The Book of the Farm [2, 2 ed.]

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Er-libris

Tharles

Atwood

Koloid

C. I. Fletcher, Dale Park.

OTFHEL L AI SEUN

FORNIA F.CALI SITY.O . LIGHT

WHE

RE

1888

THE LIBRARY OF

THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESENTED BY

PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

THE

BOOK

OF

THE

FARM

PRINTED BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS, EDINBURGH

RS4 Swelli Gourlay

OJE U . LTRY

PLATE XIV

THE

OF

BOOK

THE

FARM

BY

HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E. CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE ET CENTRALE D'AGRICULTURE OY FRANCE, AND OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTCIAL SOCIETY OF GALICIA

young husbandman ! Wherefore, come on , Learn the culture proper to each kind. VIRGIL.

SEVENTH THOUSAND- SECOND EDITION

IN

TWO VOLUMES

VOL.

WILLIAM

II .

BLACKWOOD

AND

EDINBURGH AND LONDON MDCCCLII

SONS

5493 S8 1852 v.2

CONTENTS

OF

VOLUME

II.

PRACTICE - SUMMER . Page

SUMMARY OF THE FIELD OPERATIONS, AND OF THE WEATHER IN SUMMER, ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF FLAX ,

1 26 28

ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF HEMP, ON THE PLANTING AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF THE HOP, ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF THE TURNIP ,

33 35 46

ON THE HAY GIVEN TO FARM HORSES,

-

ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREAT

EN

OF KOHL - RABI,

ON THE PLANTING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF THE CABBAGE, ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF MANGOLD -WURZEL, ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF THE CARROT, ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF PARSNIP , ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER TREATMENT OF RAPE, ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF BUCKWHEAT, ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF THE SUN - FLOWER , ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF MADLA , ON THE SOWING AND THE SUMMER CULTURE OF MAIZE , THE RATIONALE OF THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS,

87 88 90 94 99 101 103 105 ib .

106 110

ON SOWING BROADCAST, DRILLED, AND DIBBLED-THICK AND TAIN — AND AT DIFFERENT DEPTHS,

ON REPAIRING THE FENCES OF PASTURE FIELDS, ON THE DISPOSAL OF THE FAT SHEEP, ON THE DISPOSAL OF THE FAT CATTLE , ON MARES FOALING , ON THE PASTURING OF SHEEP IN SUMMER , ON THE PASTURING OF CATTLE IN SUMMER, ON THE TREATMENT OF BULLS IN SUMMER, ON THE WEANING OF CALVES , ON THE PASTURING OF FARM - HORSES IN SUMMER,

ON THE SOILING OF STOCK ON FORAGE PLANTS, ON THE WASHING OF SHEEP, ON THE SHEARING OF SHEEP,

ON THE ROLLING OF FLEECES, AND ON THE QUALITY OF WOOL, ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF BEANS, ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF PEASE, ON THE WEANING OF LAMBS,

N360466

114 128

130 139 153 158

169 180 184 186 190 196

200 206 216 218 219

vi

CONTENTS . Page

ON THE DRAFTING OF EWES AND GIMMERS, ON THE MARKING OF SHEEP, ON HAY - MAKING , ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF WHEAT, ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF BARLEY, ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF OATS , ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF RYE , ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF POTATOES, ON SUMMER - FALLOW , ON THE REAPING OF TURNIP SEED, ON MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE,

223 225 226 245

252 253 254 256 261 267 268

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

SUMMARY OF THE FIELD OPERATIONS, AND OF THE WEATHER IN AUTUMN , ON THE SOWING OF THE STONE TURNIP , AND ON THE SOWING OF TURNIP FOR SEED, SOWING OF WINTER TARES, SOWING OF RAPE IN AUTUMN, SOWING OF CRIMSON CLOVER IN AUTUMN, SOWING OF BOKHARA CLOVER , SOWING OF RED CLOVER FOR SEED, SOWING OF ITALIAN RYE -GRASS IN AUTUMN, PICKING AND DRYING OF HOPS, SOWING OF WINTER BEANS,

ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON

THE THE THE THE THE THE THE THE

ON ON ON ON ON

THE PULLING, STEEPING , AND DRYING OF FLAX , THE PULLING, STEEPING , AND DRYING OF HEMP, REAPING WHEAT, BARLEY , OATS, AND RYE, REAPING BEANS, AND PEASE, AND TARES, WHEN GROWN FOR SEED, THE CARRYING AND STACKING OF WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, BEANS, AND PEASE ,

300 309 310 311 ib . 312

313 314 315

320 321 326 328 354

ON HARVESTING MAIZE ,

355 374 375 ib .

ON THE COMMON JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE,

377

ON THE BIRDS DESTRUCTIVE TO THE GRAIN CROPS,

ib . 384 387 395

ON REAPING BUCKWHEAT, ON HARVESTING THE SUNFLOWER ,

ON PUTTING THE TUPS TO THE EWES, ON THE BATHING AND SMEARING OF SHEEP, ON LIFTING POTATOES, ON STORING POTATOES, ON SOWING WHEAT IN AUTUMN, ON SOWING BARLEY IN AUTUMN , ON SOWING PEASE IN AUTUMN, ON SOWING SEVERAL VARIETIES OF GRAIN TOGETHER , ON PLANTING POTATOES IN AUTUMN, ON THE EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES , ON ELECTRO -CULTURE , ON THE RATIONALE OF THE APPLICATION OF SPECIAL MANURES, ON THE ROTATION OF CROPS, ON THE FERTILITY OF SOILS, ON THE DISPOSAL OF THE FAT PIGS, ON THE MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS, ON TIE ANIMALS DESTRUCTIVE TO POULTRY,

400 403 409 410 411 412

413 444 448 455 464 468 471

478

CONTENTS.

vii

REALISATION . Page

ON THE DIFFERENCES IN THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF FARMS, ON CLIMATE AND ITS EFFECTS , ON THE JUDGING OF LAND ,

ON ESTIMATING THE RENT OF A FARM,

.

482 485 494 497

ON THE MODE OF OFFERING FOR A FARM,

503

ON NEGOTIATING THE COVENANTS OF THE LEASE,

505 512

ON ENTERING TO A FARM , ON THE STOCKING OF A FARM ,

516

ON CHOOSING THE SITE , ON BUILDING, AND ON THE EXPENSES OF ERECTING THE STEADING ,

ON THE FARM - HOUSE, ON COTTAGES FOR FARM - SERVANTS , ON INSURANCE AGAINST FIRE AND DISEASE,

ON THE PRINCIPLES OF ENCLOSURE , AND ON SHELTER, ON ON ON ON

THE PLANTING AND REARING OF THORN-HEDGES, THE BUILDING OF STONE FENCES, WIRE FENCES, EMBANKING AGAINST RIVULETS ,

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF FIELD -GATES, ON THE DRAINING OF LAND , ON IMPROVING WASTE LAND , ON TRENCH AND SUBSOIL PLOUGHING ,

ON THE LIMING OF LAND , ON FORMING WATER -MEADOWS, ON IRRIGATION ,

518

537 542 548 550

558 588 593 596 599 604 651 657

665 671 677

ON THE TREATMENT OF DRAUGHT STALLIONS,

680

ON THE BREAKING - IN OF YOUNG DRAUGHT HORSES,

683 686

ON THE BREAKING - IN OF YOUNG SADDLE - HORSES, ON TRAINING AND WORKING THE SHEPHERD'S DOG, ON SLAUGHTERING OXEN, SHEEP, AND PIGS, ON THE POINTS TO BE AIMED AT IN BREEDING THE MOST PERFECT FORMS IN LIVE STOCK ,

688 690 706

DESCRIPTION OF THE ANIMALS WHOSE PORTRAITS ARE GIVEN IN THE PLATES,

709

ACCOUNT OF SOME OTHER BREEDS OF CATTLE AND SHEEP, ON THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING , ON THE SELECTION OF PARENTS IN BREEDING, ON BREEDING IN - AND - IN , OX CROSSING ,

717

ON THE HIRING OF FARM - SERVANTS, ON THE WAGES OF FARM -SERVANTS ,

ON THE FARM SMITH , JOINER, AND SADDLER,

ON THE CARE DUE TO THE IMPLEMENTS, ON MAKING EXPERIMENTS ON THE FARM , ON CORN MARKETS ,

ON FARM BOOK-KEEPING, CONCLUDING EXHORTATIONS TO THE YOUNG FARMER, INDEX,

728 730 733

735 737 741

7746 749 751 757 761 777 783

LIST OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOL. II.

ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD. Page

Fig.

Fig .

Page

65

242. The Hay-Knife, 243. Crosskill's Clod -Crusher,

26 267. The Singling of Turnips, 28 268. Turnip Flea-Beetle - Haltica

244. Side View of one Wheel of the Clod - Crusher.

29

269. Larva of the Flea -Beetle,

74

75

ne

73

morum ,

245. Hepburn's Double-Conical Land ib .

270. The Turnip Saw -Fly - Athalia spi narum ,

246. The Norwegian Harrows,

30

271. Winged Male of the Common Tur

247. The Foot-Pick,

35

nip Plant- Louse - Aphis rapa , 272. Wingless Female of the Common Turnip Plant-Louse - Aphis rapæ , 273. Winged Male of the Swede Plant Louse - Aphis brassicæ,

Roller,

248. The Trenching- Fork with Three Prongs,

36

249. The Trenching-Fork with Two Prongs,

ib.

253. The Wire -Worm and its Perfect

Beetle - Cataphægus lineatus,

254. The East-Lothian Turnip -Sowing Drill, 255. The Seed - Barrel,

38

277. 278. 279. 47 | 280. 48 281. 43

50

Dust Sowing-Drill, 260. The Plan of the Two-Rowed Turnip and Bone -Dust Sowing Drill,

51

261. Smith's Drop -Sowing Drill, 262. The Body of the Double Mould

53

263. Wilkie's Horse - Hoe with Parallel

-

111

ib . ib .

ib . 113

282. A Plant of Wheat in the State of 114

Germination,

259. The Two-Rowed Turnip and Bone

Board altered to a Scuffling Plough,

.

78 79

ib. 283. Well-Ploughed Regular Furrow

258. The Turnip -Barrow for Sowing One Drill,

Cloddy and Stony Soil, Soil with Water and without Air , Soil with Air and without Water, Soil with Water and Air, The Component parts of a Grain of Wheat,

49

257. The Vertical Section of the Seed

Distributor,

275. Two and Seven Spotted Lady -Birds -Coccinella bi et septempunctata ,

42 276. Ichneumon Fly - Aphidius rapæ ,

256. Geddes' Two -Rowed Turnip- Sowing Drill,

ib . 78

Plant-Louse - Aphis brassicæ ,

37

251. The Quincunx Method of Planting Hops, 252. Espalier Form of Training Hops,

ib .

274. Wingless Female of the Swede

250. The Square Method of Planting Hops,

77

Slices, 284. The Position of Seeds when Sown

ib .

on Regular Furrow -Slices, 285. Irregular Brairding from even Re gular Furrow- Slices,

115

52 286. Ill- Ploughed

Irregular

Slices, 287. Irregular Deposition of Seed on Ill Ploughed Furrow-Slices, 62 288. Irregular Braird on Ill -Ploughed Furrow -Slices,

Motion, 264. The Common Drill-Grubber,

63

265. Wilkie's Drill -Grubber and Harrow ,

64

266. The Turnip or Hand Draw -hoe,

ib.

ib .

Furrow ib . ib . ib .

ib. 289. Regular Depths of Seed by Drill Sowing, 290. Regular Braird from Drill -Sown Seed,

ib. 116

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS .

Fig.

Page | Fig.

291. Newberry's One- Rowed Dibbling Machine, 292. Newington's Six-Rowed Dibbling

122

Machine, 293. The Double Roots of Deep -sown Wheat,

294. The roots of Shallow -sown Wheat, 295. Secure Mode of Fastening the Hang ing Post of a Field -Gate, 296. TheSide View of a Ripe Fat Ox, 297. The Hind View of a Ripe Fat Ox, 298. The Front View of a Ripe Fat Ox,

302. Transverse Section of the Cart Steelyard, 303. Longitudinal Section of the Cart Steelyard,

304. The Bush -Harrow , 305. The Head -Cap, or Hood , fitted on the Sheep, 306. Sheep Bot-Fly - Estrus ovis, 307. Sheep Bot Larva - Estrus ovis,

308. Sheep Ked - Melophagus ovinus, 309. Maggot of the Checkered Blow -fly

Plant-Louse - Aphis fabæ ,

124

ib .

130 139

lineata, 338. The Milking of Ewes,

218 221

339. The Punching-Nippers for Sheep,

225

340. The Buisting- Iron for Sheep, 341. The Branding-Iron for Sheep and

ib .

Cattle ,

140

ib. 342. The English Hay Tedding -Machine, 141

343. 344. 345. 346.

143

The Hay Horse-Rake, The Hay Hand-Rake, The Hay Hand -Rake, The Mode of Erecting a Rick - Cloth

it is building,

146

Grasses into Winrows, 348. The Hay Horse -Rake cleaning the

317. Swivelled Spring-Hook ,

Winrows,

165

ib.

in the Field, 350. The Hand - Flail,

ib . 351. The American Hay-Rake, ib . 352. The Weed -Hook , 353. Smith's Steerage Horse -Hoe, 168

173

Horse-Hoe,

319. The Horse-Bot — Gasterophilus equi, 320. A Horse-Fly- Chrysops cæcutiens, 321. The Horse Forest-Fly - Hippobosca equina,

178

and of Smut-Ball compared , 357. The Kernel of Barley within the Husk ,

358. Sound Barley-Seed, 180 359. Diseased Barley -Seed,

Sned ,

324. Scythe Stones, 325. Sheep Washing, 326. The Wool-Shears,

327. The First Stage of Clipping a Sheep ,

328. The Second Stage of Clipping a

242 243 244 246

247 248 249

251 253 ib . ib .

360. Winged Male of the Turnip-Flower Plant-Louse - Aphis floris -rapa, 182 361. Wingless Female of the Turnip Flower Plant-Louse— Aphis floris ib .

181

тарт,

188

relation to the Kitchen , in a Farm House, 363. Plan of Cheese-Room , &c., for a Farm -House, ib.

364. Wedgewood -Ware Milk -Dish , 192 193 ib. 197

268

268

362. Ground Plan of a Milk -House in

ib. 189

322. The Patent Scythe with bent 323. A Scythe Strickle ,

238

356. The Structure of sound Wheat 177

318. The Cleg or Gleg -- Hæmatopota pluvialis,

236

349. The Threshing of Rye-Grass Seed

312. The Cattle-Bot and Larva - Estrus

inserted in his Nose ,

232

intervening Ridges between the

ib . 161

355. The Wheat Stem -Fly – Chlorops pumilionis,

315. The Bull's Ring as fastened in his Nose , 316. The Bullock -Holder,

229 230 231 ib .

347. Putting the Swathes of the Sown

311. The Scoop for filling the Water

313. Larva and Pupa of the Cattle Cleg -Tabanus bovinus, 314. The Bull's Ring in the state to be

226

over the Site of a Hay- Stack when

145

166 | 354. Long and Short Shares for the

boris,

ib .

337. The Striped Pea -Weevil - Sitona

-Sarcophaga carnaria , 310. Cock -Chafers - Melolontha oulgaris, Barrel,

217

336. The Winged Male of the Bean

to ascertain its Weight, sinking the Offals,

Plant-Louse - Aphis fabæ,

123

300. The Measuring of a Ripe Fat Ox, 301. Plan of the Cart-Steelyard,

Page

335. The Wingless Female of the Bean

299. The View of the Back of a Ripe Fat Ox,

ix

365. 366. 367. | 368.

Green Glass Milk -Dish, Wooden Milk- Dish , Zinc Milk -Dish , A fixed Milk- Cooler of Marble, or 201 of Wood lined with Metal, 369. The Milk-Sieve, 202 370. The Cream -Skimmer , 371. The Cream - Jar,

269

ib . 270

ib. 271

ib .

ib . 273 ib . ib.

203 | 372. The Wedgewood Table-Churn ,

276

ping a Sheep. 330. A new Clipped Sheep,

373. The Agitator of the Table-Churn , 204 | 374. The Box-Hand -Churn , 205 375. The Agitator of the Box-Hand

ib . 277

331. The Rolling of a Fleece of Wool,

207

332. A Fleece of Wool Rolled up,

ib. 376. The Butter Print Mould and Hands, 208 377. The Butter-Spade, 378. The Curd -Cutter,

Sheep,

329. The Third and Last Stage of Clip

333. The White - Shouldered Wool-Moth

-Tinea sarcitella ,

334. The Weighing and Packing of Wool,

Churn ,

209 379. The Curd -Breaker,

ib . 279 ib. 283 284

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS .

х

Fig.

Page | Fig .

380. The Cheese - Vat, 381. The Stone Cheese -Press, 382. The combined Lever Cheese-Press,

285 433. The Potato -Graip , ib . 434. The self-delivering Potato -Washer, 286 435. The conical and prismatic forms of

383. The Cheese - Turner,

287

384. Plan of a Steading for a Dairy Farm ,

289 290

437. Electro -Culture Apparatus, 438. View of the Side of a fat Pig , 439. A trussed Roof of Wood ,

386. The Cheese -Fly --Piophila casei,

297 | 440. A trussed Roof of Iron ,

387. The Cheese-Maggot, 388. Longitudinal Section of the Hop Drying -House,

317

389. Plan of the Hot -Water Pipes in it, 390. Progress of Ripening in a Stalk of Oats,

391. The Toothed Sickle, 392. The Smooth -Edged Sickle,

ib. 441. A Rain-Water Cistern, 442. Plan of a small Hind's House of

329

the cut Corn ,

An ordinary Stook of Corn , A Barley or Oat Stook hooded, The Sheaf-Gauge, Reaping with the Hainault Scythe, The Cradle-Scythe for Reaping,

400. The cominon Reaping-Scythe, 401. The Hand Stubble -Rake,

402. The Mowing of Corn with the Scythe in Heads, 403. A Gaitin of Oats,

404. 405. 406. 407.

The Swedish Stook , The Corn and Hay Frame, Transverse Section of the Frame, The Corn and Hay Cart,

409. Coiled -up Cart-Rope, 410. Old form of Throw -Crook,

411. Another form of Throw -Crook , 412. The best forın of Throw -Crook ,

332

rooms in a second storey, 446. Elevation ofdouble Hinds' Houses,

Hind's House,

ib.

ib . 450. The Shelter afforded by even a 339 low Wall against a cutting Blast, 340 451. The Plan of setting off Fences parallel to each other, 341 | 452. A Hand - Pick , 343 453. A Ditcher's Shovel, 353 454. A good Thorn Plant,

ib.

ib.

460. 461. 642. 463.

Corner of a Field , Bad effect of a Scarcement, The Switching-Bill, A correctly switched Thorn -Hedge, A breasted -over Thorn -Hedge, with the Hedge Bank and Face worn

418. A Stack Trimmer ,

366 464. The Cutting-Bill, 367

ib . 566

ib. 568 569

570

572

down,

573

ib . 465. The Hedger's Axe, 466. The plashing, and laying of an old

ib .

Hedge, and the Water-Tabling of a Ditch ,

575

368 467. The Mode of Water - Tabling a

422. The Border method of covering and roping a Corn -Stack , 423. A pyramidal Boss and Tressle, 424. A prismatic Boss, 425. The Rook Battery,

369 372 ib.

426. A Bath -Jug ,

388 389

Hedge -Ditch, 468. The Dead-Hedge of Thorns, 469. The Stake-and-Rice Dead -Fence, 470. The common Wooden Paling,

576

578 579 ib .

382 471. Turf-Fence to a Thorn -Hedge, ib.

580

472. The Hedge Spade,

581 ib . ib.

473. The Dutch Hoe,

474. The Hedge Weed -Hook ,

475. The Hawthorn Butterfly, Pieris 391

cratægi,

476. The Building a Dry-Stone Dyke,

430. Kirkwood's Wire Sheep - Fodder

-

395 477. Expedients for increasing the 396

432. The Potato -Raiser attached to a

Plough,

ib. ib .

563

457. A Thorn - Plant, prepared for plant ing, ib . | 458. Finished Hedge -Bank, 459. Modes of describing a Curve in the 360

365

Rack ,

559 580

561

417. The Building of a Stack of Corn ,

431. The Potato Raiser or Brander,

557

456. The Thorn - Bed, 358 359

362

tus,

ib .

the Hollows behind the Bank of

415. A Straw -Rope coiled up ,

428. Bathing Sheep, 429. Wilson's Sheep - Dipping Appara

547

a Hedge,

357

361

427. The Bath - Stool for Sheep ,

ib.

356 455. Plan to prevent Water Lodging in ib .

414. The process of making a Straw Rope,

420. The Lozenge mode of roping the Covering of a Corn - Stack , 421. The Net-Mesh mode of roping the Covering of a Corn - Stack ,

545

546

448. Method of contracting the Top of a Chimney, 335 449. Top of a Chimney for preventing the down -draught of Smoke, 338 334 ib .

360

419. Making the Stool for a Corn -Stack,

ib .

Rooms,

447. Section of the Foundation of a

413. The Straw -Rope Spinner,

416. A Bunch of Drawn Straw,

544

ib. 445. Plan of Hinds' Houses having Bed

408. Robertson's improved Corn and Hay Cart,

543

one Room , 444. Plan of a Hind's House with two

330

394. The Corn -Band ready to receive 395. 396. 397. 398. 399.

one Room ,

ib. 443. Plan of a large Hind's House of

393. Arrangement of the Reapers in a Band -Win ,

399

400 439 446 470 529 530 541

436. The Soot-Sowing Machine,

385. Plunger - Churns fitted up with Power,

Potato - Pits,

Page 397

ib .

heights of a Dry-Stone Dyke, 478. Four Watering-Pools formed by two Dykes crossing,

586 589 591 592

xi

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig.

Page

479. One Watering-Pool common to four fields, 480. A Clump of Trees within the meet ing of Dykes,

592

ground, 483. Straining-Post, with Standard and Stay above ground,

484. A Malleable - Iron Straining-Post, 485. An

Embankment

Face

and

Dry - Stone Dyke against a Rivulet, 486. A Rectangular Gate -Frame with Diagonal Strut, 487. A Common Field-Gate,

593

and Stay,

490. An Iron Field-Gateon the Tension Principle, 491. An Angle Iron Field -Gate,

639

527. A Plan for Draining Bogs as prac tised in Ireland, 598 528. The Edging- Iron , 529. The Horizontal Spade, 600 530. The Shouldered Bog -Drain , ib . 531. The Larch Drain -Tube,

ib. 640 ib . ib . 641

.

532. The Calderwood Peat- Tile Spade 601

ib . ib .

Tool, 533. The Peat-Tile for Drains,

ib. 534. A Plan of Sheep -Drains on a Hill of impervious Subsoil, 602 | 535. An Open Sheep-Drain in Grass, 536. A Covered Sheep -Drain in Grass,

ib. 642 ib .

537. Draining the Face of Railway Cut ib .

645

tings,

538. The comparative efficacy of Drains 607

Inclined Planes of Drains, 495. The bad effects of too great a dis

613

Across and Along Ridges on a Declivity, 539. The descent of Water on a Ridge

646

into a Drain on each Side,

ib.

615 540. The ordinary position of Substrata

496. The Narrow Drain Spade,

618

497. Draw -Earth Drain -Scoop,

ib. 541. Displacement of Pipe - Tiles in a 619 Drain , ib. 542. A Concrete Pipe- Tile ,

498. The Narrow Draw -Hoe for Drains,

499. The Drain -Gauge, 500. The Levelling Staff, for testing the uniform fall in Drains,

ib .

501. The Trowel for Drains,

in reference to the Surface Soil,

543. A Drain -Water Meter, 544. A Mattock ,

ib.

503. Drain - Tiles properly set upon Tile

546. Wilkie's Turn-Wrist Plough,

621

with a Main , 505. Parallel Drains in the same Plane

621 549. The Tweeddale Subsoil Trench

of inclination of the Ground, 506. Drains improperly made parallel irrespective of the inclination of

622

Ploughing, 548. Read's Subsoil-Plough ,

666

Plough, 550. The Tweeddale Subsoil

Trench

Plough and theTweeddale Plough

in operation, 552. The Plough -Slide,

507. Drains made parallel in accordance Ground, 510. The Small Tile and Sole-Drain , 511. The Cylindrical Pipe- Tile,

512. Cylindrical Pipe-Tiles connected by a Collar,

ib. ib.

by Lobes, 515. Egg-Shaped Pipe -Tile ,

516. Egg -Shaped Pipe- Tile Drain , 517. Ground Plan ofa Thorough-Drained

rows, & c., 554. The Bed -Work Water-Meadow ,

ib. 555. The Catch -Work Water-Meadow , 624 556. The Breaking -Bridle Bit, ib . 557. The Shepherd's Dog, 558. The Scotch Mode of Cutting up a 625

Carcass of Beef,

665

672 675 683

689 692

559. The English Mode of Cutting up a

513. Cylindrical Pipe-Tiles connected 514. Horse Shoe Pipe- Tile,

ib

664 ib.

553. The Carriage for conveying Har

the

508. The Narrowest Drain Spade, 509. The Pushing Drain -Scoop,

654 656

658 659

623 551. The Iron Hammer Nut-Key, of

ib . 648 649

547. The Mode of ordinary Subsoil

Soles, 504. The junction of a Common Tile

the Ground,

647

652

620 545. The Levelling-Box, or Scoop,

502. The Drainer's Plumb Level,

the inclination

ib.

594 | 526. Tile Double Duct for a Main Stone ib . Drain ,

tion , 494. Different Forms of Ducts for the

with

ib . ib .

525. The Tile and Stone Drain ,

493. The Spirit-Level Set for Observa

tance betwixt Drains,

523. A Small Drain Filled with Broken Stones,

ib. 524. The Triangular Coupled Stone Duct,

ib.

492. Miles' Wooden Field-Gate with Iron Heel-Post,

635 637

ib. 638

522. The Drain Stone-Beater,

488. The Kilmory Wooden Trussed Field-Gate, 489. An Iron Field -Gate with Iron Posts

Substrata of Deep Drains, 520. The Drain Stone-Harp or Screen ,

ib. | 521. The Drain Stone-Rake,

481. Straining-Post, with Sole and Stay under-ground, 482. Straining- Post, with Planks under

Page

Fig.

519. The Instruments for Boring the

ib.

Carcass of Beef,

693

ib . 560. The Scotch Mode of Cutting up a 626

Carcass of Mutton ,

695

ib. 561. The English Mode of Cutting up a

Field, 518. The Positions of Planks and

628

Wedges to prevent the Sides of Drains Falling in ,

634

Carcass of Mutton , 562. The Scotch Mode of Cutting up a Carcass of Pork ,

696 698

563. The English Mode of Cutting up a Carcass of Pork ,

699

xii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fig . 564. The Short- Horn Ox, 565. The Short-Horn Bull, 566. Mr Hopper's Short-Horn Bull,

Belville, 567. View of the Back and Chest of Belville, 568. The Short-Horn Cow, 569. The Draugbt-Horse, 570. The Draught-Stallion, 571. The Draught-Mare, 572. The Leicester Ewe and Lamb, 573. The Brood Sow , 574. The Common Fowl,

575. The Head of a Long -Horn Bull,

Page

Fig.

709

581. The Head of a Black -Faced Ram , 582. The Head of a Black - Faced Ewe, 583. The Head of a Tup of the original Breed of Scotland, 584. The Head of a Southdown Tup, 585. The Head of a Boar,

710 ib .

711 711 712 713

714 715 ib . 716

578. The Head of an Angus Os, 579. The Ayrshire Bull,

717 718 ib. 719 720

580. The Head of a Cheviot Tup,

721

576. The Head of a Hereford Ox ,

577. The Head of West-Highland Ox ,

Page 721

722 ib.

723 724

586. The Vertical Section of the Head

of the Adult Horse, showing the Teeth and the Nervous system in connection with them, 587. The Vertical Section of the Head

725

of the Adult Ox, showing the Teeth and the Nervous system in connection with them , 588. The Vertical Section of the Head

of the Wild Boar, showing the Teeth and the Nervous system in connection with them, 589. The Sack-Lifter,

726

727 759

THE BOOK OF THE FARM

PRACTICE

SUMMER SUMMARY OF THE FIELD OPERATIONS AND OF THE WEATHER IN SUMMER .

a very beautiful instance of design and adaptation in this. The grand stimulat ing agent in all terrestrial action, at least

2959. As spring is the restoration of in a natural view of it on the surface of life to vegetation, and the season in which the operations of the field again become active, so summer is the season of progress in vegetation, and in the operations of the field,none of the greater ones of which are begun or terminated, but only advanced a step towards their maturity in autumn.

the earth, and the intensity of this action, is made up of two elements — the portion of the twenty -four hours during which the sun is above the horizon, and the altitude of the sun above that horizon .

Both of

these, in either hemisphere, increase as

the sun declines towards the hemisphere, The advancement of the larger field ope- or rather as the hemisphere inclines to

rations involves no difference of principle the sun ; though, as the first of these is the

in their execution, but the minor operations which accompany them , and the changes they effect in theaspect of the larger ones, in the most agreeable season for work in the year, invest all the operations of sum-

apparent result of the second as a reality, our using the one expression or the other

does not affectthe result. The increase or decrease of altitude is the same, with the same change of declination, in all latitudes ;

mer with peculiar interest, and even de- but the variation in time above the hori zon increases with the latitude : conse light. quently, the higher the latitude thegreater 2960. “ Summer is the bloom of the the change of solar action with the year," as Mr Mudie truly observes— " the same change of declination. The change period during which all the growing and in declination increases from the solstice

living children of nature, which wax and to the equinox, and diminishes from the the spring -tide of their activity, and of solar action begins to slacken at the

wane with the revolving seasons, are in equinox to the solstice. Thus the increase when all those general agencies by which vernal equinox in March , and gradually they are stimulated are working to the diminishes till it becomes 0 at midsummer; very top of their bent.

Summer

after this the decrease commences.

This,

is, both in the literal and the metaphysi- however, is only in so far as depends on the cal sense, the season of blossoms; and, altitude of the sun ; for the other element, as the blossoms make the fruit, the time of the time which the sun is above the hori

them is really the most important of the zon , goes on increasing till the longest whole. In our middle latitudes, VOL . II.

is day, or day of the solstice. Thus, in the

2

PRACTICE - SUMMER.

advanced part of the summer, there is a is highly elastic, and feels balmy and diminished increase of the momentary in- bracing, indicated by the high position of

tensityof thesolar action, anda lengthen- the mercury in the barometer; at another ing of its daily duration. What is given to the presence of the sun above the horizon is taken from its absence below it ; and thus, as the summer advances towards the longest day, all that works by the

the mercury descends, and almost always suddenly, to the lowest point, followed by blasts of wind and a deluge of rain, imi tating the tornado of the tropics. The heat of the air so scorches us as to cause us

action of the sun works with his increase to seek the shade, and the thermometer

of intensity, and for a longer time. After marks its intensity; and shortly after, a the longest day is past, both elements of the solar action diminish, slowly at first, and more rapidly afterwards, until the summer merges in the autumn. Near the

chilling gust, accompanied with hail, sud denly brings down the thermometer many degrees. The air to -day is so calm and breathless, that not a ripple is visible even

equatorthe changesarecomparativelysmall, on the broad bosom of the great ocean ; and they increase with the latitude; and to-morrow a hurricane agitates its waves the differences in this respect are whatmay to a heightdangerous tothe safety of the be called the celestial differences of the

mariner . Not a cloud is seen at times to

character of summer in different latitudes ; but terrestrial causes modify them so much, that the practical results, as observed, are verydifferent from what the celestial theory would give. Still, any one who thinks

stain the purity of the blue vault of heaven ; at others, the thunder -cloud hovers over the earth, and blackens its surface with a portentous shadow .

but for a moment will not fail to discover

2962. Such changes, in summer, are

how beautifully the season of bloom is se-

usually sudden and of short duration, and

1

are requisite topreserve the healthy state way or the other. This is enough to con- of the atmosphere. Did rain not fall

cured from violent action either in the one

vince us that the action which goes on in in large quantities, the vapour absorbed the production ofnature during the summer by the increased capacity of beated air for is really the most important of the whole moisture would accumulate in the at

year ; for it is performed with the maxi- mosphere, and form perpetual clouds and mum of power in the agents, and the mi- sunless days. Did no cold strata of air nimum of disturbance in their operation. move about to condense the warm , the

That resistance of winter, which but too warm , containing a large quantity of va often shrivels the young leaf, and blights the early blossom in the spring, is vanquished and completely stayed from making any inroad till the seasonal purposes of nature are accomplished ; and the ardour of the stimulating causes which have vanquished the destructive one are slackened, so that they may not injure that which, during the struggle of the early

pour in solution,would always beelevated beyond the reach of the earth, and there waste its latent heat. The sheet -light ning passing from cloud to cloud, the most common display of electric action in sum

mer, restores the electric equilibrium of the air, and the forked lightning relieves both the earth and the air. Did not the hurricane at times force its way through

part of the year, they have preserved. All the calm and settled air, the same portion this, too, is accomplished by means so verysimple, that their simplicity provesthe most wonderful part of the whole, for it is nothing more than the planes of the annual and daily motions of the earth intersecting each other at an angle ofabout 23° 28' ; and the line of intersection passing through the equinoctial points of the diurnal

of the atmosphere would always remain over the same locality, and become viti

ated by the breath of animals and the exhalations from decaying vegetables. If the dews failed to descend upon the grass, the pastures would soon become parched by the meridian fervour of the summer sun. Thus, the active agencies of

orbit."

nature are all required to preserve the air in a healthy state for animals and vege 2961. The atmospherical phenomena tables, and they operate in the most bene

of summer are of the most varied and

ficial manner in summer - the season of the

complicated nature. At one time the air intensest action of the solar rays.

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.

3

2963. The influence of the laws of and we cannot help admiring the delight

nature, which effects such changes in the fully benevolent design with which this atmosphere, also affects the condition of the period of life - the grand period of fitness human race ; “ for if the laws of nature," and disposition to observe — and the sum says Mr Mudie, “ have been so framed by mer of the year, the season when, beyond

the Lawgiveras to place the summerof the all others, nature is inviting to obser year in the situation of greatest safety in vation, and fitted to reward its exercise, the year's revolution, so onght the sum- are adapted to each other. But though the mer of the life of man to be placed in the summer is, in especial manner, valuable situation of greatest safety among the and inviting at the age we have named

stages of his appointed time on earth. as corresponding to it inour life upon earth , Nature does this in the case ofall irrational yet every human being, from the earliest animals which belong wholly to material dawn of observation to the final close, may nature, and are, of course, in complete find much pleasure in the summer, if they obedience to material laws. In so far, seek it aright. too, as man is under the laws of material nature, he is under their protection . But

2965. “ Though summer is unquestion man, even considered as body or animal, ably the most delightful portion of the is not wholly under the protection of these year — the one which, above all others, is

laws; for from the moment that the mind hailed and enjoyed by every one who has has acquired the requisite degree of expe- senses to perceive, or a heart to feel, and rience which prompts him to the exercise a mind to understand the great goodness of his young judgment, he begins to exer- of the Creator in placing man ina world

enjoyments - yet cise it, and this takes place long before he of so many and so sweet of which we can is able to regulate himself even in what

summer is not a season

those who have had larger experience con- mark the beginning or the end by fixed days in the calendar, or of which we can sider very simple cases. This is a period at which the burden of say that it has definite characters which

bodily labour of every kind should be belong to itonly,and to noother of the year. lighter than at any other period. It is Even with us, in the comparativelymild usually the time of most rapid growth, latitude of Britain, where none of the sea and therefore the one of greatest com- sons run into extremes, we cannot say that

parative weakness in the whole system . summer is absolutely the warmest time of It is the time when the body is most sub- the year ; because we sometimes have a ject to consumption, and to various other very warm day in the spring, which, pro

diseases from which, if this time is fairly bably from the contrast with the general got over, there is comparatively little to character of the season, we feel fully more fear in after life ; and, such being the than we do many days in the summer. So case, we may very naturally infer that it is also there are often days in the autumn

the time when the bodily constitution is upon which we feel the heat more oppres rather confirmed in strength or given over sive than we do upon summer days; though to feebleness. It is also the time at which this may in part arise from the greater the deepest impressions are made; because length and comparative coldness of the it is then that the keenness of the senses autumnal nights. to observe, and the readiness of the mind 2966. “Limited as the island of Britain to receive and retain the result of the ob-

servations, are most usually upon an equa- is to a range of only about six hundred lity. The time of perfect equality may miles in the meridian, which is just about beearlier in some cases and later in others;

one- tenth of the quadrant fromthe equa

but we believe we have truth on our side tor to the pole, there are very great diffe when we say, that at some time within rences in the character and economy of the

the limitsof ten years, the perfect equipoise summer in different parts of it; and these of the balance between the senses and the are still further increased by difference of elevation above the level of the sea , and mind actually takes place.

other local causes. In general, the double 2964. “ This is in fact the summer of season of activity, and the pause during

life to which we have already alluded ; the very vigour of the warm and dry

4

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

season, are much more marked in the tude by turning it to proper account.

southern part of the island ; while in the Crops of grain , pulse, and of artificial extreme north they may be said to be grasses, especiallythe leguminous ones altogether unknown. In those remote parts the tall growing clovers, the lucerns, and

there are hardly any spring flowers, and the sainfoins, retain the humidity in a On elevated wonderful manner; and all the legnminous places, the snow will retreat before nothing crop - plants, which completely cover the shortofsummer ; and it returns, in occa- ground, are understood to give it more by sional showers, even in June. Thus, sum- this means than they take from it by any mer is hardly gone when the snow returns other, and thus to be ameliorating crops in and maintainsits ground till next sunimer. stead of scourging ones ; but, in order to When the duration of summer is so brief, do this, they must completely cover the there can, of course, be few instances of ground, so as to exclude from it all scorch secondflowering or growth in plants, or of ing action of the sun. Plantations, copses very few autumnal ones.

econd broodsinbirds. The plants analogous of trees, hop -gardens, and all other vege to the early flowerers of the southern parts

table shadowings, while keeping the

are not many ; and of the summer birds scorching heat of the sun from the ground, which make the southern groves and cop- in the times of its extreme strength, bave ses so gay with their songs, the far greater similar effects, only differing a little with part do not reach the extreme north. the nature of the plants, and the varying There is a double reason for this. In the demands which their roots may

have upon

first place, the summer is too short ; and, the soil, forthat ill-explained and under

something generally in the second there and are few or no whichfrom they it.are În groves for themplace, to visit; in some of stood supposed to derive bleak the lonely moors there, one may wander the situations, a wonderful acceleration is often

livelong summer's day without hearing produced by plantations of evergreen coni any sound of bird, save the hoarse croak feræ , especially of the common Scotch of the hooded crow, or the peevish and fir, ( Pinus sylvestris,) which is at the melancholy twite ' of the mountain same time one of the most valuable as linnet.

timber .

