight bears to the live weighta ratio is taken off to the knees, which are dis- varying between .55 and .605 to 1 , (3624 ;) and jointed, and it is taken off the head. The on applying one or other of these multiples to
carcass istoo often made a display of in the live weight,accordingto the higher and lower condition of the animal, you will find a correct approximation . The weight of pretty described manner in dressing, in the the the calf. The head and pluck go together, the tallow, as shown above, is between one and make two nice dishes - one, lamb's seventh and one-eighth of thatofthe beef. It fol
thatthe tallow is from .125 to .143 of the head, and the other in the liver and lungs lows dead weight, and .08 of the live weight ; the fried .
But when the bag is retained hide is .05 of the live weight ; and the other
and cleaned, it is made the receptacle of offals are from .33 to .25 of the live weight. one of the finest dishes that Scotland can
boast of - a lamb's haggis..
Thus, then, when the tallow is 13 per cent of the dead weight, it is 8 per cent of the live weight.
6146. Lamb is cut upintoquarters,which 6149. Beef is the staple animal food of this are larger or smaller according to its age. country, and it is used in various states,-fresh,
From 5 lb. to 8 lb. is the usual weightof salted, smoked ,roasted, and boiled. When in a quarter of lamb, and when it exceeds the tended to be eaten fresh , “ the ribs will keep the best, and with care will keep 5 or 6 days in latter weight the meat becomes coarse. summer, and in winter 10 days. The middle of
Lamb is a frequent dish at the farmer's the loin is the next best, and the rump the next.
table, and it is in the highest perfection The round will not keep long, unless salted. when the ewe is fed on grass, any artificial The brisket is the worst, and will notkeep longer
food diminishing its qualityveryrapidly. than 3 days in summer, and a week inwinter."* House lamb is reared in England all the
6150. In cooking, a piece of beef, consisting
year round . In flavour it will not com- of four of the longest ribs, and weighing 11 lb. I * The Experienced Butcher, p. 171.
SLAUGHTERING .
701
oz., was subjected to roasting by Mr Donovan,
injures it, particularly in byre-fed animals ; and
and it lost during the process 2 lb. 6 oz., of which
anything that punctures a hide, such as warbles,
10 oz. were fat, and 1 Ib. 12 oz . water dissipated
(3803,) is also injurious. The best hides are ob
by evaporation. On dissection,the bone weighed
tainedfrom the West Highland breed of cattle.
16 oz., so that the weight of meat fit for the table was only 7 lb. 11 oz. out of 11 lb. 1 oz. It
The Short-horns produce the thinnest hides, the Aberdeenshire the next, and then the Angus.
appears that when the butchers' price of sirloins is 8 d . per lb., the meat cost when roasted ls. 11d. per lb., at a loss of 194 per cent. *
of the same breed, the ox affords the strongest hide ; but as hides are applied to various uses, the cow's hide, provided it be large, may be as valuable as an ox's . The bull's hide is the least
6151. The usual mode of preserving beef is by salting ; and when intended to keep a long time, as for the use of the shipping, it is always salted with brine ; but for family use it should be salted dry with good Liverpool salt, without saltpetre ; as brine dispels the juice of the
valuable. 6156. Hides are now imported free. The quantities that were imported are as follows, in 1847 . Cwt.
1848 .
Cwt.
Cwt .
172,296 429,085
132,395
143,490
414,886
535,295
601,381
547,281
678,7851
meat, and saltpetre only serves to make the Dry , Wet,
meat dry, and give it a disagreeably unnatural red colour.
1849 .
6152. Salted beef cured with wood smoke is
converted into ham , and is highly relished. The 6157. Hides, when deprived of their hair, are cured beef of Glasgow , and the hung beef of converted into leather by infusion of the astrin Hamburg , are both relished. gent property of bark. The old plan of tanning 6153. Beef, whether fresh or salted, is now used to occupy a long time ; but such was the admitted into this country from abroad duty value of the process, that the old tanners used free. Beef salted , or fresh , or corned, imported, to pride themselves in producing a substantial article. More recent discoveries have prompted amounted in 1849. 1847. 1848 . tanners to hasten the process, much to the injury Owt. Cwt. Cwt. Salted not corned ,
Fresh , or slightly salted ,
112,386 5,011
Meat , salted or fresh , not otherwise described ,
114,387 7,623
10t } 3,114
4,436
120,511
126,446
144,638 5,279
149,9177
of the article produced. Strong infusions of bark make leather brittle ; 100 lb. of skin, quickly tanned in a strong infusion, produce 137 lb. of leather ; while a weak infusion produces
only 1171 lb., the additional191 lb. serving only to deteriorate the leather, and cause it to contain much less textile animal solid .
Leather thus
6154. The tierce of salted beef for the navy highly charged with tannin is so spongy as to contains 300 lbs., consisting of 38 pieces of about 8 lb. each. 6155. Cattle are useful to man in various
other ways than affording food from their flesh ,
allow moisture to pass readily through its pores, to the great discomfort and danger of persons who wear shoes made of it. The proper mode
of tanning lasts a year, or a year and a half, ac cording to the quality of the leather wanted , and
their offals of tallow, hides, and horns, forming the nature of the hides. A perfect leather is extensive articles of commerce. Of thehide, the characteristics of a good one, for strong purposes, is strength in its middle or butt, as it is called,
and light on the edges or offal. A bad hide is the opposite of this ,thick in the edges and thin
recognised by its section , which should have a glistening marbled appearance, without any white streaks in the middle.s Leather is applied to many important purposes, being made into harness for agricultural and other uses. It is
a bad one loose and soft. A hide improves as the summer advances, and it continues to im-
used to line the powder magazines of ships of war ; to make carding machines for cotton and other mills ; belts to drive machinery ; to make
prove after the new coat of hair in autumn, until
soles of shoes ; and, when japanned , to cover car riages. Calves' leather is used in bookbinding.
in the middle.
A good hide has a firm texture,
November or December, when the coat gets rough from the coldness of the season , and the
The hair taken off hides in tanning is employed
hide is then in its best state . It is surprising
to mix with plaster, and is surreptitiously put
how a hide improves in thickness after the cold
into hair mattresses.
weather has set in.
The sort of food does not
seem to affect the quality of the hide ; but the better it is, and the better cattle have been fed, and the longer they have been well fed, even from a calf, the better the hide.
6158. Tanned hides are admitted free of
duty. The quantity imported was as follows, in 1847 . Lb.
From what has
1848 , Lb,
1849 , Lb.
been said of the effect of weather upon the hide, it seems a natural conclusion that a hide is better
Tanned, tawed, cured , or dressed ,
from an ox that has been fed in the open air than
Leather manufactured in any way pays a duty, on importation, of L.10 per L.100 value.
from one fed in a byre. Dirt adhering to a hide
} 1,430,950 1,248,847 1,809,755]
* Dovovan's Domestic Economy, vol. ii. 274. + Parliamentary Return, Feb. 12, 1850. § Ure's Dictionary of the Arts - arts. Leather and Tanning.
I Ibid .
ll Parl. Ret. Feb. 12, 1850.
REALISATION .
702
6159. “ The principal substances of which glue is made,” says Dr Ure, “ are the paring of ox
pieces rendered flat by a pecnliar process , as a substitute for glass. For this purpose, thehorns
and other thick hides, which form the strongest
of goats and sheep are preferred, being whiter
article ; the refuse of the leather-dresser : both afford from 45 to 55 per cent of glue. The tendons, and many other offals of slaughterhouses also afford materials, though of an in-
and more transparent than those of any other
ferior quality, for the purpose . The refuse of tanneries - such as the ears of oxen, calves,
with any pattern by means of dies. Horn is
animal. Imitation of tortoise -shell can be given to horn by the use of various metallic solutions.
Horn, also, when softened, can be imprinted now admitted duty free.
sheep, & c. - are better articles ; but parings of parchment, old gloves, and in fact animal skins
in any form , uncombined with tanning, may be made into glue."* Glue, and the clippings of which it is made, are now imported free.
6162. Mutton . - Of the relative weights of offal and meat afforded by sheep, instances are recorded , and of a fat Southdown wether they were these, the live weight being 13 stone, 10 lb. MEAT.
6160. Ox -tallow is of great importance in the
arts. Candles and soap are made of it, and it
Fore quarter,
enters largely into the dressing of leather and
Ditto ,
the use ofmachinery. It consists of 76 parts of stearin and 24 parts of elein. The duty on importation is now reduced to ls.6d. per centfrom
Ib . OL . 29 0 28 12 33 8 32 0
Hind quarter , Ditto ,
123
4
Ib .
Oz .
foreign countries and Id. per cent from the British
colonies. The quantity imported was as follows
OFPAL
in, 1847 . Cwt .
Tallow ,
.
1,099,275
1848. Cwt .
1,498,359
1849 . Cwt,
1,468,7197
13 214 8 12 15 12
Blood and entrails, Caul and loose fat, Head and pluck , Pelt ,
6161. The horns of oxen and sheep are used
58 12
for many purposes . “ The horn consists of two parts : an outward horny case , and an inward
conical-shaped substance , somewhat intermediate between indurated hair and bone,” called the fint of the horn . “ These two parts are separated by means of a blow on a block of wood. The horny exterior is then cut into three por tions by means of a frame- saw . The lowest of
6163. The comparative weights of different breeds of the same class and age are follows : Weight per
as
Wool,
Breed .
Age.
these, next the root of the horn, after undergoing several processes by which it is rendered flat, is
Long wools, Leicesters , Southdowns,
Months . 16 16 16
Lb. 52 46 30.
Lb. 14 11
made into combs. The middle of the horn, after
Long -wools,
40 40 40
72 56 46
15 11 8
being flattened by heat and its transparency improved by oil, is split into thin layers, and forms a substitute for glass in lanterns of the commonest kind . The tip of the horn is used by the makers of knife-handles and of the tops of whips, and for other similar purposes. The interior, or core of the horn, is boiled down in water. A large quantity of fat rises to the surface ; this is put aside, and sold to the makers
of yellow soap. The liquid itself is used as a kind of glue, and is purchased by the cloth -dresser The bony substance which for stiffening remains behind is then sent to the mill, and,
being ground down, is sold to the farmers for
.
Leicesters, Southdowns,
6164. There
quarter.
little doubt that, in
8
Lei.
cester breed, the meat bears a higher proportion to the offal than in any other.
In the case of a
Southdown in (5939 ,) the meat is about į and the offal } of the whole weight, or, more nearly, the meat is as 1231 : 182, and the offal as 589 : 182. And in the same breed it has been said that the proportion of bone is as low as 1 oz. to 1 lb. flesh ; but I much doubt this, because Mr Dono van found in a leg of mutton, which is the most fleshy part of the carcass in proportion to the
which the different parts of the horn are applied,
bone in it,weighing 91 lb., 16 oz. of bone ; another of 9 lb. 6 oz., 15 oz. of bone ; and a leg of small
the clippings which arise in comb-making are sold to the farmers at about ls. per bushel .
02. of bone.
manure .
Besides these various purposes to
Scotch mutton of only 6 lb. weight, afforded 10%
The shavings which form the refuse of the lantern -makers are also sold as manure." I A few of them are cut into various figures, and
6165. A rule is mentioned by Mr Ellman of
painted and used as toys, which cast up when placed in the palm of a warm hand . Horn , as
Glynde, in Sussex, by which the age of mutton may be ascertained by certain marks on the carcass, and it is an infallible one. He says,
is well known, is easily rendered soft and pliant
“ Observe the colour of the breast -bone when a
in warm water ; and by this, and the property sheep is dressed— that is, where the breast-bone of adhesion like glue, large plates of horn can be is separated - which, in a lamb, or before it is 1 made by cementing together the edges of sınall year old, will be quite red ; from 1 to 2 years + Parliamentary Return, February 12, 1850. * Ure's Dictionary of the Arts - art. Glue.
# Ure's Dictionary of the Arts -- art. Horn.
SLAUGHTERING .
703
old , the upper and lower bone will be changing to white, and a small circle of white will appear round the edges of the other bones, and the
6169. Mutton suet consists of about 77 parts of stearin and 23 of elein—the former being
middle part of the breast-bone will yet continue
suet is 0.936.
red ; at 3 years old, a very small streak of red
broken, innumerable minute granules separate
solid, the latter fluid . The specific gravity of When a piece of solid suet is
will be seenin themiddle of the 4 middle bones, from the mass ; and these, when examined by and the others will be white ; and at 4 years, all the breast-bone will be of a white or gristly colour." *
the microscope, exhibit definite forms, being polyhedral, bounded within the limits of a sphere , or oblong, of very firm consistence, and when measured ,give dimensions varying in length from
6166. The average logs on boiling legs of do to do, and in breadth from gdo to sto part mutton is 10 per cent ; so that, if the butchers' of an inch .. The constituent parts of suet, ac
price were 6d. per lb., the boiled mutton would cording to Chevreul, are carbon, 78.996, hydro cost 6d. The average loss of roasting legs of gen, 11.700, and oxygen, 9.304.8 mutton is 271'ó per cent ; so that, at the butcher's price of 6d. per lb., the roasted mut. ton would cost 7 £d. per lb. These results
differ considerably from those obtained by Professor Wallace, who, in the case of boiling
6170. Mutton suet is used in the manufacture
of common candles, with a proportion of ox tallow . Minced suet, subjected to the action of high pressure steam in a digester at 250° or 260 °
100 lb. of mutton, detected a loss of 21 } per Fahr., becomes so hard as to be sonorous when cent, instead of 10 per cent ; and in that of roast-
struck , whiter, and capable, when made into
ing 100 lb. the loss was 313 instead of 28 per
candles, of giving very superior light. Steario
cent. These discrepancies might perhaps be candles, the invention of the celebrated Guy easily explained, were we acquaintedwith every Lussac , are manufactured solely from mutton particular connected with both sets of experi-
suet.
ments, such as the state of the fatness of the
meat before being cooked, for fat meat will lose 6171. But the products of sheep are not merely more weight than lean in the dressing. Of useful to man, they also afford him luxuries. his experiments, Mr Donovan says, “ I used The skin of sheep is made into leather, and, when
meat of sufficient, but not unprofitable fatness, such as is preferred by families ; the meat was in all cases a little rare at its centre , and the
results were determined with the utmost care.”+
so manufactured with the fleece on, makes com fortable mats for the doors of our rooms, and rugs
for our carriages. For this purpose the best skins are selected, and such as are covered with the longest and most beautiful fleece. Tanned
6167. Good ham may be made of any part of sheep-skin is used in coarse bookbinding. White a carcass of mutton, though the leg is preferred, sheep-skin, which is not tanned, but somanufac and for this purpose it is cut in the English tured by a peculiar process, is used as aprons by fashion , fig. 561. Wether mutton is used for hams, because it is fat ; but tup mutton makes the largest and highest flavoured ham , provided
gloves in harvest ; and when cut into strips, as twine for sewing together the leathern coverings
it be cured in spring, when it is only in season .
and stuffings of horse -collars.
6168. Where Leicester sheep are bred, and
many classes of artisans, and in agriculture, as Morocco leather
is made of sheep-skins as well as of goats', and the bright red colour given to it is by cochineal.
the farmer kills his own mutton, suet will
Russia leather is also made of sheep-skins, the
accumulate beyond what can be used for domestic purposes. As long as it is fresh it should be
peculiar odour of which repels insects from its vicinity , and resists the mould arising from
rynded or rendered, because the fibrous and damp,the odour beingimparted to it in curry fleshy matter mixed with it soon promotes putrefaction.
To do this it should be cut in small
pieces, removing only fleshy matter. It is then put in an earthen jar, which is placed within a pot containing warm water, at the side of the fire
to simmer, and not to boil . As every portion put in is melted, another succeeds, until the whole is melted ; and the melted mass should be very
frequently stirred . Suet melts at from 98° to 104° Fahr. After being fused a considerable
time, the membranous matter comes to the top,
ing,by the empyreumatic oil of the bark of the birch tree. Besides soft leather, sheep -skins are made into a fine, flexible, thin substance, known by the name of parchment ; and though the skins of all animals might be converted into writing materials, only those of the sheep and she-goat are used for parchment. The finer quality of the substance called vellum is made of the skins of kids and dead -born lambs, and for its manufacture the town of Strasburg has long been celebrated .
and is taken off ; and when obtained in quantity
and squeezed , it constitutes the cracklings which are sometimes used for feeding dogs.
6172. It would appear that there are circum stances which naturally limit the power of re
The purified suet may then be poured through a cullender, into a dish containing a little cold water, upon which it consolidates into a cake ;
action and absorption in the skin of the sheep. It is surrounded by a peculiar secretion, adhe
and the cakes are either sold to the candle-
makers, or candles taken in exchange. * British Husbandry, vol. ii. p. 486.
# Raspail's Organic Chemistry, p. 238.
sive and impenetrable to moisture — the yolk destined chiefly to preserve the wool in a soft, pliable, and healthy state. On this account there + Donovan's Domestio Economy, vol. ii. 289. § Liebig's Animal Chemistry, p. 300.
REALISATION .
704
can be little perspiration going forward from the skin, and hence few diseases are referable to change in that reaction . Also there is little radiation of animal heat, both on account of the
bone weighed 9 oz.; the meat was 3 lb. 1 oz. If the first cost of the meat was 74 per lb., the meat alone, when duly boiled , cost 104d., and with the bone 9d. per lb. The loss in boiling salt
interposition of the yolk, and of the non -conduct- pork is consequently 13 per cent. ing power of the wool. The caloric disengaged from a sheep is only one- seventh of that from man , though its weight is one-third of that of his, consequently only half the animal heat radiates from a sheep, from a given sur. face, that does from man. This it is which
enables the ewe and the lamb to endure the
6176. Pickled pork derives its name from the mode in which pork is cured in a strong brine or pickle of salt and water. Immense quantities of pork are pickled, for home and foreign consump
tion. The navy tierce of pork consistsof 80 pieces of 4 lb. each.
colds of spring without detriment ; and also, when sheep are crowded together in an open
6177. Pork ham being a standing dish at the
fold, no unnatural or dangerous state of heat is thereby produced.
farmer's table, a number of fat pigs are slaugh
6173. In the manufacture of some sorts of cords from the intestines of sheep, the outer peri-
toneal coat is taken off and manufactured into a thread to sew intestines, and make the cords
tered and cured into ham every year, according to the size of the farmer's household , (2866.)
6178. A common practice is to cut out the hams and cure them by themselves, and then to take out the ribs, which are roasted as spare
of rackets and battledores. Future washings ribs, and the flesh and fat cured as a gammon cleanse the guts, which are then twisted into or fitch , an old English favourite. Ancient different-sized cordsfor various purposes. Some custom makes many reconciled to this practice, of the best known of those purposes are whip- and in the case of people preparing bacon for cords, hatters' cords for bowstrings, clockmakers' sale, it may be profitably followed; but for family cord, bands for sheaves, and fiddle and harp use,when the customs of markets are not studied, strings. Of this last class of cords — the source of one of our highest pleasures — it has long been
hams are better kept in whole sides until used,
subject of regret that musical strings manufactured in England should be so inferior in good-
quired. The flitches will certainly keep safer
ness and strength to those of Italy ; and the reason assigned is, that the sheep of Italy are both smaller and leaner than those of this coun-
try.
The difficulty lies, it seems, in making the
and, when used , cut out in pieces of the sizes re with the ribs attached to them than when left bare. Flitches are apt to become reasty, yellow
coloured, and rank - flavoured, when shut up in boxes, or kept in damp places, wanting circula tion of the air.
They should be hung up like
treble strings from the fine peritoneal coat, their hams in a cool dry apartment, where the air is chief fault being weakness,whence the smaller amply circulated . ones are hardly able to bear the stretch required for the higher notes in concert-pitch ; maintain-
6179. Pork hams are often smoked. The pro
ing, at the same time, in their form and construction that tenuity or smallness of diameter which is required to produce a brilliant and clear tone . " However insignificant this subject may appear in the estimation of some, it is worth attending to by those interested in enhancing the
cess of smoking, however, is troublesome to the
farmer, who has not premises suitable for con ducting it. The same end will be served by steeping the bacon a few hours in wood - vinegar -the pyroligneous acid.
profits of our native products, especially when
6180. From experiment, it was ascertained by
it is considered that harp-strings sell as high as
Mr Donovan, that, if the first cost of ham be 10 d . per lb., the meat, duly boiled, skinned, and browned, will cost ls. 13d. per lb. ; the loss
from 6d. to 2s. apiece.
6174. Pork. - Much less difference exists be tween the live and dead weight of pigs than any other species of stock, because no skin is taken off, and the head is always left with the carcass,
thereby being consequently 127 per cent. + 6181. Hog's lard is rendered in exactly the
same manner as mutton suet (6168 ;) but as
and only the fat and entrails removed. The lard is liable to become rancid, yellow -coloured, difference of live and dead weights are given and acquire a strongsmell when exposed to the below , on a few out of a large number of pigs air, it is usually tied up in bladders. For this slaughtered by Mr M. Sandford, St Martin's purpose it is allowed to cool a while, after it is Farm in 1849, in single and combined carcasses :
Live weights. ewt . Ib. 1 99 91 1 1 99
Dead weights. ewt .
1 1 1
Ib.
39 31 35
Live weights. ewt.
lb.
2
38 30 36
2 2
Dead weights . cwt. Ib .
5
23
6175. Mr Donovan found a hand of salt pork,
melted, and the bladder, a pig's or calf's, being made ready by being thoroughly cleaned and turned outside in, is filled with the lard by a funnel, and tied up. Lard “ melts completely at 999 Fahr., and then has the appearance of a
transparent and nearly colourless fixed oil. A thermometer placed in it sinks gradually to 80°. The lard then begins to congeal, and the thermo meter remains at 80º all the time of congealing,
weighing 4 lb. 5 oz., to lose in boiling 11 oz. The which occupies several minutes. It is clear from * Ure's Dictionary of the Arts - arts. Fat - Leather --- Parchment - Catgut. + Donovan's Domestic Economy, vol. ii. p. 279 and 287.
705
SLAUGHTERING . this, that 80° is the melting point of hog's lard . Its specific gravity at 102 ° is 0.9028 ; at 60°, it is 0.9302. It consists of elein 62 When parts, and of stearin 38 parts.
Stenhouse of Glasgow recommends this one : “ I placed a small plate containing a little creosote immediately under each piece of meat as it hung suspended in the larder, and covered both over
subjected to pressure between folds of blotting with a cloth. The creosote soon gave off vapours paper, the elein is absorbed, while the stearin remains."" * For domestic purposes, good hog's
which formed an antiseptic atmosphere around the meat, and kept it quite fresh three or four
lard isbetter than bad butter for frying fish ; days longer than it would otherwise have been. but quite unfit for pastry, and is improperly used in that way on the score of economy.
if the plate is gently heated before the creosote
is put into it, the vapours rise more quickly, and if the additional precaution is also taken of sus
• 6182. Hog's skin is usually thick, and, when pending the meat in a wooden box or earthen tanned, its great toughness renders it valuable jar which can be closed with a lid, the beneficial for the seats of riding saddles, and for powder effect is still more discernible. I have tried this flasks. process during the greater part of a summer with invariable success, and a butcher, who also 6183. Hog's bristles are formed into brushes tried it on a larger scale in his stall, was equally for painters and artists, and into brooms for convinced of its efficacy. The meat, when cooked, domestic use. The finest and longest bristles has not the slightest smell or taste of creosote. are imported from Finland, where the pigs are There is also another advantage attending the always lean ,their loins being tucked up like those use of creosote. Its smell is so disagreeable to of the greyhound.
flies that it effectually frees a larder from the
6184. The pork imported into this country was as follows, in 1849 . 1848 . 1847 .
quantity of creosote may be used for several
presence of these noxious insects. Cwt.
Pork salted ,
»
Cwt .
Owt.
235,798
254,070
101
61
924
235,899
254,131
348,276
fresh ,
347,352
6185. The hams imported were, in Hams,
1847 . Cwt .
1848 .
17,203
7,717
Cwt .
1849 . Cwt.
12,282 +
6186. Pork is admitted free ; and hams pay a duty of 7s. per cent from foreign countries, and 2s. per cent from the British possessions.
The same
weeks, but on being long exposed to the air it loses most of its smell, and is partly changed into a species of resin .” 6189. On considering the facility with which the use of chloroform induces insensibility in the human frame, it has occurred to me that it might be usefully applied in rendering animals insensible before slaughtering them ; and the only doubt that arose in my mind regarding its use in
this way was of its imparting any flavour to the flesh , or of accelerating its decay, or of being too expensive for ordinary use. On inquiring of Pro fessor Simpson of Edinburgh, the discoverer of this extraordinary substance, he informs me that it imparts no flavour to the flesh, either of sheep,
6187. Fat is very generally distributed in the
pigs, or fowls; and so far from accelerating its
animal frame. It is abundant under the skin , in the cellular membrane, round the kidneys, in the folds of the omentum, at the base of the heart, in the mediastinum , the mesenteric web, as well as upon the surface of the intestines,
decay, it rather preserves it a considerable time. The expense is not great : an ordinary ox may
and among many of the muscles. It varies in consistence, colour, and smell , according to
the animal from which it is obtained.
be rendered insensible for 2s., and a sheep and a
pig for ls, each. It may be administered by means of a cloth applied to the nostrils and mouth.
Although chloroform would thus be too
expensive for the general slaughtering of ani
Thus, mals, it might be used by farmers to place
it is generally fluid in the cetaceous tribes, beyond the feeling of pain all the animals they soft and rank - flavoured in the carnivorous, solid require to slaughter, and, by thus rendering and nearly scentless in the ruminants ; usually them entirely passive, the operation ofslaughter. white and copious in well -fed young animals, ing could be performed without the risk of injuring yellowish and more scanty in the old . Its con- the flesh by bruises of the slightest description . sistence varies also according to the organ of its
production , being firmer under the skin and in the neighbourhood of the kidneys than among the
6190. The flesh of the domesticated animals “ There
becomes poisonous under certain states.
movable viscera. Fat forms šo of the weight of is no doubt,” observes Dr Taylor, " that partial a healthy animal ; but as taken out by the but decay may render unwholesome and injurious cher it is not pure, for, being of a vesicular
the flesh of the most healthy animals ; and it is
structure, it is always enclosed in membranes, by no means improbable that, among the poor of mixed with blood, blood vessels, lymphatics, &c. 6188. In close warm weather meat often be-
large cities, the secret sale of decomposed and unwholesome meat is a very frequent cause of disease and death ." I
comes tainted. Any plan that can save this loss in domestic cconomy is entitled to a trial. Dr
6191. The flesh or muscle of animals consists
* Thomson's Animal Chemistry, p. 134. I Taylor On Poisons, p. 561 .
+ Parliamentary Return, 12th February 1850. VOL . II .
2 Y
706
REALISATION .
chiefly of two component parts, the fibrin and most breeding live stock, the perfect animalwhich thatis,to willproduce yield the
the albumen. Whenthe fibrin predominates, which itbeen doesfattened when theatall,the flesh is very and hasnot meat lean is ,tough
largest profit. Itis easy to possess aflock
and hard . When the albumen bears a consider or a herdwhich will propagate its kind, as is ableproportion of the flesh between the threads evinced in the actual condition of many of
of fibrin, which it always doeswhenthe animal the flocks and berds abounding in the is in fair conditionand has been fattened, the country. It is easier to do this than to flesh is tender and juicy. cultivate arable land for the purpose of 6192. Recent experiments of Liebig have raising grain, for this requires pretty con brought to light some very curious differences stant attention at the seasons of seed-time
existing between the contents of flesh and of the and harvest ; whereas a flock or herd of
blood ,although the lattermay be said totraverse neglected animalswill keep themselves in you an idea of those facts, in the words of Pro- life, if food be within their reach ,and will fessor Gregory, who first introduced them to the even propagate their kind if the sexes are notice of the English reader. There is a great not kept asunder.
preponderance," he observes, “ of phosphate of potash and chloride of potassium in the juice of flesh, while in the blood and lymph which circu
6195. I suspect that the principles by late through the muscles,it is phosphate of soda which the highest aim alluded to is to be
and chloride of sodium which prevail. The attained is not thoroughly understood by juice of flesh is always stronglyacid, while the breeders ; for I imagine that our best stock
blood and lymph are decidedly alkaline. There is an abundant acid inin the the urine. juice Alesh, of while itsupply cannotofbelactic detected But perhaps the mostinteresting observation, next to the discovery of kreatineas a constant ingredient of flesh, is of kreatinine, a powerful
has been brought to its present state of perfection by the exercise of individual taste and judgment — by gratifying the eye and satisfying the mind, rather than by the unerring guidance of any fixed prin
base in the juice of the flesh, and of bothin ciple on the subject . However this may pears tome,ofthe true function of the phosphate This function, that of absorbing carbonic acid and givingitout lungs, is here shown to depend entirely in the
of soda in the blood .
be, observation of the operations ofnature is sufficient to acquaint us that the pleasing symmetry in the body of an animal, its onthe aptitude to grow and fatten, are depen
minute chemical character of the salt in question ; andsoda we now see how it happens that phosphate of is essential to the blood, and cannot be replaced by phosphate of potash or salt, which, although in many points analogous, differs en-
dent on fixed laws which regulate the animal functions; and could we but become acquainted with these, wemightpursue the breeding of our stock with the utmost cer
tirelyfrom phosphate ofsoda in its tendency to tainty of success. acquire an acid instead of an alkaline reaction , and in its relation to carbonic acid . The same
remark applies to the action of common salt in
6196. From what I bave stated, you
phosphate of soda,which satisfactorily accounts will notexpect from me so particularan breeding for the presence ofphosphate of soda in the blood explanation of the principles of conduct ofanimals whosefood contain only phosphate of as I have given of the methods of
potash, but which eitherfindcommon salt in ingthe operations of the field. Suffice it their food, or obtain it as an addition ." *
to give you a few of the ordinary rules indicates the causes ofthe motion in thejuices of his stock, with a view to attaining the 6193. Another recent discovery of Liebig's which guide the breeder in the treatment
of the animal body,which he partly ascribes to high aims referred to ; and for the better understanding of which, I have selected
the action of the atmospheric pressure.t
ON
groups of animals as examples, in whose points you should have confidence, because AT IN they have been faithfully selected and
THE POINTS TO BE AIMED BREEDING THE MOST PERFECT FORMS IN LIVE STOCK .
6194. We bave now arrived at the most
taken from life, from individuals deemed
excellent by competent judges. 6197. The great aim of breeders is,
difficult branch of farming, and the highest that their stock shall exhibit beautiful aim which the farmer wishes to attain in symmetry - possess robust constitution * Liebig's Chemistry of Food, Preface, p. viii . + Liebig On the Motion of the Juices of the Animal Body, Preface, p. ix.
POINTS.
707
and acquire a disposition to attain early rectangular square to the fore part of the maturity, without which properties good same ox ; and although the frame is not health , fine quality of flesh , and suffici- so fully filled up in this view as in the two ency of fat,cannot be insured . Let us con- former, it is clear that the general contour sider what each of those properties means, of the animal in this view also is very and then attend to the points in animals, similar to both the preceding. The width
which always accompany those properties. between the shoulders of an ox from a to a is always a little less than between the
6198. Symmetry . — The figure desider- hooks a to a in fig. 297 ; although the ribs ated in the matured and fatted animal is are always as full in a well- formed animal. the geometric solid named the parallelopi 6201. The parallelopiped has an ped, because it not only affords a figure
tbat may be proportionally beautiful,but upper surfaceand a base, as well as sides within small dimensions. Of course it is angular frame of fig. 296, applied to
it contains a large capacity of contents and ends. Fig. 299 shows the rect
not to be supposed that the outline of any the back of the ox, which fills it as fully as
animal frame should present the sharp might be expected—the only spaces left edges and projecting angles of a geometric vacant being at the angles. figure, but it is quite possible to identify
the similarity of the animal body to the mathematical solid.
In the attainment
6202. So far, then, the contour of the frame of a matured ox tallies very nearly
of this similarity, it is fortunate for the with the lines of a regular mathematical breeder of stock that his taste and interest
solid .
It will be observed that the form
coincide ; for, if his eye is not pleased of the wooden frame, in figs. 296 and 299,
and that of figs. 297 and with the form of the animal he has bred , is a rectangle, 298 is a square, and the proportion which
certain it is that the animal will not become a valuable one to him .
they bear to one another is that the rectangle comprehends two of the squares ;
6199. In order to satisfy one's mind on the identity of shape of the animal frame and the geometric solid named, we have only to compare the figures of the animals usually reared for disposal from the farm
so that the conclusions we should draw in
reference to the figure of the ox is, that the length of the body to the shoulder point is twice its breadth, and twice its depth. The lines which fill up the contour
with the said solid. Fig. 296 represents of theox are explained in ( 3616 )to (3621.) an ox fit to be disposed of at market as a The height of the shoulder top is about
matured animal. The wooden rectangular one inch more than the rump. The void frame, which is placed against its side, and space below the belly fills up , and the
which is similar to the side of a parallelo- body ), of the area included between the piped of the same dimensions as the ox, line ofback and the ground. circumscribes in almost every point the outline of the animal ; and that outline is
6203. The rectangular wooden frame
no more redundant in one place, and defi- applied to the side, before, behind, and cient in another, than might be expected upon the back of a matured fat sheep, will on comparing the form ofa living creature bring out very similar results to the ox. with a mathematical figure.
Plate IX. contains the portraits of three wethers which were brought to the Edin
6200. But a parallelopiped has not burgh market forsale, of the Leicester, sides alone, it has also ends. Let us see
Cheviot, and Black -faced breeds ; and it
whether the figure of the sameox also an-
will be observed that one and all of them
swers to these, when viewed from behind have bodies of the same form as the ox.
and before. Fig. 297 shows the application of the end of the geometric solid, in the form of a rectangular square, against the hind part of the ox ; and a singleglance makes it evident that the same remarks apply to this view of the figure as to that of the side. Still further, fig. 298 applies the same
The clipped tup, fig. 330, illustrates clearly the same rule .
6204. The draught gelding, figured in Plate XII., maintains a similar form to the ox in the body, and fully corroborates the remarks I have made above. The
708
REALISATION .
length of the body is twice its depth. invariably accompanied with dulness of The void space below the belly to the spiritand want of action. A thin -skinned ground is equal to the depth of the body. and thick -boned animal is ill to maintain
The length of the neck to the withers is equal to the depth of the body from the withers. Thedistance from the elbow to the fetlock joint is equal to that of the withers.
in condition. A fit of indigestion fre quently overtakes thin-skinned animals, and their condition in consequence varies. Thick -boned animals never seem to relish their food, are indifferent to everything that concerns them, and are dull feeders.
6205. The same test applied to pigs A flat -ribbed thin-bodied animal is more may be seen in fig. 438, where the rect- delicate than a round - ribbed one. angular frame is about filled up except at
6208. Disposition to attain early matu two angles, which are more vacant than with the ox, the sheep, or the horse ; but rity . — Themost prominent indication of this the lines of the rump of a pig are always disposition is a loose, thick, mellow skin, as more abrupt than thoseof any other of the if floating upon a stratum of fat below; and domesticated animals, (5136.) such a skin is invariably covered with long, soft, mossy -feeling hair, bearing a 6206. Robustness of constitution . — The decided colour. A firmness of texture
indications of good health and strength of constitution are — strong, broad, flat bones in the legs, with the sinews thick and round, and distinctly developed, the whole
over the whole body is essential to a dis position to fatten ;no fat encumbers the bones of the legs and of the head. All the extremities, the limbs, head, and tail
being closely covered with skin. This are small, fine, and tapering from the condition of the legs is what is terined body. The eye is prominently set in the
clean. The eye is full and clear. The head, and with a placid expression. The skin of the nose, in the case of cattle, forehead is broad . The ears are sensible sheep, and pigs, is bedewed with moisture. to every new sound . The muzzle is The skin is covered closely with long fine sharp, the nostrils distended, the jaws dis hair. The surface of the horn on the feet tinct and clean. The muscles are broad and and head oily and shining, and the junc- flat. The blood -vessels large and full. tion of the bair and horn growthy. The The chest is broad, and the tail filat at
bair of the tail of the ox and of the horse the top, and broad and tapering to the
long, shining, with a tendency to curl. tuft of hair. The line of the back is The wool of sheep wavy, greasy, inter- straight and level, and the ribs round. laced, and of fine quality. The animal A back high above the level is narrow ,
spirits lively, the senses acute, and the instinct sagacious. The appetite ready, digestion good. The body enduring of fatigue, and little susceptible of the
and is accompanied with flat ribs and long narrow face, which are both indica tive of a want of disposition to fatten . When the back is below the level, the fat
changes of the weather.
These condi- and flesh are mostly put upon the under tions are maintained by kind treatment, part ofthe carcass, and the tallow increases
comfortable lodging, and abundance of in the interior. The flanks and cod are food .
then thick and fat. In such a configuration the fore quarters are larger than the hind.
6207. A delicate constitution is indicated by the opposite properties. The skin is thin, and covered with scanty hair or open wool. With such a covering the animal is affected by the least change of weather, overcome with the heat of summer, feels uneasy in the cold of winter,
Such an animal evinces a disposition to fatten, but lays on coarse pieces. When the curved lines abound over the body and play into one another, giving a brilliancy to the surface, whilethe sweep ing lines of the contour, with the tapering fineness of the extremities, the pleasing
and is chilledby every shower that falls. A very small bone, however clean, is always accompanied with a reduced size of carcass . Thick and round bone gives
countenance, and the joyous spirit, a sym metry, state of health , and disposition to improve are conjoined, that afford the highest satisfaction and profit to the
a clumsiness to the limbs and head, and is breeder.
POINTS OF SHORT - HORNS. DESCRIPTION OF
THE
ANIMALS
WHOSE
PORTRAITS ARE GIVEN IN THE PLATES.
709
shoulder at f 7 feet 3 inches. His mea surement for beef was 4 feet 6 inches in
length, by 7 feet 3 inches in girth, fig. 6209. Let us apply these points to the 300, equal to 56 stones ; so I should say,
animals whose portraits occupy the plates from these proportions, that this ox was given in this work — and first let us take rather too short for a perfectly sym the examples of the Short-horn cattle ; metrical figure, and was rather heavier in and of these we shall first take the ox as
the hind than in the fore quarter.
the type of the class, being the most com
mon state we find the feeding cattle on a
6210. In Plate XI. is the portrait of a farm . Fig. 564 is a representation of the red and white Short-horn bull. The red was remarkably rich in colour, and the Fig. 564. a b C white was confined to the girth on the
near side, the under part of the brisket, and of the belly, and on the scrotum . He was bred by the late Mr George Brown at Whitsome Hill, in Berwickshire. He was
got bya red and white bull belonging to Mr Robertson of Ladykirk in that county, named Valentine. * At that period, Mr Robertson's stock of Short -horns was in
its glory. The dain of this bull was got by a red bull, never named, bred by the late Mr Thomas Smith when at Grindon, THE SHORT- HORN OX.
in Northumberland, and was a son of bis
portrait of the ox given in Plate X. This old roan bull Duke; and at that period
is awell-bred Short-horn ox, bred and fed few farmers possessed so high a bred stock by Mr Wilson of Cumledge, near Dunse as Mr Smith ; his steers being then unri in Berwickshire, who has long been a suc- valled for beauty and weight. The grand cessful breeder of Short-horn steers, (1153.) dam was one of twin quey -calves produced His stock comes to maturity, and is fat- by a quey, purchased in calf byMr Brown
tened off at two years old, when many out from thelate Mr Mason of Chilton. One of 50 in number attain the weight of 70 of the twin-calves, when a 2 -year old stones. This particular ox was only 1 quey, Mr Brown sold to the late Duke of year 11 months old when his portrait was
Buccleuch for 50 guineas, and the other
taken ; and he was afterwards exhibited he retained for himself. I purchased this at the Highland and Agricultural Society's bull when one year old from Mr Brown
show atBerwick -upon -Tweed, in October for 20 guineas, and kept him at Balmadies, 1841. He was roan in colour, with a good deal of white on thehead, gullet, breast, under part of the belly, round the girth, and upon the rump and buttock. His head was remarkably fine, broad above the eyes, having a pleasant countenance,
in Forfarshire, for 8 years, during which time he proved himself a sure and excel lent calf -getter, and evinced a gentleness of disposition to every person who ap
proached him, in a degreeremarkable for a bull. He had manygood points - small
full eyes, and small slouching sharp - pointed head, full lively eye, small,fine, white brown horns. Besides a fine head, he bad a straight back, round rib, deep flank, and full neck-vein . His limbs were remarkably clean. He was in high health. His principal measurements were,from the head e to the shoulder top a 27 inches, from the shoulder a to a line across the hooks b, 32 inches, from the hooks 6 to the tailhead c , 212 inches, in all 6 feet 9 inches; and the girth of the body bebind the
horn. He was completely filled up be hind the shoulder, at f, fig. 565, a point in which many otherwise fine bulls are defi cient. He had a long quarter across y, a difficult point to attain ina bull, carrying the flesh to the hocks d ; a very thick flank i; the ribs very round, which, with the upfilling behind the shoulder at f, made the line straight from the shoulder point e along the rib at f, and the buttock g to
* Coates' Herd Book, vol. i. p. 141 (661)— Valentine.
710
REALISATION .
the hock d .
His fore-arm was very fare of any of his own kind of stock that
strong ; neck -vein e full ; and the brisket were in the same field with him . At
h not too deep, as is often the case with length he was fed on turnips from Novem ber to April, when he was killed fat, and Fig. 565.
the butcher, Mr Johnston of Arbroath , in b
formed me be weighed 139 stones, sinking the offals.
I saw his flesh, which was
really fine - much liker ox than bull beef. 6211. In fig. 566, I give an outline Fig. 566 .
THE SHORT-HORN BULL.
bulls.
The crest of his neck a was fine,
and not lumpy, as is often seen on bulls. His hooks and back ' were remarkably
straight and broad, measuring across the hook -bones at 6 36 inches ; the rump be tween b and c was full and round, and the
Stute
tail -head c wasparticularly level and fine, MR HOPPER'S SHORT- HORN BULL, BELVILLE . showing no undue development of muscle on either side of the tail, as is often the portrait of a Short- horn bull that has
case here — a deformity too generally ad- obtained a most remarkable celebrity. It is mired , and in so far shows a prevalence that of Belville, a short-horn bull bred by of bad taste. His neck and shoulders John Mason Hopper, Esq., of Newham
were thickly sprinkled with curled locks Grange, near Stockton -upon - Tees, York of long bair, the entire body being covered shire. This remarkable bull carried the with fine soft hair. The face was singularly ornamented with curled hair : it was shedded from a line down the front of the face, seeming as if it had been combed
first prize of his class at the Show of the Agricultural Society of England at Wake field, at that oftheAgricultural Improve ment Society of Ireland at Limerick, and towards each eye ; and the hair above the at that of the Highland and Agricultural
eyes seemed also combed up to meet the Society at Inverness, all in the year 1846, combed locks from the face. The roots when five years old.
And again, as a
of the horns were hidden with long locks bullof any age, he gained a sweepstakesof of combed hair reaching to the forehead. His hide was loose, thick , and soft, and the touch mellow. He had a most robust constitution, never having had a single hour's illness in his life of 9 years. Unfortunately I had no measurement taken of his proportions, which I considered the most perfect of any bull I ever saw . He was kept generally in ordinary condition,
£ 70 of silver plate, at the Show of the Highland and Agricultural Society at Glasgow in 1850, against twenty compe titors. He has, therefore, proved himself to be the best bull of his day. Belville was got by Newton, his dam by Gany mede, by Uptaker, grand -dam Garland by
Matchem . His head is remarkably fine for a bull, his neck small, and his ex
getting in winter only a few turnips to tremities clean. His skin and handling serve for water, and principally supported are perfect, and so is the laying on of the In summer, bis tendance on flesh along all the upper part of his body, the cows was so constant, that he was with no disposition anywhere to lay on
on straw .
very seldom seen grazing, although he lumpy fat. His back is uncommonly never annoyed them even when in season. straight and broad from the hooks forward, It was often amusing to observe thetrouble and his chest remarkably wide and full, he gave himself in looking after the wel- as may be observed in fig. 567, which
POINTS OF SHORT -HORNS.
711
gives a fore-shortened view ofhis body. was got by Matchem , dam by a son of Mr His quarter was long, and the space Colling's George, grand -dam by Winyard . behind the shoulder wel filled up. Ifany It will be observed that the grand -dam of Fig. 567.
Fig. 568.
THE SHORT-HORN COW.
Mr Hopper's bull Belville, fig . 566,
was also got by Matchem . Kilmeny was a cow of remarkably fine quality of skin , and her broad face indicated a
good disposition to fatten. Her principal
dimensions were from top of shoulder a to hook b, 3 feet; from hook b to tail - head c, VIEW OF THE BACK AND CHEST OF BELVILLE . 14 foot ; extreme length from head to tail, point is exceeded, it is, I think, in the ī feet 3 inches; girth, 6 feet 5 inches ; depth of the brisket, as may be observed in depth from hook 6 to flank f, 2 feet ;
both figures. The piece of plate constituting breadth over the hooks 6, 3 feet; from the the sweepstakes was a flagon, the lid of ground to the fore -elbow, 2 feet 6 inches ; which was appropriately ornamented and from that elbow to the top of shoulder a, surmounted by a model in silver of Mr Hopper's bull Belville, which had distin-
2 feet ; breadth across the shoulders at a,
2 feet 6 inches; the shoulders beautifully guished himself so conspicuously in beating sloped from d to g ; from nose to eye, 1 in competition every bull brought against foot ; length of ears, 7 inches; breadth of
him at the national show held in each pelvis, 10 inches; the ribs e beautifully division of the kingdom. It was a happy rounded ; and the udder h finely formed
coincidence, besides the elegant compli- and quartered . It will be seen from these ment, that the plate so ornamented should numbers that she was long-bodied, from g, bave fallen into Mr Hopper's own hands. 5 feet 6 inches, in comparison to the depth, hf , 2 feet; and that she was 6212. Plate VI. contains the portraits broad behind, at the hooks 6, 3 feet, in com
of three Short-horn cows, belonging to his parison to the breadth across the shoulders Grace the Duke of Buccleuch, at Dalkeith a, 2 feet 6 inches-- the shoulders being, no Park , Mid-Lothian. The one on the left doubt, thus sharpened by the great inclina hand was roan in colour, the centre one tion of the scapula from d to g. The un entirely red, and the right hand one common half - slouching, half - projecting entirely white, which are the three arrange- position of her horns, and a sort of stare of ments of colour presented by all Short- her full eyes, gave her countenance a some horns. The red and white are distinct colours in themselves, and the roan con sists of a mixture of red and white hairs,
what anstere
vect uncommon in cows.
6213. As the colour of Short-born cattle
being lighter and darker according as the is a prominent characteristic of them, I white or red predominates. The principal may mention that roan is a handsome cow in this group was the left-hand roan colour, and is, I believe, the general one, fig. 568, which was descended from
favourite now—the fancy for colour having
the late Mr Robertson’s, of Ladykirk, gone from the red to the white, and is now celebrated stock, and which was distri- settled on the roan.
Dark red usually
buted over the country after the late indicates bardiness of constitution ,richness Mr John Rennie of Phantassie got posses- of niilk, and disposition to fatten ; light sion of it. Her name was Kilmeny : she red indicates a large quantity of thin milk,
REALISATION .
712
and little disposition to fatten ; but the gradually from the body, and are broad red in either case is seldom entire, being and flat, indicating strength ; the knee k generally relieved with white on some is straight, broad, and strong, and the part of the sides and belly. White was fore-arm į broad and flat - all excellent considered indicative of delicacy of con- points in the leg of a draught-horse, giving stitution ; and to get quit of it, and at the it strength and action . The back of the same time avoid the dulness of red, the fore -leg, from the fetlock joint l to the
roan was encouraged, and now prevails. body o, is straight, indicating no weakness symptoms
The white shows the sooner in the limb —à failing here causing the than any of the other colours of breeding knees to knuckle, and rendering the horse in-and-in. A single black hair on the unsafe in going down-hill. The hind -legs body, and particularly on the nose ; or them, as well as the fore ones k and l, stand
slightest black or blue spot upon the flesh- directly under the body, forming firm sup coloured skin upon the nose, or around the ports under it. The body is beautifully eyes ; or the least streak of black on the symmetrical. The shoulder slopes back tips of the horns, at once proclaims that a wards from h to b, the withers at b being
Short-horn sporting either one or more of high and thin . The sloped position of the these impurities is of mixed blood - not- shoulder affords a proper seat for the collar, withstanding all attestation tothe contrary, and provides the muscles of the shoulder blade , with a long lever to enable
6214. Applying the same points to them to throw the fore-legs easily forward ; horses, we shall take the gelding as the
and with such a shoulder a horse cannot
standard of comparison. Fig. 569 repre- stumble. The back, from b to c, is short, no longer than to give room for the saddle. The chest, from 7 to o, is deep, giving capacity for the lungs to play in, and room for the muscles required in draught. The top of the quarter from c to d is rounded , the flank, from c to n, deep,and the hind quarter, from f to e, long . On looking on the entire side profile of the animal, the body seems made up oftwo large quarters, joined together by a short thick middle, suggesting the idea of strength and action ;
Fig. 569.
in
and the limbs, neck, and head, are so
attached to the body as to appear light THE DRAUGHT- HORSE .
and graceful. In a well-formed horse, I
sents the grey gelding whose portrait is may remark, that the line from the fetlock found in Plate XII. He was bred by the joint lto the elbow joint o, is equal to that late Mr Curry when at Brandon, Nor- from the joint o tothe top of the withers
thumberland, and was the property of 6. In a low-shouldered leggy-horse, the Messrs. Howey and Co., the great carriers line lo is much longer than the line ob ;
from Edinburgh into England. He was but in the case of this horse, the body b o not a thorough -bred Clydesdale, having a is rather deeper than the leg lo is long,
dash of coaching blood in him , a species of realising the desideratum in a farm -horse on the of a thick middle and short legs. The Borders, and admired for their action and line across the ribs from g tof is, like the spirit. This gelding exhibits such a form back , short, and the ribs are round: He as to constitute, in my estimation, the was 16 hands high, or 64 inches ; measured very perfection of what a farm -horse should from a to 635 inches, from b to c 33 inches, be. His head a is small, bone clean, eyes from c to d 19 inches, being in extreme prominent, muzzle fine, and ears set upon length 7 feet 3 inches. Length of the face
farm -horse very much in use
25 inches, breadth of face across the eyes 10 inches, length of ears 6 inches, breadth and tapers to the head, which is beauti- across the book -bones 22 inches, girth fully set on the neck, and seems to be behind the shoulder 80 inches, girth of the crown of the head . His neck rises with a fine crest from the trunk bh to a,
borne by it with ease .
His limbs taper fore -arm 23 inches, girth of bone below
POINTS OF DRAUGHT HORSES.
713
the fore-knee 94 inches — the girth of this reducing the size of the muscles of the bone shows the comparative strength of neck of geldings. The shoulder slopes
the fore-leg of every horse - girth of neck well back frome to b, giving freedom of at the onset of the head 32 inches, girth
action to the fore -legs, while the muscle
of muzzle 21 inches, width of counter 19 at m, being fully developed, assists in inches, and height of top of quarter c from imparting strength to that action.
the ground 63 inches. In a draught-horse hind-quarter, from g to h, is long and the use of the collar causes the muscles upon the shoulder to enlarge, and the neck to become thin . This horse's name was Farmer, his walk was stately, and he could
deep. The fore-leg is straight, and short from knee to fetlock, p to n, the bone under the knee strong, and the fore-arm I flat and broad. On comparison, the fore
draw 3 tons on level ground, including the legs of the gelding are fullymore handsome. weight of the waggon. He was a wellknown horse on the streets of Edinburgh for some years, and was generally admired. He was 11 years old when this portrait
The hind -legs o are remarkably so. The sweep of line from the crown of the head a along the back to the tail-head d is
truly elegant, giving a very fine top to
was taken, 1838 ; but whether he is now the quarter. The fulness of the hair in the
alive in 1850, I do not know.
tail à k indicates great strength of back. His eye was good , though somewhat
6215. Fig. 570, and Plate IV., is the small, and the ratch of white down his face marred the beauty of his countenance ; Fig. 570. and both the hind legs being white was also C
d
against bis general appearance. His dis position was remarkably docile, and his whole demeanour harmless.
His consti
tution was good, and he was an excellent traveller.
These are a few of his dimen
sions : —from the crown of the head a to the top of shoulder b 51 inches, from the top of the shoulder b to the top of the
rumpc 30 inches, from the top of the manhos THE DRAUGHT- STALLION .
rump c to the tail-head d 22 inches ; in all, 8 feet 7 inches. Length of face 264
portrait of the black drauglit-stallion, inches, breadth of face across the eyes 11 Champion, bred by Mr James Steedman, inches, length of ears 64 inches, breadth Boghall, Mid - Lothian. He is of the true across the hook - bones 30 inches, girth
Clydesdale breed. He gained the first behind the shoulder90 inches, girth of fore prize at the Highland and Agricultural
arm l 28 inches, girth of bone below the
Society's Show at Glasgow in October fore - knee 12 inches, height of the top of the 1837, and obtained premiums elsewhere. quarter c from the ground 67 inches, girth He was a sure foal-getter. He was fully of neck at the onset of the head 39 inches,
17 bands high, 68 inches ; and though girth of muzzle 24 inches, and width of otherwise a large animal, being 8 feet inches in length, his action was high and uncommonly light. On comparing him generally with the gelding just described,
counter 22 inches. He was a gay, lively , beautiful horse when run out, and bis
action was apparently very easy to him self.
though his body is longer, both hind and
fore quarters are long and deep, exhibiting alarge display ofmuscle . His middle is somewhat small, as is almost always the case with stallions which have served many mares, the frequent action of the muscles of the abdomen causing its contraction . Like all stallions, his neck rises beautifully from his body b e, in a full crest from 6 to a, evincing that castration and work have a powerful effect in
6216. Fig. 571 , and Plate VIII. is the
portrait of a brown Clydesdale draught mare, belonging to the late Mr George Bagrie, Monkton near Dalkeith, Mid Lothian. She gained the first premium at every show of stock she was ever exhibited. The white ratch down her face, and so much white on her legs, detract from the beauty of her appearance ;
but notwithstanding these drawbacks, she
REALISATION .
714
is an exceedingly handsome and beautiful those of horses of other colours ; and also mare. You have only to look at the plate to that the white feet of horses of other observe the easy flowing lines of her whole colours are more tender than dark -coloured feet; but on what grounds I cannot say. Fig. 571 . 6218. In Plate IX. is a representation
6
of a dinmont Leicester sheep. The per g
fect form of the breed would have been best shown in a wether, but a Leicester
wether is now -a -days so very seldom to be found that I could not obtain one for a portrait to be taken . Nor will the din
mont in the plate be of much use as a reference, since its posture in reposing on
the ground is unfavourable to affording a THE DRAUGHT -MARE .
contour, and also the great substance of both fore and hind quarter. The rise and crest of her neck from b to a, and from e to a, are remarkably fine. The back from b to c is somewhat hollow, and there is a corresponding depression ofthe belly at i, both
proper view of its form .
The head and a
leg, however, indicate that the sheep was well bred , and the texture of the wool is well preserved . Like the ox and the
gelding, in cattle and horses, the wether best exhibits the points of a particular breed, which the breeder should cultivate
being the effects of foal-bearing ; as there with a view to profit, and free from those
is, besides, a slackness of the flank in front sexual characteristics which the stallion
of 9, a usual deficiency in brood -mares. and the mare, the bull and the cow, and The top of the rump from c to d is very the tup and the ewe, must always possess. fine.
The shoulder slopes well from e to
b, indicating good action ; the muscles are 6219. Plate XIII. contains the portrait well developed on the fore-quarter from e of a Leicester tup which belonged to the to f, indicating power in draught; the Duke of Buccleuch ; as also another with ribs are round,and the barrel long from f out the fleece in fig. 330. The tup in the to g, a favourable configuration in a brood- plate exhibits the peculiar properties of mare for giving room for the growth of the breed to which he belongs ; the prin
thefætus.The hind-quarter fromg to h cipal of which are, face and legs covered is long. The legs are placed directly with white hair, a hornless head ,and body
under the body, the fore-knee ? being well enveloped in long wool. The indi broad and strong, the back of the fore-leg vidual characteristics of this tup are, rect from the fetlock m to the body straight, angular carcase, round rib, small bone, and the fore -arm k broad and flat. I have no measurement of the dimensions of this
fine head, small muzzle, large full eye ,
and expressive countenance, and his ears
mare, for a comparison with those of the much shorter than usual. The head of gelding and stallion. Beside roundness the tup is broader across the eyes than and length of rib, a brood-mare should be that of the ewe or wether, and the skin wide across the hook-bones and the pelvis, becomes a little wrinkled upon the nose to afford room for the growth and subse- when he gets aged . The wool is thick
quent egress of the foal. This mare gave set, long, of good quality, and the fleece envelops the entire body above and below , -a mark of sound constitution, and a 6217. I have chosen a black stallion, great means of preserving the animal from brown mare, and grey gelding, to illustrate the bad effects of the weather above, and the three colours most commonly seen of the dampness of the ground below. A amongst farm -horses. A black stallion level broad back from neck to rump, and seems the favourite colour, and a brown across the ribs, is characteristic of the
up foal-bearing at an early age.
mare is not uncommon, but a grey draught Leicester; and on being turned up, a broad horse is much more uncommon now than
chest with fulness of flesh in the arm -pits
it was 20 years ago. It is said that the and the inside of the hams. The touch feet of grey borses are more tender than should be equally mellow along the back ,
POINTS OF PIGS.
715
a hardness in any part indicating a defect. which keeps the throat warm ; the belly Inordinary condition, the flesh above the tail-head is nicked, which may be easily felt with the points of the fingers ; but when in high condition, which they should be at the tupping-timein autumn, (4721,) the nicking should extend all the way from the shoulder-top to the tail. The
is well covered with wool at b, as also the flank at c ; the rump d is level with the back, and carries the levelness to the tail head, from which the tail drops perpendi cularly, and there is abundance of wool to protect the anal and vaginal passages from
rib should also be well covered with flesh
while others are rounded down to the tail
the cold. Some ewes are high in the rump,
and fat. The bones of the legs should be head, somewhat in the form of the pig. strong, broad and flat, and the limbs Gimmers generallycarry a large proportion
placed immediately under the carcass to of wool upon the rump, which afterwards support it. The physical strength of a bares down to the level of the back, wool. Leicester tup isgreat;having largemuscles It isLeicester quite a common occurrence in a flock
concentrated within small bounds, he can exert a strength forward which no man's strength is able to counteract, as long as the tup's feet remain upon the ground ;
ewes to bear a large propor of tion of twin lambs, and even to wean them to the extent of 50 per cent beyond their own number. Many ewes bear twins every
and consequently the only, and at the year, whilst others have only single lambs. same time the most ready means, within
the reach of a shepherd, to prevent bim 6221. In Plate V. is the portrait of a going away, is to seize one of the hind sow which belonged to the Duke of Bnc legs from behind, when locomotion is cleuch, at Dalkeith Park , Mid-Lothian,
instantly arrested.
and fig. 573 represents the same animal. Fig. 573.
6220. Plate VII. contains a portrait of a Leicester ewe and its lambs, and fig. 572 Fig. 572.
ki
THE BROOD SOW .
Here the same rule applies as to symme try and disposition to fatten as in the THE LEICESTER EWE AND LAMB .
cases of the ox and the sheep. The head is a representation of them. She also be- a is small, the face tapering to the snout longed to the Duke of Buccleuch, at Dal- é, which is short and fine ; the ears are set
keith Park , Mid -Lothian. The points of on the crown of the head, being broad, thin, the Leicester ewe are, bead generally long, long, and so mobileas to indicate quick narrow , and clean, with fine muzzle, pro- ness of perception. The value of the head , minent eyes, and long, broad, thin ears. as an article of food, is indicated by the The bone of the leg is small, fine, broad enlargement of the muscle upon the cheek
and flat. In this particular instance, the h. The neck from a to b is full; the back body is well-woolled and rectangularly from b to c, broad ; the rump from c to d formed. The counterg is full ; the shoul- full and round, and the roundness descends der well filled up behind at a ; the rib at to the hams ; the ribs f are round ; the
f round and full; and the loin at e filled space behind the shoulder at g filled up ; up, not hollow , as is sometimes the case , particularly after ewes have borne a num-
and so is the flank e ; the shanks k are
small and short, and finely tapered. A ber of lambs. The wool comes forward pig with these properties is always in a full behind the ears on the top of the neck condition for use, from the state of a pig
at i, thus keeping these organs protected ; sucking milk ,through itsprogress of pork it is also full towards the cheeks at h, ling and shott, till it attain the full size for
REALISATION .
716
bacon and hams. Such a breed never re- burgs should never be lost sight of, they quires feeding, and as it is always in con- being now entirely inured to this climate ;
dition, it requires only time to grow to and they are generally very healthy and the size wanted, when a little firming of the good layers, their flesh possessing, if not
flesh by corn soon prepares it for slaughter. great delicacy of whiteness, a good favour. I think it would be worth while, the state of the pig class, which shows the as a matter of profit, for farmers to make The shott should have been instanced as
points of most value for profit ; but the and rear capons for the market, being difference in the points of the sow and soon fit for the table : the process of
shott are so little defined, that the repre- caponing might be easily learnt. There sentation of the one serves well enough has not yet been introduced any bird of for that of the other.
the goose tribe better than the old grey goose and white gander. I have tried a
6222. When a boar attains the age of cross with the Chinese gander and the com
several years, the tusks are seen to project mon goose, as also one with the common a considerable way beyond the lip ; and gander and the Chinese goose ; but though if he is at all cross in temper, and is the progeny was larger than either, and be permitted to go about the courts of the
came rather handsome birds, the flesh was
steading in which the cattle are confined, and to make his litter in them, he has been known to injure the cattle — which mayhave trampled upon bim accidentally in the litter — so very seriously with the
coarse and the flavour spoiled. Aylesbury ducks are certainly superior to the common ducks both in size and flesh ; and they are not only large layers, but lay all winter.
tusks, as to occasion even death. He strikes upwards with the tusks; and should
6224. Fig. 574 is an outline portrait of Fig. 574.
the stroke be directed to the belly of the ox, the skin and the peritoneum will be instantly torn, and the bowels laid bare,
the strength of the neck of a large boar being almost incredible . I have observed, however , that the boar is more friendly with cattle than with horses, and especi
ally young ones, which often delight in giv ing him a bite or a kick in passing. With large tusks, it is safest either to break off their points, or prevent boars making their litter amongst cattle and horses. 6223. Plate XIV. gives portraits of the different kinds of poultry reared on a farm , without regard to fancy breeds.
The black Norfolk breed of tur
ES THE COMMON FOWL .
keys I have beard recommended as being the common ben in the plate. The flesh both strong and large; and I have seen a of a fowl is chiefly found on the sternum pure white variety ; butI should not desire or breast-bone, which, when not full, the a better breed than the light grey, what- fowl is considered lean. The develop
ever their name or origin may be. The ment of the muscle there is dependent on young cocks attained, with me, every the state of the extremities. When the head
year at least 15 lb. each by Christmas. and limbs are large and coarse, the skele The old cocks never became
troublesome. ton of the body, including the breast which I bave seen the black variety do ; bone, are long and narrow , and then the
and the hens are most careful mothers muscle is thin and sinewy ; but when
and great layers. The Dorkingis decidedly they are small and fine, the horn of the an excellent fowl, and I perceive that the grey variety is preferred to the white - at least they are much more frequently to be seen . Nevertheless the common Ham-
bill firm, the scales of the legs thin and close set, and the eye large and clear, the body assumes a roundnessof form , becom ing deeper and approaching to the oval.
POINTS OF HEREFORDS.
717
When of this form , the muscles become presents the head ofa Long -horn bull, which
thicker, larger, and tenderer. Fat does belonged to Mr R. Horton, Sherborne, in not seem deposited in the muscle of the Warwickshire, and was exhibited, and fowl, but the cellular tissue between the obtained the first prize of his class, at the
fibres of the muscles become enlarged. Show of the Royal Agricultural Society The fatis mostly seen on the rump and the sides ; it increases in the inside ; it lines the body under the skin , through which it is easily seen . It is a characteristic of all the domesticated fowls to have a round plump form of body in connection with fine extremities ; and these points are certainly indicative of a disposition to fatten.
of England at Oxford , in July 1839, when he was 4 years 2 months old. It will be observed that the face is short and broad, muzzle small, the eye large and expres sive, the horns fine, tapering, and sharp pointed, and the countenance agreeable. His colour was light brown, brindled with black stripes. The skin was thin and
mellow, and the hair mossy. The skin of the nose and around the eyes dark flesh ACCOUNT OF SOME OTHER BREEDS OF CATTLE AND SHEEP.
colour.