And there have been many in

stances of a plantation of thiskind yield 2967. “ Viewingour own country, there- ing a good rent during the time that it fore, limited as it is in range of latitude, stood ; and then, when it had come to the we may say that the summer is cleft in growth mostproper for cutting down-the twain in the warm and dry places of the but-ends of the tree for ordinary deal tim earth by the ardour of the summer drought, ber, and the top- cuts for pit- props, used in which comes in the maximum of that the collieries — the surface upon which it season , and has an enervating ininence on stood bad accumulated so much soil dur

vegetation ; and that the two segments approach each other as we proceednorthward, meeting so as to formonly one summer at different distances, according as the surface is higher above the level of the sea, with an unbroken progress in rege-

ing the time of its standing, that very little expense sufficed for converting it into corn land, capable of bearing excellent crops. 2969. “There are instances in which the

vegetables that man bas sown or planted,

tation maintained by the presence of an have of themselves furnished no small por adequate supply of moisture. tion of that auxiliary power of the reten tion of humidity in the fields which enables 2968 . “ But the extra heat which par- the whole of that surplus of summer heat, ches the dry plains in summer is actually above what the natural condition of the

a store provided for man, and provided place requires, to be converted to useful where he cannot find anything in art to purposes. There are other results equally answer the same purpose. Man can neither striking and profitable as these. In many cart the sunbeams into his fields, nor col- parts of the uplandswhich,not many years

lect and retain them in reservoirs; and ago, were in the naked and unproductive therefore the bounty which gives him this state wbich is common to such places when summer surplus is a bounty for which he they are neglected, the most advantageous ought, nay, is bound, to show his grati- results have be obtained from belts and

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.

5

clumps of planting, and thebringing of the there was an approximation to the char surface into cultnre. While they remained acter of the season of burning drought, as in a state of nature, the summers were in- it shows itself in the seasonal desolation

tolerably hot and dry, and the winterswere excessively cold, with heavy falls of snow, frequently coming on about the middle of January,and sometimes renewed in March

of tropical plains ; and as there was no powerin the average temperature of the year to produce the bulbous and tuberous plants, which so speedily bring beauty

—sothat they lay long, and field labour upon those plains when the rains do set could not be begun until the season was in, the general character of the whole was far advanced. This rendered the grounds sterility. immediately adjoining of little value for

tillage, and the wastes themselves of as

2971. “ It is not probable that at any

little for pasturage, as the people in the time the seasons, in the most neglected vicinity had nokeep for cattle during the parts of Britain, ran into such extremes as long winter, and sheep were altogether out this ; but still they were very different of the question . When a few cattle were from what they arenow , and had far more

kept in such places, they were in a sad pernicious effectsin injuring the health of condition in the spring, from the scanty man, and reducing the produce of the supply and bad quality of their winter fields to a very small fraction of that which , food, wbich consisted almost wholly of by proper management, they now regu straw , unripened, black, sodden, and sap- larly afford. less, from the effect of the autumnal rains.

In consequence of this, when the cattle

2972. “ This may seem to be treating

were put out to the upland, after the sun of the desolation ofwinter rather than the bad brought up the grass, a man had to be bloom and beauty of the summer, and it is sent along with them, to lift them in the not a subject of bloom or beauty certainly ; case of their lying down and falling, as but still it is a summer subject, and one

they had not strength to regain their legs the knowledge of which is far more useful by their own exertions. The change of than any descant that could be written on

food bad also very unwholesome effects the most lovely feature of themost delight upon them , and many used every year to ful and propitious season . The real cause die of murrain, a disease which was under- was the improper management of the sum stood to be infectious — so that, if it once mers — in the suffering of that part of it

broke out, it was difficult to say to what which God has obviously provided for man, length it might not proceed. The country as that element of successful cultivation people went so far as to say that crows which he cannot obtain by his own exer

and ravens , which are certainly not very tions, to run to waste ; and thereby allow

delicate birds, were sometimespoisoned by ing that which has evidently been created the carrion of cattle that died of this for being the blessing of art, to become the malady ; and when they found these bane of nature.

dusky -coated prowlers on the moors bang ing about the outskirts of the herd, they

2973. “ It is pleasant to view the con

always concluded that these birds smelt trast produced, when this surplus of sum mer energy is seen and appreciated, and so death ' among the cattle. made to perform useful work in its own season ; and though at that season the the whole of the evil. The short summer effect is delightful, and greatly beightens came on so very hotthat the dry pastures the charm of the summer, it is not confined were burnt up ; the little patches of culti- to that season , but extends to the whole 2970. “ What has been stated was not

vated ground in the neighbourhood were year, rendering every season more bealthy hardened like bricks; and the crops late and productive, and greatly adding to the sown, from the length of time the snow enjoyment of life. lay, could not rise with any vigour in the main stem , or at all tiller' at the roots,

2974. “ When the excessive ardour of

so that they never 80 covered the ground as the summer is thus turned to good account,

to shut out the searching inflnence of the in the promoting of growth, and cooled by spring. Thus, as the summer advanced, evaporation constantly going on from fields

-

6

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

of corn coming into bloom : when the bean that snbject, appear to have been very and the red clover give the full volume of satisfactorily conducted, and the theory their combined perfumes to the lightest which he established by these experiments zephyr that flits from field to footpatlı; and is the one now embraced by all philo

when the fields are cultivated up to thepower sophers. “ Aristotle and many other of the season , the littlezephyrs do sport at writers," says Dr Wells, “ have remarked, these shortjourneys as if theywere specially that dew appears only in calm and serene

commissioned to sweeten your path as you nights. This remark of Aristotle, how walk along ; when the hay -field, ready for ever, is not to be received in its strictest the scythe, plays in gentle undulations,as if it were a sea of beryl ; when the rich pastures, starred over with the sweet though lowly blossoms of the white clover, breathe balm and honey combined, and the indus-

sense, as I have frequently found a small quantity of dew on grass, both in windy nights, if the sky was clear or nearly so, and in cloudy nights if there was no wind. If, indeed, the clouds were high and the

trious bees are flitting from flower to flower,

weather calm, I have sometimes seen on

softening the air with their mingled hum grass, though the sky was entirely hidden, of delight ; when the fresh breeze from the no very inconsiderable quantity of dew .

copse faces you as you pass, and the trembling poplar by the brook salutes you with all its leaves ; when the birds, many of them from transequatorial climates, are enjoying their meridian siesta, in order that they may pour forth their gratitude in vesper or in matin song ; and when man,

Again ,according to my observation, entire stillness of the atmosphere is so far from being necessary for the formation of this fluid , that its quantity has seemed to me to be increased by a very gentle motion of the air. Dew, however, has never been seen by me on nights both cloudy and windy. If, in the course of the night, the weather, from being calm and serene, should become windy and cloudy, not only will dew cease to form , but that

and all thatbelongs to him , living or dead, speaks of plenty, and comfort, and high health , and full of grateful enjoyment then, then it is summer, such as becomes rational man in a land highly privileged which was formed will either disappear or by a bountiful God : and you require no diminish considerably. verbal definition.”*

In calm weather,

if the sky be partially covered with clouds, more dew will appear than if it

2975. The atmospherical phenomena of were entirely covered, but less than if it summer are not only varied, but are of a were entirely clear. Dew probably be very complicated character, difficult of ex- gins in the country to appear upon grass, planation, and apparently anomalous in in places shaded from the sun during calm occurrence. These are dew , which is a and clear weather, soon after the heat of great deposition of water at a time when the atmosphere has declined ; and I have

not a cloud is to be seen ; a thunder storm , frequently felt grass moist in dry weather which suddenly rages in the midst of a several hours before sunset. On the other calm ; and hail, which is the descent of hand, I have scarcely ever known dew to ice and congealed snow in the hottest be present in such quantity upon grass as days of the year. Each of these anoma- to exhibit visible drops before the sun was lous phenomena requires explanation. very near the horizon, or to be verycopious till some time after sunset.

It also con

2976. Dew . — The phenomenon of dew tinues to form in shaded places after sun is familiar to every one residing in the country. In the hottest day of summer, the shoes become wetted on walking over a grass- field about sunset, and they may

rise ; and if the weather be favourable, more dew forms a little before, and in

shaded places, a little after sunrise, than at any other time. The formation of dew,

be wetted as thoroughly as in wading after it has once commenced , continues through water. The late Dr Wells inves- during the whole night, if the weather

tigated the phenomena of dew more closely remain still and serene . During nights than any other person . His experiments, that are equally clear and calm , dew often as detailed in his instructive essay on appears in very unequal quantities, even * Mudie's Summer , p. 1-64.

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.

7

after allowance has been made for any former than in the latter time, in conse difference in their lengths. One great quence of a previous precipitation of part source of their difference is very obvious ; of it. The reason, no doubt, is the cold

for, it being manifest, whatever theory bé of the atmosphere being greater in the adopted concerning the immediate cause latter than in the prior partofthe night." * of dew, that the more replete the atmo sphere is with moisture, previously to the

2977. Theories of the formation of dew

operation of that cause, the more copious have been proffered by many philosophers, will be the precipitation of moisture in the from the days of Aristotle to the time of atmosphere, which must likewise tend to Dr Wells ; and these have been referred to increase the production of dew. Thus in ( 176,) as also the observations of Du

dew, in equally calm and clear nights, is fay on the perspiration of moisture from more abundant shortly after rain than the earth , (177.)

during a long tract of dry weather. It is more abundant during S. and W. winds,

2978. To measure the quantity of dew

than during those which blow from the deposited each night, an instrument is N. and the E. Dew is commonly more used called a Drosometer. The most

plentiful in spring and autumn than in simple process consists in exposing to the summer ; the reason is, that a greater open air bodies whose exact weight is difference is generally found between the known, and then weighing them afresh temperature of the day and the night in the former seasons of the year than in the latter. Dew is always very copions on those clear and calm nights which are

after they are covered with dew . Accord ing to Dr Wells, locks of wool divided

into spherical masses of 3 inches diame ter, are to be preferred to any other thing

followed by misty or foggy mornings ; the for measuring the deposit of dew.

All

turbidnessof the air in the morning show- circumstances that favour radiation equally

ing that it must have contained, during contribute to the formation of dew. A. the preceding night, a considerable quan- body that is a good radiator and a bad tity of moisture. I have observed dew to conductor of heat, will therefore be cover

be unusually plentiful on a clear morning, ed with a very abundant dew. Thus glass which bad succeeded a cloudy night. For becomes wet sooner than the metals ; or

the air having, in the course of the night, ganised bodies are wetted more quickly lost little or no moisture, was in themorn-

than glass, especially when they are in

ing charged with more watery vapour small fragments — because, as the heat than it would have been if the night had passes with difficulty from the one to the

also been elear. Heat of the atmosphere, other, that which is lost is not replaced by if other circumstances are favourable,-

that which is transmitted from the inte

which, according to my experience, they rior to the surface of the body. Thus locks seldom are in this country,-occasions a of wool are very well suited to these ex great formation of dew . For, as the periments, and become covered with a

power of the air to retain watery vapour very abundant dew. The moister the air in a pellucid state, increases considerably is, all other things being equal, the more

faster while its temperature is rising than in proportion to the heat acquired , a decrease of its heat in any small given quantity during the night must bring it,

considerable is the quantity of dew that falls in a given time. Thus, it is entirely wanting in arid deserts, notwithstanding the intensity of nocturnal radiation. In

if the temperature be high, much nearer our country, nights with abundant dews

to the point of repletion before it be acted may be considered as foretelling rain ; for upon by the immediate cause of dew, than

they prove that the air contains a great

if the temperature were low. I always quantity of the vapour of water, and that found, when the clearness and stillness of it is near the point of saturation. Dalton the atmosphere were the same, that more computed the amount of dew which an dew was found between midnight and nually falls at 5 inches. In fine weather,

sunrise than between sunset and midnight, in the evening, the vapour plane being though the positive quantity of moisture destroyed, and the nubific principle, as in the air must have been less in the Mr Forster * Wells On Deu , p. 1. 1815.

observes, ceasing to act, the

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

8

vapour so deposited comes down in dew. left in the mouth a sharp and burning after Dew , however, is not the result always taste. On examination, these grains were of the stratus cloud, and it differs from the found to be the tubercles of the ficaire,

wet mist of the cirro -stratus of the lower Ranunculus ficaria,aplant very common in Silesia . In the middle of June the leaves

atmosphere.

and stalks of this plant dry up, and the

2979. As supposed depositions from the tubercles having but loose hold of the air, which take place usually in summer, ground, the wind sweeps them off their and accompanied chiefly with rain , are the sites, and the rains then carry them to a dis showers of remarkable substances, such as tance, but no one has seen them fall from sulphur, blood , corn , fishes, and others, the clouds. The seeds of the Melampy which have been said to have occurred in rum nemorosum , of the Veronica hædera

several places, and which I mention more folia, and of others, have been known to be as matters of curiosity than of importance, thus transported by wind and rain to con with the view of correcting the popular siderable distances from their habitats. ideas entertained of them. Showers of Sulphur.- Formerly , and even at the

2980. Showers of Animals. - One bas present day, flour of sulphur has been said frequently heard of the fall of fishes and frequently to fall with rain ; after heavy frogs from the air ; and the common idea

showers, quiet waters have been found is that they had been taken up by water covered with a yellow dust, which, being spouts into the clouds, and thence let fall easily inflamed , was believed to be sulphur. Accurate researches bave proved that the dust was nothing else than the pollen of certain flowers, and of pines in particular,

upon the earth with the rain ; and it has even been asserted that they have fallen from the sky in calm weather. “ To all these assertions," remarks M. Kaemtz, “ I

which had been swept off by the wind and

know no other answer than that which

precipitated by the rain. The nature of one of the most distinguished naturalists

the pollen depends on that of the vegetables of the age made to one who assured him that grow within a certain distance. that he had seen such a phenomenon with Schmeider believes that, in March and his own eyes : “ It is fortunate,' he said ,

April, it is the pollen of alders and filberts; ' that you have seen it, for now I believe in May and June, that of pines, elders, it : had Iseen it myself, I should not have birch ; in July, August, and September, believed it.' ” that of lycopodium , typha, and several species of equisetum. Showers of Blood. 2981. Dry Fogs. - From 29th May to -Red spots have been found on theground 1st July 1783 a dense dry fug was seen and on the waters, which were believed to over the greater part of Europe. The fog be spots of blood. Microscopic researches was not an aqueous vapour, but a true have proved that those colourings arose smoke. Veltmann ascertained that simul. from innumerable vegetables or animals, taneouswith it great peat- bogs were burn some filling the waters, and others — inor- ing in Germany thatdrysummer, as also ganic substances in the form of powder- were great volcanic eruptions in Calabria

falling on the ground, were found colour- and Iceland, the hot lava from which burn ed with iron or hydrochlorate of cobalt. ed much vegetation and many dwellings. Showers of Corn . — After heavy rains. In the dry summer of 1839 a similar dry

bodies have frequently been found on the fog was occasioned by burning bogs.* ground that possessed a distinct analogy to grains ofcorn, and appeared to be com2982. Summer Electricity. - The na posed of farina ; but were found not to be ture and sources of electricity have already the grain of the cereals,nor had they fallen been fully explained from ( 123) to ( 130.) from the air. In June 1830 were found As summer is the season in which elec

near Greisau, a village of Silesia, after a tricity is most active in displaying its rain storm, a certain number of small bodies existence, a few remarks on its condition

of a vegetable nature, on places covered in this season seems appropriate. Its usual with turf. They had the taste of farina, but state in the atmosphere is generally be * Kaemtz, Complete Course of Meteorology, p. 106, 465.

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS .

9

lieved to be positive, and that it increases above the surface of the earth : these ap in quantity as we ascend. In Europe, the pear to act as conductors of the electricity

observations of M. Schübler of Stutgardt from the upper regions. Cavallo ascer intimate that the electricity of the preci- tained, from a set of experiments per pitating fluids from the atmosphere ismore formed at Islington in 1776 , that the air frequently negative than positive, in the always contains free positive electricity,

proportion of 155 to 100 ; but that the mean except when influenced by beavy clouds intensity of the positive electricity is near the zenith. This electricity is found greater than that of the negative in the strongest in fogs, and during frosty wea ratio of 69to 43 ; and that different layers ther, but weakest in hot weather, and just or strata of the atmosphere, placed only at previous to a shower of rain ; and to in small distances from each other, are fre-

quently found to be in different states. *

crease in proportion as the instrument used is raised to a greater elevation. This,

It appears also, from recent observations indeed, necessarily happens ; for as the by Schübler, that the electricity of the air, earth's surface is, cæteris paribus, always in calm and serene weather, is constantly negatively electrified, a continual but positive, but subject to two daily fluctua- gradual combination of its electricity with

tions. It is at its minimum a little before that of the air is constantly taking place sunrise ::

after which it gradually accumu- at its surface, so that no free positive

lates till it reaches its first maximum at electricity can be detected within four feet 8 A. m. in May ; and then diminishes until of the surface of the earth .” I it has descended to its second minimum. The second maximum occurs in the even-

2984. Thunder -storm . - Although the

ing about two hours after sunset; and presence of electricity is thus accounted then diminishes at first rapidly, and next in for, its manifest action in a thunder slower progression during the whole of the storm is not easily analysed. Storm

night, to present again , on the following clouds are at first small, and they rapidly day, the same oscillations. It is probable that the exact time of its increase anddecrease is influenced by the seasons. The intensity increases from July to January, and then decreases; it is also much more

become larger by accumulating all the vapours around them, when the sky is generally seen of a pale -blue colour. At times storm -clouds are formed in the horizon, where they remain either isolated

intense in the winter, though longer in or unite together. Their characteristics

summer, and appears to increase as the cold increases. " These Auctuations may be observed throughout the year more easily in fine than in cloudy weather.

are, that the cirri found in the upper part of the atmosphere pass to a state of thick cirro- cumulus, through the cumulus, to a compact and uniform mass of cumulo stratus. The entire mass presents remark

2983. “ Among the causes modifying able opposition of light -- one part being the electric state of the atmosphere," ob- densely blue- black , others ash - gray - and serves Dr Bird, “ must be ranked its if the sun is near to setting, a yellow or hygrometric state, as well as probably the orange colour may pervade the entire nature of the effluvia which may become volatilised in any given locality. Thus,

Saussure has observed , that its intensity

mass .

2985. The formation of storm -clouds is

is much more considerable in elevated and preceded by a slow and continued fall of isolated places than iu narrow and con- the barometer, as must be the case when

fined situations: it is nearly absent in houses, under lofty trees, in narrow courts and alleys, and in enclosed places. In warm places, the most intensely electric state of the atmosphere appears to be that

cirri occupy the sky .. The calmness of the air , and a suffocatingheat, due to the want of evaporation on the surface of our bodies, are circumstances quite character istic. The heat does not proportionately

in which large clouds and dense fogs are affect the thermometer, and is peculiar to suspended in the air, at short distances the lower strata of the air, for it decreases * Forbes's Report on Meteorology, vol. i. p . 253. + Journal of Science and of the Arts, No. IV.

Bird's Elements of Natural Philosophy, p. 209.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

10

rapidly with the height - twice as rapidly a zigzag form , though in reality it is of the form of a helix , or spiral screw , we asin ordinary circumstances. call it forked. The unequal conductibility 2986. The electric Auid accumulates of the air explains this course ofThe lightning, When two as well as its bifurca third in the clouds of vapour.

tions.

clouds, thus provided with electric matter kind, ball lightning , passes slowly from beyond theirusual state, are not far from the clouds to the earth, and is visible for each other, the electricity of the one al- several seconds ; whereas the lightnings ways becomes positive, and that of the of the other two kinds do not last for the

other negatide. Being in the opposite millionth part of a second, according to states of electricity, they attract and ap- the observations of M. Arago.

proach each other ; and when the approach comes within the distance in which the

2989. Lightning is generally of a daz

force of the positive electricity is able to overcome the resistance of the air between the positive and negative clouds, the fluid leaves the positive and enters into the negative cloud in lightning in such qnantity as to restore the equilibrium of both.

zling white colour, and when the electric spark is sent through vacuo, it is always of a blue colour, which would seem to indicate that the true colour of electricity is blue. Now, as electricity is known to promote vegetation, (135 to 150,) and as

The forcible passage of the fluid causes the blue rays more greatly accelerate

such a concussion in the air between the vegetation than any of theothers, (193 ) two clonds that its vibrations, striking the exciting action ofelectricity in plants against the earth and mountains, cause may be connected with its blue colour. the noise which is heard in thunder. 2990. The motion of the electric fluid

2987. The time taken by the electric is most commonly from the clouds to the

fluid to pass from one cloud to another is earth, though numerous examplesexist inappreciable,but the velocity of sound is its having followed an opposite directionof. calculable. For every 41 seconds of time It is probable, however, that in most cases which elapse after seeing the lightning to of electric explosion , the fluid leaves hearing the thunder, the cloudsare situate both clouds, or the cloud and the earth, at as many miles from the auditor. Far at

one time.

However this may be, the

goes in the most direct line, objects for sound to be stroke always substances sea, where are nothunder of the least con very seldom even through

reflected from ,

is

heard ; whereas in a mountainous country it inspires terror, though, being mere sound, it can do no harm ; while the lightning, which can do harm, does all the

ducting power. Animals are frequently struck , because their fluids easily conduct the fluid ; while the shock given to the body seems to be through the nervous

mischief it can before we are aware of its system . presence.

2991. Hence lightning-conductors,call

2988. Lightning is of three kinds. If ed paratonnères, have been recommended the lightning joins two clouds, whose not only to draw off the fluid quietly from height is not equal, the sky appears irregu- the atmosphere into the earth, which they larly illuminated. If the lightning goes certainly do when attached to houses, but from a cloud to the earth , we observe a

also with the view of lessening the number

narrow train of dazzling light, surrounded by a less intense light. We observe the same train when it joins two clouds of equal height, because there is no lower

and virulency of thunder-storms, which it is doubtful that any number of conductors would effect - since at Zurich, and its vicinity, the houses are studded with

cloud in this case to hide it from our view. conductors, and storms are not less rare

The two sorts of lightning are of course there than elsewhere. identical, and we name them differently because they affect our sense of sight 2992. Electricity emits a peculiar differently. When we remark a point of odour, something like sulphur, or perhaps

light which is not clearly defined , we call rather garlic. This odour is generally it sheet lightning. When lightning is of attributed to the discharge of minute par

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.

11

ticles of metal from the conductor of the strata of cumuli exist beneath, the clouds

electric inachine; but Professor Schoenbein

make a vertical exchange of lightnings.

of Basle considers it to arise from an ele- We must therefore assign to storms a

mentary body, which he calls ozone, libe- great height, in contradiction to the gene rated from combination by the decompos- rally received opinion, and no stormshave ing action of electricity, and which, in its been measured at a lower position than electrical characters, resembles. chlorine, 4000 feet from the earth to the lowest part bromine, and iodine; and it has been of the lowest clouds. stated that he has actually decomposed

2996. On a serene evening, in summer,

nitrogen into hydrogen and ozone.

we often see after sunset intermittent

2993. The noise of thunder is not lights that illumine a great portion of the always the same, for when it falls direct sky, and these are called heat lightnings. to the surface of the ground, those near bear a dry noise of varying power, which

2997. When a storm is situated below

ceases immediately ; while those at a dis- the horizon, we observe in the evening, tance hear a series of noises rapidly suc- and during the night, very brilliant flashes ceeding each other, completely different of lightning - while no thunder is heard, bowever from the volleys of thunder. M. because the storm is too far distant from Dove explains these varied noises thus:- the observer for the noise of the thunder

With a flash that falls directly, the noise to reach bis ear. Every one may con caused by the first explosion is beard at vince himself that lightnings are reflected the same instant as the last ; while in a through the air with great intensity on a

horizontal flash, the noises produced at dark night. When a storm is in the W., the greater distances arrive later than the and the remainder of the sky is serene, others, and a flash which extends over we have only to turn our back to the

2000 yards will produce a noise which storm to see the lightning reflected in the will last 7 seconds.

In the zigzag light-

E.

ning the noise reaches the earat different 2998. In a thunder- storm , says M. intervals ; and it is at the angles that the noise is strongest, on account of the com- Tessan, “flashes of lightning, of a terrible

pression of the air, and hence the unequal brilliancy, succeed each other with extreme intensity of the sound. The rolling of rapidity, and are almost instantly followed thunder is thus explained by M. Arago : by tremendous claps of thunder,which are

“ Lightnings only occupy a pointin space, themselves succeededby delugingshowers." and giveplace to a short andinstantaneous noise. Multiple lightnings, on the contrary, are accompanied by a rolling, because the different parts of long lines which the lightnings occupy are in general found at different distances, and the sounds which are there engendered, either suc-

But though the order of thephenomena is obvious, and well understood, yetthe ruling cause of the order is a matter of dispute -- it

being yet unsettled whether the storm pro duces the electricity or the electricity the storm . M. Tessan, following the order of phenomena, supports the latter view ; and

cessively or at the same physical instant, Kaemtz supports the former with this must employ times gradually unequal in reasoning :-“ A flash of lightning passes order to reach the ear of the observer.” the zenith, and before the clap of thunder, but rarely afterwards, the rain or bail 2994. All thunder - storms may be escapes in torrents from the cloud ; the

divided into two classes, the one class being drops at first in a line inclined to the due to the action of an ascending current, and which only occurs in the hot season ; and the other class is the result of a conflict between two opposite winds, and is the cause of the winter thunder-stornis.

horizon, and then return to a vertical direction . It is commonly stated , ” he observes, “ that the rain is the effect of the lightnings tearing the clouds ; but it is the gust of wind condensing the vapours into large drops, having first driven them

2995. Thunder -storms in summer al- into a horizontal direction : hence, the ways commence with cirri, and when escape of electricity, and the clap of these become thicker, or when several thunder. As a proof that this condensa

PRACTICE

12

SUMMER .

tion precedes the lightning, the rain often the day, and seldom in the night. In falls before the noise of the thunder is England hail falls most in winter ; and at

heard. Now , the latter travels 333 metres

Plymouth, according to Mr Giddy, in the

( 1092 feet) per second ; if, therefore, the course of 21 years, its recurrence in each rain was an effect of lightning, it would month was, in

follow that the drops of water would bave fallen with a velocity at least equal - a velocity which they never have, even at the end of their fall.” *

2999. Thunder-storms are of greatuse

Times .

January, 23

February, 25 March , April, May, June,

25 27 7 5

Times.

1 July , 0 August, September, 5 October, 17 November, 22 December, 43

in the economyof the atmosphere. The In August is absolute zero , and in Decem surplus electricity is disposed of to the ber is the maximum . The appearance of

earth, the surplus vapour is condensed and hail-clouds seems tobe distinguished from sent down to the earth in rain , the air is other stormy clouds by a remarkable shad

prevented from becoming stagnant, the ing ; their edges present a multitude of extraneous matters floating in the air indentations, and their surfaces disclose are brought down to the earth, whether here and there immense irregular pro these be in a solid or gaseous state, ( 290 tuberances. Hail seldom falls in deep to 295.) valleys surrounded by mountains. It falls more on the sea - coast than in the interior

3000. Hail. — The fall of ice from the of a country. atmosphere in the hottest weather is a

pbenomenon not easily solved . That both 3002. Noise frequently accompanies or snow and ice are required in the formation precedes a fall of hail. It is probably due of hail there cannot be a doubt. “ The form to the hailstones beating against each of hailstones varies. They are nearly other, or to the conflict of contrary winds. uniform when they fall on the same The latter are frequently so violent that level ; and in the same storm they have the hailstones are transported in a hori fallen smaller on the tops of mountains zontal direction . It is often observed that

than on the plains. Change of tempera- the wind blows in puffs, and that each of ture or wind alters the form of hail. them is accompanied with a torrent of On 7th July 1769, M. Adanson observed hail. If the hail falls as usual at intervals,

six-sided pyramids fall ; but the wind hailstones, which are at first driven bori changing to N.E., changed them to convex lenses, and so transparent as to transfer objects without distortion . Hail is sometimes attended with spongy snow, which

zontally, finally mingle with the drops of rain ; and in the end there is nothing but rain, the drops falling vertically on the surface of theearth .

may have formed the interior of the hail stone, while its exterior was transparent

3003. Although hail-storms are very

ice. It has been supposed from this, that violent, they occupy but a very limited the different portions have been formed space. They will occur at the foot of under different circumstances.

Leslie mountains and in the plain, while nothing

imagines the spongy texture to result from but rain falls on the mountains adjoining, an atom of water having been suddenly and in their march they leave a narrow

frozen, and particles of perhaps rarified train of hailstones. air suddenly driven into the centre. The pyramidal form fell at Aberdeen on 29th

3004. Both the barometer and thermo

November 1823. The usual form of hail meter are affected by hail -storms. The is a concentric lamellar structure, with a barometer falls on the approach of a bail stellular fibrous arrangement.” + storm , and immediately after the storm has passed the temperature falls, and the 3001. Hail generally fallsin the hottest contrast is the more severely felt in con hours of the day in Spain, Italy, and sequence of the great heat prior to the

France. It falls in Europe generally in approach of the storm . The lowering of the * Kaemtz' Complete Course of Meteorology, p. 345-368. + Encyclopedia Metropolitana - art. Meteorology, p. 129.

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.

13

temperature for two or three weeks after the formation of hail - bave been erected a severe bail-storm , would indicate that in parts of the Continent, to save the vine such a storm has a much greater effect yards from the hail; and if electricity is

upon the atmosphere, and must therefore connected with the formation of hail, these be much more extensive, than the space should have some such effect, but there

covered by the fall of hailstones would are no authentic records of their utility. Indeed, Kaemtz asks, are not forests a collection of living paragrêles, and yet

lead us to believe.

3005. As to the formation of hail, the they are not spared by hail. Vegetable difficulty of accounting for the retention points possess great powersof conduction. of the masses of ice in the free atmosphere, According toMr Pine of Maidstone, a blade as observed byProfessorForbes, is certainly of grass is abetterconductor of electricity verygreat. Volta's theory, thanwhich none than a steel needle, and that the spines is more satisfactory, and certainly none upon thorns, gooseberry bushes, and indeed more ingenious, is thus particularlyexplain- the whole creation of buds and leaves, lave ed by Kaemtz :–Evaporation is favouredby the property of silently drawing off and the solar rays striking the upper part of the conducting away electricity. cloud ; the air above is very dry ; the elec tric state of the clouds favours evaporation.

3008. Sleet.- Very small bailstones are

Of two clouds, the one upper the other termed sleet. They are mostly spherical. lower, the upper is first formed ; the upper Isolated ones are opaque, frequently soft , becomes in a state ofpositive, and the lower, and of a whiteness approaching to that of in consequence, in that of negative electri snow. The largest are sometimes sur city ; the snow - flakes of the lower stratum rounded with a slight film of ice. They fall

of clouds are in the same electrical condi- in winter and spring during gusty weather, tion with it ; they are therefore repelled and rarely accompany storms, but always and attracted by theupper stratum ; as soon fall during gales, and when the weather

as they touch it they partake of its electri- is variable, and such gusts of cold wind city, are repelled, and fall to the lower seem a necessary condition for the forma

cloud, into which they penetrate ; they are tion of sleet. * again repelled, and so on. These attrac 3009. Clouds. The forms of the clouds tions and repulsions may last for several

hours, during which time the grains unite in masses, and condense around them the surrounding vapours, which they convert into ice; they strike against each other, and originate the noise which is heard ; when the hailstones have attained a certain

in summer are very distinctly marked. When a deposition of vapour is taking place in the highest part of the atmosphere, the cirrus appears ( 242 ;) and when it soon disappears, it is a sign of fine weather ; but instead of disappearing, it may descend

size, the lower cloud can no longer retain a little lower, and be converted into the

them, and resisting the action of gravity, cirro-cumulus ( 250,) — an elegant, light, they traverse the stratum and fall to the flocculent cloud so often seen in a fine

earth. The violence of the storm is ac- summer day. A farther deposition changes counted for by the meeting of two oppo- this small cloud into the larger cumulus,

site winds, the N. and the S. Thebailis called the day-cloud in summer, because precipitated at the moment of contact . The it disappears in another form in the even N. wind prevails, and accounts both for ing, (245.) The cumulus is distinctly re

the cold which succeeds and the rapid for- presented in Plate XIII. of the Leicestertup mation of bail.

near the horizon, where it frequently takes up

its position for the greater part of the

3006. Pieces of straw , and in Iceland day, resting on the vapour plane. When a volcanic ashes, have been found within large cumulus rises from the horizon in the bailstones.

daytime, with white towering heads, it is a sign of a storm or fall of rain from that

3007. Paragrêles - tall posts erected for quarter; and the wind will change to that drawing off the eleccricity, and opposing direction in the course of the next twenty * Kaemtz? Complete Course of Meteorology, p. 387 and 582.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

14

four hours. This threatening cloud, called cumulo -stratus, is given in Plate VIII., of the Draught Mare. In calm serene evenings in summer, the day -cloud descends and subsides in the bottom of valleys, or spreads itself in hollows of the open coun-

may judge of the immense mass of water required daily to supplythe wants of vegetation. And when we know that evaporation, besides, carries an incredible quantity of vapour direct from the surface

of the ground into the atmosphere, it may try, covering the ground like a lake or a more excite our surprise where all the re sheet of snow, as seen in moonlight, when quisite moisture can be derived from , than

it becomes the true stratus cloud. Tall that too much has been provided . objects, such as trees, steeples, and even elevated ground, jut through this cloud like 3013. The quantity of rain which falls rocks and islands in a lake. The air is in the summer months, as we have adopted

then perfectly calm, the temperature de- them , taking the mean quantity as 1, is, lightfully warm , and the intenseness of the according to M. Flaguergues, in 0.0847 silence is broken only by the snipe drum May , June, 0.0765 ming in its curious somersaults in the air 0.0544 by the harsh ventriloquous cry of the cornJuly, craik amongst the grass — or by the occa 0.2156. sional barking of the watch-dog at some The morning after distant homestead . 3014. The number of rainy days in the such a night is sure to usher in the sun in bright and peerless splendour, whose steady same months, according to the same autho heat soon evaporates the sheet-like stratus rity, is as follows :

cloud from the valley and hollows, ele vating it, in the form of the beautiful, compact, day -cloud, above the mountain

Days.

In May, June, July ,

15.8 11.8

16: 1

top or vapour -plane. 43:7 2

3010. The effect of larger masses of

cloud, and especially cumuli, on the smaller clouds in their vicinity is evidently marked in summer. The approximation of clouds towards each otheris always attended with some alteration of their ap-

3015. Ofthese quantitiesmuch thelargest proportion of rain in the same time is de rived from thunder-storms, thoughofcourse an entire rainy day may supply more than any storm . When rain falls in a

pearance, and clouds are constantly ope- shower to the extent of 1:18 inch in a day, rating on and altering each other's forms. Analogy leads us to refer all such changes to the operation of the different states of electricity in the clouds nearest each other.

the low plains of Europe become inundated, while at Joyeuse 8.84 inches have been known to fall in that time. In moun tainous countries such showers are not rare, because the winds frequently blow

3011. Rain . - The character of the rain with violence in several contrary directions.

in summer is refreshing ; for even in a rainy season, though we may feel displeased at being kept by it within doors on a summer day, we feel assured that it will in a great measure be absorbed by the immense mass of vegetation ich is in constant activity during this season . 3012. Since the experiments of Dr

3016. It is stated by Kaemtz that, if on the N. of the Alps and the Pyrenees the

wind always blew from the N.E., no rain would ever fall in Central Europe, and

that if it always blew from the S.W. it would never be fair.