The slouching position of the
horns is very common in the Long -horn breed ; they are brown, with a few reddish
6225. Long-Horns.- The Long-horns streaks, and tipped with brownish black. are a breed not confined to England, be- His dam and grand-dam were also bred ing also found in Ireland ; but there are by Mr Horton, and his sire was bred none, to my knowledge, in Scotland. This by Mr Court, near Warwick. He was
breed was brought to greatperfectionby regarded as a very superior animal of his the celebrated Bakewell, in Leicestershire, kind. His weight was estimated at 100 and on that account were first called Lei- stones. I give a few of his principal
cesters. After the success attending the dimensions. From crown of the head to breeding of the Short- horns — so named from their horns being short - by the brothers Collings, the Long-borns lost part of their reputation ; and the merit of the Collings as breeders was the more remarkable, in that they had to cope with
the top of the shoulder, 36 inches; from top of shoulder to a line with the hooks, 36 inches ; from line of hooks to tail-head, 22 inches ; total length, 94 inches ; length of face, 21 inches; from eye to nose, 13 inches ; length of ear, 6 inches; breadth
so formidable a rival and celebrated a
of face at the eyes, 10 inches ; girth of breeder as Robert Bakewell ; but fortu- neck at the onset to the head, 46 inches ;
nately for them, and for the country also, girth of muzzle, 22 inches; girth behind
they had a better subject to begin with. the shoulder, 96 inches ; breadth across After the establishment of the Short-horns, the hooks, 24 inches ; breadth across the the Leicesters were called Long -horns, shoulders, 24 inches ; height from ground their horns being frequently very long ; as to fore elbow , 27 inches ; height from
also to distinguish their name from Bake- elbow to top of shoulder, 27 inches - to well's improved breed of sheep, which gether, 544 inches ; height from ground were often named Leicesters, from the to top of hooks, 56 inches, so he stood 15
county where they originated, at Dishley, higher before than behind ; depth from the residence of Mr Bakewell. Fig. 575 re- book to bottom of flank, 27 inches; from Fig. 575.
the ground to the hind hock, 20 inches ;
breadth of brisket, 6 inches ; length of horn, 27 inches ; girth, 9 inches. 6226. Herefords. — The Herefords take
Oy
the name from the county in which they originated. They are a fine race of cattle for steers, and in symmetry the steers are very similar to those of the Short -borns.
At one time much rivalry existed between those breeds as feeders, and profitable for beef, and at first it was rather in favour of
THE HEAD OF A LONG- HORN BULL .
the Herefords, as mentioned by Mr Knight;
REALISATION .
718
but according to the later statements of eyes, 10 inches ; length of ear, 6 inches, the Rev. Mr Berry, the Short-horns bad smooth outside, hairy inside ; length of established their superiority as feeders. There never was a doubt of the Shorthorn cow being a much better and a much longer milker than the Hereford cow.
horn, 24 inches ; girth, 10] inches ; girth of muzzle, 19 inches ; girth behind the shoulder, 100 inches ; breadth across the hook lines, 29 inches ; breadth across the
Formy part, I never had the good fortune shoulders, 28 inches ; height from the to see either a Hereford bull or a Here- ground to the fore elbow, 30 inches ;
ford heiſer as handsome as many Short- from the elbow to the top of shoulder, 27 horn bulls and beifers I have seen . Fig. inches — together, 574 inches ; from the 576 represents the head of a Hereford ox ground to back at the hooks, 57 inches, so Fig. 576 .
that he stood level ; from hooks to bottom of the flank , 28 inches ; from the ground
to the hind hock, 21 inches ; breadth of brisket, 144 inches.
It weighed 76 stones.
6227. West- Highlanders, or Kyloes. - The West- Highland oxen have long been famed in Scotland as superior to any
for yielding prime beef. They have all the fine points of the Short-borns in the
body, which is covered with an abundance of shaggy soft hair, that bids defiance to the keenest blasts and the most drenching
rains. Fig. 577 gives an idea of the lead Fig. 577. THE HEAD OF A HEREFORD OX.
which belonged to Mr S. Druce, Enshan , near Oxford, and was exhibited at the Show of the Agricultural Society of Eng
land, in July 1839, where it gained the first prize of its class, when it was 4 years 4 months old. It will at once be observed
that the muzzle is fine, the eye large, full,
and lively, and the horns small, tapering, and sharp - pointed. A bright -white face
is very common in the Hereford breed , which gives them a clean appearance, with white horns having brownish -red points. The body is either dark or light-red and white, a common colour, or a dark rich
chestnut -brown, which is becoming fashion able. The handling was firm and mellow . Hide not thin . Hair soft and pleasant to the feel. The skin on the nose and around
THE HEAD OF A WEST- HIGHLAND OX.
the eyes was fine flesh - colour. The counte- of an ox which belonged to the late Mr
nance not very placid. The walk stately. Campbell of Jura,and was shown with an It was bred by Mr Arthur Thomas other as good as itself, as a pair, at the James, Mornington, near Hereford . The Highland and Agricultural Society's Show dimensions of its principal points were these : From crown of head to top of shoulder, 29 inches ; from top of shoulder to the line of hooks, 37 inches; from line
at Inverness, in October 1839, when they gained the first prize of their class. It will be observed that the muzzle is fine, eye large and full, and the horns long,
of hooks to tail-head, 19 inches ; total small, tapering, very sharp-pointed, white,
length, 85 inches ; length of face, 23 and tipped with black. The colour of the inches ; from the eye to the point of the body is usually black, sometimes red, and nose, 12 inches ; breadth of face across the not unfrequently dun. The black coloured ,
719
POINTS OF AYRSHIRES.
I understand, makes the most profitable characteristic of the breed, and earns animal to the feeder. The skin on the for it the appellation of the doddies, or nose, and around the eyes, is always black. hornless cattle ; and, for the loss of this Fig. 578. The ears are very distinctly set on the bead, and are well protected with long hair, and these, with the large tufts of
long hair over the roots of the horns, give a very picturesque effect to the head, quite suited to the taste of the artist. The walk of the Kyloe is steady and determined . His countenance firm, and not over placid. The cows, when suckling their young, are very jealous of any one approaching them .
The bull is generally long -bodied and short legged .
6228. Angus. — The black doddies of Angus obtain their name from the coun ty they inbabit. They have earned fame in the London market as samples of good beef. To Mr Hugh Watson of Keillor, in that county , this breed is most cer
tainly indebted for the firm establishment of the largest share of that fame; for I am persuaded that, had it not been for Mr Watson's great exertions in improving their points, by which the degree of perfection the breed is capable of arriving at has been shown, their fame would not have been so great, nor would an improvedrace have been so generally distri-
Strell THE HEAD OF AN ANGUS OX.
weapon of defence, it is furnished with a bard enlargement of bone upon the crown of the head, which is alwayssurmounted with a tuft of long hair. Its counten ance was placid.
The skin was not too
thin, the handling mellow, and the hair
buted throughout the country. The fame thick set in and soft, though not long. of the breed, however, in Mr Watson's It had the characteristic of the purity hands, is only a repetition in Scotland of of its breed, not a hair to be found what had been done in England for the upon it but what was black. It was
Short-horns and Leicester sheep by Col- the most perfect ox of its kind I ever lings and Bakewell. His merit is equal saw ; I could not find a fault in it, though to theirs, though following at a later I have tried to do it. On this account, I period of time, inasmuch as he was the am proud in having in my possession a
first person in Scotland who raised any faithful portrait of it in oil, taken from of its domesticated breeds from a low to the life at Keillor, shortly after it was a very high position. Fig. 578 represents exhibited at Dundee, by Mr Gourlay Steell
the head of an Angus ox, 4 years old, of Edinburgh. A rather remarkable his It was bred by Mr Watson, and exhibited by him, tory attaches itself to this ox . with another as a pair, at the Showof the purchased from Mr Watson for His Royal Highland and Agricultural Society at Highness Prince Albert, who exhibited Dundee in 1843 ; and it obtained the
it at the Smithfield Club Show in 1843,
first prize of its class at the Show of the and from thence it returned to Windsor Agricultural Improvement Society of Ire- Park , Her Majesty not permitting it land in that year. It obtained no pre- to be sold to the butcher. It is still mium at Dundee, in consequence of its there ; and, in order that it may enjoy companion not being equal to itself, a long life, which good health alone can Lord Panmure exbibiting a more equal insure, it is gently worked for exercise
pair. It will be observed that its muzzle every day in a large roller upon grass. is fine; eye prominent and lively ; ears broad, thin, and well fringed with hair . 6229. Ayrshires. - The Ayrshire breed Its head is destitute of horns, which is originated in the county from which they
REALISATION .
720
take their name. It is chiefly for their milking properties that this breed has been so sedulously cultivated ; and it is in such high reputé on that account, that most
William Brodie, Lochwinnoch, Ayrshire, and was exhibited and gained the first prize of his class at the Show of the High land and Agricultural Society at Glasgow
ofthe dairies of the nobility throughout in Augnst 1844, when 4 years old , byMr the kingdom are furnished with Ayrshire Robert Paton, Cloverhill, Dumbarton Cows. I have myself sent heifers even shire, from whom I purchased him for the to America for that purpose .
In this
late Mr Cranston
of Corehouse near
respect the breed presents a remarkable Lanark. This bull was a remarkably fine contrast to the Herefords, which are chiefly handler, had a fine head and very clean brought up as steers ; whereas the buil limbs. His back was a little hollow. In calves of the Ayrshires are generally fed all other respects he agreed much with
as veal, and only some heifers brought up the description given above of the breed The most generally . The cows are best liked for common colour of the Ayrshire cattle is a very sharp shoulder, and wide hooks and red and white : sometimes an entire red pelvis, in which conformation the ribs are to renew the stock of cows.
one is to be seen, but never a white one, always flat and the belly large. The the two colours being dispersed in patches. Sometimes a yellow colour makes its appearance, and even a dun, which may give rise to suspicions as to purity of blood ; but such colours are known to be borne by stocks of the purest and oldest blood. The
udder is desired to be hemispherical, situate forward, and provided with loose soft skin behind . All these points of the bull and the cow are aimed at by breeders, on the supposition that they tend to promote the greater secretion of milk ; but such a view
points considered good in an Ayrshire is based on doubtful grounds. The pre bull, by the breeders of that species of sent tendency of the breeders of Ayrshire stock, are a broad short head, the horns cattle, in Ayrshire, is even to go beyond the spreading from the side a little in front, points enumerated above, and to add light
and turning upwards. The top of the weight to them — a delicate appearance shoulder sharp, back rather narrow, and and a well- set milk vessel being the points rounded over the ribs, ribs rather flat, most aimed at. Attempts have been made
hooks confined, hams thin, tail-head some- for some years past to cross the Alderney what drooping, belly enlarged, and legs with the Ayrshire, in both ways, put very short. These are all pointsopposed to ting the Alderney bull to the Ayrshire those of a good Short-born ; and the points cow, and the Ayrshire bull to the Alderney
in which they agree are a straight back , cow; but the endeavours to imitate the loose mellow skin, large eye, sharp muzzle, form of the Alderney cow have not suc and small horn. Fig. 579 represents an ceeded, and the result has rather tended to produce in both progenies the inferior Fig. 579. points of both breeds, as might have been
expected ; for the Alderney bull bas not so good a frame as the Ayrshire cow, nor hasthe Alderney cow so good a constitu tion as the Ayrshire bull. The light weights have been attained by the repre
hensible practice in all breeding - by starv ing the young heifers, with the avowed
object of making them good milkers, whereas its direct tendency is to injure the constitution of the milking stock. On the
H850
contrary, were the heifers bred and reared so as to attain heavier weights and greater substance, they would not only prove bet
ter milkers, but afterwards feed to greater weights. The paramount object of the Ayrshire breeders, for profit, ought obvi outline portrait of the best Ayrshire ously to be to obtain thelargestquantity of Bull I ever saw. He was bred by Mr milk, with the greatest disposition to fatten THE AYRSHIRE BULL.
-
POINTS OF THE BLACK-FACED .
721
when put up to be fed ; and assuredly hardy race, and well suited , on that neither of these ends will be attained account, for the middle green pastures of by light weights and delicacy of appear- the mountainous parts ofour country. In ance . Plate IX. is a portrait of a Cheviot wether, in which the lightness of the fore-quarter 6230. Cheviot. - Fig. 580 represents is well shown, as well as the sharp look of Fig. 580.
the eye which the breed exhibits, and whichgives a somewhatwild aspect to the countenance .
The back is straight, and
the figure pretty rectangular. The letter P on the near rump, buisted on with tar, (4018,) is the initial of the name of the farm where it was bred, or that of the farmer who bred it.
6231. Black - faced . - Fig. 581 repre Fig. 581.
THE HEAD OF A CHEVIOT TUP .
the head of a Cheviot tup which gained the first prize of his class at the Highland
and Agricultural Society's Show at Aber deen in 1840, and was exhibited by Messrs Craig , Bighouse, Sutherlandshire.' It will be observed that the face is longer than
that of the Leicester, muzzle not so fine, eye not so full, ears not set so high and
handsomely upon the top of the head, and there is a rugosity of the skin across the bridge of the nose. In the white face, and want of horns, the Cheviot resembles the Leicester. The wool is short, thick
set, and of fine quality, fit for the sorts of manufacture as that of the Southdowns.
The carcass is usually unequal, the fore
THE HEAD OF A BLACK- FACED RAM,
quarter being lighter than the hind—nar row in the chest, with the fore -knees set sents the head of a Black - faced tup which
near. The flesh is fine- grained, often well was exhibited by Mr Robert M‘Turk
intermixed with fat, and is generally of Hasting's Hall, Dumfriesshire, at the esteemed for the table. The disposition Highlandand Agricultural Society's Show of the Cheviot is somewhat suspicious, with at Berwick -upon -Tweed in 1841,where it
an inclination to rove ; which renders the obtained the first prize of its class. As breed rather unsteady and unkindly to indicative of the judgment and care with The which the breed has been cultivated, we Cheviot, as their name implies, hadtheir lave only to look at the tapering face,
. feed, at least at an early age.
origin in the Cheviot Hills, in Northum- small muzzle, and full eye. The Black berland. They occupy almost all the pas-
faced ram has always an arched nose, ex
toral hills of the south of Scotland, espe- pressive of boldness and courage. The cially from the centre of the country to face and legs are covered with black hair, the eastward. They are localised in some or mottled with white, mostly the latter.
of the best parts of the Grampian moun- The head is horned ; and the horns, being tains, and are to be found as far north as large and curved in the aged tup, are con
the hills of Caithness and Sutherland. sidered the mostpicturesque objects of their They may , therefore, be regarded as a kind exhibited by any animal of this VOL . II .
2 z
REALISATION .
722
country. The wool is somewhat long and strong, and set directly below the body.
coarse, which render it of comparatively The back is straight, and the form of the small value as an article of manufacture, side is rectangular. The great defect of and, being rather thin - set, exposes the theBlack - faced breed is the narrowness of
body to the inclemency of the weather. To back, which much reduces the weight of the assist the animal to withstand the weather, carcass. Could its back be made a little
the fleece is subjected to the filthy opera- broader, the chest would become wider,
tion of smearing, which deteriorates its and then the animal would feed easier value considerably. The carcass is well and quicker, and afford greater profit. formed , carrying its depth forward to the brisket better than the Cheviot ; but still 6232. Scottish Original. - More as a the entire body is narrow , owing to the flat- curiosity than a matter of interest, I give ness of theribs, which rendersit light — or in fig. 583 a representation of the head of Fig. 583. in want of substance, as it is commonly called. The flesh is fine-grained, high flavoured, greatly esteemed , and can be
fed sufficiently fat on the turnips and pas
tures of the low country. The breed is
very bardy, frequenting the highest parts of our heath -clad mountains, and in sum
mer require little care from the shepherd . Fig. 582 represents the head of a young Fig. 582.
THE HEAD OF A TUP OF THE ORIGINAL BREED OF SCOTLAND .
a tup of the original breed of sheep of
Scotland. Very few of these nowremain . THE HEAD OF A BLACK- PACED EWE.
A small lot was exhibited at the Show of the Highland and Agricultural Society at
Black - faced ewe, whose muzzle and face Inverness in 1839, where I saw them .
are small, with a full, prominent, bright They were small, keen, active -looking eye. The horn is short, because the ewe creatures . The face was tawny, the is still young , but it is handsomely set eye lively, and not unpleasant in aspect. upon the head. The hair of the face is The horn yellowish brown, and curved in somewhat mottled, which is the more common colour in the ewe than the pure black.
small. The wool was not unlike that of
The colour of the lamb's face, however, is most frequently entirely black, and becomes mottled as it advances in age. The wool comes well round the face, and the ear is protected with thick -set hairs. In Plate
the Black -faced, but rather more bairy. The legs are of the colour of the face, whether white or tawny. The head, face, and horns of the breed have a strong re semblance to those of the Black -faced
the form of the Black - faced .
The muzzle
IX. is a portrait of a Black -faced wether, breed, and may have been the foundation age and condition of this valuable breed of cross the face became black doesnot appear, sheep. The eye is prominent and bright. although alate writer remarks that a black
which gives a good representation of that upon which it was reared ; but with what The muzzle small. The wool plenty, and faced sort from England was said to bavo well brought about the face. The legs are originated that of Scotland .* * Quarterly Review , March 1849, p. 406.
723
POINTS OF SWINE.
6233. Southdowns. - Only a few years Jonas Webb, Brabaham , Cambridgeshire, since, the Southdown sheep were little and was exbibited by him at the Show of
known in Scotland ; but what was then the Highland and Agricultural Society known was favourable to their character,
at Dundee in 1843, where he obtained
and they noware deservedlybecoming more and more a favourite. Like the Cheviot, they are covered with short, thick -set, fine wool, but it is of a dusky brown colour, which is also the colour of the hair that covers the face and legs. They are hornless. In symmetry of body they are much superior to the Cheviot, having their
the first prize of his class. From this figure it appears that the face of the South down tup is short and broad, the eye large and lively, the muzzle somewhat thick , and the nose slightly arched; the ears are widely set on the head, and are rather thick and short. The wool in this par
ticular sheep does not come on to the
quarters, like the Leicester,about equal. crown of the head, but I have seen South Their flesh is fine- grained, and, as high- downs with a tuft of wool upon it. I
flavoured mutton, is preferred to that of should say, from its general appearance the Cheviot in the London market. They and thick -set wool, that this breed has a have also a gentler disposition, and are in strong and hardy constitution. The only doubt with the Southdowns , on their in-
consequence better feeders.
6235. Swine. — The breeds of pigs are
troduction into Scotland , was their ability generally divided into the small and the to withstand the damp climate of our sub- large, though they are not sufficiently
alpine pastures. Theexperience of several marked in character to exhibit the specific years has proved that they are capable of differences between them in their purity . enduring any climate with the Cheviot ; which being the case, with their other superior qualities, they bid fair to rival, and perhaps ultimately to displace, that breed . Mr Hugh Watson has had them at Keillor, in Forfarsbire, for more than
In breeding either of those breeds of pigs, it is of essential importance to keep them pure , for otherwise they will degenerate into coarseness, the one losing its earliness of maturity for making the best pork , and the other its valu
20 years, and they have thriven with him able qualities for curing into ham and upon the pastures of the Sidlaw Hills . Alitches of bacon . For the use of the farm The Duke of Richmond also bas them in the large breeds are best adapted for the
Morayshire. Other flocks are now scattered market, if intended for curing, and the through the country. small for porklings, or for the ordinary consumption of the house — which should 6234. Fig. 584 represents the head of a always be highbred, as they will then be Fig. 584 . in such condition as to be ready for use at all times.
Perhaps the best pig for the
poor labouring man is a cross between the large and small breeds, and to carry it no
farther. The breeding of pigs deserves great care, much more so than is generally
bestowed upon it; and in them it is diffi cult to attain the right standard of merit ;
but in the attainment of that point, the pig assumes a corresponding value in the mar ket and at home.
I had a small breed of
pigs of the greatest value. I received a young boar and sow as a present from Lord Panmure, of a breed called the Western, because it was reared by the late Lord Western , in Essex, with great success. They were brownish black and white, something like the colour of the wild boar.
Their head was short and broad, snout THE HEAD OF A SOUTHDOWN TUP.
short and fine, eye small and lively, ears
Southdown tup, which belonged to Mr prick -shaped, set upon the crown of the
REALISATION.
724
head. The cheeks large and full. Legs short and small boned. The bodyfull and round. The skin smooth, without a wrinkle, thin, and pretty wellcovered with hairs and long bristles. They were always in condition, though they got leave
a boar of the large breed which belonged to the Duke of Buccleuch, at Dalkeith
Park, Mid -Lothian. To judge by the sleeping head, the boar, though evidently full- grown and large, bears the same cha racters of pricked ear, tapering face, short
to go about in search for the greatest nose, and full cheeks, with the full flesh of part of their food in the green fields and the neck of the small breed . These pigs courts. As long as the sows and young bave strong constitutions, and are covered
pigs were confined, theywere well attended to with litter, water, and food. When kept on , they would attain a great weight, but I neverkept them beyond 20 stones, and only those which were intended for
with plenty of white hair and valuable bristle. Their temper is generally docile, and they seldom wander far from the steading ,or engage in mischievous pur suits. The position of the tusk is marked
curing into hams for the house. They were by the opening in the upper lip. the most docile creatures imaginable, Horns. — Much may be observed in the hardly moving outvery of healthy, your wayon the set6238. road . They were and the and form ofthe horns asindicative of the character of their bearers. Small, short, slouch
young ones when cut soon recovered. ing hornson a twoor three-year-old ox givea Their Aesh was well mixed with fat, and grave and contented cast to the countenance, as
the fat was more like tender gristle than may be observed in the portrait ofthe Short-horn
soft lard. I have not met with a superior ox in Plate X. Long slouchinghorns, as on many of the Long-horn oxen, seemto oppress the head with a constant depression. Horns springing out ward from the sides of the head, then rising up ,
breed anywhere .
6236. The slouch -eared breed that pre- and bending backwards, never fail to impress
vailed in the country is fast being sup- one pne with the conviction that their bearer is quick planted by the pricked -eared breeds, be- tempered,readytouse them offensively onmost are set so as to toss up any cause, wherever the slouch -eared is found, occasions object with; and ease,they often be exemplified in as may it is universally accompanied with length the West-Highland cow . Horns curving laterally of leg, length of nose, narrowness of back, and horizontally forward give a finished appear and dilatoriness in feeding. I believe the ance to the top of the head, when viewed in as exemplified in the figure of the centre prick -ears, short snouts, and full cheeks, front, cow in PlateVI. Long horns rising Short-horn
may be traced to an improvement derived outward, forward , and having points looking from the Chinese breed, which possessthose outwards, impart a very majestic air to thehead
points even to deformity. Their crosses with the old bony breeds have been the means of disseminating through the country several races of beautiful, profitable, deli-
of the ox, as shown in fig. 577 of the West Highland ox. Horus rising outward, and then approaching behind thespringing head, give an ideaand of outwards, malformation. Horns thencoming straight forward in the points, seem
cate -fleshed pigs.
formidable . Horns springing outwards, and then approaching forwards, with the points a little
6237. Fig. 585 represents the head of elevated and separated, as in the Herefordox, when seen in front, seem to ornament the head , Fig. 585.
but at the same time to oppress it with weight. A horn thick at the root for its length looks
clumsy, and so does one blunted at the point ; and both are associated with dull feeders. When springing outwards much, and then turning
downwards, as in the left -hand Short-horn cow in Plate VI. , they seem ungraceful. A good horn , however set, is small where it emerges from the head, and tapers gradually to a fine point. A white horn looks cleaner than a dark-coloured
one, and a tip of brown or black , according to the breed, gives a pretty finish — though most Short- horns have theirs entirely white, and, being short and curving inwards, serve more for orna ment than defence. Oxen with spreading horns are better feeders than those which contract suddenly towards the front. Horns indicate the THE HEAD OF A BOAR.
age of cattle. At three years of age, the horn is uniformly smooth from the root to the tip.
TEETH .
725
Every year after three, it is protruded from the part of the body indicatingthe presence ofinternal head with a notch on it ; so that, by counting the number of notches, and adding three to this number, the age of the animal may be ascer . tained .
Tricks are practised by fraudulent
disease more quickly than they do. Although in pushing directly forward with them in the fight horns will bear a great force, yet a single stroke upon them with a cudgel is severely felt by the
dealers, in filing down some of the oldest notches, animal, and a single such stroke has been known to make the animal appear younger than it is, to cause them to slip off their flint, which is a and the unwary are thereby deceived ; but a vascular bone, full of blood -vessels, so that in slight inspection of the horn will easily detect the flammation of the brain or lock -jaw mayensue. fraud . The period of calving, whether late or The horn indicates the internal state of the ani early, naturally affects the notches of the horn, mal, because its root is very thin, and, being close and may give an older or younger appearance to upon so vascular a part as the flint, the state the animal than its true age . A hornless ox seems
of the blood is more easily ascertained than at When the horn feels cold,
as if it had been deprived of the means of any other part.
defence; the size of the head in the bull making death -like cold ,we may suspect congestion of up for the loss to him ; but a hornless heifer
the blood in the smaller blood - vessels some
assumes the gentle appearance of her sex .
where, in consequence of inflammation .
6239. As with cattle, the horns of sheep indi-
6241. Teeth.— The teeth are more important
cate the age of the animal. In fig. 581, the age of the Black -faced tup is distinctly marked, the 1st year's growth being evidently the space from
organs to the domesticated animals than the horns. The horns are the mere instruments of
the point of the horn to the letter a , when the horn is small ; the 2d year is from a to the notch
defence and of attack ; and the nurtured state
in which the animals are usually placed renders their use unnecessary ; but the teeth are the
at b, the growth of the horn of the dinmont being instruments by means of which they break and stronger and longer than that of the hogg ; the 3d year's growth is marked from b to the notch
at c, which is still longer and thicker in growth ;
masticate their food in winter, and crop and masticate the grass in summer ; which being
the case , the condition of the animal mainly de
the 4th year, from c to the notch at d , shows pends upon the state of soundness in which their the vigorous state and great length which the
teeth may be preserved. One common property
horn of the animal had attained at that age ;
exists between the horns and teeth of animals
and this is no doubt the most vigorous period of both furnish data by which their age may be the life of a sheep ; and the 5th year's growth ascertained . You have already seen how the is shown from d to the root e. The age of the horns are indicative of the age, both of cattle ewe, fig. 582, is young, not exceeding two years. and sheep, and we shall now advert to the man That of the wether in Plate IX. is greater, not ner in which the teeth may be examined for the less probably than four years, though the marks same purpose . are not specified with the distinctness necessary to decide the age with certainty. 6240. Horns are very sensitive organs, no
6242. Fig. 586 represents the left half of the head of an adult horse, viewed internally, and so figured as to show the origin of the 5th pair of
Fig. 586.
THE VERTICAL SECTION OF THE HEAD OF THE ADULT HORSE , SHOWING THE TEETH AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN CONNECTION WITH THEM .
nerves, and the nervous branches which go to the
incisors, 6 in each side of the head ; and of
teeth ; on which account the figure may be consulted with equal advantage for a knowledge of the distribution of the nervous system and of the teeth. The milk -teeth of the horse consist of 12
molars 16 in number, 8 on either side of the head - in all 28 teeth. The teeth of the second dentition are 40 in number, of which 28 have replaced the milk - teeth . Those between the
REALISATION .
726
incisors and molars, called the canine or tusks, month ; and the lateral incisor, or corner-tooth, do not appear along with the teeth at an early from the 14th to the 20th month . Once these age. Others complete the arch by occupying the teeth cease to have mark , they bear upon theirsur room made by the growth of the jaws ; these are face a smooth trace, brown and indelible, which new molars which come out of both jaws. The diminishes the more the teeth approach their full set consists of 12 incisors, 4 canines, and 24 fall. The first permanent molar replaces the 1st molars — in all 40 in number. In fig. 586, a are
and 2d milk -molar from 2 years to 2
years.
the incisors, b the canine or tusks, and c the The central incisor appears upon the edge of the molars. “ This is the order of coming out of the socket after the coming out of the 5th permanent second or permanent dentition of the horse,”
molar, from 2 to 3 years. The 2d permanent
observes M. Rousseau. “ The first permanent molar replaces the 3d milk -molar a little after molar, which is situated behind the last milkmolar, presents itself before any of the milk -teeth
the same term , or one or two months of diffe rence. The 3d permanent molar replaces the 4th
have fallen, and makes its appearance upon the decaying molar at three years ; at this time also maxillary arch from the 11th to the 13th month appears the 6th and last molar. The lesser after birth ; it will be, by numerical number, the 4th persistent molar, when all the milk -molars have fallen . The 5th permanent molar, which is situatebehind thepreceding tooth, breaks the edge of the socket from the 14th to the 20th month. During this time the decaying teeth die from their roots, and wear down their crowns to such a degree, that the hollow which charac-
incisor from 3 to 4 years. The canine or tusks appear from 4 to 44 years. At last, the second dentition is ordinarily terminated by the lateral incisor or corner-tooth . It must not be thought, however, that the coming out, as I have endea voured to indicate as the most ordinary, is with out variation ; this would be to give to nature too regular a progress. All teeth in general are
terises the surface of the incisors at certain the more developed that they belong to a large periods cannot be observed, so that the veterinarians call them lost-mark .
and robust subject.”
The central incisor
or pincer is ordinarily of the 9th or Ilth month ; the lesser incisor from the 11th to the 13th
6243. Fig. 587 gives a similar representation of the dental system of the adult ox, and of the
Fig. 587.
THE VERTICAL SECTION OF THE HEAD OF THE ADULT ox, SHOWING THE TEETH AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN CONNECTION WITH THEM .
The 5th , or penult
nervous system connected with it, that the pre-
15th to the 22d month .
ceding figure gives of those of the horse . The
molar, from the 18th to the 22d month. The
milk -teeth of the ox are , 8 incisors on the lower jaw , and none on the upper, and 12 molars, 3 on each jaw . In the adult ox are 8 incisors on the Jower jaw , and none on the upper ; and there
2d replacing molar, as also the 2d incisor of this order, appear from the 28th to the 32d month . The 3d replacing molar, as also the 3d incisor, come out very near at the same time, that is,
are 24 molars, 6 on each jaw. In the figure, a
from the 38th to the 48th month. The 6th, or
are the incisors, and b the molars, and the same last molar, from the 44th to the 520 month . At configuration exists in the sheep. “ In the length the 4th permanent incisor tooth terminates second dentition, these teeth show themselves the second dentition, which is ordinarily com upon the edge of the socket in the following pleted when the animal has not yet attained its order,” says M. Rousseau. “ The 4th permanent 5th year. " molar comes out from the 4th to the 6th month
after birth, and commences the second dentition. The 1st or central replaci
in
from the
6244. Fig. 588 gives a section of the head of a wild boar, in which
dental and nervous sys
--
-
--
MALFORMATION .
tems are distinctly delineated : a are the superior incisors ; b the superior lateral incisor ; the inferior incisors ; d the upper canine or defence
727
tusk ; e the inferior canine or defence tusk , the origin and form of which may be easily traced ; andf are the molars. I have selected the head
Fig. 588.
d
b
THE VERTICAL SECTION OF THE HEAD OF THE WILD BOAR, SHOWING THE TEETH AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN CONNECTION WITH THEM,
of the wild boar for illustration, because the
fed on straw and turnips, or on boiled food , and
character of all the teeth , and particularly that of the tusks, is more strongly developed than in
it is only applicable to them ; for as to steers,
the domesticated boar.
from the growth and condition of the body. The teeth of cows also stand wider as they advance
The tusks of the sow
are comparatively short and weak. The milkteeth of the ordinary pig are 32 in number, namely, 12 incisors, 4 canines or tusks, and 16 molars, half of which numbers are on each side
their age, being very limited, cannot be mistaken in years. 6246. A horse's mouth is easily opened for the
of the head. Thesecond dentition is only com- purpose of examination, by introducing a finger pleted as soon as all the milk -teeth have fallen ; and these are not only replaced, but 3 other molars on each jaw rise up, one after the other, until the whole dental arch is completed , when the entire complement is 44 teeth , of which 22 are on the upper, and 22 on the lower jaws, and they are divided thus, -12 incisors, 4 tusks, and 28 molars. These teeth are composed of two substances, the one bony, the other enamelled.
“ The tusks are each enclosed in a socket, filled with a substance analogous to the marrow of the long bones ; it is most remarkable, and most abundant in the inferior tusks. These teeth are
only provided with enamel upon the external face of the permanent tusks." *
by the side of the mouth into the space between the incisor and molar teeth , where the bit of the bridle lies upon the tongue, when the horse will play his mouth, to get quit of the finger, and
show as much of the lower teeth as to ascertain what you want. Some sulky horses require to have their lips held asunder ; and vicious ones will even strike out with the fore -feet when their mouth is meddled with. I had a work-mare which, the moment her mouth was attempted to be held
for examination, would wheel quickly round, and kick with the hind feet at the person at
tempting it. A cow's mouth cannot be examined, without first holding her nose, elevating her mouth, and drawing down her under lip. Some cows will not allow themselves to be taken
6245. In regard to the indications of age by means of the teeth, in the horse the marks on
the crowns of the front teeth on the lower jaw are almost always obliterated, or at least cannot be depended on, after 9 years of age. After that period, the only means of judging is by the quantity of matter ground off the top of the
teeth, and by the distance between the teeth themselves ; the older the horse gets, the wider
by the nose , and the thing can only be done, in such a case, by stratagem . Some, again , have such a power in their nose in curling up the nostrils when held, that its pressure against the holder's fingers renders them soon powerless ; but a steady pinch of the thumb-nail against the septum of the nose will make any cow give way,
provided the person has strength to hold her firmly at her first attempt to break away.
the space between them becomes. In regard to
6247. Malformation. -- Any malformation in
the grinding down of the teeth , however, you should know that pasturage on sharp land, and
the reproductive organs of breeding animals may
support on hard food , such as unbruised corn and beans, will wear down teeth much faster
incur a serious loss to breeders.
than pasturage on soft land and prepared food.
A draught stal.
lion , which gained the first prize of his class at a Show oftheEastern Forfarshire Agricultural As80
The same remark applies to cows which have ciation,left no produce in the district he had served been pastured on sharp or soft land, and been
for the premium. It was afterwards discovered
* Rousseau's Anatomie Comparée du Systême Dentaire, p. 205-30.
REALISATION .
728
that one of his testes had never descended into all the kinds of the domesticated animals, the scrotum . A very fine Short-horn bull,which is, that “ like produces like ;” and this gained the premium at theShow of the Border law ofresemblanceis so universally appli Union Agricultural Society at Coldstream , could not get one of the cows he had served in calf. It was ascertained that the testes had never
cable to all sorts of breeding, that, were the proper means always taken to produce
descended freely into the scrotum . A Leicester
it, the result would never end in failure .
dinmonttup, that Iknewhad been engagedfor Nodoubt, means have always been sup the lamb seasonfroma by a breeder, not get a single ewe in similardid malformation . Inall these cases, the loss and disappointment to a large number of breeders was of the most serious description, being deprived of the increase of a
posed to have been taken to attain that end, and many breeders have actually used them for that purpose ; and the results they bave produced have been
large proportion of their year's stock. Ofother excellent, and have in fact been the kinds of malformation, I have seen an ox have an orifice, asort of vaginalopening,between hisbut source from wbich has been derived all tocks, by which heemitted urine instead of by the the improved breeds of our domesticated ordinary urethra. He seemed to feel no incon-
animals.
venience, and throve and fattened well enough.
procedure has been founded on no higher
Still it must be owned that the
6248. The origin of the domesticated animals a principle than that, because a dam or a has given riseto much difference of opinion sire was seen to possess one or more among writers, one class averring that they
desired points, it was proper to employ
must havebeen produced by the care of man her or him, or both, for the attainment of from the wild races nearest akin to them, whilst others maintain that they were originally created those points in their progeny. The points for man's use . Those who believe that they have desired might be attained, or theymight
not ; for all breeders proceeding in this way must acknowledge having been disappointed beyond their expectations, thosewho believe that they werecreated forman's created been derived from the wild races, argue that
man's condition was originally savage ; whilst
use, also believe that man was originally a civilised being. This question was well dis
whilst others have obtained success beyond
cussed by the late Mr Stark of Edinburgh, the means used would warrant. In either who adduced abundance of proof that, if man case the procedure was empirical, and had been created a savage, he would have con- faith could only be placed in the means tinued a savageto this day; and that no type of employed, in proportion as a similar resnlt the domesticated animals are to be seen in a wild state , except those whose history are had been produced in the experience of the known. The semi-wild horses and cattle met breeder himself. with on the steppes of Tartary have increased in numbers, from a few domesticated ones which had gone from man's control ; and it is well
6250. Now, it would be extremely desirable could less be left to chance , and
known that the horse and the ox were unknown in America until after its discovery by Europeans.
more to certainty in breeding – that is, A decided proof that thesemi-wild races of horses, less to empiricism and more to principle,
oxen, and dogs were once domesticated is to be than has hitherto been the case, even deduced from the fact that, when captured, they at although success has hitherto attended the control, once submit no ;and really many attempts made in the dark ; sothat wild raceof toanyman's animals has whereas yet doneso consequently man has domesticated none.' The he who could point out a more certain same sort of evidence Mr Stark adduces inregard to the cereal grains which support the human species, none of which have ever been found
growing in a wild state. I entirely agree with Mr Stark's views on these subjects, and believe that the original state of our present domesti cated animals was domestication.
Such a view view
is also most consonant with what is stated in the sacred volume. *
way upon principle, would not only lessen the toil and enhance the profit of the farmer, but also earn the gratitude of the country. I think such a person is found in Mr Alexander Walker, an eminent physiologist in London, who has explained his views on this subject in distinct lan guage, in a work which he published . Mr Walker takes man in illustration of his views, because he is the most perfect
ON THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING.
being in existence ; and he divides the several organs and functions of his struc
6249. The great principle upon which tural system into three great classes — the the breeders of stock proceed, in breeding locomotive, the vital, and the mental. * Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh , vol. xv. p. 177-210.
BREEDING .
729
625). The locomotive organs consist of the of action with those communicated by the other organs of support, as the bones ; the organs of parent, and to difference of sex. connection, as the ligaments ; and the organs of motion, as the muscles. That those organs may perform their functions, it is necessary that they be connected with the motor nerves, which arise from the cerebel — the portion of the brain situate in the back part of the head ; and they are also connected with the movable part of the face, the under lip, and the jaw. The shape, the limbs, the skin belong to this class.
6252. The vital organs consist of the organs of absorption , as the lymphatics ; the organs of circulation, as the arteries, veins; and the organs of secretion, as the glands. That those organs may perform their functions, they are connected with the sympathetic nerves , which arise from the cerebrum , the portion of the brain occupying the fore part of the head ; and they are also connected with the immovable parts of the face, as the forehead, and above the lowest part of the nose . The digestive, respiratory, and reproductive organs, together with fat, milk, and other animal products , belong to this class. The beautiful flow of the lines of the body, the manner, the action , the health, the constitution are dependent on these organs and their functions.
6253. The mental organs consist of the organs
6255. The one parent communicates the anterior part of the head , the upper middle part, the osseous or bony part of the face, the forms of the organs of sense, (the ear, upper lip , lowest part of the nose ,) and the whole of the nutritive system , ( the contents of the trunk, or the thoracic and abdominal viscera, and conse quently the form of the trunk itself, in so far as it depends upon its contents.) The resemblance to that parent is consequently found in the fore
head and the bony parts of the face, as the orbits, cheek -bones, jaws, chin and teeth, as well as the shape of the organs of sense, and the tone of the voice. These constitute the vital system . 6256. The other parent communicates the posterior part of the head, the lower middle part, the cerebel situate within the skull immediately above its junction with the back of the neck, and the whole of the locomotive system, (the bones, ligaments, and muscles, or fleshy parts.) The resemblance to that parent is consequently
found in the backhead, a few more movable parts of the face, as the ear, the under lip, eyebrows, and the external form of the body, in so far as they depend on the muscles, as well as the form of the limbs, even to the
of sense, as the eye, ear ; the organs of perception, as the cerebrum ; and the organs of volition, as the cerebel. The functions of the organs of sense are to receive impressions from external bodies by means of the eye, ear, smell, and touch ; the functions of the cerebrum
Several circum fingers, toes, nails, &c. stances indicate that with this series of organs go the skin and its appendages, which have much affinity with the osseous system . Not only does the skin become horny from pressure, but hair, wool, bristles, spines, scales, nails, bones are to perceive, compare, reflect; and those of are its productions, ( the bony and skinny often
the cerebel to will, and consequently to throw
uniting in horns;) and in many inferior animals,
the muscles into action to fulfil its purpose . The
as the crustaceæ , it becomes shelly, and serves the purpose of bones. These constitute the loco
cerebrum is in connection with the organs of sense
which receive the impressions by the senses, con- motive system . vey them to those of perception - the cerebrum
which in its turn acts upon the organs of volition or 6257. As regards the human race, Mr Walker will, which sets the locomotive organs in motion. observes that the male or the female parent may give either series of organs; that is, either forehead 6254. A mere knowledge of those organs and and organs of sense, with the vital and nutritive their functions would avail nothing, were it not in our power to distinguish whether or not one parent, or both indiscriminately, impart their
organs, or the backhead, with the locomotive organs.
organisation to their offspring. It is the want of
6258. Amongst the domesticated animals, the
this distinction which has caused the breeding
effects of thoselaws have been observed to have
of the domesticated animals to be conducted in the uncertain manner I have alluded to. Mr
taken place, but the laws themselves on which those effects depend have in no case been defined
Walker clearly expounds that one class of before MrWalker didso. Observation has proved organs are propagated by one of the parents, that the male animal has a stronger influence and the other class by the other parent, and that
over the organisation of the progeny than the
either parent does not propagate either class indiscriminately ; and moreover that, in the propagation of organs from parents to progeny, organi-
female, and that he communicates the locomotive organs to the progeny, and consequently that the female communicates the nutritive organs. Keep
sation is nearly indestructible,for it may often ing this distinction in view, it is evident that any be seen that neither nourishment entirely derived from the mother, nor climate, nor education,
changes desired in any particular organ of the domesticated animals will be more easily and
diminishes an original likeness of the father; certainly effected than those in the human organ and, without this effect, it would not be possible isation. The late Mr Knight, the eminent phy for like to produce like. Each parent, therefore, communicates a distinct series of organs; and the
siologist, had observed that among domesticated animals he had never witnessed any difference in
only modifications which the organs communi. the influence ofthemale or the female parent upon cated by either parent undergo, are chiefly, if the forms of the heads of the offspring. The not altogether, such as are necessary to harmony
obvious reason given by Mr Walker for this is
REALISATION .
730
that in cattle, horses,and sheep, the form of the whether stallions, bulls, or tups ; and it is
back -head andcerebel ishid bythegreattrans- fortunate for the more rapid extension of
large muscleswhich raisethe head areattached; the improvement of stock, that the in as also by those muscles themselves, and by the fluence of the male thus bears sway in the
without voluntary effort, propagation of his kind, as by the per contrary,owing to his up many females, and thereby extend his neck. In man,on the influence in the exact proportion to the ; largeligaments column vertebral resting on the
elastic ligament, which, assists them in maintaining the position of the mission of polygamy one male may serve
and muscles are not required, and the projection number of the latter; whereas a female
caused by theback -head and cerebel is perfectly produces usually one in the course of a head consequently seems to go,undivided, along mares, a bull 60 cows, and a tup 60 ewes with the vital organs in the trunk of the body. in a season - notonce or twice only, but as
show only the forehead andface ; and their whole year. A stallion serves from 60to80
Concealed, however, though the back -head isin often until the female prove with young. these animals, we have proof of its various deve- Generally the female conceives at the first lopments in the various developments of the mus- service of the male, and atall events at
cular system ,with which the former mustalways thesecond; but should her desire continue correspond, and which at all events show what beyond that time, she is withdrawn from each parent communicates.
breeding, to avoid the risk of a late pro 6259. With regard to the mental organs, it is geny , or none at all ; for a late calf, lamb,
evident thatin allvoluntary acts in whichtwo or foal loses one year of its progress, com sexes are engaged, two thinking systems are in volved; and as the first portion of the thinking pared with its earlier born companions. system , sensation and observation, is passive or dependent on impression, and the last portion,
6261. Few farmers commit the mistake
dependent on passion and volition, is active and of not selecting the best male that can be
act of reproduction, oneor the other sex will produced ; butmany commit the inconsis always be relatively passive, and the other relatively active. Hence the progeny will receive from theone parenttheorganisation in which,in the thinking system ,sensation and observationde-
tent mistake of employing inferior females. In horses, for example, theprize horse of the district willgenerally be selected to serve the mares, but it is rare to findthe best
pend, and from the other that in which passion
mare in the farm bearing foals. The brood
and volition spring ; for the very term reproduc
tion implies the communication of similar organs mare, or there may be more than one, is and functions, andtherefore of the mostenergetic generally one which is too old to keep up and characteristic ones. Thus the communication in the work with the rest of the horses, and
of mind, and of its most distinguishing orpeculiar although herback be swung with work, her mind, and the relative predominance of its two wind broken, and she have a bad leg, she greatdivisionsintheparents; andon each of these is considered quite suitable for bearing again depend the locomotive systemand the vital respectively. The entire law may thus be briefly stated inregard to the breeding of the domesticated animals :—The thinking organs are, in equal and distinct portions, derived from both parents ; while the dam gives thewhole of the
foals. The very opposite system ought to be followed : the best mare should carry thefoals bred on the farm ; and a strong fresh mare with a good constitution will be quite able to take her sbare of the work,
nutritive, and the sire the whole of the locomotive and bring up a foal besides. Let mares not be under5 years of age when the horse
organs .*
is first put to them ; for they will not have
acquired their full stature until that age ; ON THE SELECTION OF PARENTS IN BREEDING.
6260. Since males communicate their
organisation with the most obvious effect, they are in most request amongst breeders for the improvement of their stocks. High prices have been given ,and high premiums
and from that period let them bear a foal every year until they attain 12 or 13
years, when they should cease to breed ; as old mares, any more than old females of other classes of animals, cannot produce a vigorous progeny. Thus, for 7 years, may fresh young mares, stinted to the best stallions that can be secured, pro
are annually offered, for superior males, duce, and bring up, foals every year. * Walker On Intermarriag., p. 147 to 173.
SELECTION OF PARENTS.
731
Such foals will be strong in bone and con- 6265. Following out Mr Walker's law of the stitution, and be always in high condition, part which each parentperforms in the produc of the progeny we in canat its application the because they are the offspring of young tion selection once see to that,if of parents, mares themselves high in condition, and we want any organisation belonging to the loco overflowing with milk ; and, having been motive system, we shall look in vain for it to the brought up together, will work better to- female; and, on the other hand, if we want any organisation connected with nutritive system , gether. I recommend this plan with con we shall seek for it as much the in vain in the male.
it Every amendment, therefore, desired in any of fidence, because I have myself followed not with success for years.
I do
re
the kinds of our stock, we must first ascertain to
member selling a young horse, warranted which of the systemsoforgans itbelongs, and to work well on a farm , under £ 35, when employ a male or female to amend it,as the case horses were low in price ; and I had three may be. Thus diseases of the digestiveor respiratory organs in a female would be far more excellent mares when I employed four fatal to the welfare of the progeny than if the pairs of horses, and two out of the three bare foals every year.
same complaint were observable in the male, and the female were entirely free from them ; but then it should never be lost sight of that both the
6262. In regard to cows the practice is parents should haveall theirnatural and respec tive powers in absolute perfection , otherwise we better than that with mares, although it is run the risk of inviting the propagation of disease.
not so good as it should be, many heifers We may also expect that whatever increases the being transferred to the cow - stock that ardour of passion invigorates the progeny. It is moreover observed, that habits and pursuits long inmate the is, become oughtcownever ofa -byre.to have Another mistake that followed develop the organs they employ.Thus, a draught stallion and mare will produce foals
when a cow happens to be a good milker, whose muscular system is aswellsuited for labour she is kept for breeding long after her con- in the plough as the cart. A racing stallion and mare will likewise produce foals well adapted stitution has become weakened by age, for speed . A cow, whose disposition to fatten is
and the demand is kept up upon her sys- great, will produce calves with thattendency;
tem in bringingup a calf every year, and and a bull, which displays muchspirit and reso of supplying milk after the calf has been lution, will likely produce calves of similar weaned . A young healthy cow will be tendency, if there be in all these cases no coun much more profitable than any old worn
teracting function exercised by the other parent. We may say, then, that the hereditary powers
out favourite.
will generally be found best calculated to do
6263. Ewes are also better selected for
breeding from than mares , though too
many are kept in the flock because they may have happened to cast an extraordinary fleece of wool, or two lambs every year, or have always brought up their lambs well. The same rule, however, applies to them as to cows- old age brings
that which the parents through successive gene rations have done. Mr Knight remarked that, when the male and female parents are of the same variety, each parent has an equal influence on the offspring as to temper, sagacity, &c., and
in giving hereditary propensities ; that is,both
parents equally originate the mental organisation. 6266. In, breeding horsesthatthe subjectorganisation to the laws enunciated it is necessary oftheanimals selected should beof themost per
along with it many infirmities in them. fect kind — a certain age,and the exercise and And it ought nerer to be forgotten that perfection of every function, are essential. A
such infirmities, although not originally horseshould be perfectlymature before covering. existing in the females, andonlybrought period A mare may breed atfouryear old ; at anearlier breeding will interfere with the develop
on by hard labour, or by long use, will ment of her structure and strength. A stallion yet be communicated to the progeny as constantly exercised has superior progeny to one certainly as if they had originally existed kept in a state of inactivity. A horse or mare incapable of work, or which has suffered from
in the parents.
hard and continual labour, is certainly injurious to its progeny. Constitutional infirmity is fatal.
6264. I think I may safely say, that if A mare that has slinked her foal is always you select stallions and mares, bulls and liable to the same conduct.* cows, tupsand ewes, boarsand sows, of such animals as their portraits in the plates to
6267. The practical properties of a good draught stallion are these constitution, good this work indicate them to have been, you temper, easy action,:-Sound short legs, straight back, round rib, strong over the loins, deep chest, good will not commit a great mistake. * W
On Intermarriage, p. 173 and 330.
732
REALISATION .
ends, lengthy quarter, and plenty of bone and ness, and in much flesh , to suit the altered taste muscle. Such properties in a horse cannot fail of the market. The taste now for more flesh than fat is favourable for the development of the to improve his kind. milking property ; and as both fattening and the
6268. The properties of a good draught mare production of milk appear to require a good are these:-Mares, too, instead of possessing vital or nutritive system , which transmits and imperfections, hereditarydiseases, and bad forms, transmutes the animal liquids, both properties and being either worn out or too young,ought to may be possessed by the same animal with un have short legs, broad deep chest, back rather doubted compatibility ; for while the fleshy state long than too short, a broad well -lifted and will produce the more milk , as long as the roundloin, quarters long and rounded on the top, cow is giving milk, when the period arrives haunches wider than the hips, fine animated that she should no longer do so, she can be
head, pleasing countenance, density and firmness easily fattened for the market : but cows, as of muscle, sinew, and structure, clean muscular
well as women, wanting that system in a good
and sinewy leg, large knee, broad wide hock , the shank and sinews in both fore and hind legs well developed, and straight dropped below the
state will be destitute of both fat and milk. Large udders are not necessarily indicative of
hock -joint. Such a mare cannot fail to throw a
good foal when served with such a horse as has just been described ; and when both sire and
dan are well assorted, their progeny will most probably possess their distinctive characters.
great milking powers, for much fatty substance may be interposed between the glandular masses
which secrete the milk ; and a comparatively smaller udder, wholly composed of palpable glandular masses, will give much more milk than a larger one which is chiefly made up of fat. Climate would seem to have an effect on both
6269. Under the same laws Mr Walker thus the fattening and milking properties of animals. describes the characteristics of the best cattle :-
Cold diminishes sensibility, and it is by the
Face rather short, the muzzle small, the horns interposition of fat between the skin and the fine, the neck light, particularly where it joins central parts of the body by which the sensibility the head, the chest wide, deep , and capacious, is lowered. Hence, in the north, animals easily the tail broad and fat towards the top , but thin
assume the fattened condition. Heat, on the other
towards the lower part,which it will always be hand, excites sensibility, and it is found that cows when the animal is small- boned, the lower part of the thigh small, the legs short, straight, clean,
and fine -boned, though not so fine as to indicate
afford more milk in the warmer than the colder
counties ; and it is there, also, that they are always thinner in condition. Hence, from these
delicacy of constitution, the flesh rich and mellow principles, one animal fattening in the north would become a better milker in the south, where ance, the countenance calm and placid , denoting more genial temperature would render fat less the evenness of temper essential to quiet feeding necessary, wouldincrease sensibility, and cherish to the feel, the skin of a rich and silky appear-
and a disposition to get fat. If to these we add
the secretion of milk, so intimately connected
a straight back, round rib, and deep flank, the
with that excitement of the reproductive func
description is what we would give of a good ox,
tions which warmer climates produce.
which is the standard of acquired excellences.
Any addition necessary to the above would arise
6271. It is with sheep as with cattle in this
from sexual differences merely, such as a deep system , that the fattening property is connected brisket and erect neck to the bull, and wide and Other properties conformable to the same law are, that the tending
capacious pelvis to the cow.
with the vital or nutritive functions ; but the wool belonging to the osseous is rather in connection with the locomotive system . In the selectionof
to fatten is indicated chiefly by the capacity of sheep, therefore, we should look to the tup for the chest, though the habits of ancestry will
the wool, and to the ewe for the disposition to
operate generally very powerfully. It is the fatten. A tup, therefore, that has a good fleece, width and depth of frame which confer weight, and a ewe that is broad -chested, and a good and not the merecircumstance of height. While handler, should beput together, provided always equally great, if not greater, weights can be
that both possess their respective functions in a
obtained with shorter-legged animals, they are, healthy state. Large heads, long necks andlegs, independently of other recommendations, generally found to possess a better constitution, and a greater propensity to fatten.
6270. Some years ago the desire of breeders was to produce a disposition to fatten at earlier ages than had been the custom for many years before ; and in pursuing this object others were
are inconsistent with excellence in those systems. Climate has a material effect upon the wool. In , very warm countries wool is not only converted into hair, but scantily covers the body. Cold, on the other hand, renders wool finer and thicker on the body, and crisp. While in a temperate region, on the plains, and in a humid atmosphere, the wool is long, not coarse , and very heavy.
partially lost sight of, even the size and shape,
These different effects of climate may be easily
and the milking property almost entirely so. " It was perhaps well, however, for the present race of cattle that the effort to fatten early was made, for while that disposition is now settled by hereditary descent, it is in the power of the breeder to fatten to any degree he chooses, while he can
explained. A thin covering is required in a warm country to allow freedom to a copious perspiration to keep the body cool. In a cold country , where sheep have to wander far and near on the mountains for food, fat is prevented from being deposited, as it would be the case were
dispose of his cattle in a state of moderate fat-
it not for the opposing cause ; and the skin, thereby
BREEDING IN - AND - IN . becoming more sensitive, requires a closer and warmer covering to protect it. In the plains the rich food causesa luxuriant growth of the wool,
733
ON BREEDING IN-AND- IN.
6273. No wonder, when high -breeding while the rain is best thrown off by a long staple. It is the nature of the climate, and thequality produces such an improvement in stock as of the food, that renders our country the proper to render the bead small, fine, and beau
sphore for the production of long wools; and tiful, the extremities elegant, the form havingwethis natural overin other coun handsome, andthe disposition so accomo tries, need fear noadvantage carelessness our farmers
causing deterioration in the fleece of our Lei- dating asthat the animals grow and fatten cester and other long-woolled sheep. The co- without feeling disturbed at what passes existence of fat and wool in the same animal is
around - in short, become so prepossess
quite compatible, since they originate indifferent ing as to make their owners niistrust systems,and are produced by a different parent. those of others — that they are employed to The finer the long wool anysheep produces, the more easily fattened will it be. Wool is as
increase their own numbers.
It was this
capable of being improved by proper selection in feeling which actuated Bakewell to breed
breeding as any other property. Sheep require only from his own stock, after he had to bemature,offullstature, in good health, brought the Leicester sheep and Long of alltheirfaculties, when the male is put to the horn cattle to perfection. For a time the late Mr Masonof Chilton pursued the same course ; and there are breeders in England
female for breeding, (4715.) *
6272. Liebig has explainedin anapparently at the present time whomaintain that it is satisfactory manner the very remarkable connec
the best system , and will follow no other.
tion that exists between the formation of fat and
the respiratory process, which physiologically ex Perhaps a stock brought to the highest
pressed requires the broad chestof the animal. state of perfection , and at the same time
* There is but one way in which the formation of possessed of sound constitution, may be fatin the animal body is possible, and thisis ab- supported free ofdeterioration for many solutely the same in which its formation in place: it is a separation of oxygen years by the peculiar skillof its owner'; plantstakes from the elements of the food.
The carbon
and I can conceive it possible for a high
which we find deposited in the seeds and fruits bred stock, such as Bakewell's was during
of vegetables, in the form of oil and fat, was pre- his whole lifetime, to be increased and
absorbed by the plant as carbonic acid. Its maintained in its purity by the assistance conversion into fatwas accomplished under the of kinship. One valid reason must bave influence of light, by the vital force of the vege induced Mr Bakewell to employ only his table ; and the greater part of the oxygen of own stock — that no other so good as carbonic acid was returned to the atmosphere as his own existed to select from ; and it to the pheno would have seemed extraordinary in lim , oxygenof gas. plants,weknow thattheanimal vitalityInincontradistinction mena system absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere, and
as a professed improver, to have employed
that the oxygen is again given outincombination with carbon orhydrogen ;we know, that in the formation of carbonic acid and water,the heat necessary to sustain the constant tempera tureofthebody is produced, and that a process
any animal of acknowledged inferiority to his own ; but I suspect the liberty he took inthisrespect, with impunity, could have only been takenwith a high-bred stock of
of oxidation is theonly source of animal heat. recent origin as his was, asmany instances
Every pound of carbon which obtains the oxygen have since occurred in which afine stock necessary to convert itinto carbonic acid from substances which thereby pass into fat, must disengage as much heat as would raise the tem
have been ruined in character, and have entailed irreparable loss on their owners,
perature of 200 lbs.ofwater by 70 °—that is,from simply from being bred in-and-in. 32° to 102°. Whether fat be formed by the de
6274. The immediate effects of breeding constituents of blood ,or by that of starch ,sugar, in-and-in, or employing parents nearly composition of fibrin and albumen, the chief this decomposition or elementsof from betheaccompanied of oxygenmust by gum the ,separation
allied by bloodto propagate their kind,are
these compounds. But this oxygen is not given remarkable. The bone becomes very small, out ina free state, because itmeetsin the organ- ofcondensed texture, and fine quality. The ism with substances possessing the property of skin is so thin as to receive the appellation
enteringinto combination with it.In fact,it is ofpapery,and so open of texture as tobe absorbed from the atmosphere by the skinand sensible to the least change of temperature ; the lungs.” +
* Walker On Intermarriage, p. 307 to 353.
and hence animals bred in-and-in are very + Liebig's Animal Chemistry, p. 87.
734
REALISATION .
susceptible of catarrhal affections, and on together to propagate, and their offspring which account they are liable to consump- will exhibit no symptoms of in-and -in tion and clyers, (3816.)
The carcass is breeding. Such result would seem to
much reduced in size, and the disposition indicatethat change of soil and situation to fatten increases to such a degree that renovates the animal constitution. the animal may be said to be always in a condition to be slaughtered ; and it was perhaps this tendency to fatten which proved, several years ago more than now, the great inducement with many breeders to tolerate the in -and-in system .
6275. The idea of breeding in -and -in enter
tainedby farmers, is confined to breedingby the members of the same family, let its branches be situate where theymay. Thisis not the par rowest view to be takenof the subject, which
The Mr Walker assumes, and illustrates by examples.
hair is short, smooth, and thin -set, and Inconsideringin-and-in breeding,in its intimate the wool short, thin -set, and watery; and nature,it isevident,he says, that, if close and both hide and fleece lose a large proportion of weight. The body assumesa change of formseems , the barrel rounded, but stuffed being , asitbeautifully were, within the
strict, that method of difference betweenit abandons conjoined
the two beings which he had shownto be necessary to excitement and repro ductivepower, the method, (notof similarity -- for and that adopts he hadshown to be essential
to the production of everythis,let breed ) but as it oneof were, identity. skin. The extremities are very fine, the of To explain us take
head and hoofs small, the ears thin and broad, and the head of the sheep is almost barebeofscalded hair, ofbya the blueheat colour, to of thevery sun,liable and
the strictest examples. Let it be that in which, of the animals subjected to in -and-in breeding, the breeds with the daughter, and againfather with thegrand-daughter, Now , it is
attacked by the fly. Theneckof both certain that thefather gives half his organisation to the daughter, (suppose the anterior or vital
cattle and sheep are thin, and droop with series of organs,) and so farthey are identical; but, a downward curve between the head to
in breeding with that daughter, he may give the
the top of the shoulder.
other half of his organisation to the grand
The eyes are
often affected with wateriness. Lameness daughter, (namely, the posterior or locomotive of organs ;) and as the grand -daughter will frequently ensues in one of the limbs. The series then bear both his series oforgans — theformer constitution is evidently much weakened. from the mother and the latter from himself — it The points just enumerated show the un- is evident that there exists between the male profitablestate into which a stock maybe and hisgrand-daughter, as it were, an identity.
brought by being bred in -and - in . Mr Mason's fine Short-horn stock latterly showed symptoms of thebad effects of this system ; and Mr Robertson's stock at Ladykirk, which contained at one time by far the finestShort- horns in Scotland, suf-
The identity hereis so perfect as entirely to excitement and reproductive power, the loss of which thus characterises in-and -in breeding. The case of brother and sister breeding together isnothing to this, andthis isaboutthe nearest brother has the anterior organs of themother,
destroy all the differences which are essential to
fered after his demise from the same cause, and the posterior of the father, while the sister
as was apparent on the animals presented
has the anterior organs of the father, and the
at the sale which dispersed them . Only posteriororgans of the mother,orcontrariwise, cattle and sheep have been subjected by and if,on the contrary,bothhave the sameseries farmers to this unfair system , for draught oforgans from the sameparents, then are they mares are usually covered by stallions ob- merelysimilar, and neither,as in the case of father tained from a distance ; and of cattle and and grand -daughter, as it were identical. In
sheep, the system has been most practised theformer case, no organ hasbeen communi
on Short-horn cattle and Leicester sheep. catedfrom the one to the other;inthelatter The racing stud has perhaps experienced case, every organ has beenso communicated. its injurious effects also. Now that high-
6276. In breeding in-and-in , in even the ordi
bred stocks exist in every district of the nary method, when the male is enfeebledhe no kingdom, there is no excuse for pursuing longer gives character to the progeny; and heis the in-and-in system of breeding; and the always enfeebled by breeding in-and-in,and even im loses reproductive power.
Close breeding
attempt is the more inexcusable from the pairs the constitution of both sexes, but the remarkable fact, brought to light only since generative power fails first, and chiefly on the
distribution of high -bred stock increas-
part ofthemale. Although the voluntary and
the power of thefemale is never so locomotive ed so much over the country, that the intense as that of the male, it is more frequently injured progeny , after being distributed and repeatedly in action. In the male, the
for a tinie, their progeny may be brought reproductive impulseis that of a moment, and
CROSSING .
735
exhaustion follows it ; in the female it can at short-sighted step cannot be taken by a any time be repeated . The vitaland reproduc- breeder , as from such a male no assur tive systems are in fact the largest and most ance can be obtained of the state of the essential portion of her organisation ; but by no means of his .
It
evident, therefore, why, progeny, which may be much worse than
when voluntary power is lessened in the male, it
either sire or dam.
may be exceeded by that of the female ; so that
the failure in fact is chiefly on his part. Hence
6279. There are situations in which
the law of breeding in-and-in, as enunciated by Mr Walkeris, thatwhere both parents are not high-bred stock cannot be maintainedas only of the same variety, but of the same family
a breeding stock, and in which nothing
in the narrowest sense, thefemalegives always but crossing can be practised when im-, the backhead and locomotive organs, themale provement is desired , but the desire for the reverse of whattakes place in ordinary breed improvement has been carried bysome breeders beyond the bounds of prudence :
ing.
they have crossed the Black -faced ewe with Leicester tups, in situations where ON CROSSING .
the enlarged lamb has been unable to sub sist in winter, on which account the policy
6277. The union of different breeds of of changing the Black -faced breed of the same sort of animal is a favourite sheep in high localities seems doubtful.
scheme with many breeders, and, under This cross in the low country affords an certain conditions, produces good results. excellent lamb for the table, the Leicester Those conditions are, that the male em- blood giving the disposition to fatten .
In
ployed in the crossing shall bave the lower situations, the Cheviot ewe, which superior breeding of the two parents, and inhabits the middle range of green pas that the situation in which the cross - pro- ture, may be crossed with the Leicester
geny is brought up is suitable to it. The first condition is usually complied with, butthe second is as commonly disregarded ; and the consequence is, that crosses, at-
tup with advantage. Where the Cheviots have been enlarged by size, it is alleged by the party possessing the pure breed, that the enlarged size has been gained by
tempted to be brought up in situations crossing with the Leicester, while the
unsuited to their nature, have proved owners maintain that it has been done by themselves failures.
good feeding alone.
Every crossing,
however, should be prosecuted with cau 6278. In the crosses commonly at- tion, because the result may overstep the tempted in this country, anong cattle the intentions of the breeder. It is clear that Short-born bull, and among sheep the if the crossed stock is retained as females,
Leicester tup,have been employed to cross which, in their turn, are served by high with the ordinary breeds of cattle and bred males, the time will arrive when the sheep. The results have proved satisfac- character of the original stock will be
tory; for although the progeny conld not entirely changed, andbecome unsuited to be expected to be equal to the sire, they their native climate and pasture, and will, have in all cases been superior to the dam. in fact, have become the same breed as The effects of the cross are,an enlargement their high -bred sires. In this way it is of the carcass , a finer skin, longer hair and quite possible to originate a race of Short
wool, cleaner bone,finer head, and the dis- horns and Leicester sheep anywhere position to fatten greatly accelerated. In suited to their nature, by constantly em and tup toserve comparing crosses, it has been found that ploying a high-bred bull gimmers, generation the higher bred the male the finer the cross cross- bred heifers and
-tbat is, the nearer it approaches his pro- after generation. The pure Short-horns perties ; and even an over -bred male, that were thus once crossed with a Galloway is, one showing symptoms of having been heifer, whose blood was soon lost amongst
bred in-and-in, may be used with advan- that of the Short-horn. Were the practice tage in crossing. Where a superior cross- generally adopted, the time would arrive crossed male happens thus to be produced, a strong when theoriginal breeds that wereSuc
h a desire is evinced by breeders to use him would disappear altogether. as a sire, instead of expending money in result would prove injurious to the breeder the purchase of a high -bred male. A more himself, inasmnch as the pasture would be
736
REALISATION .
unsuited for the stock he had caused to be cross produced very fine animals for the
produced ; so that his best plan is to pre- butcher, with more disposition to fatten serve the original females pure in the than Angus cattle possess. A notion exists, higher parts of the country, and take the that, if a large bull is putto asmall cow, • crosses from them to the low country to the calf will beso large asthat the cow will
be fed off. There is no other way of be unable to calve it. The notion can bave maintaining a cross, for were the cross no foundation in fact, since the fætus is
itself used as a breeding stock, a few gene- always in proportion to the matrix which rations would either revert them back to contains it. It is true, however, that their original breeds, deteriorated, or such a cross will cause severer labour to
create a mongrel, the properties of which the cow in calving, in consequence of the
could not be preserved beyond the exist- increased sizeofthe brain of the im ing generation. The temptation of larger proved calf. The large Short-horn bull
profits bas alreadycaused the Cheviot to referred to above, was put to many very drive the Black -faced breed from the lower to the highest mountain pastures ; whilst the cross-bred Cheviot, with the Leicester, have descended, on the other hand, to the low country, and have there met the true- bred Leicester. These results have done good, inasmuch as they have increased the quantity of mutton in
small Angus cows, and in no case occurred any danger in calving. The small cows produced small calves, but, having the disposition to grow and fatten from the bull, they throve apace, after birth ; and it was on account of this property in his progeny that the bull was so sought after for their cows by the poor tenants of various
the market ; and the skilful manage- estates. A cross was tried between the
ment which the pasturage on the hills Southdown ewe and Leicester tup, with the has received since a regular system view to adding some length to the South of breeding has been introduced, bas down wool, and the effect became per
caused it to yield a larger quantity manent and proved itself a great improve of finer grasses. The crossing of the ment. When a Cheviot or Black -faced Black -faced sheep has undergone a change; tup has been put to a well-bred Leicester the Leicester tup is too heavy to serve ewe, the cross has possessed a worse and Black -faced ewes on the hills, and to uncertain organisation than either of the bring those ewes to the tup in the low parents. It is a wholesome species of
country is attended with trouble and crossing to take the males or females of a expense.
Instead, therefore, of the Lei- breed from one part of the country, to the
cester tup being so employed, the Cheviot malesor females of the same breed in another tup has been substituted ; and although the part of the country. Although both stocks
cross is inferior - for nothing can exceed should have had the same origin, the the beauty of the lamb produced between change ofclimate, soil, and quality of food
the Black -faced ewe and Leicester tup- effect as great a change in the constitution it is a good one, and has enlarged the of the parents as if they were different Black -faced mutton. I am of opinion that races. The cross with a high -bred stallion
the cross between the Southdown tup and and any lower bred mare is always good. the Black - faced ewe, would be a better one
I havebad some excellent harness horses
than with the Cheviot tup. I don't know that this cross has yet been tried, but the superior mutton of the Southdownwould amalgamate better with that of the Blackfaced than with the Cheviot, and the wool is superior to the Cheviot. So long as crossing is conducted with the breeds in their natural state, it will go on without confusion ; but the moment crossbred tups are employed as improvers, their interference will produce confusion on the
out of draught mares, both by racingand coaching stallions. The cross received the figure and skin from the horse, and the action and constitution from the mare. 6280. The law of crossing, according to Mr
Walker, is, that when each parent is ofa different breed, and when both are of equal age and vigour, the male gives the backhead and
locomotive organs, the female gives the face and nutritive organs.
This law , in its effects as
regards the domesticatedanimals, is very similar
to those of the law of selection ; but in cross the parents always maintain this relative crosses and throw discredit on crossing ing
altogether. I have crossed Angus cows position, while in ordinary breeding the parents
with the Short-horn bull, fig. 565, and the change positions in proportion to the comparative
HIRING.
737
greater vigour of the characteristics of each, occurred . As similar causes always produce and when one imprints the prevailing char- similar effects ; so similar conditions in crossing
acteristics the other stamps the opposite. The will always produce similar progeny, whether cause that, in crosses, the male gives the cerebel
one cross or ten crosses be made. While great
and locomotive system, is both striking and beautiful. If no being can desire that of which it is already in possession - if, on the contrary ,
difference was sought for in the cross, similarity
is sought for in the progeny it produces, for without that there could be no homogeneity it must desire most what it most wants, (if not in- or conformity of breed — it would seem to want
compatible) it cannot be wondered that, in crosses, permanence ; nor can any cross ever be estab when the desired difference is greatest, the male,
lished without this similarity being obtained in
whose desire is most ardent, should stamp the sys-
its produce."
tem by which he exercises his desire, the voluntary locomotive, upon the progeny . In regard to the importance of this law as regards the breeding of animals, the slightestconsideration will show , continues Mr Walker, that if, of the two great
series of organs described , each belongs entirely to a distinct parent, we consequently can neither derive in the progeny both series from one
parent, nor portions of both from each parent ; and every attempt to do so must be a failure, and consequently lead to mere loss of time and money. It, at the same time, indicates the natural mode of procedure. It moreover shows that, in a feeble or imperfect cross, bad as well as good
6282. These laws, enunciated by Mr Walker, may thus be recapitulated in brief terms : The law of Selection operates where both parents are of the same variety, when either gives the organs of sense, forehead, and vital system , and the other the cerebel and locomotive system : the law of Crossing operates where each parent is of a different variety, when the male gives the back-head and locomotive system, and the female the forehead, organs of sense, and vital system : the law of In-and-in breeding operates where both parents are of the same family, when the female gives the back -head and
combinations may be produced ; but that such a the locomotive system , and the male the fore progeny as presents the precise qualities desired must alone be employed in further breeding, while inferior progeny must be cast aside. The intermediate character of the qualities produced in crossing is owing , not to each parent imperfectly giving its share in the progeny's organisation, but to circumstances that, in their new combination, each series
head , organs of sense , and vital system. But no law is thought of in the common practice of breeding. Thus then we have, we will not say life, for that is merely a general term , but the two series of organs on which both life and loco motion respectively depend, two opposite successions and combinations-variably in beings of the same variety, and invariably in those of
of organs acts with, and therefore modifies, the different varieties, ( crosses,) as also when closely and long restricted to one family, (in
other.
and-in . ) *
6281. On the difficulty of maintaining a cross in a permanent form , Mr Walker thus explains his views : “Seeing that the operations of nature are simple, and never capricious, why does it
ON THE HIRING OF FARM - SERVANTS.
frequently or generally produce a tolerable animal ? Because if the cross is a feeble or im perfect one, the male, dependent only on relative 6283. Every operation has now been energy, may give either the locomotive or the vital described and discussed in regard to the system, and not the precise one desired ; and so raising of crops and the rearing of live may the female . In the one case, therefore, the stock . It is now necessary to attend to a
cross willbe a tolerable one; and,in the other,it fewmatters which affect the relation sub will be an intolerable one.
having no notion that these two systems never sisting between thefarmer and his servants; go together from one parent, and having no idea of the entire difference which subsists between them , is incapable of distinguishing them. And why is it a breed that cannot be continued ? Because, precisely as I have described above,
and the first of these in their order must
be the biring of them into bis service. 6284. Married
farm - servants
are
the breeder next puts together twoproductsof usually engaged for the year, and the
the first cross, without their due distinctions; period at which they are engaged is about and the consequenceis that, precisely alsoasI the beginning of March. This season of breeds. But the fact is that ablebreedershave, engagement is in every respect favourable either by accident or by keener observation, often accomplished all that they desire in this
to the servants, though not for the masters. The servants are thus secured in their new
of departure the term service long before that breeders from surprising way. It certainly seemsseen a cross perfectly engagement being the old ; and the
having in any case
successful and eminently beneficial, should not made early in spring enables them to put inquiremore closely and care have been fully into led thetocircumstances under which it the summer crops into their new gardens, * Walker On Intermarriage, p. 201 to 242. VOL . II .
3 A
REALISATION .
738
possession of which is given them immediately after their engagement. The disadvantages attending so early an engagement tothe masters are, that, having secured another service, indifferent servants
present. Both parties should consider that
their new movemay place them in a worse position than before.
Nevertheless, it
must be owned that a servant of slow
habits, however honest he may be, is a
have atemptation to do their work for the great bar to the work of a farm that is future in a slovenly manner, and malicious carried on in a spirited way ; and it is ones a long time to wreak vengeance a constant source of irritation to retain a against their masters by the ill-treatment servant whose daily conduct excites sus of their horses - both, in the mean time, picions of his integrity.
being regardless of remonstrance, or even sharp rebukes. Good and conscientious servants will be guilty of no dereliction of duty, even with the prospect of leaving a desirable situation , but then such servants are seldom parted with, and only from necessity occasioned by circumstances, not from choice.
6287. Unmarried farm -servants, who
live in bothies, are usually engaged or re engaged on the term -day; but those who live in their masters' house are usually spoken to, to remain in their service, 40 days before the term . Domestic female servants, and those engaged by married ploughmen to do farm -work, commonly
6285. Various are the circumstances
called bondagers or field -workers, are
which cause a separation between master placed on the same footing. All single and servant. The servant may become servants are engaged for half-a -year unable for the work he has long performed ; only.
his wife may be a troublesome person which, in fact, is not an unfrequent cause of
6288. Farm -servants are usually en
a man being obliged to leave a good place ; gaged in the hiring -market of the neigh his family may be guilty of many pecca- bouring town or village, and they seldom dilloes, in despite of their parents' injunc- exhibitwritten characters from the masters tions ; the man himselfmay have a peevish whom they are serving, referring only to temper, and the master a hasty one, and them by name: and should thesebe found
the one may give the other up in a moment in the market, inquiry is made ; but if not, of temporaryirritation. I knew an excel- an engagement is made from appearance
lent servant who gave up his place in a huff. He had time to think of his resolve before the hiring day, and when it arrived he set off early to the market-town, and, watching his master's entrance into it, went up to him with an earnest entreaty for a re-engagement, which was instantly made.
and conversation . This is doubtless an unsatisfactory mode of biring, and, to obviate it, it has been proposed to open registers, in which the names of farm -ser vants of established character, and of places may be entered, on payment of a small fee by those who may desire to in
As regards the farmer, an unplea- spect them . The plan of such a registry
sant son may have succeeded a judicious was established at Forres in Morayshire,
father ; he may be unreasonable, and fre- in 1838, by Mr Robert Mitchell, and it is quently find fault without much cause — an said to have hitherto worked well. At injustice which a well-disposed servant will the end of the firstyear, on 31st July 1839, not long endure.
the number of names entered on the list was
267; atthe end of the second year, in 1840,
6286. As no perfection can be found in it increased to 636 ; and at the end of the either master or servant, it is obviously third year, in 1841 , it had risen to 1110.
the interest ofboth to exercise mutual Both masters and servants seem to approve forbearance. The master should overlook of the plan ; and I have no doubt that many faults, provided he sees that the ser- similar good effectswould follow the esta vant performs his duties from principle; blishment of a similar registry in every and the servant should endeavour to please hiring market. “ Such a registry would
his master cheerfully, even in what he have, in the first place, the effect of pro may consider his whims. If these rules curing agreeable situations for servants of were mutually observed, there would be excellent character ; and it would proba fewer flittings at terms than is the case at bly, in time, have the moral effect of show
HIRING .
739
ing the careless servantthat the indus- same time in need of extraordinary assist trious, obedient, and skilful will always ance. be preferred ; and this lesson, it is hoped, may have the effect of making the indo-
6290. It may be useful to give a succinct view
lent and vicious amend the error of their of thelaw of contract ofhirebetween master and servant, to show the relative obligations which subsist betwixt those parties in Scotland .
ways."
6291. Hiring. It is not necessary to give 6289. On hiring every sort of farmderstanding to be had with them ; and the after receiving them , servants may resile
servants, I wonld recommend a clear un- arles to servants when hiring them ; and even the bargain, if it is the custom of the district, simplest plan of avoiding misconceptions from (Ersk. III.3,14.) Farm -servantsare
of the duties to be performed by servants presumed to be hired by the year, if no period be is, to hirethem to do whatsoever they are agreed on, ( Finlayson , 1829.) In this same case , desired. It is necessary to make this sti- (June 6, 1829, 7 S. D. 717,) a grieve or farm pulation, for some servants are so fastidi- steward is held to be engaged for a year. If a
ous as to the nature of their duties, that they will refuse to perform any other than what they were specially hired to do. For example, if a man has been hired to
servant is engaged a shorter than half-a-year, or longerforthan a year,period a written agreement should be made out and agreed to by
both parties, otherwise, on the servant denying the period, he may, in the first case, be found en
drive a pair of horses , he will cheerfully titled to full half-a-year's wages. Either party do whatever is done with the labour of the horses, but may demur to do any other work when his horses are not employed ; aud yet very urgent work may have to be
other, ( Tait, Just. Peace,450.) Should the ser vant be brought from a distance, it has been found that the hirer is liable in the expense of bringing him , but not in the expense of his re
done at a time when horses cannot be em
turn, unless otherwise agreed on, ( Baird, 1799, 5 B. S. 514.)
By 4th Geo. IV., c. 34, persons
ployed, such as lettingoff water fromland, contractingto serve, and desertingtheir service and many others. In likemanner, a dairy- after entering on it, are liable to imprisonment. maid may refuse to feed pigs or poultry ; obligations.-- The master is and domestic servants may refuse to work
out of the house ; and it is no uncommon
6292. Master's
bound to receive the domestic servant to his situ ation, and give bed and board, should no agree
case to hear shepherds and gardeners re- ment be made to the contrary, for the term of fuse to do anything, however needful and service, ( Bell's Prin. sec. 184";) and he cannot conducive to their master's interest, but compel a domestic servant to live out of his house, what is directly connected with their re (Graham, Feb. 12, 1822, F. C.) spective specific charges. It may be found 6293. Responsibility of masters for servants. expedient at a time for the shepherd to The master is responsible for injury done to bind or fork corn at barvest, and for the third parties through the fault, negligence, or
gardener to cut grass for the work-horses ; carelessness of his servants, while doing their
but these necessary operations may be master'sbusiness,but not for their criminal acts, (M'Laren, 1827. ) The master is not liable for refused to be perforined by either, un the expense of a medical adviser, called in by the less both have been engaged to do what servant, different from the family one ; nor will they are desired. Of course, it is always he be liable should the illness of the servant be
best for to haveit performed by brought on by hisown imprudence ; but when those bestlabour acquainted with it; which be- the illness is brought on from causes arising in the course of the servant's duties, the master is
ing the case , it will be the interest of the liable in expenses, (Cooper, 1831, Car. and Pay. master himself to use a wise discretion
Reps. ;) and the master, in this case, has no right
in putting the stipulation into practice. to deduct the expenses from the servant's wages, But circumstances may arise when a
( Lellan, 1829, Car. and Pay. Reps.)
particular department of labour may re 6294. Serrant's obligations. — Servants are quire extraordinary assistance, and it bound to serve their master in everything relat would be a hardship on the master to be ing to the situation they have engaged them deprived of any of the means of labour selves for. They must be respectfultotheir mas
within his power, to promote that one de- terand his family, and in their general conduct avoid actions scandalous or of bad example. partment, merely because the other depart- They have no right to absent themselveswithout ments of labour were not also at the *
leave, (Crawford, 1822.) They are responsible
Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol . xii. p. 298.
740
REALISATION .
for everything committed to their charge in the not bound to give a servant a character, either routine of their duty ,but not for accidents, (Camp- oral or written, or to assign a reason for with bell, 1734.) They must accompany their employer in change of residence, as long as he does
holding it, (Carrol, 1800, 3 Esp. 201.) He will be liable in damages, when asked the character
not leave the kingdom , (Tait,462.) They have of a servant, in giving an untrue one, (Bell's no right to draw nice distinctions between what Prin .) He will be justified in giving one preju dicial to the servant, if true, (Christian, July 6,
comes under their duty and what does not ; they
cannot be employed on any duty different from the customary duties of the service they have undertaken, and this renders a specific agree ment, to do what they are desired, necessary. Enlistment in Her Majesty's service frees a
1818 ; 1 Mur. 427 ;) but he has no right to give out such a character publicly, without sufficient
servant from his obligations by the Mutiny
domestic servants, may be hired by the year, or for a shorter time, but writing is necessary for a
Act.
cause .
6298. Hiring workmen. — Workmen, like longer period, (Paterson, June 17, 1830, 6 S. D.
6295. Wages. - Should no wages be bargained 931.) They are bound, besides the principal en for, none are due, (Salton, Brown, Sup. 3, 337. ) gagement, to keep to certain regular hours, and The servant has a right to leave his master, and claim wages and board -wages, should his wages
observe the same respect and decency as domes tic servants. They may be compelled by impri
not be paid at the terms agreed upon. Though sonment to fulfil their contract, (Clerk, Jan. 19, 1799, F. C.) * payable half-yearly, ( Tait, 465.) A servant, 6299. Of late years a movement has been through sickness, disabled from doing his duty,
a servant is engaged by the year, his wages are
has still a right to his wages , should no servant be got to supply his place, (White , 1794.) Should the servant die between terms, wages to the
made in the north -eastern counties of Scotland to abolish hiring markets, and the abandonment of the lodging and boarding of a number of un
time of his death will be due to his representa- married farm -servants in a single room, named a tives. When the master dies, wages and boardwages to the next term are due, should there be no agreement for any space of time. When the servant is engaged for any specified time, wages and board -wages are due to the full time. The
master's bankruptcy gives the servants the same claim. But in both these last cases, on the ser-
vant's being supplied with another place, wages only for past services are due, (Tait, 465.) The mastercan, at any time, turn off his servant, on giving him full wages and board -wages, (Cooper, 1825.) A female servant marrying and leaving her master, loses all claim for wages, and her husband is liable in damages.
6296. Grounds for dismissing servant. - A servant may be dismissed for immoral conduct,
bothy.
6300. As to the abolition of hiring -markets, the attempt on the part of the farmers to do it will, in my opinion , prove futile, for two suffi cient reasons. One reason is, that it has always been found a very difficult matter to change even the site or the day of any sort of market. What the public seems to have a general interest in , they will never agree to relinquish . The abo
lition could, no doubt, be done by act of parlia
ment, but not otherwise ; by no local arrange ment can the end be attained .
If such a
difficulty attends the alteration of any market, there would be greater still in its abolition. The other reason is, that if hiring -markets were maintained in any part of the country, it would
disobedience, or habitual neglect of duty, (Callo, be found impracticable to abolish them entirely 1831 ;) for absence on Sunday when ordered to in any other part of the country. Now, hiring the contrary, ( Hamilton, 1824.) Absence for four days without leave was held a sufficient cause of dismissal ; and legal dismission forfeits the servant’s wages, (Silvie, 1830.) When either a master wishes to part with a servant, or the
markets are not attended with inconvenience everywhere. I have attended many of them in the southern counties of Scotland, and never saw anything reprehensible in them . The men and women mustered in the market-town in the early
ed their business, and servant wishes to leave his situation, warninge part of the day, transactn, went home in the afternoo and if any remained must be given 40 days before the term , otherwis chiefly to the engagement is held to be renewed, (MʻLean, in the town until the evening, itofwas intemperance 1813;) unless the local custom is to give no
warning, then none is necessary, (Morrison, 1823.) After a servant has received his wages and left his situation, he cannot say he got no
warning, ( Baird, 1779.) It will be observed that much of what has been said applies almost exclusively to domestic servants, whether on a farm or not ; the relations of out-door farm -servants with their masters are so clear that few
visit friends; and if a few cases occurred , it was long after market hours. It is, therefore, not fair to stamp the character of any meeting by the exceptional cases, nor is it fair to characterise all hiring-markets by the acts done at a few of them. I regard them as very convenient meetings, where the hirer and
the hired have the best opportunity of learning the rate of wages, and where an abundant choice
questions arise between them , either at parting is presented to both parties of what they both came to seek .
or during the course of service . 6297. Character to serrants . — The master is
6301. Nor can register offices ever supersede
* Farmer's Lawyer, p. 160-5,
741
WAGES.
hiring -markets. The mere registry of the name the districts in which complaints are rife against is not sufficient for the seeker in quest of charac-
the bothy system, as I did in Forfarshire, and
ter, as no one will dare to register publicly a the system will be abolished for ever . The bad character against a bad servant; and if the expense of maintaining the men in their own truth cannot be so told, there is no use of the
houses may be a little more than in the bothy,
registry at all—and there is no need of aregistry
but it willbe trifling in comparison of the com
for good servants, as their characters will obtain fort purchased by it, both for master and ser them situations anywhere, without the assistance
vant.
of either hiring-markets or registers. A registry
might be made a record of the names of good servants who are to be out of service at the en
ON THE WAGES OF FARM - SERVANTS.
suing term, and the hiring-market might serve as a good place for the parties to meet in, who
6303. I enumerated the different classes
may have to come from opposite quarters and
of labourers employed on a farm from (57)
from considerable distances.
to (67 ;) and I must here state that the
wages of all of them may be classed under much need of emendation, and , in my opinion, three heads :-Those consisting chiefly of the only one it is capable of is its entire aboli tion ; which it is quite in the power of any pro kind — that is, of the produce of the farm , 6302. The bothy system, as it is termed , has
prietor, along with his tenants and servants, to and but a small sum in cash ; those con accomplish on any estate. The congregating of sisting of a large proportion of cash and a
young unmarried men in one room, which is oc-
small amount of kind ; and those which
cupied both as a sleeping and cookingapart- consist entirely of cash . The recipients of mant, and the sleeping of two men together in one bed, areacts obnoxious to decency .Being the first and third classes may be engaged under no control, one or other of the men wanders
on the same farm , and the third class may
abroad during the night, and are of course unfit be found exclusively on a farm , but the for their work during the day. They visit one
first and second classes are never found
respective anothernights; at theirandit bothies, in together; and as all three modes of pay winter is seldom that especially a separation
takes place without the accompaniment of in- ing wages co -exist in the kingdom , though temperance. The inmates of bothies seldom re- in different parts of it, they afford a main long in the same service, it being almost criterion for judging which is the best impossible to find a number of men, associating mode for all parties, for master and daily and nightly so intimately as they are
servant ; which the most convenient for
obliged to do, entertain the same sentiments on
any one subject;and the consequence is disagree
the master, which the most conducive to
ments, which can only be put an end to by sepa-
the servants' comfort and moral habits.
ration at the ensuing term . The bothy system is Ploughmen or hinds, constituting the recommended to be amended by hiring the men or staple class of labourers on a for shorter periods than six months, or even principal during pleasure,that their master may havethe farm , like the battalion men of a regiment, greater control over them ; and it is stated that
the amount of their wages is taken as a
farmers of high standing, who have tried this standard by which to compare that of the expedient, find their men more diligent and
other classes of labourers.
careful, and remain longer in their service than when hired by the half-year.* This plan is but an expedient at best, and will result in palliation
6304. Winter is the season in which
An effectual method is to eradicate the
wages in kind are paid to farm -servants ;
alone.
system entirely; and the only way of doing it is and the period of that season chosen for by the erection of cottages by proprietors, for
the purpose is about the end of the year.
married men,or forhouseholders,whetherthey It is requisite that harvest shall be entirely vice such as has been long practised with the finished, and every arrangement connected utmost success in Berwickshire.
Nor is this a
with the accommodationof stock, on tur
mere supposition. I had the experience of the nips or in the steading,—made before the
bothysystem in fullvigourin Forfarshire,and thrashing of the stacks in regular succes had effects; frequentI opportunities its bale sion commen . ful built cottagesofforwitnessing the accommo ces da-
After these preparatory
tion of married men, and ever after nothing but operations, and before much of the new quiet and contentment , and the desire to remain, crop has been disposed of at market,
prevailed inevery caseat every term . Two ofthe further than to ascertain its general qual
bothy men themselvestook wives, and received ity and price, the first leisure time from ploughmen , who remained with me as long as I field work by stress of weather is taken farmed . Let every proprietor and farmer do, in advantage of for paying the farm -servants * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1849, p. 14.
REALISATION .
their yearly wages of corn ; and as the quantity distributed is considerable on a large farm , and as all the servants should
6308. Northumberland. 6 bolls
ter
36 bushels oats, at 2s. per bushel,
- 24 12 3 3 40
2
NOO W * HO NW
742
barley, at 23. 9d ., pea.se , at 3s. 6d ., wheat, at 53. rye , at 35., potatoes, at ls.,
receive their wages at the same time, to avoid envy, there will be a considerable quantity of thrashed grain in the barn 24 . wool,foratis lb. of keep A cow's before its distribution in wages takes Carriage of coals,the year , place. The servants receiving a variety Cash, Cottage and garden, of corn, that variety should be first dis tributed which is found most conveni
£3 12
0
6
0
2 2 0 15
0 0
3
0
2
90 0
1
9 3
0 0 0
0 0 0
4
0
o
2
Equal to 128. per week ,
£31 8 0
ent for the farmer to thrash ; and one variety should be delivered , and the barn The allowance of turnips in winter is 10 cleaned out, before another is taken in cart-loads of white, or 5 of white and 3 of band.
swedes ; or, in lieu, 100 stones of 22 lb.
equal to one ton of hay. The rent of
6305. Ploughmen's wages. These are cottage and garden is £ 3, but for this the paid in all the three modes enumerated ploughman receives for food and wages
above (6303,) the first mode being in 28. 6d. per day for 30 days in harvest. general adoption in the Border counties of The grain is paid in advance once a England and Scotland ; the second being quarter. The ploughman bas liberty to practised in the midland and northern keep a pig, but no poultry. He disposes counties of Scotland ; and the third being of the calf and spare butter from the in general use in themidland and southern cow. counties of England . 6309. East Lothian .
6306. Wages composed of kind and money differ, in their constituent items, in different counties, but only in a slight de-
gree ; the aggregate items affording suffi ciency of food to support a ploughman and an ordinary family , and nothing to spare. The particulars enumerated received by the ploughmen are cashed according to the prices in 1850 :
pease , at 3s. 6d.,
12
= 1200 yards potatoes, at 4s., A cow's keep for the year , Cottage and garden , Carriage of coals,
£ 7
}
per day, A cow's grass ,
4
0
9 8 28
6 0
1
2
6
5 0 2 0 1 10
0 0 0
£ 23 2
0
2
1
Carriage of coals, Cottage and garden ( free ), Equal to 8s. 10jd . per week ,
0
One half of the oats to be made good up to the first fiars of the Haddington market,
6307. Berwickshire. 10 bolls = 60 bushels oats, at 2s. per bushel, 3 .. = 18 barley, at 2s. 9d ., 1
12 bolls - 72 bushels oats , at 2s. per bushel , 3 - 18 barley, 2s. 9d ., 8 beans, 3s. 60., 6 .. or 1600 yards potatoes, 3s. 100 yards, Food for hind for 30 days in harvest, at 9d.
and a price fixed for the potatoes in case £6 0 0 2 1 2 8 1 2 4
9 1 8 0 2 0 0
6
of failure.
0 0 0 6 0
farmer nothing but straw in winter. When the hind keeps no cow, £5 a - year are allowed him in cash . The cottage and
The cow receives from the
ŏ garden are really free, the hind not being obliged to provide a reaper in barvest, whose maintenance is usually retained in The turnips in winter for the cow amount other parts of the country as rent for the
Cash ,
Equal to 10s. 44d. per week ,
£ 27 10
to 3 double loads of swedes and 3of house . These items vary in the county. white, or, in lieu, 60 stones of 22 lb. each of hay ; and grass in summer. Tbe rent
6310. Fifeshire.
of the cottage and garden is equal to one
WAGES OF MARRIED FOREMEN .
person's food in harvest that is, 30 days at
Money ,
9d. per day, £1 , 2s. 6d. The grain is next to the seed -corn in quality, and it is paid in slump or advance at the middle of the year's engagement. The ploughman has liberty tokeep pigs, but no poultry. He disposes of both the calf and most of the
1200 yard in the drill of potatoes, at 3s. per 100 yards, House and garden , Cow's keep , Allowance of bread and beer in hay -time and harvest,
butter from the cow.
£ 12 00 3 18 63
65 stones (14 lb. ) ofoatmeal, at 1s. 24d. per st .,
}
1 16 2 10
0 0
9 0
0
0 10
0
£ 29 14 64 Equal to 1ls. 5d. por week .
WAGES.
in kind is considered invariable, being no
WAGES OF MARRIED PLOUGHMEN.
Money ,
65 stones of oatmeal, at 1s. 240. per stone,
£10 10 0 3 18 64
182 gallons of new milk , at 6d . per gallon ,
743
4 11
0
more food than a stout man can consume ; but some cannot consume it all, and save
1200 yards in the drillof potatoes, at 38.per} 1 16 o
a part of themeal, which they dispose of.
House and garden, :
In strict fairness, the meal should be
2 10 0 10
Allowance in hay-time and harvest,
Equal to 98. 31d. per week .
0 0
given to the men every week ; but, to save £ 23 15 6f trouble, it is dealt out once a month or fortnight. Besides the oatmeal and
milk , bothy men always have a room 6311. Wages, more in cash than in in common, a bedstead and bed -clothes,
kind, are more extensively given in Scot- fuel — partly brushwood and partly land than the plan which I have just coals, one toneach - cooking utensils, and described. Those who receive this species salt. They provide the dishes out of
of wages arechiefly single men,living which they take their meals, consisting either in the farmer's house, or in a house usually of a wooden bowl and horn -spoon.
by themselves called a bothy. The practice of allowing farm -servants to take their meals in the farmer's house is falling fast into desuetude. Married men are also supported in this form of wages, but their condition is not so good as that of
According to the previous rates of prices, with £ 12 a -year of cash, and estimating their lodging, wear of bed -clothes, and fuel at 25s. a -year each, the wages amount in money to 8s. 8d. per week .
It must be
held in remembrance, in regard to every
the ploughmen on the preceding plan, case of the wages of a ploughman, that his although it is certainly preferable to that wages go on whether be be working or not ; in thebotby system .
so he has one advantage at least over the daily labourer, who may be thrown idle at
6312. The portion of wages received in every recurrence of bad weather. kind consists of oatmeal and milk.
The
meal amounts to 2 pecksper week for each
6313. The ploughmen who receive cash
man --that is, 1 stone of 171 lb., which makes 64 bolls per annum, or 654 stones of 14 lb., at 1s. 2£d. per stone, gives a money-value of £3, 198. a -year. The
for wages, are in the same condition as day -labourers, who receive their earnings once a -week ,and purchase their subsistence from retail dealers in country towns and
milk is supplied either fresh from the cow villages. This, I believe, is thecondition of or after the cream has been skimmed off,
most of the ploughmen in the southern
according to agreement. In the sweet counties of England. It is obvious that, state it is given to the amount of i Scotch unless money -wages adapt themselves
pint or 24 quarts a -day ; and when skim- nicely to the fluctuating prices of the com med, 3 quarts in summer, and 2 in winter modities upon which farm -servants subsist,
per day. The milk is usually estimated the men must suffer much privation on at £4 a -year. In some cases a cow or rise in the price of provisions; and, when
a
cows are supplied to the men , who milk these fall, they receive bigher wages than them, and are exchanged for others when they are entitled to. They are tbus sub they go dry ; but supplying milk is the jected to constant vicissitudes in their con
least troublesome plan for the master; dition, from which the two former classes because as long as the cows give as much of ploughmen are entirely exempt. It milk as the men are entitled to receive, signifies nothing to reduce the wages paid they make no complaint although the cows in kind to the latter into the money -value
should give a great deal more than the of the day, for, in fact, the ploughmen stated quantity ; but the moment the supply falls below the stipulated quantity, loud complaints are instantly heard. These items of kind , with from £ 10 to £ 14 a - year of cash, and even £ 18 in the time of railway high wages, constitute the earnings of a ploughman on this system .
never receive their wages in that form ,
and are quite independent of fluctuations in price. The farmer has thus no tempta tion to dismiss men from his service when wages rise or prices fall in the market. 6314. The wages of stewards are in all
It is only in the amount of cash that these respects similar to those of the ploughmen wages vary at any time, for what is given of whom they have the charge - the only
REALISATION .
744
difference being in the amount of cash a labourer, receives some of his wages in received, which is always greater than that kind and the rest in cash, and is seldom given to the ploughmen. Instead of £ 4 indulged with a cow . Being generally a
with kind,they receive from £ 12 to £ 15; person somewhat advanced in life, the and instead of £ 12 or £ 14 with oatmeal, they receive from £ 20 to £25 ; and the best house is appropriated to them. In most cases the steward is exempt from
rate of his wages is not high - perhaps 9s. a -week in money ; and it is well when this post is held by an old and faithful plough man or shepherd, whose growing infirmi.
attendance on the farm on Sundays, whilst ties disable him from undertaking full in others he takes his turn along with the active duties. other men — the latter being the better plan 6318. The field -worker is simply a day for the master, as the steward has then a personal opportunity of knowing how the labourer, andreceives 10d. a -day in sum
men have fulfilled their duties on that day. mer, and in some cases only 8d. a- day in winter, without any wages in kind. This 6315. The shepherd receives the same amount of kind and money and accommodation as the ploughmen; but as he is accounted a skilful servant, and his hours of attendance extend every day from sunrise to sunset, he has leave to keep a small flock of sheep of his own, which is maintained by his master, and the produce of
person is usually a woman. The married
ploughmen in the south of Scotland are each bound to supply a field -worker to work on the farm during the year, they receiving the wages earned by the workers. They hire the women in the public mar kets, and support them in their houses with bed, board, and wages. Should the
which he is entitled to dispose of every field -worker obtain constant employment His flock consists of half-a -score of on the farm , the ploughman may profit by Leicester ewes, one- fifth of which are dis- the arrangement; and on large farms field
year.
posed of every year, and for which he is workers are almost constantly employed. entitled to retain as many ewe-lambs of This obligation on the ploughman had, no his flock as will maintain the full number doubt, arisen at a time when few women of his breeding ewes. The dog is bis own could be persuaded to work in the fields;
property, often purchased at a high rate, and because he is obliged to hire them, and trained with much trouble and solici- they are designated by the odious name of tude. In the pastoral districts, the shep- bondagers. The obligation has been found
herd receives as wages 45 Black -faced fault with, and even represented as a sheep, which may be valued at 78. each, species of slavery ; but the fact is, there is 6 bolls of meal, a cow'skeep, a cottage and no more slavery about the matter than in
garden, with potatoes. When the charge the case of the ploughman himself, who is extensive, two or three cows are allowed , is bound by agreement to work for ayear. and wages in meal and sheep besides given The epithet is a nickname, although it is to the assistants . *
not used as such, but simply to contra distinguish the female who is so hired
6316. The hedger, being considered a from one hired to do service in the farm day -labourer, gets a smaller proportion of house, and even the latter in many kind than married ploughmen, and more instances works also in the fields. The
money , and generally no cow's keep ; and practice is good, because it not only by the year, but is a day-labourer, and tain number of bands at all times, but paid in money. Being a skilful man, the provides a number of accomplished field where bothy men are no hedger is hired enables the farmer to command a cer
hedger never receives less than £40 a-year workers in every district where it is prac
in value, and more frequently £ 1 a-week. tised : and the consequence has long He can sow corn , build stacks,and do any- been observed and known, that no such thing that the steward can, and sometimes expert field -workers are to be found any where as in Berwickshire. No proper all that the shepherd does besides. substitutes are found in the women to be
6317. The cattle -man , being viewed as bired out of villages, for, independent of
* New Statistical Account of Scotland – Peeblesshire, Txeedsmuir, p. 67.
WAGES.
745
many large farms being situate at a dis- self; and hence in those parts field - labour,
tance from any village,a village does not being performed by casual field -workers necessarily supply good field -workers, as I instead of by those steadily trained up to have myself experienced to my vexation ; it from early youth, is necessarily executed and whenever trade is brisk, manufac-
in a much inferior manner to that of the
turers not only pick up all the bands they can procure in the villages, but the work being done by the piece, at which greater wages can be earned in long than atto field ishours presented the -work women, ato temptation desert the Many manufacturers will not fields.
Border counties. 6319. On taking a review of the actual con
dition of all the labourers of the farm , as I have endeavoured and comparing the conditions of to therepresent married it,ploughmen and the bothy men, the question that occurs to the mind is - Which is in the best condition ! My convic
allow them to assist even at harvest. A tion is, that the ploughmen on the Borders are in
resource of labour like the Border system the superior position. Let us look into one of their should, therefore, not be yielded by the cottagesof an evening , inferiorandas yo many of u will
farmer until a better one has been estab- probablysee,” to usethe words of Mr Grey; Its hardships, however, are not Dilston , “ assembled the family group round felt by the workers themselves, but by a cheerful coal-fire - which, by the way, is
lished.
the ploughmen , who must engage them ; an inestimable blessing to all classes , but chiefly
but any hardship can only press on the to the poor of this country - females knitting or — the father, perhaps, his young shoes hind when he has no family and the spinning all acquire) andmending one of the (an art almost work is very limited, and the support of a ones reading for the amusement of the whole field -worker does then press hard upon circle.” “ Contrast this,” continues Mr Grey, with the condition of many young men his wages. where the constant, farm is large, and employedasfarm -servants in thesouthern consequence work inBut the
counties, who, being paid board -wages, club the ploughman has daughters, the sys- together to have their comfortless meal' in a tem is a continuous source of income
neighbouring cottage , with no house to call
to him, in doing the work in harvest, their home, left to sleepinan outhouse or paying therent ofthehouse, and receiving companions, hay-loft,subject to the contamination of idle with no parent's eye
payment for their labour
-
everything
to watch their actions, and no parent's voice to warn them of
thereby contributing to the common fund their errors ; and say, which situation is best of the family. The system can have no calculated to promote domestic comfort, family bad effect on the field -workers them- affection, and moral rectitude ?” Contrast this with a bothy in the winter evenings, when it is selves, they being cheerful and happy at the scene of lewd mirth-excited probably by work, and well clad on Sundays . Nor the company of females who have come perhaps
are they ever required to dowork beyond from a distance to visit their acquaintances,and their strength ; foralthough the “ unfemi- who are treated most probably with stolen nine practice of females driving dung viands, entertained with profanejests and songs, afterwards .convoyed darknessandwet carts » * has been stated as an objection and
homewards amidst
against the system , field -workers would drive carts when necessary whether they
6320. “ One very obvious benefit," observes
were engaged in that mode or in any other ; and, besides, the driving of carts is no more unfeminine than helping to fill them with dung, or turning dung-
Mr Grey, as regards the married ploughmen, “ arising to the hind from this mode of paying in kind besidesatthatcommand,whichhas having a store of wholesome food —always notbeen taxed with the profits of intermediate agents — is
hills. But the fact is, women do not drive
the absence of all temptation which the receipt
carts, in the usual sense of the term ; they of weekly wages, and the necessity of resorting to a village or town to buy provisions, hold out only lead the horse, while bis driver is at of spending some part of the money in the ale
more laborious work, to and from the house, which ought to provide for the wants of
dunghill to the ridge which is beingdunged. the family;andtothis circumstance, and to the In the northern counties of Scotland , no domestic employment which their gardens afford
such obligation as the engagement of intheir leisure hours, we are probablymuchin
field -workers exists on the ploughmen, debted for the remarkable sobriety andexem plary moral conduct of the peasantry of the nor can it coexist with the bothy system , north ; it gives him a personal interest in the where the ploughman has no house for him- produceof his master's farm , and a desire to 考*
Report of the Cottage Improvement Society of North Northumberland for 1842, p. 51 .
746
REALISATION .
secure it in good condition; it produces a set of the saddler, his work requiring to be local attachments, which often lead to a connec accom cancorn be-barn at long steading he modated in theintervals, tion between master and servant, of long con . done or — the tinuance."
granary being a convenient place. 6323. Smith - work . — The degree of farm -servants in kind has long operated, both for 6321. Beneficially as this system of paying
master and servant, it has beenstigmatisedby wearing to which the iron of theimple personseven in parliament asbeingonlyanother ments is subjected depends, in a great form of the truck system , which has, as is well
known,acted so prejudicially against the interests measure, on the nature of the soil of which ofthe operatives ofEngland. Before meeting this the farm is composed. When the soil is objection, let us inquire what is thetruck sharp and gravelly, it wears down iron
says that it is “a name given to a practice much faster than when itis clayor soft that has prevailed , particularly in the mining
mould.
The iron that wears most in
and manufacturing districts, of paying the work is that belonging to the movable wages of workmen in goods instead of money. parts of the plough, such as the coulter and share ; and the shoes of the horses.
The plan has been for the master to esta
blish warehouses or shops ; and the workmen in their employment have either got their wages
To protect those parts from wear as much
accounted for to them bysuppliesof goods from as possible, it is usual to point and edge such depots, without receiving any money ; or the coulter and share, and to tip the they have got the money, with a tacit or express horses' shoes with steel, which, although
warehouses or shops of their masters for such incurring greater expeuse at first, is an articlesas they were furnished with.” + If this economical expedient in clay and soft be anything like a correct account of the pro- soils, inasmuch as the plough- irons nsed require repair perly reprobated truck system ,it is clear that it in that class of soils only sharp and gravelly has no affinity whatever to thepayment of wages
every few days. But in
in kind , inasmuch as this has no reference to the
money-value of any article which the hinds soils, steel is a useless expense, for it is receive - and they always receiving the same found to wear down almost as fast as rate of wages ; whereas the truck system has
iron ; and it is therefore more economical to sharpen the plough -irons every day,
undoubted reference to the money - value of the
than to lay them with steel.
articles dealt out to the operatives ; and that
other implements, as the harrows, grub
amount of kind, of course receive the same
money -value is fixed by the master, whose interest it is either to keep it at as high a
rate as practicable, or else to give out articles of inferior quality above their worth ; and hence the artisan does not always receive the
To some
bers, & c., the same remark applies; and as to those which are seldom used, the
difference of expense attending their re
same amount of goods,and is therefore notin pairs with iron or with steel isimmaterial. the condition of the hind .
ON THE FARM SMITH, JOINER, AND
6324. In horses' shoes, it is their fore bit which first wears down ; and, as long as the horses are confined to the farm ,
there is no harm in their shoes becoming thin, provided the crust of the hoof is 6322. Iron , wood, and leather com- protected from injury by the ground. In SADDLER.
pose the materials of which the imple- some parts of the country, the shoes of ments of the farm are made ; and these farm -horses are made in a preposterous being in constant use , are always in a fashion . They are thick and heavy, being
state of gradual decay, and require almost daily repair. To effect the repairs, it may be impracticable to send the implements to the nearest town, or even village. Where either exceeds one mile
provided with high caulkers and broad and thick fore- bits, elevating the horse a considerable height above the ground, and endangering his tramping himself in the turnings at the landings, or in backing
from the farm , much time is lost in taking and turning in the cart.
All that is
everything thither, and bringing it back required is a slight turning up orthicken again ; so that it becomes incumbent on ing of the heels, and particularly of the the farmer to provide for his use a smithy, outer heels, and a little thickening of the and a joiner's shop near at hand. As to fore -bit of the shoe, ( 1546) to ( 1556. ) * Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England,vol. ii. p. 186-8. + M Culloch’s Commercial Dictionary - art. Truck System .
747
THE JOINER.
On disusing the high shoes myself, against every implement in use in working order the practice of the country where I farmed, throughout the year. It is not incumbent the smith assured me tbat lameness from on bim to renew any article, but only to
straining would soon overtake the horses; mend it when broken, and repair it when notwithstanding forebodings, but,
his
not
a single case of tramping or lameness ever occurred afterwards . Tramps are dangerous, besides causing blemishes on the foot; for, when serious, they may cause quittor, which may terminate in ring -bone, and in consequence chronic lameness.
worn . Every new article is paid for in full. In some parts of the country, smiths will not enter into contracts for upholding iron -work, as was the case in Forfarshire when I farmed there ; and it is no want of charity to ascribe the unwillingness to
a consciousness of being able to make more money by job -work .
6325. The horses should not be neglected 6327. Few farms are so large as to in their shoeing. It is not an unfrequent neglect to allow the shoes to remain on afford full employment to a smith ; and it till they become loose, or the crust of the is not the smith alone that must be con
hoof grows beyond them ; in either case the horses run the risk of being lamed , and, if not moving upon soft earth, they would inevitably acquire thrushes and corns. The shoes should not be allowed to be worn so thin as to endanger their
stantly employed, but his apprentice also, whom it isnecessary for him to engage, to enable him to get through the heavy parts of his work that require the use of the sledge -hammer, which the forging of shoes does. If the smith’s forge is so conve
breaking, nor to remain so long on as to niently situate as that the horses from get a seatinto the hoof. When the shoeing three or four farms caneasily attend it, is taken by the smith by contract, he is the smith may execute all the work in his apt to persuade the men to let the shoes own smithy ; but when a farm is too far hang on as long as they can ; but the off, a smithy must be erected for him on steward should see to the state of the the farm , where he does up all his work
In this case, it is not un ' feet, and order them to the smithy for the time. farmer horses whenever he conceives it necessary , supply I
usual for the
to
the iron,
am aware that shoeing often interferes coals, and tools, and the smith to contract with the time for field -work ; but, in the for the labour only. Under any species
busy season, the horses should be sent to of agreement, the farmer should insist on the smithy inthe evening, with a bundle the smith having a large assortment of
of grass ; and when the smith has shoes shoes ready forged, of sizes to suit the feet ready forged , which he should always of the different horses, that no unnecessary have, not much time need be lost.
delay be occasioned in the smithy when a pair require a new set of shoes. This 6326. There are two ways of having condition is the more necessary , that smith -work executed on a farm , one by smiths do not care how long they detain
the job, the other by contract. The mode horses, provided they can secure the assis
by day's-work is expensive: the jobs being tance of the plonghman at the sledge multitudinous in the course of a year, no hammer, and thereby save the expense of
efficient check can be placed against fraud. keeping a stout apprentice. The most satisfactory way is to have the business done by contract throughout the 6328. Joiner -work . - The wear of the year; and the simplest mode of contract wooden part of implements is not sensibly is to take, as a standard of expense, the affected by the nature of the soil. If a
upholding of the most active portions of wooden plough is put to unusually rongh the iron -work of a farm - namely, the work, such as trench-ploughing or tearing
plough -irons and horses' shoes. Taking up old rough natural lea, its parts may these as a criterion, it has been ascertained become strained, and even broken , and
from experience that £ 3 a -year for every pair of horses is a fair estimate of sunithwork on a farm . For this sum the smith binds himself to uphold plough -irons, horses' shoes, and all the malleable iron of
require renewal; but ploughs are now generally made of iron, and are placed wholly under the charge of the smith. Carts, however, suffer much when stones are driven for buildings and dykes, and
748
REALISATION .
tiles or stones for drains. In such a case, and immediately after the throng time in if old carts have not been purchased for the occasion, it is prudent in the contracting joiner to line the bodies of the carts with slabs of common fir or willow, to
spring. He is either paid day's wages, and provides himself with leather and every other material, or these are supplied him ; or be undertakes to support the
protect the proper lining from injury . I barness in working order by contract. I purchased a couple of old carts for 50s. have been accustomed to see saddlery a - piece, and also old seasoned horses to repairs paid in day's wages ; but when a
work in them , when there was much build- contract is made, it costs 30s. a -year for ing and draining to be executed on thefarm ; every pair of horses. The parts of the and they withstood the rough work for barness that require most repair are the
three years, when they were disposed of.
collars and saddles, where these are in
6329. The contract with the joiper is also £3 a -year for every pair of horses, for which sum he binds himself to mend every article broken in the work , such as
constant contact with the horse's skin , and the paddings of wbich should be restuffed every half-year, and the cloth renewed , if threadbare or in the least rotten, which it soon becomes, by the sweat of the
wheels, bodies, and shafts of carts, handles horses. The clippings of sheep, accumu of the minor implements, and the wood- lated during the season ,when washed and work connected with the other imple- properly dried, coming from the coarsest
ments, and also to paint them . For a new part of the wool, make good and cheap article, such as a cart, wheels, or bar- stuffing for collars and saddles, (3939. ) rows, he is paid its price; nor does be up hold the field -gates, nor any of the gates 6332. Care should be taken to mend about the steading. every broken part of the leather, in order to prevent rain in winter and drought in 6330. The accounts of the smith and summer penetrating into the interior of joiner should be settled half-yearly, at the the harness, and rotting or hardening terms of Whitsunday and Martinmas. I it. The best leather ought always to be
take this opportunity of impressing upon used, as being the mostthrifty in theend, you earnestly the great injustice done to a and it consists of well - tanned ox-hide,
tradesman, by disappointing him of the ( 1836.) Untanned sheepskin is employed settlement of his accounts when they be- to sew on the capes of the collars, (6171.) come due. He has made his arrangements Saddlersare not bound to uphold the iron
with those who supply him with materials, work of harness, such as plough -chains. and he cannot keep his promise with them as long as his accounts remain un-
6333. Opportunity of a stormy day, settled ; and, in consequence, his credit when the horses cannot work, should be suffers and his profits are diminished. You taken to clean the harness. Work in
ought to be made acquainted that, in general, tradesmen in the country will suffer considerable privation ere they will complain to their employers, in the fear of
summer and autumn not only dirties, but renders the leather of harness very dry ; and if allowed to be long in that state ,it cracks. The barness should first be washed
losing their custom . Credit is the source clean with a sponge and warm water, and of much mischief to small tradesmen in hung up for that day to dry. The next the country. It is no doubt a good thing day it should be rubbed over with a bit of
in the town, where a bank is ready to fannel steeped in sweet linseed -oil, parti assist the industrious tradesman for a short cularly on the outside ; for the side con time, but the business of agriculture ought stantly next the horse's skin may not on all occasions to be conducted in ready require oiling at all, though it will require
money. This is the understanding of every washing to remove incrusted perspiration person who attends a fair in the country, and hair. If blacking is nsed at all, and a market in the market -town.
it should not be put on until the day after the oil has been absorbed by the leather ; 6331. Saddlery . - The saddler usually but I see no use of blacking at all, save comes twice a-year and repairs the har- only to make the harness look better. The
ness-at the end of the work in autumn, blacking, when used, should be of the best
CARE OF IMPLEMENTS.
749
shoe -blacking, which costs 1s. per quart construction ; and are therefore less affected
bottle ; and if judiciously put on with a by changes of the weather, as well as those of soft brush in small quantity , and brushed less costly when renewed, thanwhich are
firmly witha hard one, it will go over a more complicated construction, largequantity of harness. The lamp-black used for a short time at certain seasons. commonly used for the purpose is filthy, 6336. The implement most frequently coming off and staining everything in the first rain ; and thecommon train -oil,usually in use is the plough, and, being the chief employed to soften the leather, is still one for operating upon the soil, is con more filthy, being not unfrequently daubed stantly exposed in the field.. When it on with a wisp of straw upon encrusted was commonly made of wood, exposure dirt, (676) to (686 ), and (1832) to (1840.) caused its decay much sooner than now, when it is wholly constructed of iron. Of
so much use is the plough, that, were one to be seen stowed away in the implement house, the conclusion would instantly be drawn that it was an old and worn -out one,
6334. It is the interest of the contractors to make efficient repairs in all those materials, and not to allow the wear of the implements to proceed so far as to cause repairs nearly as extensive as a re-
or so ill -constructed and useless that it
newal ; and, on the other band, when
had to be set aside. Fig. 552.
repairs are paid in day's wages, it is as 6337. Harrows being the implement same implement shall require frequent most commonly in use next to the plough, repairs. So well practised is this man- are much in the field, and exposed to the
much the tradesman's interest that the
ouvre in some places where jobs are weather; and, though made entirely of paid by day's wages, that ploughmen are wood, last a long time. Not being re bribed by the smith to bring their plough- quired in winter, they are then removed irons, and even their horses, in turns to from thefield, and placed in theimplement
the smithy every night, whether repairs house. The tines are usually laid and made are required or not ; and they are also sharp once a -year, and winter is the most bribed by thejoiner to break the helves proper time, just before the commencement of the minor implements whenever they of the oat-seed in spring . Harrows and come much into use. Such a species of ploughs are seldom painted after being roguery, it is hoped, is rare ; and I do not made ; but the harrows should be cleaned
speak of it from my own experience, and painted when set past. Fig. 553. but from that of others, although I am not 6338. The roller being only occasionally unwilling to believe it. The steward ought
to take a strict cognisance of all repairs, in use, in pulverising the soil, and rolling and detect every attempt at roguery.
the young grass and spring crops in spring,
and in pulverising the soil in summer fallow, it is replaced in its shed whenever
its services are no longer wanted. It should always be set past in a state of 6335. The farmer is often charged with complete repair, that disappointment may
ON THE CARE DUE TO THE IMPLEMENTS.
neglecting his implements, by unnecessary not ensue at the moment it is desired to
exposure to the weather; and the charge employ it ; and the wood- work should be is partially well-founded, although those painted occasionally. who make it do not understand the cause
Implements are
6339. The small ploughs, such as the
used both within and without doors; and those used without doors may be divided into such as are in use every season , and only occasionally. It is scarcely to be expected that implements very frequently
ribbing and double mould -board plough, being used chiefly in summer, are allowed to lie too long in the fields after their employment has ceased ; and, if removed beforewinter sets in, are placed in the im
of the apparent neglect.
used in operating uponthe soil,can beother- plement-house dirty and worn.
When no
wise than constantly exposed to the wea- longer required, they ought to be scraped ther. Fortunately, on the score of economy, clean of earth, and the irons laid, before the implements thus employed are ofsimple being put aside in the implement-shed .
750
REALISATION .
6340. There are few implements which neglected of grease ; and as to their bodies receive less regard, when not in use, than and wheels being washed,not a mop isused the whole class of scufflers and grubbers, or a drop of water ever thrown upon them which get leave to remain at the sides of —and they only receive ablution from a
head-ridges, and corners of turnip and shower of rain , or an occasional passage potato fields, perhaps the whole winter. across the ford of a river.
A hole in the
Many of them being made entirely of iron, bottom or sides gets leave to enlarge, anda do not suffer much, it is true, of deteriora- wheel- ring is allowed to become loose,till tion from weather; but, being composed some day it flies off altogether, to the risk of of many small parts -- of tines, coulters, breaking down the felloes. When such a wedges, and screw -bolts — these suffer mishap occurs from home, it tells strongly from exposure, and execute their work against the steward's attention to his
indifferently on becoming worn. Instead, duties, and places him in an awkward therefore, of being permitted to lie disre- position with his master. garded in the fields,their worn -parts should be immediately repaired, and themselves 6344. All the in -door implements, as the thrashing machine, should be cleaned placed in the implement- shed. out thoroughly every time a different kind 6341. All the classes of the more deli- of corn is to be thrashed, otherwise the
cately constructed machines, as the grass- samples of grain will be rendered impure. seed , drill -rowing, and turnip - sowing The gudgeonsare usually oiled every time machines, are seldom allowed to remain the mill is in use, ( 1746.) Wherever a
longer in the fieldthan when in use ; but, thrashing -machinerequires repair it should though removed from the field, they are receive it immediately, otherwise a serious too frequently allowed to remain unheeded and expensive fracture may ensue. in the neighbourhood of the steading for a considerable time. Some, having no better 6345. Holes in sacks and in barn and place to put them, take them tothe stack- chaff -sheets should be instantly repaired, yard and cover them with straw . Instead by patching and darning ; nor should a of this treatment, they should be imme- broken mesh in a riddle be overlooked , so
diately repaired, taken to pieces and as to render the trouble ofclean-winnowing cleaned, the journals greased, and the grain unavailing. separate partsstowed away in the imple ment -house.
6346. The fitting up of the implement house, for the accommodation of the finer
6342. The classof small manual impledung-hawks, hay-knives, scythes, if not placed in the implement- house whenever not in use, many of them will be lost.
and smaller implements, should be so done and give free access to every particular implement required at a time. Wheels, loose shafts, and angular pieces of iron,
ments, as turnip-hoes, spreading - graips, as to keep the floor nearly unencumbered,
When scythes and hoes get worn, they are best suspended against a wall from should be thrown into the old -iron store, iron bolts. Articles of length, such as and their belves furnished with new ones. sowing-boxes, are best supported against a wall upon brackets.
Small articles of
6343. Of all implements, carts, per- iron and of other materials, are best kept haps, receive the worst treatment. Though much in use in the fields, they are never left there, it is true, and are brought to the steading, but too seldom are put under
upon shelves. Hand - hoes, weed -hooks, and suchlike, are best placed in framed stands. Scythes are best suspended from the balks, and where are no balks from nails
cover, and are exposed to every species in the wall. The bodies of small ploughs, of weather - whether to the shrinking grubbers, scufflers, should be placed along
power of the sun's rays in summer, or the the foot of the walls, and kept in their posi rotting effects of the damps and rains tion with cords fastened to staples driven of winter ; and, considering that carts are into the walls. If every implement were
constructed of many parts, the wonder is put into its own place at the end of its they last so long with the treatment they season, confusion would be avoided, and receive.
Their axles are not unfrequently, many more articles find accommodation in
EXPERIMENTS .
751
the implement-house, than wheneverything to make an alteration in his machinery, or is put down anywhere, without regard to order. To maintain order in the arrangement of the implements in the implementhouse requires firmness on the part of the steward ; but the enforcement of order carries this conviction with it, that it is easier to put a thing in its own place than
in the pattern, fabric, or colour of his manufacture, he may go on producing the sameresultsfor an indefinite length oftime. The farmer, on the other hand, cannot pro duce any determinate result ;-he is more likely either to fall short of, or to over shoot, his mark ; and it is to the inter
anywhere else, inasmuch as the place mediate result, between the two extremes
allotted for it contains andretains it inthe which the farmer experiences, that theidea best state and position. The cart-shed V, of an average crop is attached . Unless a Plate II., forms a good store for all the correct idea of such an average has been
larger implements against the back wall; formed , the comparative yield of a farm and were cross-beams put upon the wall heads, they would contain many others. The smaller implements would be well stowed as directed above in the large outhouse g', which might also answer for other purposes.
cannot be estimated from the crop of any one year. Whatever, then , a farmer does
on his farm , may be regarded in the light of an experiment. 6349. Yet although his ordinary opera
tions are attended with uncertainty in their results,they are not regarded or con ON MAKING EXPERIMENTS ON THE FARM. ducted by him as experiments, their un certainty being anticipated . His true 6347. It now only remains for me to experiments, like those of other persons, notice a few subjects which personally are made to discover unknown effects, or to affect the farmer himself ; and the first of confirm dubious ones . Such experiments
these is, when he makes experiments in are constantly undertaken by farmers, not
the field, the plan he should follow in as a class, but individually ; and they are conducting them.
conducted on a small scale, quietly, inde pendently, unnoticed . The knowledge
6348. The farmer may be regarded as a gained by such experiments renders him great and constant practical experimenter; wiser, and their beneficial effects are
for although all his operations are sup- evidenced in his improved practice. posed to produce known results, yet the actual results obtained are often not as 6350. The present period, with farmers, anticipated . When he works his land for is pre-eminently one of experiment. It is wheat or for turnips, the operations being generally understood that experiments in directed to a special end, he is certain farming are being made over the whole of reaping a crop of wheat or of turnips, kingdom , and that they are now conducted and thus far he does not run the frequent by farmers as a class. The reason that ex
risk of an experimenter - a total failure; periments are more universally undertaken be very different from what he expected originated so much with farmers them
but the amount of crop obtained may now than heretofore is, that they have not
-it may be better, or it may be worse. selves, as at the suggestion of others . He may work his land in the most favour- Many substances have been recommended able circumstances, and after all reap but to their notice as valuable manures, (4974 ,) a scanty and ill-conditioned crop ; or his of whose properties they were entirely
operations may have been frequently in- unacquainted, and with whose ultimate terrupted by the weather, yet he may results they are still unsatisfied . be rewarded at the end of the season with a bountiful return . Uncertainty of result
6351. The farmers' position as regards
attends not one, but all his crops; and it their own operations, in as far as experi is not confined to the operations connected ments extend, is uncommon and even with one, but extends to those of every anomalous. Experiment has placed all season . In this view , no profession de- their operations in a state of transition ;
pends so much on future contingencies as for, let its results be what they may, farming. Unless the manufacturer wishes there is no doubt they will exert apower
752
REALISATION.
ful influence over the practice of the no elements of comparison exist between future, but whether it will be for the wheat and oats. The ground should also better or the worse remains to be seen. be ploughed in the same manner, which is
This state of uncertainty suggests to my a pointof greater importance than may be mind a doubt of the results being so favourable to farming as are expected by the suggesters of the experiments. I am sure thatthe experimentswill be conducted in sincerity, and the facts observed with care, though, perhaps, not at the time, and with the kind of observation they
imagined. I have known, in a field of lea, of strong soil, the ridges gathered up yielda better crop of oats than those cast together; and I have also seen gathered up ridges free from grub, whilst cast ones were affected by that complaint. Mr Stevenson, Redside, East Lothian, obtained
require ; for, the experiments having a difference in the crop, on different ridges, been suggested by others, with substances whose furrow -slices lay in opposite direc with the nature of which the experi- tions. No reason could be assigned for menters are unacquainted, the conclu- either of those differences; but they were
sions may not be legitimately drawn from
sufficiently observable to show , that one
the facts ; and conclusions arrived at by other persons will carry no conviction to the minds of the experimenters themselves, inasmuch as the connection between the premises and such conclusions may not be obvious to them . The true
mode of ploughing land,and one aspect of the furrow -slices, affect the crop in a differ ent manner from another mode of plough ing and another aspect. I have frequently heard it stated , that the crop on the fur rows lying to the W. or to the S. is better
way for the farmer to feel a personal than on those lying to the N. or the E. interest in experiments is to obtain Some difference of effect must be produced
some knowledge of chemistry ; and the bythe aspect of ridges,for it is clear that a S. aspect will bear a better crop than a what experiments to suggest, and what N. one, other things being equal. But
only way for the scientific man to know
conclusions to draw, is to acquire some even if the grain of the experiment and of
knowledge of agriculture.