3017. The boundary -line of the pro

Hales proved that a sunflower plant, 34 vince of summer rainsin Europe proceeds feet high, and an ordinary-sizedcabbage, W. from the Carpathian mountains to on the average perspire 22 ounces of the N. of the Alps, through the middle of

waterevery twenty -fourhours, and conse- France, the west of Holland, and by the qnently absorb at least that quantity,* we north part of the Gulf of Bothnia, through * Hales' Statical Essays, vol. i. p. 12 and 15.

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.

15

3022. A day wind betwixt the moun it includes all that large portion of Europe tains and plains exists in the same manner

the White Sea to the Arctic Ocean , * and to the E. of it.

as the land and sea breezes, though to a less degree.

3018. Every one may have observed rain to fall without the appearance of a

3023. The alternation of all these winds

cloud. When the equilibrium ofthe higher is explained by the unequal heating of the

regions is violently disturbed , especially land and of the sea, and of that of the when any cold N. winds come into col- mountains and the plain ; and as conti lision with those from the S., it may nents are hotter in summer and colder in happen that rain falls from a serene sky. winter than the contiguous sea, the sea Large drops are seen to moisten the earth, breeze ought to predominate in summer ,

and yet at the zenith the sky isblue. The and the land breeze in winter. vapours condense into water, withoutpass

ing through the intermediate state of vesicular vapours .

3024. In summer , when the wind is

Humboldt gives several variable, rain is indicated, and also when

examples of thekind, and Kaemtz remarks from his own observations that the fact is not very rare, having observed it twice or thrice annually. I have frequently ob-

the wind blows along the surface of the ground and raises the dust towards the face. When currents of air are seen to move in different directions, the upper one

served this phenomenon .

will most probably ultimately prevail. When it is uncertain whether there be any

3019. Winds. The character of the breeze, the lifting up of a wetted finger

winds in summer in this country is gentle will instantly feel the current, and indicate and refreshing

the quarter from whence it comes.

3020. This is the season for the land 3025. In summer, especially in July, and sea breezes. In fine weather, on the the wind blows chiefly from the W.- the

sea-coasts, no movement is perceived in the predominance of W. winds over E. at this air until eight or nine o'clock in the morn- season attaining its maximum ; and at the ing, when a breeze from the sea gradually same time the N. winds become more com rises, and increases in strength to three mon ; whence it follows that the mean o'clock in the afternoon, when it decreases, direction of the wind in this season is N.

and gives place, after a short period of of the annual mean. calm ,to a breeze from the land towards the sea , which rises soon after sunset, and at-

3026. When the wind blows strongly

tains its maximum of velocity and extent from any quarter, even from the S. W., at the moment of sunrise.

which isthe warmest wind in summer , for

two or three days in succession, the tem 3021. The direction of these two breezes perature of the air is diminished, sometimes

is perpendicular to the coast line, but if as much as 20 ', and seldom less than 10°. another breeze arises at the same time they are modified in various ways. On the E.

3027. When small whirlwinds are seen

coast of this island, if thewind blows from raising the dust upon the roads or fields,

the E. the sea breeze will be strong, and it is a sign of dry weather. I remember the land breeze weak ; and on the W. coast, seeing, in the neighbourhood of Berlin, a the land breeze willbe stronger than the largeand beautiful whirlwind, in a hot sea breeze . These effects will be the con- calm day, raise the sandy soil of a field,

trary with a W. wind. In a wind from in a perpendicular direction, to a great the N. or the S. both the land and sea height in the air, and move majestically breeze will be changed in theirdirection away out of sight. respectively to the N.E. and S.W. The sea breeze is very weak in gulfs, and 3028. Evaporation . - In proportion as the land breeze is as weak on promon- the sun rises above the horizon the eva tories.

poration increases, and the air receives * Johnston's Physical Atlas - Meteorology, Map iv.

PRACTICE

16

SUMMER .

every moment a greater quantity of tant element in nature, for the promotion vapour. The fact of the rising of the of vegetation in summer. We have al

vapour from the ground, may be dis- ready considered its nature and composi tinctly observed in summer,by the flick- tioa , ( from 189 to 194.) Its properties ering with which distant objects are seen are most evidently manifested in this sea through the vapour. But as the air op- son, and 'hese have been shortly and for

poses an obstacle to the formation of cibly enumerated by Dr Lindley. “ It is

vapour ( 229,) it becomes further and further removedfrom the point of saturation, and the relative humidity becomes more and more feeble. The rate continues

to the action of leaves," he observes— " to the decomposition of their carbonic acid and of their water ; to the separation of the aqueous particles of the sap from the

without interruption, until the moment solid parts that were dissolved in it ; to when the temperature attains its maxi- the deposition thus effected of various

In summer the absolute quantity earthy and other substances, either intro of vapour increases in the morning, but duced into plants, as silex and metallic

mum.

before mid -day the maximum occurs, and salts, or formed there, as vegetable alka in different months it occurs sooner or loids ; to the extrication of nitrogen, and later. The absolute quantity of vapour probably to other causes as yet unknown

then diminishes, until the time of the thatthe formation of the peculiar secre highest temperature of the day, without tions of plants, of whatever kind, is owing. however attaining a minimum so low as And this is brought about principally, if that of the morning. As the temperature not exclusively, by the agency of light.

rises during all this space oftime, it follows, Their green colour becomes intense, in that the air is farther and farther from the proportion to their exposure to light point of saturation : after having attained within certain limits, and feeble, in pro

its minimum, the quantity ofvapour again portion to their removal from it; till, in increases very regularly until next morn- total and continued darkness, they are

ing, while the air becomes relatively more entirely destitute of green secretion, and and more moist.

become blanched and etiolated . The same result attends all their other secre

3029. Vapour being the result of the tions ; timber, gum , sugar,acids, starch,oil, action of heat on water, it is evident that resins, odours, flavours,and all the number its quantity must vary in different seasons. less narcotic, acrid , aromatic, pungent, as

The relative differences in the tension of tringent, and other principles derived from the vapours of water in the spring and the vegetable kingdom, are equally influ enced , as to quantity and quality, by the amount of light to which the plants pro In February , it is 4.749 ducing themhave been exposed .” + March , 5.107

summer seasons, are as follows :

6.247

April,

3031. To show the advantage that Their sum ,

16.103

summer possesses over all the other seasons

as regards light, it is only requisite to state its comparative duration in the re spective months of the seasons, as we have divided the year, and it will then be seen Their sum, 30.305 that summer enjoysmore than double the light of winter, a half more than spring, The quantity of vapour attains its maxi- and a third more than autumn. Thus, mum in July, the month in which the air IN WINTER . In May, it is June, July,

7.836

10.843 11.626

is driest. We thus see that evaporation is nearly twice as active in summer as in spring.*

November has 8 hours 10 minutes of light a -day. December, January, Making a

8

7

41

3030. Light. - Light is a most impor * Kaemtz' Complete Course of Meteorology,p. 85, 92. + Lindley's Theory of Horticulture, p. 52.

...

mean of

7

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS. IN SPRING. February, has 9 hours 30 minutes of light a -day. March ,

April, Making a

49

11

49

determine the insensible transition be

tween day and night.

IN SUMMER ,

3033. Heat. - We have already con 11 16

16

45

mean of 16

44

June, July,

...

sidered the properties of heat from ( 158 ) to ( 162.) As beat always accompanies light with the solar rays, its intensity in

:::::

16 17

May, Making a

creases with that of the latter. The acti nometer and heliothermometer, as well as

IN AUTUMN .

August, September, October, Making a

hence it is that they illuminate the vault of heaven, light up terrestrial objects on which the sun does not shine directly, and

...

mean of

Il 14

17

14 12 10

the pyreheliometer of Pouillet, have all been employed to measure that intensity,

17

and the results seem to be satisfactory.

25

It would appear that a very large propor

.

mean of 12

...

34 23

:

tion of the heat of the solar ray is absorbed

in passing through the atmosphere, and 3032. Besides its existence for a greater that the proportion is increased as the number of hours each day, light is of sun approaches the horizon . The results

greater intensity in summer than in the of some experiments made by Professor other seasons ; because it is then trans- Forbes of Edinburgh, with M. Kaemtz, in mitted through the atmosphere at a higher 1832 at Brientz, and on the Faulhorn in angle. The light of the sun or of the Switzerland, are interesting, and rather moon, in its passage from the meridian, is startling — to learn that so large a propor dazzling, whilst we can gaze at either tion of the solar heat is absorbed by the

body when near the horizon, because their atmospheric air. It appears that the rays cannot so easily penetrate through the thick stratum of atmosphere they have there to traverse, and many of them are absorbed. If it were possible to measure

bundle of calorific solar rays, on entering into our atmosphere, is composed of two sorts of rays ; the one easily absorbable by the atmosphere, the other absolutely re

the intensity of solar light at different fusing all extinction ; the former form elevations, we might indicate the quan- nearly 0 ·8, and the latter 0-2 of the num tity of the absorption of those rays. The

The law of the extinction of the

actinometer of Herschel and the helio- rays of the first order is a geometrical thermometer of Saussure have been em- progression, according to the hypothesis of ployed for the purpose, but unsuccessfully. Bouger, Kaemtz, & c., such that the verti Messrs Fizeau and Foucault, more recently, cal transmission through the atmosphere, have tried to effect the purpose by taken from its base, the level of the sea, Dagnerrean plates, and they bave mea- to its superior limit, reduces the 80 absorb

sured the intensity of light by its chemical able rays out of each 100 to 33. It fol effects ; and they regard it as very pro- lows from this theory, that the portion of bable, that the luminous radiations of white the heat which is not absorbed in the case

light possess optical and chemical inten- of vertical transmission, instead of being sities in the same ratio . Light and heat 75 per cent of the extra atmospheric heat, are so intimately connected with the solar is only 53 per cent. Calculating serene

rays, that it is difficult to separate the two and cloudydays, we thus see that the manifestations, so that the measure of the earth doesnot profit bymore than a very

intensity of the calorific rays may also be small portion of the sun's rays that arrive regarded as that of the luminous.

On at theatmosphere.*

considering the nature of this absorption

3034. Prognostics. - In summer, when of the solar rays by the atmospheric air, we must necessarily conclude that a por- falling stars appear, some feature of the

tion only is absorbed — others are allowed cirro-stratus may generally be seen about. to pass , and a third portion is reflected ; They indicate the approach of a thunder * Kaemtz' Complete Course of Meteorology, pp. 150, 403. VOL . II.

B

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

18

storm .

Fire -balls are not uncommon in

warm summer nights, particularly when cirro-cumulus, cirro -stratus, and electric clouds abound .

3035. The barometer remainspretty

And, When clouds appear like rocks and towers, The earth 's refreshed by frequent showers.

304 ) . The summer flowers consist of

the ranunculus, goatbeard, harebell, and rose ;scar let lychnis ,lily, and , poppy

stationary in summer, and comparatively withnumeroussuchlikeflowers the ground high, oscillation from beingthe a is literally covered with a profusionof suddenany fall remarkable before a violentwind S. W.

It was an observation of Dr Dal

ton, that iu summer, after a long continu ance of fair weather, with the barometer

beautiful creations.

3042. The metrical proverbs connected

high, it generally falls gradually, andfor with the summer are not many. much appearance of rain .

one, two, or more days, before there is If the fall be sudden , and great for the season, it will

A cold May and a windy,

probably be followed by thunder.

May, comes she early, or comes she late,

May .

Makes a full barn and a findy. She'll make the cow to quake.

3036. The thermometer is also steady and high, only indicating a great fall dur ing a hail-storm .

Beans blow - before May doth go. A May flood - never did good. Shear your sheep in May-and shear all away.

A swarm of bees in May Is worth a load of hay.

3037. The air is clear and dry in sum

mer, the clouds high, and the wind breezy.

Look at your corn in May, And you'll come weeping away.

The changes from this state are occasioned by thunder and hail storms, and such

changes are always sudden and violent.

JUNE .

Look at your corn in June,

And you'll come home in another tune. Calm weather in June - sets corn in tune .

3038. Animals are numerous in sum

mer, and constantly in the air, and their covering of hair and feathers being pecu liarly sensible to the changes of the atmo sphere, give rise to such motions in the

animals as are significant of approaching changes in the weather. Ducks, geese, ali

July.

A swarm of bees in July—is not worth a fly . A shower in July ,when the corn begins to fill, Is worth a plough of oxen, and all belongs theretill.

No tempest, good July ! Lest corn come off blue by.

waterfowl, theguinea - fowl, peacock, crows,

frogs, and sparrows, make much noise be-

3043. Among the superstitious prognos

fore a fall of rain . Bees roam but a short

tics connected with the weather still in

distance from their hives, and ants carry existence, it is mentioned that if St Ur

their eggs busily before rain. Magpies ban's day, 25th May, be fair, the Germans chattermuch before wind. Spiders cover count on a good vintage, but if stormy, everything with their gossamer when the the reverse is said to be indicated . The weather is to continue fine.

forty days' rain ascribed to St Swithin, on the 15th July, is another well-known 3039. Wild flowers indicate changes in superstition, and may be ranked among

the atmosphere as sensibly as animals. those originating in atmospheric pheno Chickweed expands freelyand remains mena ; for although the placing of the open fully, in a continuance offine weather. prognostic to the accountof St Swithin is When it, with the trefoil and convol- palpably the effect of ignorance and cre

vulus, contracts its petals, rain may be dulity, yet, if rainy weather occur about the 15th July, it will be oflong continuance,

expected.

as whatever weather sets in soon after

3040. Particular forms of clouds also the summer solstice is of long continuance,

indicate both steady and changeable according to reference in many jour If woolly fleeces strew the heavenly way,

nals of the weather. The influence now ascribed to St Swithin used to be shared

Be sure no rain disturbs the summer day.

by St John the Baptist, and by St Paul.

weather, as thus :

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.

St Margaret's day, 20th July, used to have some curious superstitions connected with it, relative to the fecundating power of this lady's festival, quite at variance with her character as a virgin martyr. Probably

19

hours, or happen above once a - year. If it begins to rain an hour or two before sun rising, it is like to be fair before noon, and continne so that day ; but if the rain begin an hour or two after sun-rising, it is like

rain all that day, except the rainbow it may be connected with the circumstance, to be seen before it rains. " *

that heifers are commonly put to the bull about this period of the year.

3046. Rainbow . - As showers of rain

3044. Among many remains of augury extant at the present day, may be mentioned the common practice of nailing up dead kites, crows, owls, hawks, weasels, and other rapacious animals against the doors of barns, stables, and outhouses — a custom which originated in an endeavour

fall most frequently in summer, so is the rainbow mostfrequently seen in that sea son .

For the formation of a rainbow it

is sufficient that the sun strike drops of

water with its rays, and thus may be seen rainbows on clouds, and even on terres trial objects. In order to see a rainbow ,

to terrify their living compeers, and to it is necessary thatour face be turned away warn them not to obtrude themselves.

from the sun , and directed towards the rain

drops falling in the opposite direction of 3045. The Shepherd of Banbury's rules the heavens. What we then see is an arc affecting the weather of the summer quar- composed of the prismatic colours, ( 191.) ter are these :- “ In summer or barvest, arranged in parallel and concentric arcs, when the wind bas been S. two or three the centre of which is formed by the

days, and it grows very hot, and you see shadow of thespectator's head. When two clouds arise with great white tops like arcs appear, they are concentric on the towers , as if one were upon the top of an- same centre. In the interior bow , which

other, and joined together with black on is the more frequently seen,and the colours the nether side, there will be thunder and of which are the more vivid, the violet

rain suddenly. If two such clouds arise, colour is within and the red without, and one on either hand, it is time to make If you see a cloud rise against the wind, or side -wind, when the cloud comes up to you, the wind will blow the same way that the cloud came; and the same role holds of a clear place, when all

haste to shelter.

consequently, the red space is greater than the violet; and when two arcs appear, the outer one has the colours reversed ,and con sequently the violet rays predominate. The colours are more or less vivid in pro portion to the intensity of the rays of the

the sky is equally thick except one clear sun ; and hence it is that lunar rainbows

edge. If the clouds look dusky, or of a rarely exhibit the prismatic colours, being tarnish silver colour,and move very slowly, merely whitish or yellowish. it is a sign of hail ; and if there be a mixture of blue in the clouds, the hail will

3047. The conditions under which the

be small, but if very yellow , large. Small inner bow is formed, are, that the ray scattering clouds that fly very high, es- from the sun, in passing through the drop pecially from the S. W., denote whirlwinds . The shooting of falling stars through them is a sign of thunder. Sndden rains never last long ; but when the

of rain, is refracted towards the opposite side of the drop, where it is reflected, and directed again by another refraction to wards the eye. The different prismatic

air grows thick by degrees, and the sun, colours are reflected to the eye under dif moon, and stars shine dimmer and dimmer, then it is like to rain six hours usually. If it begin to rain from the S., with a high wind for two or three hours, and the wind falls but the rain continues, it is like to rain twelve hours or more, and does usually rain till a strong N. wind clears the air.

ferent angles. The red ray , in these cir , cumstances, subtends an angle of 42° 23'; and the violet ray only 40° 29' ; so that the width of the arc is 1° 54'. 3048. When the ray is twice reflected

on the back of the rain drop, before it These long rains seldom hold above twelve reaches the eye, a double bow is observed ; * The Shepherd of Banbury's Rules, p. 27, 41.

20

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

and the angles formed by the different by their exterior surface, whilst the drops colours, in this case, is for the red 50° 21 ', placed below do send them , and these, not and for the violet 53° 46' ; the width of withstanding their divergence, vaguely illuminate the space situated beneath the the aro being 3° 25'. bow .*

3049. A third and a fourth bow may be

formed ; but the intensity of the light from 3053. The prognostics connected with these is so feeble that they are rarely seen . the rainbow are the following :-After a I have at times observed a triple bow. long drought the bow is a certain sign of rain ; and after much wet, of fair weather.

3050. I have hitherto considered only when the green is large and bright, it a single drop of rain, and as it moves indicates rain ; and when the red is the

rapidly, the image from it can only last strongest colour, both wind and rain are for a moment; but if a great number of indicated . If the bow break up at once, drops fall in succession in the same direc- therewill follow serene and settled weather.

tion, each of them will produce an image When the bowis seen in the morning, rain in the same place, and the sensation pro- will follow ; if at noon, settled and heavy duced by the colours will remain perma- rain ; and at night, fair weather. The nent. It is evident that, as the various appearance of two or three rainbows indi

colours subtend different angles with the cates fair weather for the present, but eye, only one person can see the same

settled and heavy rain in two or three

rainbow .

days after.

3051. When the sun is in the horizon, 3054. The appearanceof twilight, de the bow appears a semicircle, with an pending on the state of the sky, foretells apparent diameter of 41 °.

When the sun

to a certain extent the weather of the

is 41 ° above the horizon, the apex of the bow will be a tangent to the plane of the horizon. If the sun is still higher, the bow will be seen projected on the ground,

following day. When the sky is blue, and after sunset the western region is covered with a slight purple tint, we may be sure that the weather will be fair,

and the colours will be very pale. When especially if the horizon seem covered the sun attains the height of 52°, a rain- with a slight smoke. After rain , isolated bow cannot be formed at noon in summer .

clouds, coloured red and well illuminated,

When the bead is elevated above the

announce the return of fair weather.

A

plane of the sun, as on a mountain, a twilight of a whitish yellow, especially

larger portion of the arc is seen than the when it extends to a distance in the sky, semicircle, in proportion to the height of is not a sign of fair weather for the fol the mountain, from whence may be seen the lowing day. We may expect showers circle complete. When the head is ele- when the sun is of a brilliant white, and

vated above the cloud, a red circle will be sets in the midst of a white light, which

seen projected upon it, the rays of the sun scarcely permits us to distinguish it. The from which will subtend an angle with the prognostication is still worse when light eye of 42° 23', and the apparent diameter cirri, that give the sky a dull appearance, of the circle will also be 42° 23'.

appear deeper near the horizon ; and when the twilight is of a grayish red , in the

3052. When a vividly coloured rainbow midst of which are seen portions of a deep is projected on a dark cloud, the sky is red that pass into gray, and scarcely permit much darker above than below the bow , the sun to be distinguished. In this case, which difference is the more striking when vesicular vapour is very abundant, and we the sun is low. This is a phenomenon may calculate on wind and approaching opposite to that connected with halos. If rain . we follow the course of the sun's rays in a

3055. The signs drawn from daybreak are somewbat different. When it is very formed do not send us the rays reflected red, we may expect rain ; whilst a gray

rain drop, we shall see that the drops situ-

ated above that in which the bow is

* Kaemtz’ Complete Course of Meteorology, p. 440-4.

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS .

21

The

or slightly connected , lying at rest or

reason of the difference between a gray dawn and a gray twilight is, because in the evening the colour mainly depends on cirri, in the morning on a stratus, which

gently floating along, sereneweathermay be confidently expected. A change of this settled state is presaged by the wind sud denly rising, by close continuous cirro

morning announces fair weather.

scon yields to the rising snn ; whilst the strati gathering into an unbroken gloom,

cirri become thicker during the night. If and by that variety (of cirrus) known as at sunrise there is enough of vapours for the goat's-hair or gray-mare's-tail. Some the sun to appear red, it is then very pro- times a few fleecy clouds skim rapidly be bable that, in the course of the day,the tween the superincumbent vapour and the

ascending current will determinethe for- snow earth'sorsurface, and are the forerunners of rain," (the scud ). “Should the

mation of a thick stratum of clouds.*

cirri not pass away with the immediate

3056. According to the opinion of Dr fall, but extend towards the horizon, and Kirwan, after forty -one years' observa- present their troubled edges towards the tions, it would appear that a dry summer zenith, there will be stormy weather for was followed by a dry autumn 5 times ; some time. When a modification of the

by a wet one, 5 times ; and a variable one, 12 times. A variable summer was followed by a dry autumn only once ; a wet one, 3 times ; and a variable one, 12

cirro -stratus is formed to leeward, thick in the middle,and wasting at both ends, with its side to the wind like a ship lying to, it indicates continued wind. After à clear

times.

frost, we sometimes see long whitish coloured streaks of cirrus, (cirro- stratus,

3057. After a dry summer, the proba- whose two extremities seemingly approach

bility of adry autumn occurring, is as 5 to each other as they recede from the zenith. 16 ; a wet one, as 5 to 16 ; and a variable This appearance is vulgarly called Noah's one as 6 to 16. After a wet summer, the ark ; and if it point from S.W. to N.E., we

probability of a dry autumn is as1 to 5 ; expect a thaw from S.W. Small blackish à wet one as 3 to 5 ; and a variable one as boat-shaped clouds rising in the W., and moving sideways, indicate a thaw , with little or no rain. A short glare of red in 3058. In the beginning of any year, the the E., about sun-rising, portends a rainy

1 to 5.

and windy day. When the sky shines probability of a dry summer is as 16 toa from the watery exhalations around the 41 ; of a wet one , 20 to 41 ; and of cariable one as 5 to 41 .

mid -day sun,rain or snow will soon follow ;

when it has a green appearance to the E. 3059. It may prove useful to such of or N.E. , frost and snow. A crimson red

you as may engage in pastoral farming, to in the W., after sunset, indicates fair

know the prognostications observed in weather ; a purple red indicates sleet. pastoral countries; and I cannot do this Atmospheric changes are more likely to better than in the words of the Rev. Dr happen a few days after new and full moon

Russell, minister of Yarrow . Itmay be noticed that some of the prognostics have already been enumerated ; but the concurrent testimony of certain prognostics, in

than in the quarters. The point when she changesseems to bave little influence; if in the N.W. or N.W. by W., it is often

succeeded by boisterous weather. When

high and low parts of countries, serve to her horns are sharp and well-defined, we confirm the more strongly the proba- look for frost; when she is wbitish and bility of their truth. " When there is a not very clear, for rain or snow. If the copious deposit of dew ," observes Dr new moon seems to embrace the old, very

Russell, “ and it remains long on the stormy weather is likely to follow . grass — when the fog in the valleys is slowly dissipated by the sun's heat, and lingers on the hills — when the clouds apparently take a higher station, and especially when a few cirro -strati appear loose

Halos are seen only when the cirro -strati are slightly but equally diffused over the sky ; the sun or moon seems to wander tbrough the storm ,' which is at no great distance . One side of the halo is often

* Kaemtz' Complete Course

Meteorology, p. 413.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

22

open or imperfectly formed , owing to the keenly, when flies keepnear the ground,

denseness of the vapour, and points to the ( shownby swallows, which feed upon the quarter from which the storm is approach- wing, flying low,) we look for wind and Aurora borealis is most rain . But the most wonderful instance of

ing.

likely to appearin changeableweather, atmospherical changes is upon those crea and is often followed by a S.W. wind. tures that burrow in the ground. The From the appearance of falling stars, it earth -worm appearing in abundance indi may be inferred that the equilibrium of cates rain .

the atmosphere, held probably by the agency of electricity, is destroyed. They generally forbode wind , and when many of them are seen, they are faithful though silent monitors, warning us to prepare, with the earliest dawn, for the coming

In like manner, the mole

seems to feel its approach, as, a day or two before, he raises more hillocks than usual; and when, after a long severe frost, he begins again to work, it will soon be come fresh . The effects of electricity are

well known both on the atmosphere and

storm . There is often much lightning in on animals ; and the deposition of aqueous

the night, both with and without clouds, vapours, with the relaxing damp near the

which announces unsettled weather, espe- surface of the earth, whichin certain states takes place, may give rise to this increased When the wind shifts to the west, after activity.” * rain from S. or S.W., it generally_fairs up, or there are but a few showers. Frost and 3060. The strong and refreshing smell

cially if it be whitish in colour.

snow from S.W. are forerunners of bad

which is felt sometimes when showers

weather. If the wind turn suddenly from first fall, after along drought in summer, S.W. or S. to N.N.E. , while this is accom- is not an invariable attendant on them,

panied with a smell resembling that of coal even under the circumstances which seem smoke, a severe storm will follow . to indicate a strong positive electricity, The lower animals, but such especially as such as the rising of the barometer in rain. are in a state of nature, or exposed in the The highly electrified water of summer open fields, are very susceptible of atmo- thunder-storms produces this smell the

spheric changes. Sheep eat greedily before strongest ; and it is weakest with the cold, a storm , and sparingly before a thaw. and perhaps even electric rain, which

When they leave the high parts of their sometimes falls after the condensation of a range - when they bleat much in the even- spreadingsheetof cirro -stratusinto nimbus, ing or during the night, we may expect with a cold atmosphere.

severe weather. Goats seek a place of 3061. I think every one, besides per themselves better than ordinary, before a sonsof a nervons temperament, have felt

shelter, while swine carry litter, and cover

Wind is foretold by the cat the truth of the following observations of scratching a post or wall — and a thaw , Mr Forster, on the effects of certain states

storm.

when she washes her face, orwhen frogs of the atmosphere on the hair of the head : “ In people of what are called nervous come from their winter concealment. The

gathering of grouse into large flocks, the and susceptible constitutions,” he says, “ I diving of sparrows in dry dust, the flutter- have freqnently noticed a remarkable va ing of wild -ducks as they flap their wings, the dismal lengthened howl of sea -gulls in an inland place or around lakes, the mournful note of the curlew , the shrill whew of the plover, the whet-whet-whet of the chaffinch perched upon a tree, the crowing of the cock at unusual times — all

riety in the appearance of the hairs on the head : they have appeared at times dimi nisbed in quantity ;at others, superabun dant. I have examined them carefully in each of their states, and found their appa rent diminution to consist in the shafts themselves becoming smaller, drier, losing

prognosticate rain or snow. When the their tension, and lying in closer contact.

fieldfare, redwing, starling, swan , snow- I was once inclined to attribute their fleck, and other birds of passage, arrive closer contact to a diminution of their soon from the north, it indicates an early electricity, by which they would become and severe winter.

When gnats bite mutually repulsive: this, however, does

X

New Statistical Account of Scotland - Yarrow , Selkirkshire, p. 31-4.

23

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.

not seem sufficient to account for their decrease in size. The shaft may possibly be

organised throughout, and itsenlargement may be caused by an increased action of its vessels ; there may also be an aëriform perspiration into its cavity, on an increase of which it may be more distended ; and the increased size and tension of the shaft may result from the co -operation of these two causes. The increased size, strength, and tension of the hair, appear to accom-

Tension of vapour for 59°:9 = 26.83. Mean fall of rain in England in May, 1.37 inches . 2.71 1.66

June,

July , Mean of summer ,

Prevailing winds in England in E. to N.

May , June, July, .

pany health, while theopposite state seems to be connected with disorder. The sym

1.91

W by N. to N.E. W. by S. to E.

Number of storms in the west of Europe in summer is 52:5 in 100.

pathies between the skinand stomach have Number in England in summer been frequently adverted to by physiolo- is 3 in 100.of hail -storms gists: the skin has been found to be alter Aurora borealis observed in

nately dry and hot,moist and hot, dry and

May ,

cold , moist and cold ; and these varieties

June,

have been attributed to varieties in the

July,

state of the stomach, between which and

184 times. 65 87

Number of fire -balls seen in

the skin a very direct sympathy is be-

May,

lieved to exist."

June,

46 20

July,

47

3062. Variety of states in the hair of The least number of fire - balls occurs in

animals is frequently observed in all June, and doubtless the length of the days classes of the domesticated animals ; and in summer allows a great many of bese the difference is invariably ascribed either meteors to pass unperceived. to the pleasant or disagreeable state of the 3064. No circumstance shows SO air, orto the functional derangements or

activity of the stomach and bowels. As strongly the inconvenience to farming of the food in pasture is nearly always the same, any change of the condition of the hair of animals in summer on pasture, must be ascribed to the changes observable in the state of the atmosphere ; and from the

arranging spring and summer according to the calendarmonths, than in directing the sowing of the numerous sorts of crops, which must be undertaken at the end of the one and the beginning of the other season .

recognisedsympathy existing between the The sowing goes onprogressively of one skin and the stomach, the changesin the crop afteranother, from the sowing of state of the hairmaysafely be ascribed to beans in February tothat of turnips at the arise from the altered states of the air.

end of June ; and all that period may be regarded as spring, in as far as field ope

3063. Mean of the atmospherical pheno- rations are concerned, and yet the latter

mena occurring in summer is as follows: - date brings us a great way into summer. Mean of the barometer in England in May , 30.03 inches. 29.98 June,

July , Mean of summer,

This being the case, many of the crops may as well be sown at the commence ment of summer as at the end of spring.

30-04

Thus flax may be sown in April as well as May, and kohl-rabi may be begun to

30-05

be sown in March as well as in May, ac cording to the mode of culture followed .

Mean of the thermometer in England in

As regards the crops, therefore, about to

May, June,

54 6 610-3

July,

63 °.8

site to sow them at that season .

590.9

proper time for sowing each crop is speci

Mean of summer

be sown at the commencement of summer,

it must not be deemed an absolute requi The

fically mentioned, irrespective of the place * Forster's Researches about Atmospherical Phenomena , p. 180.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

24

it may happen to occupy in the spring or 3071. The brood mare now brings forth summer season, as we have divided these. her foal, and receives immunity from The real point to attend to is,the order of labour for a time. succession in which the different crops follow each other ; and which they inva-

3072. Hay -making is represented by

riablydo every year. With this explana- poets as a labour accompanied with un tion , the description of the sowing of the alloyed pleasure. Lads and lasses are will be continued .

doubtless then as merry as chirping grass

crops

hoppers; but haymaking is in sober truth

3065. All the root crops are sown just a labour of much heat and toil, the wield now, beginning with kohl-rabi, and ending ing of the hayrake and pitchfork in hot with the turnip. The land for all these is weather, for the live-long day, being no worked , cleaned, drilled, dunged, and child's play. sown .

The culture of the turnip is a most

important and busy occupation , affording 3073. The separation of the lamb from much occupation in singling and hoeing the ewe is now effected, and the marks of the plants the greater part of the sum- age, sex , and ownership are stamped upon the flock .

mer.

3066. The period has now arrived for

3074. The forage -plants on farms in the

disposing of the fat cattle to the butcher or neighbourhood oftowns are now disposed dealer, as they are never put to grass. of to cow - feeders and carters. The fat sheep are also disposed of, except when it is desired to take off their fleece

3075. Butter and cheese are made on

before parting with them, when they are dairy -farms as often as the requisite sup allowed to pasture until the season becomes ply of milk will warrant. warm enough for them to be shorn . 3076. Summer, of all the seasons, is the 3067. Before any of the stock is put on most appropriate for the farmer to make

grass, it is the duty of the hedger tomend seriousattacks upon weeds, those spoilers every gap in the hedges, and to have the of his fields and contaminators of his

gaps in the stone walls, and the gates of grains. Whether in pasture, on tilled ground, along drills of green crops, amongst the fields in grass put into repair. growing corn, or in hedges, young and

3068. Young cattle, sheep, and cows, old, weeds are daily exterminated ; and are now put on pasture, to remain all the extermination is most effectually ac summer.

Cattle and sheep graze well complished by the minute and painstaking

together, as the former bite the grass high, exertions of female field -workers; for and the latter, following, bite it stilllower. which purpose they are provided with For the same reason , horses and cattle appropriate implements. graze well together. As both horses and

sheep bite low, they are not suitable com3077. This is the season in which all panions on pasture ; and horses, besides, manner of insects attack both crops and

often take delight in annoying sheep, by stock, much to their injury and annoy biting and kicking them . 3069. Sheep-shearing is never

ance,

com

3078. Although yet early, preparations

menced until the weather becomes as warm

are made in summer for the next year's

as not to chill the sheep, after the priva- crop. The fallow land is worked , cleaned, and manured , and perhaps also limed, to

tion of their coats of wool.

be in readiness for the wheat seed in

3070. Horses now live entirely another autumn.

sort of life, being transferred from the thraldom of the stall- collar in the stable

3079. The top -dressingofgrowingcrops,

to the perfect liberty of the pasture-field, with specific manures, isa recent introduc and none of the animals enjoy themselves tion into farming. The subject is not yet there more heartily . matured, from want of sufficient experience

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.

25

in the peculiar action of each specific, but per at the same time. When field -workers enough is already known of that to en- labour in connexion with the teams, they courage the farmer to employ them, in the must conform with their hours of labour. fitteststate of the weather and the crops.

3082. The long hours of a summer day, 3080. The hours devoted to field -work of which at least ten are spent in the fields in summer vary in different parts of the the ordinary high temperature of the air, country. On the Borders it is the practice which suffuses the body of the country

to go as early as 4 o'clock in the morning labourer in constant perspiration and the to the yoke, and the forenoon's work is fatiguing nature of allfield-work in sum over by 9, and time is given for rest in the heat of the day. The afternoon's yoking commences at 1 o'clock, and continues till 6. Thus 10 hours are spent in the fields. But in other parts of the country,the morning yokingdoes not commence till 6 o'clock, and, on terminating at 11, only two hours

mer, bear hard as well on the mental as the physical energies, and cause him to seek rest at a comparatively early hour of the evening. None but those who have experienced the fatigue of working in the fields, in hot weather, for long hours, can sufficiently appreciate the luxury of

are allowed for rest and dinner till 1o'clock, rest — a feeling truthfully expressed in when the afternoon's yoking begins. In these beautiful lines : most places the afternoon yokingdoes not

commence till 2 o'clock, and, finishing at 6, only 9 hours are spent in the fields, or it is continued to 7 o'clock.

In other parts,

only 4 hours are spent in the morning yoking, when the horses are let loose at 10

HAY - MAKING.

235

zontal ropes at their termination are fasten- proved in Dumfriesshire by Mr Little, ed into the gable, or across the pavilion, as Carlesgill, and Mr Miller of Forest ;* but the case may be. The eave is finished by let us see whether the sown grasses also

laying a stout rope horizontally along the of Scotland may not be made into hay line where the roof was begun to be taken by the same process.