The united the crop were the same, if the experiment
efforts of both parties, thus qualified, were made in a different field, at a diffe might then produce results which singly rent period of the rotation, on a different
may prove nugatory, (210.) As you will, kind of soil, in a different situation, and at no doubt, be desirous of trying experiments, a different season of the year, it is obvious and may perhaps be placed in the position that no common grounds of comparison
I have described of conducting experiments would exist between the two cases, and the suggested by others, it may assist you in particulars of the onewould be no guide for obtaining the results more satisfactorily directing those of the other. Every parti to be made acquainted with a few practical cular in the cases must therefore be alike. rules by which all field experiments should 6353. Another important object should be conducted . be to include as much land ineach experi 6352. The primary object in every ex- ment as will allow it to be properly
periment should be to make it comparative ploughed and treated. Land is usually in its circumstances as regards the field, soil, situation, time, and labour, with a crop raised in the ordinary way. Without making such an extensive comparison, no satisfactory conclusion will be arrived at, since
ploughed in 2 or 4 ridges. If gathered up, ( 749) cast, (755 ,) and ploughed
no common gronnd would exist by which to measure the gain or loss obtained by the experiment. The experiment should also be made on the same kind of crop as the one with which it is compared. For
should be appropriated to each experiment, otherwise the results will not be compara tide. And in all cases the ridgesshould
crown -and- furrow, 2 ridges will suffice ;
but if ploughed 2-out and 2-in, ( 760,) or even 4-out and 4-in, then 4 or 8 ridges
run in the same direction . Instead, there
fore, of previously fixing the quantity of
example : -If the field is in lea, which land to be apportioned to each experi it is intended to plough up for oats, then ment, the number of ridges should be ap
the proposed experiment should be made propriated to each experiment according to
on oats, not on wheat, upon the lea ; for the mode in which the land had pre
EXPERIMENTS .
viously been ploughed ; and the quantity of land occupied by those ridges depends upon their length, so that the quantity may be –, d, s, or 1 acre or more of land, as the case may be. Minuter fractions of
753
Were each experiment confined to the part of the field in which it happened to be made in a patch, the comparison wonld be worth less, for both soil and aspect might differ in opposite sides of a field and at opposite
land, such as of an acre along part of ends of a ridge. Every experiment should, one ridge, will not do, because we have therefore, be repeated at least twice in the seen that two ridges must always be same field ; and the more often the better. plougbed together, and their furrowslices 6357. This injunction naturally leads to must always be in opposite directions ;
and we have also seen that ordinary crops vary on furrow - slices, having different directions and aspects. As short ridges are never well ploughed, an eighth of an acre gives only 50 yards along two ridges,
another, which recommends the experi ments to be made with a very limited number of materials. Bettermake experi ments in double and treble repetitions with three or four materials across a whole field,
which is too short a distance tobe ploughed than one experiment only with twelve or as it ought to be ; while, of course, a fifteen materials. There evidently exists a
quarter of an acre would give 100 yards strong desire in experimenters to try a of ridges, which is short enough for good largenumber ofingredients, and theirmix ploughing — and if longer, so much the tures, at one and the same time in the same
better. I would say, then, that a quarter field, thereby greatly increasing the trouble of an acre, along at most two ridges, is attendant in observing the minutiæ of each the least space of ground that should be experiment,enhancing the risk of error, and confusing the elements of true comparison. taken to conduct any experiment upon. The reason for employing so many materials 6354. For these reasons, the experimen- at a time is evident and natural; it is, that tal portions ofground should occupy ridges, thelarger number of materials may exhibit
and not rectangular patches staked out their results in the shortest time — but those across themiddle of the field. Patches results are of no practical use if not pro may be differently affected by the weather duced as comparisons with ordinary prac - whether by rain, or sunshine, or wind tice ; and results cannot be compared when - from the common ridges which stretch one ingredient is used in one patch of a
from one side of a field to the other.
field , and the ordinary crop is spread
They may present different aspects at over it from side to side, and from end to different parts of the field. The soil may end. differ in them . But entire ridges are more likely to have similar soil, similar aspect, 6358. Another very important consider and certainly similar treatment, in the ation is the quantity of the ingredients same part of the field , than patches are used in the experiments. Some experi likely to receive. menters only apply as much per acre as amounts to a certain determinate cost ;
6355. In fixing the portions of a field for experiment, part of the ground shonld intervene in its ordinary state between each experiment ; for the comparison will not be so fair over the entire field if the
because, if the increased result derived from the ingredient does not amount to that sum, they are considered unprofitable. I consider such a principle based on error, because the market value of any ingredient
experiment be confined to a particular part is no test of its intrinsic worth ; for we
of it, though it should extend across its know that the guano which is sold for £10
whole length.
When experimental por- per ton is worth three times, in its results,
tions are thus separated from one another, to that sold for £ 7. If, therefore, 2 cwt.of the ground of demarcation between each one ingredient give the same result, at the experiment will be so distinctly marked out same cost, as1 cwt. of another ingredient,
that no risk of confounding the experi- it does not follow that the former is just as much worth as the latter ; for, bad it mental plots can arise. been lessened by chance to l } cwt., the 6356. The same experiment should be result might have been nugatory, and even repeated on different ridges of the field . VOL . II.
injurious; whereas. if the 1 cwt. had been 3 B
754
REALISATION .
increased to 14 cwt., the result might have pared with ordinary practice, no practical been double to that obtained from the 2 use will come out of the experiment.
cwt. The price of an article is, therefore, no rule to judge by of a manure, for that 6360. Manures of whatever kind should is dependent on the scarcity or abundance be applied to the soil by the same means.
of the article, or the difficulty attending Oneought not to be applied by hand, and its manufacture. What I consider the most satisfactory mode of applying all ingredients, whose action is unknown, is to find out the largest quantity of each which will produce such an excess of crop as to
another by machinery ; one in a dry state, another in a state of solution, if it be de sired to make the experiment compara tide. The states of the manures may be varied , but then they should be applied in
do sensible harm , and also the smallest the different states in the same circum
quantity of each that will produce a stances as in ordinary practice, to render sensible effect. Having these two ex- the comparison of any value. tremes, we have data by which to judge whether the price will permit you to pur-
6361. Every article applied to the soil
chase as much as will yield an increased in experiment should be weighed. There and profitable crop. I see no other way is no difficulty in weighing specific man
of really getting at the true value of any ures which are of little bulk, but ordinary unknown ingredient of manure.
manures cannot be weighed in a field without the assistance of a steelyard. I
6359. Whena comparative experiment the land should be manured when in the same state, on the same day, at the same period of the day, and on the crop or crops
have often experienced this inconvenience machines manufactured by Messrs Craig and Co., Liverpool, ( 3639,) and Messrs Smith and Co., Paisley, afford every faci
is to be tried with differentkinds of manure, in the field ; but now the convenient
atthe same age; for I have obtained very lity for weighing any article of manure, on different results from the same manure the spot of the experiment, with theprut applied in the forenoon and afternoon of the mostaccuracy and ease. The only ac same day on the potato, and on the turnip ticable way of ascertaining the quantity of
crop. It is the same with specific or a mix- farmyard manure to be applied , where no ture of specific manures. For example, it steelyard is in the field , is to fill the cart will not do to try different specific manures with an ordinary load, and let special upon grass which has been laid down after notice be taken how far the body of the potatoes, against that laid down after tur- cart is filled , in the loose state , before it is
nips ; nor upon a grain crop after turnips sent to the steading to be weighed on the
which had been eaten of with sheep, steelyard — for I take it for granted that a against the same kind of crop upon land large stationary steelyard is put up as a off altogether. Comparative experiments if all the subsequent loads are filledto the
from which the turnips had been carried necessary machine at every steading ; and could, no doubt, be made on these differ- same degree, by the same people, and with
ent conditions of grass, and of crop after the same sort of manure, the weight of employed ; but different specific manures terially. If notice of the bulk of the turnips, were the same specific manure one cart from another will not differ ma
will not give comparative results in dif- cart -load had not been taken before it was
ferent circumstances . In like manner, it sent off to the steading to be weighed, the will not do to apply different specific compressed state of the load , occasioned manures to different sorts of wheat, bar- by travelling onthe road to and from the ley, or oats , as each variety of grain may steading, will give a wrong idea of the
possess such an idiocrasy as to be very weight of the future loads. Every dif differently affectedin similar circumstances , ferent cart employed should have the and the results obtained from such circum- weight of its first load ascertained, as well stances would not be comparative. Expe- as its own weight. Such apparently riments may be made on different varie- trifling matters are too apt to be over ties of crop in different circumstances, looked, and yet it is they alone which without reference to comparison at all ; but give the power of conviction to any unless the results of experiments are com- experiment.
----
EXPERIMENTS .
6362. On collecting the produce of experiments, every article should be carefully weighed or measured. Corn should be stooked in the same manner, allowed to
755
that is applied in small quantities. The surprising effects of small quantities of bone-dust and guano have tended much of late years to remove that prejudice from
remain in the field the same time, and, if their minds.
But, after all, they may
stacked, should be put in the same size of commit such inadvertent errors, at the
stack, built in the samemanner. I attach very consummation of the experiment, as more importance to this last remark on to render its results entirely nugatory ;
stacking than it may seem to possess, be- and such errors are the more likely to cause I knew a stacker, the corn from the be committed if any operation has to be
stacks built by whomalways came out in performed in a different manner from raw condition ; and the reason was that what they have been accustomed to do
he did not heart his stacks sufficiently, them. Many experimenters have, doubt ( 4623.) I observe that experimenters less, experienced great disappointment generally thrash and weigh the crop ob- from even one inadvertent mistake com
tained by experiment immediately afterit mitted by the thoughtlessness or stupidity has been collected, instead of stacking it. of a moment. Delay the application of a The grain thus new thrashed fromthe ground is not in the same state as it usually is from the farm , where it is invariably stacked for a timebefore being brought to
single specific manure, or the sowing of a variety of seed, till the next morning, when it ought to have been done the even ing beforenix a single sheaf from the
the market : it will be in a raw condition, produce of one portion of ground with that and neither it nor the straw will indicate of another - weigh a single article wrong, their true weights. The crop should whether of manure or of crop - set down therefore be stacked for a time, to equalise
the number of one article for that of
both the grain andstraw in colour, weight, another, and the entire experiment is ren and condition. On taking up experi- dered utterly worthless as to the propor mental turnips, the whole break should be tions and comparison of results, and even taken up and weighed at the same time, as the absolute results cannot be depended on.
considerable risk of error will be incurred by taking up and weighing only a portion, and thenmeasuring the entire ground at once. In removing the experimental crop,
Incessant superintendence, therefore, on the part of the farmer himself, is the only chance of preventing the occurrence of one serious mistake.
of whatever kind, an equal extent of the
ordinary crop should be removed at the 6364. Not to encumber the subject of same time, and not a fractional part experiment with a multiplicity of objects, merely ; and all calculations should be I have purposely only referred to experi madefrom the entire extent of each por- ments to be made in the field, to the ex
tion of ground subjected to experiment, clusion of those which ought also to be and not from a fraction. Attention to all made with live stock. With these the such particulars involves much time and difficulty is at least equally great, if not
trouble, and creates no little anxiety of greater,which I believe it to be, than with mind ; but the time must be spent, the
plants ; for although all animals of the
attention bestowed , and the anxiety en- same kind and of the same age seem as dured, if we wish to arrive at the truth . much alike as are the same classes of soils, and the same food seems as much alike as
6363. In conducting experiments, the the same sorts of special manures, yet the farmer has practical difficulties to contend constitution of one animal is more varied with. He cannot manipulate himself - he from that of another than the functions must depend for assistance on his people ; of one plant are from those of another. It and though he must regard them as assis- is therefore almost impossible to ascertain
tants, they are so entirely ignorant of the the comparative value of different kinds of nature ofthe ingredients employed as to food, wben given to differentanimals of even require not only to be taught how to con- the same age and condition. And even
duct the experiment, but to appreciate its the same food administered to the same means : they being disposed to regard animal will produce different results at with contempt any substances as a manure different times, in consequence of the
756
REALISATION .
different state of the health of the animal ; pleaded for the experimenter being so highly qualified as the suggester, it is clear that he who and at a different season of the year. is to conduct the experiment ought to know as 6365. Noting the progress ofexperiments in the field is attended with immense difficulties. The
much about it as he who only suggested it. When the suggester is an eminent chemist, and the experimenter a practical farmer, the latter is
soil is so varied in its component parts, the best not expected to be so highly qualified in chemistry manures are so varied in their composition , the constituents of plants are so numerous and
as the former. But what I would desire to see is, a series of experiments conducted in the fields
various, and the vital force exerts so inexplicable an influence upon plants in relation to the soil, manure,and season, that to anticipateany result simply by a process of ratiocination is impossible. No mind can possibly trace the progress of action which is constantly going on in the soil and in
by a thoroughly practical farmer who is also an eminent chemist. The results obtained under the observations and conclusions of such a man could not fail to carry conviction to the mind of every farmer and of every chemist. And, failing such a union of qualifications in the same per
the air, in reference to the growth and maturity of a single plant. When we, therefore, use a
son, the next best arrangement to afford satis
large number of means to produce a desired end,
faction would be to see experiments conducted in the fields by really intelligent practical
we only multiply the elements from which we
farmer, and superintended by an eminent chemist.
have to draw deductions, and thereby the more increase the difficulty.
6369. In regard to the use of special manures, it is necessary " to make use of only such sub
6366. We may obtain some definite notions of stances as are more or less directly soluble in such a difficulty by considering the qualifications
water, ” observes Professor Johnston.
which a suggester of field experiments should
when mixtures of substances are employed, they
“ And
possess, and they will be found to be neither few ought to be in such a state of chemical combina nor unimportant. He should know the substances tion as not to act upon and render one another of which the plant to be experimented on con-
insoluble . Where these two rules are neglected,
sists— the functions performed in plants by their the immediate action of the single substance, or organic and inorganic or mineral constituents -
of the mixture employed , is not to be depended
the functions of the several parts of plants — the
upon, and may not become sensible within a given
habits and analogies of the species of plants on
time.
which experiments are to be made, and of their several varieties -- of what the soil consists — the
effect of an application which is not in a condi tion to act immediately and to expend its action
It is scarcely possible to judge of the
differences of soils arising from their geological within a known period ; to compare it with the origin - the effects of local geologyand physical action of other substances; or to say how far it geography - the general habits, principal varie- may be a profitable one, and ought to be re ties, constitutional tendencies, and especially the structure of the digestive organs of the domes-
ticated animals on which the experiments in feeding are to be made -- the exact state of our
peated or discontinued . Patents have been taken out in this country for patent manures, the peculiarity of which was, that such of their con stituents as were readily soluble in water should
theoretical knowledge upon points akin to those not be rendered very sparingly soluble, and thus on which the proposed experimentsare intended be liberated slowlyin the soil,and slowly worked to throw light — the clear and definite end, prac-
up by the plant. But the principle was a bad
tical or theoretical, for which the experiments one, and hence the want of success which has are recommended to be undertaken . He must
know what compounds of each of the substances which are present in the soil and in the plant
attended both the manufacture, and the numerous trials from time to time made with those manures.”
are soluble-to what extent they are soluble
and in what way they affect the solubility of each
6370. Another consideration in the employ.
other when mixed together in the soil, or in an artificial manure . Then he will know how to
ment of saline ingredients, in experiment, as manures, is that the different substances should
feed his plants ; when, and with what they have be used in quantities corresponding to their been fed ; and how to judge of an experimental chemical equivalents. The following is a list of trial-how far it has succeeded, or what may be equivalents amongst the salts mentioned : the cause of its failure .
6367. “ In the maker of the experiments , all
this knowledge is not required. He cannot possess too much of it - for none of it would be superfluous or without its use ; but scrupulous fidelity and accuracy in all his proceedings, a careful observation and detail of appearances,
and a conscientious record of results, are the most essential qualifications on his part. ”
Carbonate of potash (pearl-ash ,) Carbonate of soda ( soda -ash ,) Nitrate of potash, Nitrate of soda, Sal-ammoniac, Sulphate of potash,
Sulphate of soda (dry,) Sulphate of ammonia,
Sulphate ofmagnesia ( crystallised ,) Sulphate of lime (gypsum ,)
69.2 53.4
101.3 85.4 53.5
87.2 71.6 80.3 123.8 86.6
For example , if an experiment is to be made 6368. Notwithstanding the non -necessity here
with the nitrate of potash against the nitrate of
* Johnston's Experimental Agriculture, p. 6 to 37.
CORN MARKETS.
757
soda, 101.3 lb. of the nitrate of soda ought not granaries there. When the market-town to be taken, because 101.3 lb. of the nitrate of is situate in the interior of the country, potash had been taken, but only 85.4 lb. of the the merchants and brewers attend the hitrate of soda — which isitsequivalent quantitymarket therefrom the nearest sea-port. to the preceding number of the other salt.
In a corn district, from which most of the 6371. As a further incentive to those desirous produce is carried away to large towns or
of conducting experiments , itmay prore useful manufacturing districts, it ismost con to give a few general observations on the action
of manures which have now been established venient for the shipment of grain that by pretty extensive experience. Farmyarddung corn-merchants reside in sea-port towns. is the paramount means of fertility onthe farm , The purchase of grain is chiefly carried
it is the farmer's sheet-anchor, and every other manure must be regarded only as auxiliaries. It is indispensable in a dry season, and superior to all manures then.
6372. Saline manures, as top-dressings, are
better for the cereal crops than the phosphates.
6373. Phosphates are better for turnips, and yield more grain, than saline manures.
on inwinter, when the farmer has his crop
to dispose of. Brewers and distillers chiefly buy barley for malting, millers and bakers chiefly wheat and oats, and merchants
every species of grain. The market for
barley commences the season, wheat and oats being then disposed of according to the demand for them ; but after March the demand for wheat and oats increases,
6374. Nitrogenous substances have a good to supply the consumption until next harvest, and that for barley decreases.
effect on the weight of grain .
6375. Sulphated bones are not a good top
6383. Corn -markets are of two kinds, the soil than as a top-dressing to any crop. stock and sample markets. A sample dressing for oats ; they are better ploughed into
They induce a large yield of the grain of wheat. market is that in which farmers bring a 6376. Guano is invaluable to turnips, but is handful of each kind of grain they wish to
not agood top-dressing to any of thecerealcrops. dispose of, exbibit them to the purchasers, It is assisted by common salt in dry weather, and deliver the grain at an appointed time and place.
and by sulphate of soda in damp.
6377. Common salt acts best in dry weather and on dry soils.
6384. A stock -market is where farmers
bring in the grain they have to sell in 6378. Sulphate of soda acts best in damp bags upon their carts, exhibit a bagful of weather, and is quite inert in dry weather in dry it, sell the quantity brought, deliver it to soils. the purchasers immediately after the sale 6379. Nitrate of potash and muriate of am is effected , and then receive the money for it. A merchant who sells grain in
monia are dear special manures.
6380. Nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia
a stock -market does so by sample, and
never thinks of bringing his stock, which
are cheapspecial manures, and good top-dress- perhaps consists of granaries-full, to the ings for the cereal crops. market-place ; and therefore nothing 6381. Two cwt. of the same saline manures
exists to prevent farmers also selling their
applied early in the season , as a top -dressing, grain bysample in a stock -market. will produce as good an effect as 3 cwt. will do at a later part of the season . Special manures
are particularised from (4904) to (5021.)
ON CORN MARKETS .
6382. The surplus grain of the farm is disposed of to corn -merchants, millers, bakers, distillers, and brewers. These attend on the market-day in the markettown . If the market-town is a sea - port,
6385. When sold by sample, the grain is delivered by the farmer in his own carts in the course of the few days allowed himfor the purpose, either at the granaries of the merchant, brewer, or distiller, or
at the mill of the miller. Water -proof tarpaulins are required to cover the sacks in the carts when grain is delivered in a rainy day ; but it is better to defer the delivery until fair weather, if not other wise inconvenient to any party.
most of the corn -merchants and brewers
reside in it permanently, and have their
6386. When sold in bags, corn is
758
REALISATION .
delivered immediately after the sale at the chaser, the next week, or whenever it may granaries of the merchants on the spot, or be. Railway companies are very accom at the brewery, or distillery, or mill in modating with sacks to farmers who the country, according to agreement. deposit their grain in the companies' granaries from one market-day to another,
6387. The payment for grain sold by should they not dispose of the grain at the sample is only made on the market-day first succeeding one. Or, to avoid these after the delivery has been effected ; but manifold and obvious inconveniences, he
the payment of that sold in bags is due, must take the price offered for his grain. andisgenerally received, on the day it is Another disadvantage is, that his horses sold , at an appointed time and place, after must stand in the market- place, exposed for hours to cold blasts, after perhapsbeing its delivery at the granaries. heated on their way to the market-town. 6388. Of the two modes of selling grain, The exhibition of corn in bags gives power, each has its advantages and disadvantages however, to the purchaser to inspect the to the farmer. It is very concenientto cleaning of every sack before purchasing take a quantity of grain to market, sell it, and it also gives him the command of a
it, deliver it on the spot, and receive the quantity of corn immediately after its cash for it immediately afterwards. It purchase, to make up a cargo. enables the farmer to transact his market business at once , and saves him the trouble
of attending next market-day on purpose to receive the cash only, when he may have no other occasion to be there. It obliges, in a great degree, merchants to
6390. The advantages of a hand sample
market to the farmer are, that he is independent of the rate of price of any
market-day ; for if it does not satisfy him , he can return the sample into his
provide granaries for the reception of grain pocket. His men and horses do not lose
in the interior market-towns, as farmers a day's work, and are not exposed to the may refuse to deal with a purchaser who weather in waiting in the market- place. wishes the grain delivered at a distance He need not clean bis grain before sell from the market-town, the fatigue to their ing it ; and should he be induced to sell horses being thereby probably much in- more than that thrashed, he has time to
creased. This mode of selling grain has thrash more and clean the whole quantity also the advantage of securing the farmer at once, thereby making the stock of
against bad debts, because, if he chooses, uniform quality , and cleaning it agree The he may deliver the grain and receive the ably to the purchaser's taste. money for it simultaneously .
advantage of a sample -market to the merchant is, that, should the sample please
6389. This mode is, however, attended him, he can purchase as large a quantity with this great disadvantage, that, in case of grain as the farmer pleases to dispose
the farmer does not sell his grain on the of, and thus make up a cargo of uniform day he has brought it to themarket- place, quality. he is either obliged to take it home again, or put it into a granary until the next
6391. The disadvantages to the farmer
market-day, when, of course, a granary, are inability to receive cash for the grain after
rent is incurred, and the additional he sells until the next market-day
expense also of either hiring carts to its delivery, and the risk he thereby runs deliver the grain next market-day, from of incurring bad debts with the merchant,
whom the stock is delivered some days the temporary granary to that of his to before he pays for it ; and the disadvantage
purchaser, or of sending a cart of his own to do it ; and if he keeps the grain so accommodated in his own sacks, he may be deprived of the use of them at a time
to the purchaser - which, by the way, is most strongly felt by the brewer, dis tiller, and miller - is, that he cannot obtain
when he may have a large quantity of possession of the grain immediately after corn in the barn to measure up. If he does the purchase. not use his own sacks in this way, he must be accommodated with sacks from some
6392. Of the two species of corn
party when he delivers the grain to the pur- markets, I prefer selling by the sample, in
--
759
CORN MARKETS .
a market which is attended by respectable endanger the safety of the persons who purchasers, but chiefly because I dislike carry loads upon them . to see horses exposed for hours with a
load in the market- place, and most pro-
6395. For the carriage of corn from
bably in bad weather — for none other can the granary to the ship, I have seen a con
be looked for in winter. Such an exposure cannot be for their advantage, and, in my estimation , the peculiar advantages of a stock -market are insufficient to counter-
venient form of bag used. It consists of a short sack capable of holding rather more than two bushels, drawn together at the bottom , where a short piece of thick
balance the risk thusincurredin thesafety pliable rope is attached ; the mouth being of the horses. The inconvenience is per- formed like any other sack. The person haps felt by some farmers, and a modi- who is to carry the bag folds the mouth fication of the plan is followed, by deliver- together when filled , so as to cover the ing in the course of a few days a larger corn, andat the same time leaves a portion quantity of grain than was presented in of the sack loose, by which he holds firmly the market-place. No modification can
with his right hand.
take place in the sale of grain by sample, because it is simply the presentation of the hand - sample in the market, the sale of the bulk therewith, and its consequent delivery at the specified time. It would be interesting to inquire into the particular diseases
given to lift the sack when filled with the sack -lifter, he turns himself quickly round with his back to it, and brings the loose part by which he holds on over his head ; and, holding on there with both hands, he literally runs with the load to the
On assistance being
to which horses are mostliable, that are ship’s hold, where, on a man seizing the exposed in a market-place for hours short rope at the bottom ofthe sack , and together, and to ascertain if they are the retaining hold of it, the carrier bitches the class of diseases mostcommonly contracted sack off hisback, and the grain is poured by exposure to weather. into the hold. No other form of bag is 80 convenient for this purpose. 6393. Every species of grain is directed by the Weights and Measures Act ( 5th
6396. A sack -lifter is a convenient
Geo. IV. c. 74, sec. 15,) to be sold by implement, either in the granary of the the imperial bushel, fig. 168, containing corn -merchant or the corn - barn of the 2218.192 cubic inches ; and there is no
farmer. Fig. 589 is a view in perspective
such recognised quantity as quarter, boll,
Fig. 589.
coom , or load. The practice has settled into measuring grain into half- quarter sacks of 4 bushels, which forms a con venient size of load ; but the old designa tion of bolls, and cooms, and loads are
still retained where they were in use
THE SACK - LIFTER .
formerly ; and the confusion arising from the size of those different measures is as
of one which is very similar to a common
great as prior to the passing of the act, owing entirely to the defect in it, not making the size of the quarter and its fractional parts as imperative as that of
hand -barrow . It simply consists of two pieces of ash, 3 feet 9 inches long, termi nating at both ends in the form of handles, and united together, at 15 inches apart, by
the bushel .
means of three cross bars of wood tenoned
and mortised into the handles. A boarding
6394. Granariesin towns are frequently is placed over the bars for the sacks to situate at inconvenient places for access to stand upon . On being filled the sack is
carts, as in narrow streets and lanes ; and lifted upon the board, or it is filled while some are so inconveniently high, that four on the board, assistants taking hold of the
or five flights of steps have to be sur- handles, lift it up simultaneonsly, while mounted ere the floor be attained which the carrier turns his back to the load to is to contain the corn ; and such stairs are receive it
upon it.
not unfrequently too narrow and too steep , their steps being so worn in front as to
6397. For long in Scotland, grain used
REALISATION .
760
to be sold by measure alone, and for long which has a determinate value put upon it by it used to be sold in Ireland by weight the tacit consent of the state ; if in goods,it will alone ; andboth ways are objectionable. be donation . The pricemust be certain, as well When the measure alone is used, a tempta- as the subject sold . It is generally fixed by the
tion is beld out to measure the coru before parties themselves at striking the bargain.
it is properly cleaned,especially if it has where a purchaser ofcats, payable on delivery,
beeu sold. When sold alone byweight, temporisedwith the seller, and delayed to take a temptation also existsto retain light price of oats rose, it was held that hewas not corn amongst the good, with the view, in entitled todemand delivery, (Craig, May 29, both cases,ofdisposing of the inferior grain 1823, 2 S. D. 347.) . In sales of grain, at as good a price as the fine. But a check the price is sometimes fixed by the Sheriff's fiars.
has of late years been established against In thecase ofLeslie,( Jan.27, 1714, M.1419 and 1678 ,) where there was an agreement to both species of frauds, by the introduction purchase grain without a price specified , it was of the element of weight along with the held inter alia, that fiars' prices may be pre
of weight the feel, knowand Merchants measure. grain by its appearance and therefore, by trying the weight of a4-
sale between as the sumedthat andlord andtenant; and merchants are lpresumed to contract according to the current pricesAsoftothe where the bargain is made. thecountry risk of
bushel sack , they easily ascertain whether the grain is in as clean a state throughout the bag as at its mouth . But the adoption of the weight has given rise to a species of deceitful dealing. The purcbaser offers a certain price for every
sale after the subject is sold , theloss is to the purchaser, as inthe case of Campbell, (July15, 1748, M. 10,071 ,) and in the case of Tarling, ( 1827, 6 Barn. and Cres. 361.) But it was held in the case of Milne, ( Feb. 1 , 1809, F. C.,) that
where the seller takes upon himself the delivery of goods at a certain place, it throws the risk of
specified number of pounds weight of the goods,while in transitu to that place, on the seller. Where the seller has delayed de the grain, without direct reference to subject to the purchaser when the contents of the bushel ; and some livering hetheis liable for the risk ; but it is not farmers are induced to sell on this plan, in bought, considered delay, when the purchaser declines
the vain hope of being able to boast that paying the price. Also, when a landed proprie
they have sold their grain at such a price tor sellsacertain quantity of grain of a particu -wishing it to be believed that the price lar crop toamerchant ,without specifying any parcel, and the whole crop is destroy applies to the true busbel, when in fact particular ed, the loss is to the seller ; but after such quan it is received for so many specified pounds weight. The fair and common practice is, to ask a price for the grain per quarter, stating its weight by the bushel; and, of course, the heavier the grain , and better the quality, the purchaser will give the higher price for it per quarter. 6398. The usual denominations of corn -measures, based upon the imperial bushel, the standard of capacity, are these : 4 Gills 2 pints 4 quarts 2 gallons 4 pecks 8 bushels
1 pint , 1 quart, 1 gallon , - 1 peck , - 1 bushel,
1 quarter , 5 quarters - I load,
contain
343 cubic inches. 697 277 } 5541 22189 101 514
feet
tity of grain is measured , or otherwise prepared
for delivery, the risk willbetransferred tohim ; so found in the case of Hind, (7 East. 558,) Erskine, iii. 3, 7.” 6400. Hypotheo . - In regard to the landlord's
hypothec over corn, restitution was given in the case of Scot, ( June 11 , 1673, M. 6223,) of corns bought from a tenant while under hypothec. Though, when bought in public market, where they had been brought in bulk , the purchaser was not liable in restitution ; if bought only in samples, the landlord is entitled to restitution . This was held in the case of Smart, Dec. 10, 1793, and of the Earl of Dalhousie, Feb. 27, 1828, 6 S. D., 626. * So that a stock -market is safest for a merchant to buy in, and a sample-market is safest for the hypothec of a landlord .
6399. Sale of Corn . - In regard to the sale of corn , these settled points in law may
6401. Of late a movement has been made against thecontinuance of hypothec. It is a natural
prove useful for you to know : “ In sale by
enough desire on the part of corn -merchants
sample, the buyer may decline the bargain ,
who purchase from sample to remove the risk
if the bulk does not correspond with the
they incur on purchasing grain from a tenant
sample, ( Parker, 4 Barn. and Ald. 387.) The who may be indebted to his landlord arrears of delivery of the sample does not transfer the rent ; but how any tenant can join in such a property of the bulk , (Hill, Jan. 20, 1785, M, movement seems to me surprising, for, indepen 4200.) The price must consist in current money , dent of the connection of the hypothec with the either of Great Britain or some foreign country, sale of grain, its power enables the landlord to
* Farmer's Lawyer, p. 136-8 and 47.
1
FARM BOOK - KEEPING .
761
let his farm in safety, with back -rent; and the The allegation is true in regard to farmers practical benefit of a back -rent to an incoming as a class, for very few keep a regular set tenant is a sum equal to as much capital on the entry to his farm . Were there no hy of books ; but many farmers know the pothec, the incoming tenant would have to pay
state of their affairs very well, although
half his rent attheend of the firshall- they do not keep a regular set of books; year after entry,as the tenants of England and many now keep books that did not
do ; but the landlord,beingsafeof his rent only a few years since.
under the hypothec, does not exact the first half-year's rent from the tenant until he has first
reaped the crop which enables him to pay it — and delay, in such a case, is equivalent to the tenant
6405. But, at best, farmers cannot keep
a perfect set of books : it is quite impos
of the possession of capital at the entry to his sible for them to put a value onevery arti farm , to the extent of one year's rent. cle they raise on the farm ; and if it were
6402. In regard to the origin and nature of possible — as some writers have attempted the right of hypothec, Mr Hunter says that,
to prove, and failed — the labour would be
" the conclusion from the combined evidenceis, thrown away. For consider the manner that, about the end of the sixteenth century, the
in which a farm is conducted, and the
landlord's remedy was by distress, very like the English remedy,and that hypothec, as it now exists, had not then been recognised. Nor at
nature of many of the articles raised upon
the beginning ofthe seventeenth century does In the decisions. term dated hypothec'appea r interm used is the 2thecase in 1611 , the prevelege' of the landlord for the recovery of his farms. In 1623, the term "hypothecated' is
rations performed on the farm, of the pecuniary value of wbich no just estimate can be made. He cannot estimate, for example,the value of every stone of straw
it. There are articles produced, and ope
used for the first time. The doctrine gained per- given daily to his live-stock as fodder or manency ; and thenceforward distress ceased , and
hypothec prevailed ."
as litter ; he could not even weigh every stone so bestowed ; and the diff ulty of
6403. “ Theright of hypothec, as known in making a correct estimate is increased, Scotland, is not to be deemed a right ofproperty; when he is not allowed to sell straw . He but a right arising from a tacit contract, neces
cannot estimate the accumulated amount
of labour, both manual and mechanical, tract of lease. It gives the landlord a right to bestowed on every acre of land, before it retain and recover creditors andor purchasers the produce, raw orfrom manufactured, the other yields its produce, when he does notdaily effects over which it extends, conformably to the hire the labour ofthe people, nor purchase nature of the subject let. And in competition it the food of the animals which perform it. gives a preference to the lessor over the lessee's He cannot ascertain the value of every sarily inherent in , and inseparable from , the con-
creditors, with a few exceptions. From being cubic yard of manure produced on the exclusive of possession by the lessor,or of the farm , whether in composts or in the court
specific appropriation by him of every particular yards, when he is not allowed to dispose subject, and the property liable to its operation of it at market ; nor can he make a com
remains to the lessee ; butitis capable of being parative estimate of it wben first taken to converted, by the legal process of sequestration , the dunghill, or when applied to the soil sold forpayment ofthe lessor's claim . it is after being fermented . He cannot put a distinguishable from a right of lien or retention, value on every ton of turnips and other
which vests the lessor with power ofkeeping green fodder consumed by stock, nor can a put a just estimate on the value of pasture. of obtaining , or be them shall recovering but not of if lost by sale the possession preference,
possession of the effects until the rent be paid, he weigh every ton so used. He cannot
in diligence. The right is purely legal,and can The exact weight of all these articles could be ascertained by the steelyard ; but of not becreated by convention .”* what use would the estimate of their
weight and money - value be, since they ON FARM BOOK -KEEPING .
are not disposed of at market and turned
into cash , except in the neighbourhood of 6404. It has long been alleged that large towns ? In attempting to ascertain farmers only know the state of their affairs the weight of every article used on the
in an imperfect manner, because they do farm , in conjunction with its ordinary not adopt any system of book-keeping. labour, without the employment of addi * Hunter's Law of Landlord and Tenant, p. 673-5.
762
REALISATION .
tional hands, he would soon findthe most large number of people, and he has well important operations of the field half paid clerks in his service, who keep his neglected ; and were he to employ addi- books for him in the most approved order.
tional bands for the special purpose, be The transactions of the farmer are compa would most likely incur greater expense rativdy few over the whole year, and the in estimating those weights than the largest number are confined to a particular
knowledge of the estimate would be season ; so that the clerk engaged to keep worth. The weight of the straw given his books would not only be half-idle, but to the stock in litter might be ascertained; his wages might consume a large proportion
but how could the exact quantity of the of the profits of the farm , and in some litter be ascertained, when a part of the years sweep it away entirely. But the fodderpasses awaydaily amongst the litter ? most expert book -keeper could not enter Andeven with the fodder, how is its money- imaginary values of articles which are value to be estimated ? for it will not do to
never turned into cash any more than the
debit the stock with the market value of farmer himself. the fodder, since it has not been driven to market, nor any profit received for it,
6407. The common-sense view of the
which the market-value of every article whole matter is this : Let the farmer keep necessarily includes. Attempts at the only such books as he really requires to estimation of such items may very well acquaint him with the state of his affairs.
amuse the leisure hours of the amateur If he will attend to me fora short time, I or the temporary investigator,but they do will show him a set of books all filled up not snit the matter-of-fact business of the with the realtransactions which have taken
farmer. It is enough,and it is necessary for him to keep accounts of every article for which he receives cash on delivery from the farm , and every article for which bepays
place upon a farm . Hemaysafelyadopt it as a pattern, and it will not entail upon bim much labour thronghout the course of a whole year. The theory of the system
cash when he receives it on the farm . These is simply this : Let the farmer take an two great divisions of cash transactions inventory and valuation of his live -stock ,
are all that the farmer need trouble him- implements, crops, cost of labour, and self with in putting down into books, debts due toand by him at the beginning for these include every transaction that of everyagricultural year, and he will see involves the payment and receipt of whether his capital has increased or dimin ished in the course of the year - it will in crease by a larger produce and a higher
money .
6405. The farmer's attention is fre- price, and diminish by a scanty produce
of mer- and a fall in price ; let him keep a cash
quently directed to the conduct cantile men who keep the most correct book, which will inform him whether he set of books, as an example to bimself, has received or paid away more cash in but the admonition is given by men the course of the year; and let him have who do not understand the occupation an account with the farm , by which he of the farmer.
The mercantile man
will learn, whether the value of the
can estimate the exact market valueof produce he has been able to dispose every article he buys and sells, and, by of is greater or less than the cost of con striking a balance between these, he may ducting the farm . It is clear that a know
estimate his condition at any time ; but, ledge of all these particulars will acquaint as I have shown, the farmer cannot do 80 with a very large proportion of the crops he raises. The mercantile man has numerous transactions with possibly a
the farmer with the real state of his affairs at the beginning of every agricultural year. The following are the forms of the respective books referred to.
FARM BOOK -KEEPING . 6408.
763
INVENTORY AND VALUATION OF STOCK ON Ist OCTOBER 1849.
The following is a List of the Effects in my possession , and of Debts due to and by me on this the 1st October 1849 : I.
CASH
L. 40 300
On hand ,
In British Linen Co.'sBank,
L.
S. D. 0 0 0 0
340 300
II. IMPLEMENTS ,
8. D.
0 0
0 0
III . HORSES 350 00
14 horses , at L.25 , IV. CATTLE 20 0 72 0 40 0 15 0 127 10
1 short -horn bull,
6 short -born cows, at L.12 , 10 steer calves , at L.4,
5 heifer calves, at L.3,
15 yearlings, at L.8, 10s,
0 0
0 0 0
274 10 0
V. SHEEP 200 Leicester breeding ewes , at 325.,
320 00 96 0 0 304 10 0 480 0 0 9 0 0
60 Leicester draft ewes, at 32s.,
290 Leicester hoggs, at 218., 320 Half-bred wethers, at 30s.,
3 Leicester tups , at 60s.,
1209 10
0
VI. PIGS 9
3 sows, at 60s. , 1 boar , at 60s .,
3 22
20 pigs, at 22s,
0 0 0
0 0 0
34 00 VII . CORN
11 stacks wheat, 20 qrs, each , 220 qrs. at 36s., 10 do. barley, 30 each , 300 at 20s., 17 do . oats , 40 each , 680 at 16s.,
396 300 544
0 0 00 0 0 1240
00
VIII, SEED AND LABOUR
350 0 0
Upon 100 acres of turnips at 70s. per acre, IX. DEBTS DUE ME AS PER LEDGER 30 0 0 45 00
James Marrowman , Thomas Butters ,
75
X. I owe to MY LANDLORD Half-year's rent due Martinmas 1849, Whitsunday 1850, do . Do.
500 500
0 0
0 0
CAPITAL IN 1849,
6409. 1849 . Oct. 2
Fol . or Ledger .
Tofarm for 60 qrs. of wheat, sold Isaac' Marshall & Son, at 378. 4d . To James Marrowman, received from him balance due for wheat, >
ỉ
To Thomas Butters , received from him balance due for cattle , To farm , received from Isaac Marshall & Son , for 60 yrs. of
17
To B. L. Co.'s bank, withdrew from them ,
9
oats at 16s.,
.
1000
0
0
L.3173
0
0
Dr.
CASH .
To cash on hand at this date ,
Cr.
L.
S.
D.
40
0
0
Nov.
48 15
20 92
22
71
8 10
6 10 0 64
0
0
59 14
3
6
By farm , paid Phænix Fire ofice, one year's premium of insurance, By farm , paid schoolmaster's stipend for year ending this date,
0
0
7 17 1 17
9 6
By farm , paid labour account for half-year ending this day as
9
134 11 68
per abstract,
Dec. 3 99
D.
210 0 0
By farm , paid John Irons, for castings for mill, To farm , received for 35 % qrs. wheat, sold to James Cuthbert, at 34s.,
8.
0 0 00
By farm , paid harvest expenses as per labour account, By farm , paid for 5 sacks of oatmeal, at 26s., To farm , received from John Cloy, for 80 grs. of oats sold him , at 16s.
ï
L.
112 00 30 0 0 45 00
By farm , paidfor30' steers bought at Yarm , at L.7, 24
00
4173 00
25 30
' 1850 Jan. 1
To farm , received from shepherd for fallen mutton, To farm , for80 grs.oats, sold Thomas Dewar, at 15s. 6d. To farm , for 40 wethers , sold Timothy Wood, at 34s., To farm , for 60 wethers, sold Jacob Keyworth , at 36s., To farm , for 50 qrs. barley, sold John Newman, at 20s.,
To farm , received for 20 pigs, sold Edinburgh market, at 308., By farm , paid for 25 pigs, bought at Berwick market , at 158., To B. L. Co.'s Bank , withdrew from them ,
Carry forward ,
1 15 0 62 0 0 68 0 0 108 00
50 0 0 30
00 18 15 0
230
0
0
L.963 93
L.457
078
REALISATION .
764
CASH - continued .
Cr.
Dr. Fol. of
6.
L.
D.
L.
6.
457
0
71
500
0
0
D.
Ledger .
1850 . Jan.
963
Brought forward ,
1
By farm , paid half- year's rent due Martinmas 1849 ,
6
To farm , for 24 yrs.barley , sold James Marrowman ,at i9s. 6d.,
93
22 12 0
8 00
By farm , paid ironmonger's account for past year , By farm , paid sundries, their accounts, viz . Farrier, Roper,
L.5 0 2 10 4 10
Mason ,
0 0
4
4 17 10
Slater,
16 18
13 27
Feb. 3 99
99 9)
20
27
To farm , for 30 qrs. barley, sold John Factor, at 185., To James Marrowman , for 31 qrs. wheat sold him , at 358., To farm , for 30 grs. barley, sold John Factor, at 18s. 6d. , By B. L. Co.'s Bank , deposited with them ,
270
To farm , for Adam Buttersfor 15 steers sold him, at L.is,
9
24
To farm , received for 100 wethers, sold at Edinburgh , at 325.,
0
99
28
To farm , received from John Factor for 637 wheat, at 36s.,
320
252
0
210
00
eo 8 :Op coer
0 0
0 0
9 5 3 135 00
3
1
0 72 224
37 180
To farm , received for 15 steers , sold at Newcastle, at L.12 ,
26
By farm , paid labour account for past half-year, as per abstract, To farm , received from the shepherd for fallen mutton and skins, By farm , paid poor -rates for the year ending Whitsunday 1850, To farm , received for 15 steers, sold at Edinburgh, at L.li ,
1 200
By B. L. Co.'s Bank , deposited with them , To farm , received for 48 pigs, sold at Edinburgh, at 30s., To farm , received for 16 steers , sold at Newcastle, at L.14, By B. L. Co.'s Bank, deposited with them ,
28 June 1 .
0 200 8
To Isaac Marshall& Son, for 20 grs. wheat sold them , at 37s., 9)
00
61 00
143 18
May's
0
120 00
27 15
L.116
27 barley, at 20s.,
0
0
By B. L. Co.'s Bank , deposited with them ,
To farm , received from J. Cornbuyer, for 61qrs. barley,at 203., By farm , paid for 15 steers , bought at Darlington , at L.8 , To farm , received for 14 steers, sold at Newcastle , at L.18, By B. L. Co.'s Bank , deposited with them , By farm , paid saddler's account for past year, To farm , received for 120 wethers, sold at Edinburgh, at 358., By farm , paid for lime , bought Sunderland kilns, By farm , paid for 15 tons of guano , at L.9 per ton ,
14 22
00
28 10 0 160
20
Apr. 1
0
24 0
By farm , paid James Cuthbert for 3 tons of cake, at L.8 per ton , To farm , received from J. Cornbuyer , for 30 qrs.barley, at 195.,
17 21 23
100 105
00
By farm , paid for 15 steers, bought at Darlington, at L.7 , Mar. 15
2
00
54 50 27 15 0
00
0 0 00 0 0
300
0
0
130
7
8
0 0
6 15 0 25 165
0
00
0 126
By farın , paid for 20 steers, bought at Darlington, at L.6, 6s., .
0
0
50 10 12 0 11 2
0 0 9
To farm , received for 120 grs. oats, sold Isaac Marshall & Son , at 16s . ,
96
0
0
By farm , paid clover and rye-grass seed account, 15
By farm , paid turnip seed account for the year, By farm , paid for 109 qrs. of beans, at 22s., To farm , received for 170 clipped hogs, at 30s., To farm , received from W. Barff for 118 stones wool, at 268.,
255
0
153
4 0
0
500 0 0
By farm , paid half- year's rent due at Whitsunday last,
July 1
Aug. 28
1 2 1 10
By farm , paid William Young for use of his stallion , By farin , paid for 3 loads of paling, at 10s., By farm , paid sundries, viz.L.7 18 1 Assessed taxes, 11 0 84 Income tax ,
6 0
18 18 9
Sept. 27 97
29 9)
To farm , received for 60 draft ewes, sold at St Ninian's fair , at 32s., By farm , paid for 200 half - bred lambs, bought at Melrose, at 148., To farm , received for the carcase and skin ofa heifer , By B. L. Co.'s Bank, withdrew from them , By balance on hand at this date,
96 0 0 140
40
L.3559 18
FARM - ACCOUNT - CROP 1849 .
6410.
11
4
L.
S.
D.
Nov. 4 99
11 20
7
L.
8.
D.
112 00
By cash for 60 qrs wheat sold IsaacMarshall and Son , at 378. 4d. , By cash received from I. Marshall & Son, for 60 grs. of oats,
48 00
at 16s., 17 24
2
L.3559 18
Cr.
Dr. Fol. or Ledger.
1849. Oct. 4
00
4 100 50 0 0
To cash paid for 30 steers bought at Yarm , at Li, To cash paid harvest expenses, as per abstract, . To cash paid for 5 sacks of oatmeal, at 265.,
210 71
0 0 8 10
6 10
0
By cash received for 80 qrs.ofoatssold toJohn Cloy, at168., To cash paid John Irons, for castings bought of him, By cash received from James Cuthbert for 35 ; qrs. wheat , at 34s. To cash paid Phænix Fire Office premium of insurance on stock and crop ,
Carry forward ,
64 0 0 6 0 0 7 17
9
£ 301 16
7
59 14
3
£ 283 14
3
FARM BOOK -KEEPING .
765
Dr.
FARM - ACCOUNT — continued . Fol. of
L. S.
Cr . D.
S.
L.
D.
Ledger . 1849.
301 16
Brought forward , To cash paid labour account for half -year ending this day, as per
Nov. 22
To cash paid schoolmaster's stipend for year ending thisday,
99
9
1 17
1 15 0 62 0 0 68 0 0 108 00 50 00
By cash received from Timothy Wood for 40 wethers, at 348., By cash received from Jacob Keyworth for 60 wethers, at 36s., By cash received from John Newmanfor 50 qrs. barley,at 20s.,
By cash received for 20 pigs sold in Edinburgh ,at 308.,
1
30 00
18 15 0
To cash paid for 25 pigs bought in Berwick market, at 158., To cash paid half -year's rent due Martinmas 1847 , 6
9)
13
Byatcash received from James Marrowman for 244 qrs. barley, 19. 6d ., To cash paid'ironmonger and others theiraccounts, as per cash book , By James Marrowman for 31 qrs.wheat sold him , at 358.,
27
By cash received from John Factor for 30 qrs. barley, at 188 ,
7
: Feb. 3
0 22 12
54 50
105
28 00 160 120
By cash received from John Cornbuyer for 61 qrs. barley, at 20s., By cash received for 14 steers sold at Newcastle, at L.18 , To cash paid the saddler's account for past year,
21
Apr. 1
8
By cash received for 120 wethers sold at Edinburgh, at 358., To cash paid for lime bought at the Sunderland kilns, To cash paid for 15 tons of guano , at L.9 per ton , By cash received from JohnFactor for wheat and barley , as per
14 22
28
00
24 0 0
To cash paid for 15 steers bought at Darlington , at L.8,
99
9
15
:: :: :: :
By Isaac Marshalland Son, for 20 grs. ofwheat at 378., By cash received for 48 pigs sold at Edinburgh , at 30s., By cash received for 16 steers sold at Newcastle, at L14, By cash received for 15 steers sold at Newcastle, at L.12,
26
610 252 0
0
210
0
0
143 18 37 0 72 0
1 0 0
0
00 5
3
135 00
224 00 180 0 0
To cash paid labour account for half -year ending this day, as per 130 70 25 0 0
abstract,
By cash received from shepherd for fallen mutton , To cash paid poor-rates for the year ending Whitsunday 1850,
28 June 1
1
50 10 0 0 2
0
500 0 1 2 1 10
0
12 11
9 153
To cash paid for 200 half-bred lambs bought at Melrose , at 14s.,
6 0
96 0 0 140 00 4 100
By cash received for the carcass and skin of a heifer,
By shepherd for ewes and hoggs dead since Whitsunday, as per stock account,
2 15 0 £ 2399 15
6411 .
LEDGER .
Dr.
BRITISH LINEN COMPANY'S BANK .
L.
8. D.
To Balance from last
year's account,
300 00
1850 .
Feb. 3 Mar. 15
To Cash , To Cash ,
23
To Cash ,
Apr. 28
To Cash , To Cash ,
1
£ 3152 3 4
Cr. Fol.
Fol.
May 8
0
18 18 94
By cash ,received for 60 draft ewes sold at St Ninians fair, at 32s.,
29
1849 . Oct. 1
4
255 0 0
Sept. 27 30
0
96 0 0
at 16s.,
Aug. 26
0 P
126 00
To cash paid clover and ryegrass seed account, To cash paid turnip -seed account for this year , To cash paid for 10g grs. of beans, at 22s., By cash received from William Barff and Sons, for 118 stones wool, at 26s. , By cash received for 170 clipped hoggs, sold at 30s., Whitsunday last, To cash paid half- year's rent due at To cash paid William Young, for the use of his stallion , To cash paid for three loadsof paling, at 10s. per load , To cash paid assessed and income taxes for year ending 6th April,
9 9
0
6 15 165
By cash received for 15 steers sold as Edinburgh , at L.11, To cash paid for 20 steers bought at Darlington , at L.6, 6s., By cash received from Isaac Marshall & Son for 120 qrs. oats,
g
July
00
00
cash -book ,
May 5
0
27 00 27 15 0 270 00
To cash paid James Cuthbert for 3 tons of oilcake, at L.8, By cash received from J. Cornbuyer for 30 qrs. barley, at 198., By cash received for 100 wethers sold at Edinburgh,at 32s.,
24 Mar. 15 17 9)
99
0
24 18 2
To cash paid for 15 steers boughtat Darlington , at L.7,
99
.
500
By cash received from John Factor for 30 qrs. barley, at 18s. 6d ., By cash received from Adam Butters for 15 steers, at L. 18,
20 9)
3
6
By cash received from the shepherd for fallen mutton , By cash received from Thomas Dewar for 80 qrs. oats, at 158.,
2 25 30
'1850 " Jan.
283 14
134 11 6
abstract, Dec.
7
100 320 200 200 300
0
0
0
0
0 0 0
0 0 0
£ 142000
L.
8. D.
By Cash ,
15
00
Jan. 1
By Cash ,
230
Sept. 29
By Cash , By Balance ,
1849 . Oct 17
1850 . 0
0
50 0 0 1125 00
£ 1420 0 0
REALISATION .
766
LEDGER — continued. Dr.
Cr .
JAMES MARROWMAN , CORN - DEALER . Fol .
1850 . Oct. 1
Fol. 8.
L.
1850 . Jan. 13
D.
To Balance of last year's account for wheat ,
30
0
To Farm for wheat,
54
501
.
5
£ 84
Dr.
1849. Oct. 4
By Cash ,
1850 . Jan. 27
By Cash ,
30
54 50
0
£ 84 5
Fol . L.
8. D.
To Balanceof last year's account due for cattle ,
1849. Oct. 4
L.
ISAAC MARSHALL & SON , MILLERS .
Cr .
Fol. 1850 .
Fol . L. 37
To Farm for wheat ,
1850.
S. D. 0 0
Dr.
May 15
L.
37
By Cash ,
SHEPHERD .
1850.
Fol. L.
To Farm for fallen Mutton ,
6412.
S. D. 00
Cr .
Fol .
Sept. 30
8. D.
0 0 5545 56
By Cash ,
45 00
Dr.
May 5
0
Cr .
THOMAS BUTTERS , BUTCHER . Fol.
1849. Oct. 1
S. D. 0 0
L.
0
8. D.
2 15
0
INVENTORY AND VALUATION OF STOCK AT Ist OCTOBER 1850.
Thefollowing is a List ofthe Effects in my possession, and ofDebts due to and by me this 1st October 1850 : I. CASH On hand ,
L.
In open account with B. L. Co.'s bank,
:
:
S.
D.
40
2
7
1125
0
0
L.
8 .
1165 300
II. IMPLEMENTS ,
350
III. HORSES, 14 at L.25, IV. CATTLE 1 Short -horn bull , at L.20 , 6 Short -horn cows, at L.12 , 15 calves, at L.5 , 10.,
20
2 0
D.
7 0
00
0 0
72 0 0 82 10 0 154 0 0 160 00
14 yearlings, at Lili , 20 yearlings, at L.8,
488 100 V. SHEEP
200 Leicester breeding ewes , at 32s .,
320 0 151 10
101 Leicester draft ewesand gimmers, at 30s., 297 Leicester hoggs , at 20s., : 200 Half - bred hoggs, at 158.,
0 0
297 0 0 150
0
0
9 3 35
0
0
0 4
0 0
262 10 2:25 0 480 0
0 0 0
918 10
0
VI . Pigs
3 sows , at 60s.,
1 boar, at 60s., 32 pigs, at 225.,
47 VII . CORN 50 acres of wheat, 3 qrs. per acre
175 qrs., at 30s., 50 acres of barley, 45 grs. per acre 225 qrs., at 208., 64 qrs. per acre - 600 qrs., at 16s., 100 acres of oats
4 0
967 10 0
VIII . SEED AND LABOUR on 100 acres of turnips, at 70s. per acre ,
350 00
IX . DEBTS DUE ME AS PER LEDGER
The shepherd ,
2 15
0
4589 11
7
X. I OWE TO MY LANDLORD 500 500
Half -year's rent due Martinmas 1849, Whitsunday 1850, Do. do.
0 0
0 0
1000
CAPITAL IN 1850, 1849, Do.
Gain on crop 1849,
:
:
0
0
3589 11
7 0
3173
0
L.416 11
FARM BOOK - KEEPING .
767
6413. Remarks.- When a sale is made only given, and no information is afforded for ready money, it is entered in the Cash- as to its disposal. book as it occurs,and thence posted to the Farm -account. But when a delivery of 6415. The rent is subdivided into a any produce is made, which is not paid convenient form for the farmer. One half
for in ready_money, the transaction isen- is paid in cash, and the other half by com tered in the Farm -account, andposted from muting an equal sum by an equivalent it to an account which is then opened in quantity of grain, the value of which against the purchaser in the Ledger. When is estimated by the fiars prices (5292)
a payment, either to account or in full, is for the crop and year. The equivalents received from him, it is entered in the in grain are taken in equal quantities of
Cash -book, and posted from it to his credit wheat, barley,and oats, at 144.665 quar in the Ledger. If the farmerhad no transactions but ready-money ones, and no cash passing through his hands but in connection with his own business , a Cash -book alone would preserve a sufficient account
ters, because the fiars prices of Berwick shire, where the farm is situate, for crop 1849, were 358.04d per quarter for wheat, 188. 41d. for barley, and 158. 8 d .for oats, which give the amount of the half-year's
of his year's proceedings. But as he will rent at £500, the money -rent having inevitably have cash transactions not directly connected with his business, as well as his family and personal expendi. tures, which should be duly entered; and as he may, from time to time, make both sales and purchases on credit, it is clear
been estimated, at the time of taking the farm , at £ 1000 a - year, or £ 2.per acre. To carry out the principle of paying the rent illustrated in ( 5292,) £ 500 have to be paid in money, and the other half by the valueof the fiars ; but as the farm was
that a Cash -book alonewould not givean supposed to have been taken at the period accurate view of the real state of hisaffairs, when its firstyear's rents were payable for or of the clear profit or loss on his year's crop 1849, the second half of the £ 1000
farming ; and, therefore, it is necessary to had to be commuted into equivalent quan have a Farm -account, to show what is the tities of grain at the price of the fiars real increase or deficit on the farm pro- of 1849, which will be found to yield
duce of the year, apart from all extrane- £500, at the fiars specified above, on 144 ous transactions; and a Ledger, to show quarters and a fraction of each sort of what debts are due to the individual, grain. In future years £500 will have and by whom , and for what.
to be paid in cash at one term, and the value of 144 quarters of each sort of grain
6414. The Inventory and Valuation in at their respective fiars prices for the year, ( 6412,) made up at the beginning of the at the other term , for each crop. The agricultural year of 1850, are the counter- half of the rent will thus fluctuate with
other half part of those in the beginning of 1849, the value of the grain, and the (6408 ,) showing the state of affairs at remain stationary. The profit being the beginning of both years, by which £416, 118. 7d., it indicates that the rent it appears
that a gain of L416, 11s. 7d. is a fair one to leave a reasonable per
has been made upon the transactions of centage on a capital of £4173, shown in the year 1849–50, which is the sum the (6408) to be required to stock the farm . farmer has received as interest upon his capital, and remuneration for his labour.
6416. The young farmer is of course
After deducting from this sum his outlay aware, that in book -keeping the Debtor for family and personal expenditure, and adding it to his capital, the balance forms his starting - point for the following year's accounts. The family and personal expenditures are not given in detail, or at all, because they are wholly a private matter,
column is always the left band one, and the Creditor the right ; and that the word “ To ” is prefixed to Dr. sums, and “ By ” to Cr. ones. But as he may be at a loss to understand why the same transaction appears in the Cash-book as a Dr. sum, and will vary according to the habits and and in the Farni-account, or Ledger, as views of the individuals interested in a Cr. one, I offer the following explana
The clear income, therefore, tion :- In the Cash -book, the farmer, or derived from the business for one year is keeper of the books, is Dr. “ To ” all sums them .
REALISATION .
768
received by him , and Cr. “ By ” all sums of book -keeping ; but the following subsi paid by him . In posting the books, how- diary ones are so useful and instructive, ever, when the various entries are carried that they should not be dispensed with. to the Farm -account, or Ledger, as the case may be, these terms are reversed, for
6418. The farm is supposed to contain this reason that in theFarm - account, the 500 acres ( 5367,) of arable land, divided
farm is accounting to the farmer for intro- into 20 equal-sized fields, and wrought in missions on its special account, and is Cr. a five - course rotation, so that the • By” all the sums which he has received for its produce, and Dr. “ To ” all the
66
Fields A , B , C, and D , will be in turnips, wheat and barley, E, F , G , and H , • •
first year's grass , second year's grass ,
I , K , L , and M ,
N , O, P, and Q , .. R , S, T , and U ,
sums which he has paid on its account. And, in like manner, in the Ledger, each person with whom there have been credit
oats .
6419. The corn -accounts show all the
transactions appears Dr. “ To ” the Cash- particulars connected with this species of book, or Farm -account, for whatever cash produce, the time when thrashed, the or commodity has been paid or delivered parties to whom it has been sold, the uses
to that person, and Cr. “ By ” whatever which have been made of it on the farm during the year, the balance of grain on
has been received from him.
hand at any time in the corn - barn and
6417. These make up the stated and granary, the weights of the grain, and the indispensable books for an orderly system prices obtained for it. 6420.
Weight . bushel per
CORN -ACCOUNT - CROP 1849 . Whole
Amount of Produce .
62
Ey
60
4
Το
21
By
23 7
3 4
7
To
15 21
99
By
36 1
6
35
1
Nov. 7
11
9)
Thrashed from field G , ( stacks 9 , 10, 11,)
Sold Isaac Marshall & Son ,
60
5
Qrs. Bu .
Qrs , Bu .
D.
1 3
60 ,
37/4
112 0 0
3
21
Sown on field A , and part of B ,
7
4
1
6
20 4
Thrashed from field E, ( stack 2, ) Bruised for pigs , Sold to John Cuthbert,
Sold .
64
2ỉ 3 ThrashedfromfieldE, (stack1,
35
Qrs . Bu . Qrs. Be .
Used .
L.
Το
, 4
6
Ib .
Bu .
Light.
..
Qrs .
Price
Rate . Clean .
1849. Oct. 3
Disposal.
WREAT.
Quantity .
35 1 34 /
63
59 14 3
1850. Jan.
7
4
32 31
4
To
1 62
4 3
28
By
63 63
7 7
30
To
رو13
Apr. 25
Thrashed from field E, ( stacks 4 and 5 ,) Sown upon field B ,
Sold to J. Marrowman ,
38
May 5
By
7 7 7
1 4 7
4
63
31
,
35 /
54 50
63
7
36 /
116 3 1
Thrashed from field G , ( stacks 6, 7 , 8 ,
20 20
4
Sold to John Factor, ( 3 qrs . 7 bu. light ,)
Thrashed from field E ,( stack 3,) Sold to Isaac Marshall & Son ,
60
2
3
20 ,
7
64
] 37
40
Ву
.
Το
) >
9
10
20
64
37 00
7
Bruised for pigs,
220 5 Totals,
227
7 ,
17 52 210
£ 379 2 4
17 5
7
5
27
5
769
per Weight
FARM BOOK -KEEPING .
Whole
. el Bush
CORN -ACCOUNT - CROP 1849 .
6421 .
Amount of Produce.
Disposal. Price .
Rate .
BARLEY.
Quantity .
Qrs .
Ib .
Bu .
Sold .
Used
Light.
Clean .
Qrs . Bu , Qrs . Bu . Qrs. Bu . Qrs. Bu,
L.
S.
D.
1849
Oct. 2
To
3
Ву
3
Thrashed from field H. , (stack
66
Used forwages, (supper barley,)
32
Dec. 26
" , 30
1850 Jan. 1
To
By Το
By
25 30
5
55 50
5
5
5
28
5
6
6
Used for wages,
27 3
7 5
Light bruised for pigs,
24 24
2 2
Sold to James Marrowman ,
3
6
1 2 50 ,,
20 /
50 00
55
24
19/6
22 12 0
: 54
30
.
56
Thrashed from field H. , (stack 19 , )
29
1
28 39
6
6
3
5
Το
31
By
30
,,
1
30
To
34
3 4
By
35 2
7 3
33 30
99
Thrashed froin field H. , ( stack 17 , )
3
16
To
:
Thrashed from field H., ( stack 18 , )
33
Sold to John Factor ,
Do. Do.
.
56
7
13 4
24
By
7
To
33 31
7
By
64 3
63
6
99
30
,,
19 /
28
99
7
20 !
61 00
20 /
27 15 0
4
28
Sold to Jonathan Cornbuyer, .
99
2
56
Thrashed from field F. , ( stack 12 , )
30 ,
1
00
7
Boiled for horses ,
Sold to Jonathan Cornbuyer ,
61
56
Thrashed from field F. , ( stacks 60 .