Suppose that the in, and twisting it round each perpendicu- mowers start early every morning, there lar rope as it is met with, and then each is nothing but rain to prevent what they perpendicular rope is broken off at such a have mown in the morning to be tedded, length, as to fasten it firmly to the bay and exposed to the sun and wind before immediately under the eave; and then the noon, and put into small cocks before projecting ends of the thatch over the eave evening ; and notwithstanding the preju arecut straight along the stack, to give dice against the tedding-machine inScot the eave a neat finish. Another mode of land, nothing else than rain can prevent it

roping the thatch, is to place one set of tedding the mown sown grasses, as well as ropes in a sloping direction down the head the mown natural grasses, if the former of the stack, and another set sloping across are not purposely raised for seed instead

these, the effect of which is lozenge-shaped, of good hay - for the tedding-machine and looks well ; but roping in this fashion will most assuredly not allow the seeds to requires the thatcher to place all the straw be retained in the plants. The object, upon the roof before he guides the ropes however, being to make good hay, that

across its ridge, in doing which he must machine, fig. 342, will certainly ted in a stand upon the ridge and step backwards much superior manner every sort of mown upon it - a plan which allows the wind the grasses. But where no tedding machine is, liberty to blow off the thatch before it is the grass must be tedded with forks ; and

roped at all, and to injure the ridge by where there is not a sufficient number of trampling, and the ropes cannot be twisted forks, the shafts of the hand-rakes must round each other without tramping on the be used, as such, in the inverted order. thatch . The tedding consists in tossing and sepa rating the swathes into as minute a divi

4050. Hay is sometimes built in round sion as practicable, to expose the grass stacks, which are kept of a cylindrical thoroughly to the air and sun. form , 15 feet in diameter for 7 or 8 feet

4052. The tedded grass is gathered for from the ground, and then terminated in a tapering conical top, and thatched. Such the purpose of being put into small ricks stacks contain from 300 to 500 stones of in the following manner :-- The

grass is

hay. This form of stack is convenient, cleared from two ridges c d and dk on to when the hay-house contains the whole of the third l, fig. 347, on both sides of the it, but when it is bisected perpendicularly, third ridge, so that the cocks are raised on the remaining half is apt to be blown over every fifth ridge. On clearing the two by the wind ; or should the upper balf be ridges, two workers are appointed to each brought into the hay- house, theunder part ridge, having the ridge on which the cocks must be protected by a quantity of straw are to be made on the right hand, to suit kept down by heavy articles, and such right- handed workers. A man a, clears the

expedients are seldom done with sufficient grass with a fork from the farthest open care to keep out rain and resist wind. The furrow p, to the crown of the farthest ridge oblong form is most convenient for use, and most safe: and a section of such a breadth as cut from top to bottom will just fill the hay-house ( 3086.)

of the two, and a field -worker b follows him , and rakes the half ofthe ridge clean that he has just cleared . A second man, e, follows the field -worker b with a fork, and tosses

the gathered grass from the crown of this to 4051. The above may be regarded as the the open furrow of the nearest ridge of the

English mode of making the natural grasses two, and the second field -worker, f, follows into hay, and that there is nothing in the him and rakes clean the half ridge he has process but what may be followed in Scot- cleared. On the second or nearest ridge, land with the same sort of grasses, has been a third man, g, forks the accumulating * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv . p. 750 and 760.

236

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

swathe from the open furrow to the crown, ridge, inasmuch as he has to move the his labour being greater than that of the entire grass they had brought from it along men who have preceded him on the first with what he finds upon the first half of Fig. 347.

m u

h

k

PUTTING THE SWATHES OF THE SOWN GRASSES INTO WINROWS.

the second ridge. A third field -worker, and mixed with that of the other ridges. h, follows hiin with a rake, and cleans They then wheel round at the end of the the half ridge from the furrow to the ridges to clear other two ridges o, beyond crown .

And last of all, a fourth man, in the third one, of their grass in precisely the

forks the grass from the crownof this over same manner, on to the same ridge they had the open furrow of the third ridge ; and a accumulated the grass of the former two

fourth field -worker, k , cleans this last half ridge with the rake; and of them all, the last man, i, is the hardest worked , the rakers throughout having the same degree and extent of labour. Thus, 8 labourers, consisting of 4 men with forks, and 4 women with rakes, are required to clear two ridges ofgrass, and thelength of

ridges, and which centreridge m n then con tains the grass of 5 ridges. A difference in the arrangement of the workerstakes place on the second set of ridges, the forker who

took the lead in the former ridges, and had the lightest share of the work, now becomes the last forker, and takes the heaviestpart of it, and he who had the heaviest then

ridge cleared by them is just the breadth now takes the lead. To prevent confu of 4 swathes of grass, which is more or sion in changing the ridges, the same

less heavy according to the weight of the raker always follows the same forker, so

crop ; and as mowersusually cut a breadth of 6 feet at each stroke of the scythe, and each breadth constitutes a swathe, the space cleared by the 8 workers is 24 feet

thatthe band consists of 4 pairs, each consisting of a forker and raker. Women are quite as able to fork as to rake, but where their number is insufficient, men

by 30 feet, the breadth of two ridges, or 18 take the forks and women the rakes, poles. In this way the band clears two as women use the rake better than men .

ridges at a time, till they reach their end, When only a band of 4 workers can be

the grass on the headridge being cleared spared to make hay, consisting of two

HAY -MAKING .

237

forkers and two rakers, they must go up above one another on theground, and as one ridge and down thenext, to clear the much being put together in a heap as can two ridges on each side of the third one, but be conveniently lifted at once, the fork is a smaller band than four workers makes firmly transfixed into one side of the heap,

hay -making a dilatory process, and expen- which, on being lifted up , is quickly turned sive in proportion to the number employed. on the fork in a reversed position above your head, and planted witha stroke upon

4053. The grass collected on the middle the top ofthe cock, when the fork is drawn or third ridge, is called the winrow , and gently from under it, and a slight tap and the first cocks made of it are small, and dress into form with the fork on the outside are calledgrass-cocks. They are put to- makes the rick neat and firm . The ridge is gether either with the fork or the arms, raked clean , as the hand -cocks are erected . with narrow bottoms, and high in propor

tion to their breadth, and not exceeding,

4056. The next morning, the third, the

perhaps, 2 feet in height. As there will grass cut yesterday afternoon is tedded , not be room on the ridge, at this time, to and as much tedded in the afternoon of the

put such small cocks in a row , they are grass cut early in thesamemorning, as can put up anywhere, not to crowd upon each be put into grass- cocks before the evening. other, and to afford room for the rakes to This is an easy day's work, and reserves

clear the ground around them ; and it is strength for the greater labour of the next considered slovenly work in a bay -fieldtoday, towhich allthe field -workers, labour neglect clearing the ground with the rakeers, and ploughmen, should be collected. which had been cleared of its grass by the 4057. Should the next morning prove fork . The raking at this time will not occupy more than one or two workers, and rainy, let the whole field remain as it is,

the rest are employed assisting the forkers and let the mowers also cease their work. to put up the cocks. The field is left for If fine, toss over first the grass -cocks to the night in this state.

the sun and air, then tedd the small quan

tity of grass that was mown after the ted

4054. In Ireland the grass first mown ding of the previous afternoon, and, last is dexterously wrapped together with the of all, scatter the hand- cocksof last even hands and one foot into lap - cocks, which ing, which, by this time, will have sub

seem like bundles of green cloth turned sided considerably. Doing all this will upon their mouths, and which fend off occupy, if not the whole, the greater part of the forenoon ; but no more of those re spective processes should be undertaken

much rain .

4055. Next morning the grass-cocks

than the force in the field will put all the

are shaken loosely out on the ridge, for hay into cocks before the evening ; and of exposure to sun and wind ; and after this those processes the tedding of the swathes operation is finished, the grass which was may be dispensed with most safely. The cut in the afternoon of yesterday is tedded. first thing to be done in the afternoon is

In the afternoon the scattered grass-cocks to put two or three of the hand - cocks into grass which one . The bay will now feel light in the was tedded in the forenoon is winrowed band ; and it is surprising how soon it and put into grass -cocks, in the manner wins after this stage, when exposedfully described above. Before the evening, the to sun and air. The usual practice is to

are shaken up, after which the

scattered grass-cocks are put into larger keep hay a long time in the hand-cock, ones, named hand -cocks, which are best from a belief in its safety, whereas, having put together with forks by men . These been put together in a clammy state, it have small bottoms, built tapering to a will soon contract a musty smell ; but if fine top abont 6 feet in height, and placed exposed to the air at this time, it will as in row along the crown of the ridge. soon become excellent hay. The reason The difficult part of making a hand -cock assigned for allowing it to remain so long is the fine form of its top, which should in the cocks, is want of time ; but in truth

also be as heavy as not easily to be blown it is to save the cost. The ricks or colls off by the wind. The top is made in this should be gently tapered to the top, with

manner :-Put small forkfuls of loose hay out a projecting shoulder to catch the rain ,

238

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

and fastened down with a hay -rope, of hay, within the limits of an ordinary twisted on the spot with the corner of a day. rake converted for the nonce into a rope twister or throw - crook, and put across the 4058. Where a horse -rake is kept it is

top of the coll in the direction of the useful in saving a good deal of trouble, by strongest wind to which the locality is entirely dispensing with the raking done snbject, and fastened at both ends to the by the field -workers in following the men hay. After this operation, the scattered with the forks. The men may then be

grass -cocks are put into hand -cocks, how- dispensed with altogether, the women ever small they may be ; for, to allow scattered hayto remain on the ground all night to receive rain , or dew, is the readiest method of rendering it tasteless. The tedded grassis thenwinrowed and made into grass -cocks, which closes the labours of the day. In this manner I have led and assisted

using the forks to toss the hayfrom the two ridges on to the third. After the grass has been winrowed , or while a part of the hay is in the act of being so ,the horse -rake cleans the ground over thefour ridges intervening between the ones con taining the winrows. This is attempted

16 field -workers, all women, to handle to be shown in fig. 348, where the horse upwards of 2000 stones of 22 lb. each rake is seen moving on the four intervening Fig. 348.

THE HAY HORSE - RAKE CLEANING THE INTERVENING RIDGES BETWEEN THE WINROWS.

ridges between those on which the grass has been winrowed. The rows of grass, such as a , left by the rake, are collected by the workers when they put the winrows bando into grass-cocks, and the ground occupied by them is cleaned with the hand -rake. Dispensing with the labour of men, and the

two or three into one, at that end of the field most convenient for carting them away to be stacked. The large ricks thus formed are named tramped pikes, because they are built and tramped, a man building, and his assistant, a field -worker, carrying the hay to him from the fork of the plough

raking imposed on the women ,the horse- man, who is employedwith his borse and rake is a machine well calculated to econo- cart to carry the colls to the builder.

mise the cost of hay -making. Themethod Tramped pikes contain from 100 to 150

of working the rake is described in (4037.)

stones of hay cach, and if the hay is to be disposed of, it is delivered to the purchaser

4059. As the entire produce of the field fronı the pike, who stacks it for himself. is stacked at one time in Scotland, the

The reason that bay is first piked, when it

colls are placed in a state to stand the is all stacked at one time is , that unless it weather for a considerable time, putting is in a state to keep in the stack , it is con

HAY -MAKING .

239

sidered safer from fermentation in the pike. a short ladder against the stack, upon The advantage of stacking bay under cover which a man stands on a step some way

is, that it allows it to be brought from the above the ground, with his back to the field while in the coll, to be slowly stacked,

ladder, where he receives the forkfuls of

and to be won, and the slow mode of stack- bay from the forkers on the ground, and ing may be conducted by the ploughmen raises them above his head to the margin alone, while the field -workersare employed of the stack , where the women are ready

with the culture of the turnip ; and there to take them from him in their arms. An seems no better mode than this of avoiding other mode is for men to carry back -loads

the collision of work which constantly hap- up longer ladders, and empty them upon pens between hay-making and turnip cul- the stack . A third method is to erect a ture. The rick-cloth is as available in the scaffolding of planks upon a couple of stacking of hay made from sown grasses tresses of6 feetor more in height, and to

as from natural ones, and, being so, there fork the hay off the scaffolding to the should be no hesitation in adopting it, and stack as it is forked to it from the save the trouble and expense of piking, and ground. Of the three modes,the scaffold the deterioration of the hay by bleaching ing affords the most secure footing to the upon the long exposed surface of the colls. men at an elevation from the ground, and in the end is the most expeditious ; and

4060. A large oblong hay -stack is built in either mode four men will be fully in this manner :-A dry stance should be employed in supplying hay to two chosen, for a damp one will cause the de- builders. The hay is preferred to be

struction of several stones of hay at the forked off the ground instead of the cart, bottom of the stack.

It should be raised

because it does not detain the horses in the

one foot above the ground with large stones inscribing the circumference of the space to be occupied by the stack, and the interior filled up with stone shivers or gravel beaten firmly down. A stance when made

yoke. The hay being thrown down upon the ground, the cart should be constructed to tilt up, like fig. 175 ; and it is thrown off

a whole-bodied cart by sticking forks un der the load along one side of the cart, and

should be of considerable length, the pushing upwards towards the other side, a breadth being 15 feet, and no harm ac- person holding by the nearest wheel to pre crnes although thestack in any year does vent the cart upsetting. The load should not occupy the entire length. be thrown over from the spot upon which the men stand to fork , because the hay

4061. Upon such a stance the stack is then easily comes away with the fork, each built by two men, who are supplied with stratum , as it was built on the cart, lying armfuls of bay by a number of field- with its face towards the men ; whereas,

workers, whose duty is not merely to in a loadthrown towards the forkers,the strata crop out against them, and every body of the stack, and tramp it under foot forkful must be pulled away by main force.

carry the hay, but to scatter it over the

regularly from one end of it to the other. In building the body of the stack, its Each of the two men occupies his own breadth need not be increased, as the pres side of the stack, and they shake and build sure of the top will cause the breadth at the

up what is called a dace of the hay before eave to be sufficient to throw off the drop them as high as their breast, from side to from the stem. After the body of the side, and from each end of the stack to its stack has attained 14 feet in height, the centre.

each

After the centre

reached from

heading is commenced bygraduallytaking

end, the women walk upon it, in the breadth on each side to theridging,

trampling it, holding by one another's which is elevated a foot below the square, hands in a row. after subsidence, ( 4045,) and the ends are built perpendicular. The two builders and

4062. The hay is forked at first from one woman will only find room at the the ground by two or three men, and when finishing of the ridging of the stack . A few the stack has attained an inconvenient straw ropes are thrown over the ridging to height for the forkers, there are several prevent the wind blowing it off. The stack modes by which the hay may be taken to is left for several days to subside, which a greater height ; one of which is, placing it will do to the extent of two feet.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

240

4063. A height of 12 feet is enough for water meadow is as valuable a resource for good the body of the stack,after subsidence, and hay in winter on a dairy farm , as rich oldpas a width of 15 feet is a convenient one, the turage in summer. 4070. In the vicinity of large towns it is more length being determined by the quantity

of hay to be stacked. One of these di- profitable to dispose of the grassin forage than mensions new built, and 40 feet in length, to make it into hay. The average price may be stated from the tramp-rick at 8d. per stone of will contain about 2000 imperial stones. 22 lb. I have seen it as low as 4d. and as high as 18. 4d. per stone ; but when the price is high,

4064. Very probably heat may be in the crop is deficient, and the quality bad. The dicated in some part of the stack a few

heaviestcrop of 300 stones at 8d. yields £ 10 the

days after heating it isbuilt, by a leaning towards acre,but220stones is nearertheaverage he that part, causing consolidation of duce; but grass lets forcutting£12 or without £ 14tpro Edinburgh, neighbourhood of acre in the trouble the hay. Propsplaced against theplace incurring any to the farmer . will prevent the stack subsiding much far ther ,and a rake pushed in here and there

4071. As to farms of mixed husbandry, I have

into the stack, to the length of their shafts, often thoughtit a lossto thefarmer to make his will indicate whether the heating is pro grass into hay. The grass would pay better to soiled, and the land would be retained in bet ceeding upwards and to a dangerous extent. be ter heart. I am sure if half the labour were be

A gentle heating will do no harm , but stowed in winter, in cooking food for horses and rather good, by rendering the hay uniform cows as in making hay, even in the slovenly manner it is usually done, it would better ferti in quality. lise the land . 4065. Salt has been recommended to be 4072. A crop of hay varies from 150 to 300 used amongst artificial hay ; and when hay stones per acre, according to the season and the

is in a damp state, in consequence of bad

nature of the soil. On light gravelly soils the

weather, salt isan excellent remedy against crop is of the former number,and its quality is

mouldiness. It is sown by hand by the the generally fine; and on good clay it is usually latter, and the plants large and strong, the builders upon every dace as it is tramped down. The quantity used must be according to the state of the hay, but as that has never been correctly ascertained, it must be left to your own judgment. Perhaps a quarterof a bushel to the ton is a large enough allowance. Salted hay is much relished by all kinds of stock.

clover predominating. For producing quantity and quality of hay combined,a deep mellow clay

loam maybe regarded as the best texture of soil. On thin clay, and on thin light soil resting on retentive clay, the clover is frequently thrown out

byfrost inspring ,and the haythen consists chiefly ofrye-grass, and on the same soils a similar effect is produced by severe drought in May, ( 3094 and 3095.) Grass usually loses two-thirds of its weight on being made into hay.

4066. The thatching of a stack of arti 4073. Of the two methods of making hay, it ficial hay is the same as that of one of is generally admitted that the English affords natural grasses, (4049.) the best hay ; and one of its chiefest recommen dations is, the quickness with which all parts of 4067. Hay is made on carse farms of the sown

the process is conducted. If we attend to the

grasses, partly to supply food for the horses in changes effected in the grasses after they are spring, but chiefly to dispose of to the innkeepers

hay is mown, we shall see that the quicker Whe gre

made the better it will be.

in towns.

4068. On pastoral farms much less hay is made than should be.

If more means were used to

make it, the stock would withstand the severities of winter with less loss and in higher condition

#

n

en

grass or clover approaching to maturity is first cut down,” observes Professor Johnston, “ it contains a considerable proportion of starch, sugar, and gum , still unchanged into woody fibre, as it would mostly be were the plant allowed to

than they do. It is not possible to have much become fully ripe." But even when succulent hay of the sown grasses in a hill country, but grass is “ left to dry in the open air, the circu water-meadows might be formed in many situations where they are neglected. (1041.)

lation proceeds to a certain exent, and, under the influence of light, woody fibre continues to be

4069. The success of dairy farms depends much on the stock of hay they can command in the winter, and the larger the quantity of it from natural grasses is made any year, the greater success will the dairy have. A large

becomes completely dry.” And “ it may even

formed in the upper part of each stem , until it be a matter of doubt whether the process of

after the hay has change does not often proceedstacked These .” been carried off the field and

facts tend to prove that the longer grass is

* Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society for October 1843, p. 59.

HAY -MAKING .

allowed to stand after the plant has attained its full stature , the less digestible and nutritious the hay becomes ; and the longer the process of making the grass into hay is delayed , the more woody and less nutritious the hay will be. Every quick process of converting grass into hay is, therefore , better than any slow one.

241

If covered with “ double slate , " instead of boards, the cost would be, £ 25 10 103 .

Ifwould with " second" Lancashire slate, the cost be ,

31 15 10

Exclusive of sinking the posts, the value of the coal-tar, and the cost of putting it on.

To save warping, the boarding is fastened with T-headed nails driven in the joinings, the

cross-head of the nails overlapping the boards

4074. A very quick mode of making hay is inch,which allows for their expansion and con practised in Saxony; and it is this :-The grass that has been cut down during the day is put into large cocks late in the afternoon. A strong

traction. Parallel to the joinings, and inch from it, a groove of finch deep is cut along the upper surface of each plank to form a channel for rain.

fermentation soon ensues, which continues all

Cost of thatching a 9 - fathom rick with sprits and coarse grass is : Mowing thatch -- drawing it in bundles

night until the morning, when the work -people return to the field , by which time the cocks have

contracted very much inbulk , and the steam rises briskly from them. They are then scattered upon the ground, and allowed to remain all day exposed to the sun and air, and by the afternoon

carting - and laying it on , . Ropes making and putting on , Material for thatch and ropes ,

£0 4 11 0 0

1 10 5 0

£0 11 9*

the grass has become so dry and won into hay The building of the stack is the same in every as to be fit to be stacked, for which purpose it is case , and these items of thecost of materials, when gathered from the ground and carried home. they are used , should ,I think, be left out,as the The new -mown grass of the day is put into large cocks in the evening, and treated the next day in a similar manner. This mode of hay-making might be followed in this country, provided we could trust our climate, as the Saxons do theirs ; but here the next morning may prove

manure afforded by them will repay their cost.

rainy or even damp, and the fermented contents of the cocks would inevitably be rotted.

the mean height; then multiply the mean height by the breadth, and multiply their products by the length. Divide the gross product by 27, and the dividend will give the number of cubic yards

4075. The use of rick -cloths undoubtedly expedites the making of hay, and in the variable climate of Britain they ought to be much more

4076. The rule for ascertaining the number of stones of hay in oblong stacks, is simple :-To the height from the ground to the eaves add one half ofthe height of the top above the eaves, for

in the stack , and that number of yards, multiplied by the number of stones of hay in a cubic yard,

generally used than they are; but where timber

will give the weight of the stack in stones impe

is cheap, a permanent shed might be erected in

rial.

the stack -yard for containing the hay stack, under the cover of which it could require no

stones of hay in a cubic yard , as they must vary according to the compressed state of the hay in

thatching. In pastoral, as well as dairy farms,

the stack, the age and size and part from which

such an accommodation would be highly useful.

the hay is taken determining the degree of com

Mr James Little, Carlesgill, Dumfriesshire, has given an estimate of what a shed for that purpose

pression, which varies as much as from 5 to 9

might cost, of 45 feet in length , 16 feet in width ,

mark in a new stack , 7 stones in one which has

and 12 feet in height, inside measure.

These

dimensions contain 7800 cubic feet, or 290 cubic yards, which , at 7 imperial stones the yard, is capable of containing 2030 stones imperial of hay, or 1292 stones of hay weight of 22 lb. to the

stone. The shed consists of the following parti. culars , and their cost : 14 posts 5 feet each , - 70 feet, at ls . 3d . per foot, of larch trees 9 inches in diameter, £4 7 6 90 feet of wall -plate, 9 inches wide, and 24 inches

0 18 31

thick, - 67 cubic feet, at 31d . per foot ,

3634 feet of 21 inch planking for roof at 3. per foot , 1312 feet of 4 inch boarding for covering the planking, at 1 d. per foot, Nails,

Carpenters' labour for putting up the shed, Levelling, sinking, and charring posts, 28 gallons coal-tar, at 4d . per gallon , Putting ditto on the roof 2 days, at 28. per day, This is exclusive of carriage from the wood

4 18

58

8 4 1 0 2 10 0 16 0 9 0 4

0 0 0 8 4 0

to the saw -mill , and thence to the stead ing

£ 23 8 3

It is not easy to state the exact number of

stones ; but perhaps 6 stones may be near the stood for some months, and 8 stones in one a year or two old .

4077. The contents of a round stack with a

conical top is more difficult to measure , but it may be ascertained in this way :- Take the height of the round part fromthe ground to the eaves, and add to it one -third of the perpendi cular height of the conical top above the eaves, for the mean height of the stack. Take then the mean girth , which, if the stack is wider at the eaves than at the ground, is ascertained by tak ing the girth at the eaves, and also at the ground, and dividing their sum by two. Square the mean girth, and multiply the product by the decimal .0795, which will give the area of the base of the stack . Then multiply this area by

the mean height, which will give the contents of the stack in cubic feet, divide the contents by

27 , which will reduce them to cubic yards, and multiply these by the number of stones in the

yard, according to either of the above supposi

* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv. p. 758-60. VOL. II.

242

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

tions, and the capacity of the stack will be found for mowing, than that the whole crop should be injured bystanding too long for the sake of the seed ; and even the part which is to afford the

in imperial stones.

4078. To know the contents of a conical rick seed should not be allowed to stand until the or coll, take the girth at the ground in feet, find seed is ripe, because rye-grass seed is very easily the area of the circle by the above method, and shaken from its stalk . As it is mown, it should multiply the area by one -third of the height. be tied in sheaves with thumb-made straw -ropes The contents thus found in feet reduce to yards, and set in stooks for a few days to win. After and then multiply by the number of stones in a that the sheaves are built inhand -cocks, and, cubic yard. But the simplest plan, in all such when these are ready, they are either taken to the cases, is to use any of the tables published for stack -yard to be threshed by the threshing-ma

the purpose of saving tedious calculations, such

chine, or are threshed on the ground .

as those of Ainslie or Strachan, the latter, how ever, are not sufficiently extended to comprehend

using the threshingmachine for this purpose, it is troublesome to clean it, so I think the better plan is to thresh the crop in the field

stacks of the largest dimensions. 4079. When seed is desired to be obtained

In

with the flail. This may be done, it is true, in the stack -yard, but it gets quit of the business

from rye-grass, it is better for the hay, as well as most quickly when done in the field ; and in any for the land, that four acres of the part of the way, a favourable day as to weather should be crop where rye-grass most abounds should be al- chosen for the operation. Fig. 349 represents lowed to remain a while until the seed is ready the particulars of the operation in a graphic Fig. 349.

P

m a

2

THE THRESHING OF RYE- GRASS SEED IN THE FIELD,

picture.

An outside door answers well for the

with a fork, with the seed end towards herself.

threshing -floor; and it is set upon two cushions Two men, d and e, one on each side of the floor, of hay, which afford sufficient elasticity to the use the flail. Another field -worker, f, at the stroke of the flail. A field - gate is placed junction of the floor and field -gate, pulls the lengthways in continuation of the door, and the threshed hay with a long fork towards herself

large barn-sheet (1740) is spread under the

upon the field -gate, over which she shakes and

gate to receive the seed.

tosses it, and another field -worker, g, removes it

The hand -cocks

containing the sheaves, are brought to the with a fork from the gate to the ground h. The threshing -floor by a horse a, which is yoked by threshers occasionally clear the door of seed with the haims by means of a cart-rope passing

their flails upon the gate, through the spars of

round the base of the cock. When the horse

which it collects on the barn -sheet below . When

pulls, the cock slides upon the ground to its the spars are filled up with seed, it is carried to place of destination. A field -worker, b, rakes the rick stands clean, while another , c, loosens the sheaves, and pitches them upon the floor

one side at l, and riddled by a field -worker k, upon a sheet, preparatory to its being put into sacks m, to be carried to the corn -barnand win

i

243

HAY -MAKING . nowed. The threshed hay h, is forked by a man

the end of the hand -staff, another and a stronger

to a field -worker, i, upon the rick , which she is

thong is passed several turns and secured , form ing thus a kind of loose swing- joint that allows free action to the beater in its gyration round Fig. 350.

in the act of building of the form of the others on ; p is a ladder to come down from the rick, and r is a spare rake ; the basket at s indicates that a drink of beer is now acceptable to the

workers. Thus, if one part of this busy band of workers supplies the other with sufficient ma terials, the work goes on pleasantly and without collision .

The seed will more quickly part with

its impurities in the winnowing, after it has lain to dry and win on the barn -floor for some days. After it is winnowed , it should be stored in the

granary to win. When sufficiently dry, it should be winnowed in the granary, heaped -measured , and laid thicker together ; and in spring, it

should again be winnowed , and freed from the many fresh impurities which will have found their way into it during the winter, such as cats' and vermin's dung, cobwebs from the roof, and dust. Whatever proportion of the seed is not re quired for the use ofthe farm may be disposed of to a seed -merchant or farmer. A fair crop of rye

grass, even when not too much ripened, should yield about 26 bushels of seed to the imperial acre, when thus treated . 4080. The flail consists of two parts, the hand staff or helve a b, fig. 350, and the supple or

beaterb c. The firstis a light rod of ash about 5 feet in length , slightly increased in breadth at the lower extremity, where it is perforated for the passage of the thongs that bind the beater to it. The beater is a rod of from 30 to 36

inches in length, frequently also made of ash, though a more compact wood, such as thorn, is better adapted for it. If not properly applied, the ash beater will very soon separate into thin

plates, which are portions of the concentric layers of the wood, and their separation arises from the beater falling upon the flat or convex

side of these annular layers - or the reed of the wood, as commonly called. To prevent this dis integration of the wood, the beater should be constructed to fall upon the edge of the segmental portions of the reed ,which is easily accomplished in its formation . The usual form of the beater is

THE HAND FLAIL .

cylindrical, but frequently thickened a little towards the extreme end, the diameter being from

the head of the thresher, and its descents upon

11 to 14 inch . For the most part it is attached to the hand -staff by a strap of leather, or more

the beater isby applying a strap of iron in place

the threshing -floor. Another mode of mounting of leather, which is fixed to the wood by rivetting,

frequently of hide untanned; when mounted in leaving a loop as before, which must be nicely this manner, the beater is formed with two pro-

rounded and smooth, to prevent the too rapid

jecting ears, standing at right angles to the side chafing of the thong by which it is bound to the

hand-staff, in the samemanner as described above. on which it is intended to fall, and about 1} The figure here descried exhibits the iron strap.

inch from the end, by which it is attached, serving the purpose of retaining the end of the beater within the strap. The strap is about 8 inches

4081. In constructing a flail, a very general

long and 14 inch broad ; it is bent over the practice prevails, which is to have the beater end of the beater, and the tails brought to

club -shaped, or thickest at the furthest extremity

embrace the sides of it beyond the ears. The c, intended , no doubt, to give the better effect to strap being previously perforated with four the blows ; but when we consider the effects

holes in each tail, it is bound by a thong of arising from the manner ofwielding the instru leather laced through the holes and roundthe ment, any additional weight at the extremity neck of the beater ; the upper turn of the lacing seemsmisapplied. The greatest amount of use thong catchingthe ears, prevents the strap from ful effect will be produced by the beater when slipping off. The strap, thus applied, forms a every point in its length strikes the floor with loop standing about 1 inch beyond the end of the an equal amount of momentum or force ; but beater ; and through that, and the perforation in there will be a constant tendency to a larger

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

244

amount of momentum at the extremity c than at

pared to those I have referred to ; and, in using

any other point, and a club -shaped beater will always augment this tendency - for the greater velocity ofthe extreme end, during the gyration of the instrument, multiplied by its greater weight, must give an undue preponderance of effect to that part of the beater, thereby lessen ing the general effect upon the work under performance. The opposite mode, which is also practised, to make the beater thinner towards the extremity, as exhibited in the figure, is more consonant to the laws of dynamics, and there

them , four or five women range themselves in a

can be no doubt that its practical effects will be

circle on the threshing-floor upon their knees, and beat out the grain from the straw in short sharp strokes, following one another in rapid succession around the circle of threshers. 4083. The flail as a thresher out of grain is still very much in use in England ; but a desire

for threshing machines is now , without doubt, strongly evinced in several counties; and ere long flails will there, as in Scotland already, only be seen in the possession of small farmers, who

equally favourable as compared with those of the have not the means of procuring threshing-ma chines, or have no accommodation for them in

club -shaped beater.

their steadings. 4082. The beater of the flail used in the United States of America revolves in swivel fashion around the end of the staff.

In Holland and

4084. A peculiar form of hay -rake has been introduced into this country from America.

It

is represented in perspective in fig. 351 , and com- lying in the working position. It consists of a Fig. 351.

Belgium the beaters are short, thick, and heavy. In Switzerland flails are diminutive in size

d

THE AMERICAN HAY - RAKE ,

head a a, perforated with 18 transverse teeth bb, nearly bearing upon them . In this position also, CC, &c., which are firmly fixed. These teeth are slightly tapering to each end, where they are rounded off to a blunt point, but chiefly upon

the point of the catch -bars l is quite free of the studs of the head, and, by pressing down the handle -frame, the pendant i will come down upon

that side which is to lie next the ground. It is

and depress the teeth that are looking back

drawn by a horse yoked to the draught-frame

ward , raising at the same time those in front,

de, at whose butts the head a a is dressed into a

such as for the purpose of passing over any ob

cylindrical journal, and each bar, d and e, is secured to it by a strap of iron passing round each, and leaving it freedom to traverse upon the

struction. When, on the contrary, it is wished to depress the front teeth, the handle -frame is raised till the points of the catch -bars press

journal. The handle- frame by which the imple-

against their studs, which will depress the front teeth; and by continuing to elevate the handle

ment is guided has the two bars g and h attached

to the head a a, in the same manner as described frame, the connecting -rod, from change of posi for de. Upon the lower stretcher of g h is appended the light movable frame i, jointed to swing freely on the stretcher. The bar i of this

frame is put in connexion with the draught, frame f, by means of the connecting -rod i k, which is jointed movable at both ends on round journals, and strapped as befo The stretcher on which the frame i is appended , is prolonged at each end to receive the catch -bars l , on the out-

side of the frame g h, one of which bars is seen at l, jointed on the prolonged stretcher, and serving an essential purpose in the management

of the implement .

tion in the bars i k , il, and lf, will push the pen dant i beyond the extremity of theteeth behind, when the front teeth taking the ground , and nothing to resist the rising of those behind, the rake will immediately tilt over, the fore and hind teeth changing places ; but, in other respects, everything will be the same as before . The effects of the motion and tilting, it is evident,

will be, that in the progressive state the rake collects the hay upon it chiefly in the front part ; and when the attendant sees that the rake is filled, he raises the handles and tilts the rake as above described, leaving the collected mass at

the spot where the tilt occurs. 4085. In the working of this rake, it lies nearly flat to the ground; and when the draughtframe is at its proper height, the connecting -rod

4086. A slight consideration of this implement will show the effectual and convenient manner ik keeps the hanging frame just within the ex- in which its work is performed ; but for progres tremity of the teeth that are then behind, and sive motion, it is by no means so well adapted as

H

1

SUMMER CULTURE OF WHEAT.

for collecting and depositing the products. The

245

ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF WHEAT.

heavy head a a is drawn forward in the worst

possible position, or what is called broad -side on ; but this defect could be removed by simply apply ing a pair of low light wheels to the ends of the

head. Perhaps it may be owing to this defect that the American hay-rake has of late years not

been in such high repute as formerly.

4089. The wheat crop in summer is in two states, when spring wheat is sown

after turnips, ( 2302 ;) and when no spring wheat is sown the autumn wheat only exists which was sown after bare fallow , beans, and potatoes.

4087. The hand hay -rake used in the United States of America seems a well -made implement.

4090. The state of the autumn-sown

Its head is thicker and shorter than in fig. 347

wheat in summer depends entirely on the head, and are turned and fitted into their places sort of weather in winter and spring,

and 348.

The teeth are 4 inches clear of the

by machinery, besides being wedged and pinned. The shaft is curved for the last foot of its length, and is reduced in size before it reaches the head .

and on the nature and condition of the soil upon which it was sown. Mild wea

It is furnished with two or three bows which pass through it and enter the head ; and they are

ther will cause it to grow luxuriantly ; and if it continue so for some time in winter,

of use in enabling the raker to gather up a large

the plants will probably become so luxu

quantity of hay at a single stroke. Every part riant as to lie down in spring, and be being turned to fit exactly, these rakes are not come blanched and rotted at the roots, onlylight, but are said to be remarkably strong

( 2660.) In the earlier part of the winter, as long as the ground is dry, sheep may safely be put upon the land, to eat down 4088. A curious mode of preserving grass for the wheat to a considerable degree. Should

and durable, seldom if ever breaking at the head or where the bows are inserted .

forage, instead of making it into hay, has been

the weather be wet, and the land soft,

tried in Germany, in East Prussia, and it is this : -Pits are dug in the earth 10 or 12 feet square, and as many deep. They are puddled with clay,

the sheep will poach the ground ; but, even

and lined with wood or brick.

Into these pits 4

under such a risk, they will do much good to the crop when allowed, for a limited

or 5 cwt. of grass, as it is cut, are put in a layer time, to eat off the tops of the plants twice

withsalt,at therate of 1lb. at a time, sprinkled whenhungry ,andto maketheirlair to 1 cwt.; and if the grass is dry, that is, free of a -day,

on an adjoining grass field. But the winter

rain or dew , two or three quarts of water are sprinkled over the layer. Each layer is trodden

luxuriance is not unfrequently checked,

downby 5 or 6men, and rammed firm , especi- and even the plants destroyed , by the ally round the edges, with wooden rammers, the severe frosts at night, and the bright sun object of which is the exclusion of air. A little shine during the day in March, ( 2660.) straw is then scattered over the layer, to mark its dimensions afterwards. Layer is placed above layer until the pit is filled to the top, when the topmost layer is well salted, and the pit covered

4091. Besides over-luxuriance, early bown wheat is apt to be affected by

boards ora well-fitted lid, upon which is slugs, Limax cinereus, in damp weather with put a covering of earth of l} foot in thickness. in autumn. Mr Wentworth of Harlow Such a pit will contain 5 layers of grass, and soon fer grass soon should be filled in 2 days. The grass fer gives a recipe for destroying the slugs.. ments, and in about 6 days subsides to half its original bulk. The lid is examined every day, and every crack in the earth filled up, to exclude

Provide, fresh from the kiln , as much lime as will allow five bushels to the

acre. Slake ait calm two days sow mild morn and before allowedtoenter, would pro- ing; choose air,which, if the mote the putrefactive fermentation in the

When the first fermentation hasceased, the lid ing ; commence sowing early enough to

is taken off, and fresh grass put in, trodden finish before daylight ; and one man can down, and salted as before. The pit will now

contain about 10 tons of grass , equal to 2 or 3 tons of bay.

sow an acre an hour, sowing two yards at a cast ." Turnip -leaves have been re

The pits should remain shut

commended to be laid upon wheat, to in The grass thus treated ducethe slugs to take shelter under them , the appearance of having been boiled, which they readily do, and they are then has and its sharp acid taste is very agreeable to collected from the leaves and destroyed. for 6 weeks before being used, and then are

used in succession .

cattle ; and 20 lb. a-day with chopped straw

will keep a cow in good condition all winter,

Of these two modes of destruction, I should

well- tasted milk.*

cacious, on a large scale, in moist weather.

and 28 lb. will cause a cow to give a rich and conceive the quicklime to be the more effi Verhandlung des Baltischen Vereins fürFörderung des Landwirthschaft. Greisswald, 1842, p.33.