6
6
Used for wages ,
Sown on field C. ,
9
2
2
Å
Sown on field D. ,
9
4
9
37
4
56 9
27 15 0
from field F.,(stack
13 and 14 , )
April 14
18/6
3
99
61 61
By
,
وو
16
15 ,
To
30
from field F., (top
3
30 63 30
» , 30
1
Thrashed from field H. , ( top 3
19
17
00
4
of stack 16 , )
Mar. 15
27
2 3
of stack 16 , )
9
4
Light bruised for pigs,
4
14 16
18 /
.
Feb. 3
Sold to John Factor;
:
9
2
وو
27
24
»
Sold to John Newman , ·
34
9
6
66
Thrashed from field H. , ( stack 20 , ) 99
13
31
21 , ) 99
6
2
99
47 25
.
. 34 27
4 6
56
Sold to John Factor ,
27
6
5
:
28
3
Boiled for horses ,
3
May 23
6 6
6
6
6
Used for wages , 12
Totals,
6
298 12
6
7
5 253 58
311
5
311
7
58
£ 244 120 5
8 с VOL . II.
770
REALISATION . Weight per
6422. Whole
OATS.
Bushel .
CORN - ACCOUNT - CROP 1849. Amount of Produce.
Disposal. Rate.
Price .
Quantity . Clean ,
1849 . Oct. 15
To
Qrs.
Bu .
65
7
Ib . Qrs. Ba. Qrs. Ba. Qrs. Ba. Qrs . Bu.
22
By
10
7
Used for horses,
To
55 89
2
Thrashed from field T., ( stacks
By
144 60
6 4
23 40
4
63 45
4
107
80 ,
108 80
4
4
30
28 20
Dec. 2
Το
8 123
4 ,, 4
By
131 80
4
30
51 19
1850
32
4
4
Ву
606
Sold to Isaac Marshall & Son ,
43
35
Thrashed from field U. , (stack 38 ),
99
"
16 /
48 0 0
39 4
80 »
16 /
64 0 0
80
15 /
62 0 0
16 /
96 0 0
5
5 4
42
Sold to J. Cloy,
20
Used for horses, 99
Thrashed from field U. , ( stacks 110
Sold to Thomas Dewar , .
20 4
Feb. 7
To
12 120
4
To
132 43 175 30
4
By
145 30
1
Used for horses, .
19
Used for horses,
20
Thrashed from field S. , ( stacks 23, 24 , and 29 ,) Thrashed from field R., (stack 27 ,)
9
13 ,
42
100 ,
20
13
Jan. 30
Mar. 15
601
Thrashed from fields T. and U. ,
35 , 36 , and 37 , )
10
92
Used for wages,
( stack 34) Nov. 1
D.
2
83 60
Το
S.
55 ,, 107
30 and 33 ,) .
26
L.
Thrashed from field T., ( stacks
31 and 32,) 9
Sold .
Used .
Light,
3
40
»
Used for horses , 30
99
.
99
Sown upon fields N. and P. , 30
(Sandy ,)
31
8+ 9
4
Sown upon fields 0 and Q. ,
31
24
115 31
( Potato ,) ,
April 30
May 23 31
June 6
4 99
75 20
4
55
4
1
Used for horses,
9
Used for horses,
20
99
20
9
Thrashed from field S. , (stack 28 ,) i
To
41
4
By
96 20
4
To
76 120
4
By
196 110
35
120
4 4
Sold to Isaac Marshall & Son ,
>
99
86 86
6
Thrashed from field R. , ( stacks
22 , 25 , and 26 , ) . 9 9
,
Used for horses,
9
10
43
In granaries for horses, 614 4 82 5
Totals ,
697 1
82
120
86
4
5 357
1
340 357
697
£ 270 0 0
FARM BOOK - KEEPING . 6423.
771
AMOUNT OF PRODUCE - CROP 1849. Numbers
Kind of Crop.
Average per
Size of Fields.
Amount of each Field .
Acre.
of the
Gross
Amount.
Fields. A.
R.
P.
5
25
0
0
7
25
0
6
25
0
0
8
25
0
0
17
25
0
0
6
Do.
Barley , Do.
Oats,
Qrs. 4
Bu ,
Qrs .
Bu .
12's
103
2
124
3
140
3
171
2
163
0
161
0
4
tuto jo
Wheat,
5
Bu.
Qrs .
227
5
311
5
26
18
25
0
0
6
19
25
0
0
7
Do.
20
25
0
0
7
200
0
0
6
Acres in crop ,
6424 .
31
188 175
0
0
..
Do. Do.
687
1
1226
3
DISPOSAL - CROP 1849. Acres in crop, 200 at a general average Qrs. Bu .
Qrs. Ba . 1226 3
Per acre of 6 034 Used in seed , of wheat , of barley, of oats , :: Used in provender, of wheat, of barley ,
:: Used in wages,
of oats ,
Qrs . 15 18 61
0
2 12 235
5 7 3
Bu 0 6
of barley,
27 0
of oats ,
60
Qrs. Bu , 94 6
250
7
87
6
6
Leaving for sale, or this there are
Qrs. 210 253 330
Total,
433
3
793
0
of wheat, at the average price of £1 15 104 0 19 34-4
of barley, at the average price of of oats, at the average price of
0 15
£ 377
1 2 24-1
793 at a gross average price of
3 6
£ 880 16 9
STACKYARD - CROP 1849.
6425.
4.
5.
1. Wheat.
2. Wheat.
Field E.
Field E.
3. Wheat. Field E.
9. Wheat.
10. Wheat. Field G.
11 .
12.
13 .
14 .
15 .
Wheat.
Barley.
Barley,
Barley.
Field G.
Field F.
Field F.
Field F.
Barley. Field F.
Field G.
00
213 19 259 17
9
Wheat.
Wheat.
Field E.
Field E.
6. Wheat. Field G.
7. Wheat. Field G.
8. Wheat. Field G.
16.
Barley , Fields F & H .
of each 20 .
22 . Oats . Field R.
17 .
18 .
Barley. Field H.
Barley:
Barley.
Barley.
Barley.
Field H.
Field H.
Field H.
Field H,
25. Oats. Field R.
27.
30.
31 .
Oats. Field R.
28 . Oats. Field S.
29 .
Oats. Field S.
Oats.
Field R.
Field T.
Oats . Field T.
35 . Oats . Field U.
36. Oats . Field U.
37 . Oats . Field U.
38 . Oats. Field U.
26 . Oats.
19.
21 .
34. 33 . Oats .
Field . T.
Oats. Fields T & U. 2 Loads of U.
23. Oats. Field S.
24. Oats .
Field S.
32 . Oats . Field T.
REALISATION .
772
6426. The live stock accounts give, in numbers on hand at different periods, like manner, the particulars of every the prices obtained, and those paid for species of stock, the disposal of them , the them. 6427.
STOCK - ACCOUNT - 1849. Whole No.
CATTLE .
Steers. Cows ,
Price .
Calves.
1849. Oct. 2
S.
To
99
Bull, Cows ,
10 5 15
>
37 30
10
1850. Feb. 20 By
67 15
Το
52 15 67 15
March 20 21
By
82 14
>
15
52 15
June 1
Sept. 29
.
May 8
69 16
37 15
To
22 20
By
42 1
Το
41 15
S.
D.
6
Steers rising 1 year old , Heifers
L.
1
10
5
>>
1 6
D.
do .,
Steersrising 2 years old,
15
Two year old steers bought at Yarm , at L.7,
26 30
Steers sold Adam Butters, at L.18,
56 15
Steers bought at Darlington , at L.7, .
41 15
105 0 0
Steers bought at Darlington , at L.8 , .
56 15
120 00
Steers sold at Newcastle , at L.18,
71 14
Steers sold at Newcastle , at L.14,
57 16
Steers sold at Newcastle , at L.12,
41 15
180 0 0
Steers sold at Edinburgh, at L.11 ,
26 15
165 0 0
Steers bought at Darlington, at L.6, 6s.,
11 20
11
210 00 270 00
252 0 0
224 0 0
126 0 0
31
Heifer died ,
1
4 100
10
£56100 £ 1095 10 0
Calves weaned,
15 10 31
56
56
6428 .
STOCK - ACCOUNT - 1849.
Whole No.
Breed . ing Pigs .
Feed ing or store
L.
To
3 1
20 99
Sows, Boar ,
Store pigs ,
Weaned , (2 litters,)
18
Nov. 7
42 8
Weaned ,
38 8
1850. Jan. 1
By
50 20
Sold at Edinburgh ,
46 20
To
30 25
June 8
To
7 30
S.
D.
4
30 0 0
30 /
26
Bought at Berwick ,
25
15 /
Sold at Edinburgh,
51 48
30 /
Weaned, (3 litters,)
3 30
55 48
D.
20
Oct. 24
Ву
S.
3 1
24 18
May 8
Price ,
Rate .
Pigs, ܐܢܕ
1849. Oct. 2
Pigs .
37 1
33 1
36
32 4
36
18 15 0 72 0 0
L.18 15 0 L.102 00
FARM BOOK- KEEPING.
773
STOCK -ACCOUNT - 1849 .
6429.
SHEEP.
Whole No.
Ewes ,
Feed ing Sheep
1849.
L.
Oct. 2 To
200 290 320 3
Ewes , Wethers, Rams,
320 3
2 hoggs and 1 wether dead ,
323 1
810 2
99
808 40
Dec. 25
322
Hoggs dead,
31
4
764 60
رو30
99
701 2
9
699 100
Mar. 15
Wethers sold to Timothy Wood ,
»
3
D.
2
1 5 0 0 10 0
40
3 hoggs and 1 wether dead,
282 1
Wethers sold to Jacob Keyworth ,
281 60
68 0 0
34 / 3
1 100
283
36 /
108 0 0
221
Hoggs died ,
3
1 ewe and 1 hogg dead ,
1
280 1
199
279
Wethers sold at Edinburgh ,
100
2 ewes and 1 wether dead ,
2
121 1
197
120
599
30
S.
288 2
1
Feb. 28
704 3
L.
286
768
1850 , Jan. 3
D.
290
2
3
8.
200
Hoggs ,
813
Oct. 30 By Nov. 30
Price .
Hoggs. Rate.
596
April 14
120
Wethers sold at Edinburgh ,
30
476 2
Hoggs dead ,
1 100 0 15
0
160 00
32 /
2 0 0
120
35 /
210
00
2
1
0
0
2
277 1
1
0
0
195
276
.
474 3
May 30
2 ewes and 1 hogg dead ,
.
471 170
June 15
Clipped hoggs sold at home,
170
301
Sept. 27
To
By
رو30 (
Draft ewes and gimmers, Wether lambs weaned ,
601 60
Draught ewes sold at St Ninian's fair ,
Ewe
do.
3
96 0 0
101
170
do. ,
130
300
60
41
Half-bred wether lambs, bought at Melrose ,
200
Hoggs dead ,
500 3
741
By
32/
200
Breeding ewes and gimmers,
200 101 170 130
541 200
255 0 0
301
Account altered by addition ofLambs. July 8
30 /
106 195
738
497 41 200
14/
140 00 11
150
£ 140 00 £ 908 5 0
738
6430. Remarks. — The quantity and exact Inventory and Valuation of stock value of live-stock on band, at the end should be made up annually, and added of one year, may vary so materially to the summary of his balances and liabi from that at the next, that the balance lities, and it will contribute to the exhibi
exhibited by the stock -bookmight give a
tion of a true state of his affairs at the
most fallacious view of this department of close of the year. the farmer's affairs ; and therefore an
!
774
REALISATION .
6431. Of the Labour-account concern- names of certain of the field -workers, the ing the field -workers, a few examples number of whom on this farm actually for one month will suffice to show how it is reaches to the letter P, as will be seen in kept. The letters A, B, C, represent the the subsequent detailed account. B.
T.
1 1
1 1
1
S.
1
1
M.
T.
W.
T.
F.
1
1
1
1 1
8 .
M.
T.
W.
T.
F.
1 1 1 1
1 1
1
1 1
6
days .of
W.
.Reg , days of
T.
P.
M.
C. . Reg
A.
Week ending 1849. Oct.
6 1 13 20. 1 1 27
1
5
1
i
1 1
1
1
6
1
3
1
1
1
6
1
4 5
1
1
i 1i
1
5 4
3
1
6432. On an extension of this form of The gross amounts only of this account account, it affords the materials for a sum- have been entered in the preceding books. mary of the amount of all the manual With this account the system of book
labour executed on the farm in the course keeping recommended concludes. of a year, including the harvest expenses. LABOUR ACCOUNT-WHITSUNDAY 1850 .
LABOUR ACCOUNT - MARTINMAS 1849. No. of Rate per
Names.
days, А B C D E F
72
1129 19 105
1081 1115 1112 63
H I J K L M
644 67 105 138
10
3 0 5 4 13 9 0 15 10 4 7 6 4 12 11
10d.
4 13
5d . 5d . 10d .
1
10d.
4 7 2 17
6 6
2 11
09
1
6
6 8 0 7 0 12
10d . ls . 3d .
3
4 1 6
L.497
Foreman's
14 0 7 0 6 0 12 19 12 19 13 15 11 7 2 3 5 0
do. ,
Q, spadesman ,
1294 28.
R ,
1292 2s.
do . ,
Blacksmith's account, do. , Joiner's Foreman's expenses, . Own incidental expenses,
L. 134 11
Bread, Beer,
L.48 17 11 5 11 6
L.71
4 6 0
8 10
0 10
8
E
| 404 1724
10d . 8d . 10d . )
( 43
8d .
173
10d. )
F 384
ed . )
( 715
10d. }
434
8d .
43
10d . S 8d . 10d . 8d . 10d . 10d . 10d . 10d . 10d . 8d . 8d .
23
33 0
( 5
J
( 11 ; 0 0 0 0 0 6
8d .
384 1741
K L M N o P
1521 160 64 1 11 12
8
4 7 113 4 7 29 4
96
4
5 5
3
4
8
0 6 5 $ 0 12 11
6 7
3
6 13 0 2 13 4 0 0 10 0 7 4
0
8
0
L.44
8
5
9 0
65
Half -year's wage of 7 yearly ploughmen , Foreman's half-year's wage, Groom's
Wages ,
4 6 24
8d . 10d . )
D
do . ,
Q, spadesman , do. , : R , Blacksmith's account,
Harvest Expenses.
1702
8d . 10d .
6
H
1 7 73
10d. )
с
G
L. 8. D.
( 304 B
I
Hall -year's wages of 7 yearly ploughmen , Groom's half -year's wage,
8d .
3
15
6 102 16 53
No. of Rate per days. day .
A
4 10 23
10d .
154
D.
10d . 10d . 10d . 100 . 10d . 10d .
5d . 5d .
1224 84
Names
L. 8.
day .
do. , Joiner's Foreman's expenses ,
Own incidental expenses,
1174 2s, 157
2s.
14 6 7 11 15 12 8 5 5 L.130
0 8 0 0 0 0 15 0 14 0 10 9 96 9 4 0 0 7
8
6433. Were the same accounts arranged page of any of the former books. Such a
in the form of Charge and Discharge, they form not only classifies all the transactions would give a bird's-eye view of the amount of the year, but checks the accuracy of the of all the transactions of the year ; and total sums of the various accounts, and
such a view may be engrossed on a single facilitates a correct balancing of accounts.
775
FARM BOOK -KEEPING .
ACCOUNT OF CHARGE AND DISCHARGE OF THE INTROMISSIONS OF A, B- , FARMER AT -
-, FOR CROP AND YEAR ENDING Ist OCTOBER 1850. DISCHARGE .
6434.
L.
BRANCH I.–RENT, TAXES, AND INSURANCE. 1850 Jan. 24 June 24
1849
S.
D.
L.
D.
S.
L.
8.
D.
1st. Rent 500 500
By paid half-year's rent, due at Martinmas , do. Ву due at Whitsunday,
9 0
1000 0 0
2d . Taxes
Nov. 22
0 0
BySchoolmaster's stipend, for year ending this
1 17 6
date , 1850
May 28
By poor - rates for year, to Whitsunday 1850 ,
Aug. 26
By assessed taxes ,
:
By income-tax ,
25 0 7 18
0 1
11 0 8 45 16
34
7 17
9
3d . Fire Insurance
1849
Nov. 20
By premium paid Phænix , for one year,
1053 14 of BRANCH II. - LIVE STOCK BOUGHT .
9
1st. Catlle Cattle bought, per stock account,
561
0
2d . Sheep Sheep bought, per stock account,
140
00
0
3d . Pigs
Pigs bought, per stock account,
18 15
0
719 150 BRANCH III. - FARM WORKING . 1850 June 9
50 100 12 11
0 2
0 9
208 13
5
2d . Furnishings and Repairs
1849
Nov. 7 1850
7
Jan.
1st. Seed bought By clover and grass seed account, By turnip -seed account, By 10 $ qrs. of beans, at 22s.,
By John Irons, for castings for mill, By ironmonger's account, for past year, .
By sundry accounts Farrier,
9
22
July 1
By saddler's account, for past year, By lime, bought at Sunderland kilns, By 15 tons of guano, at L.9 per tou , By 3 loads of palings, at 108., .
1849.
0
16 18
2
24 8 9
0 0 3
0 0 5
135 00 1 10
0
3d . Labour and Oatmeal -
Nov.22
By harvest expenses, By 5 sacks of oatmeal, at 26s., By Labour account for half -year to date ,
May 26 July 1
By William Young, for use of his stallion ,
Oct. 27
0
By 3 tonsof cake from James Cuthbert, at L.8 per ton ,
April 1
8
L.5 0 0 2 10 0 4 10 4 4 17 10
Roper , Mason , Slater ,
Feb. 20
6 0 0
By
do.
do.
do.
71 8 10 6 10 0
134 11 63 130 1
7 2
8 6
344 064
626 6 8 BRANCH IV . - DEBTS DUE ME. 1850
Sept. 30
By shepherd , due me for fallen mutton , BRANCH V.-BALANCE. Cash on hand ,
Balance at creditin account, with the British Linen Company ,
Sum of discharge ,
2 15
0
40 2 7 1125 00
1165 2 7 3567 13 4
776
REALISATION . CHAROR .
6435 .
L.
BRANCH I. - Balanceon hand at 31st October 1849— Cash ,
Balance in account with British Linen Bank,
S.
D.
L.
340
0
0
379 2 4 244 12 0
Wheat sold , per corn account, Barley do. do . do .
D.
75 00
BRANCH II. — Debts due me at 1st October 1849 , per last account, BRANCH III.-- Corn sold Oats
8.
40 00 300 0 0
do .
270
0
0
893 14
4
2258 19
0
BRANCH IV . - Live stock sold Ist. Cattle.
1095 10 0
Cattle sold , per stock account, 2d . Sheep
908 5 0
Sheep sold , per stock account, 3d . Wool.
Wool sold , per farm account, 4d . Pigs. Pigs sold , per stock account,
.
153
4
102
00
0
L.3567 13 4
Sum of charge,
6436. The only remark I shall make on posted in the proper book. Without such
the plan of farm book -keeping, just parti- a memorandum , confusion may notonly cularised, is, that were a state of Charge ensue in the larger transactions of the
and Discharge made out every year, the farm , but promises verbally given may Farm -account might be dispensed with. That account distinctly points out, at any given period, the receipts from , and the expenditure on, the farm ; but as such information may be desiderated only at
be broken , and inconvenience arise to parties from forgetfulness and neglect. At one time, it was customary in farmers to trust solely to the memory to record their transactions, and I have heard extra
the end of the year, the gross amounts of ordinary instances of accuracy in persons the different kinds of produce from the who transacted business of themostmulti farm-constituting the heads of the vari- farious character by memory alone ; never ous classes of expenditure inserted into theless, the safer plan for the farmer is to the Charge and Discharge - seem all that jot down every particular that involves, is necessary to afford the information re- in the least degree, the interests of others besides his own .
quired.
6437. Every farmer ought to be pro6438. A simple form of keeping the vided with a pocket Memorandum -book, Field -workers' Daily Labour-account is
in which should be written down every the following; and 'I take the particu transaction as it occurs, according to its lars from the Labour-account exem date , whether connected with cash or not, plified in (6431 ) for the month of Octo
and from which the particulars should be ber : A. Oct. B.
1.
11
= 18 days, at 10d., £0 15 = 19
C. ... 1.111.1111111 ...11.1|= 16
at 10d.,
0
0 15 10
at 10d., 013
4
The explanation requisite is that between By placing the name of the month in the
the long strokesare comprehended the line of the strokes when it arrives, the four days of a week. The short strokes are the weeks in each month will be easily dis full days' work done by the fieldworker ; cerned, as also the days of each week. , the dot is the day in which she is not at The account thus kept for balf-a -year, the work ; and when a quarter, or half, or days are summed up and calculated at the
three-quarter day is only wrought for, the rate of wages per day, and the gross is substituted for a amount of half -year's earnings are brought short stroke or dot, as the case may be. out as distinctly as in the example figure of a t, d, or
EXHORTATIONS.
in the Labour Account above.
In this
777
are working separately, and when the field
manner the accounts of a large num- workers are working separately, they
ber of field -workers may be kept by the should do their respective works efti steward in a small book.
ciently ; but when ploughmen and field workers are employed in the same work , when manual and mechanical labour are
CONCLUDING EXHORTATIONS TO THE YOUNG FARMER.
combined the relative strength of each should be proportioned to produce the greatest amount of combined labour in a
6439. When the young farmer is com- given time. pletely settled on his farm , he volun tarilyundertakes certain duties and obli6443. As one great means of obtaining
gationswhich he must perform and fulfil. full and efficient work, the farmer should A simple relation of these may prove use- have his horses in the best order: they ful to him . should be well selected , equally matcbed, sufficiently fed, properly groomed, and
6440. It is a paramount duty of every judiciously wrought; and when so treated farmer of an arable farm to have his field they will be willing and able to do their
operations in an advanced state at all work, they will do a large amount of He should remember that, if by work , and they will be in good health to forgetfulness or delay any important ope- perform it at all seasons. ration is postponed for even a week beyond its most proper season, it may not 6444. As a concurrent means to the only be overtaken by the succeeding bad same end, the farmer should select active, seasons.
weather, but he thereby invites a deficient willing, strong, honest, and skilful labourers. crop. When his field operations are in ad- With such ploughmen he will have his vance of the season, it is in his power to horses well driven, and the land well
wait a few days at any time for the land to wrought ; and with such field -workers the be in the best possible state ; and when lighter and more minute parts of work every operation is finished with the land will be neatly and quickly executed. in that condition, he may cherish the well 6445. As a still further means to the founded hope of a good return. same end, the farmer should select the
6441. For the attainment of this ad- best-constructed implements ofeach class; vancement of labour, the working stock for, how little soever the effects of good which the farmer possesses should be fully and bad implements may be appreciable
adequate to undertake every field opera- at any given time, he may depend upon tion in its most proper season ; for, independently of the reasonableness of this requirement, he should remember that delays may be imposed upon him to an indefinite extent by bad weather ; and the
it that, with implements constructed on the most correct mechanical principles, the labourers will not only make the best work , but the horses will use them with
the greatest ease to themselves.
time thus lost can never be made up should
those means be inadequate, but wbich may 6446. The ploughmen, horses, imple easily be made up when the work is in ments, and field -workers, may be regarded advance, simply by waiting the lost time. as the working stock of a farm ; and unless they are all maintained in the most efficient
6442. That his means of labour may at state, the farmer cannot expect his fieldope at all times be most efficiently employed, rations to be executed in the best manner. and then they will also be most economi 6447. Besides the land, the farmer cally employed -- the farmer should have
the ingenuity to arrange each department of his labourers so as not only to receive from them the largest amount of labour, in a given time, but also the largest amount
should bestow much of his solicitude on the welfare of his live-stock. In winter, he should be satisfied that those confined in the steading have abundance of food,
when the different classes of labourers co-
are comfortably lodged, and carefully
operate. For example, when the ploughs tended , and those abroad in the fields
778
REALISATION .
are provided with sufficient food. It is suffers, and advantage is taken of this by of much importance to the wellbeing of stock, whether in the steading or the field , that the turnips be always in the most proper state ; and that, although frost should ensue, sufficiency of them are stored for the emergency. In summer, too, the pasturing of grass fields requires his
future purchasers. 6450. These particulars constitute the ordinary routine experienced on an arable farm ofmixed husbandry. Thefarmer, how
ever, ought never to be satisfied with ordi nary routine, and the Scottish farmer sel
attention , asmuch for the sake of the pas- dom is. He should constantly be making ture itself, that it be neither too much nor experiments on a limited scale, both in too little eaten down ; as for the stock, that they never be injured by an insufficiency of food and water ; and the same degree of attention is requisite when the stock are soiled on green forage.
raising the plants of the field and in rearing and feeding live-stock ; and although no great effect may have been derived
from any one experiment, they not only serve as beacons, to warn him from pro ceeding in hisordinary practice inonedirec 6448. As long as the grain market con- tion, but as incentives to prosecute them tinues active in winter, the farmer should still further in another. Let the farmer
attend to the thrashing and the cleaning never fail to try every experiment of the grain, for the double purpose of suggested , the object and importance supplying his stock with a sufficiency of of which have been sufficiently explained He may much more safely disposing of the grain while the market is follow such suggestions than adopt the
straw , whether of fodder or of litter, and of to bim .
in an active state . It is not safe for a farmer recommended practices, of an unreason to speculate on his own grain in the straw ; able nature, of non-practical men .
For
for, ifhe retain it in the stack, the live-stock example, when the farmer is told that
suffer from the want of fodder and litter, cattle thrive better when lodged on bare and the land suffers from the want of deal boards than on comfortable straw ,
manure ; and if he thrash it faster than the stock can consume its straw , this suffers deterioration in quality both as fodder and litter, and also as manure.
and that they are more healthy on such boards, with their urine and dung exposed below and behind them , even al though under the process of deoderisation,
It should be the farmer's endeavour to
than when these are absorbed and hidden in
clean bis grain for the market to a perfect the straw , let him not believe it ; because state, and to acquire in the grain market he knows that when he is himself comfort he attends the character of a clean dresser ably lodged, he is better in every respect
of grain ; for in that state alone, let him than in a contrary situation. He may be assured, grain weighs heaviest and com- probably be recommended to cut all bis mands the highest price. straw into chaff, for the purpose of giving the whole of it in fodder to his live- stock , 6449. The farmer should endeavour to with the view of increasing the size of his
dispose of his fat stock at home. If he farmyard dung-heap. Let him not give has earned for himself the character of
ear to such persuasion ; because, if Liebig
a good breeder and feeder, and of being be correct in his views of the mode by always desirous of disposing of his extra which the animal beat of the body is stock at home, purchasers will regard it no trouble to come and inspect them, and make a bargain. The driving of stock to a market- stance has a certain depreciating
maintained, no less than 60 per cent of the carbon of the straw will be breathed away in carbonic acid gas into the air. When he is told that it is better, in every
effect upon their appearance, besides the respect, for sheep to be tied by the neck expense and trouble of doing it, and the in a house than at freedom in the open air, depriving them of food for a number of let bim give no credence to it, because he lours.
The exhibition of stock at a mar-
knows that confinement and restraint
ket implies either the acceptance of the are qnite contrary to the nature and market price , whatever that may be, or babits of that animal. When liquid the driving them home again — in which manure is so strongly recommended latter case the character of the stock to him, that, in order to obtain it, the
EXHORTATIONS.
779
cattle must be confined in byres instead of from the conduct of the cattle when in
hammels, let him doubt the propriety of them . When farmyard manure is recom the recommendation, because he knows that it has been ascertained by chemistry, that the urine is the more valuable portion of the evacuations of every animal, and that, when it is separated from
mended to bewholly applied to the soil in a liquid form , let the farmer doubt the pro priety of the expedient, because, although he is aware that plants take their food in the liquid form , he also knows that every
the dung, the latter is deteriorated in cereal and green crop, will only take as value in that proportion, and that the much food as it requires at any given urine itself, unless scientifically managed, time-- and be does not yet know at what will lose a large proportion of its ammonia period of its growth it is disposed to take -the most valuable of its ingredients. the largest proportion of food ; and he When cattle are recommended to be con-
knows besides that, if more moisture is
fined within the limits of a box which will presented to a plant than it wants, the
deprive them of any exercise, that they surplus quantity will rather injure than
may fatten the quicker, instead of being promote its growth. Moreover, it is quite in a small hammel, where they may have possible that the surplus moisture may
moderate exercise if they choose, let him enter into such combinations with the con receive the recommendation with caution, stituents of the soil, as to form compounds
because he is aware that the laying on of injurious to the particular state of the fat is not the only object in feeding cattle plant, when the dissolved manure happens -the paramount object being the laying on to be applied. The recommendation is as of large masses of flesh; and when he knows yet wbolly unsupported by experience. that the animals he breeds are come of a It is probable that the manure in the
kind having a strong disposition to fatten, liquid state would always form a good top they will find no difficulty in acquiring dressing to grass land, but its safe appli a sufficiency of fat, provided they lay on cability to ploughed land is attended with abundance of flesh. It is well known that reasonable doubt, especially in a moist the taste of the consumer forfat meat has climate. much altered within the last twenty years. 6451. When the farmer is told by the Then, colliers could not obtain too fat mut-
ton ; now, they won't purchase it : then it scientific man that the nutritive prin was supposed that beef could not be made ciple of the plants he raises — the nitrogen too fat ; now oxen fetch the highest price, -is chiefly derived from the ammonia in the London market, which afford the which was first produced by decomposi
largest and deepest cuts of flesh along the tion of animal matter in the soil, then back .
It is therefore a retrograde move-
taken up in the air by its lightness, and
ment to desire, now-a-days, to puton addi- sent back into the ground by means of tional fat by depriving animals of exercise. rain and snow, let him doubtthe efficacy The object of the farmer should ratherbe of such a process to sustain his crops,
to increase the disposition to fatten in his even although it should have Liebigºs stock, by carefully following the principles great name in support of it; because of superior breeding, than to contrive re- he knows that the very careful experi
strictive measures to put fat upon ill-bred ments of Frezenius only detected 0.133 stock. Of the three modes of feeding oxen
of a part of ammonia, out of 100,000
—the byre, the box, and the small hammel parts of air; and he also knows by -experiment has already proved the superiority of the hammel over the byre, and no experiment has yet proved that of the box over the small hammel ; no farmyard
experience, that the wheat he cultivates thrives best in dry weather, provided the heat be not excessive, and that in all wet seasons it is not so good in nutritive
manure has yet been produced superior properties as in dry - neither of which re to that obtained from small hammels. sults ought to accrue if the nitrogen of
Warmth, not heat, is favourable to laying on both flesh and fat; and the small hammel, provided with abundance of straw, affords the requisite quantity of warmth and shelter, if one may judge
plants be derived from the air alone, as is stated to be the case. Chemistry informs him , besides, that wheat requires the most ammonia of any crop he cultivates, and that the farmyard manure supplies as
REALISATION .
780
much of it as wheat requires ; and, there- thus seems requisite for calves when fore, there seems no necessity at least for crops to receive their ammonia in the roundabout way described . If he is told that the carbon of his crops is principally, if not wholly, derived from the atmosphere, and that all he has to do is to supply, by mineral manures through the
drinking their milk. When he is recom mended to single Swedish and white turnip, though not the yellow, at 13 or 14 inches apart — instead of 9 or 10 inches, the usual distance — he may rea sonably try the experiment, because he knows that turnips are plants which
soil, the mineral ingredients required by require both room and air, and the the particular plant he wishes to cultivate, smaller number of plants upon the acre
as Liebig hastily recommended, let him may each attain to much greater size, donbt it, because careful experiments from the quantity of manure usually given have rendered it probable that some of to the acre, and produce a greater weight the carbon of farmyard manure is taken up than the larger number of plants of smaller as food by plants independently of that size.
If sheep are recommended to be
existing in the atmosphere. If any one experimented on for fattening in pre specific manure is recommended to him as
ference to cattle, because their size allows
being necessary for any particular plant, let him receive it with doubt, because researches into the composition of plants have shown a difference in the constituents of the same plant when grown in
them to be more easily weighed - their smallness requiring less quantity of food, and their numbers affording facility in subdividing them into lots, each of which may contain a considerable number,
different situations,or fed with different among which the idiocrasy of any parti manures .
We do not yet know how far cular sheep could not affect the results
those variations may be carried, but the fact that they are considerable is established. At all events, plants are not dependent on one sort of food for their growth and
of the experiment so sensibly as one ox in a small lot - he may adopt the sug gestion at once, because he discerns truth to be contained in these differences
development.
between the two kinds of stock .
And
lastly, not to multiply instances, when be
6452. On the other hand, when a prac- is told that cabbages, or any other plant tical man recommends a plan of pulveris- containing much nitrogen, is good food
ing strong clay in preparation for turnips, for sheep,the wool of which it isdesirable by rolling the ground when a little dried to increase, the statementmay be believed,
on the surface after being ploughed, and because he knows that the wool contains then barrowing it after the rolling instead of before, the farmer may safely follow the practice, because it not only stands to reason, but the difficnlt object of pulve-
134 per cent of nitrogen, whereas the flesh onlycontains 34 per cent. In short, the judging between reasonable and unrea sonable practices is easily acquired , when
rising strong clay in dry weather is said the farmer takes time to consider the to be thereby attained. When a veterinary nature of plants and of animals, and the
surgeon recommends the giving only à peculiar idiocrasy which each exhibits. small quantity of milk at a time, and fre quently, to a new -dropped calf, until it is 6453. In his bearing to his own people, a week or ten days old, the farmer may believe bim, because he knows that calves are not seldom afflicted with indigestion when young ; and he may deem it extremely probable, when told so, that the
the farmer should always show them kind ness ; and if he ever have to change bis con duct towards them, it should be from some fault of theirs, not his.
He should not
find fault continually, as constant rebuke
indigestion is superinduced by giving the produces no reformation, but rather indif young calf large quantities of milk at a ference.
A fault should generally be
time, without a due proportion of saliva, checked ; but those arising from the head, contrary to the small quantities which and not the heart, should be gently dealt it takes from its mother, when allowed
with . Theft and falsehood should never
to suck her, and the large quantity of be pardoned, and the delinquent should be saliva which it discharges in the act of gotrid of at the end of the term of service. sucking. An active motion of the jaws Such a step is necessary, for checking the
781
EXHORTATIONS.
spread of moral contamination. When a he should dispose of as much of the grain u
ploughman is seen to quarrel seriously with
as will make
p the sum with the balance
his horses, the safest expedient for both in his Bank book ; and at Lammas the sum man and horses is to cause him to unloosen is easily made up by the sale of cattle, them from the yoke, and put them into the sheep, and wool, besides grain . It is safe stable until the next day, when his temper practice for a tenant, whenever one rent is
will have calmed down. Even severe re- paid, to provide immediately for the suc bukeat the time, with allowance tocontinue ceeding one ; and he should always re at work, will never convince him that member that the payments to the servants,
he was wrong and the horses were right, and of accounts, are made at the inter although that is the more probable state of mediate terms between those of the rent. the case .
The wives and cbildren of
married men are frequently troublesome about a farm .
Whenever it is seen that
6457. The farmer should provide re creation and instruction at home. Recrea
a man cannot control his own house- tion he may find in his own family, and
hold, he should be parted with at the occasionally in visits with and from expiry of the term . Much more work will friends at a distance, and neighbours at be obtained from field -workers by kind- hand ; and for instruction he must bave recourse to books and papers, and partly ness than by severity. to the converse of friends and strangers.
6454. The farmer ought to be punetual If he provide not these attractions at home,
in his payments to his servants at the be will go where they are to be found, specified terms. He who neglects to pay and neglect the concernsof his farm . It is a them regularly loses control over them , common remark by townspeople that far
and actually places himself in theirpower mers, as a class, are averse to reading. in many ways. Workpeople calculate on If they knew the habits of farmers as well laying out their earnings when they be- as I do, the observation , even if strictly
comedue ; and on their being withheld at true, would be no obloquy. Little do ment is far greater than they choose to which early rising andconstant exercise Women feel disappointment in the fields on foot - which the farmer is exbibit. the period of expectation, the disappoint- townspeople know the weight of fatigue obliged to take in summer , who has improv ing operations to superintend - impose,
acutely.
6455. In his relation to his neighbours and of the lassitude which overtakes the the farmer should be most punctual to his frame when resting in the evening after engagements.
If he has promised to buy the fatigues of the day.
It is then physi
orsell any commodity with a person on a cally impossible for any man to betake to
given day, he should faithfully keep reading a subject that requires thought his appointment. If he has promised to and reflection , or any subject at all. The settle accounts with any one on a given desultory newspaper affords the most fit time, he should do so without fail.
A ting literature to his mind until the bour
very few breaches of promises will of bed, which must be early. No one bas attach an unenviable reputation to his a higher relish for reading than myself, name in the part of the country in which and yet I bave seen a whole summer slip he resides, and a few more such may en- away without having read anything but tirely ruin his credit. the newspapers. In winter it is different, and in that season it is not true that the
6456. Above all, the farmer onght to farmer does not read — for many read much, be punctual in the payment of bis rent and as a farmer advances in years and to his landlord, because it is by agree- takes less exercise, his leisure is greatly ment with him that he is in theposition devoted to reading. We have only to of a tenant at all. In treating for terms peruse the discussions in the Farmers' Člubs. of payment on negotiating for the lease, in England and at the monthly meetings they should be fixed at Candlemas, of the Highland and Agricultural Society
in the beginning of February, and at in Edinburgh, to be satisfied that the pre Lammas, in the beginning of August. sent race of farmers read and have read For the settlement of the Candlemasrent to good purpose. Townspeople believe
782
REALISATION .
that the artisans of towns are more intel- And yet the foreign manufacturer is ligent than the labourers of the country. equal to the production of marketable
I have had many opportunities of con- goods to the British manufacturer; while versing on miscellaneous subjects with both it is acknowledged , on all hands, that the classes of workpeople, and never could British farmer is superior in every respect observe the superior intelligence of the to the foreign farmer, in what relates to
I am sure the grocers' the cultivation of the soil and the rearing shopman does not know the countries from of live -stock. In comparison, therefore, town artisan.
whence the various articles he deals in with foreign compeers, the British fariner come, nor the processes by which the stands in a much higher position than the articles are prepared for the market, ex- British manufacturer. cept, it may be, the art of adulteration . The journeyman cabinetmaker knows as 6458. In catering for his mental food,
little of the countries which supply the the young farmer should not neglect to different kinds of ornamental wood. It is take the periodicals connected with the the same with other trades. The country great Agricultural Societies of the king labourer is at least observant of every dom. The best works on agricultural thing around him : he knows the weather, chemistry and physiology, both animal different kinds of soil, different kinds of and vegetable, should not be neglected .
rock, different kinds of trees, the habits of plants and animals; and can discriminate individual character very shrewdly. The intelligence of the manufacturer, too, is
His own local newspaper be of course always patronises ; and I think that he should procure, besides, a London agricul tural newspaper, on account of the fulness
often placed in favourable contrast with of the reports of the numerous markets of that of the farmer ; and the usual example the kingdom, as well as foreign ones, of superiority is adduced in the manufac- which they always contain. turer availing himself immediately of every improved piece of machinery, while 6459. In conclusion, I would exhort the
the farmer is represented as neglecting young farmer to maintain that indepen similar opportunities for improvement in dence of mind and judgment, which is not his business. The cases are not at all only honourable and becoming, but a posi analogous.
The manufacturer knows, tive duty to the very important class of
with certainty, that the machinery which which he is a member. Let him never will suit a similar manufacture to his own forget that he belongs to a profession which
at one place, will suit his purpose also ; has been recognised, by those best entitled but the farmer has no certainty of an im- to form an opinion on the subject, as con plement suiting a district of the country tributing in no small degree to the main altogether dissimilar to his own in climate, soil, situation, and locality, answering his own. He prudently waits the approval of others before he adopts it in his own business, which is always
tenance of the constitution and liberties of
these islands; and that he is bound by every means in his power, whenever the occasion may present itself, to discharge the func tions of a loyal British subject. In part
materially affected in its results by theI that ing with the young farmer, I do not know I can better conclude than byexhorting would put the cases of the manufacturers him to maintain in his own person, and in
slightest change of the elements.
and farmers of this kingdom in this way : The British manufacturer is situated in the most favourable circumstances for the prosecution of his business, with coal, machinery, conveyances, and sea -ports, the British farmer is not, in regard to soil and climate. The foreign manufacturer is not placed, in those respects, in the most favourable circumstances for the prosecution of his business — the foreign farmer is.
his own sphere, the high, manly, and inde pendent character which for centuries bas been acknowledged as the attribute of the British agriculturist. And with an anxious and heartfelt hope that my labours may prove profitable and instructive to some of my younger brethren, and be consid ered by the more experienced as tend ing to illustrate the science of agricul tural economy, I conclude my task .
VILLE DE LYON Biblioth.du l'alais des Arts
INDEX.
( THE FIRST FIGURES REFER TO THE VOLUME : THE SECOND TO THE PARAGRAPH.)
Academies , education of the agricultural student at, i. 514 -compared with colleges , i. 515 Acrospire, what, i. 1922 Actinometer, the , ii. 3032 Acts , parliamentary, regarding importation of diseased ani. mals , ii. 3750
Adie , J. , on the thermometer , i. 164 Aged bull, what, i. 1154 - ewe, i. 927 — tup, ib . Agricultural colleges, seminaries, & c., Cirencester, i. 532 Hoddesden , i. 533 – Oxford , i. 534 - Templemoyle, i. 535 -Hofwyl, i. 536 – Möeglin , i. 538 – Grignon, i.539 . Agricultural pupil, where he can best acquire practical husbandry, i . 1 - time required for it, i. 11 -why he should go to a farm , i. 5 - winter an agreeable season to him , i. 6 - should become acquainted with the farm , i. 7 - fees payable , i. 8 - should not have a horse , i. 9 -- cloth ing required , i. 10 - difficulties he has to encounter, i. 12 --why these baffle him, i. 13 – should learn the minutiæ of labour, i. 14 - reasons of the difficulties of his profession, i. 16-how these are to be overcome, i. 18 - cannot ex
pect constant attention from the tutor farmer, i. 19 - why he should put his hand to any kind of work , i . 20 - should be thoroughly trained , i. 27 - should consult books, i . 29 should be acquainted with the laws of friction , the
strength of materials, &c. , i. 79 — institutions of education best suited for, i . 512 - his observing and recording facts, i. 559 - unable at first to understand operations, ib. should attend to minute detail, i. 560 - reason for this , i. 561 - importance of method in this, i. 562 - should know what constitutes the agricultural year, i. 563 – should take the operations as they occur, i. 565 — should observe every phenomenon, i. 567 - difficulties of his observing these , i. 568 -- should note the effects of the weather , i. 569 - and
the time each crop was sown , i. 570 — should keep a register of each field , i. 571 - best form for these , i. 572 should make a plan of the farm , i . 573 —— and of the stack yard every year , i. 574_summary of the results , i , 575 time not much required for these, i. 576 — to be initiated into mixed husbandry, i. 577 Agricultural year, the, i. 655
Agriculture, sciences most applicable to , i. 70 , 73 — hitherto purely practical, i. 71 - its neglect by men of science, i . 72 - natural philosophy in its applications to , i. 74 mathematics, naturalhistory, and chemistry, ib . - chair of, at Edinburgh , i. 522 Ahl , what, i. 2089 Air, effects of the respiration of plants on , i. 126 - chemical properties of, i. 212 Alder, specific gravity of, i . 119 Alluvial deposits, what, i. 491 - plants distinguishing them , i . 396 — and weeds, 397
Alsike clover, i. 2675
Angus doddies, points of, ii. 6228 Animal charcoal, on , ii. 3330 , 5012
Animals injurious and beneficial to man , i. 505 - carcasses of, as manure , ii. 5008 —- feeding of, see Feeding Annotto , nature , & c., of, ii. 4250
Ansted on the origin of soils, i. 488 Aphides, ii. 3300
April wheat, on , i. 2378 — its produce, ib . — its character, i. 2379
Arable farms, physical geography of, ii. 5216 — change that may be effected in , ii. 5219 - circumstances which affect their value, ii. 5220 — period of entering, ii. 5352 Arable soil, specific gravity of, i. 374 Arbitration , settlement by ii. 5369 Arnott, Dr, on the construction of machines, i. 80 - on natural ventilation , i , 100 - on the friction of water in pipes, i. 110 - on the thermometer , i. 168 – on the pro
perties of coal, i. 187 — on light, i. 189 --and colour, i. 191 Arsenic , danger of application of, ii. 4785 Artificial grasses, what, i. 2634 Ash , specitic gravity of the, i. 119 — its ash , i. 465 Ash pits should not be near cottages, ii. 5549 Aspen , specific gravity of the, i. 119 Asphalt , not suited for floors of steadings, ii . 5420 Atmosphere , height of the, i. 82 — its pressure , i. 83 - its components , i. 84 - why the temperature sinks as we ascend , i. 101
August's Psychrometer , i. 183 Aurora borealis, the , i. 600 — its elevation , i. 601 — the prog nostics of, i. 602 — seen in winter, i . 564 - in spring, i. 2175 -in summer, ii . 3063 — in autumn , ii . 4350
Autumn , its distinctive character, ii. 4319 - its tempera ture , ii. 4321 — its effects on the animal system , ii. 4346 Aynesley, Mr, his experiments with special manures on car rots , ii. 4944
Ayrshires, points of, ii. 6229 Back - band , the, 1. 682
Bag, the, peculiarly formed for carrying grain , ii. 6395 Bagging, kind of reaping called , ii. 4494 Bagrie, Mr, his draught mare , ii. 6216 Baikiefor cow -byres , a , i. 1131 Bandster, the, ii. 4508 Band-win reaping, ii. 4472 Barley, ash of, i. 462, 1288 — its botanical position , i. 1906 classified by the ear, ib. - by the grain into bere or bigg , i. 1907 - and barley, i . 1908 — varieties cultivated in Scotland, i. 1909 - criterion of it for malting, i . 1910 crops of it, i. 1911 - quantities malted, i. 1912 - pot and pearl, i. 1916 - gluten in , i. 1917 - its composition, i. 1918 its fecula , i. 1920 — its geographical distribution, i. 1924 meal , i . 1290 —-period of sowing, i. 2685 — ploughing of
Ammonia, its electric state, i. 143 — sulphate of, ammo
land for, i. 2686 — sown when spring wheat cannot, i.
niacal salts, & c ., see Special Manures Analectric bodies, what , i. 122 Anatomy, comparative , study of, by the farmer , i. 510 Anbury in turnips, ii. 3312 — insects accompanying, ii. 3313 Anemometer, the,i. 98 - Lind's, i. 99 Aneroid barometer, the , ii. 4322 - observations with , ii.
2687 — furrows ploughed deep for, i. 2689 - hand and machine sowing, i. 2690 - quantity down , i. 2694 — sowing affected by the weather, i. 2695 — sown in autumn cannot stand the winter, i. 2702 — instance of ribbing , i. 2703— its treatment in Germany, i.2704 - itsculture in summer , ii. 4120 - top - dressing, ii. 4123 — its diseases in summer,
4323
Angleberries in cattle , i. 1384
130 — the crops of it vary , ii. 4128 - insects affecting it , ji: 4551circumstances in which it may be sown in
784
INDEX.
Barley , continued autumn, ii. 4880 — its culture in autumn , ii, 48825own
then as a forage crop , ii. 4884 - grown first as forage, then as green , ii. 4885 -winter, grown in genial cli mates , ii. 4886_effects of special manures on , ii. 4925 -mineral ingredients taken by it from the soil, ii. 5057 — the cost of replacing these, ii. 5070 — heat required to ripen it, ii. 5240_extremes of temperature that will ripen it , ii. 5245 — straw , ash of, i. 1970
Barley meal, i. 1290 — its composition, i. 1919 - commended by the ancients, i. 1921
Barley sprouts, used in feeding cattle, i. 1282 — ash of, i. 1283 -- their composition , i. 1284 Barn sheet , the , i. 1740 Barometer, kinds of the, i . 85 - tables of, i . 86 — how to use it , i. 87 - its cost, i. 88 — its general indications, i. 224 affected by the wind , i. 225 -- and the latitude, i. 226– its mean in England in winter, i. 654 - in spring, i. 2175– -in summer, ii. 3035 , 3063 - in autumn , ii. 4350 - its mean height each month for 30 years , ii. 4324 - pheno mena accompanying its oscillations, ii. 4325 - its indica tions during autumn , ii. 4326
Barren ewe, what, i. 929 —- gimmer, i. 925 - mare , i. 1432 Barrow for sacks , the, i. 1818 Bars, see Swing -trees
Basalt, specific gravity of, i. 119 Basket, seed , i. 2317 -- for potato sets, i. 2746 Bath for sheep,soft soap , ii. 4749 — sulphur, ii. 4750 — tobacco liquor, ii. 4751 Batts in horses, i. 1490
Blood -burn in meat, how produced , ii . 3646 Blowflies , checkered, ii. 3755 - green , ii. 3756_bluebottle
and larder, ib. Blows, injuries to stock from , ii. 3652 Blurton's milking tube, i. 2263 Boar or brawn , what, i. 1587 Boar-pig, what, i . 1587 Boiler and furnace, the, i . 1467 Boiling, how produced , i. 185 Bokhara clover , see Clover
Bonedust , preparation of the land for, ii. 3227 — its action on the soil, ii. 3229 — its surprising effect, ii. 3231 - best to use it with farmyard dung, ii. 3233 -- and sulphuric
acid , ii. 3235 — modeof fermenting it, ii. 3236 - its cost, ii. 3237 — its durability, ii . 3324 - its specific gravity , ii. 3326 -its composition , ii. 3328 — heated with steam , ii. 3331 the parts useful for manure, ii. 3332— compared with farm yard manure , ii. 3333 — sort most efficacious, ii. 3335 where obtained , ii. 3336 - way of keeping it , ii. 3339 effect of heating it, ii. 3340 — importation of it , ii. 3342 Bones, composition of, i. 1512- sulphated, see Special Manures
Book -keeping of the farm , allegations regarding, against farmer , ii. 6404 — why farmers cannot follow a regular system of, ii. 6405 -- necessary difference in farming and mercantile, ii. 6406_theory of farm , ii. 6407 - explana tion of cash and farm account-books in , ii. 6413 - explan ation of inventory and valuation of stock in , ii. 6414
explanationof the estimate of rent, ii. 6415 – explanation of Dr. and Cr. sides of, ii. 6414 --modification of the sys
Beaches, weeds which they supply, l. 399 —- lake, i. 400
tem of, ii . 6436
river, i. 401 Beans, mineral ingredients in , i. 462 — their botanical posi tion, i. 1950 —— their grain , ib . - crops of, i. 1952 --used by horses , i. 1953 — their composition, i. 1299 , 1954 + fecula of, i. 1956 — ancient notions regarding, i. 1957, 2451 - ash
Boring- irons, ii. 5876
Boss, pyramidal, ii. 4650 - prismatic, ii. 4651 — formed by a bundle of straw , ii . 4652
oftheir straw , i. 1982 -nutritive matter in an acre of,i.
Boswell, Mr, his experiments on the feeding of cattle, i. 1339 , 1365 Bot, great spotted horse, ii. 3680 — red -tailed horse , ii. 3861
1298 — their ash , i. 1300 — barrow for sowing them , i. 2434 apparatus for sowing, i. 2438—9owing of them , i. 2409— suitable soils for, i. 2410 - their place in the rotation, i.
-others, ii. 3862 Bots on sheep, ii. 3752 Botanical physiology, what, i. 322
2411 --the culture is suited to their nature, i. 2412 - sown
Botany, a branch of natural history , i. 215 — how divided , i.
in drills , i. 2413 - and broadcast, i. 2414 - culture of the ground for them , i. 2415 — sown with or without manure ,
320 -- systematic, i. 321 Bothy system , mode of abolishing the , ii. 6302 Boussingault, remarks of, on the feeding of cattle , ii. 3664 Bowels , inflammation of the, in horses, i . 1491 Box- beds, evils of, in cottages, ii. 5541
i. 2426 - broadcast without manure , i. 2427 - and with , i.
2430 — in rows in the flat without manure, i. 2428 - and with , i. 2431 - in drills without manure , i. 2429 - and with , i. 2432 — applying the dung in the drills, i. 2433—
sowing with the bean-barrow , i. 2434 - applying the dung in rows in the flat, i. 2437 - and in broadcast, i. 2440
variety sown , i. 2441 - and quantity, i. 2442 -- use of the
Box -feeding sheep, i. 964cattle, i. 1369 Box hand -churn , the, ii. 4216 Boxes for feeding cattle, size and cost of, i. 1369 — compared with hammels, i. 1370
drill-harrow ,i. 2443 -- cases in which alone to be sown in the flat, i. 2449 - where not to be sown , i. 2447 — their culture in summer, ii. 3979 — much affected by insects , ii.
Brake- harrow , the, i. 2416 Bramah's hydraulic press , force of, i. 107
3982 — increase of crop bycutting off the tops, ii. 3986
-and poultry, i. 1632 Branding-iron , the, ii. 4022 Bratted sheep, a, i. 1038
their culture for winter, ii. 4418 - turnips sown between
the drills, ii. 4423— reaping of them , ii. 4577 - winning, ii. 4655 - effects of special manures, on , ii. 4936 - mineral ingredients they take from the soil, ii. 5059 - cost of re placing these , ii.5702
Bean -meal, feeding of cattle with , i. 1297 — its composition , i . 1299
Bearing reins, i. 1681
Beech , specific gravity of, i. 119 - percentage of mineral in gredients in , i. 465 Beef, proportion of tallow to , ii. 6147 — and of offals, il. 6148 - staple of animal food, ii. 6149 — loss by cooking, ii . 6150_salted , ii. 6151 - imported , ii. 6153 - tierce of, ii. 6154
Beef bones , specific gravity of, i. 119 Beer, antiquity of, i. 1923 Beet, mineral ingredients in , i. 463 - ash of, i. 3399. See also Mangold -wurzel Beetle, the pea , ii. 3990 Beistyn, what, i. 2248 Berberry, the, does not affect wheat, ii. 4115
Berkeley, Rev. Mr, on the potato disease, ii. 4162 Bigg's sheep -dipping composition, ii. 4767 Binding sheaves, methodof, ii. 4479
Birch , specific gravity of, i. 119 - ash of, i. 465 Birds, injury to grain crops from , ii , 4694 -- scarecrows for frightening, ii. 4709 -- poison used against , ii. 4710 -- gun powder most efficacious, ii. 4712 Bistournage, see Torsion Biting fly , the, ii. 3864 Black ears in oats, ii. 4136 -- in wheat, ii. 4118 Black earth of China , its use , ii. 4984
Black bonnet injurious to crops, ii. 4697 Blackfaced sheep, points of, ii. 6231 Blackthorn moth , the, injures hedges , ii. 5689
Blinding in sheep, ii. 3744
Bran , composition of, i. 1880 ---feeding of cattle on , i. 1327
Bratting sheep, what, i. 1035 — how done, i. 1036 — its cost , i. 1037 - preferable to salving, i. 1040 Brats, time for taking them off sheep , ii. 3726 Braxy in sheep , i. 1077
Bread, fondness of horses for , i. 1443 — from oatmeal, i. 1938 — from rye -meal, i. 1949. See also Wheat
Breaking-in , necessary for young draught horses, ii. 6087– a horse-breaker should be employed, ii. 6088 - mode of, ii. 6089 - and of first working a young horse , ii. 6090 effects of the harness on the skin , ii. 6093 — first shoeing, ib .- docking, ii. 6095
Breeding, principles of, ii. 6249 — functions of the locomo . tive organs, ii. 6251 -- of the vital, ii . 6252 - and of the mental, ii. 6253- selection of parents, male, ii. 6260 selection of parent, mares , ii. 6261 - cows, ii. 6262 - ewes , ii. 6263 - points derived from the male and from the female, ii. 6265 - each parent should be perfect, ii . 6266– characteristics of the best cattle , ii. 6269 – in -and-in , ii. 6273 - immediate effects of this, ii. 6274 - ordinary idea of it not correct, ii. 6275 — male first fails in it , ii. 6276
crossing, its object, ii. 6277 - ordinary crosses, ii. 62784 crosses cannot be maintained , ii. 6279 - law of crossing, ii. 6280 - difficulty of maintaining a cross permanently, ii. 6281 - summary of the laws of, ii. 6282 Brewers' draff, ash of, i. 1279
Bridle, the, i. 680 - price of, i. 1542 Bridling in sheep , i. 1069
Broadcast sowing, effects of the surface on , ii. 3522 - on waste of seed by, ii. 3531, 3535 - produce of grain and straw by, ii. 4537
Brodie, Mr, experiments on the feeding of cattle by , i. 1325
Broken wind in horses, i . 1499 Brood mare , what, i. 1432-Sow ,
i. 1587
INDEX . Brooms for barns, i. 1794 Brown-tailed moth , the, injures hedges, il. 5689 Bruce , Mr, his experiments on feeding sheep , i. 976 , 981 ; ii. 3122
Brush for horses , i. 1419 — price of it, i . 1424 Buccleuch , Duke of, his short -horn cow , ii. 6212 - his Leicester tup, ii. 6219 - his Leicester ewe and lamb, ii. 6220 — his brood sow , ij. 6221 - his boar, ii. 6237 Buckwheat, not suited to Britain , ii. 3464 — its culture, ib . - its use , ii. 3463 — its botanical position , ii. 3465 and character , ii. 3466 -- composition of its green stem , ii. 3467 -- and ofthe seed , ii. 3468 - ash of the seed , i. 462 ; ii. 3469 - nutritive matter in an acre, ii. 3470 — its geo graphical distribution , ii. 3471 - quantity imported , ii. 3472, 4668 - reaping and winning of it , ii. 4660 — its pro ductiveness , ii. 4661 - its straw good for fodder , ii. 4665 -used for poultry, ii. 4666 Buisting.iron , the, ii. 4018 Bull , calf, what, i. 1152 - rearing of, i , 2290 -- treatment of, in summer, ií. 3818 - ringing of his nose , ii. 3819 - goes with the cows in summer , ii. 3825 — becomes vicious when confined , ii. 3826 - fond of calves, ii. 3827 - should be
785
Carpenter-work of the steading, specification of the, ii. 5434 - measuring it, ii. 5468 - its cost, ii. 55124- timber used in , ii. 5469 — for cottages, ii. 5557
Carrion crow , the, destructive to sheep , ii. 3718 — and to poultry, ii . 5207
Carrots , mineral ingredients in , i. 463 — pulling of, i. 837 - storing of, i. 838 — specific gravity of, i. 853 - com position of, i. 854—- varieties of, i. 897 ; ii. 3411 --nutritive matter in , i. 898 — save hay to horses , i. 899, 1441 why their culture limited , ii. 3403 - soil for, ii. 3404 depth of it required , ii , 3405 - manuring, ii . 3406 - cul ture, ii. 3407 — sowing the seed , ii. 3410_insects infesting it , ii. 3416 -- recipe against these , ii. 3418 - weight of crop, ii. 3421 - hares, & c., destroy it , ii. 3422 - limitations to its culture in Scotland , ii . 3423_its botanical position , ii. 3425 — and character, ii. 3427 - water in it , ii. 3428 - ash of the root, ii. 3429 — and of the leaves, ii. 3430 - ash in
one ton , ij. 3431 - raising it in Belgium , ii. 3432_its seed easily raised, ii. 3433 — seed imported , ii. 3434 - effects of special manures on it , ii. 4943
Carse farms, what , i . 39 — of what extent, capital, and rent , i. 40 — feed no sheep , i. 991-- treatment of cows in winter
kept separate, ii. 3828-- number of cows served by, ii. 3829 - prize , ií. 3830 - farms onwhich not kept, ii. 3831— andon which kept, ii. 3834, 3836 - trial concerning one, ii. 3837
on , i. 1221 -- plan of steading for, i. 1249 — have no pas turage, ii. 3719 - graze no young cattle , ii. 3778 - grow hay , ii. 4067 Carse farmer, qualifications of the , i. 41
Bulls, hammels occupied by, i. 1149 — ring for them when open, i. 3820— when closed, i. 3821 - putting it in , i. 3822 -swivel for leading -rein for, i. 3824when called aged ,
Cart for water , i. 2075 — for liquid manure , i. 2076 - Cross
i. 1154
Bulled , what, i. 1154 Burnett's reckoning cycle, i. 2238 - ewe-house, i. 2597
Bullock - holder, the, ii. 3823
Burning, see Paring Bushel, the, i. 1806 — it the statutory measure of grain , ii. 6393
Bush - harrow , the, ii. 3732 Butchers, their mode of purchasing sheep, il. 3588 Butter, making of, ii.,4217 - tub , ii. 4218 - fat kit, ii. 4219 -moulds, i . 1511 ; ii. 4220 — spade, ii . 4221 - texture of, ii. 4222 — from cream , ii. 4223 — from the entire milk , ii. 4224 — salt for , its quantity , ii. 4226 --and quality, ii. 4227 - process of salting, ii. 4228 - kit, ii. 4229 — how kitted , ii. 4230 — its composition , ii. 4274 - yield of, ii.
4275 - composition of its fat, ii. 4277 — its production not yet understood, ii. 4276 - new churned unwashed , ii. 4313 Buttermilk , how disposed of, ii. 4225 — its properties, ii.
kill's , i. 2077 - Stratton's , i. 2078 Carts, i. 1824 - single and double, i. 1825 — single tilt one , i. 1827 - double horse one, i. 1828--nails for, i. 1830
proportion of weight on the horse's back , i. 1831 - yoking of horses to , i. 1832 — and unyoking, i . 1839 — shed for, i. 1840 - grease for, i. 1841 --frame for tilt , ii. 4594 - corn and hay, ii. 4595 — Robertson's, ii. 4596 - advantages of, ii. 4597 -- treatment of, ii. 6343 Cash -book , ii, 6409 Castration , see Calves, & c .
Cats, treatment of, ii. 5204 Cat's - tail grass for pasture , on , i. 2645
Caterpillars, destructive character of, ii. 3298 Catgut, manufacture of, ii. 6173 Cattle , winter accommodation of, in the steading , i. 1083
names of, at different ages, i. 1152- black , i. 1155_
horned, ib .- neat, ib. - dodded, i. 1156 — humbled, ib . slicing of turnips for, i. 1170 - how fed every day, i. 1168 --how foddered and littered , i. 1190 — these should be done regularly , i . 1211 - loss on , when these are ne glected , i. 1213 - how fed for a show , i. 1214 - dressing & c .
4278
Byre, the cow , i. 1120 - plan of, for large dairy farm , i.
1231 - stone troughs for it, i. 1239 - hydraulic apparatus for, i. 1240-- how occupied in winter , i. 10 : 5 — mangers for, i. 1122 — door for supplying green food to , i. 1123— stalls for, i. 1121 - floor of, i . 1125_seal for, i . 1132 window for , i. 1133 - cooler for, i. 1224 — those for oxen , i. 1138
Cabbage, composition of, i. 855 - mineral ingredients in , i. 463 - good for milk cows , i. 893 - ash in the fresh leaves, i. 894 — its crop, i. 893 -- as a substitute for the potato , i. 895 - relished by lambs, i. 973 - affects a strong soil, ii. 3368 — its culture, ii. 3369 — transplanted or sown , ii. 3370 -weight of crop , ii. 3372 — top- dressing for, ii. 3374 attacked by insects, ii. 3375 — its botanical position, ii.
3376 - ash of the leaves, ii. 3377 - mineral ingredients they take from the soil, ii. 5063 — cost of replacing these , ii . 5076 — pulling, i. 841 - storing , i. 842—the turnip rooted , ii. 3379 Caillat on the mineral ingredients of plants, ii. 4996 Calf , or cow -calf, what, i. 1152
Calf -bed, coming down of the, on cows, i. 1387 Calves , cribs occupied by the , i. 1143 —-treatment of, when
Calf -louse , the, i. 2299
dropped , i. 2270 — their navel -string examined , i. 2275– their first food , i. 2276_objections to tying them by the
neck , i. 2284suckling, i. 2285 -- castrating, i. 2286– weaning, i. 2289 - bull, i. 2290 — farms on which they are reared , i. 2292 — fed for veal at Strathaven , i. 2293 — and near London , i. 2294 - diseases of, i. 2296 -- navel-ill, ib. -costiveness, i. 2297 —- scouring, i. 2298 -- louse, i. 2299 gasteritis, ii. 3843 — joint fellon , ii. 3846 - chine fellon ,
ib .-- quarter-ill, ii. 3847 — period of weaning, ii. 3838 age of, ii. 3839 — get good pasture after weaning , ii. 3841 -may graze among cows and young cattle , ii . 3842
Campbell, Mr, of Jura, his West Highland ox , ii. 6227 Cantelo's incubator improved , ii. 5194 Capons , i. 2957 - mode of preparing, ii. 5187 - feeding of, ii. 5191
Carbon , electric state of, i. 142 Carlins , what, i . 1963
Carmichael, James, on the food of horses in winter, i. 1447 VOL. II.
of, in the byre , i . 1215 -- how the different kinds of turnips are appropriated to , i. 1216_washing of turnips
for, i . 1217 - thawing of frozen ones, i. 1218 - weight attained by , i. 1219 - different kinds of food besides turnips, i. 1252 — Warnes' compoundfor,i . 1307— feed ing on swedes and mangold -wurzel, i. 1316 - on turnips and hay , i. 1320 - on distillery draft and dreg , i. 1321— on linseed oil , i. 1322 — feeding with green malt, i. 1324 on different kinds of food , i. 1325 — table of live weight, beef, tallow , and hide, ib . - feeding on bran or pollard , i. 1327 - on steamed and raw food , i. 1329 , 1338 table of live -weight, beef, & c. , i . 1332 — feeding on boiled and raw food , i. 1339 — on oil -cake , i. 1342 -- with Warnes ' com
pound, i. 1351 -- on boiled linseed and ground corn , i, 1354 — on oil-cake, i. 1360 - on oil- cake, bean -meal, and turnips, i. 1361 - linseed preferable to bean-meal or oil cake , i. 1362— Marshall's and Warnes' compounds com pared, i. 1363 — fed in hammels and byres , i. 1365 - and in boxes, i. 1369 — how best to be fattened , i. 1373 - dis eases of, in winter, i. 1374_lice , i. 1375 – ox - louse , i. 1376 , 1377 - choking, i. 1378 — hoven , i. 1381-- fardle bound, i. 1383 — warts and angleberries, i. 1384 – encysted tumours, i . 1385 - ticker, i. 1386 —- coming down of calf bed , i. 1387 -- chaff in the eye , i. 1388 - fat, are sold in spring, i. 2172 — fat, determines their disposal, ii. 3609— symmetry explained , ii. 3612 - judging of, ib . - determi nation of the weight by the live-weight , ii. 3624 -measur. ing of them , ii. 3625 — determination of the weight by the
measurement, ii. 3626 — why these rules are not perfect, ii. 3634comparison of tables in live and dead weight, ii. 3635 – preparing them for the road , ii. 3642 — their treat ment on it, ii . 3643 - qualifications of their drover , ii. 3644_their treatment at a ferry, ii . 3645_disadvantages of overdriving, ii. 3646 — blemishes which disfigure them , ii. 3647 --practices of salesmen in London , ii. 3650 injuries by overcrowding in markets , ii. 3651 - and by blows and bruises , ii. 3652 - benefits of steamboats and
railways, ii. 3654 – should be carried by railways by weight, ii. 3655 — at Smithfield each month , ii. 3657 and there from various districts, ii. 3658 - in Great
Britain , ii.3660 — importationsinto London, ii. 3661 — and into the kingdom , ii. 3662 -- daily increase in fattening, 3D
786
INDEX .
Cattle, continued ii. 3668 - time for putting on pasture , ii. 3765 - treatment
Cirrus, character of the, i. 238 — its relative heights, i. 239 its periods of duration, i. 240 — colour of the sky with it ,
of cows on pasture, ii. 3766_and of young, ii. 3767 best size of field for them , ii. 3768 — young require little
i. 241 — its indicationsas to weather, i. 242 Cistern, rain - water, ii . 5531 Clay, burning of, ií. 4991 --specific gravity of, i. 119_that of brick , grey, and loamy clay, i. 374- soil, su Soil Clay loam , character of, i. 337 - plants characterising, i. 388
tending on grass, ii. 3769 — do not crop grass close, ii. 3770 - treatment of calves on pasture, ii . 3771 - water essential to them on pasture , ii. 3775 — and advantages of sheds, ii. 3777 -- farms on which young are not grazed , ii. 3778 - treatment of the cows on dairy farms, ii. 3779 and by dairymen in towns, ii. 3780 — the calves go with
their dams on pastoral farms, ii. 3781 - grazing of the young on pastoral farms, ii. 3782 - points of young, to
purchase for grazing, ii. 3783 — and age, ii. 3784 - pasture confined to the border counties of Scotland, ii. 3789—
fattening on pasture in Holland,ii. 3790 — in Normandy, ii. 3792 - in Old Friesland , ii. 3795 — and in Galloway, ii. 3797 - diseases of, in summer ; chill, ii. 3798 — those of the teats, ii. 3799 — warbles, ii. 3803 - by the cleg, ii. 3804— pleuro -pneumonia , ii. 3805 - laryngites, ii. 3815 — inter
nal tumour, ii. 3816 — insurance of, ii. 5563 -slaughtering of, see Slaughtering Cattleman , duties of the, i. 65, 1150 — carrying straw a large proportion of his work , i. 1158 - convenient mode
-and weeds, 389 Clay marl , composition of, ii . 6032 Claying the soil in the fens of England, i. 2119 - process of, i. 2124
Cleg , the cattle , ii. 3804 — horse, ii. 3859 Climate, inattention to its effects on vegetation , ii. 5221 definition of, ii. 5222 - general, characterised , ii . 5223– mean temperature not sufficient to indicate, ii. 5237
local, ii. 5255 — this to be observed in looking at farms, ii. 5262
Cling of belly in cattle, what, ii. 3643 Closing in cattle, what, ii. 3617 Clouds, how formed , i. 174 - height of, i. 261-- number of, i. 174 — how classitied , i. 236 - how suspended in the air,
i. 237 — what prognostics of, i. 260 — the cirrus, i. 238– the cumulus, i. 243—the stratus, i. 248 — the cirro
of it for him , i. 1159_his dress, i. 1160 should be regu . lar in his time, i. 1161 — his day's work described , i. 1162 -his wages , ii. 6317 Centigrade thermometer, the, i. 164
cumulus, i. 250 — the cirro -stratus , i . 253 — the cumulo
Cereal grains, the, see Wheat, Barley, & c. Chaff, removal of, from the eye of cattle, i. 1388 – of wheat, not relished by cattle, i. 1965_of barley, relished by
cirro -cumuli, i . 2148 - autumn, ii. 4332 — their hues pecu liarly rich then , ii . 4340 - cirrus, cirro -cumulus, cumulus, cumulo -stratus, stratus, ii. 3009 Clover, red and white , percentage of mineral ingredients
them , i. 1969 - of oats , its uses , i. 1973 - of beans and
stratus, i. 255 — the cirro -cumulo -stratus or nimbus, i. 258 i. 607 — the prevailing in spring, i. 2146 — cirri, i. 2147
-scud, i. 259 - size of, i. 262 — the most common in winter,
pease, eaten by cattle and sheep , i. 1980 Chaff -house , the, i. 1682
in , i. 464 -- red , its properties, i. 2636 — white, 2637 - yel low, i. 2638 - seed of red, its weight and cost, i. 2640
Chaff-sheet, the, i. 1749
that ofwhite, i. 2641 — that of yellow, i. 2642— its botani cal position , i. 2669 — soil best adapted for red , i. 2671— varieties of, i . 2672 - perennial red , ib.-- the process of doctoring the seed , i. 2680 -- where imported from , i. 2681 -duty on importation , i. 26582 - its treatment in Ger. many , i. 2683 - dodder , ii. 3885 -- the crop in various sea sons, ii. 3886 — thrives in any soil, ii. 3887 — its manage ment in Flanders, ii. 3888 - sick land , ii. 3889 preven
Chaffinch , the , injurious to crops , ii. 4701 Chain , measuring, ii. 5601
Chalkas a top-dressing, il. 6027 — mode of applying it, ii.6028 - quantity, ii. 6029 Chalk soils, character of, i. 341 Chalmers, Mr, experiments by, with special manures , ii. 4931
Charcoal, heat produced by, i. 186
tive suggested for this, ii. 3890 - green more nutritious
Charge, ii. 6435 Chaser, what, i. 2577
than dry, ii. 3891 - comparison between stall- feeding and tether- grazing on , ii. 3892 — never injures cattle before flowering, ii. 3893 — disease of, ii. 3894 — composition of thegreen stems of, ii. 3896 — ash of, ii. 3897 - cultivated in China, ii. 3898 — and rye- grass, effects of special
Cheddar cheese , composition of, ii. 4287
Cheese , utensils for making of, ii. 4231 — the milk warmed for it, ii. 4232 — calf's stomach for rennet, ii. 4233 - cut ting of the curd , ii. 4235 — the salting it, i . 4239 - after
manures on , ii. 4965 - crimson , its culture in England, ii.
pressing, placed in the cheese -room , ii. 4245 - casualties
4370 -its pecuniary advantages, ii. 4376 — the tardif or
to which subject, ii. 4250 — on the dyeing of, ii. 4251 yield of, per acre and per cow, ii. 4286 — its composition , ii. 4287 — its ash , ii. 4288 --- forms of, ii. 4289 --from whey,
4375 — Bokhara, ii. 4377 - red for seed , sown alone, ii.
ii. 4290 — from buttermilk , ii. 4291 - from potatoes, ii.
4292 — Parmesan , ii. 4293 — Cheshire, ii. 4294 - Stilton , ii. 4295 -- the fly and maggot, ii. 4296 - mouldy, ii. 1297 inoculation of it , ib .-the mite, ii. 4298 - destroyed by
rats and mice, ii. 4299 -- prussic acid produced from un sound , ii. 4300 — imported, ii. 4301 - cream , ii. 4312
Cheese -press, stone, ii. 4242 — combined lever, ii. 4243 Cheese -room , the, ii. 4193 Cheese- turner, the, ii. 4247 Cheese -vat, the, ii. 4240 Chemical action , electricity evolved during, i. 128 Chemistry, science of, i. 197 - practical classes of, i. 523 Cheviot hills, peculiarities of the pasture on , ii. 4005 Cheviot sheep, points of, ii. 6230 Chickens, cock distinguished from hen , i. 2891 - treatment of, i. 2892 -time when they leave the hen , i. 2896 - super
late-flowering, ii. 4374 — would be a boon to Scotland, ii. 4380 — its culture for seed , ii, 4381 - injured by a weevil, ii. 4382 - period of cutting down, ii. 4383 — thrashing from the husk , ii. 4384 — importation of seed , ii. 4385 -- red , mineral ingredients takes from the soil, ii. 5060 - cost of replacing these, ii. 5073 Clyers , ii. 3816
186 – ashes, composition of, ii. Coal, 5020heat produced by, i. Cobham red wheat, variety called , i. 2377 Coccinella , see Ladybird
Cockermouth limestone, composition of, ii. 6035 - lime, ii. 6039
Cock's - foot, rough , for pasture, i. 2645 Cod in cattle , what, ii. 3618 Coffee, mineral ingredients in , i. 462 Coke, heat produced by, i . 186
stition of the Greeks in their management, i. 2936 —
,Mr, experimentsby, with special manures, ii. Colbeck 4957
hatching of, in Egypt , i. 2943 — and in France, i. 2944– Bucknell's hatching in England , i. 2947 --and Cantelo's,
Colds in horses, i . 1492
i. 2948 — habits of, when artificially hatched, i. 2952— profits of hatching, i , 2953 - diseases of, i . 2954
Childers, Mr , experiments of, on the feeding of sheep, i. 958
Chill , the, in cattle , ii. 3798 — its effects, ii. 3647 Chine -fellon in calves, ii. 3846
Chlorine accompanies soda , ii. 5053 Chloroform , employment of, in slaughtering animals , ii . 6189
Choking in cattle, i. 1378 Chubb's locks, on, ii. 5519, 5520 Churns , classification of, ii. 4212 - varieties of, ii. 4213 table, ii. 4214 - box - hand , ií. 4216 — power, ii. 4254 Cirencester, agricultural college at , i. 532 Cirro-cumulus, the, how formed , i. 250 — by what wind changed , i. 251 - weather indicated by, i. 252
Cirro -stratus, how formed, i. 253 - weather indicated by it, i . 254
Cirro -cumulo -stratus, or rain -cloud, the, i. 258
Collar, the East- Lothian draught-horse, i. 676 — the For farshire, i. 677 — the English , i. 678 Colleges, advantages of, over academies, i. 516 Colt-foal, what, i . 1432
Colours, their origin , i. 191 — their influence on vegetation , i. 193
Colza, the, ii. 3457 - cultivated for its seed , ii. 3458 Comins, what, i. 1922. See Barley sprouts Compass, the , ij. 5602
Composts,forming of, in winter, i. 2037 --- carriage of mate
rials,i. 2041 - order of materials, i. 2012 — of peat-tur? and lime, i. 2044— of farmyard dung and peat-turf,i; 2045--of lime and mould , i. 2046 — ofrape-cakeand of mould, 1. 2047 — of shell-marl and bog-turi,i. i.2048 burned bog -turf, i. 2049— of potato-shaws, & c , 2051 , ofprivies,pigeons — of deadanimalsandmould,1.2052 -of sawdust, i.205 + of dung, fowl dung, & c.,i. 2053 spent tanners 'bark , i. 2055 of tishrefuse, i. 2056 - of
1. 2037— of whin -cuttings and mould,c. whale-blubber, 2058 - ofquicken, horse-dung , and nitrate of soda,i. 2059
INDEX . -of the solid refuse of manufactories, i. 2060 - and the
liquid , i. 2061 --mixed up besides in liquid -manure tank , i. 2074 Concrete, not suited for floors of steadings, ii. 5419 Consumption dykes , what, ii. 5957 Consumption in pigs, i. 1596 Contract and job work , comparison of, ii. 6334
Coprolites, ii. 5005 — their composition , ii. 5006 — their manufacture for manure , ii. 5007
Corns in horses , i. 1498 Corn , sale of, Scotch law of, ii. 6399 Corn -account, wheat, ii. 6420 - barley, ii. 6421 - oats , ii. 6422
Corn -barn, the, i. 1679 - outer door of, i. 1680 — floor of, i. 1681
Corn -barrow , the, i. 1741 Corn -basket, the, i. 1790 Corn -box for sheep , i. 943 Corn -bruiser, hand, i. 1313 — power, i. 1314 Corn -bunting, the, injurious to crops, ii. 4698 Corn -chest for work -horses , i. 1409
Corn -markets , ordinary purchasers in , ii. 6382 - stock and sample , ii. 6383 - stock , ii. 6384 — sample, ii. 6385 — settlement of cash in , ii. 6387 - advantages of stock , ii. 6388 -- and disadvantages, ii. 6389 — advantages of sample , ii. 6390 - and disadvantages, ii. 6391 - grain now sold by weight and measure in , ii. 6397
787
Craig, Mr ,his Cheviot tup, ii. 6230 Cranston , Mr, his Ayrshire bull , ii. 6229 Cream , yield of, from milk , ii. 4257 - cannot rise from great depth of milk , ii. 4267 — not entirely fatty matter, ii.4268 dishes made from , ii. 4306 Cream -jar, ii. 4207 - skimmer, ii. 4206 Creosote, preservation of meat by, ii. 6188 Crib -biting in horses, i. 1502 Crimson clover, see Clover
Crook , sheep, i. 2568 Cross -ploughing before winter , on , 2448 —- in spring , i. 2603 - reason for it , for barley, i. 2606 — preparation for it , i. 2608 — feering for it , i . 2611 - the furrow in it , i.
2618, 2619 — deep ,distinguished from trench ploughing , i. 2625
Cross -table , the , ii. 5603 Crossing , see Breeding Crosskill's liquid -manure cart, i. 2077 — clod - crusher, ii. 3099 Crown -and-furrow ploughing, i. 752 Cruciferæ , geographical distribution of the, ii. 3284 — their character, ii . 3285
Cumulo-stratus, the, i. 255 — weather indicated by , i. 257 Cumulus, the, i. 243_weather indicated by,i.245 Curd analogous to other substances , ii. 4279 - yield of, from milk, ii. 4280 -- for rennet, how prepared , ii. 4285– and cream , ii. 4304 - treacle posset, ii. 4316 Curd -breaker , ii. 4236 — cutter, ii. 4234
Corn-measures , usualdenominations of, ii. 6398
Curry -comb for horses, i. 1419 - price of, i. 1424
Corn - store for sheep, i. 1063 Corona in winter, i. 605
Currying cattle in byres, on , i. 1215 Curtis, Mr, his experiments on feeding cattle, i. 1322 Curwen, Mr, ingredients employed by, in feeding cows, i.
Corrosive sublimate, danger of using, ii. 4786 Costiveness in calves, i. 2297 — in lambs, i. 2594 Cottages for farm -servants, long in a neglected state, ii. 5537 — thetendency now too much the other way, ii. 5538 for small families in one room , ii. 5539 — for large ones in two , ii. 5542_of two stories, ii. 5544 - cost of, ii. 5548— double, ii. 5546 — improved foundations for, ii. 5550— position of fire- places in, il. 5551 — chimneys of, ii. 5552— chimney -top , ii. 5554 - rain -spouts round , ii. 5559 - win dows for, i. 1134
Couch - grass sold for forage, ii. 4178 Coulters for ribbing land, i. 2630
Couplings for fastening hurdles, i. 1050 Courts, how occupied in winter , i. 1083 Couteur, Colonel le, his classification of wheat, i. 1844 Coventry, Dr, his mode of estimating a grain rent, ii. 5309 — its advantages, ii. 5310 Covering, what, i. 1432 Cowie, Mr, experiments by , on feeding horses, i. 1436
Cows,what, i. 1151- occupythe byre,i.1141 — the servants occupy their own byre, i. 1142 — kept on every species of farm , i. 1220 — how treated in winter on carse farms, i. 1221 - on pastoral ones, ib . - on dairy ones, i. 1222— cooking of their food , i. 1223 - serving itout, i. 1225 - near towns, how treated in winter, i. 1241 - and in Edinburgh , i. 1242 — give more milk in byres than on pasture ,i. 1372 -effects of being turned out to pasture in winter , ib . calving of, i. 2181 - their treatment before it, i. 2182—to ascertain them to be in calf, i. 218their womb, i. 2186 --time of calving to be registered, i. 2187 - yielding most bull or heifer calves, i. 2188 -- coming down of the call
bed, i. 2189 - administration of their food, i. 2190 - criti cal period before calving, i. 2191 - oil-cake good when in calf, i. 2192 - over-leanness to be avoided , i. 2193 — slink
1243
Cut sow - pig , what , i. 1587
Cutaneous eruptionsin spring , i. 2166 Cutting - bill, the, ii. 5642 Dace of hay, what, ii. 4061
Dairy farms, what, i. 45 — stocking, capital, rent, & c., of, i. 46 - qualifications of the occupant, i. 47 — fatten no sheep , i. 993 — treatment of cowsin winter on , i. 1222— require rich old pasture , ii. 3721 --- cows graze most in summer , ii. 3779 - grow hay , ii. 4069 —- ordinary business of, ii. 4252 - how to estimate the fixed money - rent, ii. 5287 - most convenient time of entry, ii. 5353
Dairy -maid , duties of the , i. 67
Dairymen in town, ordinary business of, ii. 4252
Dairy operations on mixedhusbandryfarms, ii. 4191 Dale'shybrid turnip , see Turnip Daniell's hygrometer, i. 181 Danskin vegetable mould , composition of, ii. 5999 Dart-moth ,the, injures the roots of wheat, ii. 4111 - and of oats, ii. 4137
Davis, Mr, quantities sown by, ii . 3540 Dealers, mode of purchasing sheep by, ii. 3588 Deep - ploughing,its object, ii. 5978 — by trench and subsoil ploughs ,ii. 5979 Devon ox , Lord Farnham's, proportion of offals to live. weight, ii. 3632
Dew ,how formed , i. 175 — theories of, i 176 — its phenomena , ii . 2976
Diarrhea in pigs , i. 2874
Dibble -sowing,experiments on the waste of seed by, ii. 3531 , 3533 Dibbling, produce of grain and straw per acre by, ii. 4537
ing of the calf, i. 2194symptoms of calving, i. 2200 attendance at their calving, i. 2201 - preparations for it,
Dickson , Mr, his experiments with special manures on
i. 2202 – presentation of the calf, i. 2204 — its treatment
Digging, cost of, ii. 6002 Digestion, organs of, in the domesticated animals, i. 1645 Diluvium , what, i. 490 Dinmont, what , i. 924 Discharge, ii. 6434 Disease , tendency to , in autumn , ii. 4354 Diseased animals, acts regarding importation of, ii. 3751 Diseases, see Horses, Cattle , Sheep, & c. Distillery dreg, sce Dreg Ditcher's shovel, the, ii. 5604 Dobits , Mr, his experiments on feeding cattle , i. 1327 Docking horses, on , ii. 6095 Dogs, worrying of sheep by , ii. 3757. See also Shepherd's
after birth , i. 2207 — its apparent death after birth , i. 2209 --difficult presentation of it, i. 2211 — the after birth , i.
2219 - food after calving,i. 2222--and treatment, i. 2224 -when they again desire the bull, i. 2230 - heifers first brought to the byre , i. 2236 -- table of the reckoning of
their calving, i.2237 — complaints of, aftercalving ; puer peral fever, i.2240 — corded teats, i. 2241 - red -water, i. 2242 — tail-ill, i. 2244— inflammation ofthe udder, i. 2266 --first milking after calving, i. 2248 — hefting of, i. 2250 milk - veins in , i. 2251 - their sensitiveness in milking, i. 2254 - milking side of, i. 2255 — the persons who milk , i. 2256 — ways of milking, i. 2257 - ill-treatment makes troublesome in milking, i.2261 - yield the milk differently, i. 2262 - milking by tubes, i. 2263 — differintime of giving milk , i. 2267 - spaying , to keep in milk , i. 2268 — the best
Imported from Holland, &c., il. 3663 - chapped teats, ii. 3799— sore ones,ii.3800 — warty ones, ii. 3801 -- Cow -pox , ii.3802 - afford different quantities and qualities of milk, ii. 4256 - yield of, in butter and milk , ii. 4258 Cow - cabbage, the , ii. 3382 Cow - clover, i. 2673
Cow -clubs, ii. 5565 Cradle -scythe for reaping , ii. 4497
oats, ii. 4933
Dog
Domesticated animals , origin of the, ii. 6248
Double mould -board plough , the, i. 2363 -- for drilling -up land , i. 2406
Downs, weeds peculiar to , i. 407 Draff, brewers', used for feeding cattle, i. 1277 - its com position , i. 1278_its ash , i. 1279 — its weight, i. 1280— best used with other ingredients, i. 1281
Draft ewe, what, i. 930 - gimmer , ib . Drafts, what, i. 930
Drainage, temperature of surface raised by , ii. 5247
788
INDEX .
Draining, enclosing should precede, in new ground, ii. 5776 -how known whether land requires, ii. 5778 - time for, ii. 5782_extent of,in any year, ii. 5784 — fall requiredfor, at the outlet , ii. 5790 - failascertained in flats by a level, ii. 5789 — fall in field to be ascertained , ii. 5792 - exploratory drains, ii. 5793 - data for contracting afforded by these, ii. 5794— superintendence of, ii. 5795 - main drain marked off, ii. 5796 - and small drains, ii. 5799_- determination of the depths, ii. 5800 - experimental distance , ii. 5804 — the distances probably effective, ii. 5808_laying down the tiles, ii. 5810 - main drains cut, ii. 5811 - filling of the main drains, ii . 5820 - sub -main drains cut, ii. 5828 small drains cut, ii. 5831 - and filled in , ii. 5837 - earth
way of making them , i. 2031 - treatment of farmyard , i. 2712 - are turned over, i. 2713 -- sometimes not for potatoes, i. 2714 - rules for forming proportional, i. 2716
-are turned by field -workers, i. 2718_the daces cut by a man , i. 2719 - mode of turning, i. 2720 - state of, after it , i. 2722 — twice turned for turnips, i. 2723 - old some times preferred for swedes , i. 2725 - old modeof manag ing, l. 2726 - new mode ofturning, i. 2727 - indications of the fermentation in , i. 2731
Dung -hawk, the, i. 2433 – spade, i. 2012 Dunlop cheese, composition of, ii. 4287 Durham , Mr, his mode of keeping harness horses, i. 1533 Dust-balls in horses, i. 1503
Dutch ashes, composition of, ii. 4989 Dutch clinkers, for floor of steading, ii. 5422 Dutch hoe, ii. 5699 Dwellings, certain plants always near , i. 428
returned into the drain , il. 5848 - drains should draw from below , ii. 5850 —-plan of thorough -drained field , ii. 5851 - cost with tiles , ii. 5852 — physical benefits of, ii. 5853 — pecuniary benefits, ii. 5856 - obstructions in drains, ii . 5859 - dress for drainers, ii. 5865 — Elkington mode of, ii. 5866 - that of cemeteries, ii. 5878 — with stones , ii . 5879 - cost of these , ii. 5889 —- bogs, ii. 5890 - sheep , ii.
Dyke, drystone, used as a fence, ii. 5692 - generally con structed on erroneous principles, ii.5693 - how measured , ii. 5694 – double and single faced , ii. 5695_tools for, ii.
5900 — land for plantations, ii. 5905 -costof,ii .5910— quicksands, ii. 5911 - railway cuttings, ii. 5912 — most
5098 - boulders carried and stones laid down , ii. 5699
effective along the slope of the ground , ii. 5927 — minimum depth determined by field operations, ii. 5931 - soles always used with common tiles, ii . 5932- answer to objections against pipe -tiles, ii. 5933 - bulk of earth relieved by, ii. 5935 — should be complete at once , ii. 5936 -effects on peat, ii. 5938 - does not remove manuring matter from the soil, ii. 5939 — water discharged by, ii. 5941 - proportion of expenses to be paid by landlord and tenant, ii.5943
Drains for liquid manure , i. 1113 — for rain -water, i. 1118 ;
5696 - time for erecting, ii. 5697 -- digging foundation, ii. mode of building it, ii. 5702 — various expedientsfor con venience, ii. 5711 — best at first , ii. 5719_inferior to
hedges, ii. 5720 — for a sunk - fence , ii. 5721 Earth, specific gravity of, i. 119 Earth, chemical properties of the, i. 214
East-Lothianplough, the, i. 662 - two-rowed turnip -sowing drill , ii. 3208
Edging -iron , ii . 5892
Edinburgh, chair of agriculture at, i. 522_classes of prac tical chemistry at , i. 523 - laboratory of the Highland Society at , i. 524_veterinary college at, i. 528 —- dairies,
ii . 5426 Drain -gauge, the, ii. 5816 Drain -scoop, to draw , ii. 5813-- to push , ij. 5835 Drain -spade, narrow , ii. 5812 - narrowest , ii. 5835 Drain - tube, larch , ii. 5896 Drain -water meter, ii. 5940 Drainer's plumb -level, the, ii. 5821 Draught bars, see Swing- trees Dreg , distillery , used for feeding cattle, i. 1273 — its com position, i . 1275
Education best suited to agricultural students, i. 512 scientific, for sons of farmers , i. 517 Ee the wheat , the, ii. 4119 Egg , constituentparts of the , ii. 5170 — the shell, ii. 5171– the membrane, ii. 5172 - the white, ii. 5173- its ash , ib . --the yolk , ii. 5174difference between white and yolk ,
common , ii. 3253 — Wilkie's, and harrow , ii. Drill-grubber, 3254
ii. 5175 —-specific gravity of, ii. 5176 - proportion of re spective parts, ii. 5177 ---changes on , by boiling, ii. 5178
Drill-harrow , rectangular, i. 2443 - triangular, i, 2446
Drill-sowing, effects ofthe soilon , ii. 3524 - experiments on waste of seed by , ii. 3531 , 3534
Drill-sowing machine , ii. 6341
Drilling-up land, true and false, i. 2381 - land made flat prior to , i . 2382 —— the prior ploughing affects , i. 2383— partakes of the form of the ground, i. 2384 - single and double , ib .-- varieties of single , i. 2386 , 2390 - distinction between these, i. 2391 - feering for double , i. 2394 varieties of double, i. 2397, 2398 -- difference between
them , i. 2399 - double always unequal, i. 2400 — obliterat ing horses' footmarks, i. 2402 - width of drills, i. 2403—
why double with the common plough is unequal, l. 2404 -double mould -board plough for, i. 2405 - produce of grain and straw per acre by , ii. 4537 Driver for stakes, the, i. 906 Drosometer, the , ii. 2978
Drover , cattle, should have no dog , ii. 364 + of sheep, his qualifications, ii. 3594 Druce , Mr, his Hereford ox , ii. 6226 Dry fogs, ii. 2981 Ducie grubber, the , i. 2421
Ducks, winter treatment of, i. 1604early layers, i. 2925— hensgood foster-mothers for, i , 2926 - treatment of young, i. 2928 --numbers reared at Aylesbury, i. 2929 — hatching of, in China , i. 2950 —— to secure their eggs, ii. 5167
Dudgeon, Mr J. , his experiments on feeding pigs, i. 1598 Dung from the cow -byre , how affected under cover, i. 2024 -horse and cow , compared, i. 2025, 2027 — loss on , by fermentation , i. 2026 — pigs, compared with cow, i. 2028
-and sheep's,i. 2029 - effects of its application on weeds, i. 2030 — its colour affectedby that of the straw , i. 1986– and urine, comparative values of, ii. 5019 Dunghills, forming of, in winter, i. 1999 - contents of all the courts formed into mixed , i , 2000 — position of, in the
treatment of cows in winter in , i. 1242 - sheep market at , ii. 3601
source of the bone of the chick, ii . 5179.- nature of animal
albumen , ii. 5180 — comparison of seed and it, ii. 5181— Eggs in winter, i, 1616 - scheme for producing a large num ber of, i. 1635 - old , not worth hatching, i. 2939_daily phenomena in hatching, i. 2940 - period of laying , ii. sex of, ii. 5192
5155 - nests provided for laying, ii. 5156 — places suitable for these, ii.5157 - time for collecting, ii. 5158 - marked characters of, ii. 5160 - treatment of, ii. 5161 - to preserve
fresh, ii. 5163 - importation of, ii. 5185 — duty on , ii. 5186 Eild gimmer, what, i. 925 — cow , i. 1154 --mare, i. 1432 Eirometer, the, ii . 3961 Electric theory of vegetation , the , i. 135
Electricity, its nature undefined , i. 120_universally dif fused, i. 121 --when excited , found at the surface of bodies, i. 123 - accumulates in the atmosphere when set
free, i. 124 – conductors and non -conductors of, i. 122– its causes uuexplained , ib .-- positive and negative, i. 123 means of exciting it, i. 124 — the atmosphere the great reservoir of, ib .sources of, i . 125 - states of the ground when it is evolved from plants, i. 127 — its force, i. 129–
identified with galvanism and magnetism , i. 130 - velocity of, i. 131 - develops plants, i. 131 -considered as one or two fluids, i. 136 - resides on the surface of matter , i. 137 --and vegetation , i. 149 - easily excited in metals , i. 151 Electro -culture, how suggested , i. 133 -- its first application , ii. 5023- how electricity can be made available to it, ii. 5024 - apparatus necessary for it, ii. 5029_results of
experiments in , ii . 5031 - conclusions from them , ii. 5032 -practicable to a limited extent, ii. 5033
Electrometer, the, i. 132 Elliot , Mr, experiments by, with special manures, ii. 4950 Elm , specific gravity of, i , 119 - mineral ingredients in , i. 465
for, in the field , i. 2018 - general treatment recom
Embankment, where necessary , ii. 5744 - dimensions of, ii. 5745 - line of, ii. 3746 —- construction of, ii. 5748_faced with single - faced dyke, ii. 5749 - cost of making , ii. 5750 -time for making, ii. 5751 - watering pool to be pro vided , ii. 5752 — of larger dimensions, ii.5753 Emigrants should acquire agriculture , i. 556 - reasons for this , i. 557 - agriculture the best knowledge they can acquire, i. 558 Enclosure, depends on the purpose intended , ii. 5567 - a
of mended , i. 2019-0 from , i. 2020 these, i. 2090 -- plan of field -stance for, i. 2021 - drains for oozings, i. 2022 - examination of strictures on common
devoid of such , ii. 5569 - individual fences determined by various circumstances , ii. 5571 -- on the direction of the
fields, i. 2001 - formed in fallow -fields, i. 2003 — emptying of courts for , i. 2006 - form of, in the field , i. 2009 - com pression prevents fermentation, i. 2010 - covering on
them , i. 2011 — from the hammels, i. 2012 — from byres, i. 2013-no fermentation in winter, i. 2014 ---from un covered courts , i. 2015 - covered in the fields, i. 2016 fermentation much in the farmer's power, i. 2017 — shed
ring -fence indispensable,
5568 - carse farms
often
INDEX .
789
ridges , ii . 5572 - parallel to each other, ii. 5573 - in straight lines , ii. 5574 - shape determined by circum stances , il. 5575 - size of, ii. 5581 -- position , ii. 5582
in the grain market, ii. 6448_his duty in experiments, ii. 6450 - his duty to his servants, ii. 6453 — his duty to his
number, ii. 5585 - small objectionable, ii. 5587 — of the
his recreations, ii. 6457 - his comparative position, ib. his duties as a subject, ii. 6459 Farming, different kinds of , i . 34 pastoral, i . 35 -- carse, i.
ancients, ii. 5589 Encysted tumours in cattle , i. 1385 English draught-horse collar, the, i. 678 Entire colt, what, i. 1432_horse, ib.
Entomology, its connection with agriculture , i. 506 Ergot of barley, ii. 4128 — its probable cause , ii.4129 Ergot of rye , its properties, ii. 4143 — its ash , ii. 4144 - its poisonous effects, ii. 4145 - chronic ergotism on the Con tinent , ii. 4146 - aids parturition , ii. 4147 Ermine moth , the , injures hedges, ii. 5629 Evaporation, electricity induced by, i. 125, 128 - in spring , i. 2151 -in summer, ii. 3028 — from the ground and from water , ii. 5248
Ewe hogg, what, i. 926lamb, what, i. 923 Ewe-milk cheese, composition of, ii. 4287 Ewes in lamb , how treated in winter , i. 950_lambing of, its time and duration , i. 2538 - preparations for lambing, i. 2541 - extracting the lamb without assistance , i. 2547— and with , i. 2548 - treatment after lambing, i. 2550 -- how to support orphan lambs, i. 2553 - put out to the field , i. 2555 - examples of unnatural presentation , i. 2557 — means used to make them take their own lambs, i. 2561 and to take those of others, i . 2563 - effects of condition
onlambing, i. 2565 - pet lambs, i. 2567 - mode of catching, i. 2568 - yield of lambs by Leicester, i. 2578 — by Cheviot , Blackfaced , and Southdown, i. 2580 - putting out to grass , i. 2581 - farms on which kept, i. 2582 - lambing of Cheviot and Blackfaced, i. 2584_lambing on the hills, i. 2585 — its time, i. 2587 - diseases of, i. 2590 - slipping of lamb, ib. — protracted labour, i. 2591 -- inflammation of the womb, i. 2592 - udder -clap , i. 2596 - individual, sheltered in ewe-house , i. 2597 — mode of milking, ii. 3996 -a busy time in the farm , ii. 3997 — its injurious effects when continued, ii. 4002 — drafting of them and gimmers, ii. 4007 - marks which determine this, ii. 4008 - a pro portion only drafted , ii. 4009 — their treatment after draft ing, ii. 4011 - drafts, when disposed of, ii. 4012— drafting in hill-farms, ii. 4013 — period of lambing from tupping,
ii. 4716 -- and gimmers put together,ii. 4718 - their treat ment before tupping, ii. 4719 - length of tupping season , ii. 4725 — marked as tupped , ii. 4726 - treatment of, after tupping, ii. 4728 - gimmers later tupped than , ii. 4732 --their treatment on hill-farms in autumn, ii. 4734 diseases of, in autumn , ii. 4740 Exhortations to the young farmer, ii. 6439 Experiments, the farmer engaged in practical, ii. 6348— suggested by men of science, ii. 6350 — their primary ob
ject, ii. 1352 - mode of conducting, ii. 6353- ingredients used in , ii. 6357 - and quantities of these, ii. 6358 — these all weighed ,ii. 6361 - collecting the products, ii. 6362— difficulties in conducting, ii. 6363 - qualifications of the suggestor of, ii. 6366 — and of the maker of, ii. 6367 - em ployment of special manures in , ii. 6369 -- and of saline ingredients, ii .6370 Experimental farm , why unsuited for tuition, i. 541
Factor, the ignorant, i. 548 —— the competent, i. 549 Fahrenheit's thermometer , i. 164
Fairs, when first instituted , ii. 3602 Fardlebound in cattle, i. 1383
Farm , persons required to conduct the, i. 55 — where these are respectively required , i . 68 — supposed extent of the, to be farmed, i. 656 — pigs kept on all kinds of, i. 1594 those in which calves are and are not reared , i. 2292—
neighbours, ii. 6455 -his duty to his landlord, ii.6456– 39 — near large towns, i. 42 — dairy, i. 45 — at a distance from towns, i. 48 - mixed , i. 50 - why recommended , i. 53, 54
Farm -horses, names given to , i. 1472 Farm - servants receive potatoes as part of wages, ii. 4809— hiring married , ii. 6284 - and unmarried , ii. 6287 - mode of it, ii. 6288__conditions of it, ii. 6289- workmen , ii. 6298Scotch law ofhiring, ii. 6290 — markets for it, ii. 6300. Farrow , what, i. 1587 Farrowed , what, i. 1587 Fat, distribution of, ií. 6187 -- Liebig's theory of its forma tion , ii. 6272 Feathers, origin and structure of, i. 2942 - to prepare for use , i. 1623
Feeding of animals , rationale of the , i. 1643 -- their organs of digestion , i. 1645 — their functions explained , i. 1646– the æsophagus of the horse , i. 1647 -- the stomach of the pig, i. 1648 - those of cattle and sheep, i. 1649--- intestines, i. 1650 - rumination , i. 1652 - digestive organs of birds, i. 1658composition of the food of the domesticated ani mals, i . 1664 - Liebig on digestion, i. 1666 — the saccha rine and azotised parts of food , i. 1673 Feering-pole, the, i. 741 Feering ridges, on, i. 742 Fen land, soil and drainage of, i. 2120
Fever, milk or puerperal, i. 2240min lambs, i. 2595 Fiars prices, not a true estimate of prices of grain , ii. 5314 -the old mode of striking , ii. 5315 Field operations, summary of, in spring , i. 2130_should always be in an advanced state , i. 2176 - time lost in them cannot be made up, i. 2177 — best advanced by subdivision
of labour, i. 2178 - examples of advanced labour in , i. 2179 -- and of the contrarystate, i. 2180 — summary of, in summer, ii. 3064 - anomalies in , in autumn, ii. 4353 summary of, in autumn, ii. 4357 Fields, a few small, useful, ii. 5584 Field -sports commence in autumn , ii. 4355 Field -workers, their duties, i. 66 - their wages , ii. 6318— their condition as bondagers, ii. 6318 Filly foal, what, i. 1432 Fingers-and -toes in turnips, ii. 3314 Finnie, Mr, experiments of, with special manures on barley, ii. 4926 — on oats, ii. 4930 - on turnips, ii. 4951 - on tares, ii. 4963 - on clover and rye- grass, ii. 4965
Fire balls, number of, in spring, i. 2175 — in summer , ii, 3063 — in autumn, ii. 4350 - in winter, i. 564 Fire -fanging in dung, what, i. 2024 Fire -insurance , necessity of, ii. 5560 Flail, construction and action of the , ii. 4080_often errone ously constructed, ii. 4081 - American , ii. 4082-- used in England, ii. 4083 Flanders, value of human manure in , i. 2091 - contents of liquid -manure tanks in , i. 2092 - composition of liquid manure in , i. 2093 — to what it owes its efficacy, i. 2106 Flauchter -spade, the, i. 2818 — how used , i. 2819 - work - done by , i,2821 -- cost of using it,i. 2822 Flax , mineral ingredients in , i. 462 - sowing and summer treatment of, ii. 3096 - quantity sown, ii.3108-time of
sowing, ii. 3110 - weeding of, ii. 3115 — dodder, ii. 3117
mode of offering for one , ii. 5316 - conditions of this de
its botanical position , ii. 3118 - Greek period of sowing, ii. 3128 - native country of,ii. 3130 — test of its ripeness, ii. 4425 - pulling, ii. 4426 - rippling , ii. 4427 - steeping, ii. 4428 - spreading, ii. 4429 —- lifting, ii. 4430 - should not be steeped by the farmer , ii. 4433 - crop of, ii. 4434 - seed used for cattle , ii. 4435 - structure of the plant, ii. 4436
pendent on its state , ii. 5317 - the common mode objec
good quality ofitself and of seed incompatible , ii. 4438
occupy the entire surface of the country , ii. 5210 — local
climate to be ascertained on looking at, ii. 5262 — common
tionable, ii. 5321 better mode of offering recommended , ii. 5322 — periods of entering, ii. 5351 - how the outgoing crop is disposed of, ii. 5359 - questions of minor import, ii. 5362 - most convenient time of entering , ii. 5354 - most common one in England, ii. 5355 - those near towns feed
no sleep, i. 992 — treatment of cows in such, i. 1241—no winterings kept on such , i. 1251 - pasturage not profitable on such , ii. 3720 — more profitable for such to dispose of grass than hay, ii. 4070 - ordinary dairybusiness of such , ii. 4252 - arable, see Arable - carse , see Carse , &c. Farm account- book , ii. 6410 Farm book -keeping , see Book -keeping Farmer , what he is, i. 56 - qualifications, &c. of the tutor, i. 2, 19 - should be acquainted with mechanics, i. 78 , 79 --and with hydrostatics, i. 102 – difficulties of his profes. sion , i. 15 — exhortation to the young , ii. 6439 — his duties and obligations, ib . — his duty to his farm , ii. 6440 — his duty to his live -stock , ii. 6447 - his duty
forms a scourging crop , ii. 4439 - ash in flax steep , ii. 4440 — value of fabrics , ii. 4441 - extremes of heat that will ripen it , ii. 5245
Flea -beetle, the turnip, ii. 3290 Fleece, the, on what rolled up , ii. 3934 preparation of it for rolling, ii. 3935 — freeingit from impurities, ii. 3936 how rolled up , ii. 3937 – differences in them , ii. 3938– coarse stray locks, how used, ii. 3939 — storing of, ii. 3940 -moth which attacks, ib.
Flesh , decayed , poisonous, ii. 6190 — its constituent parts, ii. 6191 - its alkaline and acid principles, ii. 6192 motion of its juices , ii. 6193 Flesh -coloured trefoil, i. 2676 Flint, specitic gravity of, i. 119 Flour of wheat, the, i. 1863 Fluids, operation of gravity on , i. 103 Fluids and solids, the laws of, i. 114 Flukes in sheep, ii. 4714
790
INDEX.
Fly, black -horned , injures pease, ii. 3988 — the horse, ii. 3863 — the wheat-stem , ii. 4108 — the wheat, ii. 4109— probably long known , ii. 4110 Foal, what , i. 1432 - soon gains its feet to suck , ii. 3673should be assisted , ib . - its weight to that of the mare, ii. 3700 — its growth, ii. 3701 - its increase after weaning, ii. 3702 — and after the first year , ii. 3703 — its increase in proportion to its food , ii. 3704 Fog , formation of, i. 263_varies with electric state , i. 264 its states difficult to explain , i. 265 - prevails from hot and moist soils, i. 266 — what wind bringsit, i. 267 – prog. nostics of, i. 268-- its optical effects, i. 269 Folding of sheep , the, ii. 4173 Fold - pitcher for setting hurdles, i. 1049
Foot-pick , the, ii. 3149 Foot-picker for horses, i. 1419 - price of,i. 1424
of laying, i. 2911 - confined to lay each egg , i. 2912 - set
on a made nest,i. 2914suppliedwith oats while sitting, i. 2915— should haveliberty to go off the eggs, i. 2916– treatmentofthegoslings, i. 2920 — bringing up byhand, i. 2924 - their treatment in autumn, ii. 5166 Gelding, what, i. 1432
Geology, science of, i. 215 — its connection with agriculture , i. 330
Gimmer, what, i. 924 - drafted like ewes , ii. 4010
Glazier-work of steading , specification of, ii. 5505 — sky lights, ii. 5506 Gloves, reapers', ii.4556 Glue, whatmade of, ii. 6159
Gold of pleasure, injury to flax from , ii. 3116 Goose fat, composition of, i. 1633 Gore - furrow , i .756
Foot-rot in sheep, i. 1073 - causes difference in management Grain, thebotanical classificationof, i. 1842 – Couteur's, of of hill pasture, ii. 3725 Foot-sore in cattle, itseffects, ii. 3647 Forage plants , see Soiling Force -pump, action of the, i. 90 Forest fly , the, ii. 3865
Forfarshire draught-horse collan, the, i. 677 Fork , stable, i. 1420 - Lincolnshire straw , ib . — for sheaves, ii. 4598 — for trenching, three- pronged , ii. 3151 - twopronged , ii. 3152 - mode of protecting, i. 1765 Fork , trenching, ii. 3148 -- cost of, ii. 3155, 5995
Forking from theground, ii. 4613 - hooded stooks, ii. 4615 from the cart and on the stack, ii. ii. 4616-gaitins, 4625 Four- teeth ewes, what, i. 931 Fowls, common , treatment of, in winter , i. 1601 - diseases of, i. 1624 - sniffters, i. 1625 - classified list of diseases, i. 1626 — lice, i. 1627 – symptoms of laying in hens, i . 2880
-every hen should not sit, i.2881 - selecting the eggs, i. 2882- making the nest, i. 2885 - place chosen for sitting, i. 2886 — time of day best for sitting , i. 2888 - supplying food whilesitting, i. 2889 — appearance of the chicks, i. 2890 — hens should be set in succession , i. 289 + are dis-
posed to wander , i. 2895 - treatment of, in autumn, ii. 5147
Fox , the, destructive to poultry, ii. 5195 Frame for tilt -cart , the, ii. 4594 Free martin, what, i. 1154
Friction , attending to, in constructing machinery, i. 79— of water in pipes, i. 110_its effects on the motion of water, i . 115
Frost, what, i. 613 — where it originates, i. 614 - extent of its penetration into the ground, i. 615 - always present in winter, i. 616 — its uses in husbandry , i. 616 Frost -smoke, effects of, i. 639 Fuel, kinds of, i. 186 Full -mouthed ewes, what, i . 931 Fungus, definition , &c. , of, ii. 4112 - originates diseases in crops , ii. 4113
Furze, used for horses , i. 1450 - mineral ingredients in , i. 465 - used as a hedge, ii. 5690
wheat, i. 1844 - classification by the car and grain , i . 1845 - proportion of, to straw per acre, ii. 4533 - dry cannot be cooked by steam , i. 1463 — birds destructive to ,
ii. 4694 - carrying of,ii. 4590 — winning, ii. 4592 - stack yard prepared for it, ii. 4593 — forking it from the ground , ii. 4613 - clearing the ground of stooks, ii. 4614forking stooks, ii. 4615 -- and gaitins , ii. 4616 - loading cart with sheaves, ii. 4617 - roping the load , ii. 4618 - tares for the horses, ii. 4620_setting cart to stack , ii. 4623 — unloading it , ii. 4625 Grains, see Draff
Graip , the, i. 1165 — the three -pronged dung, i. 2433 — the potato , ii. 4796 Granaries, i.1685 - in towns, ii. 6394 Granite , specific gravity of, i. 119 - preparation of, for manure , ii. 4992
Grass , thatching of stacks with , ii. 4658 - preservation of, for fodder in Germany, ii. 4088
Grasses, effects of deep -sowing on , ii. 3558 - artificial, i. 2634
Grass cocks of bay, what, ii. 4083 Grass parks, let in spring, i. 2173 Grassseeds, time for sowing, i. 2631 - varieties sown , i. 2633 — and quantities, i. 2635 - mixed when sown , i. 2646 - sown by hand, i. 2647 - by machine, i. 2648 - harrow
ing in , i. 2652 — the cereal grains among which sown , i. 2655 - frost injures, i. 2665 Grating for drains in steading, i. 1112 Gravel pits, the weeds they supply, i. 403
Gravel, seashore, the weeds itsupplies, i. 404_and river , i. 405 Gravelly loams, character of, i. 340 — soils, i. 339 Grease for carts, i. 1841 Grease in horses, i. 1493 Greenfinch , the, injurious to crops, ii. 4695 Green glass, milk -dishes of, ii. 4197 Green manures, for fallow , white mustard , ii. 4174 - green weed , ii. 4180 — used in different parts of the globe, ii . 4181
Green rose-chafer, the, injures turnip seed, ii. 4186 Green skit in lambs, i. 2581
Gardner, Mr, his experiments with special manures on wheat , ii. 4919 - on barley, ii. 4925 - on oats , ii. 4932— on beans, ii. 4936_on potatoes ,ii. 4940 — on swedes, ii. 4947 - on yellow turnips , ii. 4953 — on clover and ryegrass , ii . 4967 - on lea , ii . 4968
Grey linnet, the, injurious to crops, ii. 4700
Grieve, the, his duties, i. 57 — not required always to work , i. 58 — not required on every farm , i. 59 Grignon, agricultural school at , i. 539
Grisenthwaite, Mr,on special manures, i. 205 , 207 - on the
Gaitin of oats, what , ii. 4512 Galactometer, the, ii. 4269 Galvanism , identified with electricity, i. 130, 152 — its name
benefits of chemistry to agriculture , i. 209 Groom for the saddle -horse , the , i. 1523 Ground and air , connection of temperature between , ii.
and discovery, i. 151 Game fowls , i . 1622
Grubber, Kirkwood's, i. 2417 — Ducie's, i. 2421
Gander, castration of the, ii. 5193 Garden mould , specific gravity of, i. 374 Gardens, the hind's, dressed in spring, i. 2170 — farmer's , i. 2171
Garget in ewes , ii. 3995 Gasteritis, its symptoms, ii. 3843 — its treatment, ii. 3844its prevention , ii . 3845
Gates, field , repairing of, ii. 3572_convenient position for, ii. 3573 — and use , ii. 3574fixing the posts of, ii. 3575
theirstructure, ii. 5756 - strengthening their rectangle,
5246
Grubs, injurious to turnips, ii. 3310 Guano, excellent for turnips, ii. 3238 — best with farmyard dung, ii. 3239 -- its name, ii. 3343 — compared with excre
ments of quadrupeds, ii. 3344its use in Peru , ii. 3345— Bolivian and Chilian, ii. 3346 - African , ii. 3347 - ana lyses of, ii. 3348 - azotised matter in , ü . 3350 -- adulter ations of, ii. 3351 - price of, ii. 3352 -- importation of, ii.
3353—quantities used , ii. 3354 - effects of, ii. 6376 Gunpowder, use of, to frighten birds, ii. 4712
Gülle, what , i. 2093
ii . 5757--the diagonal when of wood , ii. 5758 - use of the tie, ii. 5759 — imperfections of the common , ii. 5760— trussed wooden , ii. 5761 -iron , ij . 5762 — tension iron , ii. 5763 - angle iron , ii . 5765— Miles ' iron posted wooden , ii. 5766 - posts, ii. 5767 — hanging them , ii. 5768 - fastening ,
Gypsum , calcinationof, ii. 4997. See alsoSpecial Manures
ii. 5769 - painting of, ii. 5770 - posts in the Isle of Man , ii. 5773- cause of the destruction of the wood, ii. 5774
Haims, i. 679
Gaulting , see Claying Gaws or grips, i. 779
Geddes' turnip -sowing drill, ii. 3212 Geese , treatment of, in winter, i. 1603 — their incubation
early, i. 2909-- embrace only on water, i. 2910 - symptoms
Hail, ii. 3000 — its formation, il. 3005 - stormsof, in summer, ii. 3063 — in autumn, ii. 1350 — in winter, i. 564, 640. insurance against, ii. 5564
Hainault scythe, the, ii. 4496 Hair, its composition, i. 1507 — its production , i. 1508 - its structure, i. 1509_manufactured, i. 1510 - of animals, affected in summer , ii. 3062
Halo in winter , i. 604
Hams, imported , ii. 6185
INDEX . Hammels, how occupied in winter, i. 1084 — how fitted up , and size, i. 1004- comparison between, and byres, i. 1365 Handcocks of hay, what, ii. 4055 Hand -hoeing the wheat crop, ii. 4099 Hand-pick , the, ii. 5604 Hand - rakes, ii. 4039 / using them , ii. 4040 - American , ii. 4087
Handling cattle, how done, ii. 3622 Hannam , Mr, his experiments with special manures , ii . 4938 , 4955
Happergawin , what, i. 2320 Hard lands, what , i. 2119
Harness , where accommodated , i . 1405 – price of, i. 1542— cleaning, ii. 6333 — for carts, i. 1832 — for the shaft-horse , ib. for the trace one , ib . - its weight, ib . - of Forfarshire trace- horse , i. 1833 - of leather , i. 1836 - reins, i. 1837— shaft -horse in , ib.- and trace one, i. 1838 Harness-plough, the Lothian collar , i. 676 — the Forfarshire, i . 677 - and the English , i. 678 — haims, i. 679 — bridle, i. 680— bearing- reins, i. 681 - back -band , i. 682 — reins, i.
683_ornaments ,i. 684 weight of, i. 685 Harness of the saddle-horse, i. 1534 Harrows, rhomboidal, in wood , i. 2346 — in iron , i. 2349— the tines, i. 2350 — how equipped , i. 2352 — drill, rectangu lar, i. 2443_triangular, i. 2446 - brake, i. 2416 — for grass seeds, i. 2652 — iron , for grass seeds, i. 2653—— Norwegian ,
ii. 3104- snow, i. 2599-for spreading top -dressing on pas Harrowing , how done, i.2355 - cross, i. 2356 - finishing,i. ture , ii. 3732 - carriage for, ii. 6005 — treatmentof, ii. 6337 2357 — to judge of, i . 2358 — importance of good , i. 2359
Harvest, the great event of autumn, ií. 4351 Harvest bug , the, i. 2956
Hatted kit, ii. 4314
Hawthorn butterfly, injures hedges, ii. 5689 Haxton, Mr, his experiments on sowing. ii. 3544 Hay, Mr, his experiments on sowing, ii. 3533 , 4872 Hay , should be raised on hill - farms, i. 1041 - given to work
horses, ii. 3087--- and to young horses, ii. 3089 -- to feeding cattle , ii. 3090 — nutritive properties of, ii. 3092 - ash of,
ii. 3093 — good old, ii. 3094_bad, ii. 3095 - making, not well done in Scotland, ii. 4023 — how done there , ii. 4024 -why this mode is pursued , ii. 4025 — from natural and artificial grasses , ii. 4027 - cut by the piece, ii. 4029 English mode of making , ii. 4033 — English mode of stack ing , ii. 4042 - economical mode of carrying, ii. 4046 Scotch mode of making, ii. 4052 - and of stacking, ii.
4060 — made on carse farms, ii. 4067 - on pastoral ones, ii. 4068 - on dairy ones , ii. 4069 -- and on mixed hus bandry ones , ii. 4071 - crop of, ii. 4072 -the English the best mode of making, ii. 4073 — making in Saxony , ii. 4074 Hay -house for work -horses, i. 1408 Hay-knife, the, ii. 3086 Hay -racks in work -horse stable , i. 1393 Hay -rake, the American , ii. 4084 Hay seed ,mode of securing , ii. 4079
Hay -stack, how cut down and brought in , ii. 3085 - oblong, English mode of making , ii. 4045 — two forms of heads, ii. 4046_heating in , ii. 4047 – preparatory to thatching, ii. 4048 — thatching, ii. 4049 - round form , ii. 4050_oblong , Scotch mode of building, ii. 4060 - ascertaining the con tents of an oblong, ii. 4076 — of a round , ii. 4077 Heat, electricity excited by, i. 124 - antagonistic to gravity, i. 159, 160 - cannot be seen, i. 161 - alters the forms of
bodies, i. 162 – expansion of bodies by, i.169 - produced by various fuels , i. 186 — in summer , ii. 3033
Heath , young , bears frost better than old, ii. 3737 Heathcote's steam -plough, i. 171 Heavenly bodies,aspects of the, i. 2159 Hedges , how made in Holland , ii. 5685 Hedge weed -hook , ii . 5669
Hedger, his duties, i. 61-not needed on all farms, i. 62 his wages , ii. 6316
Hedger's axe,ii. 5644 - spade, ii . 5669 Hefting, injurious to cows, i. 2250 Helio - thermometer , the, ii. 3032 Hemp , mineral ingredients in , i. 462 — sowing and summer treatment of, ii. 3131-not suited for Scotland , ii. 3137— its botanical position, ii. 3139—— weed infesting, ii. 3140— oil , ii. 3141 - price of seed, ii. 3142 - composition and ash of seed, ii. 3143 , 3144 — its management similar to flax, ii. 4442 -- the farmer should not steep it, ii. 4451 ---seed pre pared for cattle , ii. 4452—-treatment of seed , ii. 4453
cropof,ii. 4454 - uses of, ii.4455 --scutchings, ash of, ii. 4456 - stems of Indian , a substitute for opium , ii. 4458 Hens , time when hatching should cease , ii. 5248 — will go abroad to seek nests , ii. 5149 - cruel expedients to prevent clucking, ii. 5151 — time for selecting to lay, ii. 5153 moulting , ii. 5154 Hen -house , the, i. 1609 Hepburn's double- conical roller , ii. 3102
791
Herefords,points of, ii. 6226 Herschel, Sir John , on the benefits of the physical sciences, i. 74 - on their acquirement, i. 511 Hide of the horse , the, i. 1506 - of ox, good and bad , ii. 6155 — imported, ii. 6156 - uses of, ii. 6157 - tanned im ported , ii. 6158
Heifer calf, what, i. 1152 Highland and Agricultural Society, laboratory of the , i . 524
Hinds' houses, sce Cottages Hint- end furrows, i. 751
Hinting, what, i. 1432 Hirseling of flocks, the, ii. 4005
Hoar-frost, origin of, i. 627 — injurious effects of, i. 628 easily melts , i.629 - accompanied with clear air, i. 630 happens with rising barometer, i. 631 - flat lands most subject to it, i. 632 - objects easily protected from it, i. 633 — injurious near streams, i. 635 - promoted by damp subsoil, i. 636 - produces peculiar currents in the air , i. 637 - its crystals , i. 638 - effects of, in spring . i. 2167 Hoddesden , agricultural farming school at , i . 533 Hoe, wooden , for barn , i. 1792 - for scraping mud , i. 2039 -hand draw , ii. 3257 -- for drains, ii. 5814 Hofwyl, agricultural school at , i. 536 Hog, what, i . 1587
Hog's lard , ii. 6181 - skin , its uses, ii. 6182 — bristles, ii. 6183
Hogg, what, i. 924
Hogg lamb, what, i . 923 Holcus, mineral ingredients in , i. 464 Holly used as a hedge, ii, 5685 Honey dew, ii . 3303 Hook, see Sickle Hop , mineral ingredients in , i. 465 — square hills for, ii. 3158
---andquincunx, ii. 3159 —- production of theyoung plants, ii. 3161 - planting, ii. 3162 - varieties, ii . 3163 - digging about it, ii. 3169_manuring it , ii. 3170 — dressing the shoots, ii. 3172 — poling, ii. 3174 training, ii. 3179— treat ment of the bines, ii. 3181 - attacked by wire -worm , ii. 3184 — and by the fly , ii. 3191 - affected by mould , ii. 3192 -its botanical position, ii. 3194 - uses of the bines , ii. 3195_- ash of the leaves, ii. 3202 — of the bine, ii. 3203 picking, ii. 4390 , 4391 - crop of, ii . 4396 - drying, ii. 4397 -cooling , ii. 4400 - proposed plan of drying, ii. 4401 -
bagging, ii. 4404 - stacking the poles, ii. 4406 -- cost of picking , ii. 4407 — its history, ii. 4408 - ash of, ii. 4412 of the flower, ii. 4415 — and of spent, ii. 4416 — mineral
ingredients taken from soil by , ii. 4413- import duty on , ii . 4417
Hop fly , the, ii. 3191 - ladybird destroys it , ib . Hop ground, formation of, ii. 3145 — its cost, ii. 3165 — its duration , ii. 3193 Hop trefoil, the , i. 2678
Hopetoun oats , composition of, i. 1292 Hopetoun tare, the, i. 2472 Hopper, Mr, his short- horn bull , ii. 6211 Hordein , its nature , i. 1920
Horizontal spade, the, ii. 5894 Horns, uses of, ii. 6161 — forms of, ii. 6238 - indications of age , ii . 6239_and of disease , ii . 6240 Hornbeam , used as a hedge in Germany , ii. 5685 Horses, language to , assistance to reins, i. 687 - to stop , i. 688 — to lessen motion , i. 689 —- to go forward , i. 690 — and
backward , i . 691 — to come towards you , i . 692 — to go from you, i. 693 — construction of stables for, i. 1389 daily winter treatment of, i. 1411 -mash for , i. 1422 treatment during bad weather in winter , i, 1427 — should be bred on the farm , i. 1428 - thrive on cooked food , i. 1434 - rationale of feeding them , i. 1435 - young, where accommodated in the steading, i. 1430 - food given to them in winter, i. 1431 - names according to age , & c ., i. 1432 - bruised raw equal to cooked food , i. 1437 -- econo
mic ration for, i. 1438 --- turnips given to , i. 1439 - pota
toes, i. 1440 —- carrots, i. 1441 - and parsnips, i. 1442– fond of bread , i. 1443 - meals for them , i. 1444 - formula of food by Professor Low, i. 1445 - food for posting, i. 1446 - their intelligence , i. 1471 - winter diseases and their treatment, i. 1473 - bleeding, i. 1474blistering, i. 1476—physicking, i. 1477 - drenching, i. 1480 — fomenta tion , i. 1482 - poulticing, i. 1483 — lotions, i. 1484pulse , i. 1485 - injections, i. 1486 — louse, i. 1488 — batts, i. 1490 -inflammation of bowels , i. 1491 - common colds, i.
1492 - grease, i. 1493 – shot of grease , i. 1494 - stomach staggers, i. 1495 — thrush , i. 1497 - corns, i. 1498 - broken wind, i. 1499 - sprains, i. 1500 - saddle galls , i. 1501 crib -biting and wind-sucking, i. 1502 - dust -ball, i . 1503 --worms, i. 1504 - specks in the eye, i. 1505 — number used in agriculture, i. 1513 - annual tear and wear , i. 1514 value of the labour of, i. 1515 — on farms exempt from duty , i. 1516 - imported free , i. 1517 -- dealers in them
792
INDEX .
Horses , continued must be licensed , i. 1518 -- and slaughterers, i. 1519stealing them not now capital, i. 1520 — warrandice of, i. 1521- their foot liable to diseases, i. 1544 —- its form , i. ,1545 — preparing it for the shoe, i. 1546 - shoe for it, how formed and fitted, i. 1549 — shoeing, i. 1552- loose box allows the foot to expand, i. 1557 --- trimming their heels, i. 1569–-bay given to them , ii. 3087 - time for pasturing them , ii. 3349 - their treatment on pasture , ii.3850 - in stable or hammel, ii. 3851 -- time for their lying out at night, ii. 3852 -- time for pasturing young , ii. 3853– watering- pool essential to thenı, ii. 3854- eat constantly at pasture, ii . 3856 - saddle , run at grass , ii . 3855 — should not graze with sheep , ii. 3857 - their diseases insummer , ii. 3858 - saddle galls, ib .-- cleg , ii. 3859 --- bot, ii. 6860fly , ii. 3863 — forest fly, ii. 3865 - meteoric fly , ii. 3866their flesh sold in Paris, ii. 3867 - used in London, ii.