246

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

4092. Should the winter luxuriance with manual implements, or with both

continue on the wheat until spring, sheep manual and horse implements. Among will not then crop it in a uniform or suffi- broadcast grain the weeding must be per cient degree. If the luxuriance has only commenced in spring, sheep will restrain it then as well as in winter.

Fig. 352. formed entirely with manual

implements, and the most effec

The win

tive one for the purpose is the

ter luxuriance can only be restrained in

simple weed -hook, fig. 352. It consists of an acute hook of iron ,

spring by mechanical means, such as the field - workers cutting off the tops with the common reaping -hook ; and this operation may be safely performed until the plant puts forth the shoot-blade, perhaps as late as the end of April. The scythe, fig.322, may also be employed to mow off the

asunder as to embrace the stem

luxuriant leaves, which should be done at

hook is attached to a neck of

flattened, of the form at a, with the two inner edges as far set

of succulent herbaceous plants, and made as sharp as easily to

cut through them . The cutting

the place they bend over. Before commenc

iron, which is forged at the other

ing the cutting either with the hook or the scythe, one of the most forward plants

probably not exceed half an inch in length.

extremity into the form of a socket, to take in the end of a light wooden handle about four feet in length, to which it is fas tened by means of a nail or

The portion of the leaves cut off should be

screw . The neck is bent in the

allowed to lie upon the ground, as the in jury done by their removal will be greater than they can do to the growing crop , and they will soon wither.

form that, when the under sur face of the hook rests upon the

should be cut open, and the position and

length of the ear ascertained,which will

ground, the handle shall be so inclined as to suit the hand of a

4093. The advantages of cropping the wheat plantwhen over-luxuriant, are, that the rain no longer hangs upon it, and the

the worker.

The weed-hook is

used with one hand, the field

worker walking upright, and holding it by the handle before

her in an inclined position to WEEDair and light have power to act upon the THEHOOK . stem so as to strengthen and increase the

wards the ground. The cost

woody fibre in it, that the latter may sup- of this implement is 4d. for the hook , and port the former in an upright position.

2d. for the handle.

I have seen a weed

hook with its outer edge also sharpened, 4094. Wheat sown in spring never for cutting weeds with a push forwards ; grows too luxuriantly in summer, and re- bat such a one cannot be used amongst

quires no expedient to check its growth .

standing corn , since its sharp outer edge would inevitably cut their stems.

4095. Of the classes of soils which pro

4097. The ordinary way for field -work duce over-luxuriance, dry deep clay loam is most apt in a mild autumn and winter; ers to arrange themselves, when weeding and thin clay land, upon a retentive wet broadcast corn, is for two to occupy the subsoil, is the most sure to destroy luxu- breadth of a single ridge, each taking the riant wheat in March ( 2660.) The crop charge equivalent to a half ridge from the may seem very promising in early spring, open furrow to the crown. Ön weeding

and yet by the end of March it may not amongst corn, the point of the weed -book only be thin but scanty of plants, and it is then too late for them to tiller fully. Such is the explanation of what may seem surprising in many cases as to the cause of the failure of what was at one time a good

is insinuated between the stems of corn towards the weed to be cut, and on its stem being taken into the cleft of the hook, it is severed by a slanting cut upwards, by an easy draw of the hand towards the

crop of wheat.

worker. The weeds, thus cut over, are

left on the ground to decay.

4096. The weeding of the cereal crops in summer is an indispensable operation for

4098. The principal weed which infests

their welfare. It may be conducted solely wheat is the rn -cockle or popple, Agro

SUMMER CULTURE OF WHEAT.

247

stemma githago. Having a woody stem, 4099. Wheat sown in rows is weeded it is not cut with the weed -hook, but pull- with the hand-hoe, fig. 266, and also with ed by hand ; and it is easily distinguished horse -hoes. The hand -hoe is used by

by its bell-shaped upright pink Howers. field -workers, who each take a drill and Its seed is black, rough, and round, and is hoe the ground between the rows, as also much objected to in samples of wheat by between the plants in the rows, which

bakers and corn -dealers, though, the kernel isnot so easily done as when the rows are being white, its flour is not distinguishable dibbled,fig. 290, and must be done by the fromwheat-flour, and is reported to be in- hand. In weeding rowed corn it is neces

jurious to it. In dry ground is found the sary for the field -workers each to occupy long prickly -headed poppy, Papaver arge- a row ; and to prevent their jostling one mone ; and in strong ground the hairy tare, another, the onein the centre of theband Eroum hirsutum , though a low insignifi- takes the lead in an advanced position, cant plant, yields a hard heavy seed, while the others range themselveson each difficult to winnow from wheat.

The

side in echelon.

Where the extent of

blue-bottle, Centaurea cyanus ; smooth drilled crops is considerable, hand -hoers rye -brome grass, Bromus secalinus ; the are unable to clear the ground of weeds corn and common sow -thistles, Sonchus before the crops advance to a state in

arvensis and S.oleraceur ; the corn grom- which it is improper to go amongst them. well, Lithospermum arvense, the seeds of Hence the need of assistance from the which contain a large proportion of silice- more expeditious horse -hoe. ous matter ; the bearded darnel, Lolium temulentum , which is now rare, are all

4100. There are many forms of horse

found among wheat. The cleavers, or hoes for cleaning the ground between the

sticking grass, Galium aparine; and the common hemp-nettle, Galeopsis tetrahit, and G. dersicolor, large-flowered hempnettle, are also found among wheat. Any of the natural grassesdo no harm amongst corn ; their seeds, being light, are easily blown away in the processof winnowing,

rows of. corn , and perhaps not one dis plays so much ingenuity of construction as that of Messrs Garrett & Sons, Leiston Works, Suffolk ; but as its construc tion necessarily enhances its price, I have seen no cheap one please me so much as the steerage horse-hoe contrived by Mr

or even of threshing ; but the plants for- William Smith, Northampton .

It

is

merly named all bear seeds as heavy as shown in perspective in fig. 353, where cannot be easily got quit of in threshing and winnowing, and are therefore troublesome in the barn, and injurious to the sample. The common reed, Arundo phrag-

a a is the framing, which also constitutes the horse shafts, supported on iron brackets, which in their turn are supported on an iron axle, b, as high as to permit the crop mites, is not uncommon in corn - fields on hoed to pass under it. The axle, bent down carse -land, and, when not too plentiful, is at both ends, works in the wheels, c c. not disliked, as it serves to keep the corn These form the carriage portion of the open in the stook and in the stack . machine. The hoe consists of a bar d, Fig. 353.

a

TRYD

SINUSI

SMITH'S STEERAGE HORSE -HOE .

248

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

which bears the shanks e , of six trian- at three doubles as b , at 18 inches wide give

gular duck -footed hoes, or shares, made to embrace as many rows of corn, at the ordinary breadth of 7 inches asunder. The handles, ff, by which the driver guides the hoes along the centres of the rows,

4 feet 6 inches. The prices of this horse hoe, at these respective widths, are - with 6 hoes, £4 ; 8 hoes, £4, 10s.; and 12 hoes, £ 5, 10s.

are attached to the bar d . The carriage 4102. In using this hoe, the horse is put and hoe are connected by means of the into the shafts a, fig. 353. The driver rods g g, which, at one end, are attached holds on by the handles f f, and steers the to the handles f, and at the other linked hoes along the centre ofthe rows h, which on by eyes to hooks in the hind part he is enabled to do by the movement of of the brackets, which support the framing the rods g upon the hooks attached to the or shafts a a. The rods g are strength brackets at a. Should the horse swerve ened byothers, passing under the bar d , from the row he walks in, the driver and welded at both ends to the under part directs the hoes in their rows, until

of g . When the rows are placed wider the horse regains his former track . A than 7 inches, the axle is expanded to steady horse will not leave the row be the requisite width by being slipped out- is placed in, from one end of the landing wards through the collar, and fixed at any to the other, and only a steady one should be employed in such work as hoeing. A given width by the pinching screw at b. steady man, to steer the hoes, is as requi 4101. Fig. 354 represents two differ- site as a steady horse, otherwise careless Fig. 354.

ness will send the hoes through the rows of corn plants, and cut them through as well as the weeds.

4103. In 1849, Dr Newington of Knole

【广

Park, near Tunbridge Wells, the inventor of the dibble, fig. 292, introduced to public notice a hoe, which he names a cultivator, for weeding and stirring the ground be tween the rows of corn . It consists of a

shaft with a cross-handle at one end, and at the other end a shank, to which is at ent sorts of shares used in this hoe, one a , tached a head, into which three or four or LONG AND SHORT SHARES FOR THE HORSE- HOE.

being the ordinary one for narrow rows of more shares are inserted at shiftable dis 7 inches ; the other, b, to answer the broad- tances, corresponding with the width of est width of 18 inches. The latter con- the rows to be hoed, from fourto eighteen

sists of a long rectangular feather attached inches apart - taking at one time two or to each shank placed in a diagonal direc- three rows of the smaller distances, and tion acrossand meeting in the centre of one of thelarger. The instrument is drawn the drill. The inclination of their edges through the ground by the force of a man, who is equipped in a canvass jacket, to of the soil while they are cutting the which is looped a belt, by whichhe draws weeds under the surface. Having the bar by the cross-handle. I have not seen this

allows the shares to clear themselves

d as long as the width to which the implement at work, but the inventor axle may expanded, the requisite affirms that “ a man can do two acres

shares might then be affixed to it, required a -day with great ease ; that is to say, stir to hoe the number of rows determined on

and hoe an acre, from three to four inches

-and thus the hoes may be increased deep, five times for 5s., much more effectu in number from 6 to 12, and the breadth ally than by the present mode of hand hoed from 3 to 7 feet; but from 4 to 5 hoeing, and at one- fifth the expense.” feet in width is the best one for doing the 4104. For the purpose of forage the work quickest and most effectnally . To

obtain that distance, 8 hoes at 7 inches year following, Italian ryegrass ( 2644 ) wide give 4 feet 8 inches; 6 hoes at 9 inches may be sown amongst wheat which has

wide give 4 feet 6 inches ; and 6 hoes set notbeen sown down with grass -seeds, just

SUMMER CULTURE OF WHEAT.

249

before the last time it can be hoed-late side of the body pale yellow , with two black

in April or beginning of May - and the spots on the mesosternum ; halteres white ; the

forage will be ready for use in May and got legsisashsmall grey,andblack at the tips.” The mag and white, the pupa yellow, smooth, June. A cutting of from 150 tb. to 200 lb. and shining, rather more than one-twelfth part of may be expected to be received from

an inch in length.*

the square perch. 4109. The wheat- fly, Cecidomyia tritici, was dreaded a few years since, and its habits 4105. Not later than May, sow , in wet much are now pretty well known . It is figured at d, weather, a top-dressing of Peruvian guano, fig. 223, greatly magnified,its natural sizebeing 2 cwt. to the acre, amongst the growing represented by the cross lines beside the figure,

wheat ; or, of special manures, 1 cwt. of and which does not exceed a line in length,

nitrate of soda and 1 cwt. of sulphate of resembling a small gnat or midge. Mr Duncan describes it as having “ the colour of the whole ammonia to the acre. II prefer prefer sowing sowing top -dressings on the growing crop to sowing them on the soil along with the seed, as the plant is ready to take advantage of

bodyreddish yellow, deepest on the thorax; antennæ dusky, eyes black ; legs pale reddish

yellow ; wings longer than the body, round

ed at the tip, of a whitish hue, with irides

reflections. The antennæ of the female maleb joints,those consists of the of 13 sub-ovate them immediately ; whereasmuch of special cent

manures at least may be washed down c of 25 globose remote joints.”—“ The fly makes into the soil by rains, before the plant has its appearance in wheat fields just about the

arrived at the stage of growth to be bene-

time the ear is beginning to emerge from its

fited by them.

leafy envelop, most commonly in the early part of June . In a calm evening they fly about in little undulatory clouds. An ear just emerging

4106. The flowering season is a critical from the sheath is generally preferred as arecep one for wheat, since the state of the wea- tacle for the eggs. They are introduced, by

ther at this period, which is in the begin- means of the ovipositor,intothe floret, being ning of June,may affect the yield to the usually placed upon the interior valvuleof the corolla, extent of fifty per cent.

Should the

just above the stigmata. The eggs are placed in clusters from 2 to 20, and are

weather prove both rainy and windy hatched in 10 or 14 days, and after the larvæ during the whole flowering season , the

e begin to feed on the pollen, they acquire a

produce will inevitably be scanty. Rain saffron-yellow. hue. Minute asthese creatures are, when

considered that 47 have been alone, unless it be constant, does not affect counted in itoneisfloret, the produce so much as strong wind ,which, theymust interfere it is easy to perceive how

withitsimpregnation. It if it blow from the same quarter, will seri- is not improbable, asthey increase in size, that

the milky pulpdestined for likewiseattack they nutriment ously affect the side of the earexposed to it. the of the grain . At all events, the Showers and gentle breezes do no harm.

grain shrivels and decays, to the grievous disap pointment of the husbandman. The loss sus

4107. The wheat-plant is much affected by

tained by the farmers of the Carse of Gowrie, in

casualties, both from insects and parasitical fungi.

1829, was estimated by Mr Archibald Gorrie, Annat Cottage, from 6 to 16 bushels per im perial acre .”- 6 Nature herself has provided a

The young wheat-plant is not unfrequently destroyed by the wire-worm, fig. 253, which cuts

over the plants by the ground. Many remedies considerable check to the multiplication of these have been proposed to get rid Aies, by making them the prey of no fewer than Fig. 355. of this pest, when so employed ; but I believe none have yet proved effective.

4108. The wheat stem - fly ,

three kinds of ichneumons, viz. : — Encyrtus inse

rens, about half the length of the wheat-fly ; ano ther Platygaster tipulæ , which commits its eggs to the larva of the wheat- fly ; and the third , Eurytoma penetrans. Some of these ichneumons

Chlorops pumilionis, fig. 355, appear in great numbers where the fly abounds, derives its specific name,which

and multitudes must become their victims.” +

signifies a dwarf, from the ef

fects it produces on the plants it attacks, which, having their centralshoots destroyed,throw out many lateral ones, and selTHE WHEAT STEM- dom attain any considerable FLY - CHLOROPS height. “ The colour of the

4110. Although the attack of the wheat fly was talked of as a new plague, when it oc curred some years since, it would appear that it was known in Scotland in 1740, when the frost was so severe that the Thames was frozen over

and an ox roasted upon it, as the observations of an fly is black , ” says Mr Duncan, agricultural writer of the time informs us. " the under side of the head and two narrow “ After this,” he says, “ we had a melancholy longitudinal lines in the thorax yellow ; under sight, for as soon as the wheat had done bloom . PUMILIONIS .

身

Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xii. p. 121 .

+ Ibid. vol. xi. p. 372-8.

250

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

ing, vast numbers of black flies attacked the wheat -ears, and blowed a little yellow maggot which ate up some of the kernels, in others part of them , and which caused multitudes of ears to miss of their fulness, acting in some measure like a sort of locust , till rain felland washed them off ; and though this evil has happened in other summers to the wheat in some degree, and not

small sporules, which are SO numerous and minute that it is not easy to conceive any place where they may not abound. They are ever at hand, only awaiting suitable conditions for They gene springing into existence. rally appear in patches, consisting of multi tudes of spores , that form frequently so many cases enclosing the reproductive sporules

done much harm, yet if the good providence of which float in the atmosphere around us, until God had not hindered it, they might have ruined all the crops of wheat in the nation .'" * The

they light on some place adapted to their growth . Their extreme minuteness allows of their being

black fly here mentioned is one of the ichneu-

introduced into the substance of the tissues of

mon flies, which deposit their eggs in the larva plants or beneath the epidermis. As they grow of the wheat-fly to destroy them, the wheat-fly

being of a reddish yellow colour ; but mistaking the pest for its destroyer was natural enough at a

on the leaves or straw of corn plants, they raise the epidermis into curious puffy blisters, which they subsequently rupture. These patches are

time when the identity and habits of insects were but imperfectly understood .

of different colours , but most commonly either

4111. The wheat-plant is attacked by the

sitic pests, which are quite distinct from each

deep yellow, brown, or black . The several parts of the wheat-plant are attacked by these para

larva of the wheat dart-moth, Agrostis tritici, other, having nothing in common except that under ground, feeding on the radical portion of they germinate within the tissues.” + the plant, in autumn, and never appearing above the surface of the ground except at night. 4114. Mildew .— Mildew or blight, Puccinia graminis, forms blackish -brown parallel lines 4112. As regards the attacks on wheat by para- upon the straw , and seems to affect the entire

sitical fungi, the Rev.MrSidney defines a fungus to plant ; so that, when it is generally diffused over “ be a cellular flowerless plant, deriving its nutri- it, it deprives the sap of the power to form seed ment by means of spawn.

is propagated by spores, which are naked, or by sporidia , so called when enclosed in little vesi-

in a healthy state, and hence the grain is either very much shrivelled when it is formed, or no grain is formed at all . So generally did this dis

cles. The way in which these spores germinate,

ease affect the wheat crop of Berwickshire in

It lives in air, and

generally speaking, is by a protrusion of the three successive years, 1810, 1811, and 1812, inner membrane, or an elongation of the outer, when the price of wheat was at the highest rate thus lengthening out its spawn, which is the during the war,that in many instances it was not usual mode ; but there is another method of ger- considered worth while to thrash it. The method mination. Fungi may be said to by which the spores of the puccinia enter the consist of a mass of little cells, or little threads, tissues ofthe straw of the wheat, is by its stomata or of both combined in various ways. They have or breathing pores, which are numerous. These no fructification except their spores or sporidia, are closed in dry weather, but are opened to re

of which the methods of attachment are singu- ceive the moisture in wet or even damp weather; larly curious and beautiful. In their respiratory functions, they approach to the peculiarity of animal rather than vegetable life, for they absorb oxygen and exhale carbonic acid gas. Like flesh, they contain a great quantity of nitrogen ; and the subtance called fungine, extracted from them by the chemist, is said to bear a near

and it is at this time, it is supposed, that the fun gal spores enter into the plant by the stomata. It is certain, at all events, that the mildew only makes its appearance in moist warm weather, damp situations, and on over-manured land.

resemblance to animal matter.

berberry bush, Berberis vulgaris, has the power

They derive

4115. A notion prevails in England that the

their nourishment from the substance on which

of causing the mildew in wheat, probably from the well-known circumstance that the berberry lichens and algæ, from the media in which they is itself very subject to mildew : but its mildew exist. The juices, impregnated with the peculiar is occasioned by the Erysiphe berberides, whereas principles of the matter to which any particular that of the wheat arises, as we have seen, from fungus is attached, form its appropriate food." a Puccinia, and no possibility exists of trans forming the one kindof fungus into the other . 4113. Fungi affect both the straw and the grain of the wheat. The disease originated 4116. Rust. - One species of rust is found by them on the straw of wheat is called rust, scattered over the inner surface of the outer from its resemblance to the rust of iron, and in chaff scales, the skin of which is raised into the grain smut and bunt. It is a subject of rea- blisters, mostly of an oval form . It is occasioned

they grow , and not, as is the case with the

sonable inquiry to know the mannerin which by the Uredo rubigo, and is of an orange yellow fungi originate diseases in crops, to the great colour,and is the worst species of rust,asit may extent experienced in those diseases of the affect the produce, if moist and cloudy weather wheat, and “ the only truth -like solution of continue for some time. The rust which affects their source, " as Mr Sidney observes, “ is the the straw originates in the Uredo linearis ; and

almost universal diffusion of their inconceivably when it disappears, the straw is not materially * Ellis' Modern Husbandman , for August 1745, p. 129. + Sidney's Blights of the Wheat, 15 and 29.

251

SUMMER CULTURE OF WHEAT.

injured, and the arrival of bright warm weather s is a longitudinal section of a sound grain of soon dissipates the evil. The genial beams of wheat, in its progress towards development,when the sun completely vanquish both, so that they disappear in a surprising manner, and a healthy greenness speedily succeeds to the yellow tints that have disheartened the farmer . I have seen

the anthers have just protruded beyond the corolla ; e is an empty space lined internally with a greenish border n n n . As the grain ad vances, the space e contracts, and its substance

the leaves of wheat so much affected with yellow bb, lying between the green border n and the rust, at the time of weeding, before the ear had shot out, that the nether garments of the fieldworkers, who weeded the crops, were covered with orange dust. The rust on the leaves disappears in its worst form , before that on the chaff scales appears at all.

outer green cuticle a, becomes filled with milky juice : t is a longitudinal section of a smut-ball taken when the stamens are fully formed within the corolla , for the anthers never protrude beyond the corolla when the grain is affected with smut ;

c is an empty space surrounded by a dark green substance,000which extends to the outer cuticle.

4117. Smut or Bunt.—The disease called in In a very short time the whole interior of the Scotland smut , is named bunt in England , and smut-ball changes from green to white, as at w, the smut of England is the black ear of Scot- the outer cuticle continuing green. The white land . Smut, Uredo caries, is so well understood substance soon has a black speck in its centre, as in its appearance and character, that it requires at 2 , which gradually spreads through the ball, no particulardescription farther than that it is as at y ; and as the ball still advances to matu a brownish black , greasy fetid powder taking the rity, the dark green cuticle changes to brown, as

place of the kernel of wheat. Mr Lawson of at z. The green substance occupying the place Elgin examined the structure of the smut-ball in comparison with sound wheat, and the differences

of the milky juice, at once explains the differ ence betwixt a smut- ball and a sound grain .*

in their appearances are shown in fig. 356, where Fig. 356. 8

4118. Black ears. Wheat, barley, and oats sometimes seem to have their young ears coated as if with soot, adhering by some gummy Its effect is completely destroy the grain, from the first instant it

substance to them .

emerges from the hose. It is produced by the Uredo segetum , in hot blinks of sunshine in showery weather, when the ears are appearing out of their sheaths. The spores of this fungus are so small, that M. Bauer counted 49 on the hun

dred and sixty thousandth part of a square inch . Hence, a square inch could contain 7,840,000 of them ; and if the spores are so small, what must the dimensions of the sporules be ? The highest imaginable power of a microscope could only be expected to exhibit them as a vapoury cloud .

4119. Eel of the wheat.- " This isone of the most singular of living creatures,” observes Mr Sidney ; " and were its habits not thoroughly in vestigated and proved, they would seem almost incredible. Its attacks are confined to the fari naceous portion of the grain, which it destroys and replaces, producing the disease known by the name of ear- cockle , pepper- corn , or pimples.

10

A grain of wheat, infected by this blight, as sumes the appearance of a black pepper- corn. The whole ear isaltered in appearance; the chaff husks open, and the awns become curiously

twisted, so that the ears are easily distinguished from a healthy crop.

The grains first turn dark

green , and then black. If one of them is divided into two with a penknife, it will be completely filled with a dense, white cottony mass, occupy.

ing the place of the flour ,and leaving merelya little glutinous matter. These contents seem to the eye like a quantity of fibres,closely packed together in parallel directions ; but if a little morsel is taken on the end of a pin, and put on a slip of glass and moistened , it will soonbe seen

THE STRUCTURE OF SOUND WHEAT AND OF SMUTBALL COMPARED.

to divide and give a milky appearance to the water.

But in submitting it to a powerful

* Quarterly Journal ofAgriculture, vol. is. p. 269-72.

252

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

microscope, the astonished observer will soon amongst barley, from which it is difficult discover that the cottony mass is a dense body of to remove them , and, even after under often wriggle living, eel-shaped about vivacity., which with greatanimalculæ Accordingly, the going boiling along with pot-barley, they name given to the disease is Vibrio tritici, the eel of the wheat." * I have never seen an in stance of this remarkable creature. It is an in-

retain their hardness.

4122. When the barley is drilled or

fusorialanimal . Fromthe investigations of M. dibbled in rows, the horse-hoe,fig. 353, is Bauer, it appears that, after laying all their eggs, the parents soon die;butsuch is not the case at employed to remove the weeds, and is a

an earlier period of life, for after being dried and more economical implement than the hand appearing quite dead, on the application of mois- hoe, fig . 266. Stiil the weeds amongst ture they become as lively as they were atfirst, the rows of grain must be removed by the and this after a period of six years and one hand or hoe. When the charlock and poppy month . It seems probable that the glutinous are abundant, the horse -hoe is an unsuit substance in which they are enveloped preserves able implement to remove them , since, on their vitality.t

accumulating between the hoes, the bundles ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF BARLEY.

of weeds will be apt to be thrown upon the rows of grain . When the horse or

4120. We left the barley in spring to hand-hoe is to be used among barley, that its fate, immediately after the grass-seeds is, when barley is sown in rows, it is need were sown and harrowed amongst it, and less to roll the ground after the grass-seeds

the land rolled, ( 2697.) Barley seed soon are sown amongst it in spring, (2697.) springs, in favourable weather, and sends the germ above ground, in some 4123. Barley may be top -dressed with years, in nine days after sowing. Nothing 2 or 3 cwt. of Peruvian guano to the acre,

is done with the crop until the period amongst the growing crop, and not upon arrives for weeding it, and in the broadcast crop the weeds are removed with the hand weed-hook, fig. 352, or by the hand, the field -workers being arranged in the same manner as has been pointed out for the weeding of wheat in (4097.)

the land at the time ofsowing the seed, for the reasons given above in regard to top dressing the wheat crop, (4105. ) Sulphat ed bones, (3233 ) to the extent of 2 cwt. to the acre, may also be applied in a similar manner . of the special manures, 200 lbs. of the nitrate of potash to the acre has

4121. The weeds that most infest the given a favourable result.

barley crop are the creeping plume thistle,

4124. When barley is not sown down Sinapis arvensis, frequently takes pos- amongst it,in calcareous soils, in April;and session of the barley crop in the neigh- it will be fit for cutting as a forage crop Cnicus arvensis, though not to the same

degree as it does oats. The charlock, with grass-seeds, sainfoin may be sown bourhood of large towns, the seeds of which for cows in May or June the next year.

are supposed to be derived from the street manure, so largely used in such localities.

4125. Barley is not much affected by

When this weed is abundant, the most the state of the weather in the flowering effectual way of getting rid of it is to pull season, since that season is so much later it up by hand and carry it off the field . than that of wheat, that the weather is

Another weed, which sometimes appears seldom stormy for many days together in great quantities in light soils, is thecom-

that is, much rain and strong wind at the

mon red poppy, Papaver rhæas, amongst same time. which will be found some of the smooth

clear liquid at times transfuses from headed poppy, Papaver dubium .Thedeep the4126. pointsA of theyoung barley plants,which is

scarlet-coloured flower of the former pro

mistaken for dew.

duces a striking effect, even at a distance. This weed, when in quantity, will have to be pulled by hand, like the charlock. The

chemically examined .

Its nature has not yet been

4127. Barley is subject to the attack of fungal

seeds of the sticking -grass or cleavers, parasites as wellasthewheat, though not to the Galium aperine, often find their way

same extent or degree.

Black heads in bar

* Sidney's Blights of Wheat, p. 84.

+ Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. vi. p. 514.

SUMMER CULTURE OF OATS.

ley appear under the same circumstances as in wheat, (4118,) and are produced by the same fungus, Uredo segetum .

4128. Ergot, a fatal disease well known in rye, is not unfrequent in wheat, as also in several of the grasses, such as ryegrass, meadow -fescue, cats-tail, and cocksfoot; but I had never ob

production of ergot in barley arises from a change in structure which commences at the base of the seed, and which the laws that Fig. 359. govern vegetable morphology are found in other instances to pro duce. I may add, that I have never seen the slightest appear ance of stamens in a floret con

served the disease in barley until Mr John Law

son , Elgin, pointed it out some years ago. Ergot is a monstrous state of the seed, not induced by

253

12

any fungus, so far as is known, but by some

taining ergot ; neither is there any appearance in ergot of the two cups or sacs which are in the sound seed .

The methods

h adopted for preventing smut in unknown cause which produces a change in the structure and form of the seed, as is observed in wheat, (2307 ,) may probably also DISEASE prevent BARD ergot in barley.” The * may cases of vegetable morphology. It causes part LEY SEED . issue of this last suggestion of the embryo to be preternaturally enlarged , to protrude beyond the chaff, to assume a curved be doubted , since we have seen that smut is a form , somewhat resembling a cocks' spur, the fungal and ergot not a disease of fungal origin. French for which is ergot. Ergotted seed is Draining rescues the wheat plant, as also the black superficially, and of a spongy texture inter- grasses in pastures, from the attack of the ergot. nally, containingoily matter, so that it will burn like an almond at a lighted candle. 4130. Barley is extensively attacked in Swe den by the Chlorops frit, which destroys the

4129. Mr Lawson traces the change caused bythis disorder in barley, in the following Fig. 357. manner : - “ For some time after a head of barley has assumed its pro-

principal stem; and Mr Chrisp, Rugley, near Alnwick, mentions the effects of an insect on barley, its “ larva living in the sheath, and feed ing upon the ear, previous to its appearance from

per form , " he observes , “ but before it has arrived at maturity, the

the shot blade . Every year, ” he says, “ I have observed more or less injury to the crop by the same cause, but it appears most serious, in a late or wet cold year, upon stiff soils.” +

corolla is not more attached to the

seed than in oats, if so much. If at this early stage we examine a bar ley plant, it will be found that the

corolla may very easily be separated

ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF OATS.

from the seed, and that the seed

THEKERNEL will appear as a naked one, with OF BARLEY the plumes of the corolla on each

4131. The spring culture of the oat was WITHIN THE side of it, as represented in fig . 357. finished according to the statement in HUSK . Now , ifwe remove the corolla, and ( 2499.) Oats require about a fortnight to look at the base of the barley seed , we will ob serve this base (within the corolla ) Fig. 358.

braird in ordinary weather.

covered with two fine membranous

substances, in the form of a feather, or rather like the wings of a

4132. The weeding of oats, when sown broadcast, is effected by the weed -hook ,

fly, as e f;fig. 358, growing out of fig. 352. The oat is the first crop which the basebc. The corolla of many requires weeding, and the weed that most base, on the outside of the corolla, infests it is the creeping plume thistle, Cni but these membraneous appen-

cus arvensis.

It is perennial, and its roots

dages, both in their sound, creeping, by which it easily spreads itself, SOUND BAR LEY SRED .

diseased, or altered state, are in and , when allowed to grow, will attain the the inside of the corolla, and corer the secd . Referring to the repre height of from one to three feet, and waft sentation of the young ergot or

itsplumed seeds over the adjoining fields.

diseased seed of barley, fig. 358, we find a great When allowed to flourish amongst corn, it is

change of structure, both in the base and its extremelytroublesome to reapers atharvest. feather-like appendages. The base, in this case, The plant should not be cut down before

. Ithas also assumed a different form . In it has attained about nine inches in height, enamel a sound seed,it isa flat oval disc,b c, fig.358; in otherwise it will soon spring again from the diseased seed it has assumed the formrepre- theroot, and requireanother weeding ; and sented by a h ,fig.359. The feather-shapedmem- by the time it has attained that height, the , andseed, in likewise branes g overchanged of the sideform thefattheir spreadin stead ofhave

oats willbe about one foot high. In using

havegrown up in two tufts, f n , one on each side the weed-hook amongst oats, the field of the seed. I thinkwemay conclude that the workers are arranged in the same manner Journal of Agriculture, March 1848, p. 386-7.

+ Quarterly Journal of Agriculture,vol. xiii. p. 208.

254

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

as when weeding wheat and barley, (4097.) the dart-moth, Agrostis segetum , whose wings ex troublesome weed among oats, in pand from 14inch to 1 inch, and which produces of 14 inch, and live

A very

larvæ that attain the length

the neighbourhood of large towns, where upon the portion of the corn -plant below the sur

street manure is employed, is the wild face. Rolling heavily at night, when larvæ gener

mustard or charlock, Sinapis arvensis, ally come to thesurface, may effect the destruc which so completely covers the soil in tion of some; but as all caterpillars which live in

moist seasons, that its bright yellow blos- theearth have a tough elastic skin, capable of considerable resistance, such of them as have not soms obscure the whole crop. Whether a stone or other hard substance under them , oats are sown broadcast or in drill, the would bemerely pressed into the soil, without

wild mustard, when so plentiful, must be sustaining any material injury from rolling.* pulled by hand, as there is no other way Mr Norton found the composition of the of extirpating it. When oats are sown in ash4158. as follows, in the respective parts of the drills, the horse-hoe, fig. 353, is employed green oat : to extirpate the weeds ; but those growing

in the rows of the corn must be removed

with the weed-hook, from dibbled corn, and by the hand from drilled.

4133. A top -dressing of 2 cwt. of Peru vian guano to the acre in wet weather, or 3 cwt. where the soil is poor, will effect a

Potash and soda , Chloride of sodium , Lime , Magnesia , Oxide of iron ,

Sulphuric acid ,

Phosphoric acid , Silica ,

great improvement in the growing crop,

Knots . Chaft.

Leaf.

Stalk .

18.35

42.43 4.46

0.30 5.13 1.63 0.55 13.05 2.91

58.22

39.21

Oat ,

15.39 31.37

4.12 1.47 0.62 7.84 6.31

0.60 4.75 4.51 1.02 27.94 9.03

2.01 4.58 3.10 1.50 9.90 7.25

0.61 6.76 2.94 0.35 16.42 15.19

34.85

13.23

56.38

26.05

100.14 102.10 100.29 100.12 99.65

and not when the seed is sown, for reasons

givenabove in (4105.) of the special On the 16th July the plant was in the midst of manures, 400 gallons ofammoniacal liquor, its most rapid growth, and just halfway between or 2 cwt. of the sulphate or muriate of the time when it appeared above ground in June,

ammonia, applied in the same manner, may and when it was cut on the 3d September. be expected to give a considerable increase 4139. Dr Fromberg determined the nitrogen in the unripe oat, at six periods of its growth , as

of crop.

.3Sept.

27 Aug.

. 20 Aug.

. 13 Aug.

.16 July

is ; and both being in flower about the same

.July 30

follows :

4134. Oats are as little affected by the weather in the flowering season as barley time, the weather must assume a stormy PERCENTAGE OF NITROGEN .

character for days together to injure either.

In undried oat, dried

4135. The casualties which befall the oat crop

0.51

0.51

1.71

1.35

0.62 1.38

0.66 1.31

0.97

1.12

1.79

2.90

PERCENTAOX OY PROTEIN

COMPOUNDS . One complaint is segging or 9.58 3.94 3.24 3.90 4.15 6.10 In undried oat, dried 10.75 8.50 8.69 8.25 11.95 13.84 sedging, so named in consequence of the plant being short, the leaves becoming hard, and the roots thickened like those of the sedge. What The steady increase of nitrogen from the 30th the true cause of this complaint is I do not know, July is very striking.t for any insect that may be then detected in the plant I regard as the effect, not the cause ; but I have cured a piece of land of its constant tendency ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF RYE. to grow sedged oats, simply by draining.

are

numerous.

4136. Oats are liable, in damp warm seasons, to 4140. Hitherto we have said nothing have black ears, when the entire panicles are clus of the culture of rye ; and the reason tered together, and covered with the black pow

der of the Uredo segetum, a parasitic fungus, is, that as it is always sown in autumn,

(4118. ) The blackened heads do not occur to a serious extent ; but whether the disease would be entirely avoided by pickling the seed-oat, as

no occasion has occurred for speaking of it until its culture in summer demands a few observations.

the seed-wheat is, I cannot say.

4137. Besides being attacked by the crane-fly in spring, (2504, ) oats are attacked in summer by

4141. As rye runs through its courses rapidly, and comes early to maturity, the

Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xiii. p. 162-7.

+ Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1846, p. 329.

SUMMER CULTURE OF RYE .

255

straw attains a considerable height before in large quantities, and especially while the ordinary weeds make a formidable fresh, occasions such dangerous and mortal appearance.

The weeds most common

amongst rye are those found upon light soils, as the sheep's sorrel, Rumex ace

diseases in both men and animals." * 4143. The correct definition of the ergot of

tosella, and the corn marigold, Chrysan- ryeis this: „ “ The ergotis a kind of spur which issues from the grain of rye. It is elongated and

themum segetum ; and these are easily curved, marked with three blunt angles and removed with the weed-hook, fig. 352, longitudinal lines. Its colour is violet of differ when young, or pulled by hand when far- ent shades. Internally it has a dirty white colour. When collected in quantities, it emits, while fresh ,

ther advanced in age.

a disagreeable smell. Its taste is slightly biting and nauseous.

Its length is about an inch and

4142. Rye is so very little cultivated a half, and its thickness about a quarter of an in Great Britain, that it is rarely to be inch .” + De Candolle considered it a species of seen in our fields. On the continent of fungus to which he gave the name of Sclerotium

Europe it is, on the contrary, much culti- clavis ; others name the fungus Sphaceliu sege tum ; and some consider vated, as it formsthe staple food of the

it as a morbid altera

tion of the ovarium of the rye , caused by the

people ; and as a large proportion of the puncture of an insect of the genus musca, and soil in the north of Europe is sandy, “ rye which deposits a blackish liquid. It is unneces may therefore be regarded,” as Thäer sary to pursue the inquiry into the origin of this

afterwhathas been alreadysaid on the well observes, " asthe most precious gift disease, ergot of barley in (4129.) ofGod to the inhabitants of sandy and poor countries ; without it many districts would

4144. The composition of the ash of the ergot

have been uninbabitable.” Advancing ofryeisas follows, according to Engelmann; early to seed, the flowering season is a that of the substance itself has not yet been more critical period for rye than for any of chemically examined : 45-38 16.79

the other cereal crops. A white frost occur-

Potash ,

ring at this time may partially , or even

Soda, Lime,

wholly, prevent the formation of the grain ;

Magnesia, Oxide of iron , Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid, Chlorine, Silica,

and where this has been the case , the ear

loses colour, the points of the husks pucker

up, and they are found to be empty. “Rainy, damp, or very windy weather occurring about the flowering season," says Thäer, “ has a pernicious influence

1.68 5.34 2:34 15.44

0-02 2.36 15.60

)

on rye .

Occasional showers do it no

104.95

Percentage of ash ,

0:36

barm , even when they are tolerably fre quent, provided that there are a fewhours

4145. Dr Taylor observes, that “some

toxi

of warm sunny weather between each ; cologists rank this substance among narcotico for during the rain the rye closes up its acrid poisons : others exclude it from the three valves, and when the sun afterwards comes classes, regarding it as a poison sui generis. Al

out, the anthers spring up so vigorously though its effects are in some instancespeculiar, yet, when taken in large doses, the symptoms that the pollen from the stamens covers produced very much those caused by the field like a thick cloud. But during the vegetable irritants.resemble Its effects vary accord continuous rains the anthers undergo an ing to whether it be taken in large doses, or alteration in the valves, and rot ; or at whether its use be long continued in small doses.

The results of numerous experiments on animals, anyrate impregnation does not take place ; and some observations onthe human subject,

or, if it does, the embryo of the grain is show thatergot administered in a large dose in putrified and lost. It is thus that the any form , (about 2 drachms of the powder,) is

disease termed the spur or ergot of rye is liable to occasion dryness and irritation of the and that curious, blackish, throat, salivation, thirst, burning pain in the engendered, violet-coloured excrescence formed which stomach, vomiting, cholic, and sometimes Cerebral symptoms, headach, The met aswith. are also such giddiness, and stupor, is so well-known, and of itself appears to diarrhæa. be of no consequence , but when swallowed appearancesafterdeath have been, in a few cases, * Thäer's Principles of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 421 - Shaw and Johnson's translation. + Thomson's Organic Chemistry - Vegetables, p. 879.

Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 402.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

256

patches of inflammation on the mucous membrane of the stomach and small intestines.

4149. After the plants have attained three or four inches in height, the scuffler,

4146. “ The chronic effects of this poison have fig: 262, ought to be passed between the been witnessed occasionally on the Continent in

drills to remove the weeds that may have

an epidemic form , and they have in some instances grown.

The field -workers then use the

been distinctly traced to the admixture of ergothand-hoe, fig. 266, to remove all weeds

withrye-bread. Seriouseffects are notwitnessed growing close to and between the potato and even onthe Continentthis condition,to which plants; and to remove any clods that the name ergotism has been given, requires for occupy the spaces between, or that bear its production a very long continued use of the

upon the plants. After a little time, the

diseased grain. M. Bonjean has given an ac- drill- grubber, fig. 264, goes along the

countof two instances, in which spontaneous drill,to destroy the fresh growth of weeds.

gangrene was brought on by bread containing

ergot. One child was ten years old, and it was found necessary to amputate both legs ; the other, be-

4150. The potato crop is not so much

tween two and three years old , lost the right leg

infested with the wild mustard and radish

by spontaneous separation.

as the turnip ; but in consequence of the

4147. “ The ergot, it is well known, is largely ground being obliged to be early prepared employed by accoucheurs to aidparturition,and in spring, there is not sufficient time to indeed to bring iton. Much difference of opin- destroy couch -grass, and the oat-like grass, ion exists as to the abortive powers of this sub- commonly called knot- grass. The weeds stance : some regard it as only acting on the that frequent the potato ground are pretty uterus by the production of great constitutional injury, and that its effect is simply to accelerate numerous, because the stems of the potato

butnot to inducelabour. In many instances it plant, permitting the air to pass between has beenfoundto bring on a violent action ofthe them , and the ground being usually in uterus at an advanced stage of gestation, or good heart, and there being plenty of when efforts at parturition had already com- room between the rows of plants, weeds menced .

The results of experiments on animals

lead decidedly to the conclusion that ergot exerts

get up after the operations of the plough

a specific effect on the uterus, and the observa

have ceased, and they are usually these :

tions ofMr Youatt fully corroborate this view . -white goose -foot, Chenopodiumalbum ; The conclusion appears to me to be, that, although common fumitory, Fumaria officinalis ;

in some instances ergot,even in large doses,may mugwort, Artemisia vulgaris ; chicken fail to excite uterine action, yet that in other weed, Stellaria media ; nipple wort, Lap cases it appears to act decidedly as an abortive, and to originate this action ." *

Ergot exercises

sana communis ; shepherd's purse , Cap

frequentlya fatal action on the heart of the sella bursa-pastoris ; ivy-leaved speed fætus. In a summary of cases given by Dr well, Veronica hederifolia ; small annual Hardy, it appears that in 48 cases, when ergot nettle, Urtica urens ; all on their respec of rye had been given, 34 children were still-born ! t

Ergot should therefore be very cautiously given

tive soils.

to any animal in labour.

4151. Another hand -hoeing is given to

remove the weeds between the plants, but ON THE SUMMER CULTURE OF POTATOES .

chiefly with the view of stirring the ground well around them . As to the set

4148. The barrowing of the tops of the ting up of potatoes with the double -mould

drills of potatoes, with the drill-harrow, board plough, fig. 209, they require to be fig. 220, giving libertyto the potato germs set up in allsoils, becanse, being tubers to penetrate the ground in anupright di- occupying the ground below the surface, rection , ( 2790,) the germsmaybe expected the earth should be loosened and heaped

to appear above ground in a fortnight or about them ; and as potatoes grow in three weeks after being planted, according clusters around the stem near the surface as the state of the weather had been

of the ground, and even above it, it is re

favourable to vegetation or otherwise, and according to theearly or late period of the season in which they were planted ; the later the season , the quicker the vegeta-

quisite to cover these, as they would be too much exposed to the air, and become green and bitter ; but it is possible to set up potatoes so as to injure them, which is always the case when the earth is not put

tion .

* Taylor On Poisons, p. 537-40.

+ Murphy On Natural and Difficult Parturition, p. 141 .

SUMMER CULTURE OF POTATOES.

257

on the top ofthe drill, and when the plough man and beast, if 120 or 180 bushels were goes deeper than the dung in the drill. On added to every acre in the produce of that light land the last practice is useless, and on damp beavy land, it has the effect of enclosing the tubers in encrusted drills. An interesting experiment on the depth to which potatoes should be earthed, wasmade by Mr Peter Mackenzie, Plean , near Stirling. “ On well-drained land," he says, on describing the results of the ex-

essential article of food ; when we re

member the number of square feet in an

acre, and if, upon every square foot, an extra potato were raised, weighing only a quarter of a pound, more than 4 tons would be added to the crop on every acre.n * It stands to reason that the moderate method

of earthing up potatoes is preferable to the

periment, “ three modes of cultivating the very deep one usnally practised in the potato were tried ; the dung used being country. For this purpose, the setting up fig. 214, -board plough, what is called well-made farm - yard double-mould common double better than manure. The first was similar to theplan

would be

the

usually adopted — namely, earthing up the mould -board plough, fig. 209, its mould crop, until the interval between the rows boards being cut away below . The earth

was 2 or 3 inches deeper than the roots ing up is frequently too long delayed, even and dung. The second plan differed only after the plants have nearly met across the from the first in being less earthed, or what drills : it should be finished before the plants may be called by some a half setting up. have advanced so far in growth ; but still it The third mode bad no earth drawn to the should not be begun until they carry their stems of the plants, and the earth was only stoms and leaves to some beight above the hoed between the rows. The dunging of ground. the crop and the distance between the 4152. A top -dressing of 2 cwt. of Peru rows were equal. When the potatoes

were dug, the advantage of the second vian guano to the acre, in damp weather, mode ofculture over the first was fully applied by band by field -workers near the more than one- third part of the increase, plants, after theearthing up of the crophas and better in quality ; for the potatoes been finished , will greatly increase the pro grown by the first plan would not bring duce ; 48 bushels of soot to the acre have the same price in the market which the also been found of service ; and of special second did . The produce of the third plan manures, 1cwt.of the sulphateof sodaandof was nearly equal in bulk with the second, the nitrate ofsoda each, has had good effect.

but rather inferior in quality, many of the potatoes having their sides greened by

4153. It has frequently been alleged

being exposed to light. While growing, that when the blossomsof the potato plant the second and third lots had a much more are removed, the potato crop is increased. healthy appearance than the first; and The late Mr Knight says, that there are when dug,what remained of the dung that facts “ sufficient to prove that the same was used was well mixed with the soil ; fluid, or sap, gives existence alike to the while the dung of the first lot was dry and tuber and the blossom and seeds, and that little decomposed, clinging in clusters to whenever a plant of the potato affords the roots of the potato plants when they either seeds or blossoms, a diminution of

were dug.

It would be little trouble for the crop of tubers, or an increased

expen

farmers and others who grow the potato,” diture of the riches of the soil, must neces

advises Mr Mackenzie, "to trythe expe- sarily take place. It has been proved by of riment on land that hasbeen well drained ;

others, as well as myself, that the

crop

for it would certainly be a great advantage tubers is increased by destroying the fruit to themselves if they could increase their stalks and immature blossoms as soon as

potato cropone-third more than is usnally they appear.” As a recent instance of grown onthe same extent of ground, and such proof, Mr W. H. Tighe, Woodstock , with less labour to themselves and horses. Inistiogue, cut the blossoms off one drill of When we bear in mind the number of acres

strawberry red potatoes, and left them on

still planted with potatoes, it must greatly on anotherdrill,hard by, and the results, increase the food of the country, both for on the 13th of October 1849, were , that 者*

Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xiii. p. 363. VOL. II.

R

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

258

from a perch of the drill from which the in 1849, one by a Scotchman, another by blossoms were cut, he received 2 stones

a Belgian.

5 lb. of potatoes, which were all good, while from the perch of the other drill on

4156. The first was suggested by Mr

which the blossoms were left, the produce David Martin, Muirhead of Liff, near was only 1 stone 9 lb., a few of which were Dundee, who recommends the seed potato bad.* Since the sap which forms the tubers to be cut lengthways, not across, that some and blossoms is derived from the same

of the eyes of the rose end may be in

source ,“ the cause why early varieties of every set ; that the drills be fully one yard the potato do not afford blossoms is the wide, to allow of the future culture being preternaturally early disposition of the conducted in the best manner ; that, as plant to generate its tuberous roots.”+ soon as potatoes are formed , the shaws or

Since the time the potato disease has established itself in this country, it has been observed that the potato plant puts out blossoms less plentifully than it did before. The scarceness of the blossoming has not been found to be accompanied with any increase of produce; and the result is

stems should be bent down over one side of the drill, and the earth brought over the shaws on the other side, as bigh as until the drill is like the roof of a bouse with the shaws growing out of one side of it ; that when the shaws are in this position, the rain is not conducted to the potato, but

not surprising, since plants that put out to the bottom of the drill.

The cost of the

weaktubers must put out weak blossoms, earthing up does not exceed above one penny the perch . Mr Martin says that he or fail to put out any at all. has tried this plan for three years with 4154. Professor Johnston states, that perfect success, not having a diseased “ by taking off the blossoms of potatoes potato all the time. In 1848 he tried alter -besides the usual increase of crop - the nate drills of his plan with the ordinary

tops keep green till the potatoes are lifted. one, and in every case his plan afforded Thus much green matter is obtained ; and sound, while the common one gave nothing if this be made into manure, and applied to but diseased potatoes.Ş . The success of the next potato crop, it is said to raise the this plan has been corroborated by a cor largest produce of tubers.” “By every respondent of the Gardeners' Chronicle of ton of potato-tops,” says Dr Fromberg, the 8th September 1849. we add to the land about 50 lb. of inor

ganic salts and a quantity of organic mat-

4157. The Belgian plan was suggested

ter, containing 20 lb.of nitrogen, or about by a farmer, M. Tombelle Lomba of 23 lb. of ammonia ; this being probably Namur, and it consists in cutting off the the form under which the nitrogen is gra- stems as near the ground as possible , after dually discharged in the decomposition of the flowering is over, with a sharp instru organic matter."

ment, such as a sickle, so as not to disturb

in the least the potatoes in their bed, and 4155. I have already alluded to the then to cover up the incised stumps of baffling nature of the potato disease, and the stems with at least half an inch thick

of the many opposite expedients which of earth, to perhaps two inches thick. The have been tried simultaneously in different rationale ofthis process, as explained by parts of the country to evade its attack , Dr Lindley, is, that it may be that potato without success, from (2778 to 2781. ) tubers, after having arrived at a certain

In the present uncertainstate ofthe culture condition, possess the power of continuing of the potato, one is justified in trying every plan, whether suggested by practical or non -practical men, particularly by the former, which has been said to have

their growth by their own proper and un assisted vitality; and this is rendered the more probable by the well-known fact that the flour which gives them their

succeeded , or is likely to succeed. Two principal value does not descend directly

new plans of culture have been suggested from the leaves as flour, but is in the first * Gardener's Chronicle, 13th October 1849. + Knight's Horticultural Papers, p. 133 and 321 . # Johnston's Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, 5th edition , p. 261. Note. $ Dundee Courier, 28th February 1849.

SUMMER CULTURE OF POTATOES.

259

instance of the nature of gum , or some cut off, he obtained 83 lb. of potatoes

other fluid organisable matter formed in the leaves, and sent downwards into the tubers. Having reached the tubers, it undergoes its final change, and from a

in 55 feet length of the rows ; on two ad joining rows, ofwhich the stems had not been taken away, he obtained 1294 lb. of potatoes in the same length of rows; and

soluble substance is graduallyconverted by at Lodsworth an experimenter obtained, their vital force into insoluble flour. To under the same circumstances, 88 lb. of

that final operation we have no reason to suppose that the leaves contribute ; all that to produce the matter out of they dois which the tubers generate the flour. It

potatoes from plants whose haulms had been retained, while from those whose been cut off he only received haulms bad 68 lb. Whatever may have been the

must be observed that Mr Tombelle Lomba

cause which produced these unfavourable

does not cut off the stems till after flower- results, it seems certain that, to produce ing. It is possible that at that time the results similar to those affirmed by M. leaves of the potato have done theirwork , Lomba, some peculiar management in the as far as the tubers are concerned, and culture is required ; and the point to be that their farther duty is to nourish the attended to seems to be, that the haulms tubers. Ifso, we have an explanation of should not be removed until after the plants

the result ofwhich M. Lomba so positively shall have produced their flowers. If Mr speaks. This plan was tried by Mr H. Knight's views in regard to the effects of Dooville, Alphington , near Exeter, in removing the flowers from potato plants, 1849, and related by him in the Gardeners' Chronicle of the 15th September 1849, by which it seems he succeeded in securing the potatoes in a sound state, even after the leaves had indicated symptoms of th

be correct, (4153,) M. Lomba's plan must have the effect of preventing the increase of the crop as far as the removal of the flowers gives it a tendency to increase.

4159.and Thestemsisasfollows, composition of the ash of the potato according disease ; whilst those in the adjoining leaves to Dr

rows, left untouched, presented a consider

Fromberg :

able proportion of disease. White Buffs.

4158. But the part of M. Lomba's plan which is remarkable, is “ that when the potato stems are cut off with a sickle pro perly sharpened,” to use his own words, « the tubers are not at all interrupted in their growth ; that they remain attached to the stem until they are ripe, just as if the haulm had not been removed ; and that they acquire as large a relative size as

Potash , Soda ,

Red Buffs .

Stems. Leaves . Stems.

Leaves .

31.15 17.27

Sulphuric acid ,

5.56

5.76

6.02

18.63 4.58 19.72 2.39 26.09 4.59 3.50 7.99

Phosphoric acid , Silica ,

6.90 3.34

14.94 5.48

5.51 2.37

9.29 3.22

3.78

5.80

4.98

Chloride of potassium , sodium ,

Lime, Magnesia , Oxide of iron ,

potatoes which have not undergone the

33.32

21.60 14.85 21.03 19.13 5.09 1.43

26.98 6.04 3.70

20.24 4.39 1.34

100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 *

operation. I have so often observed this

continuation of growth, that I can speak

4160. Professor Johnston came to these con positively to its going on without the least clusions :– That in the leaves the proportionof

interruption, and that the treatmentwhich ash diminished as the plant grew , while in the I have recommended is not attended by stem it increased; that the proportion of phos any loss whatever of size or quality. I phates andofsilica inthe ash of the leaf was than in that of the stem ; that the much greater

can offer the most positive then, as proportionofalkaline matter in the ash ofthe thatthe It would appear, assurances tothis.” leaf remained nearly stationary, while in the stem

leaves are not necessary for the growth of it diminished astheplant grew; thatin both the the potato after the plant has done flower- proportion of silica diminished, while that of lime

ing. Mr Dooville's experiments were not and magnesia increasedot 80 successful in establishing this point yet succeeded in explaining originNoofonethehaspotato disease, or evenwhat it as of that of the soundness, for, in taking the4161. up two rows, the stems of which had been really is. Amongst other endeavours at explana

Transactions of the Highlandand Agricultural Society, March 1847,p. 688. + Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 435.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

260

tion of this mysterious subject, the interference

that the mould cannot be the cause of the disease

of that singular class of beings —— the fungi — has

in the potato, theRev. Mr Berkeley, than whom

been pressed into the service, but with as little success as the more obvious intermeddling of insects. That innumerable myriads of the sporules

no higher authority exists in this country on the nature of that mysterious class of plants - the fungi - expresses his belief in these words, of

of fungi are constantly afloat in the air is most certain ; but unless they find suitable matrices

mould being the cause of the disease : - “ The de.

of growth , they cannot vegetate and produce

cay ” [in the potato ,] writes Mr Berkeley, " is the consequence of the presence of the mould ,and not

fungi. Is the potato, prior to disease, a suitable the mould of the decay. It is not the habit of the matrix ? Of the kinds of fungi most common in organic matter, the Botrytis is the most remark. able; and the singular connexion of the Botrytis infestans with the potato disease of 1845 and 1846, will render it ever memorable.

allied species to prey on decayed or decaying mat ter, but to produce decay - a fact which is of the first importance. Though so many other species have this habit, these have not. The plant then

“ To say that becomes unhealthy in consequence of the presence

the disease was caused by this fungus," as has been observed by Mr Sidney, “ would be contrary to the best evidence ; but that it attends and accelerates it is unquestionable. True it is that whole fields, in a sad condition of disease, were

seen without a trace of botrytis; but in all contagion, infection , and inoculation, anomalies constantly occur. In most cases, the botrytis was entirely connected withthe disease, and a description of its growth will be interesting to every reader. The threads of mycelium interwove themselves amongst the cellular tissue. They ran through the loose intercellar passages of the lower surface of the leaf with great ease, and the fungi emerged through the stomata. It is a remarkable circumstance, however, that this botrytis was found to grow with greater luxuriance on the diseased tubers, where the tissue is far more dense than in the stems and leaves.

That the mycelium of the fungus was contained in the diseased potatoes, may be proved from the following singular circumstance A : - quantity of silk was, during the early part of the summer of this year ( 1846 ,) perceived to be greatly damaged by a white mould. On submittinga portion of itfor examination, to an individual eminent for a knowledge of fungi, it was at once pronounced to be the Botrytis infestans, or mould of the

of the mould, which feeds upon its juices and prevents the elaboration of nutritive sap in the leaves, while it obstructs the admission of air and the emission of perspiration. The stem is thus overcharged with moisture, and eventually rots, while every source of nutriment is cut off from

the half-ripe tubers. It would be as reasonable

to say, with our knowledge of the nature and habits of the cereal fungi, that bunt, or mildew, or the other allied diseases which affect corn, are the consequence and not the causes of disease. In favourable seasons they are not developed ; in unfavourable seasons they spread like wildfire: in one sense, therefore, the atmospheric condi tions are the cause, but merely as they stimulate into action the latent pest. The immediate cause of disease is the fungus which preys upon the tissues of the corn .

So exactly, in the present

instance, as far at least as the aërial portions of the plant are concerned , the botrytis is the immediate cause of destruction .

In some in

stances it may have been aided by unseasonable

frost, but this has certainly not always been the case . The mould indeed would not have spread ,

but from peculiar atmospheric conditions favour able to its growth . What these areit may be impossible to say ; but it is a fact well known to every student of the extensive tribe of fungi, diseased potato . The mystery was soon cleared that their growth , and especially their numbers, up ; for the silk had been dressed with starch depend more than all other vegetables on atmo

from potatoes, and proved a favourable situation spherical conditions, or what Fries has happily for the developmentof the fungus from the spawn that was in it.

Growth in such cases is ex-

called ' cosmica momenta. Even the peasant knows this to be the case with mushrooms. Dry

tremely rapid ; and when a potato plant is attacked by the botrytis, of course the juices are

and wet summers occur, and both are equally barren ; while in other seasons, apparently but consumed by it : the elaboration of sap in the little dissimilar, they occur in the utmost pro leaves cannot go on, nor, from the stoppage of fusion . A species will be most abundant for a the stomata by its threads, can admission of air, year or two, and then for a period vanish en or emission of any gas or fluid, take place. It is tirely. It is notorious that this is the case in certain that the disease which destroyed such

other parts of the creation , especially amongst

quantities of the potatoes in America, Great Britain, and over the continent of Europe, has not yet been satisfactorily explained . Further re-

swarm to such an extent as to baffle the naturalist.

searches, in plants more recently infected, may

cardui existed in the greatest profusion in Eng

insects, peculiar species of which sometimes In the summer of 1826, for instance, Vanessa

throw additional light on the important subject. land, and it was traced by Mr Way from Undoubtedly, in most instances the fungus ap- England to Nice. The species of late years has peared ; and where it was not actually seen been comparatively rare . There is nothing sur externally on the leaves, it seems to have exer- prising, then, in the fact of the immense preva cised an influence on the tubers, which are, in lence of a parasitic mould . No one wonders fact, branches or stems under ground, as every when the hop grounds are ravaged by their pecu botanist knows." liar mildew , because the cultivation of hops is so limited ; but if it were as universal, and of as 4162. Yet positively as Mr Sidney affirms much importance as potatoes, the ravages would *

Sidney's Blights of the Wheat, 145-8.

SUMMER -FALLOW .

261

equally exciteattention. It is by these instru- for a part of the crop of two consecutive Almightyis pleasedsometimes toaccomplish his years, is conducted simultaneously onthe fallow - break, yet the crops which occupy ends. Instances, like that of the Hessian fly, will readily occur of the immense disproportion the soil thus simultaneously prepared, are between the means and the end." *

committed to it at very different periods,

the green fallow - crops being sown early 4163. Although the potato plant, like the

in

summer , while the sowing of the bare is delayed till autumn ; so that, othercultivatedplants,istheabode of many fallowcrop

kinds of insects, yet it is perhaps less injured by them than those plants ; and I express my

before the latter makes its appearance

self thus inperfect recollection of the sensation above ground, the former have almost ad endeavo ured to be raised by Mr Smee, a few vanced to maturity.

years ago, against the Aphis castator as the originator of the potato disease; but the truth is,

Since the crop on

the bare-fallow is delayed until autumn

that in no instance has the aphis been seen on the till the eve of commencing another agricul potato plant in sufficient numbers to injure the tural year — the practicaleffect of the de

produce, far lesstodestroythe crop . Thelarva lay isto dispense with a crop for a whole of the heart- and -dart moth, Noctua exclama tionis, eats the haulm through just beneath the

year on the bare -fallow -break, and it is

earth, and the plant in consequence fades. It also attacks the potato itself; and so insensible is

called a bare- fallow .

on this account that such a fallowing is As an entire crop

it of cold,that so late as the 20thNovember is dispensed with in bare-fallowing, it it has been taken out of potatoes quite alive. should impart such advantages to the land When potatoes are left in the ground all winter, as to compensate for the rest and indul. they will attract all the wire-worms, fig . 253, in the neighbourhood towards them, and of course gence which it receives — and such are the

suffer damage. When potatoes become decayed advantages felt from it on some sorts of under ground, scolopendræ , Lithobius forficutus, soils : and the reason that the land receives and rove-beetles, Oxytelus nitidalus, subsist upon such indulgence is, that it cannot carry a the corrupting mass; and when they are affected by any fungus, the kind of mite called Oribates green or summer crop ; and if it cannot castaneus will surely congregate for the sake of bear them , it must be operated on so as to

feeding upon the botrytis and other fungi. A bear a crop that will come to perfection, rotten potato seems to be a favourite recep- and pay the expense of the fallowing. tacle for very many insects. “ I may mention , The sort of soils bare- fallowed are heavy says Mr Curtis, “ that from one growing and partially rotten potato, I bred,in August 1845, clays; and why will they not bear green

128 flies, independent of many more which had suminer-crops

?

A satisfactory reason

died in the pupastate, or been destroyed by cannot be given ; but experience proves damp and mites, before I discovered them in the that their nature is unkindly to the growth vessel in which the tuber was placed, as well as a multitude of smaller flies." +

of bulbous plants used in a green state ;

and their heavy, wet, and obdurate nature prevents them,at any rate, from being pre pared in time for sowing such plants. Could ON SUMMER-FALLOW.

clays be altered in their nature by any means, they might be employed in rais

4164. Summer-fallowing is the opera- ing summer-crops as well as the natu tion of cleaning that part of the land rally more kindly soils ; and such a change which does not bear a crop in the season hasbeen effected on many clay soils wbich it is cleansed , and the summer-fallow is were formerly incapable of rearing green

the land so cleansed. Although summer- crops,bythorough-draining, skilfultillage, fallow occupies the same division of the and liberal manuring and liming. In this farm as green crops — turnips, potatoes, way the bounds of bare - fallow have been

tares — yet it may most characteristically much circumscribed, andthose of green be regarded as the first preparation for the crops as much extended. Still the beavier crop of the following year; it is a trans- class of clays — the deep alluvial ones ference of a portion of the land, with the have not yet been ameliorated to the labour bestowed upon it, from one year degree of bearing green - crops profitably, to another; it forms the connecting link so they must continue to be bare -fal

between one season and crop and another. lowed; but part of even the ameliorated

But although the preparation of the soil, soil of almost every farm is necessitated * Journal of the Horticultural Society , vol. i. p . 23. + Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. x. p. 102.

262

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

to be bare -fallowed, for want of an ade- as time will afford from working the potato

quate supply offarm -yard manure. Farms and turnip land ; and should the fallow in the vicinity of large towns may be break not likely be worked for some time, amply supplied with extraneous manure, it is better to let it lie in the rough state to make up for the deficiencies of the from the plough, than to barrow it smooth ;

farm -yard ; but as most farms are be- because, dry weather ensuing, will more yond the reach of such assistance, it easily ameliorate rough than smooth land ; may be alleged that bare-fallowing, to wet weather will render rough land less some extent, must be practised every toughto work than when it is compact and

year upon every farm : though the limits smooth. When leisure from the turnip of compulsory fallowing have been much circumscribed, of late years, by the purchase of extraneous manure from distant sources, as guano and bone-dust, and

land permits attention to be paid to the fallow -break, its state should be particu larly examined. Should the weeds in the soil consist principally of fibrous sulphated bones, which are easily con- and fusiform -rooted plants, they will veyed, and sold at prices that afford a be easily shaken out by the harrows

profit.

These manures, superadded to in dry weather ; but should the roots

draining and deep -ploughing, bave afforded thread themselves through the hard round the power to cultivate green -crops upon clods, they will not be easily detached, soils which were naturally unfit for them ; and will require considerable skill and and, without such auxiliaries, soils even labour to do it. Inattention to the state

suitable for their growth would have been of the weeds causes much unnecessary obliged to be bare-fallowed , to allow time work in the subsequent part of summer

to collect the requisite quantity of manure. fallowing. If clods, containing portions Until manure , which is now procurable, of running roots, are knocked about in dry is procured in sufficient quantity, bare- weather, they may be broken into smaller fallow must exist ; and wherever that ones ; but so will the roots in them, and

shall be accomplished , bare-fallow will be the land be as far as ever from being dispersed with altogether. But a natural clean. In a case of such frequent occur obstacle exists against the increase of rence on strong land , the best plan is to manure on farms themselves ; for it so hap- allow the roots to grow for a time, and pens, that the largest quantity of straw , the force of vegetation will break the which is one great domestic source of fer- clods, or render them easily so by a clod

1

1

tilising manure, is afforded by land the crusher, after a shower of rain shall have least fitted for green crops ; and the land nearly penetrated them . A caution in the best fitted for them affords the smallest

use of the roller should here be given.

quantity. Turnip-soils cannot supply as if the soil is in fine mould, rolling the hard clods will only bury, not break them . be applied to green crops, for little more If the soil is not firm , harrowing the clods than one-half of the fallow -break ; where- two or three times will break them better as clay soils afford as much of it in the than rolling ; but after a long rest, the

much straw in the state of manure fit to

state in which the manure may be applied soil is not likely to be too soft at this time to bare-fallow , as sufficiently to manure for the roller. After a good clod- crush the fallow - break . 4165. The land to be bare - fallowed

ing, the land should be harrowed a double tine, first one way , and then across that.

The weeds may then be picked from the

should be the strongest on the farm , be surface. It is not expedient to gather them foulest of weeds, if any there be, and be immediately, as a good deal of fresh soil

situate farthest from the steading, that the adheres to them . A day or two of drought carriage of the green -crops to it may be should intervene, and the soil will then the shortest distance practicable. The fal- be easily shaken free from them with the low land is the last ploughed in winter, hand. and it should be so the same as for potatoes

( 2733) and (2734. ) If one furrow — that of two-out-and -two-in, ( 760.) fig. 25,-

4166. It has been recommended by writers to gather the weeds off fallow

has been given to the fallow -break after land by a raking implement, such as the cross-ploughing, (2613,) it will be as much American bay -rake, fig. 351 ; but every

1 . -

1

SUMMER -FALLOW .

263

instrument of the kind will rake together the land quite clean. It was once the clods as well as weeds, and should they be carried away with the weeds, the land will be impoverished by the lossofits finest soil. In collecting weeds, the field -workers should be ranged in a row as when weeding corn , two on every ridge, and every two to throw the weeds into the same

practice to work fallow land until it was reduced to the state of meal ; but experi ence has established that it is better for the

ensuing crop of wheat to preserve a good sized clod upon the surface of the ground in winter, however much the ground may

be otherwise pulverised. The land must

heap; and the heaps should be rowed as have been very foul, the weather remark

far asunder as to allow a cart to pass be- ably unpropitious, or much time wasted, tween them, to take away two rows at a if the fallow - land is not ready for the

time. Many writers recommend the weeds manure by the beginning of August, or to be burnt on the ground. No doubt, before the chance of harvest interfering weeds will burn readily enough when dry, with the process of manuring. and their ashes constitute good manure, but, for my part, I never saw weeds so

4169. The manure to be laid on the

thoroughly burned on the land, as to prevent them rendering the land again foul. I agree with Lord Kames, that it is better to make a vegetable compost of weeds, than to destroy them by incineration, and demand with him , “ What better policy

fallowed land, is that part ofthe farm -yard

than to convert a foe into a friend ? ”

manure which had been left over in the

courts at the time the dung was taken out of them for the turnips, ( 1999. ) The dung that had been made by the cattle and horses after that period, is now avail able. Whatever compost there is to spare

( 2043) is now used. The clearing out of 4167. The weeds most troublesome to every receptacle that contains materials fallow -land are couch - grass, Triticum convertible into manure, such as ash

repens, and oat-like grass, Arrhenatherum courts, privies, cess-pools, liquid -manures,

avenaceum, var. bulbosum . There is no get- pigeon -house,

poultry-houses, ponds,

ting rid of either of these but by hand- ditches, rubbish, and the like, is done at weeding, which ought to be very carefully this time. These materials are compounded done, otherwise the breaking off the small- together with the farm - yard dung, straw, est portion of the root of the couch -grass, or compost on hand, and made into a large or a bulb of the oat-grass, leaves in the dunghill in the compost-yard, Plates I. soil the origin of a future plant ready to and II., where it should be prepared propagate many around it . The annual to be ready to apply to the fallow land ineadow -grass, Poa annua, is a very com- by the end of July. The dung is not mon weed in cultivated soils, but its tufty fermented so much for bare -fallow as for

plants are easily shaken out of the soil, turnips, because it has time partially to and it only propagates by seed. In damp decompose before the wheat is sown ; but

soils, in strong land, the common colts- should there not be time for that, it foot, Tussilago farfara , is a weed which should be fermented the more that the cannot be eradicated. The only way of wheat may not stand all winter on ground getting rid of it is constantly to cut off hollowed by unfermented dung. the leaves as they grow up, and the plants will die out, or by trenching the soil and 4170. The usual preparation of bare picking out the roots. On light soils, the fallow land for laying dung upon , is to rest-harrow , Ononis ardensis, is a pest, feer it into ridges, fig. 19, (742.) If the which must also be hand -weeded . land has been drained, which it ought to be, the feering should be made for casting

4168. It is impossible to determine be- the ridges together, fig. 22, (755 ;) and as forehand how many times fallow -land the land will be again ploughed for the should be plonghed, harrowed, grubbed, seed -furrow , when the wheat is about to fig. 215, and clod-crushed, fig. 243 and be sown, the feering for casting the ridges

fig. 246, to render it clean ; but it should for receiving the dung, should be doneso be borne in mind, to incur the least ex- as to leave a single ridge on the side of

penditure of labour in fully accomplishing the field at which the ploughing commences, the object of fallowing, which is to make that when the land is ploughed for the

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

264

seed -furrow , the ridges may be cast to- and fed with tares or other forage plant, gether in pairs from one side of the field to brought to them. As one break of land is

the other. If the land still requires drain - sufficiently manured , a new one is enclosed.. ing, the safest mode of feering it will be This practice is called folding, and has that for gathering up from the flat, fig. 20, not as yet been introduced into Scotland. (749, ) leaving a half- ridge on the side of

the field fromwhence the ploughing com-

4174. Another mode ofmanuring fallow

mences, that the ridges may be whole and land, is sowing some kind of rapidly uniform , from one side of the field to the growing plant upon it, and then ploughing it in. White mustard, Sinapis alba, is a

other, after the seed - furrow has been

ploughed.

plant which might be employed in this manner with advantage. About 12 lb. of

4171. The dung is then carted out to the seed should be sown on the acre, and the fallow field, the dung hawked out, fig. after the plant has reached above 4 inches, 217, of the carts by each ploughman, in it should be ploughed in. The cost of this

heapsupon each successive ridge, in such seed is 4d. per lb. This operation is called on. with greenmany manuring, andmay be practised determined acreas quantitytothe The quantity of dung iswould be more other plants. equally laiddown, or rather more discri minatingly laid down, according to the

4175. It is supposed that light and heat, to

wants of the soil in different parts of the gether with cleansing and working, have a bene ficial effect upon soil. That these agencies pro mote fertility in some way, perhaps by affording

field, where the soil is unequal in heights and hollows, were the steward or other appointed man to hawk it out as the carts

facilities to the union of oxygenand carbonic acid with the soil, appears certain, for a smaller

came to the field .

quantity of manure will raise as large a crop

As bare - fallow land is

as a greater quantity without never so heavily manured as for green with yet fallow this particular resultisonly obtained it; andbare-

crops, from 12 to 15 tons to the acre is from a peculiar class ofsoils — namely, the strong

sufficient mannring for it. At least four clays, as all turnipsoils actually become more field -workers should divide and spread the fertile by the overshadowing ofaluxuriant crop of dung evenly over the surface of the ground leaves than by exposure in bare-fallowing. with ordinary graips, fig. 82, and the 4176. The following observations of Liebig ploughs follow them quickly in succession may explain the mutual action referred to of

from feering to feering, in order tocover in

the air and the soil. “ In the effects produced

possible from the by time, particularly in the case offallow, or the dung as rapidly as heat of the sun . It is too common a prac that period during which a field remains at rest," recognises certain , science continuously proceed means of tice, however , to spread the dung upon actions,which by chemical baré- fallowedland some time before it is

the influence exercised by theconstituentsof the

ploughed in.

atmosphere upon the surface of the soil. By the action of the carbonic acid and oxygen in the

4172. I much prefer ploughing in the dung in bare-fallowed land in drills. The drills are made in the single way, ( 2389,) across one corner of the field to the opposite one, at an indefinite angle with the line of the future ridges.

air, aided by moisture and by rain -water, the power of dissolving in water is given tocertain constituents of rocks, or of their debris, from which arable land is formed ; these ingredients,

in consequence of their solubility, become sepa rated from the insoluble constituents.