3868 — draught gelding, points of, ii. 6214 - stallion, ii. 6215 - mare, ii. 6216 - colours of, ii. 6217 Horse -chestnut, specific gravity of the, i. 119 Horse -hoe , tlie , ii. 3250 - Smith's, for drilled green crops, ii. 4100 — how used , ii. 4102_Wilkie's, with parallel mo tion , ii. 3252 Horse -pond, forming of, ii. 5336 Horse -power of water, calculation of, i. 117
Horse -rake, hay and stubble, ii. 4037 Horse -wheel, under -foot and over-head, i. 1715 Horton, Mr, his long - horn bull, ii. 6225
duce from , ii.6070 — period of, on hill- farms, ii. 6071– theory of, ii, 6072 Italian rye -grass, ash of, ii. 3897 — sown amongst wheat, ii. 4104 - a forage plant, ii. 4387 — compared with other rye - grasses , ii. 4388 — ash of the seed , ii. 4389
Jerusalem artichoke, mineral ingredients in , i. 463— its cul ture, ii. 4689 — its botanical position , ii. 4690 - ash of the tubers , ii. 4693
Joiner- work , calculation of, ii. 6328 Joint- fellon in calves , ii. 3846
Johnston , Professor, on the relation between the study of plants and agriculture, i. 323 – on the mechanical action of the soil, i, 441 -- on the mineralingredients of plants, i. 466 - on the origin of mould, i. 501
Johnstone, A. K. , on the distribution of plants, i. 325 , 326 -on the plıysiognomyof thevegetable kingdom , i. 327 on the distribution of vegetable forms, i. 328 -— on the relative proportions of families of plants ,i.329 Juniper, usedas a hedge , ii. 5685 Jussieu's natural method of botany, i. 321 Kaemtz on the cumulus, i. 244, 246 — on the influence of the sun on clouds, i. 247 - on the cumulo -stratus, i. 256— onseasonal rains, i. 304 - on the crystallisation of water , i. 646
Kain , what, ii. 5350
Keil for marking sheep, ii. 3591
Hoven in cattle , i. 1381
Keds, what, ii. 3753
Howey and Co., Messrs , their draught gelding , ii. 6214
Kelp , whence derived , i , 2116 Kilmory wooden trussed gate , ii. 5761 Kilnhead limestone, ii. 6035 — lime, ii. 6039 King, Mr, experiments by, on sowing wheat, ii. 4878
Howden , Mr, his experiments on feeding cattle, i. 1338 Humble-bee, the, injures the bean, ii.3984 Hummeller, cylinder, i. 1810_hand, i. 1811 Humus, electric state of, i. 144 - specific gravity of, i. 374 its functions, ii. 5126
Hunt, Mr, on the influence of coloured light, i. 194experiments by , on comparative sowing, ii . 3542 Hurdles, how set , i. 902 — their dimensions and parts, i. 1042 --- larch , i. 1041_Willow , i. 1046 - oak , i. 1047-English
form of, i. 1047—fold -pitcher for setting , i. 1049 — couplings for, i. 1050 - number required , i. 1051
Husbandry, best method of acquiring, i. 1 - practical, ib.
Kirkwood's grubber, i. 2417 - sheep -fodder rack, ii. 4787 Knives, for trimming turnips, i. 816 Knot- grass, mineral ingredients in , i. 464 Kohl- rabi , properties of, ii. 3355 — its culture , ii. 3357 transplanting or sowing, ii. 3358 - manure for, ii. 3361
compared with Swedish turnip, ii. 3362 - varieties of, ii. 3363 — weight of bulb, 3364 - its botanical position , ii. 3365 - culture of, in Germany , ii. 3366 - feeding of horses and cows with , ii. 3367
difficulties of the pupil, i . 12
Hutinand Boutigny, their process for preventing decay of Labour, different distribution of, in England ,andScotland , of, in England , Scotland and Ireland, wood , ii. 5774
Hutton, Mr, his experiments on feeding cattle, i. 1360
Huxtable, Mr, his method of feeding sheep , i. 961 Hydraulics, what, i. 108 Hydraulic press, Bramah's, i. 107 Hydrogen , electric state of,i. 140 Hydrography, science of, i.215 Hydrostatics, lawsof, should be known by the farmer , i. 102 Hygrometers , what, i. 178 — various substances for , i. 184 feathers of birds are , i. 234
Hygroscopes, what, i. 178
Hypothec, its effects, ii. 6400 — its use to the tenant, ii. 6401 — its origin , ii. 6402 — įts nature , ii. 6403 Ice, not compact, i. 641 — its origin , i . 642 - its expansion , i. 613 — its force, i. 644 — why not formed on deep water, i. 645 - evaporation from , i. 647 - cooling powers of, i. 648 – different thicknesses of, i. 649 Ichneumon fly, the , ii. 3307
Idio -electric bodies, what, i. 122
Implements, should be simple and strong , i. 78 - care of, ii. 6335
Implement-house, fitting up of, ii. 6346 Imponderable bodies, what, i. 158 In -and -in breeding, ii. 6273 In - calvers, what, i. 1154 Indian corn , see Maize Indian rubber pavement, for cow byres, i. 1126 - how laid , i. 1127 - size of, i. 1129
Indigestion in pigs, ii. 5141 Inorganic matter, what, i. 200 --materials of plants, proportion of, i. 203 Insects which infest sheep, i. 1067 ; ii. 3752 - cattle, i. 1375 ; ii. 3803_horses, i. 1488 ; ii. 3859 - swine, i. 1595 - poultry, i . 1627 — the hop, ii . 3184 - turnip , ii. 3290 -- cabbage, ii. 3375 --mangold -wurzel, ii , 3391 - carrot, ii, 3416– parsnip, ii. 3441 - rape, ii. 3454clover, ii. 3894 - wheat, ii . 4107 - barley, ii. 4130 — oats, ii. 4137 --- potato , ii. 4163
Insurance againstfire, ii. 5560— for cattle,ii. 5573 - against hail , ii. 5561 — for hinds' cows, ii . 5565 Inventory and valuation of stock , ii. 6408 Iron , wrought, specific gravity of, i. 119
Iron bedsteads, for cottages, ii. 5543 — hammer nut-key , ii. 6003
Irrigation , managing the water in water -meadows, ii. 6064 -mismanagement of it , ii. 6066 - time for, ii. 6069-- pro-
ii. 5364 - results ii. 5365
Labour account, ii. 6431 - sample of farm , ii. 6438
Ladders, i. 1742_numbers of, i. 1743 — to set up, &c. , i. 1744
Ladybird , the, useful in the hop -ground, ii. 3191 — inimical to aphides, ii. 3306 Laing's Swedish turnip , see Turnip. Lamb , what , i. 923
Lambs, to mother, on ewes , i. 2563–pet, how brought up, i. 2567 - age when castrated , i. 2569 - weather for it, i. 2570 - castration , i. 2571 - old mode of it , i. 2572 – dock . ing theirtails, i. 2573 - marking their ears, i. 2574 - how to stop bleeding after docking,i. 2575 - treatment of the scrotum after castration , i. 2576 - the testes do not always descend , i. 2577 — how kept warm on hill farms, i. 2586 losses from snow on these, i. 2598 — diseases of, green skit ,
i. 2581 — purging, i. 2593 — costiveness, i. 2594fever, i. 2595 - many wean themselves at shearing -time, ii. 3993 -weaning of Leicester, ii. 3996 the ewes deserted to be milked , ii. 3995 ---doddering of, ii. 3998 — when disposed
of, ii. 3999 -- dipping in arsenic deprecated, ii. 4000 treatment on hill farms after weaning , ii. 4003 — for the table, ii. 4004— diseases of, in summer, ii. 4005 — wean themselves on hill farms, ii. 4005 — where may be bled , ii. 4006
Lammas red wheat, a variety for springsowing, i. 2377 Land, period of judging it aright, ii. 5263– subsoil as well as soil to be attended to , ii. 5268— diversity of soils in most farms, ii. 5269 - method of judging of them , il 5280 -requirements of, for mixed husbandry, ii. 5283_fixed money -rent of, how estimated , ii. 5285 - unsatisfactory with fluctuating prices, ii. 5291 - rent, half cash and half grain , ii. 5292 -- rate of interest affects that of rent, ii. 5293 -ordinary mode of estimating rent, ii. 5294 - arguments in favour of money - rent,ii. 5295 -- rent dependenton state of farm , ii. 5300 - natural rent,what, ib . covenanted rent, ii. 5301 - both may be constant or fluctuating, ii. 5302– injustice of present system ofgrain rents, ii. 5304 - remedy proposed, ii. 5305 - difficulties attending its adoption , ii. 5306 - its advantages, ii. 5307 - objection against it, ii . 5308 - various schemes proposed , ii. 5312 - old proportion of produce not now correct, ii. 5313
Landowners, evils of their neglect of agriculture, i. 543— their sons as agricultural pupils, ib.-- should learn agri . culture when young, i. 541 - and afterwards study other
INDEX .
Liquid manure drains, i. 1113 — tank , i. 1114 - pump, i. 1115
professions, i. 545 - apt otherwise to acquire a distate for agriculture, i. 546 — consequences of their ignorance of it, i. 547 , 548 , 551, 555 -- and of their acquaintance with it, i. 549, 550 , et seq . Land -breeze, the, how produced, i. 94
Littered , its meaning, i. 1587
Land -roller, Hepburn's double - conical, ii. 3102 - Swedish ,
Litteringturnip ground for sheep, i. 955
ii. 3106
Lantern , a, i. 1209 — stable, i. 1425 Lapcocks of hay, what, ii. 4054 Larch , specific gravity of, i. 119 - mineral ingredients in the, i. 465 Larynx of cattle , inflammation in the, ii. 3815 Lawson's potato -raiser, ii. 4794 Lawton hybrid turnip, see Turnip. Lea , effects of special manures on , ii. 4968 Lead , whence derived, ii. 5497 — specific gravity of, i. 119 Leases, usual mode of obtaining information of a farm , ii.
5323 - printed conditions of, ii. 5324 - conditions might be easily adjusted , ii. 5325 - ordinary reservations in , ii.
5326 — the cropping clauses of, ii. 5329 - ordinary devia . tions of, ii. 5330 — the penal clauses of, ii. 5334 subletting , & c ., in Ireland, ii. 5335 — in parts of England, ii. 5338–
not without alloy, ii. 5339 — application of grain rent to tenancy -at-will, ii. 5341 - many trifling conditions should be abolished, ii. 5342 - difference in England and Scotland of the tenant's paying the public burdens, ii. 5314
793
Litter, what, i. 1587
Litter, how laid down in courts, i. 2004 — how it should be, i. 2005
Live- stock , points to be aimed at in breeding, ii. 6197 symmetry, ii. 6198 - robustness of constitution , ii. 6206— disposition to attain early maturity, ii. 6208 Loam , character of, i. 336 Lomba, M. , his plan for evading the potato disease , ii. 4157
London , veterinary college at, i. 530 - raising of veal for, i, 2294 - sheep best suited forits market, ii. 3600 — and cattle , ii. 6450
Long-horns, points of, ii. 6225 Lothian draught -horse collar, the , i. 676
Lovelace, Lord , his experiments on carrots , ii. 4946 - on mangold -wurzel, ii. 4962 Low , Professor, his formula of food for horses , i. 1445 Lucerne, mineral ingredients in , i. 464 - pot suited for Scot
land, i. 2513 — its culture, i.2514— its botanical position , i. 2518 - its ancient origin , i. 2519 — its culture near London , i. 2520 - variety cultivated in Switzerland, i. 2521 - ash of, i. 2522 - weight and cost of seed , i. 2523 Lyary, when cattle are said to be, ii. 3622 Lythax, in rearing calves, i. 2278
minute of, ii. 5349
Ledger, ii. 6411 Leguminosæ , properties of the, i. 1951 — their division , i. 2450
Leguminous plants, see Beans, Pease , & c . Leicester paring plough , the , i. 2828 Leicester sheep, dinmont, points of, ii. 6218 - tup, ii. 6219 -ewe , ii. 6220
Lentils, mineral ingredients in , i. 462 Leslie's hygrometer, i. 180 Level lot of cattle , what, ii. 3783 Levelling of high ridges , the , ii. 5964 - box , ii. 5966 - mode of using it , ii. 5967 - staff for drains , ii. 5817
Lice in sheep, i.1067 — in cattle,i. 1375 – in horses, i. 1488 -in pigs, i. 1595 — in call , i. 2.299 Liebig on the inorganic constituents of plants , i. 201 - on theammonia brought down from the atmosphere, i. 292 , 294 – on the effect of the discovery of the mineral ingre-
dients of plants on agriculture, i. 470 - on digestion in
Macaroni, manufacture of, i. 1902 M.Bryde, Mr, his experiments on feeding sheep , i. 960 M'Culloch's window for cottages, i. 1134
Macgillivray, Professor, on the connection between plants and the soil, i. 435 — on the digestive organs of birds, i. 1660
Machines, error regarding increase of power in , i. 80 M'Lagan , Mr, experiments by , on sowing, ii. 3531
MʻLean, Mr, his experiments on specialmanures, ii. 4966 M'Lintock , Mr, his experiments with special manures, ii. 4922
M‘Turk, Mr, his Blackfaced ram , ii. 6231 Madia , its history and culture, ii. 3476 — its oil, ii. 3477— grows in Scotland, ii. 3478 — its botanical position, ii. 3479 -ash of the seed , ii. 3480 Maggots, in cheese , ii. 4296 — injure sheep in summer , ii. 3754
Magnesia , accompanies phosphoric acid , ii . 5052
animals , i. 1666 Lifting of potatoes, see Potatoes
Magnetism , one means of electricity, i. 124 - identified with it, i, 130 , 154 — its extent of operation , i. 153 - terrestrial,
Light, treated of by science of optics, i. 188 — in summer , ii. 3030 — it compared with that of other seasons, ii. 3031influence of yellow ,red , andblue,on vegetation , i. 193
how supposed to arise, i. 156 - how it and voltaism may affect the ground in culture, i. 157 Magpie , the, destructive to poultry, ii. 5208 Main , Mr, his experiments with special manures , on wheat, ii. 4920 - on barley, ii. 4927 - on carrots , ii. 4943
Lightning, different kinds of, ii. 2988 Lime tree , specific gravity of, i. 119 Lime, specific gravity of unslaked , i. 119 - in plants, ii. 5051 where procured, ii. 6023 - effete and caustic, ii. 6024 - has most effect near manure , ii. 6025 - in shells from the kiln ,
ii. 6010 - slaking, mode of, ii. 6011 - mode of spreading, ii. 6013 - quantity laid on , ii. 6016 — applied once in a lease , ii. 6018 - its price , ii. 6019 - its weight, ii. 6020period of applying, ii. 6021 — its effects , ii. 6022 — compo-
sition of slaked , ii. 6038 — the purest best, il. 6040 - in large or small doses, ii. 6041 - exhausting to the land, ii. 6042 - compost for top -dressing, ii. 6044 – its effects on heath , ii. 6045
Limestone, specific gravity of, i. 119_where found , ii. 6033 -gravel, ii. 6034 - composition of good , for land, ii. 6035
-how burnt, ii. 6036 — Carluke, Cockermouth , Kilnhead, and Relig , ii. 6035 Liming land , objects of, ii. 6008 — over, its effects, ii. 6043 Lined , what , i . 1587
Links, weedspeculiar to , i. 407 Linnet, the, destroysturnip seed . ii. 4188 Linnæus's system of botany, i. 321 Linseed , oil yielded by, i . 1323 — used for feeding cattle, i. 1261 - composition of,i.1262 — ash of, i. 462, 1263 — importation of, i . 1264, ii. 3126 - machine for bruising, i. 1265
-properties of, ii. 3111 - meal, its uses, ii. 3119 - oil, ii. 3120 -- husk, ii. 3121 - its price, ii. 3127 - used in bread , ii. 3129
Liquid manure, tanks for, i. 2062 - carts, i. 2076 - obloquy for not using it, i. 2085 - motives for using it, ib . -
Maize , mineral ingredients in , i. 462-- given to horses , i.
1451-- and to poultry , l. 1301_nutritive matter in an acre , i. 1302 - composition of, i . 1303 — ash of, i. 1304 -not suited to Britain , ii. 3481 - requires good soil and shelter , ii. 3482 — its culture , ii. 3484 - time for sow
ing, ii. 3486 — its botanical position , ii. 3492 — its geogra
phical distribution, ii. 3493- ash in its straw , ii. 3494— importation of, ii. 3495 , 4688 — period of harvest, ii. 4673 -cobs pulled off, ii. 4674 - taking off the husk , ii. 4675 -keeping of theheads,ii. 4676 — taking the grains off the heads, ii. 4677 — its produce , ii. 4679- value of, per acre , ii. 4681 - good for poultry and pigs, ii. 4682_nutritive matter in acre of, ii. 4684 - produce of, in America , ii .
4685 - value of it, ii. 4686 - heat required to ripen it, ii. 5241
Malformations in live- stock , ii. 6247 Mallet for driving stakes , i.902 Malt, is it nutritious ? i. 1285 - its composition , i, 1286 - its nutritive power , i. 1287 — its ash , i. 1288 - green for cattle -feeding , i. 1324 — its use falling off, i. 1913 — its con sumption , i. 1914its importation , i . 1915 Malting, process of, i. 1922 - loss sustained in , i. 1289 Man , Isle of, stone gate -posts of the, ii. 5773 Mane comb for horses, i . 1419 -price of, i. 1424 Mange in pigs, ii. 5144
Mangold -wurzel, mineral ingredients in , i. 463 - pulling, i. 834– storing, i. 836 - composition of long red, & c., i. 854 -nutritive matter in, i. 900 — its properties, ii. 3381
neglect of it in towns, i. 2088 - dairy farms supply most
varieties of, ii. 3382 — soil for, ii. 3383 – Scotland not
of it , i. 2091 - its composition , i. 2094 - circumstances regulating its value, i. 2095 —-cows' urine , i. 2096 - its value varies with the season , i. 2097--- changes traceable in it with age, i. 2098 - its specific gravity, i. 2099 — human urine, i. 2100 — that of the horse , the sheep , and
suited for it , ii. 3384 - its culture , ii. 3385 — sowing, ii . 3386 - manuring, ii. 3390 — insects which attack it, ii. 3391 - weight of crop , ii. 3392 - weight of roots, ii. 3393— apt to run to seed , ii. 3394 — its botanical position , ii. 3395 - its proper name, ii. 3397 -- its seed peculiar, ii. 3398 --ash of yellow globe, ii. 3399 - and of long red, ib . - ash
the pig, i. 2101 - mineral ingredients of these last, i. 2102 --when best applied , i. 2103 - quantity of manure in it , i. 2104 - Sprengel's conclusions regarding its application, i. 2105 -- effects ofmixing with mould , i, 2106
in one ton , ii. 3400 — probable effects of, on milk , ii. 3402 -effects of special manures on , ii. 4961 Marble milk.cooler, ii. 4200
794
INDEX .
Manual implements, treatment of, ii. 6342
Mountain pastures, plants which distinguish them , i. 417–
Mare, what, i. 1432 - period of her foaling , ii. 3670— symptoms of it, ib .-- foals quickly , ii. 3671 - her treatment after foaling, ii. 3674putto grass at rest, ii. 3675 — when ready to take the horse , ii . 3676 -- howto presenther to
Mouth -piece, the, for cattle when choking, i. 1379
dry, i. 418 - wet, i. 419
Mowbray, Mr, his experiments on feeding cattle, i. 1320 , 1321
him ,ii. 3677 — to determine her being infoal, ii. 3679 - cir. cumstance against her being in foal, ib.--when becomes barren , ii. 3680 — proportional weight of, to her foal, ii.
Mudie , R. , on the trade - winds , i. 298 – on the influence of the tropics on the winds, i. 299 - on the difficulty of fore
3700
Muir -burning, improves the heath for sheep, ii. 3736 - how done , ii. 3738 — law of, ii. 3740
Marl, shell, ii. 6030 - clay,il.6032 Marling land in England, ii . 6031 Marshall, Mr, his experiments on feeding cattle, i. 1353his mixture for horses, i . 1448
Marshes, plants which distinguish , i.411 - sea , i. 412 - cul. tivated , weeds which infest , i. 413
Martin , Mr, on the potato disease, ii. 4156 Mason -work of steading,specification of, ii. 5396 — mode of measuring, ii. 5394cost of, ii. 5511 - stones used in , ii.
5427 — for cottages ,ii. 5556 Mason's hygrometer, i. 182
Masters, obligations of, to servants, ii. 6292 — responsibility of, for servants, ii. 6293 Mathematics, why applicable to agriculture, i. 74 - abstract and demonstrative, i. 75 --their study elevating, i. 518 Mattock , the , ii. 5956 Meadow , permanent, moist climate necessary for, ii. 3785 -more useful than pasture , ii. 3786 – abundant in Eng.
telling the weather , i. 319
Muir -ill, see Red -water Mushrooms in autumn, ii. 4344
Musical strings, intestines of sheep used for, ii. 6173 Mustard seed , mineral ingredients in , i. 462 Mutton , relative weights of offal and, ii. 6162 — weights of
different, ii. 6163 — rule for knowing the age of, ii. 6165— loss in cooking, ii. 6166 — ham , ii. 6167 Muzzle for saddle -horses, i. 1560 Nails in barn , i. 1795 - for carts, i . 1830
Natural history, its objects, i. 215 Natural philosophy, why applicable to agriculture, i. 744 physical sciences embraced under , i. 76 — its elevating effect, i. 518
Navel - ill in calves, i. 2296 Nebulæ in horses, i. 1505
Nets, how set, i. 907 — the shepherd's knot in, i. 908 -- ap
land , ii. 3787 — scarce in Scotland, ii. 3788 — in Holland,
pearance when set, i. 910 — what made of, i. 1054 - how
& c ., ii. 3790
wrought, i. 1055— needles for, i. 1056 — spools for, I. 1057
Meadow hay, ash of, ii. 3093 Meadow crane- fly, the, i. 2504
Measlesin pigs, i. 1597, ii. 5145
-lengthof, i. 1060 — will confine Blackfaced sheep, i. 1061 -wrought by machinery , i. 1062 Newberry's dibbling -machine, ii. 3550
Mechanics ,uses of, to agriculture , i. 77 Mechanists, should know practical husbandry, i. 78 Mechi, Mr, his experiments on sowing , ii. 3641 Melvin , Mr, his experiments with special manures, ii. 4964 Merino, origin of the name, ii. 3975 — sheep, ii. 3976
Nievling, a mode of milking, i. 2258 - better than stripping , i. 2259 Nightsoil and urine, use of, in China, ii. 4987 — in Belgium ,
Meslin , what, ii. 4893 - practice correct in theory, ii. 4894 -most common mixtures for, ii. 4895
Meteoric fly , the, ii. 3866
Meteorology, science of, i. 215 Mildew , injures pease , ii. 3991 - in wheat, ii. 4114 Miles' wooden field -gate, ii. 5766 Milch or milk cow , what, i. 1154 Milk , treatment of, in winter, i. 1241 - most derived from
cows in byre, i. 1372 - utensils for, ii. 4194 — its treatment in the dairy, ii. 4209 - yield various, ii. 4256 - circum stances which affect its quality, ii. 4260 -- and quantity,
ii. 4259 — phenomena accompanying its changes, ii. 4261 -its composition , ii, 4262 - boils and freezes as water , ii. 4263 — its ash , ii. 4264 -- its composition varies, ii. 4265its specific gravity , ii. 4266 -- adulteration of, ii. 4270plants affect its flavour, ii . 4271 - composition of skimmed , ii. 4272 — is it a natural emulsion ? ii. 4273 — required to make a cheese , ii . 4280— under the disease named cocote, ii. 4302 - a sour cog of, ii. 4305 —- oatmeal porridge, ii. 4308 Milk - cooler, ii. 4200
Milk -dishes, earthenware, ii. 4195 — Wedgewood ware, ii.
Newington's dibbling-machine, ii. 3551 — mode of using, ii. 3552_his cultivator, ii. 4103
ii. 4988
Nimbus, see Cirro - cumulo -stratus Nitrates of soda and potash , see Special manures Nitrogen , its electric state, i. 141 -- in horse and cow dung,
i. 2025 - in pigs' dung, i. 2028 — in sheep's, i. 2929 - most abundant in seeds and green leaves , ii. 5047 Nitrogenous substances, effects of, ii. 6374 Norwegian harrow , the, ii. 3104 Nose-bags, price of, i. 1424
Oak , specific gravity of, i. 119 - mineral ingredients in , i. 465
Oats , mineral ingredients in , i. 462 - nutritive matter in an acre of, i. 1291--- composition of the grain , i. 1292 - ash of, i. 1294 - oil in , i. 1293 — for horses, i. 1423 - ash in
straw , i. 1974 — their botanical position, i. 1925 - classifi cation by the grain , short, i. 1926 — long, i. 1927 — and by the ear, panicles diffused , i. 1928 - panicles lateral, i. 1929 --crops of, i. 1930 — the farina , i. 1933 — not mentioned in Scripture, i. 1935 - geographical distribution of, i. 1936 when sown , i. 2484_suitable for all sorts of farms, i.
4196 - glass, ii. 4197 —- wooden , ii. 4198 — zinc, i. 4199,
2486 — varieties sown, i . 2487 -- quantity sown, i. 2493–
4201
sowing broadcast, i. 2494 - water -furrowed , rolled , and
Milk -house, plan of, ii. 4192 — to be kept clean , ii. 4208 Milk -sieve , ii. 4205 Milk - sickness in America , the, ii. 4203 Millet seed , mineral ingredients in , i. 462 Mist, see Fog Mites in cheese , ii. 4298
Mixed husbandry, its origin , i. 49 — what, i. 50 - extent, capital, and rent for farm , i. 51 - recommended, i. 52 - and why, i. 53 — its excellence and safety , i.5t qualifications
of farmer, i. 69 — fixed money -rent of farm , how estimated, ii . 5288
Model farms, why a misnomer , i. 542 Möeglin , agricultural school at , i. 538
Moles, disfigure pasture , ii. 3763 — catching them , ii. 3764– its cost, ib.
Moor, plants which distinguish it , i. 409 - dry , its plants, i. 410
Moorband pan , breaking it up, ii. 6006 — its formation , ii. 6007
Monsoons, the, i. 93 Morton , Mr, on the origin of soils, i. 486
Mothering a lamb, what, i. 2563 Moths,injurious to turnips,ii. 3309 - plan for destroying, ii. 3311 — to pasture , ii. 3761
Mould, character of, i. 343 — what, i. 492 - changed accord . ing to circumstances, i. 493 — its origin , i. 495, 500 Mould -furrow , i. 751 ing the hop , ii. 3192 Moulting fever, the, i. 2955 Mountains, colours of, indicated by certain plants, i. 434 Mould aff
gawed, i. 2497 - sown broadcast with machine, i. 2500 sown in rows with drills, i. 2501 -- season of sowing now curtailed , i. 2503 — the grub , i. 2504_recover from its
attacks, i. 2507 - weaning tint different from grub ravage, i. 2506 — treatment in Germany, i. 2509 — their culture in summer , ii. 4131 - top -dressing, ii. 4133 - diseases in summer, ii. 4135 - ash of,ii. 4138 - nitrogen in , ii. 4139 crops of, vary, ii. 4552_results of sowing different kinds together , ii. 1896 --- effects of special manures on , ii. 4930 -mineral ingredients they take from the soil, ii. 5058cost of replacing these , ii. 5071 Oatmeal, i. 1931 - proportion of, in the grain , i. 1932 - the
ordinary food of the Scottish ploughman, i. 1937 - bread , i. 1938
Oat-grub , the, i. 2504 - affects wheat on lea , i. 2508 Ethrioscope, the, ii. 5257 Offals, proportion of, to live -weight, ii. 3633 Oil -cake, for feeding sheep, i. 976 — for feeding cattle , i.
1266 – price of, i.1267 - nutritive properties of English and American , i. 1268 - ash of these , i. 1269 -- substitute for, i. 1270 — importation of, i. 1272 .-- ii. 3121 - experi ments with it in feeding sheep, ii. 3122 - given to calves for quarter - ill, ii . 3124 - of China , ii. 4985
Oil- cake box for sheep, i. 943 — breaker , i. 945 Oil -can , the, i . 1746 Open sow , what, i. 1587 Optical square , the , ii. 5600 Optics, science of, i. 188 Organic matter, what, i. 198 Overdriving cattle, what, ii. 3646
795
INDEX . Overshot water -wheel, the, i. 113
Oxen, what, i. 1154 - occupy the hammels, i. 1146 — their treatment in byres, i. 1210 — the best, imported from Holstein , ii. 3663 Oxford , agricultural chair at, i. 534 Ox- louse , the, i. 1376
Oxygen , its electric state , i. 139 Pack of wool, its weight, ii. 3943
Packing of wool, how done, ii. 3943 Pack -sheets for wool, how made, ii. 3913 Pail, the milking , i. 2252
Painter-work ofsteading, specifications of, ii. 5507 — measuring and pricing , ib.lithic paint, ii. 5508 — white lead , ii. 5509
Paragrêles, ii. 3007 Paratonnères, ii. 2991 Paring and burning, what, i. 2813 — its objects, i. 2814– done by the flauchter -spade, i. 2819 - by the paringplough , i. 2823 — when done, i. 2824 - setting up theturfs, i. 2830 — the burning , i. 2831 - harrowing in the ashes, i. 2835 - its cost, i. 2836 - crop after it, i. 2837 - dif-
erences of opinion regarding it, i. 2838 — when to be done, i. 2840 - rationale of it , i. 2841 - test of its utility , i. 2842
Parker, Mr, his experiments with Newberry's dibbler, ii.
acre of, i. 1296_ash of, i. 1300 - composition of, i. 1299 - their botanical position , i. 1958_their grain , ib .- crops of, 1959 - composition of, i. 1960 — the fecula of, i. 1962 were much cultivated , ' i. 1963 — less sown than formerly , i. 2452 — formerly sown broadcast, i. 2453 — now mostly with the bean , i. 2454_their culture, i. 2455 - never manured , i . 2459 - varieties sown , i. 2460 — quantity sown , i. 2461 - garden , sown in the field , i. 2463 — their culture in summer, ii. 3987 — injured by insects, ii. 3988– and by mildew , ii. 3991 - reaping them, ii. 4584 - winning, ii. 4651 - their culture in autumn , ii. 4888 - in winter
afford no advantage to the farmer , ii. 4889winter treat ment of, in Germany, ii. 4890 — sown as forage in Flanders, ii. 4891 - effects of special manures on , ii . 4938 Pease-meal , feeding animals on , i. 1295 — used for rearing calves, i. 2280
Peat, heat produced by, i. 186 – indicated by certain plants, i. 433- charringof, ii. 4990 - effects of drainage upon, ii. 5938
Peat- bog, plants which distinguish it, i. 414 - wet, i. 415— cultivated , weeds which infest, i. 416 Peat- tile, the, ii. 5898 Peat soils, character of, i. 342
Pen wet, what, ii. 4623 Peschel on the influences of electricity , i. 134
3537
Parochial schools of Scotland , education of the agricultural student at, i. 512
Parsley, for pastures, i. 2645 Parsnips, mineral ingredients in , i. 463 — pulling, i. 839
--storing, i. 840 — their composition, i. 854— their pro. perties , i. 896 - given to horses , i. 1442 — scarcely suited to Scotland , ii. 3435 -- soil for, ii. 3436 - culture , ii. 3437 -seed ,
Pease, mineral ingredients in , i. 462_nutritive matter in
ii. 3438 - attacked by insects, ii. 3441 - seed
easily raised, ii. 3442 — cost of cultivating, ii. 3443– botanical position , ii. 3444 - and characters, ii. 3445— culture in Jersey, ii. 3446 Partridge, the, injurious to crops, ii. 4706
Parturition, definition of, ii. 3683 — period of gestation , ii. 3682 - subdivisions of labour, ii. 3684 - natural, preter . natural, difficult , and complex , ii. 3685 — example of the first, ii. 3686 - of the second , ii. 3687 - of the third , ii. 3688 - and of the fourth , ii. 3689 - its phenomena , ii. 3690_stages of, ii. 3691 - action of the muscles in , ii.
3692 - effect of the liquor amnii, ii. 3693--- this action explained , ii. 3694 - contraction of the womb , ii. 3695 — its dilatable condition , ii. 3696 - its rigidity, ii. 3697 - effect of the last, ii. 3698 - nothing should be done with violence , ii. 3699
Pastoral farms, where found , i. 35 — what appropriated to,
i. 36 — their extent, ib.- stocking, capital, and rent,i. 37 -do not fatten sheep on turnips, i. 994 - number of sheep on , i. 999 — should have arable land , i. 1000 — winter
treatment of cows on, i. 1221 - arable land in, i. 1245– steading for, i. 1246 — have different kinds of pasturage, ii. 3722 - calves go with the cows on , ii. 3781 - where the young stock graze on , ii. 3782 -- grow hay, ii. 4068 — those
for sheep, their physical geography, ii. 5211 - and that of
those for sheep and cattle, ii. 5213 — how to estimate the fixed money - rent of , ii. 5286
Pastoral farmer , qualifications of the, i . 38 Pasture, repairing the fences of, ii. 3566 - gathering the stones off, ii. 3567 - rolling, ii. 3568 - rubbing-posts in , ii. 3576 — in summer , period of lambs and ewes at, ii. 3705advantages of artificial ones natural for them , ii. 3706new grasses for, their selection , ii. 3708 -- carse farms destitute of, ii. 3719 - not profitable for farms near towns, ii. 3720 - kind required by dairy farms, ii. 3721— and by pastoral, ii. 3722 — soft best for lambs, ii. 3723-
and hard for ewes, ii. 3722 - regulation of hill, ii. 3725— unfenced , inconvenient, ii. 3728 — plants in mountain , ii. 3729 - appearance of white clover on , ii. 3730 - topdressing mountain , ii. 3731 - injured by the crane-fly, ii. 3758 - weevil , ii. 3759 - by ants, ii. 3760 — by various moths , ii. 3761 - by the cockchafer , ib . - by moles , ii. 3763 - injured by overstocking, ii. 3772 — and by con-
tinual stocking , ib.-- effects ofmixed stocking, ii.3773 . peculiarly affected by mixed husbandry , ii. 3774_use of permanent, ii. 3789 — fattening powers of, in Holland, ii. 3790 — in Normandy, ii. 3791 – in the valley of Auge, ii. 3792 — extent required to fatten an ox , ii. 3793 - compared with hay in fattening, ii. 3794 — in Old Friesland , ii. 3795 — in Auge, fattens all winter, ii. 3796 - increase of flesh per day in , ii. 3797
Pavement, Caithness and Arbroath , ii. 5423 — Indian rubber, i. 1126
Pawlett, Mr, his experiments in feeding sheep, i. 968, 972 --on washing turnips for them , i. 974 Peacocks, i. 1621 Pea -hens, management of, in hatching , i. 2930
Pheasant, injury to crops by the, ii. 4703 Phillips' fire annihilator, on , li. 5561 Phosphates, effects of, ii. 6373. See also Special Manures Phosphoric acid , presence of, in seeds, ii. 5050 Phyllolobæ , the, i. 2450
Pickling of wheat, the, i. 2308 - apparatus for, ib . - sub stances employed in , i. 2310_annoys the sower, i. 2324 efficacy ofdifferent substances, ii. 1865 Pigs, should be no litter of, in winter, i. 1574 - feeding of the younger , i. 1575 - young to bekept in separate courts,
i. 1576 -older have liberty, i. 1577 - circular trough for them, i. 1578 — wall one , i. 1582 -- of good kind always ready formarket , i. 1579 —-fattening of, on cooked and raw food, i. 1583 - washing with warm water, i . 1584sleep much when fattening, i. 1585 — receive acid food on the Continent, i. 1586 -- their names, i. 1587 -- to judge of, when fat, i. 1588 - effects of the colour of their hair , i. 1589 western breed of, i. 1590 — diseases of, in winter, louse, i .
1595 - consumption, i. 1596 — measles, i. 1597 --the first born strongest, i. 2848 — sometimes more littered than teats , i. 2849 - young soon get on foot, i. 2850 — should be
removed as they die, i. 2852_always use the sameteat, i. 2854 – become strongest at foremost ones, 2855 -- getting
milk , i. 2856 - are great sleepers, i. 2857 - male and female are gelded, i. 2859 - time of weaning, i. 2861 - in a litter , and their value, i. 2863 — numbers kept on a farm , i. 2864– one way of rearing, i. 2865 - another , i. 2866 – disposable at all seasons, i. 2867 - omnivorous disposition of, i. 2868 -ringing, i. 2869 - catching or holding , i. 2872 - diseases of, i. 2870 - pulse of,ib. - bleeding, i. 2871_drenching, i. 2873 - weaned, should have nourishing food , ii. 5131 should have green food in summer, ii.5133 – should not be constantly confined , ii. 5134 - period of disposal, ii. 5135 — to judge of fat, and their symmetry, ii. 5136 numbers in Britain , ii. 5137 — numbers weekly at Smith field , ii. 5138 - number imported into London , ii. 5139— and into the kingdom , ii. 5140 - diseases, indigestion , ii. 5141 - mange, ii.5144 - measles, ii. 5145 — skin of, il. 5143 -points of brood -sow , ii. 6221 -- of boar, ii. 6222 Pig -styes, for brood -sow , i. 1580 - for feeding pigs, ib . — for weaned ones, ib . - door, i. 1581 Pigeons, winter treatment of, i. 1606 - Weeding of them , i. 1611 - right of shooting them , i. 1642 - hatching of, i. 2931
-dove-cot examined frequently, ii. 5168 ---feeding of, ii. 5169
Pigeon -house, construction of the, i. 1610 Pigeons' dung, sce Special Manures Pining, its cause, ii. 4005 Pip , in fowls, i. 2954 Pipes, friction of water in , i. 110 Pipe -clay, specific gravity of, i. 374 Pipe-tile, cylindrical, ii. 5841 - connected with collars, ii. 5842 — with tubes, ib . - horse-shoe, il. 5843 - egg -shaped , ii. 5844 - concrete , ii. 5937
Pitch - pine , mineral ingredients in , i. 465 Placenta of the cow , the, i. 2219
Plant-louse of coinmon turnip , ii. 3301 - of the Swedish , ii. 3302 - of the hop , ii. 3191 — the bean , ii. 3983 — of the turnip flower , ii. 4186 Plants, action of, on the constituents of the air , i. 126 electric relations of, i. 127 -- their meteorological habitudes , ii. 5254
Plaster-work of steading, specification of, ii. 5500_measur
ing and pricing it, ib.- its cost, ii. 5515
796
INDEX .
Pleuro -pneumonia,history of, ii. 3805 — what it is, ii. 3807 -symptomsof inflammation in , ii. 3808 — weather favour able for, ii. 3810 - young animals subject to it, ii. 3811
other roots, i. 1260 — a fallow crop, i. 2732 — plough ing for them in autumn , i. 2733 - spring culture for, i. 2734 -preparation of the sets, i. 2737 - dunging the land,
flesh and milk not affected at first , ii. 3812 - decided treatment necessary, ii. 3813 - treatment of, ii. 3814
Plough, the, perfection of its mechanical construction,i . 78
i. 2749 - planting the sets , i. 2751 — the dung to be quickly covered , i. 2753_arrangement of labourers , i. 2756 objectionable mode of dunging , i. 2758— width of drills ,
--serves same purpose as the spade, i. 658 - its effects intended to imitate the latter , i. 660 — now made of iron ,
autumn , i. 2772 - culture in lazy -beds, i . 2775 – drills
i. 2761 - varieties of seed , i. 2762— dunging the ground in
i. 661 — the East Lothian or Small's, i. 662 - staff, i. 666
harrowed down , i. 2790 - breaking clods by roller , i. 2792
-the two-horse yoked , i. 686— its action, i. 702- ac tion of Wilkie's , i. 703 — tempering the irons, i. 708 position of the coulter, i. 709 – stateof the reins,i. 710
-curl in , i. 2777 — disease , and expedients resorted to with the sets against it, i. 2778_characters of good , i. 2787 — their intrinsic value, i. 2788_effects of moistureon their sprouting, i. 2789 — their botanical position , i . 2793, 2794cbaracter of their order , i. 2796 — found wild in Chili , i. 2797 — their introduction into Europe, i. 2799— cultivated at great elevations, i. 2800 —-- their geographical distribution , i. 2801 — first field culture in Scotland , i. 2802 — street manure unsuited to them , i. 2803 — inorganic substances required in their manure, i. 2807 - cultivation in Germany, i. 2808_rooks destructive to youngplants, i. 2809-- nitrogen in sprouts of, i. 2810_poison from , i. 2811 -- boiled , useful to sitting poultry, i. 2917 — their cul ture in summer , ii. 4148 - top -dressing, ij. 4152_effects of removal of blossoms, ii. 4153 disease,plans for evading it, ii. 4155 — ash of the leaves, ii. 4159 - time for lifting , ii. 4788_lifting by the plough , ii. 4790_haulms gathered after the ground is cleared , i. 4793 — raised with the graip , ii. 4797 -- quantity raised by it per day, ii. 4798 variously disposed of, ii. 4800 —- bolls, single and double , ii.
and of the mould -board , i . 711 - double mould -board , i. 2363 — double mould -board for drilling, i. 2406 — for snow , i. 2600 — for ribbing, i. 2627 — for paring in the fens, i. 2827 -- Leicester paring, i. 2828 — brander for , for lifting potatoes, ii. 4794 - turn -wrist, ii. 5970 Smith's subsoil, ii. 5980 — Read's subsoil, ii. 5982
Marquis of Tweeddale's subsoil-trench , ii. 5983— the Tweeddale, ii. 5985 - slide , ii. 6004 - treatment of, ii. 6339
Ploughing, to give less earth , i. 696 — and more, i. 697 - to give more land , i. 698 — and less , i. 699 - leaning to one side or other, i. 701 — rectangular furrow -slice, i. 702 —
trapezoidal furrow -slice, i. 703 — serrated bottom sole, i. 704 — weight of soil turned over by, i. 717 - position of
the furrow -slice, i. 718- correct, i. 719 - speed of horses in , i. 720 — distance walked in , i. 721-time lost by short ridges, i. 722 — long and short ridges compared , i. 723– driving of horses beyond their step , i. 725 - steep ground , i. 726 - benefits of matches, i. 727 – Highland Society's medal for, i. 728 --- matches fairly conducted , i. 729 —
judges should be present at them , i. 730 - comparison of rectangular and trapezoidal furrow -slices, i. 731 - different forms ofridges ,i. 735 — different modes, i. 736 - constituent parts of a ridge, i. 738 — direction of the ridges, i. 739– their breadth , i. 740 — feering-pole , i. 741 - making feer. ings, i. 742 - cross-table , i. 743- gathering up from the flat, i. 749 - number of furrow -slices in ridge, i. 750 — the
4805 - produce, ii. 4806 – price , ii. 4807 -starch, ii. 4813 fecula , ii.4814washer, ii. 4815—- loss in boiling, ii. 4819 -spirits from , ii. 4820 — object of storing, ii. 4823 — sites for pits , ii. 4824conical pit , ii. 4825 --prismatic pit, ii.
4827 - heat inpits, ii. 4828 -pitted with earth and lying in field not analogous, ii. 4829 - pitting affects themdiffer ently now than formerly ,ii. 4830 – expedients for keeping in pits, ii. 4832_effectsoffrost, ii. 4840 — importation of,ii. 4841 — disease, peat most protective against it , ii. 4835— it considerable on heavy land , ii. 4836 - less on light, ii.
mould -furrow ,i. 751 - crown-and -furrow , i. 752— gather
4837 - its connection with manure obscure , ii. 4838
ing up and crown -furrow , i. 753— feerings should make complete ridges , i. 754 - casting or yoking, i. 755 - gore furrow , i. 756 — when casting should not be used, i. 757—
planting in autumn as a preventive, ii. 489 & diseased sets have produced sound crops, ii. 4899 - explanation of this, ii. 4900 — their culture in autumn , ij. 4901 - using
two-out-and -two-in, i. 759 — feering for it, ib .--when it is suitable, i. 761- in breaks or division s, i. 763 — twice 765 - cleaving or throwing down, i. 766 - cleaving down without gore- furrows, i. 767 — and with , ib. — cross, i. 768
whole potatoes, ii. 4902- effects ofspecial manures on , ii. 4940_heat required to ripen , ii. 5242 - extremes of heat that will ripen , ii. 5245 - mineral ingredients they
gathering up, i. 764gathering up the second time, i.
single, i. 769 - bad , i . 770 — does not change the form of the ground , i. 771 - rib , stubble-land , i. 772 - stubble in different soils, i. 775 — strong clay, i. 776 — in snow , i . 777
--deep, when advisable , i. 778 - gaws or grips should be made after, i. 779_lea , on strong soil, i. 780 - cutting gaws in lea , i . 781 - head -ridges , i. 782, 783 — these com mon to different ridges, i. 781--requisite depth , i. 785– shallow , when advisable, i. 787 – deed and shallow , i. 793
Ploughman , duties of the , i. 60 — bad , lean to right, i. 706 -and press on the stilts, i. 707 - good, i . 712 — young, i. 713cannot learn early , i. 714a beginner, i. 715 - boys unfit for , i. 716 — take charge of work -horses, i. 1410 young and old , arrangement of work between , i. 1429
other employments for, in winter, i. 1433 - their wages ,
take from the soil, ii. 5061 - cost of replacing these, ii. 5074
Potato oats, composition of, i. 1292 Poullards, i . 2958
Poultry , winter treatment of, i. 1598 - none reared in win ter , i.1599—-how they should be caught, i. 1606 - prices in Edinburgh , i. 1607 — to judge of, i. 1608 daily treatment of, i. 1612 — food of, i. 1614young broods of, i. 1617 always ready for the table, i. 1618 pampering, i. 1619 denominations of, i. 1620_feathers of, i. 1623 — diseases of, i. 1624 - insects which infest, i. 1627 - bran as food for , i. 1632 — fattening profitable, i. 1635 – spring the season of reproduction , i. 2878 — in towns, i. 2934– suitable for all farms, i. 2933 - diseases of ; pip, i. 2954 - moulting fever , i. 2955 — harvest bug, i. 2956 — injurious to crops, ii. 4713
--value of, in the kingdom , ii. 5183 —- value of, imported,
ii. 6305 — in Berwickshire , ii. 6307 - in Northumberland ,
ii. 5184- animals destructive to, ii. 5195 - points of, ii. 6224 Presser roller, i. 2368 - objects of it , i. 2367 — its use , i.
ii. 6308 - in East- Lothian, ii. 6309 - in Fifeshire , i . 6310 ---married and single , ii. 6319_those who must provide field -workers, ii. 6318
Probang , the, for cattle, i. 1379 Produce , amount of, ii. 6423 - disposal of, ii. 6424
2371
Plumber -work of steading, the, ii. 5494 — measuring and pricing, ii. 5499 — its cost,ii. 5514 - lead, whence derived ,
Proudfoot, Mr, his experiments on barley , ii. 4928on oats , ii. 4934
ii. 5497 — and zinc , ii. 5498 — for cottages, ii. 5558 Pneumatics, science of, i. 81 Poa pratensis , mineral ingredients in , i. 464
Psychrometer, the, i. 183
Poison for birds, dangerous, ii. 4711
Pole -cat, destructive to poultry, ii. 5296 Pollard , see Straw Poplar, specific gravity of, i. 119 - mineral ingredients in , i. 465
Poppy, ash of the, ii. 4014 -- cake, ib. Pork , live and dead weight of, ii: 6174 — loss in cooking , ii. 6175 — pickled , ii. 6176 - ham , ii. 6177 — flitch , ii. 6178— imported , ii.6184 Porkers and porklings, what, i. 1587
Porphyry, specific gravity of, i. 119
Potashand soda, where chiefly found in plants, ii. 5048 pitrate of, see Special Manures Potatoes , mineral ingredients in , i. 463- given to horses , i. 1440 —- used in feeding cattle, i. 1253—-nutritive powers of,
i. 1254 water in , i. 1255 - composition of, i. 1256 — ash of,i. 1257- ash in fibrous partof, i. 1258 - nutritive mat ter from acre, i, 1259 — nutritive matter compared with
Pump, common, action of the, i. 90 - force , ib .-- stomach, its use for live- stock , i. 91 - cast-iron , for liquid -manure, i. 1115 — peculiar one , i. 2066 - another, i. 2082— force, what constitutes it, i. 2083— and lifting , i. 2084 Punching-nippers, ii. 4016 Purves , Mr, his experiments in feeding sheep, i. 962 Pusey , Mr, his experiments in feeding sheep , i. 971 — with special manures on mangoid -wurzel, ii. 4961 Putrid eggs , poisonous, ii. 5182 Pyroheliometer, the, ii. 3033
Quarter-ill, symptoms of, ii. 3847 - its prevention , ii. 3848 Quartz , specific gravity of, i. 119 Quey calf, what, i. 1152
Rack , hay or straw , i. 932— straw , covered , i. 1091 - square , i. 1092 - iron , i. 1093 Radnor, Earl of, his experiments on feeding sheep, i. 987 Rag- fallowing after lea , ii. 4183_objection to it , ii. 4184 Rags as a manure, sce Special Manures
INDEX . Railways, conveyance of stock by, ii. 3595 Rain , beneticial as moisture , i. 270 — Hutton's theory of, i. 27 Hits connection with the fall of the barometer, i. 275
-periodical, i. 276 — zone of constant precipitation, i. 277 -annual amount of, i. 278 - European , i. 279 - laws affecting its distribution, i . 280 - increase of days of, i. 281 - decrease of, i. 282 - this from the coast to the in
terior, i. 283 - more fallson west than east coast, i. 284 frequency of, i. 285 — difference in dayand night, i. 286 extremes of wet and dry years, i. 287 – where great falls occur, i. 288 – amount influenced by the moon , i. 239—
foreign matters brought down by, i. 290_general prog nostics of, i. 295 – in winter , quantity and number of days , i. 608 —- character of winter, i. 609 - mean annual fall, i. 610 - fall on the land, i. 611 - its uses to husbandry ,
797
Rick , conical, calculation of its contents , ii. 4078 Rick-cloths , sizes and prices of, ii. 4043 Riddles, i. 1777 — wheat, wooden, i. 1778 – barley , wooden , i. 1779 - oats, wooden , i. 1780 - beans, wooden , i. 1781 slap wooden , i. 1782 - wheat wire, i. 1783 - barley wire, i. 1784 - oats wire, i. 1785 – slap wire, i. 1786 — sieves, wooden , i. 1787 — wire , i. 1788 — for potatoes, ii. 4803 Riddling, mode of, i. 1822 Ridges , time lost in ploughing short, i. 722 - constituent parts of, i. 738 - direction of, i. 739 —- breadth of, i. 740
gathering ridges from the flat, i. 749 — yoking, i. 755 casting or coupling, ib .-- two -out- and- two -in , i. 760 twice gathered up , i. 764 - cleaving or throwing down , i. 767 — ill-ploughed , i. 769 — levelling high , ii. 5964 Riglins, what, i. 2301
i. 612 - mean fall in winter , i. 654 - what it is , i. 928
Rivers, ordinary flow and slope of, i. 115 - measuring their
management of sheep during heavy, i. 948 — in spring, i. 2149_ -number of days then , i. 2150 - mean fall in spring , i. 2175 - quantity in summer, ii. 30134- number ofdays , ii.
Rain -gauge, the, i. 271 — its cost, i. 272
velocity, i. 116 Robertson's corn - cart, ii. 4596 Rock salt, specific gravity of, i. 119 Roller, the land , i. 2473 — its treatment, ii. 6338 Roller, forhorses , priceof,i. 1542 Rolling of land , the, i. 2475 Rook , the, frequents oat- fields for grubs,i. 2505_injurious to crops, ii. 4707 --destructive to eggs, ii. 5206
Rainbow , the, ii. 3046
Rook -battery, a , ii. 4712
Rain -water , specific gravity of, i . 119 - spouts for, i. 1117, ii. 5496 - drains, i. 1118, ii. 5426 - cistern, ii. 5531 Rape cultivated in Scotland for forage, ii. 3448 - consumed at different seasons, ii. 3449 - its culture , ii. 3450 - grows on any soil, ii. 3451-- raised for manuring land with sheep, ii. 3452 - useful for ewes , ii. 3453 – infested by insects , ii. 3454 – sheep supported by , ii. 3455 — its botanical position , ii. 3456 - seed imported, ii. 3461 — its culture in autumn ,
Ropes for carts , ii. 4599 Rot in ewes , symptoms and prevention of, ii. 4742 Rotation of crops, definition of, ii. 5080 - crops which ripen
3014mean fall at Greenwich for 25 years, ii. 4328
quantity in autumnal months, ii. 4329 - number of days then , ii. 4330 - probabilities of wet to dry, ii. 4331 - mean fall in autumn , ii. 4350
ii. 4369 — good for sheep , i. 951
Rape- cake, how formed , il. 3459 — its composition , ii. 3460 -and dust, how preserved, ii . 1994 Rape -dust, see Special Manures
Raspail, M. , onthe fecula of wheat, i. 1902 – barley, i. 1920 --oats , i. 1933 —- rye , i. 1945 - beans, i. 1956 — pease, i. 1962 - buck -wheat, i. 4667 - potato , i. 4814 Rats, destructive to poultry , ii. 5199 - best mode of killing, ii. 5201 — other means, ii. 5202 - and mice , provision against, in steadings, i. 1687 — destroy cheese , ii. 1299 Raven , the, injures lambs, ii. 3717 Razor -back in cattle , what, i. 3622 Read's subsoil-plough , ii. 5982 Reaping, requireshired labourers, ii. 4460 — symptoms of ripening, ii. 4463 — Superintendence necessary, ii. 4470 clothing of those employed , ii. 4471 -bandwin with the
sickle , ii. 4472 — its advantages, ii. 4485 — thrave with the vidual,ii. 4493 —- bagging with the sickle,ii. 4494_leaving
sickle , ii. 4486 - its simplicity, ii. 4491 - instances of indi a high stubble, ii. 4495 — with the Hainault scythe, ii. 4496 — with the scythe, ii. 4501 - quantities done with sickle and scythe , ii. 4507 — against the standing corn im proper , ii. 4511 - in gaitins, ii. 4512 - food of those en
gaged , ii. 4515 - discipline of them , ii. 4518 — lodging of them , ii. 4520 — their wages, ii. 4522 — done by the piece in England , ii. 4523 — its cost, ii . 4524advantages of mowing, ii. 4530 - proportion of straw to grain , ii. 4532— in dibbled , ii . 4534 - in drilled , ii. 4535 — in broadcast , ii. 4536 -- weight of crop , ii. 4537 — weight of stubble and roots, ii. 4538 -- produce by dibbling, ii. 4539 - drilling, ii. 4540 — and broadcast, ii 4541 - crop of wheat varies , ii. 4550 — of barley, ii. 4551 - of oats, ii . 4552 - neglect of weeding detrimental, ii. 4556 -- short ridges waste time in , ii. 4557 - age of crop when best reaped , ii, 4559 - various modes of stooking , ii. 4564German mode, ii. 4565 Swedish , ii. 4566 - machines, ii. 4568 - relation between grains in the ear and the crop per acre , ii. 4574 — that of beans and pease , ii. 4576
Reaping machines, kinds of, ii. 4568 Reaumur's thermometer , i. 164
Reckoning, table of, for cows, i. 2237 — Burnett's cycle for, i. 2238
Red clover, see Clover Red -water in cows, i. 2242
seed most exhaustive , ii . 5082_order of crops by their
exhaustiveness, ii. 5083 — exhausting and unexhausting alternated, ii. 5084 —- regular rotation unnecessary in arable culture, ii. 5085 _--necessary where stock is reared ,
ii. 5086 — it insures regularity of work, ii, 5105 - its theory not yet understood, ii. 5106_theory of excretion , ii. 5107 - of nutrition , ii. 5109 - Boussingault's views, ü . 5110
Rubbing-post in pasture- fields, ii. 3576 Ruddle , see Keil Rug , for horses, price of, i. 1542 Rumination , process of, i. 1652 Rusky, the seed , i. 2314
Rust,injures the pea crop, ii.3992 — of the straw of wheat, ii. 4113 - in inside of chaff scales, ii. 4116 Rutherford's self -registering thermometer, i. 165 Rye, its culture, ii. 4140 - mineral ingredients in , i. 462— its botanical position, i. 1940 — its ear, ib . - its grain , i. 1941 - cultivated on the Continent , i. 1942 - crop of, i. 1943 — composition of its grain , i. 1944 — fecula of, i. 1945 nutritive matter from anacre of, i. 1946 — ash ofthe grain , i. 1947 --- of the straw , i. 1978 - geographical distribution of, i. 1948 - bread , i. 1949
Rye -grass, mineral ingredients in , i. 464two varieties of, i. 2639 - quantity sown, i. 2635_seed, its weight and cost , i. 2643 — Italian , i. 2644 - sown with the clovers, i. 2633— ash , ii. 3897 — ash of its hay , ii. 3093 - effects of special manures on it , ii. 4970
Sacks, i. 1817 - setting full ones, i. 1812_lifting full ones , i. 1813-loading cart with , i. 1816 - barrow for them , i. 1818 — and sheets, treatment of, ii. 6345 - lifter, ii. 6396 Sack -lifter, the , ii. 6396 Saddle,riding, priceof, i. 1542 Saddle -horses, i . 1522 — winter treatment of the , i . 1524 loose -boxes for , i. 1558 — when deemed idle , i. 1563 — when merely exercised , i. 1564 — the legs, when ill formed , i. 1565 — the feet , when diseased , i. 1566 — food of, i. 1567 diseases of fore -legs, i. 1572 – of hind ones , i. 1573 - break
ing- in , ii. 6097 --- inode of doing it , ii. 6098 Saddle -galls in horses , i. 1501, ij. 3858 Saddlery work, two ways of executing, ii. 6331 Sago, feeding of calves with , i. 2279
Sainfoin, not suited to Scotland, i. 2524 — its culture , i. 2525 -a perennial , i. 2527 - as forage, i. 2528 - its botanical position, i. 25294-may be cultivated in drills, i. 2530 makes fine hay, i. 2531 - unprofitable to cultivate as a perennial, i. 2534 — its ash , i. 2585 --weight and cost of seed , i. 2536 - giant, culture of, i. 2537
Register -offices for servants, ii. 6301
Salesmen , the best disposers of stock at market, ii. 3596
Regularity , importance of, in treatment of cattle , i. 1211
Saline manures, effects of, as top -dressings, ii. 6372 Salt, good for sheep on turnips , i. 946_keeps them free of rot , i. 947 — strewn in hay in stacking , ii. 4065 - its effects,
Reid , Hugo , on the temperature of the atmosphere , i. 101 -on evaporation , i. 126 - on the air , i . 212 - on water, i. 213 - on the earths, i. 214 Reid's theory of storms, i. 312
ii. 6377. - See also Special Manures Saltpetre , see Special Manures
Reins, i. 683
Salve, Ballantyne's, ii. 4777 - another, ii. 4778 — Stewart's,
Rennet, how produced , ii. 4233 — its action , ii. 4284_pre
ii. 4779 — tar, applying, ii. 4781 Sand , specific gravity of, i. 119_drifting, weeds supplied
paration of curd for, ii. 4285 Ribbing land for the seed - furrow , i. 2626 - mode of, i . 2628 -object of, i . 2629 - plough , i. 2627 - coulter, i. 2630 Rib - grass for pasture, í. 2645 Rice, mineral ingredients in , i. 462
by, i. 407
Sandstones, specific gravity of, i. 119
Sandy clay, specific gravity of, i. 374 Sandy loams, character of, i.340 - plants which distinguish ,
798
INDEX
Sandy loams, continued i. 392 - Weeds which infest, i. 393 - porous ones , plants of, i. 394_weeds, i. 395 Sandy soils, character of, i. 334 - plants which distinguish them , i. 390 — weeds infesting them , i. 391 Sarcolobæ , character ofthe, i.2450 — used as food , ib . Saw - fly of the turnip , the, ii. 3294 Scab in sheep , i. 1071 Scalded head in sheep, ii. 3751 Scarecrows, uselessness of, i. 2809
Sciences, those most applicable to agriculture, i. 70 – time required for studying them , i. 520 Scirpus, mineral ingredients in , i. 464 Scoop for filling water -barrel, ii. 3776 Scoops, corn , i . 1793
Scots fir, specific gravity of, i. 119 - mineral ingredients in , i . 465
Scottish sheep, the original, points of the, ii. 6232 Scouring in calves, i. 2298 Seud , cloud called , i. 259
1081 -- and water , ib . - bowel-sickness, ib . - sickness in the flesh and blood, ib . - Warnes' compound for , i. 1306 -circumstances which determine their disposal, ii. 3578
-boggs are put to turnips lean, ii. 3580 - progress of formation of fat in , ii. 3581 — to judge of fat, ii. 3583 mode of turning a , ii. 3584ewe hoggs, retained on the farm , ii. 3585 - Wether, fed as flying stock, ii. 3587 -- fat, purchased by dealers and butchers, iir 3588 - cost of send. ing them to market, ii. 3589 - selecting them for it, ii. 3590 — drover of, bis qualifications, ii 3594 — their treat ment on the road , ii. 3593 — conveyance by railways, ii. 3595 — a salesman the disposer of them at market, ii. 2596 - rules of market to be attended to , ii. 3597 — their conveyance by steamboat to London , ii. 3598 — those
best suited to the London market, ii. 3600 — Edinburgh
weekly market for, ii. 3601 - fairs for, first instituted, ii. field, ii. 3604 presented weekly there, ii. 3605_number imported into London , ii. 3606_into the kingdom , ii.
3602__in Great Britain , ii. 3603 - sold annually at Smith
-manufacture of,ii.3899 - unsuited for reaping , ii. 4498 Scythe, cradle, ii. 4497
3608 -- period of ewes and lambs remaining on pasture, ii . 3705--- artificial pasture best for ewes , ii . 3706 - selection of new grass for, ii. 3708 — treatment of wether hoggs in summer, ii. 3711 -- of dinmonts, ii. 3712of ewe hoggs, ii. 3713 – of tups , ii. 3714 — Leicester hoggs apt to lie awk. ward , ii. 3716 - lambs injured by the raven , ii. 3717 - and by the carrion - crow , ii. 3718 - ewes best suited for hard pasture, ii. 3722 - and lambs, ii. 3723 — change of them in some pastures dangerous, ii. 3724 - taking off brats, ii.
Sea -breeze, origin of the, i. 94 Sea -water,specific gravity of, i. 119
over unfenced marches, ii. 3728
Scuffler and Grubber, the, il. 6340 Scuffler, see Horse -hoe Sculls for turhips, i. 1184 Scythe, common and patent, ii. 3878 - common , mounted , ii. 3877 - blade , ii. 3879_sharpened with strickles, ii. 3880 — with stones, ii. 3881 - cutting forage with, ii. 3882
Sea -weed as a manure, i. 2107 - quantities of, on the shores, i. 2108 - put fresh on stubble and lea , i. 2109 --put on trenched ground, i. 2110 — dries to one- third its buik , i. 2111-- its botanical position , i. 2113 - composition of, i.
2115 - on combustion yields kelp, i. 2116 — its ash , i. 2117 of Jersey, i. 2118 Segg , what, i. 1156 Segging in oats , ii. 4135 Seeds, rationale of their germination , ii. 3496 - are living objects , ii. 3497 — vital, in the ground affected by agencies, ii. 3498 - affected by physical agencies, ii. 3499by air, ib . - by heat, ii. 3500 — by moisture,ii. 3501 - by pulverised soil, ii. 3302 — by chemical agencies, ij. 3504 - by azotised and non -azotised, ib . — ripe, contain much carbon , ii.
3726 - delight to spread over hill pasture, ii. 3727 - stray Blackfaced subsist on
heath, ii. 3736 — diseases in summer , sturdy , ii . 3743— blinding, ii. 3744 - pox, ii. 3715 ---scalded head, ii. 3751— bots, ii.3762 — ked , ii. 3753 - blow - flies, ii. 3754worried by dogs, ii. 3757 — washing-pool for, ii. 3900 - order of washing them , ii. 3902 — preparation , & c., of the men , ii. 3903 — mode of washing , ii. 3904 —-treatment after wash ing , ii. 3905 — period of the day for it, ii. 3906 — washing on a hill farm , ii. 3908 - none equal to clean water for it,
ii. 3909_washing in Wurtemberg , ii. 3910 -- time for shearing, ii. 3915 — theshearing floor, ii. 3916 — the per sons employed , ii. 3917 —— its object, ii. 3919 — method of using the shears, ii . 3920 — shearing in the three different stages, ii. 3921 - state of the fleece, ii. 3925 - number shorn every day, ii. 3926 - a new shorn one , ii. 3928
3505 - absorb moisture in the soil, ii. 3506 - assisted by
some lambs wean themselves after their mothers are
heat, ii. 3507 - the vital principle decomposes the water ab sorbed , ii. 3508 - diastase fornied in them , ii. 3509 — sugar formed , ii. 3510 — further growth , ii. 3512 — why light is pre judicial to germination, ii. 3513 - affected by :physiological agencies, ii. 3516 — consist of an embryo, ib .-- force of vegetation in, ii. 3520 Servants, obligations of masters to , ii. 6292 - masters res ponsible for, ii. 6293 — their obligations to masters , ii. 6294 - grounds for dismissing, ii. 6296 — characters to , ii.
shorn , ii. 3929 - shearing a joyous season , ii. 3930 — shear ing on a hill farm , ii. 3931 — improvernent therein , ii. 3932 -effects of too early shearing, ii. 3933 — marking them , ii. 4015 - materials for it, ii. 4019 - way of doing it, ii. 4020 — diseases, yellows, ii. 4740 —- rot, ii. 4741 - flukes, ii. 4744_bathing requisite to kill keds on , ii. 4745 - it useful in cutaneous diseases, ii. 4746_composition of the bath , ii. 4748 —— its cost, ii. 4755 —— is employed in dry weather, ii. 4757 - mode of applying it , ii. 4759 sheds made in the wool, ii. 4760_immediate effects of the bath , ii. 4761 stool for bathing, ii. 4756_ewes bathed after tupping, ii. 4763- they are dipped , ii. 4766 -- mode of dipping , ii. 4770 --smeared on hill farms, ii. 4773 — it objectionable, ii. 4774 -various salves, ii.4776 - applying them , ii.4779 — putting on tar -salve, ii. 4781 - uses of their skins, ii. 6171 - heat
6297
Served , what, i. 1154 Sewerage water of towns, the, ii. 5013 —- composition of London , ii. 501 4 of Edinburgh , ii. 5015 cost of fitting apparatus for, as a manure , ii. 5016 — its efficacy, ii. 5017
Shackel, Mr, his experiments on feeding Southdowns, i. 989
radiated from it, ii. 6172
Sheaf-gauge , the, ii. 4487 Shear-hoggs, what, i. 931 Shearling tup , what, i. 924 Shears , stable , price of, i. 1424
Sheep -cots, not advisable, i. 1015 Sheep -pox, the, ii. 3745 Sheet , sowing, how put on , i. 2316
Shed for hay , cost, & c ., of, ii. 4075
Shell -fish and shells , ii. 4998
Sheddings, what, i. 930 Sheds, movable, for sheep , i. 956 — permanent, for them , i. 957 — in steading, i. 1103- in pasture fields, ii. 3777
Shell-marl, its use , ii. 4999 — its composition , ii. 6030 Shelter, advantages of, for sheep , i. 953, 1005 — want of it on pastoral farms, i. 995 - on hill farms secured by stells ,
Sheep, feeding of, on turnips in winter, i. 901 - selected to put on turnips, i.917 - aged tups, i. 918 — young sheep, i. 918– old ewes, i.920 - castrated lambs, i. 921 — how arranged, i. 940 -- names at different ages, i. 923 — feeding in sheds, i.956 -box -feeding, i. 964stall-feeding, i. 965 — should have white turnips at first, i. 972 — relish cabbages, i. 973 — tur nips should be unwashed , i. 974 - confinement ungenial to , i. 975 — fed on oil- cake, i. 976 — on oil- cake, linseed , and beans, i. 981 - relative weights of skin and tallow , i. 986 -different breeds fed , i. 987 — Hampshire Southdowns, i. 989 — not fed on carse farms, i. 991 - nor on those near towns, i. 992 — nor on dairy farms, i. 993 — Cheviots on low pastoral farms, i.998 — and Blackfaced on high , ib. hoggs falloff on turnips in spring, i. 1007 — hay provided in the stells, i. 1017 - different forms of stells , i. 1009 Southdowns likely to supersede Cheviot, i. 1020 — Black faced suited to hill farms, i. 1023 — a bratted one , i. 1038 -hay to beprovided for them , i. 1041 - hurdles, i. 1042— nets ,i. 1054 - corn -store for, í. 1063 - fed on horse -chest nuts , i. 1066_diseases in winter , purging , i. 1066 — louse, í . 1067 - bridling, i. 1069 - scab , i. 1071 --- foot -rot , í. 1073 - wildfire, i. 1076 - braxy, i. 1077 -- dry brasy, i.
i. 1033 — and by bushes, i. 1034 - effects of low objects in affording it , ii. 5594 — copes of walls secure it, ib . - instances of successful, ii. 5595 Shepherd, the, his duties, i. 63 — where required , i. 64 lambing season an onerous one to , i. 2539 - profit deriv able from a good , i . ib . - loss sustained from a bad , i. 2540 — prepares turnip -slicer and troughs, i. 2542 - kale and turnips, i. 2543 - lantern and crook , i. 2544 — means to ward off the fox , i. 2545 - knows the lambing ewes,
i. 2546 — prevents desertion of lambs, i. 2552— supports orphan lambs, i. 2553 — makes ewes take their own lambs, i. 2562 --mothers lambs on other ewes, i. 2563 - brings up pet lambs, i. 2567 - castrates lambs , i . 2571 - his duties on a hill farm , i. 2585 - qualifications of the hill, i. 2589 -his wages , ii. 6315
Shepherd of Banbury's rules for winter, i. 652 — spring, i. 2165 — summer , ii. 3045
Shepherd's dog, temper of theshepherd indicated by, ii. 6102— two varieties of, ii. 6104 -mode of training, ii. 6105 — its character, ii. 6107 Shepherd's knot, the, i. 908 Shoeing a young horse , the, ii. 6094
INDEX . Short-horn ox , points of, if. 6209_bull, ii. 6210 -- cow , ii. 6212 - colour of, ii. 6213
Shot, what, i. 1587 Shotof grease in horses, 1494 Shoulder -shaken , wliat, ii. 3643
i. 411 — and near the sea , plants on , i. 412 — weeds on , i. 413 - peat, plants on , i. 414 - wet peat , plants on , i. 415_
and dry peat, weeds infesting, i. 416 — near dwellings,
Shovel , broad -mouthed, i. 1168 Show, feeding of cattle for a, i. 1214
Showers of sulphur, ii. 2979 - blood , ib . - corn ,
799
it .
animals, ii. 2980
Sickle, toothed , ii. 4468 - smooth -edged, ii. 4469 — prices, ib .
Sifting, how done, i. 1823
Silica , where found in plants , ii. 5054 Silicious sand, specific gravity of, i. 374 Siphon , action of the, i. 92 Six -teeth ewes, what,i. 931 Skins of sheep ,dressing of, at the Cape, ii. 3974 Skip, what, i. 2233 Skirty lands, what, i. 2122 Sky, the, in spring, i. 2152 — in winter, i. 653 Skylark , the, injurious to crops, ii. 4699 Slates for steading, the, ii. 5489 Slater-work of steading, specifications of the, ii., 5484 measuring and pricing, ii. 5493— its cost, ii. 5513
Slaughtering oxen, preparation for, ii. 6111 - different modes of, ii. 6112_cutting down carcass, ii. 6113 — Scotch mode of dividing , ii. 6115 — and English , ii. 6118 - differ ent sorts of beef, ii. 6123 — sheep , preparations for, ii. 6124mode of, ib .- displaying the carcass, ii. 6125 % cutting it down, ii. 6126 — Scotch mode of dividing, ii. 6127 — and English , ii. 6128 – different kinds of mutton , ii.
plants indicative of, i. 428- those indicative of presence of peat, i. 433 - aspect of, i. 373 - retention of heat by , i. 374specific gravity of, ib . - shrinking of, by heat, i. 375 — warmingof, by heat, i. 376 - absorption ofmoisture, i: 377 — saturation by water, i. 378 - retention of moisture, i. 379 -absorption of oxygen , i. 380 — physical properties of, i. 381 —- discriniination of them by the plants growing on them , i. 382 — clayey, indicated by certain plants, i. 421 - gravelly , i. 422 - vegetable, i. 423— very dry , i. 424 -moisture below, i. 425 — in rich condition , i. 429 - and in poor , i. 430 - manured from towns, i. 431 -- not well farmed , i. 432 — their mechanical structure, i. 436 — their mechanical analysis , ib .-— their chemical composition , i. 447 - silica in , i. 448alumina , i. 449 - oxide of iron , i. 450 - oxide of manganese, i. 451 - potash and soda , i. 453 - table ofanalysesof, i. 457 - use of analyses of, i . 458 — field before the analytic chemist regarding, i. 461 - classifi. cation of, i. 471 - Gasparin's, i. 474origin of, i. 486_full of interest to the agricultural pupil, i. 503 — gaulting or claying of, i. 2119 -rotation of crops, for strong, ii. 5089 --for light, ii. 5100 — naturally fertile, ii. 5113 - elements of fertility unknown , ii. 5114influence of climate on fer . tility of, ii. 5115 - none here bear crops without manure , ii. 5116 - how it effects fertility , ii. 5118 - residue of crops a source of fertility, ii. 5119 - manure should be in er . cess of produce removed , ii, 5125 - functions of humus in fertilising, ji. 5126 - effects of their pulverisation , ii. 5996
6130 - tup mutton, ii. 6135 - proportion offat,ii.6136
Soiling stock, objections to pasturing, ii. 3869 — difficulties
pigs, mode of, ii.6137 - Scotch mode of dividing, ii. 6138 -and English , ii. 6139 — judging of pork , ii. 6140 - calves, mode of, ii. 6141 - Scotch division of carcass , ii. 6142 and English , ii. 6143 — best veal in Scotland and England ,
attending, on arable farms, ii. 3870 — comparative extent required for itand pasturing,ii. 3872 — labour attending the cutting of grass, ii. 3873 - work - horses treated in this way , ii. 3874 - impracticable on a large scale , ii. 3875 --more practicable in England than Scotland , ii. 3876— green forage for, should be cut dry , ii. 3883 – it mixed
ii. 6144 - lambs, mode of, ii. 6145 - mode of dividing, ii. 6146 Sleet in winter , i. 654 , ii. 3008 Slight's trussed iron swing-tree, i. 668 - new lever - drill sow
ing-machine, i. 2341 - angle iron field -gate, ii. 5765 Slip -calf, what, i. 1154 Slipping of lambs, what, i. 2590 Slug, the, attacks the bean crop , ji. 3982 - red clover , ii . 3895 — the wheat plant, ii. 4091 - the pea crop , ii. 4892
Small's plough, description of, i. 662— rectangular furrow slice, i. 702
Smearing sheep, objectionable , ii. 4774 - mode of, ii. 4770 Smith's, Messrs , drop -sowing drill, ii. 3220
Smith's, J. , subsoil-plough at work, ii. 5981 Smith -work of steading , specifications of it, ii. 5501 - the iron for it , ii. 5504 — two ways of executing, ii. 6326 Smithfield , sheep presented at, ii. 3604_sales of stock in , unfair ones, ii. 3650
Smut in the grains of wheat, ii. 4117 Snow, falls in winter , i. 617 - varying forms of flakes, i. 618 -these enumerated , i. 619_their descent, i. 620 — changes on it, after fall, i. 621 - temperature rises when it falls, i. 622 — its bulk in melting, i. 623 - reflection of light from it, i. 624heavy fall of, i. 625 — its uses to husbandry, i. 626 — should not be ploughed in , i. 777 - management of
sheep on turnips during,i. 949_storms in spring, i. 2142 -then destructive to ewes and lambs , i. 2143 - effects on
wild animals, i. 2168 - on hill farms, source of loss in lambs, i. 2598 - harrowed to cause melting , i. 2599 — and ploughed , i. 2600 Sock for paring with plough , i. 2823 Soda, nitrate and sulphate of, see Special Manures Soils, strictly defined, i. 331 — and subsoils, condition of, i. 346_clay, i. 333 - sandy, i . 334 - tilly , i. 335 — loam , i. 336 - clay loam , i. 337 - clay, what best adapted for, i. 338_gravelly, i. 339 — sandy and gravelly loams, i. 340 chalk , i. 341 - peat, i. 342 - mould , i. 343 - light, i. 347 -wet, i. 348_dry, ib . - poor, i. 349 - rich , ib . - deep,
i. 350 - thin , ib. - hungry, i. 351 - grateful, i. 352 kindly , i. 353 --sick , i. 354 sharp , i . 355 — deaf, i. 3564 porous, i. 357 - open , ib . - retentive, i. 358 - close, ib .
-hard, i. 359 - soft, i. 360 - fine, i. 361 - coarse, i. 362 harsh , ib. - smooth , i. 363 — rough, i. 364of fine skin , i. 365 -- colours of, i. 366 — black , ib . - white , i. 367 blue , i. 368red , i. 369 —- brown , i. 370_colours of sub soils, i. 371 - colours retain different degrees of heat, i.
372 - good clay, plantson , i.383 — and weeds, i. 384 - thin clay, plants on , i. 385 and weeds, i. 386 - deep strong loam , plants on, i. 387 - thin loam , plants on , i. 388 weeds , i. 389 - sandy, plants on , i. 390 — and weeds, i. 391 — loam , plants on , i. 392 — and weeds, i. 393— porous loam , plantson , i. 394— and weeds, i. 395— alluvial, plants on , i. 396 --and weeds, i. 397 - moory, plants on , i. 409
dry moory, plants on , i. 410 -- marshy ,interior, plants on,
with hay or straw , ii. 3884 — clover crop varies , ii. 3886
Soot, ii. 5000 - composition of wood , ii. 5004sowing machine for , ii. 5001- sce also Special Manures Southdowns, points of, ii. 6234 Sow pig , what, i. 1587
Sows, should farrow in spring, i. 2843 - symptomsof farrow ing, i. 2844 - litter for them, i. 2846 - attended to when farrowing, i. 2847 — many become sick in farrowing, i. 285 ) —the placenta should be removed , i. 2853 —- food
given after farrowing , i. 2858 — have seldomany com plaint, i. 2860 — timefor taking the boar , i. 2862— a good litter, and value of brood , i. 2863 — number of brood, i. 2867 — fecundity of, i. 2876 — the breeding of, profitable, i. 2877 — diseases of, i. 2870 - pulse , ib . - bleeding , i. 2871 drenching, i. 2873 diarrhæa , i. 2874 - white flux, i . 2875 Sowing by hand with sowing -sheet, i. 2316 — with basket, i. 2317 - with one hand , i. 2319_casting the seed equally , i. 2320 — with both hands, i . 2322 – Irish mode of, i. 2323 - with machines, i. 2326 - arrangement in , i. 2364_cir
cumstances affecting the seed , broadcast, ( ii. 3522– drilled , ii. 3524 — and dibbled , ii. 3526 – quantities of the cereals sown , ii. 3521 - waste of seed , wheat, ii. 3527— barley, ii. 3528 — oats, ii. 3529 -waste of each per square yard , ii. 3530 - plants come up, dibbling, drilling, and broadcast , ii. 3531 - number come up by dibbling, ii. 3533 -by drilling, ii. 3534 — by broadcast, ii. 3535 - thick and thin , ii. 3540 — comparison of the three methods, ii. 3545 -depth of, ii . 3553 - effects of deep , on wheat, ií. 3554 and on the grasses , ii. 3558 - turnip -seeds at different depths, ii. 3559 - loss of seed may be accounted for , ii. 3562 — one mode of drilling wheat, ii. 3563 Sowing -machine, broadcast, i. 2327 - how used , i. 2333— judging of the quantity sown, i. 2334 — the East-Lothian drill , i. 2337 — new lever, i. 2340 - English drill, i. 2343 Spade, the , how to use it , i. 659 — No . 5, i. 2817 Spade -tool for cutting peat-tiles, ii. 5897 Spade -trenching, a kind of fallowing, and its advantages, ii. 4185
Spades -hind , or Spadesman , see Hedger Sparrow , the, injurious to crops, ii. 4702 Spayed heifer or quey, what,i. 1156 Spaying cows, objects of, i. 2268 — its advantages , i. 2269 — heifer calves, i. 2287
Special manures , when available , i. 204farmyard dung long the chief manure, ii. 4904 — since bone- dust and guano have come to its aid , ib . — these three not special manures , ii. 4905 - not decided which is the best
special, ii. 4906 – composition of one ton of farmyard dung, ii. 4908 - bone-dust applied per acre, ii. 4909— ammonia and phosphate of lime in guano, ii. 4910_ artificial guanocannot be made, ii. 4914effects of rape
dust on wheat, ii. 4919 - nightsoil on wheat, ii. 4920.
800
INDEX .
Special manures, continued saltpetre refuse on wheat, ii. 4921 -- and saltpetre, ii. 4922 — nightsoil and nitrate of soda on wheat, ii. 4923 Turnbull's dissolved bones on barley, ii. 4925 - nitrate of soda on barley, li. 4926 — saltpetre refuse and nitrate of soda on barley, ii.4927 - nitrate of soda and common
salt on barley, ii. 4928 --guano on oats, ii. 4930 - sulphate of ammonia on oats , ii . 4931 - nitrate and sulphate of soda on oats , ii. 4932 - nitrate of soda and common salt on oats , ii . 4933 — sulphated bones on oats , ii. 4934 — six different manureson oats , ii. 4935 - gypsum
on beans, ii. 4936 — and on pease , ii. 4938 — five different manures on beans, ii. 4937 - nitrate and sulphate of soda on pease , ii. 4939 different manures on potatoes, ii.
4940 - pigeons' dung on carrots, ii. 4943 - common salt and soot on carrots, ii. 4944_guano on Swedish turnips, ii. 4947 - different manures on Swedish turnips, ii. 4949 --guano and farmyard manure on swedes , ii. 4950
ammoniacal salts on yellow turnips, ii. 4951 -- burnt bones on white turnips, ii. 4955 - six manures on them ,
ii. 4956 - alkaline phosphates and ammonia on hybrid
turnips, ii. 4957 - anomalies obtained from the foriner,
--water -troughs, i. 1095 - grating for drains, i. 1112 liquid -manure drain, i. 1113 — and tank, i. 1114_pump byres , i. 1120 - stalls, i. 1121 --mangers, i. 1122 -- floor, i. 1125_travis, i. 1130 - baikie and seal, i. 1131 — win dow , i. 1133 - ventilator , i. 1137 —- occupation of, i. 1140 -plan for pastoral farm for cattle, i. 1246 — for a carse for it, i. 1115-- rain -spouts, i.1117 -- and drains, i. 1118
farm , i. 1249 — work -horse stable in , i. 1390_number of stables, i. 1391 - width of stalls in them , i. 1392 — hay racks, i. 1393 — hind-posts, i. 1395 — floor, i. 1396 — stall fitted up , i. 1397 -- cast- iron travis - posts , i. 1398 - roof, i. 1399_ - ventilator, i . 1400.-—-window , i. 1404_loose- box , i. 1407 - hay -house , i. 1408 - corn -chest, i. 1409 - pig -styes
in , i. 1580 — part appropriated to grain crops in , i. 1678 corn-barn, i. 1679 — its outer door, i. 1680 — its floor, i. 1681 -chaff -house, i. 1682 — upper barn , i. 1683 - gangway, i. 1684 - granaries, i. 1685 — their windows, ib . - stackyard , i. 1686 - provision against rats and mice, i. 1687 - arrange ment of machinery, i. 1688 - calves' house, i. 2271 --their cribs, i. 2272 – door of these, i. 2273 — their courts, i. 2274
-Wool-room , ii. 3940 - plan for a dairy farm , ii. 4253 - its position , ii. 5380 — leading principle of constructing, ii. 6382- universally applicable , ii. 5385 - reason why not correctly constructed, ii. 5386 — best conditions for build ing, ii. 5391 - specifications of the work required , ii. 5393
ii. 4959 - dung, guano , and rags, on mangold -wurzel, ii. 4961-- ammoniacal salts on tares, ii. 4963— sulphate and nitrate of soda on tares, ii. 4964 - nitrate of soda on clover and rye- grass, ii. 4965 - guano on these, ii. 4966– nine manures on these , ii. 4967 - nitrate of soda on lea , ii. 496 % -and on rye -grass seed , ii. 4970 - five different manures on lea , ii. 4969 —- list of saline, ii. 4974 calcined , ib . - mineral acid , ib . - natural, ib . - manufactured , ib .-- refuse, ib. - percentage of impurity in , ii. 4976 - weight per bushel of, ii. 4977 - rules for applying, ii. 4979 - rationale of their application , ii. 5034 — Liebig on the formation of ammonia, ii. 5035—
Steam - engine, its action , i. 170 - its use to the farmer, i. 171 - crank high -pressure , i. 1701- setting it down , i .
and Mulder , ii. 5037 - Mülder on the action of plants on manures , ii. 5038 - inorganic constituents derived from
Steaming apparatus, for cooking food , i. 1454 - price of, i.
the soil, ii. 5039 - analyses of plants desiderated , ii. 5040 — and also of soils, ii . 5041 - action of the elements of
farm manure on plants, ii. 5044 — those abundant in the soil, ii. 5055 — the remainder to be supplied , ib.--mineral ingredients taken from it , ii. 5056 - green crops take most of these , ii. 5064 - how these are to be returned , ii, 5065 -proportions of each , ii. 5067 — the equivalents for each , ii.5068 - the cost of each , ii. 5069_summary, ii. 5079dear ones , ii. 6379 - cheap, ii. 6380 — seasonal application
-trussed wooden roof for, ii. 5465_- trussed iron roof, ii. 5466
1702— rule for horse-powerof, i. 1703 — to set it on , i. 1704 --to stop it, i. 1705 — signal bell, i. 1706 — the boiler, i. 1707 -- rule for its dimensions, i. 1709—the furnace, i. 1711-- the chimney , i. 1712— water, i. 1713 – fuel, i. 1714 Steam -vessels, conveyance of stock by, ii. 3598 - accidents liable to in them , ii. 3653 1465
Steedman , Mr, his draught stallion , ii. 6215 Steelbow , definition of, ii. 5357 — its benefit to the farmer , ii. 5358 — its establishment, ii. 5366 Steelyard for carts, ii. 3638 Steer, what, i. 1153
Stells, outside with plantation , i. 1009 — without it, i. 1013 -ancient forms of, i. 1015 — inside one, i. 1029_circular , i. 1030 — and with hay - racks, i . 1031
of them , ii . 6381
Stephens, Mr, his short-horn bull, ii. 6210 Specific gravity, what , i. 118 - tables of, i. 119 Spencer, Earl, his experiments on feeding cattle, i. 1316 Spinning of straw -ropes, the, ii. 4603 Spirit- level, the, ii. 5788 Sprains in horses, i. 1500 Spring, field operations in, i. 2133 — as a season , i. 2130the weather in , i. 2136
Springers and springing , what, i. 2200
Spruce, specific gravity of, i. 119 — used as a hedge, ii. 5685 Spud for hop ground, ii. 3169 Spyler, its use, ii . 4297
stable, saddle-horse, i. 1541 — work -horse, i. 1390 - its floor, i. 1396 — its roof, i. 1399 - loose box in , i. 1407window of, i. 1404
Stack , barley , heating, ii. 4644 - oats, ii. 4645 — wheat, ii. 4646 —-props, how used , ii. 4648 — safeguard against heating, ii. 4649 — in China , ii. 4659 Stacking, placing of the sheaves in , ii. 4623— size of stacks , ii. 4624 - trimming them , ii. 4626 — forming the
cone, ii. 4627 — building the top, ii. 4628 - forming the stool, ii . 4629 - reaped sheaves make smooth ones, ii. 4630 --and mown rough, ii. 4631 – casting down and taking in stacks, i. 1730
Stackyard , the, i. 1686 – cleaned after harvest, ii. 4657— plan of, ii. 6245 Stakes, forming of, for pets , i. 905 Stall , width of, in work -horse stable, i. 1392–- fitted up , i. 1397 - collar, i. 1406 — price of, i. 1542
Stall- feeding sheep, i. 965 Stallion, what, i. 1432 — not necessary on a farm , ii. 6076– diseases which render it useless , ii. 6078 —- treatment till ready for service , ii. 6079 - leader of a, ii. 6081 - number of mares itserves, ii. 6083-- their treatment during the season , ii . 6082 — and after it , ii. 6085 Standing flock , what , i. 952 Starch of wheat , the , i. 1902 Stathel for stacks, i. 1687
Steading, how occupied in winter, i. 795 — for the arable land of a pastoral farm , i. 1001 — winter accommodation for cattle in , i. 1082 — courts occupied by calves and yearolds, i. 1083 - bammels by fattening cattle, i. 1084byres by cows or fattening cattle, i. 1085 - littering ground in , i. 10-6 -- troughs for turnips, i. 1090 - covered straw -rack , i. 1091 - square straw - rack , i. 1092 - an iron one, i. 1093
Stephenson, Mr, his experiments on feeding cattle , i. 1342 Stethoscope, the, used for detecting the cali, i. 2239 Stevenson. Mr, his experiments with special manures, ii. 4970 Steward , the, his duties, i. 57-not always required to work , i. 58 — not required on every farm , l. 59_conduct of, under a master ignorant of agriculture, i. 550 — his wages , ii. 6314
Stewart, Mr , on trimming horses' heels , i. 1570 Stirks, what , i. 1153
Stock -account, cattle, ii.6427 — sheep, ii. 6429 — pigs, ii. 6428 Stocking a farm , first outlay, ii.5368deduction of receipts , ii. 5377 - actual outlay, ii. 5378 Stomach - pump, its use , i. 91 Stomach - staggers in horses , i. 1495 Stone fences, repairing, ii. 3570
Stone harp for screeningstones, ii. 5881 - rake for drains, ii. 5882 - beater, ii. 5883 Stones for scythes, ii. 3881
Stooks, various forms of, ii. 4564 – of rye in Germany, ii. 4565 - of corn in Sweden , ii. 4566 — best position for, ii. 4614
Stooking sheaves, how done , ii. 4480
Stool for barn, i. 1791—the milking, i. 2253 — for stacks, ii. 4629 Store, triangular, for turnips , i. 824 Storing potatoes, see Potatoes Storms, their origin and direction , i. 312 - concomitants of,
i. 313- prognostics of, i. 318-number in spring, i. 2175 --in summer, ii 3063 — in autumn, ii. 4350 - in winter, i. 654 - sheep provided for during , i. 1008 Stot, what, i. 1152 Strathaven , feeding of calves at, i. 2293 Stratton's liquid -manure cart, i . 2078
Stratus,form of cloud called the, i. 248 — changes indicated by, i . 249
Straw , littering of, required, i. 1086 - deficient in begin ning of winter , i. 1087--moving to the straw barn , i. 1763 --carrying for litter, i. 1764- of wheat, i. 1964 - best for litter, ib . - its ash , i . 1966 - nutritive matter in , i. 1967 of barley, i. 1968 - its ash , i. 1970 — its nutritive matter, i. 1971 - ofoats, i. 1972— itscomposition , i. 197 + its nutri. tive matter, i. 1975 — of rye, i. 1976 — its uses, i, 1977– its ash , i. 1978 — its nutritive matter , i . 1979 - benn and
pea , their properties, i. 1980- their ash , i. 1982
INDEX . their nutritive matter, i. 1983 - use of, as fodder and litter, i. 1985 – colour affects that of dung, i. 1986 — specific gravity of, i. 1987 — too much ne glected , i. 1988 — its proper management, i. 1989—- its conversion into manure , i. 1990 - its value, i. 1991 -- pro duce of, i. 1992—-near Edinburgh, i. 1993 — its price, i. 1994 - Romans used it as litter , i. 1996 - substitutes for it, i. 1997 - origin of its name, i. 1998 --laid on road to forin into manure , i. 2040_ash of 100 lbs., i. 1984its propor tion to grain , ii . 4533 - mode of drawing it , ii. 4610
Straw -cutter, cylinder, with oblique knives, i. 1226 — with ones , i. 1227 — the Canadian , i. 1228 — the disc , i. straight 1230 Straw -ropes, throw -crooks for, il. 4600 -spinning of, ii. 4603 — mode of twisting, ii. 4605 — best straw for, ii. 4606 -length of, ii. 4607 --coiled up , ii . 4609 Streams, how affected by friction , i. 115 — measuring their velocity , ib. Street manure, composition of, i. 2803 Strength of materials, regulation of, i. 79 Strickle for scythes , ii . 3880 Strike for the bushel, i. 1807
Stripping, one modeof milking cows, i. 2257
Stubble , left in the soil when reaping, ii. 4538 Stubble -rake, hand, ii. 4500 Sturdy in sheep, ii. 3743 Styes , see Pig , Sow
Subsoils, composition of, ii. 5998 - defined , i. 344_affect the soils above them , i. 345 — conditions of, i. 346— retentive , indicated by certain plants , i. 426 — and por ous, i. 427
Subsoil-plough, Smith's, ii. 5980 — Read's, ii. 5982 - Mar quis ofTweeddale's, ii. 5983 — Lord James Hay's, ii. 6000 Subsoil -ploughing, mode of, ii. 5981 – different opinions on it, ii. 5993 — less efficient than fork -trenching , ii. 5994 Sucking pig , what, i. 1587 Sucking-pump, its action , i. 90 Suet, how produced, ii. 6168 — its composition , ii. 6169 —— its uses , ii. 6170 Sugar refuse, its composition , ii. 5011 Sulphate of ammonia , see Special Manures Sulphate of soda , effects of, ii. 6378 ---and lime, best pickle for wheat , ii. 4868
Sulphated bones, ii . 3235 - effects of, ii. 6375 Sulphuric acid , accompanies nitrogen , ii. 5049 Summer, its character , ii. 2959 — its atmospheric pheno mena , ii. 2975 — electricity in , ii. 2982 Summer-fallow , why necessary, ii. 4164 - sort of land for , ii. 4165 — weeding it , ii. 4165 - working it , ii. 4168- ridge
ing it up, ii. 4170 —manuring it, ii. 4171 — best mode of doing so, ii. 4172 — theory of it, ii. 4175 Sunflower, species of the, ii. 3473 - culture of the tall, ii. 3474 — its botanical position, ii. 3475 — dwarf, ib .- symp toms of ripeness , ii. 4669 - cut down with knife, ii. 4670 -oil from the seed, ii. 4671 — forms good fuel, ii. 4672 Sun- lemp , ii . 3139 Swedish land -roller , ii. 3106
Swedish turnips , see Turnips Swine , points of, ii . 6235-- See Pigs , Sow Swing-trees for two horses, i. 667 – trussed iron , i. 668— for three horses, i. 669, 670 -- for four, i. 673 , 674- for
three horses with compensation apparatus, i.671 — with de fective apparatus, i. 672 — for more than four horses, i. 675 Switching - bill, the , ii. 5633 Sympiesometer, the, i. 89 Syringe for bathing sheep , ii. 4675 Table churn , ii. 4214 Tails, what, i. 930 Tail - ill in cows , i. 2244
Tallow and skin , relative weight of, in sheep, i. 986 Tallow , quantity imported , ii. 6160 Tank , liquid -manure, i. 1114 - its site , i. 2062 - not required for every farm , i. 2063 - considerations requisite in forming it , i. 2064 - fall in its bottom , i. 2065 -
pump for it , i. 2066 — its size, i. 2067 , 2068 - its cost, i. 2070_simple form of, i. 2071 - cost of making this form , i. 2072---one for cottages, i. 2073 / proper form for them , i. 2079 — in Flanders, i. 2092 Tape-line, the , ii. 5601 Tares for forage, i. 2464 thrive in all soils , i. 2466 — best with manure, i . 2467 - Sown broadcast, i. 2468_quantity
sown, i. 2469 cultivated for seed , i. 2470 — their botani
cal position, i. 2471 — the Hopetoun, i. 2472 — winter and summer, ii. 4364 - English variety of winter, ii. 4365 — not suited to Scotland without manure , ii. 4367 — their cul
ture, ii. 4368 -- reaping for seed, ii. 4587_effects of special manures on , ii. 4963
Teats of cows, chapped , i. 2266mcorded , i. 2241 Tedding-machine, ii. 4034 VOL. II .
801
Teeth, uses of, ii. 6241 - of the adult horse, ii. 6242 -- of the adult ox , ii. 6243 - of the wild boar, ii. 6244 - indicative of age , ii. 6245 -- to open horses' mouths to examine them , ii. 6246 — and cows ', ib .
Temperature , falls as we ascend in the air - i. 101 - mean , indicated by that of springs , i. 227 - its phenomena over the globe , ii. 5223
Templemoyle, agricultural school at , i. 535 Tenant-right in England , a desire for a lease , ii. 5347 — in Ireland , highly objectionable , ii. 5348 Thäer, Von , his experiments on feeding cattle , ii. 3892 Thatching stacks, in the lozenge form , ii. 4634 – in the netted form , ii. 4637 — in the Northumberland fashion ,
ii. 4638 - English form , ii. 4639 - roping, ii. 4641 Thaw , spring, in pastoral districts, i. 2144 Theaves, what, i. 931
Thedam , Mr, his experiments on sowing, ii. 3538 Thermometer, the, i. 163 — how to be placed , i . 166 — mean , in different localities, i. 227 - mean in spring, i. 2175 — in summer , ii. 3036 , 3063 — in autumn, ii. 4350 — in winter , i . 654
Thompson , Mr, his experiments on feeding cattle , i. 1361 -his mode of preparing compound for them, i. 1363 Thomson , Dr R. D., on the food of animals, i. 1673 Thorn hedges , preparation of the ground in winter for, il. 5598 - and of the plants, ii. 5605 — means for letting off water , ii. 5608 - setting off the lines , ii. 5609 — forming the bed , ii. 5610 - planting and finishing , it, ii. 5613 — forming curves in the angles of fields, ii. 5620_scarcements in jurious, ii . 5626 - in sunk fences, ii. 5628 – hedge -row trees objectionable , ii. 5629_pruning in spring, ii. 5632 -switching of, ii. 5634_one properly switched , ij. 5635 -effects of snow on a young, ii. 6636 - hog -mane and natural forms, i. 5637 - breasting over one , ii. 5640 - cut ting down, ii. 5643 -- mismanaged in cutting, ii. 5646— plashing, ii. 5648 - scouring out theditch , ii.5650 — water tabling , ii. 5651 - to fill gaps in old , ii. 5653_removing banks deprecated , ii. 5656_dead one, ii.5659 - stake -and rice , ii. 5663 — putting up paling, ii. 5665 ---turf wall and , ii. 5666 - weeding in summer, ii. 5670 - other methods of
forming fences with , ii. 5686 - often neglected, ii. 5687— injured by insects, ii. 5689 - repairing , ii. 3569 Thorn plant, the, ii. 5605 — prepared for planting, ii. 5612 --- its botanical position , ii. 5676_long lived , ii. 5679 its flowers, ii. 5680 -- tradition of that of Glastonbury, ii.
5681 — the haw , ii. 5682 — the wood, ii. 5683 — known by the ancients , ii. 5685 Thrashing of grain , the, i. 1738 - casting down the stack, i. 1739_ - barn -sheet, i. 1740 - corn barrow , i. 1741 - lad.
ders, i. 1742 - taking in stack , i. 1745 - oil- can , i. 1746— steward feeds in the corn , i. 1748 — chaff- sheet, i. 1749 thrashing motion , i . 1750_rule to ascertain capabilities of machine, i. 1751 — feeding in , i. 1752 — driving the
horses, i. 1753—- foul thrashing , i. 1754 - inconveniences attending the thrashing, i. 1756 - closing of it , i. 1757 — treatment of barley roughs, i. 1758_andof damp straw , i. 1759 —— thrashing beans and pease , i. 1762 — mowing the straw , i. 1763 - straw carried for litter, i. 1764
Thrashing machine, details of the, i. 1692 — passing of the corn through it , i. 1696 - fans , i. 1697 —- motive power, i. 169& steam -engine, i. 1701 — horse-wheel, i. 1715 — its diameter , i. 1716 - circle of teeth , i . 1717 - its elevation ,
i. 1718 conduct of horses working in it, i. 1719 - equalis sation of draught in it , i. 1720 - water -wheel, i. 1721 diminutive forın of, i. 1733— English portable, i . 1734 itsconstruction , i. 1735 — contrastwith Scottish machines , i. 1736 — amalgamation of the two, i. 1737 Thrave -reaping, ii. 4486 Three -shear tup and wether , what, i. 926 Three year old heifer, quey , stot, and bull , what, i. 1153 Throw.crooks, different forms of, ii. 4600 Thrush in horses, i. 1497
Thunderinwinter, i.603 - stormsof, ii. 2984 Ticker in cattle , i. 1386 Tiles, common , see Draining
Tillering, circumstances which promote it in the cereals, ii. 3560 - and which discourage it , ii. 3561 - by dibbling and drilling, ii. 4544
Timber, sold in spring, i. 2174foreign , for steadings, ii. 5649 Tin flask for bath , ii. 4752 Tod of wool, weight of, ii. 3943
Torsion , castrating calves by, i. 2300 Towns, farms near, what, i. 42—their capital, rent, &c. , i. 44qualifications of occupant, i. 43 — those distant from , i. 48. Sce also Farms
Trade winds, the, i. 298 Tramped picks of hay, what, ii. 4059 Transplantation of plants, effects of, ii. 3564 cost of, ii. 3565
3 E
802
INDEX .
Travis for cow -byres, i. 1130 Trefoil, Alexandrian, i. 2677 —- flesh - coloured , i. 2676 Trembles, a disease in America , ii. 4203 Trenching ground with tree roots, il. 5951 - stony ground, ii. 5957 --- expense of, ii. 5960 — season of, ii. 5961 - in Flanders, ii. 6001 Trimmer for stack, the, ii. 4626 Trins, what, i. 1154 Trochar , cattle, i. 1382
3212barrow , ii . 3214_bone- dust drill, ii. 3216 -- Smith's drop drill, ii. 3220 Turnip -rooted cabbage, ii. 3379
Trotter , Mr, on the maintenance of horses, i. 1453 Troughs, turnip , for sheep, i. 939 --at the steading, i, 1090 -stone, for dairy byre , i. 1239 Trowel for drains, li.5821
Tweeddale plough , the, ii. 5991 — subsoil trench - plough , ií. 5983— at work , ii. 5985 — its advantages, ii. 5989 Twice gathering up rides, i. 764
Truck system , different from wages in kind , ii. 6321 Tup , what, i. 928 Tup-eild ewe, what, i. 929
Twilight, ii. 3054 Twins, what, i. 1154 Twinter ewe, what, i. 926
Tup hogg, what, i. $26lamb, i. 923
Two-out-and-two-in ploughing, i. 759 Two -shear tup and wether, what, i. 925 Two-year-old bull, heifer, quey, and stot, what, i. 1153
Tups or rams, fed on turnips separately, i. 942 — period of putting them to ewes , ii. 4715-symptoms shown at this
blades, i. 1171 -- hand, i. 1172 – lever, i. 937 — wheel, i. 938 Turnip sowing -drill, the East- Lothian, ii. 3208 - Geddes', ii.
Turn -wrist plough, the, ii. 5970 Tussac grass, itscharacter, ii. 5972 — its culture , ii. 5973 nutritive matter in , ii. 5974composition of, ii. 5975– ash of, ii. 5976
ofewes served, ii. 4721 - hoggs not allowed to serve, ii .
period, i. 4717— keil put on their breasts, ii. 4720_number 4722 — qualifications of good , ii. 4723 - periodof withdrawalof, ii. 4727 - season on hill farms, ii. 4731---letting
Udder of cows, the, its structure, i. 2245 - its form , i. 2246
of, ii. 4737
Udder-clap in ewes, i. 2596 , ii. 3995
position of the teats, i. 2247 — different states of the milk in , i. 2249 — subject to inflammation , i. 2266
Turkeys, treatment of, in winter , i. 1602 - rearing not diffi . cult, i. 2897 - eggs taken away as laid , i. 2898 - set in made nest, i. 2899 - hens watchful of brood , i. 2907 -- one
Udometer, the, i . 273 Umbelliferæ , their characteristics , ii. 3426 Undershot water - wheel, the, i. 113
impregnation fecundates, i. 2908 — treatment of poults,i. 2901— some hens great layers, i. 2906 - their treatment in autumn , ii. 5164 - second brood worthless , ii. 5165 Turnips, mineral ingredients in , i. 463 - left on ground to
Urine and dung of animals, composition of, i. 2094 - cow's, i. 2096 — buman, i. 2100_horse's , i. 2101,2102 — sheep's, i. 2101 , 2102 - pig's, i. 2101, 2102 — its effects when the
Universities, education of the agricultural student at, i. 513
be eaten by sheep, i. 810 - proportions so left, i. 811-
urea is undecomposed , i. 2103 — and mould - composts of
pulling, to leave certain proportions, i. 812 - how pulled for storing, i. 813 -- tops uselessto cattle, i. 814knives for
Germany, i. 2105
topping and tailing , 1. 815 - mode ofit, i. 817 - removing from field , i. 819 - storing, i. 824 - various forms of stores , i. 827 -- varieties of, i. 843 — white globe, i. 844 - yellow , i. 847 --- Swedish , i.849 - composition of, i. 851white stone,
i. 857 – Laing's Swedish , i. 858- its bistory, i. 887– weight of bushel, i. 865 nutritive matter per acre , i. 866 - eaten in a day by a Leicester sheep, i. 867 - in half year by sheep , i. 868– per week by two year old ox , i. 869
price of, i. 871 - Dales' hybrid, i. 872 — its crop, i. 874 its history, i. 885 - Lawton hybrid, i. 873 — its crop, i. 874 —its history, i. 886 - an ill-shaped, i. 876 - tankard , ib.-white globe,its properties, i. 84+ weightand size of, i.
846 — specific gravity of, i. 853 - nutritive matter in , i. 859 perties, i. 847 -- its weight, i. 848 - continues fresh in the store, i. 852 — its specific gravity,i. 853 - a good crop of it
Vapour, how produced, i. 172 — its weight, i. 173 – quanti ties in the atmosphere, i. 228 — its elevation and descent, i. 229 — its quantity varies, i.230 — its force, i. 232 — its height in the atmosphere , i. 233 — that from steam -engines hygrometrical, i. 235 -- plane, i. 233 — its tension in spring, i. 2175 -- in summer, ii. 3029 , 3063 — in autumn, i. 4342, 4350 — in winter, i. 654 Veal, i. 2295
Vegetation, a source of electricity, i. 125, electric theory of, i. 135 — and electricity , results produced by them , i. 149– influence of coloured lights on , i. 195 Ventilation, principle of, and natural process of, i. 100 Ventilator for roof, i. 1137 — for work -horse stable, i. 4100
--good crop of it, i. 864its origin , i. 883 - yellow , its pro-
Vetches, mineral ingredients in , i. 462 Veterinary College, Edinburgh , i. 528 — London , i. 530
i. 863 — its history unknown, i. 882 -- Swedish , its properties, i. 849 — its weight, i. 850 — proportion of top to bulb , i . 851 -- specific gravity of, i. 853 - nutritive matter in , i.
Vicia , varieties of, & c., i. 2471, 2472
Veterinary science, connection of,with agriculture, i. 507 Voltaic pile, the ground is one, i. 155
Voltaism , influence of, on culture, i. 157
860—- good crop of, i. 862 — its history, i. 881 - number and weight per acre, í. 877 --measuring an acre of, i. 879 weighing, i. 880 — their history, i. 881 -ash in the bulbs, i. 888-- in the tops, i. 889-meal , i. 890 — how made, i. 891its composition , i. 892 - sheep feeding on them in winter, i. 9014-break of, what, i.91 + tops notgood for sheep at first,
i. 915 — stores at the steading, i. 1094 — when different kinds
Waddell's plan for outhouse floors, ii. 5418 Wages of farm -servants in kind and in cash , ii. 6304in kind , ii. 6304 -more in cash tha
kind , ii, 6311 - in
cash , ii. 6313 — of stewards, ii. 6314of shepherds, ii. 6315 -of hedger , ii . 6316 — of cattle -man , ii . 6317 --of field
worker, ii. 6318 - law of, in Scotland ,ii. 6295 - in kind ,
should be given to cattle, i. 1216 — when dirty should be washed for them , i, 1217 —— frozen , how thawed for them,
Walker, Mr, on feeding cattle, i. 1329 , 1592
i. 1218 - given to horses, i. 1439 - transplantingfor seed, i.
Warbles in cattle , ii. 3803
2476 - ash of the seed , ii. 3144 — their culture, ii. 3204 land drilled for, ii . 3205 — broadcast deprecated , ii. 3240 --manuring , ii. 3206 — varieties sown , ii. 3207 -- proportions sown , ii. 3247 - scuffling, ii. 3256 - singling, ii. 3259 --distance between rows, ii. 3267 - cost of singling, ii. 3271 - drill - grubbing, ii. 3273 — first hoeing, ii. 3274 scuffling again , ii, 3275second hoeing , ii. 3276_setting up the drills, ii. 3277 - filling up blanks, ii. 3269 — weeds infesting, ii. 3278 - top -dressing , ii. 3282_on strong soil, ii. 3242 -- its botanical position , ii. 3283 — that ofthe Swedish , ii. 3286 — the common , ii. 3287 — waste of seed in sow. ing , ii. 3239 — flea -beetle, ii. 3290 - saw - fly, ii. 3294 weevils, ii. 3299 — aphides, ii. 3300 - leaf-miner, ii. 3308 anbury in , ii. 3312 - fingers and toes, ii. 3314water in their tops, ii. 3316 - ash in their tops, ii. 3317 - effect of
Warnes ' compound for sheep , i. 1306 -- for cattle , i. 1307 how made, i. 1308 - quantity used , i. 1310 - formed of any farm produce, i. 1311 - apparatus for making it , i. 1312
different from the truck system , ii. 6321
objections to mode of making it, i. 1364experiment with it, i. 1351 —his compound for horses, i. 1449 Warrandice of horses , the law of, i. 1521 Warts on cattle , i. 1384
Washer for potatoes , ii. 4815 — how used , ii. 4816 — its advan tages, ii. 4817
Washiness in cattle , what, ii. 3619
Waste land, improved by trenching, ii. 5949—-by the plough, ii. 5952 — by digging , ii., 5955 —-turf, ii. 5962 levelling the surface , ü . 5963 —- levelling high ridges, ii. 5964 — first crop turnips, ii. 5968 — why land should be ridged, ii. 5969 -- ploughing steep land , ii. 5970
transplanting Swedish , ii. 3321 - ash in tops of various
Water, effects of ascent on its boiling point, i. 101 - its
kinds, ii. 3319 - effects of deep sowing on , ii. 3559_reaping of seed , ii. 4189 - its crops , ii. 4190 - utility ofthe store, ii. 4358 - English mode of cultivating, ii. 4359 — its culture, ii. 4360—their culture in autumn for seed , ii. 4361 -best seed from transplanted bulbs, ii. 4362 — but most
gravity, i. 103 —- pressure it exerts on tbe bottom of a ves sel, i. 104 - and on the sides, i. 105 -- gravity it exerts on bodies immersed in it , i . 106 — is incompressible, i. 107 -equalisation of height in , i. 108 — how supplied to reser voirs, & c ., ib. - law of its velocity from an orifice, i. 109
from sowing, ii. 4363- effects of special manures on
its friction in pipes, i. 110 - rain, action of the, i. 111
Swedish , ii. 4947 - on yellow, ii. 4951 - on white , ii. 4955—on hybrid , ii. 4957 ----mineral ingredients they take from the soil, ii. 5062 -- cost of replacing them , ii. 5075 Turnip -pickers, i. 934
Turnip slicer , hand, with cross blades , i. 1170 — with parallel
effects of moving, i. 112 - to calculate its motive power , i, 117 - chemical properties of, i. 213 — essential in grazing fields, ii. 3775_expedient when scarce , ii. 3776 - hard and soft for domestic use , ii. 5532
Water-brush for horses, i. 1529 — price of, i. 1542
INDEX . Water- furrowing, i. 2360 — how conducted, i. 2361 - plough for, i. 2362 Water-meadows, considerations on forming, ii. 6046— sluices for , ib . - thorough -draining land for , ii. 6049 - bed work , ii. 6050 — seeds for sowing in , ii. 6053 - catch -work , ii. 6056 - cost of making, ii. 6061 - advantages of, to hill farms, ii. 6062 - time for repairing , ii. 6063 Water-troughs at the steading, i. 1095 - of flag -stones , i. 1098 ofwood, i. 1099 - cistern, i. 1102
Water-wheels ,variouskinds of,i.113 -- undershot, i. 1721 overshot, rules to ascertain quantity of water, i. 1722–
to ascertain if sufficient without a dam , i. 1723 — position of the dam , ib . - of the sluice, i. 1726_size of wheel, l. 1727 - its structure, i. 1729 — the shrouding -plates, i. 1730 -power taken off, i. 1731 – laying the water on it, i. 1732 Watson, Mr, his Angus ox , ii. 6228 Wax -lights, for lamps , i. 1543 Weasel, the, destructive to poultry , ii. 5197 Weather, the, how best to be studied , i. 218 - its effects on the operations of the farm , i. 219 — desirable to anticipate it , i. 220 — better understood by the shepherd than the farmer , i. 221 - use of instruments, i. 223 - similar in dif ferent months and quarters , ii. 4356 -- prognostics in spring , i. 2153 – in summer, ii. 3034 — in autumn, ii. 4343 -in winter, i. 606 Weathercock , position of the , i. 95-- varieties in its con
struction , i. 96 - good ones , íb . - origin of its name, i. 97 Webb, Mr, his Southdown tup, ii. 6234 Wechts or maunds, i. 1790 Wedgewood -ware milk -dish , ii. 4196 Weeds, definition of, ii. 3281 - classification of, ii. 3741— soils indicated by them , i. 421 - in clay soils, i. 383clay loams, i. 386, 389 — in sandy soils, i. 391 - sandy loams, i. 393, 395 — alluvial soils , i. 397 — supplied from sea beaches, i. 399 — from lake ones, i. 400 — from river ones, i. 401 – by gravel- pits, i. 403 -- from sea -shore gravel , i. 404 --from river gravel, i. 405— on dry marshy grounds, i. 413 -on cultivated peat, i. 416 - infesting flax , ii. 3117 — hemp, ii. 3140 — the turnip , ii. 3278 - on low country pastures, ii. 3709 — on high , ii. 3742 - cutting them , ii. 3710_amongst the wheat crop , ii. 4098_barley, ii. 4121 -- oats, ii. 4132— rye , ii. 4141 - potatoes, ii. 4150 - on bare fallow , ii. 4167 -on the margins of fields, ii. 4177 — which render milk
poisonous, ii.4202 — at harvest, ii. 4556 - about hedges, ii.
5671, 5672 - ditches , ii. 5673_which lodge the turnip -fly, ii. 5674
Weed -hook , the , ii. 4096
Weeding cerealcrops, mode of, ii. 4097 —- pastures, imple ments for , ii. 3710_mode of doing it, ib. Weevils of the turnip , ii. 3299 — white clover, ii. 3894 - bean , ii. 3985 - pea , ii. 3989 - turnip - seed, ii. 4187 Weigh of wool, its weight, ii. 3943 Weighing -machine for barn , i. 1820
Well, circumstances favourable and unfavourable for, ii.
803
down the sacks, i. 2311 - sowing by hand, i. 2316 - car rier of the seed , i. 2313 – sowing with machines , i. 2326– barrowing , i. 2352 - water- furrowed , i. 2360 - on lea , i. 2365 , 2366_objections to this, i. 2371 -- varieties sown in
spring, i. 2375April, i. 2378, 2379_sowing grass seeds amongst, i. 2656 , 266_state of winter, in spring, i. 2660 -April, useful in filling blanks, i. 2661-- Marchthe time for sowing grass seeds among winter , i. 2662 - effects of deep sowing on , ii. 3554 - its culture in summer, ii. 4089 -top-dressing, ii. 4105 --the flowering season, ii. 4106_ diseases in summer, ii. 4107 - crops vary , ii. 4550_Sown in autumn in the summer -fallow , ii. 4843-- its culture , ib . --period of sowing, ii. 4849_old wheat best for sowing, ii. 4850 — varieties sown in autumn , ii. 4851 - seed pickled, ii. 4852 - sown broadcast , drilled, or dibbled , ii . 4853 land left with large clod , ii. 4855 - ribbing and ploughing down, ii. 4856 — bean land sown with , i. 4849 -- and potato, ii. 4861 - sown in lazy -beds in Ireland, ii. 4863— and broadcast on lea there, ii. 4864 - Weevil, its destruc
tion, ii. 4870 , 4871 - cost of sowing on ribs broadcast , ii.
4473 — of dibbling onribs, ii. 4875_of sowing on tops of drills, ii. 4876 — and of dibbling, ib.-- the mixed of Poland, ii. 4897 - effects of specialmanures on, ii.4918 -mineral ingredients it takes from the soil, ii. 5056 - cost of repla cing them , il. 5069 — heat required to ripen , ii. 5239 extremes of temperature that will ripen , ii. 5245 Wheel-barrow , a , i. 1182 Whey, its nature, ii. 4281 - drink for pigs, ii.4282 — cream from , ii. 4283 – float, ii. 4315 — white wine, il. 4317 – fresh two-milk , ii. 4318
Whin -bruiser, the, i. 1450 Whipple-trees, see Swing-trees White beet, see Mangold -wurzel White clover , see Clover White flux in pigs, i. 2875 White globe and stone turnips, sce Turnips Whitley, Mr, on the origin of soils, i. 487 Wildfire in sheep, i. 1076
Wilkie's trapezoidal furrow -slice, i. 703 — horse -hoe , ii. 3252 Wilkin , Mr, his experiments on feeding sheep, i. 959 Willow , specific gravity of, i. 119 - mineral ingredients in the, i. 465
Wilson , Mr, his short- horn ox , ii. 6209 — his prevention of quarter-ill in calves, ii. 3124 Wilson's dipping mixture, ii. 4768 - apparatus, ii. 4769 Wind, influence of, on the barometer, i. 225 — influence of the tropics on , i. 299 -- course of, its causes, i. 300 — mon soons, i. 301 - land and sea breeze , i. 302 — variable, i. 303 - the seasonal rains produced by, i. 304 - prevalence of east and west in Britain , i. 307 — at London , i 308 - at Inveresk , i. 309 - at Harraby, ib . - direction , how effected,
i. 310 — Sirocco and Tramontana, ib.- force and velocity, i. 311 - connection between the force of, and the oscilla
5521 - mode of digging it , ii. 5526- cost of digging, ii.
tions of the barometer , i. 314 electric power of, i. 315
5527 — pumps and their cost, ii. 5528 – sinkingin loose sand , ii. 5529 Wells,Dr, on the theory of dew, i. 176 - on hygrometers, i. 184 West Highland ox , points of, ii. 6227
analogy between tides and, i. 316 – prognostics of, i. 317-
Wether, what, i. 925 — hogg, i. 924 — tegg, i. 931 Wheat, mineral ingredients in , i. 462 — its different forms of ears, i. 1846 - its botanical position , i. 1847 - bearded , i. 1848 - small grain , i. 1849_medium , i. 1850_large, i. 1851 - relation between ear and grain , i. 1853– judging of, i . 1854 - yielding the best flour, i. 1855_weight, i.
1856- seed, i. 1857 – kiln drying, i. 1858-- damaged, i. 1859 - preserving in granaries , i.1860 — shieling, i. 1861 grinding, i. 1862 - cooling and dressing the flour, i. 1863 -over-lead flour, i. 1864broad bran , i. 1865 - London dressing of four, i. 1866 — increase of bulk by grinding, i. 1867 - to judge of the grinding, i. 1868 - large bran, i. 1869 — to judge of the dressing, i. 1871 - whether it will make good bread , i. 1871 — sacks of flour, i. 1872 - its adulterations, i. 1873 / analyses of flour , i. 1874its com position , i. 1875 — its gluten, i. 1876 — its oil , i . 1877 — ash of wheat, i. 1878 - of the husk , i. 1879 — composition of bran , i. 1880 — leaven , i. 1881 -proportion of flour in bread , i. 1882 - household bread , i. 1883 – sour bread , i. 1884 - yeast, i. 1885 — substitute for fermentation, i. 1886 --unfermented bread , i. 1890 — action of yeast, i. 1891
whatferment is , i. 1892 – mixing of potato and wheat floor, i. 1893 — structure of flour, i. 1895 — mostgluten in wheat, i. 1896 --nutritive properties of gluten , i. 1897 — why bakers use foreign wheat,i . 1899 -composition of Lincolnshire, i. 1901---wheat-starch , i. 1902 — putritive matter in an acre, i . 1903 — its origin unknown , i. 1904_limits of it , i. 1905 ash of its straw , i. 1966 — sown in spring, i. 2302 — weather and soil for it, i. 2303 - turnip land prepared for it , i. 2304 -sown quickly, i . 2306 -— the seed pickled , i. 2307 - setting
modities other phenomena, i. 650—— its character in win
ter, i. 651 - Shepherd of Banbury's rules for it, i. 652 2139causes of its variability, i. 2140 — its character in
causes of the east, in spring, i. 2137 — peculiar in spring, i. spring , i. 2141
Winds ,how occasioned , i.93 - trade, ib. differently charged with moisture, i. 231 - their changes as indicative of the weather, i. 296 — disparity of phenomena between the zones of, i. 297 -- the regular, of the torrid zone, i. 298– prevailing ones in spring, i . 2175 — in summer , ii. 3019 , 3063— in autumn, ii. 4327, 4350 - in winter , i. 654 Wind - sucking in horses, i. 1502 Window -sashes, what best made of, i. 1135 Winnowing of grain , the, i. 1766 — the dressing -fanner, i. 1767 — the finishing -fanner, i. 1772 - the thrashing machine fanner, i. 1776 - riddles, i. 1777 – gieves, i 1787 - setting of the fanner for, i. 1796 - arrangement of persons, i. 1797 - the thrashed heap of corn , i. 1798 - the corn dressed clean , i. 1799 - measuring it up and sacking, i. 1800 — filling the bushel, i. 1901— striking it , i. 1803 — hummelling of barley , i. 1808 - setting up full sacks, i. 1812_lifting them , i.1813 - loading a cart
with them , i. 1816 - proper mode of riddling, i. 1822 — and sifting, i. 1823 Winrowof hay, what, ii. 4053 Winter, weather and field operations in , i. 578 - field labour chiefly ploughing, i. 579 - ploughed land kept free of surface -water in, i. 580 -- lea ground ploughed , i. 581— draining prosecuted , i. 582— fields enclosed with hedges, i. 583 - water -mendows irrigated, i. 584 - live -stock sub
divided in thesteading, l. 585 — turnips for them taken up , i. 586 -- straw thrashed , i. 587 — sheep fed on turnips, i. 588 -ewes in lamb in pasture, i. 589 - grain prepared for market, 1. 590 - manure taken out to the fields, i.591 - the
INDEX .
804 Winter, continued
its geographical distribution , ii. 3955_its fineness, ii.
season for attending the market-town, 1,593 - field -sports are prosecuted , i. 594 — the season for hospitality, i. 595_ and for domestic comfort, i. 596 - emblematic ofmortality, i. 597 -- Weather precarious in , i. 599 — same work does not
3957 — its density, ii. 3958 — its internal structure, 3959 -diameter of its fibres, ii. 3960 - manner of growth , ii. 3962 — its felting, ii. 3963- quantity Britain , ii. 3967 — its value, ií. 3969 --- importation
ii. its in of,
ii. 3970
always begin , i. 657 -- commencing operations, i. 655 Wire - basket
turnips, i. 1185 Wire-fences, not now expensive ,ii. 5722 — fixing the strain
Wool-moth , the white -shouldered, ii . 3940
ing-posts, ii. 5723 — iron ones, ii. 5726 - fixing the inter ii. 5730-- cost of, ii.5738— their durability, ii. 5741- where most suitable , ii. 5742 Wire -worm , the, ii. 3185 - insects inimical to the, ii. 3188
Wool-shears , the , ii. 3918 Woollen manufactures, declared value of, ii. 3971 - im
portance of home market to , ii. 3972 - curious trade in , ii. 397 Worms in horses, i. 1504
-injures wheat, ii. 4107 Womb, the, its contractive state , ii. 3695 — its dilatable state , ii. 3696 — its rigid state, i. 3697 — of ewes , inflammation of
Year-old bull , heifer, quey, and stot, what, i. 1152 Year -olds and yearlings, what, i. 1152
mediate ones , ii. 5728 — wires used , and their strength ,
the , i. 2592
Wood, heat produced by, i. 186 Wood -ashes , ii. 5021 Wood pavement for steadings, ii. 5421 Wood -pigeon, the, injurious to crops, ii. 4704 Wooden posts , charring them , ii. 5728 Wool, yolk of, its nature, ii. 3911 -- its composition , ii. 3912 -- its action , ii. 3913 -- its quality, ii. 3914 - not safe for a farmer to keep, ii. 3941 – mode of weighing it, ii. 3912 -- of packing it, ii. 3943— as packed in the Highlands, ii. 3914 - ditferent qualities, ii. 3945 -- good ,
Wool- room , the, ii. 3940
Yeast, mode of cleaning, i. 1885 Yeld cow , what, i. 1154 - ewe, i.929 - mare , i . 1432 Yellow light, influence of, on vegetation , i. 193 Yellow clover , see Clover
Yellow turnips, see Turnips Yellowhammer, the, injurious to crops, ii. 4696 Yellow - tailed moth , the , injurious to hedges, ii. 5489 Yellows in ewes, ii. 4740
Yester subsoil, composition of, ii. 5998 Yoking, a long, injurious to horses, i. 1415 Yolk of wool, the, ii. 3911
its properties, ii. 3946 — its fibre, ib . - its staple, ii. 3947 Young's iron field -gate, ii. 5763 -its various points, ii. 3948 — states useful to the manu . facturer , ii. 3950 - carding, ii. 3951 - combing , ii. 3952 Zinc, whence derived , ii. 5498 - rolled , specific gravity of, i. 119 - distinction in the spinning and carding, ü . 3953 Zoology, science of, i. 215 , 504 intermediate between carding and combing, ii. 3951
VILLE DE LYON Biblioth . du Palais des Arts
THE END
PRINTED BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS, EDINBURGH
ERRA T A.
Thefollowing errata have been corrected in the later impressions of the present Edition, and only appeared in afew of the earliest copies : Vol. i. paragraph 84. The Table of the constituents of the air should be in this form : Nitrogen , Oxygen, Aqueous vapour,
By measure . 77.50 21.00
Carbonic acid ,
or
By weight. 75.55 23.32
1.42 0.08
1.03 0.10
100.00
100.00
Vol . i. paragraph 107. The last sentence should read thus : -If the arms of the lever are as I to 50, and that of the force-pump is worked by a man with a force of 50 lb., the piston of the pump will descend with a force of 2500 lb., and the ram will rise with one of 100,000.
Vol. i. paragraph 108, line 7, for “ the second vessel, " read “ into the second vessel. ” Vol . i. paragraph 496, last line but one, for “ rest upon," read “ come from .”
Vol. i. paragraph 608, ninth line from the top of the second column,delete the word “ inch." Vol . i . paragraph 654, for “ tension of vapour for 38 °.3 – 46.48,” read “ tension of vapour for 38®.3 - 7.04. Vol. i. paragraph 845, linetwelve, for " and taking 30 tons per acre as a fair crop, each turnip will weigh nearly 1 lb. 1 oz.,” read. " and taking 20 tons per acre as a fair crop, each turnip will weigh nearly 1 lb. 5 oz. Vol . i. paragraph 893 , line twenty, for “ 9834, " read “ 9680.”
Vol. i. paragraph 1053,for “ 1 week ," read “ 1 month on a pastoral farm ." Vol . i. for paragraph 1065, substitute these words :-Sheep may be fed on horse- chestnuts. In Switzer land the chestnuts are bruised in a machine for the purpose, and 2 lb. of them are given to each sheep, morning and evening, by little at a time, as they are heating in their nature. They impart a rich flavour to the mutton.
Vol . i. paragraph 1157, last line, for “quey," read “ spayed quey." Vol. i. paragraph 2149, for " I may mention here,that in giving this proportion for the winter, (608,) I inadvertently put the word inches afterthe figures, which mars their sense,” substitute “ It must not be supposed that these figures indicate theexact quantity of rain which falls in the three months of spring, as we have divided the season .
Vol. i. paragraph 2175, for “ tension of vapour for 38 °.3 – 7.04, " read “ tension of vapour for 400.9 – 8.36 .” Vol. i. page 503, delete the foot-note .
Vol . ii . paragraph 4909, the heading of the table should read thus :-Numbers of bushels per acre, which should extend these lengths along the preceding yards on a drill.