The dung is The samechemicalactions astheseproceed in our

land, and it is to accelerate andincrease hawked intothe drills, spread byfourfield- arable these that we employ the mechanical operation of workers, and coveredin with the ploughs culture .We renew the surface of the soil, and returning from making the drills, very endeavour to make every particle of it accessible similar to the dunging for potatoes and to the action of carbonic acid and of oxygen .

turnips, (2750.) Thedung isthusquickly eral substances,which are indispensable for the spread and covered up, and the land re nourishment luxuriance and

of a new generation Fallow , in its most ex that period of culture dur ing which a soil is exposed to the action of the

mains in the drill until the season for of plants. tended sense, means sowing the wheat arrives.

for the purposeof enriching it in certain 4173. Bare-fallow land is manured in weather, soluble ingredients . In a more confined sense, England by confining sheep upon it ,within the timeof fallow maybe limited to theintervals hurdles, fig. 40, or within nets, fig. 44, in the cultivation of cereal plants ; for a maga

1

SUMMER - FALLOW . zine of soluble silicates and of alkalies is an essential condition to the assistance of such

265

number of heaps each cart should afford in man uring an acre with a given number of cart-loads; but as heaps of manure are an indefinite stand ard of measure, such a table would practically prove of little service. A much more accurate plan is to number the ridges in an acre in each

plants. The cultivation of potatoes or of turnips during the interval, will not impair the fertility of the field for the cereals which are to succeed, because the former plants do not require any of the silica necessary for the latter. It follows, field , and at every part of a field where the from the preceding observations, that the mechani- ridges are of different lengths, as I have recom cal operations in the field are the simplest and mended in (573,) and lay down the dung on the most economical means of rendering accessible first ridge in the proportion it is proposed to to plants the nutritious matters in the soil. ” *

4177. Numerous weeds lurk about the margins

manure the acre , and by the time the second ridge is manured, the man who hawks out the dung will have found out how close the hawkfuls

of fields, rendering the cultivated ground near should be laid down, or how large the heaps them foul. Most farmers allow them to grow

should be made, ( 4171.)

without molestation in the ground not touched 4180. Green weed of very delicate texture,

by the plough, which is the narrow space along the fences, and the triangular space in the four corners of every field . This waste ground being

“found alone in protected situations in the estu aries of our rivers, is used in the upper parts of

well sheltered,and its soil being as good as that

the Forth , and still more so in the Eden in Fife shire. Mr Meldrum of Bloomhill, near St

of the field in which it is situate a, nd unexhausted by cropping, grows weeds easily and luxuriantly. Instead of allowing it to be waste ground, the plough should turn over the soil either towards the foot of the stone fence-wall, the root of the

hedge, or the lip of the ditch , or from these objects, and in either case , the distance from them

and the plough need not exceed 9 inches, by

putting the horses atrip, —that is, one beforethe otherin the plough, and giving the bridle of the plough more land. The corners where the plough cannot possibly reach , should be dug with the spade by the hedger. But independent of the consideration of the waste land lessening the ex tent of every field , the weedswhich grow upon it should be cut down by the field -workers in all the fields, whether bearing green or grain crops, at intervals of time during summer and autumn.

Andrews, besides collecting the weed on his own shore, rents that of his neighbours. He frequently

applies from 300 to 400 cart-loads in a single year, and reckons 10 cart-loads good, and 15

heavy manuring. When laid on in winter, and ploughed into the fallowground, it produces a fine pulverising effect. With this alone a wheat crop of 6 quarters an acre has been produced, with a heavy crop of beans the year after with out additional dung.”+ Such green weed can as well be laid on fallowed ground in summer, as on stubble in winter.

4181. On the varieties of green manures, and of their action on the soil, Professor Johnston has

the following observations : — “ The practice of green manuring has been in use from very early

Besides the slovenliness exhibited in neglecting periods. The second or third crop of lucerne was ploughed in by the ancient Romans-- as it by allowingthe seeds of syngenesious plants to still is by the modern Italians. In Tuscany, the to weed such places, loss is incurred elsewhere,

be carried about by the wind . Besides thistles, white lupinis ploughed in — in Germany, borage ragweed, dock, whin, and broom, other weeds -and in Holstein , spurry. The Madia sativa are found in those waste places, such as the common burdock , Arctium lappa, which is not the least formidable ; the hemlock, Conium maculatum , a well-known poisonous plant; the purple

fox -glove, Digitalis purpurea ; the annoying dandelion, Leontodon taraxacum ; and the great nettle, Urtica dioica .

In damp situations, Æn-

anthe crocata, water sap-wort grows; and what is remarkable in this plant, is the fact of its being poisonous in England, but innocuous in Scotland.

has lately been tried as a green manure in Sile sia . In French Flanders, two crops of clover are cut and the third ploughed in .” We have seen , from what Mr Fortune has observed, that the red clover is grown in China entirely66 for

the purpose of being ploughed in (3898. )

In

some parts of the United States, the clover is never cut, but is ploughed in as the only manure ;

in other parts, the first crop is cut and the second ploughed in . In some of the northern states,

Indian corn is sown on poor lands, sometimes

4178. The couch -grass, Triticum repens, is not

two or three times, and turned in during the In north -eastern China, a species of summer.

despised everywhere, as it is gathered from the land and washed, and sold in the markets of the

coronilla and a trefoil are specially sown and grown in ridges, as a manure for the rice crop .

south of Europe in bundles, of the size a small

Since the time of the Romans, it has

hay-fork would take up, for 3d. or 4d. each ; and

been the custom to bury the cuttings of the vine the horses and mules of those countries seem to stocks at the roots of the vines themselves ; and relish it as much as the boys do a stick of many vineyards flourish for a succession of years without any other manuring. In the Weald of liquorice. Kent, the prunings of the hop bine, chopped and

4179. As fallowed land is usually manured dug in, or made into a compost and applied to along the feered ridges, by depositing the loads the roots of the hop, give a larger crop, and with in heaps, I might here give a table showing the half the manure , than when they are burned or Liebig's Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture, 3d edition, p. 130-3. + Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xi. p. 308. -

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

266

thrown away, as is usually done. Buck-wheat, rye, winter-tares, clover, and rape , are all occasionally sown in this country for the purpose of being ploughed in. This should be done when

lea ; but in attempting the attainment of this end, the opposite error of rendering the soil too

loose for wheat is frequently committed ; at all events, the crop never looks promising after rag

theflower has just begun to open , and, if possible, fallowing, and, in truth, the expedient is never resorted to but by farmers

the air and the dryness of the soil are such as to facilitate decomposition. at a season when the warmth

who wish to take

advantage of their land.

4185. A species of spade husbandry has of late 4182. “ That the soil should be richer in vegetable matter, after this burial of a crop, than it was before the seed of that crop was sown , and should also be otherwise benefited, will be

understood by recollecting that perhaps threefourths of the whole organic matter we bury has been derived from the air -- that by this process

of ploughing in, the vegetable matter is more equally diffused through the whole soil, than it could ever be by any merely mechanical means --and that by the natural decay of this vegetable matter, ammonia and nitric acid are, to a

greater extent,produced in the soil , and its agricultural capabilities in consequence materially increased. Indeed, a green crop ploughed in is

years been recommended in Scotland as a sub stitute for summer-fallowing ; not on a small scale, as suitable to the case of cottiers and small farmers only , but on a large one, fitted for a

farm of the largest class. The only farmer I have heard of, who has practised spade-husbandry on a scale commensurate with ordinary farming in Scotland , is Mr Archibald Scott, Southfield, East Lothian . “ In 1831, " says Mr Scott, “ I determined to ascertain the difference of the expense and produce between trenching land with the spade, and summer -fallowing with the

plough in the usual way. I therefore trenched 13 acres of my summer- fallow break in the months of June and July. I found the soil

believed, by some practical men ,to enrich the soil about 14 inches deep ; and I turned it com as much as the droppings of cattle from a quantity pletely over, whereby putting up a clean fresh soil of green food three times as great. ”

in the room of the foul and exhausted mould , which I was careful to put at the bottom of the

4183. A kind of fallowing, technically named trench ; and this operation, I found, cost about rag-fallowing, is sometimes practised. This con- £3, 12s. per imperial acre, paying my labourers sists in pulverising lea ground in summer as a

with ls. 6d . per day. The rest of the field , con

preparation for wheat in autumn. The lea is sisting of about 11 acres, I wrought with the broken up in August, or as long before harvest as to allow time for the land to be worked ere

plough in the usual way, giving it 6 furrows, with the suitable harrowing : I manured the

the commencement of harvest ; and as the object field in August; the trenched got 7 cart-loads is to reduce the turf as much as possible, the first ploughing should be given with a shallow furrow . After the land has become dry, it should be

harrowed repeatedly in double tines along and

per acre , the ploughed land 14. The field was sown in the middle of September, and the whole

turned out a bulky crop as to straw , particularly the trenched portion, which was very much

across the ridges, in order to tear the furrow lodged. On threshing out both, I found them to slices to pieces, and to shake the earth from the turf. The turf then should lie some days to

stand as under :

dry, when it may be harrowed again , if it is it. After the turfs are much withered, the land should be cross - ploughed with a deep furrow to bring up a body of mould , which , when dry, should again be harrowed, and many of the turfs will be brought to the surface, still farther to

By trenched wheat, 42 bushels per acre, at 6s. 9d . £14 3 5

thought that any more earth can be shaken from

wither and die . The land should then be ploughed in ridges for the seed -furrow , to remain till seed time after harvest, by which time it will have consolidated and be ready for the seed.

To 2 years' rent , at 40s. per annum , » , expense of trenching ,

£4 0 0 3 12

0

,, seed , 24 bushels, at 6s. 9d . per bushel, 0 16 10 7 cart -louds of manure , at 3s. 9d . per 1

load ,

6

» , expense of harvesting, threshing and 14

marketing ,

10 19 1 £3

4

£ 11

9

.

Profit, at 6s, 9d. per bushel,

4184. The objection to this operation is, that it sacrifices the pasture after the month of

To 2 years' rent , at 40s. per annum , £4 0 0 6 ploughings and harrowings, at 88., 2 8 0 ,, seed , 24 bushels , at 6s . 9d . per bushel , 0 16 10 ,, 14 cart -loads of manure , at 3s. 9d .

August.

„ expense of harvesting, threshing and

Bu

as much wheat is sown in Eng

land after lea, and as lea-wheat is very liable to be attacked by the wire-worm , fig. 253, and even partially destroyed by that grievous pest, should

this rag-fallowing in any degree effect its destruc

4

By ploughed wheat, 34 bushels per acre ,

2 12

per load ,

1

marketing,

Profit,

4 0

-

11

1

4

£0

8

2"

tion, the operation is justifiable. In Scotland, This was but an experimental trial, and the re where wheat is not sown after lea, the destruc-

sult was certainly an encouragement to perseve.

tion of good pasture, at an early period of the

rance ; but it only proved that trenching land

season, is not justifiable. The expedient of rag-

with the spade might be a substitute for bare - fal

fallowing is adopted to form a consolidated mould lowing, it did not prove that summer-fallowing for wheat, when it is intended to be sown after mightbe dispensedwith, so another experiment * Johnston's Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, 5th edition, p. 160-2.

REAPING OF TURNIP SEED .

267

was worth the trial, to ascertain this important judgment, and several of them have made con point. Accordingly, Mr Scott “ now saw , that siderable experiments this year . I should think though it might be profitable to trench over the there are at least 300 acres under crop - cultiva fallow -break during the summer months, it was tion in this way this season in East Lothian, by no means making the most of the system, as while in 1831, when I commenced, there was not the operation was not only more expensive, a single acre . I have, therefore , the satisfaction

owing to the land being hard anddry in summer, of knowing, that I have been the means of caus ing £ 1000 to be spent this year amongst the whole year to perform an operation that could as labouring classes in my immediate neighbour well be done in a few weeks, provided labourers hood ; and I feel confident, that should the sea but that it was a useless waste of time to take a

could be had ; and as, in all agricultural opera- son turn out favourable for the wheat crop, and tions, losing time is losing money ; as the rent fair prices be obtained, their employers will be

must be paid whether the land is carrying a crop handsomely remunerated for their outlay. I do or not, so that in taking one year to fallow the

not mean to say that this system will succeed on

land, and another to grow the crop, two years' every description of soil, as it must necessarily be rent must be charged against the crop, or at least there must be a rent charged against the rota-

of some depth to admit of the operation ; but there are few districts where such soil will not be found

tion of crops for the year the land was fallowed ; as I felt satisfied, that, by trenching with the spade, the land would derive all the adrantage of a summer- fallowing, and avoid all the disadran-

in sufficient abundance to give employment to the population of the neighbourhood.* " I believe the adoption of this mode of fallowing land was made a question between landlord and tenant, and

tages attending it, I determined on trenching since the question was decided against the tenant, about 40 acres of my fallow -break, immediately on I have not heard of any instance of the process the crop being removed from the ground, and had it sown with wheat by the middle of November

being persevered in . I should like to see trenching established generally as a substitute for summer fallowing, and also to see the effect of trenching on land intended for green crops ; but in neither

1832 , and I did not apply any manure, as I thought the former crop was injured by being too bulky. As the crop is now threshed and disposed case ought the land to be taken advantage of to of, it stands per acre as follows : bear a crop without manure at the ordinary By average of 40 acres, 36 bushels, £ 12 12 0 at 7s. per bushel,

period of the rotation, and it would be better to apply a special manure which would check exu

.

berant growth in the straw , than not to apply

To rentof land per acre, £2 0 0 „ expense of trenching, » seed ,

manure to the soil.

3

4 0 16

0 0

14

0

» harvesting, threshing, and marketing,

7

4

0

£5

8

0"

ON THE REAPING OF TURNIP SEED.

Profit,

4186. While the turnip plant is grow This trial was also satisfactory, because it not only proved that trenching with the spade might

ing it is subject to several casualties from insects and birds.

Of the insects the

be substituted for summer-fallowing, but that summer-fallowing might be profitably dispensed

Cetonia aurata, green rosechafer, is found

on the flowers, and renders them abortive . rather sharp practice to make the same depth of It is one of the most beautiful of our

with altogether ; but it must be owned to be

soil, although its component parts were not in the insects, having a brilliant metallic green ,

same relation to oneanother, bear one crop im mediately after having borne another , and that often with a golden or copper hue. Its without manure, and at a period of the rotation length is three quarters of an inch. It is when manure is usually given to land . Mr found in numbers in England, but has Scott seems satisfied with the system ; but it only been observed one, two, or three times may be asked, How long will land bear this sys- in Scotland. The larva commits a good tem of trench -fallowing with impunity ? “ The advantages of trenching over summer-fallow are, deal of damage where it prevails, by feed in my opinion,” says Mr Scott, “ very decided, as ing in the same way as other chafers. The

is not only cheaper, but, as far as I can yet flower of the turnip seed is also infested

judge,much more effectual. I am so satisfied of by one of those universal pests, the aphides. noticed, but from the apparent condition ofthe Fig. 360 represents the winged male of land after it has carried the crop, that I have this autumn cultivated about 120 acres with the

spade, and the crops are at present, 1834, very promising. When I first commenced I was laughed my neighbours when they see at me bypersevering inwhat; but they now, considered

the plant-louse, Aphis floris-rapæ, which attacks the flowers ofthe turnip plant, when raised for the seed. It is dull pale green, dusted with white ; eyes, head, disc of the

thorax, and abdomen varied with black ; a very chimerical project, they suspend their feet black. Fig. 361 represents the wingless * Mr Scott's Letter to the Reo. C. Gardner, 8th March 1834.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

268

female of the same plant-louse. It is dull the Linaria cannabina, variously deno

pale green, powdered with white ; eyes minated grey, brown, or rose linnet, or rose -lintie, one of the sweetest warblers of our woods. There is no way of evading

Fig. 360

the attacks of these active marauders but

by constant watching from dawn to eve ; and the watching will be rendered more effectual by alleys being left crossing each other when the bulbs are transplanted, to allow the watchers to pass at pleasure in

된

various directions through the plot. (2479.) 4189. The crop should be cut down

with the sickle before it is ripe, as the WINGED MALE OF THE TURNIF - FLOWER PLANT

seed is very apt to shake out; and the best mode of preserving and winning the

LOUSE - APHIS FLORIS - RAPÆ .

seed is to place the stems in frames of

black ; feet black . “ Towards the end of wood having a hollow along their length, July," saysMr Cur- to allow theairto pass along ; and the stems tis, “ Ifound a multi- placed on it as upright as that their butt tude of these aphides ends shall project over the lower laths of

Fig. 361.

secreted

amongst the frame, and above one another, so as to

the short flowerstalks of the early white turnip, when a few only of the

form asort of thatching of stems. The upper part ofthe thatching is filled np and rounded with the smaller stems of seed, cut off from the larger, and the whole is covered

flowers were open. with straw , and bound down with straw They were of vari- ropes. When this plan is not adopted, WINGLESS

FEMALE

OF

ous sizes, but all the stems are bound in sheaves, set up in FLORIS -RAPÆ . riod ; by the middle then built in a stack ,which is thatched with of August, however, they had increased to straw bound down with strawropes. The THE TURNIP -FLOWER

PLANT-LOUSE — APHIS apterous at that pe- stooks and watched for some days, and

very large companies, with a few winged seed is threshed out by the flail, fig. 350, when wished to be disposed of or used.

specimens." *

4187. The turnip seed, when growing, is 4190. A crop of Swedish turnip -seed, seriously injured by the weevil named Čeu- when grown from the seed, is considered

terohynchus assimilis,referred to in (3299.) As weevils are so sensitive as to falì down, if suddenly approached, theymay be easily collected when they abound in the turnip-

good when ityields 28bushels per imperial acre; of yellow turnips, 20 bushels; and of globes,24bushels. When transplanted, the yield will perhaps double these quan

flowers left for seed, by shaking the stalks tities. over a bag-netor cloth ; and being so hard that they cannot be destroyed by stamp

ing upon them , they must be killed, when

ON MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE .

collected, with boiling water in a pail.

4191. The dairy operations of a farm of 4188. Long before the seed is ripe, mixed husbandry are limited, both in re small birds are busy in shelling it out of gard to the season in which, and the quan the husk ; and were they to destroy only tity of materials by wbich, they can be what they consumed, the loss, perhaps, prosecuted.

would not be great; but as they spill a great deal more than they consume, awhole pod is destroyed for thesake of one seed . In this depredation none are so active as

Until the calves are all

weaned, which can scarcely be before the end of June, (3838 ,) there is no milk to

spare to make into butter and cheese, but what should suffice for the inmates of the

" Journal of the Agricultural Society of England , vol. iii. p. 55.

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE .

269

farm -house; and as some of the cows, at breadth, and 10 feet in height, with the least, will have calved 4 months before walls and ceiling lathed and plastered , to the remainder are at liberty to yield milk Fig. 362. for the dairy, a quantity of milk cannot be expected from them , even when entirely supported on grass.

But though thus

limited, both in regard to time and milk , ample opportunity is nevertheless afforded forevery dairy operation, according to the taste and skill of the dairy -maid .

Thus,

mi

butter may be made from cream , or from the entire milk . It maybe made upfresh for market, or salted in kits for families or

dealers. Cheese may also be made from sweet and skimmed milk, for the market ; and any variety of fancy cheese may be made at a time, such as cream -cheese , Stilton , Gloucester, North Wilts. With all these means at command , to a moderate

a

extent, it is quite possible for the dairy maid to display as much skill and taste in

her art, on a farm of mixed husbandry, as on a dairy farm ; and not only in all these respects, but in the many forms in which milk maybe served on the table of the farmer . The only difference in the operations of a dairy farm , from one of mixed husbandry, is, that all its dairy operations

GROUND PLAN OF A MILK-HOUSE IN RELATION TO

are conducted on a much larger scale .

polished pavement, in order to allow it to be easily and quickly washed clean, and as

THE KITCHEN, IN A FARM- HOUSE.

keep the room cool and free of damp,that no mouldiness be generated — the bane of a milk -house, certain to contaminate the flavour of milk ; and the floor laid with

4192. The milk -house and cheese - room quickly dried . in a farm -house ought to be cool and

To obtain the former requisite, 4193. Fig. 363 is the plan of the cheese they should, if possible, be exposedto the room , situated immediately above the N., from which the air should be of the milk -house and kitchen -pantry in fig. purest description ; but should anyobstruc- 362, and in which k is the stair from the roomy:

tion exist against that, the rooms mayface to the E., which only admits the sun's rays

Fig. 363.

early inthe morning, when they are com

paratively weak. Besides being so ex

a

m

posed, to be always kept cool, the rooms should be situated in a back jamb, and not in the body of the house. In fig. 362, I have endeavoured to arrange the

m

milk - house and kitchen pantry, so as to stand conveniently in relation to thekitchen

h

and scullery, where a is the kitchen, d the back kitchenor scullery, in which are erect

ed a boiler e, for heating water to scald the dairy utensils, a force pump to supply cold water, and f a sink to remove the dirty d

water ; k , thekitchen pantry, disconnected

from the kitchen by a passage and door; m , the milk -house , having two windows facing to the N. or E .; a lock -up closet n; shelving o, of stone around; and the di mensions 18} feet in length , 12 feet in

k

PLAN OF CHEESE- ROOM, & c., FOR A PARM - HOUSE.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

270

kitchen to the passage g, from which the

4195. Common stoneware milk -dishes

cheese - room h isentered . This room is pro- are brown outside and glazed yellow in

vided with three windows, facing either N. or E., with broad wood shelving m, all round, for theaccommodation of thecheeses in their various stages to maturity, in which the wood- flooring should be made to assist. The walls and ceiling should be lathed and plastered . The lower halves

side, of round form , tapering to the bot tom , and without a mouth to pour the milk by. When 15 inches in diameter, and 4 inches deep, inside measure, they cost 9d. each. They are easily cleaned and broken , and the glazing is not durable.

of the windows should be provided with

4196. Fig. 364 represents a milk -dish

Venetian shutters outside of the glass sashes, to regulates the air into theroom

Fig. 364.

when the window are opened . This cheese -room is 29 feet in length , 12 feet

in width , and 9 feet in height. The letter l indicates a stair to a garret above, for containing lumber ; butshould it be desired to give a loftier height than 9 feet to the ceiling, the part ofthe garret above the cheese -room might be dispensed with, and a lathed and plastered ceiling carried up to the roof of the house .

WEDGEWOOD -WARE MILK-DISH.

of white Wedgewood ware, of an oval form ,

4194. The utensils with wbich a dairy 16 inches long, and 3 inches deep, inside should be supplied comprise a large num- measure, with a mouth. This ware is hard,

ber of articles of simple construction. The not easily broken, the glazing durable, and milk -dishes are composed of stoneware, easily cleaned. A dish of this size costs 6s. glass, wood, metal, and stone. The stone- Wedgewood, or white ware, is also made ware consists of common ware and Wedge- of the form of the wooden one of cooper wood ; the wooden of cooper-work ; the work, fig. 366 , with the addition of two metal of block-tin and of zinc ; the stone handles to lift the vessel by. of sandstone, pavement, and marble po 4197. Fig. 365 represents a milk -dish lished. Besides these simple elements, a combination of materials are used, as,

Fig. 365.

wooden vessels lined with block -tin and

zinc, and German cast - iron lined with porcelain . Of all these , the stone and wooden ones lined with metal are station ary, and the others movable .

The form of

all milk-dishes should be broad and shal

low , for the purpose of exposing a large surface with a shallow depth of milk , to facilitate the disengagement of its several parts. A difference in opinion exists, which of those substances have the great est influence in disengaging the largest quantity of cream from the milk. But,

GREEN GLASS MILK- DISH .

independently of the quantity of cream , made of light green - coloured glass, of a other circumstances determine the choice circular form , 16 inches in diameter, and

Wooden ones require 4 inches deep, and with a mouth. It is ur h muc labo to keep them thoroughly easily cleaned , and easily broken, if care

of milk- dishes.

clean , and are the least liable to be lessly handled . The cost of a dish of this injured in the use.

Metal ones also size is 4s. 6d. Glass milk-dishes were first

require much cleansing, and are liable to be bruised . Stoneware is easily frangible , though very easily cleansed. "Glassis as easily cleansed,and perhaps more frangible.

introduced to public notice a few years ago, by the celebrated glass manufacturer, Mr Pellat, of London, and are now manu factured by various makers.

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE .

271

4198. Fig. 366 represents the common tain from 2 to 3 inches of milk. When

wooden milž -dish, made of cooper-work , made of wood lined with zinc, block -tin, Fig. 366.

Fig. 368.

WOODEN MILK -DISH .

composed of staves of oak and flat hoops of iron, and without a mouth. It is made 16 inches in diameter, and 4 inches deep, inside measure ; and costs 2s. each. This

is the most durable of milk -dishes, though it requires much scrubbing when in use to

A FIXED MILK.COOLER OP MARBLE , OR OF WOOD LINED WITH METAL.

is theones, same as this. lead, the formmarble keep it clean, and the iron hoops bright, tin, orsandstone as a, fig. and The

which they should always be.

368, are each bewn out of single blocks and

4199. Fig. 367 represents a milk -dish polished, and placed upon upright slabs ; made of zinc, of a circular form , 18 inches and the wooden ones, which support the metallic lining, are framed along the walls Fig. 367. of the milk-house, and subdivided into separate coolers. It is only in large dairies that these fixed coolers are used.

4201. Dr Taylor has these observations in regard to the use of vessels made of zinc for dairy purposes : * Zinc has been lately ZINC MILK-DISH,

used in making utensils for holding milk during the separation of cream . It is pro bablethat some of the lactate of zinc is

in diameter, and 3 inches deep, provided with a mouth, and costs, of thissize, 28. each, the price varying 3d., more or less, for every inch in the diameter. It requires much cleansing, and is apt to be bruised,

here formed, as well as a combination of the oxide of zinc with casein . I have been informed that milk and cream , which were allowed to stand in such vessels, have given rise to nausea and vomiting. This though not easily broken . practice would not be allowed under a pro per system of medical police. When an 4200. These are all movable dishes : a acid liquid has been placed in a zinc vessel, fixed one is represented by fig. 368, made there is a strong chemical action, and the

of stone - sandstone, slate, or marble- liquid becomes invariably impregnated the last being the best material, being with a salt of zinc. A cider merchant cool, cleanly, and handsome. An orifice kept for three months a quantity of cider is made in the bottom, at the near side,

in vessels made of zinc. It was observed

through which the milk runs out of the that the liquid had then acquired an acrid cooler, as also the water which has been and styptic taste. ,

used to wash it clean. The dimensions found to contain a large quantity of acetate may be made at pleasure, 3 feet long and of zinc. It had, therefore, become de 2 feet broad being a good size ; but the cidedly poisonous.” Milk kept in zinc depth should not exceed 4 inches, to con- vessels until it becomes sour, would, I have

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

272

no doubt, produce a similar poison . When milk is so delicate a fluid, and so easily affected by any deleterious substances, great caution ought to be practised in using

trict are constrained , as a condition of their residence, to abstain from the flesh of the cattle living within the same limits, as well as from the milk and its preparations.

any metallic vessels in the dairy which The inhabitants, with aincredible, recklessness of carry human life which seems might possibly injure its quality. the butter and cheese which they them 4202. Besides the substance of the ves-

selves dare not eat, to the markets of the

sels containing milk causing it injury by towns west of the Alleghanies, and thus direct action , milk is affected by the poisons there are frequently produced symptoms taken by animals, being absorbed into their of poisoning, and evendeath, for which the lacteal system . “ It is generally admitted medical attendant cannot account. It is that milk

may

become poisoned when the also stated that the cattle from these dis

cow feeds upon hysop, Gratiola officinalis, tricts are sent for sale in great droves over and spurge, Euphorbium peplus,and other the mountains ; but, in order to deceive the irritant vegetables; and this form of buyers as to the place whence they come,

poisoning is well knownto occur in other they bring them to New York by a south cases in which the cause is not so apparent. ern route, and style them southern cattle.'

A patient was advised by his medical The flesh of these animals produces, in attendant to drink the milk of a cow fed those who make use of it, symptoms of on hemlock, Conium maculatum . The aggravated cholera morbus. The viscera animal became emaciated, lost its milk, of the animals are often found diseased,

and, fortunately for the patient, died from and the livers almost universally so. the effects of the poison, or it is not im- Owing to the symptoms which have fol

probable that he might have fallen a vic- lowed the use of the beef and cheese thus timto this plan of treatment. Milk also poisoned, the American government caused easily undergoes changes according to a medical inquiry to be instituted into the the food of the animal.

It is ren

matter, with a view to prohibit the sale."

dered bitter when the cow feeds on worm

4204. But farther still, the milk of the wood, Artemesia absinthium ; on sowfor the thistle, Sonchus alpinus; the leaves of the mother may become a 66medium Two ewes were

artichoke, Cynarascolymus ; and its taste transmission of poison.

is affected by the cabbage, carrot, and all bitten by a rabid dog. Rabies appeared strong smelling plants, and the effects ex- in themabout six weeks after the bite, and tend to butter, cheese, and all articles of they were killed . One had two lambs, food prepared with milk ."

the other one.

At first they were per

mitted to suckle.

The lambs were subse

4203. But all the effects of poisoning quently attacked with rabies, and were may be produced by milk without the then killed. It appears highly probable cow being apparently affected by the pas- that they received the poison through the

ture. “ In some extensive districts of milk, because they were removed from the North America, to the west of the Alle-

ewes a month before these became affected ;

ghanies, the herbage has no injurious effect there was no mark of their having been upon the animals which are there pastured, bitten, noris it proved that a sheep can com but their milk and flesh, when used as food, municate the poison by a bite, either before are poisonous to man . The disease pro duced by the use of the flesh and milk of

or after it has been attacked with rabies. " *

animals fed in those districts, is known

4205. Another utensil requiredfor the

under the name of milk - sickness or trembles.

use of the milk is a milk sieve, fig. 369,

On account of the prevalence of this which consists of a bowl of wood formed malady in a particular locality, which is of plane-tree, having an orifice in the bot generally strictly circumscribed, the early tom , which is covered with wire gauze, in emigrants were often compelled to seek order to detain the hairs, on letting the milk

another; and those who now venture pass through it, that may bave fallen into within the boundaries of an infected dis- the milking -pails from the cows in the act * Taylor On Poisons, p. 499, 561 , 563, and 823.

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE .

273

of being milked, ( 2245. ) The gauze is with muslin to keep out dust and let in commonly made of brass-wire, and, when

Fig. 371.

Such a jar air. costs 8s. to 10s.

Fig. 369.

4208. Unless

the milk-house is kept thoroughly clean , in its walls,

floors, and shelves, the milk will soon

become tainted ; and, to keep them clean, the floors and shelves should be made of mate

THE MILK- SIEVE.

keptbright,answers the purpose ; but silver

rials easily and

wire is much less likely to become cor roded by use. Such a sieve, 9 inches in diameter, with brass wire gauze, costs

quickly cleansed.

Shelving is most ly made of wood,

18. 3d.

and flooring of pavementorbrick . Wooden shelves

4206. The creaming dish, fig. 370, made THE CREAM - JAR,

Fig. 370.

are easily cleaned,

but are too warm in summer.

Stone

ones are better, but must be polished ,

otherwise they cannot becleaned, without being rubbed with sandstone. Marble shelving is the best for coolness and clean liness, and is not very expensive. Po

lished pavement makes a more durable, easier cleaned, and cooler floor than brick .

THE CREAM - SKIMMER.

of stoneware, is called the skimmer or

Ample means of ventilation are required in a dairy ; the object, however, not being so much a constant change or a larger quantity of air, as an equality of temperature throughout summer and winter. To obtain this, the win dows, which face N. or E., should not

creamer, for taking the cream off the milk. be opened when the temperature of the It is thin , circular, broad and shallow,

air is above or below the proper one,

having on the near side a smooth edge to which may be stated at 50° Fahrenheit,

pass easily between the cream and the and to ascertain which a thermometer milk, and at the upper side, an indentation ought always to be suspended within the for the thumb of the right hand to rest in, milk-house. The milk -house should be

and a mouth on the right side to pour out thoroughly dry; the least dampness in the the cream by into any vessel. At the walls and floor will emanate a heavy

bottom are a number of small holes to fungus-like odour, very detrimental to the allow the milk to pass through and leave flavour of milk and its preparations. All the cream pure and thick in the skimmer. the utensils should be kept thoroughly Such a skimmer costs 1s.

clean, and exposed to and dried in the

open air. Some dairymaids are so care 4207. The cream , until it is churned , is less in this respect, that I have seen seams kept in a jar of stoneware, as in fig. 371 , of green and yellow rancid butter lurking about 18 inches in height, and 10 inches in in the corners and anglesof churns, and a

diameter, provided with a movable top, heavy smell of dirty woollen rags emanat having an opening in its centre, covered ing from the newly washed wooden utensils. VOL . 11 .

8

274

PRACTICE-SUMMER.

However effectual woollen scrubbers may the milking before this; and a third put be in removing the greasiness of milk and

on the dishes containing the milk drawn

butter on wooden articles, they should before the second milking, and wbich

never be employed in a dairy, and only contain the third milking, or oldest milk. coarse linens, which should be washed clean in hot water without soap, and dried in the air. All the vessels should be quickly dried with linen cloths, that no feeling of clamminess be left on them , and then exposed to the air. In washing

If the cows are milked three times a -day, when the first mark is put on the dishes of the evening milking, those containing the morning milking of the same day will have 3 marks, to indicate that the milk was from the third milking previous, and

stoneware dishes, they should not be dried the dishes of the mid -day or second milk at that time, but set past singly to driping will have 2 marks. At every milking and dry ; and rubbed bright with a dry every utensil used should be thoroughly

linen cloth when about to be used. If cleaned, and set past dry, ready for use dried and set into one another, after being when required. washed, they will become clammy. The great objection to using stone milk4210. It is always satisfactory to know

coolers is the difficulty of drying them the quantity of milk obtained from each thoroughly before being again used , an milking of the cows. When the number objection which does not apply to marble. of cows is large, it may be troublesome No milk -house should be so situated as to to measure all the milk with a small mea admit the steam arising from the boiler, sure, such as a quart ; and when much which supplies hot water for washing the trouble is imposed on the dairymaid, the

various utensils; nor should the ground probability is that the ascertaining of the before its windows contain receptacles for quantity will be regarded a trifling matter,

filth and dust, but be laid out in grass,with and the quantity will be guessed.

A

a few evergreens. It is said that the rapid way of ascertaining the quantity in odour of the blossom of the common elder, any commonly used vessel, is to have a Sambucus nigra, keeps off flies in sum- stick with marks upon it, each indicative

mer ; but I have also heard it stated, that of a quart, in the depth of the vessel used. the same powerful odour affects the taste When the vessel is a tub, the contents

4209. Milk.– The articles which engage the dairymaid's attention within the dairy are milk , butter, and cheese ; and, first, as to milk. On treating the milking

may thus be very easily ascertained by gauging it with the stick, and a stick may also be madeto gauge the contents in quart of any irregularly shaped vessel, by having the marks on it placed nearer or farther asunder, according to the form of the

of cows, I bave said that the milk is drawn

vessel.

of the milk.

from the cow into a pail ( 2245,) the most 4211. The next business of the dairy 197, and the size may suit the pleasure maid, as regards the milk, is to take the of the dairymaid. The milk, on being cream off it. In ordinary weather in

convenient form of which is given in fig.

drawn from the cows, is put into a tub, summer, the cream should not be allow

and left to cool; but not to become so cold ed to remain longer on the milk than 3 or stand so long as to separate the cream . milkings ; that is, when a fresh milking is The tub should be placed in the air, and brought in, the cream should be taken off out of reach of animals, such as cats and the dishes which already have 3 marks, dogs.

After it has cooled, the milk is when the milk will be 20 or 22 hours old .

passed through the milk-sieve, fig. 369, into the milk-dishes, and as much only is put into each dish as not to exceed 2 inches in depth. To know at once the age

But should the weather be unusually warm, the milk should not be allowed to be more than 18 hours old — that is,in the dishes having 2 marks — before the cream of milk in the dishes, one mark or score is taken off it. As an example of ordinary

should be made with chalk on the dishes just routine, the cream of the previous mid

filled, to show that they contain the last day's milk should be taken off in the drawn milk ; a second mark is made, at morning, and at mid -day the milk of the the same time, on the dishes containing previous evening should be creamed, and

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE .

275

so on ; but when the weather proves very containing vessel is at rest, and the agita warm , the creaming should be anticipated tors in rotative motion horizontally ; those by one meal, and taken off the two oldest in which the containing vessel is at rest, meals at one time ; and in this way all the and the agitators in rotative motion verti

cream that can be got is taken off every cally ; and those wherein the containing 18 hours. The reason for using this anti-

vessel is at rest, and the agitator having a

cipation in taking off the cream is, that rectilineal vertical motion. the milk should on no account be allowed to turn sour before the cream is taken off,

4213. Of the varieties of churns, it is

because the cream off sour milk always only necessary to mention those in most makes bad butter. Let sweet cream be- common use. The old - fashioned upright

come ever so sour after having been taken plunge churn, belonging to the fourth of off sweet

milk, and no harm will accrue the classes mentionedabove, when worked to the butter. Not that sour cream off by the hand, is now chiefly confined to the sour milk is useless, or really deleterious, use of small farmers and cottars; but when

as it may be eaten with relish by itself, inanimate power is employed to move it, as a dessert, or with oatmeal porridge. it is used by many extensive dairy far The cream is skimmed off milk with the mers . The barrel-churn, which belongs skimmer or creamer , fig. 370. There is to the first class referred to above, and no other way of taking cream off dishes which was so much in vogue upwards of

but with a skimmer ; but in stationary coolers of metal or of stone, a spigot is drawn half out from a hole in the bottom , on the near side, through which the milk runs slowly into a vessel below, and leaves

twenty years ago, is now disused. It has been superseded by the box - churn , whose agitators move vertically, and which be longs to the third class mentioned above . One seldom sees the box-churn with hori

the cream on the bottom of the cooler- zontal agitators, which belongs to the se cond class referred to above - and it may be

and this manner of separating the cream

from the milk is quite effectual; but, of concluded that it is not convenient for use course, the skimmer may be used for creaming the milk in coolers, as well as in dishes . The cream when taken off the milk is put into the cream jar, fig. 371 , in which it accumulates until churned into butter. Every time a new portion of cream is put

by the hand ; and when used at all, it is so in town-dairies , where it is driven by power. 4214. Table- churn.- In the class just

mentioned stands the table -churn, remark able for its elegance and cleanliness ; and,

into the jar, its entire contents should be being adapted for the lighter purposes stirred , in order to mix the different portions of cream into a uniform mass. The stirring is usually done with a stick kept for the purpose, but spoons of Wedgewood

of the butter -dairy, I have considered it as deserving a place here. This uten sil is represented in fig. 372, in per spective, in the most improved form , with

ware or of wood , or of bone, are made for outer case to contain hot or cold water. doing it. The cream soon becomes sour The chief part of this utensil is the

in the jar, and it should not be kept too long, as it is apt to contract a bitter taste. Twice a -week the contents of the jar should be made into butter, however little the quantity may be at a time. The skimmed

Wedgewood receptacle a, formed of the finest and strongest white glazed ware of that manufacture : they are of various sizes, from 1 to 4 gallons capacity ; it is

furnished with a varnished wooden cover milk is put into a tub and made into b. The outer case c is made of sheet zinc cheese ; but if a cheese is only made at or of tin plate : it is 2 inches wider than

every other churning, the skimmed milk the churn, furnished with handles c, and to be kept for the cheese should be scalded two ears to which the iron cross-bar e is

attached by two thumb -screws e and d , serving to secure the cover to the top of 4212. Churns.—The various forms of the vessel. A brass socket f is fixed in churns may be classed under four kinds : the cover, and an iron spindle, armed with on the fire before it is put into the tub.

-Those in which both the fluid and the three vanes, is fitted to turn in the socket ; containing vessel, with its agitators, are a wooden pulley is nsually placed in the

in rotative motion ; those in which the position of the wheel g on the top of the

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

276

spindle, and, when secured there, it holds bow being rather an awkward medium of the spindle and cover in constant connec- power , especially in non -mechanical hands, Fig. 372.

Fig. 373.

an attempt has been made to substitute for it, the common

c

winch - handle

turning vertically. This arrangement is exhibited in fig . 372, where h is a tooth-bevelled wheel, on the axle of which the handle i is fixed ; and it works into the bevelled wheel g fixed on the top

of the agitator spindle f, in the place formerly oc

cupied by the pulley ; the two standards 1 1 being THE AGITATOR . fixed on the cover b, to

carry the axle of the wheel h . By this ar rangement, two turns of the handle i pro duces the same result in the agitator as was done by one stroke of the buw ; and the

motion of the handle being reversed at

tion.

every second revolution, the ultimate effect is the same as before, and the manual ope THE WEDGEWOOD TABLE - CHURN . ration is more easily effected in the one The common drill-bow is the usual case than in the other. On being used, all

medium of power, the string of which be- the parts of the churn should be taken

ing held in tension by the elasticity of the asunder and cleansed . steel-back or bow, any movement back ward or forward of the instrument will

4215. It is well known that a certain

cause the pulley and spindle to revolve, and the movements are effected by applying the hand to the handle of the drillbow, When the cover and spindle have been secured by the screws e d, and the bow -string applied as above, which is effected by bending the bow until the

elevation of temperature is acquired by the fluid in the process of butter-making, and that the process is acceleratedby pro ducing this temperature artificially, from the application of heated water. For this purpose water is applied externally to the vessels containing the milk and cream ,

string is sufficiently relaxed to allow of its and not in mixture with them. Fig. 372 being laid once round the pulley, the bow exhibits the application of this process to is then allowed to expand, and the opera- the utensil now under consideration, where tion proceeds.

The drill-bow motion is c is the water- case formed of tin -plate,

admirably adapted to reversing the motion zinc, or of wood, at the bottom of which

of the pulley ; for, in pushing the bow for- is fixed a circular stand to place the re ward by the hand, the agitator will be ceptacle a upon , that the water may be made to revolve 2 or 3 times,the number under as well as around the receptacle. being in the proportion of the length of Wood, from its non -conducting quality , is the string to the circumference of the perhaps better adapted than any metalfor

pulley; and in drawing them back the a water -case. Water brought to the

pro

samenumber of revolutions will be per- per temperature is poured into the space formed in the opposite direction ,and so between the case and the retaining vessel,

on till the process iscompleted. Fig. 373 is a view of the agitator: a a a are the vanes of strong tin -plates with perforations, 6 is that part of the spindle that

and if found necessary to increase or di minish the temperature, part of the con tained water is drawn offbelow bya spigot, and hot or cold added torestore the requi

turns within the socket, and c that on site degree of heat. Experience seems to

which the pulley is fastened. The drill- point out, that, in operating on the large

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE .

277

scale in wooden dessels, no extraneous heat sufficient surface to produce the requisite

is required, the naturally acquired heat degree of agitation in the fluid. The two appears to be sufficient; especially if aided pairs of arins are half-lapped at the centre, in winter by the admixture of a small and the cross-bars mortised into them ; the

quantity of moderatelyheated water, and dimensions in length and breadth being the non -conducting quality of the wooden suchas to allow it to move with freedom vessel retains it ; whereas the stoneware within the box. At the centre, a perfora

vessel will be continually abstracting heat, tion is made through the sides to admit and giving it off by radiation, if not sur- the iron spindle, which, at this part, is a

rounded by a medium ofequal temperature. square bar, fitting neatly into socket-plates of iron let into the agitator on each side, 4216. Bor hand - churn . - Fig. 374 re- as seen in the figure at a. The winch

presents one 18 inches in length , 11 inches handlef, fig. 375, is shipped, when in work , on the near end of the spindle upon a

Fig. 374.

square stud. In rigging this apparatus, the agitator is placed within the box, and

the spindle is pushed through the outer bush and the agitator, until its two jour nals rest in the bushes; a coupling-ring is then screwed on to the outer bush, until

the spindle with the agitator just turns round with freedom in the bushes.

To

prevent the ring from turning round by the motion of the spindle, a smooth ring or washer of steel may be interposed be tween the collar and the brass ring. Vari ous other modes of securing the spindle are employed, but in all the object is to

prevent leakage at the bush . To prevent taint from galvanic influence, also, it is not uncommon to apply bone or other animal THE BOX HAND - CHURN .

substance for the bushes.

This form of

in width, and 20 inches in depth, inside churn maybeenlarged to any dimensions measure. Birch or plane-tree are the best materials for the purpose, and it requires to be very carefully joined so as to be watertight. It is of very small moment whether

to suit hand labour or power; and the only modification I have seen of its construc tion, when on a large scale, is the inser tion of the bars of one of the pairs of arms

the bottom is formed to the circle of the along instead of across the arms.

agitator, or remains flat in as far as the production of butter is to be considered ;

4217. Butter . - On converting cream

but for theprocess of cleansing, the curved into butter, the first act is to put the churn bottom will present some advantages. into a proper state. It is assumed that A cover of the same material is fitted the churn, when last used , was put aside in Fig. 375.

close in

the

a thoroughly clean and dry state. This

top of the box, being the case, a little hot water, about 2 with

conve

quarts, should be poured into it to scald In summer it should be

nient handles.

and rinse it.

The agitator,

rinsed with cold water after the hot, but

fig. 375, is of not in winter. Some people sprinkle a the usualform :

little salt in the churn before the cream

the dimensions is put into it ; but whether it doesany of its parts are good or not I cannot say. The churn unimportant, being thus prepared , the cream is strain except THE AGITATOR OF THE BOX

HAND - CHURN .

that

ed into it through a bag of coarse linen

they have suffi- cloth, well known under the name of cient strength, cheese- cloth. This cloth is always washed and present without soap, and kept sweet by exposure

278

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

to the air. It is dipped in water, and than is necessary , and the butter will be then held over the churn ; and on the strong tasted ; and, when the motion is cream being slowly poured into it from too rapid ,the butter will be soft and frothy,

the jar, the liquid part will runthrough and is said to have burst. In very warm into the churu : but the clotted part — which will contain in it dust, drowned flies, moths, and other impurities, which it is impossible to keep out of a cream -jar, which is opened every day - the cloth will keep back, on being gently pressed. The temperature at which cream is put into the churn has a considerable influence on the

weather, or when the cream is put in too warm, that is, much above 55° Fahrenheit, the churning is liable to burst with any degree of fast motion, and then the judg ment is specially required to regulate the motion. I suppose that the most proper motion in churning, at the respective periods of the changes undergoing in the

time which the butter will take to make, cream , has never been ascertained by ex

and also on the weight of butter obtained periment, but to determine which, though

from a given quantity of cream . It has tedious, would be important. When but been found that 55°' Fahrenheit is the temperature which best attains these ends ; and it is one easily attained in a cool apartment early of a summer's morning.

ter forms from cream in churning three quarters to one hour, it is satisfactory work ; when it comes much sooner it is soft, and when much later it is strong

The churning should be done slowly at tasted. The temperature ofthe cream by first, until the cream has been completely agitation, during churning, rises 3° or 4 °. broken - that is, rendered a uniform mass, 4218. The utensils required for the use of when it becomes thinner, and the churning is felt to be easier. During the break- butterare — a smalltub for putting thebutter

ing of the cream , a good deal of gas is in from the churn ; a wooden flat shallow evolved, which escapes from under the kit of the form of fig. 366, and 20 inches cover. When the motion of churning is diameter, to wash the butter in ; scales rotatory, in a large churn, it is continued and weights for weighing the butter before in the same direction , and not changed being made up in pounds and half-pounds;; backward and forward. I am not sure a stoneware jar for keeping salt dry ;

that a satisfactory reason can be given for stoneware jars orwooden firkins for pack making the motion uniform, except that ing salted butter in ; moulds for stamping the agitation is sufficient for the making prints on butter made up for the table or of butter; but the opinion is, that the market ; and covered dishes of glass or entire butter is formed more simultaneous- stoneware, for holding fresh butter in ly ; and that the backward and forward pounds and half-pounds. inotions make the butter soft. In the table 4219. Immediately on being formed, churn described above in fig. 372, the motion is reversed, because the cream would butter should be taken out of the churn ,

not be sufficiently agitated in a churn of and put into the small tub for the purpose. cylindrical form , the cream acquiring the Cold water is then put into the flat kit, motion and velocity of the vanes of the which is set in an inclined position, and agitator. After the cream has been broken , the butter is washedby being kneaded out the motion may be a little increased , and and rolled up several times on the bottom continued until a change is heard in the of the kit, amongst the water ; and then sound within the churn, from a low smooth lumps of it are taken in hand, and beaten

to a harsh tone, and until an unequal re- with the palms of the hand alternately, in sistance is felt to be given to the agitators. order to deprive it of every particle of the The butter may soon be expectedto form butter-milk, the least portion of which after this, and , by increasing the motion a would soon render it rancid . The milky little more, it will form the sooner ; and, water is poured off and fresh poured in,

the moment it becomes firm and the agi- and the butter is again washed and worked tators are felt to be impeded, the motion as often as the water becomes milky. If should cease . The rates of motion in

intended to be kept or disposed of in a

churning butter at different times are offresh state, the washed lump is divided some importance, for, when performed too into pound or half-pound lumps each, slow, a longer time is spent in churning weighed in the scales, and placed in sepa

1

279

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE .

rate lumps in the tub amongst water. whether of wood or of any other material. Each of these lumps isthen clapped firmly As to cold water injuring butter, there be by the hand,and moulded into the usual ing no affinity between fatty matter and

form in which pounds and half-pounds of cold water, the latter cannotdissolve any butter are disposed of in the part of the essential ingredient out of the former ; at

country in which your farm is situate. any rate,water will more effectually unite When sold in whole pounds the form is with, and thereby take away the milky usually cylindrical, of about 8 inches in substance from butter than any instru length ; and when in half-pounds in round ment manipulated dryly with all the art

flatprints bearing a device, such as a rose , the hand alone can use.

Let the trial be

a thistle, a stag, a swan, or the nameof made both ways, and their comparative the dairy . For the table, any requisite efficacy tested by the butter keeping number of the pounds should now be longest sweet. But less handling may be moulded from the lump into small prints bearing different devices, or rolled into different forms of balls and cylinders, with small wooden hands, figured on the face. This made-up butteris Roated in jars with

given to butter with the partial use of the spade, which may be employed in the first process of the washing, by dividing and rubbing, and rolling it amongst the water on thebottom of the flat tube, before

covers, in a clear strong brine of salt and it is beaten with the hands; and it is this water, made as strong as to float an egg. process which expels the remnants of the butter -nilk which

cannot

be farther

4220. Fig. 376, represents a stamp 1 } reached by the water, and which, if left, inch diameter, for small prints of butter would spoil the taste of the butter in a used at table ; as also a couple of hands, very few days. Fig. 377 represents a butter spade of a Fig. 377. figured with Fig. 376. longitudinal parallel rid ged lines on the face, for forming small figur

shape long used in a

ed balls and rolls of but

away to a sharp edge. That such a spade may last in use, and not warp , being thin ,

ter, also for

THE BUTTER

PRINT -MOULD AND HANDS ,

dairy, the face being 4 inches square, and the bandle 4 inches

long. The lower side of the face is thinned

the table. The hands are 6 inches

it should be made of hard wood, and that

long and 4

THE BUTTER - SPADE. of the apple -tree is

inches broad in the face, and 4 inches long found to be the most tenacious. The Dutch use an implement for washing butter with in tbe handles. out the immediate contact of the hand,

4221. Objections have been urged which is much more effective than this

against the use of the hand in making up spade. It consists of a board of wood about butter, and sinall wooden spades recom- one foot in length and 4 inches in breadth,

mended to be employed for the purpose; grooved longitudinally. Another board, and the use ofwater has also been objected to, as it is said to deprive the butter of its pleasing aroma. A woman who has hot clammy hands should never be a dairy-

of similar construction and dimensions, is hinged upon one end of the former, and terminates in a handle, which is held by the hand of the dairymaid. The instru

maid, as butter is very susceptible of taint, ment is placed in a flat kit, with water. and its flavour will doubtless be injured by While the butter is placed by one hand

the heavy smell of sweaty hands ; but at quick intervals of time, with such a naturally cool bands — made clean by wash- spadeas fig. 377, upon the lower board, ing in warm water and oatmeal, not soap, placed in the water in the vessel, the other and then rinsed and steeped in cold water, hand moves the upper board up and down will make up butter freer of butter-milk, in repeated action upon the butter, which and more solid than any instrument is alternately and successively divided by

280

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

the grooves passing between each other, from sweet cream , though churning ren and kneaded thin by the frequent contact ders its butter-milk as

sour as

that

of the area of the boards. By repeated from sour cream . To have butter in per operations in this manner the butter is ſection from sweet cream , it should be

considered to be freed entirely of the churned every day ; and as a daily supply butter -milk . Still the most expert mana- of cream must be small, a small churn ger of this process cannot free the butter must be used, to have butter fresh made

of butter-milk so completely as the mani- every day. The table-churn, fig . 372, becomes useful for this purpose. I see it pulation of a pair of cool active hands. alleged, in advertisements of table-churns, 4222. Butter assumes a texture accord- that butter may be made in them from ing as it has been treated . When burst cream in 10 or 12 minutes.

I have made

in the churning, it is not only soft but several experiments with such a table

frothy, and, on being cut with a knife, churn, in churning cream at different tem sticks to it, and seems as if it could be compressed intomuch smaller bulk. When churned too rapidly, particularly in warm weather, the butter may not be agitated

peratures, and with different velocities, but never obtained good butter in less than 30 minutes; and when formed so

quickly as in 15 minutes, the butter was

to the state of bursting, but it will con- soft and frothy.

I have heard it alleged

tinue soft, and never become firm , though that butter of the finest quality cannot be worked up with ever so much care, and in obtained from sweet cream ; but I know

the coolest manner ; and when a lump is from experience that butter of the richest drawn asunder in two pieces, they each

quality, flavour, and appearance, can be

present a jagged surface, and also stick to made from sweet cream . Were such butter the knife that cuts it. Butter, in either of those states of softness, will not keep long, whether salted or fresh . When over- churned — that is,when the churning has been continued after the butter has

not superexcellent, would noblemen have it on their tables every morning ? I consider butter out of the churn , and before it is washed, most delicious. It is true that sweet cream requires longer churning

been formed — the butter becomes soft, not than sour ; still butter is obtained from it

unlike the state when it is too rapidly churned . When properly churned, both in regard to time and temperature, butter becomes firm with very little working, and is tenacious ; but its most desirable

in from 30 to 40 minutes. For my own use, I would never desire better butter, all the year round, than that churned every morning in a small churn from sweet cream. Such butter, on cool new

state is that of waxy, when it is easily baked oat-cake, overlaid with flower moulded into any shape, and may be virgin honey, accompanied with a cup drawn out a considerable length before of hot strong coffee, mollified with crystal breaking. It is only in this state that lised sugar and cream, such as the butter

butter possesses that rich nutty flavour had been made from , is a breakfast worth and smell, which impart so high a de- partaking of, but seldom to be obtained. gree of pleasure in eating it, and which enhance its value manifold .

It is not

4224. Besides cream , butter is made

necessary to taste butter on judging of it ; from the entire milk, which is usually the smooth unctuous feel, on rubbing a allowed to stand until it becomes sour,

little between the finger and thumb, ex- and requires a shorter time to convert presses at once its richness of quality ; into butter than when the milk is sweet ;

the nutty smell indicates a similar taste ; but to obtain butter, in either of these and the bright, glistening, cream -coloured cases, a large churn is required, and the

surface, shows its high state of cleanliness. churning continued for a long time, sel dom less than 3, and often as much as 5 4223. What I have stated in reference hours. When the quantity of milk is to the making of butter, applies particu- large, power other than human, whether

larly to that obtained from cream alone, of steam , water, or horse, is employed to and from cream in the usual state for move the churn.

The butter obtained

butter - namely, after it bas become sour from this method is very good.

The evi by keeping ; but butter can be obtained dent objection to this method is, the

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE.

281

labour imposed in agitating so much milk, to the lump. Practice varies much in the and in consequently having on band quantity of salt given to butter, as much as

a large quantity of butter-milk, which, i oz. of salt to 1 lb.of butter, and half an however easily disposed of in towns, would ounce of salt to 14 lb. of butter : 1 oz. to be a drug in the country, unless given to 1 lb. is too much , which is like curing

the pigs — or converted into a kind of butter with as little art as salting her cheese . The method has its advantages in rings. Half an ounce of fine pure salt is

the uniform character of the butter which quite sufficient for a pound of butter ;and itaffordsat all seasons, from the certainty which quantity is intended for keeping of obtaining a churning at the proper tem- butter, for as to powdered butter for im perature, which is required to be higher mediate use, half an ounce to 2 lb. is than that of cream , being 60° Fahrenheit, enough. and easily obtained, both in winter and summer, by the addition of warm water 4227. The quality of the salt has a ma

amongst the milk.

Churning from the terial effect on the taste of the butter that

whole or full milk, as it is called, is thus bas been salted with it.

a comparatively simple process. The milk is poured into coolers at first, and from them “ it is drawn off by siphons into vats sufficiently large to contain both the evening and morning meals ; and the vats are thenput by, to stand totally undisturbed,

Ordinary sea-salt

contains a considerable proportion of other salts than the pure salt, the chloride of sodium, and as these are all bitter, they injure the taste of the butter. “ It is easy, however, to purify the common salt of the shops from these impurities,” observes

till the whole acquires a sufficient degree Professor Johnston, “by pouring 2 quarts of acidity. The time required for this of boiling -water upon 1 stone or 2 of salt, purpose varies a little, according to the stirring the whole well about, now and heat of the weather, and the temperature then, for a couple of hours, and afterwards

of the milkhouse. The point is ascer- straining it through a clean cloth. The tained by the formation of a strong thick brat or scum on the surface , when this becomes uneven.” All the milk is not of the same age, but this does not affect the quality of the whole. The times of churning are these : - " The milk of Sunday

water which runs through is a saturated solution of salt, and contains all the impu rities, but may be used for common culi nary purposes, or may be mixed with the food of cattle. The salt which remains in the cloth is free from the soluble salts of

and Monday is churned on theThursday lime and magnesia, and may be hung up in morning ; that of Tuesday, Wednesday, the cloth till it is dry enough to be used and Thursday morning, on the Saturday formixing with the butter, orwith cheese.” + evening ; and that of Thursday evening, The Dutch manufacture pure salt at their Friday, and Saturday, on the Monday works at Catwyck ; and this is one reason , morning."

no doubt, of their salted butter being so fine, and also so sweet to the taste ; and so

4225. In churning cream or milk, the much superior to the briny butter made in residuum is butter -milk, which, when ob- many districts of Scotland . tained in large quantity from milk, is disposed of in towns, converted into cheese, 4228. In the process of salting, the

or used to fatten pigs; and wben obtained butter is spread out in the tub, after the in small quantitiesfrom cream , a partmay washing, and the salt, ground fine, is be used for domestic purposes, and the sprinkled over it by little and little, and remainder mixed with the food given to the butter rolled up and rubbed down with the brood - sow . the lower part of the palm of the hand, until the whole mass appears uniformly in 4226. If the butter is intended to be corporated with the salt. To insure uni salted, it is somewhat differently treated. form salting, only half the salt should be After being washed clean as above de- applied at once , and the butter lumped

scribed, (4219 ) it is weighed in the scales, and set aside until next day , when what the salt weighed, and immediately applied ever of brine or milk may have exuded * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1843, p. 24-5. † Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, p. 828.

282

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

froin the lump, in the mean time, should be taste. After the kit has thus been filled poured off. The other half of the salt within an inch of the top, the butter is

should be rubbed in in like manner, and the salted lump put into the jar or firkin on the second day. One great advantage of finishing the salting, and of deferring the making up of the butter until the

made even and smooth , and covered with a clean piece of wetted white linen cloth.

To secure its good qualities, butter should be salted immediately on being made.

second day is, that, without it, the butter

423 ) . Cheese.— The utensils required in will not so readily acquire that firm , smooth , cheese -making are a tub in which to earn waxy texture, which is so characteristic of the milk ; a curd cutter ; a curd breaker ;a fine butter, drainer to lay across the tub while the whey is straining from the curd ; vats for form

4229. The state of the kit should be ing the cheese ; a cheese press ; a furnace particularly examined before it is used for and pot for heating water and also milk. packing butter. If composed of stoneware, 4232. On a farm of mixed husbandry. it is easily cleansed and rendered sweet. A wooden kit that has been used before

as much skimmed milk cannot be procured

should be filled with water for some time, every day as to make a cheese of ordinary

to render it water-tight by the swelling of size,buta cheesemay be made every other the edges of the staves. It should then be day. To save skimmed -milk from souring repeatedly scalded with hot water, and in warm weather till the next day, it is exposed to the air ; and, just before being necessary to scald it—that is, to put it into used, should be rinsed with cold water, and a furnace pot, to heat it sufficiently, and

a slight sprinkling of salt scattered over its bottom . A new wooden kit requires somewhat different treatment, because the odour from the new wood will impart a disagreeable flavour to the butter. It should be filled with water mixed with garden mould, or with limeshells and water,

then to let it cool. The fire should be a gentle one, and the milk should be so carefully stirred as neither to burn nor boil, nor be made warmer than the finger can bear. After being thus heated in the morning, the milk should be poured into a tub, to await the cheese -making of the

for some days, and the mixture occasionally following day. The skimmed milk of next stirred ; after which it should be thoroughly morning is poured into the same tub, ex scrubbed and cleansed with hot water,and, cept about one-third of it, which is put like an old kit, rinsed with cold water, into the furnace pot or another one, and and salted just before being used. Kits made warm for the purpose of heating the are hooped with iron or with willow rods. entire milk of the tub. The beat is applied

The iron hoops last longest, and keep the slowly to the pot, the milk occasionally butter more completely from the air, though stirred with a stick , and made as warm as the finger can hardly bear. This warm they are more costly. portion is then poured into the tnb, the 4230. Butter is kitted in lumps, which contents ofwhich is thereby made as warm are pressed firmly down at all points with as new milk, that is, about 110° or 112° .

the knuckles, and great care taken that The degrees of heat just mentioned are they be particularly pressed with the side rather vague, but I believe no heat is spe of the forefinger round the circumference cific in scalding milk, provided the milk of the kit or jar, in substance made solid, is not allowed to burn at the bottom of the no air being allowed to main in cells,and pot, or to boil — for if it boil, the milk will

the surface made even. The surface of the coagulate instantly, and be useless for former churning of butter, which had been cheese -making, as the cheese made of it put into the jar, should be raised up into would be hard or flinty ; and as far as the

regular furrows, that the new lump of heating is concerned , the ready and prac butter may be commingled with it. The tical test of the finger is sufficiently accu

compressing of butter, then, into the kit, rate. On the milkin the tub being stirred, is of paramount importance, inasmuch as the least cell of air left in itsmass, or that finds access by the side of the kit, will wind the butter, that is, impart to it a rancid

the repnet or earning is added to it, and it is allowed to stand some time to coagulate, with a cloth thrown over it to retain its temperature.

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE .

4233. A calf's stomach is usually recommended for rennet ; but as calves' stomachs are not easily ,obtained in dis

stem C,of

283

round iron rod, rising from each

Fig. 378.

side of the oval

hoop, unites at c,

and after attaining

tricts where calves are reared, a pig's stomach, which can be easily obtained on every farm , answers the purpose as well, and manybelieve that it makes the stronger earning of the two. When the pigs are

in all

18 inches

in height, is sur inounted

by

wooden bandle d , 6 inches in length, by which it is held by

killed for hams in winter, their stomachs should be preserved for rennet, and they are prepared in this way : Let the inside skin of the stomachs be taken out : the ope ration is somewhat troublesome, but may easily be done by an experienced dairy

either one or both hands , and, on the

maid. Any curdling in it is taken out,

cular direction and

as being unnecessary, and tending to filthi ness, and the skin is wiped clean with a cloth , not washed .

instrument being

used in a perpendi 6.pressed down, cuts

a

the curd into as

It is then laid flat on

a table, and rubbed thickly over with salt on both sides, and placed in a dish for 4 days, by which time it has imbibed suffi-

cient salt to preserve it. It is then hung stretched over a stick near the fire, to dry and won, and in the dried state is kept for use as rennet by the next season. Some

small pieces as you THE CURD -CUTTER .

wish in the tub.

4235. When the milk is sufficiently coagulated, which it will be in half an hour, the curd is cut in the tub with a knife. On being cut, the curd lets out its whey, which is drained off by means of a

people place a layer of clean wheat-straw flat plate being pressed against the curd on the skin, after it is salted, and roll the cloth, linen of open fabric, spread upon the

skin over it to keep it open, and after curd . As much of the whey is removed

tying a piece of paper round it, hang it up near the kitchen -fire to dry and won. This is also a good plan, but not better than the other. When the rennet is to be used , a brine of salt and boiling water,

in this way as practicable; and the curd left is comparatively dry, when it receives anothercutting with the cutter, fig. 378,and thewhey againexpressed fromit. The curd is then lifted out of the tub, and wrapped

sufficiently strong to float an egg, of 3 into the curd -cloth, which, in the form of imperial pints to each skin, is made and a bundle, is placed upon a drainer similar sieved through a cloth, and allowed to to e, fig . 200, lying across the mouth of the

cool. One skin is allowed to remain in tub, and the whey is pressed out of it by that quantity of brine in a jar, with its main force . This is the laborious part of mouth covered with bladder, for 3 or 4

the process of cheese -making; and, to save

days, when the coagulating strength of the brine is tested by pouring a drop or two into a tea - cupful of lukewarm milk ; and when considered powerful enough, the skin is taken out of it, it is bottled, and

both timeand labour in large cheese dairies, the bundle of curd is placed in a large cheese -vat, and subjected to pressure in the cheese-press, or under large weights, to get quit ofthewhey. A convenient mode

tightly corked for use. The skin is again of using a large weight for this purpose by one person, is to have it suspended by a to dry and won, and made again ready chain from the end of an iron lever, whose for use when required. Half atea -cnpful fulcrum is attached to the point of an arm of this liquid rennet will coagulate as of wood projecting from an upright bar much milk as will make a cheese of 15 lb. placed against the wall, and traversing weight. horizontally on its iron heel and top, as pivots, to any convenient point for the de 4234. Fig. 378 is a curd -cutter, which position of the weight. The curd becomes consists of an oval hoop of iron a b, 9 very firm after this pressing ; and in order inches long and 6 inches wide,and 14 inch to reduce it small with comparative ease, salted as before, and spread over a stick

deep, embracing a slip of iron, of the same it is first cut into thin slices with a knife ; depth, along its longitudinalaxis a b. The and the thin slices are ground down

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

284

into a granulated powder by a curd- in size. A tub is placed below the hopper, breaker, before the curd is put into the vat. to receive the cut curd as it descends from it. In this way one person may feed the

4236. The curd - breaker is represented slices into the hopper and drive the ma in perspective in fig. 379, where a a is a chine; but the process of curd -cutting is much expeditedby one person feeding the Fig. 379. hopper with slices, while another drives the handle of the machine.

4238. The machine is taken to pieces to be cleaned by unscrewing the pinb, when

the axle may be drawn out of the cylin der with the large wheel c, the cylinder taken out, and the hopper b removed from

its seat, by turning the thumb-catches which connect it below with the framing a a. The small pinion and the winch handle remain .

THE CURD - BREAKER .

4239. The curd, being made small enough, is salted to please the taste with

frameof wood, consisting of two bars, con- salt ground fine. In some parts, as Che nected together with boards d , and supported on feet, which are strengthened in their position by cross -bars and iron stays ; b is a hopper supported by the frame a, and occupying the space between the boards dd. At the bottom of the hopper is a cylinder of wood, through which an iron axle passes, which rests on either

shire and Holland, cheeses are salted by being floated in a strong solution of salt in water, when the brine penetrates the new made cheese ; but thisseems an uncertain mode of giving a desired degree of salt ness. After being salted , the curd is put into a cheese-cloth, spread over a cheese vat, and firmly packed into the vat higher

end in plummer blocks on the bars a. On than its edge ;and on the curd being cover the nearest end of the axle is a pinion c, ed with the remainder of the same cloth, having 46 teeth, which is acted on by a the vat is placed in the cheese -press and

smaller pinion of 24 teeth, whose axle also subjected to pressure, upon which a quan rests in plummer blocks on the frame a, tity of whey exudes by the holes in the and the near end of which bears the winch- bottom of the vat. In a short lapse of handle, which, on being driven round, time, 2 hours or more, the cheese is turned works, the machine. The pin b, passing out of the vat, a clean and dry cheese

through the upper part of the plummer cloth put in, the cheese replaced into it block, keeps the pinion c in its place. The upside down, and again subjected to in

inside cylinder is furnishedwith three creased pressurein the press. Should whey parallel rows, placed diagonally on its sur- continue to exude, the cheese must again face, of cutting teeth of the form of half a be taken out of the vat, and a clean cloth

lancet cut through longitudinally, 1 inch substituted - in short, a clean cloth should long, { broad, and 32 in number in each be renewed , and the pressure increased, as row. The nearest end of the bottom of long as any whey exudes ; but if the pre the hopper inside is furnished with a row vious operations have been properly per of similar cutters, fixed, also 32 in number,

forined , the exudation should cease in

which permit those on the cylinder to pass about 12 hours, after which the pressure is between them when the latter is in motion . continued until the press is wanted for a new cheese on the second day. 4237. On using this machine, the curd cut in slices is placed in small tubs on the 4240. Fig. 380 shows the common

boards dd ; and on a slice being put into cheese-vat or chessart, as it is called, the the hopper, the winch-handle is moved form being varied according to that adopt round, and the curd is cut in pieces by the ed for the cheese. The vat is built of elm teeth, not exceeding a quarter of an inch staves, as being least liable to burst with

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE .

285

pressure, and strongly hooped with iron, under the block. This being done, the nut the bottom being strong and pierced with is screwed backward till the block rests

holes, to allow the whey expressed to flow lightly on the cover of the vat : it is let away, and the wooden cover is made strong by be Fig. 380. ing cross doubled. It is of advantage

Fig. 381.

that the cover fit the vat ex

actly, and that the vat be as

cylindrical as possible in the THE CHEESE - VAT.

interior. In Cheshire the

cheese - vats are made of tin, pierced with boles in the bottom aud side.

4241. Of the cheese-press the varieties are very numerous, though those in most common use may be classed under two kinds, namely, the common old stone press ; and the combined lever -press, of which last

b

the varieties are the most pumerous, pass ing from the single lever, through the various combinations of simple levers, to the more elaborate one of the rack and levers. An essential characteristic of these last presses is, that the load , in

whatever way produced, shall, when left

Í THE STONE CHELSE - PRESS .

to itself, have the power to descend after down by small additions, as the curd con the cheese which is pressed ,and which sinks solidates, until it is thought safe to let the entire weight press upon the mould, which as the whey from the curd is expressed. is done bywithdrawing the nutf. Instead 4242. The common stone cheese -press of the solid block of stone d e, which, when

is shown in fig. 381 ; it consists ofastrong left to itself,will always produce thesame frame of wood, of which a is the sill, two uprights bb mortised or dovetailed into it ; and these are connected at top by the crosshead c mortised upon the posts. A cubical

pressure, it is better to have one block d g into which the suspending bolt is fixed, and the remainder of the mass made up of smaller pieces, as shown in the figure, by

block of stone d e is squared to pass freely which means the amount of free pressure between the posts; an iron stem of one inch can be regulated to the particular size and diameter is fixed into the upper surface of state of the cheese ; or blocks of cast - iron

the block , and the upper end of it being are sometimes used in the form last de screwed, is passed through the centre of scribed,which are more commodious,and

the top -bar, and the lever-nut f is applied less liable to be broken. In Cheshire, where to it for raising or lowering the block. In cheese-presses of this sort are used, the

each end of the block a vertical groove is cheese is subject tothreedegreesofpressure, cut, corresponding to the middle of the the first being a quarter of a ton, the second posts ; and a baton of wood is nailed upon

half a ton, and the third and last one ton .

the latter, in such form and position as will admit the block to rise and fall freely,

4243. The combined lever cheese- press

while it is prevented falling to either side. of iron is represented in the perspective When put in operation, theblock is raised view, fig. 382, and is constructed in the by means of the screw , until the vat with following manner :-a a are a pair of cast its contents can be placed upon the sill a iron feet, on which the machine is sup

286

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

ported : they have a socket formed at the axle carries also a pinion of 8 teeth, which crown to receive the malleable iron pillars acts upon the rack, but is also hid from view in the figure. The ratchet wheel g stands clear of the top frame. The lever

Fig. 382.

k is forked at the extremity g, and the terminations of the furcation are received upon the axle of the wheel g—the wheel

being embraced by the fork of the lever, but the lever moving freely upon the axle. A small winch - handle 2 is also fitted upon the axle of the ratchet wheel, and a pin 9

seen near h is adapted to a perforation in the top frame, by the insertion of which, the descent of the lever is checked, when

such is required . 4244. In pressing with this machine, the vat is placed upon the lower sill c, and the lever being supported onthe pin at h, the winch -bandle 2 is turned to the left,

depressing the rack and its sill till the silí presses upon the cover of the vat. The b

lever is now lifted by the hand , and the pall allowed to take into the ratchet; while the lever, being loaded by the weight, will cause the ratchet to turn, and produce the descent of the rack . If necessary, this is

repeated again and again, till a consider able pressure is produced ; and if it is wished that a continued pressure is to go on, the lever is again raised considerably above the horizontal line, and left to

descend gradually, following the consoli dation of the cheese.

If it is wished that

the load shall not follow the shrinking of THE COMBINED LEVER CHEESE - PRESS ,

the cheese, the pin h is inserted , which,

bb. The sill- plate c, 18 inches in diame- when the lever comes to rest upon it,checks

ter, is cast with two perforated ears, further descent. The amount of pressure through which the feet of the pillars b b is also regulated by the disposal of the also pass, and secure the sill to the feet, weight m in the different notches of the the cross lines in the sill indicate chan-

lever k.

The usual selling price of this

nels for the escape of the expressed whey. machine is £4, when constructed of iron The movable sill d is of the same size as

as in the figure ; but with wooden frame

the one below , with corresponding ears work, and the rack and other gearing of perforated and fitted to slide on the pillars, cast-iron, the price is £3, 5s. and having the rack - bar f fixed in its A top frame e is seated upon the

centre .

4245. After the cheese is sufficiently

top of the pillars, and adapted to carry pressed, it is taken out of the vat,and put the gearing of the machine . The action into the cheese-room h, fig. 363, and not of the rack and its sill is effected in the exposed to much heat, drought, or damp

following manner :-The ratchet wheel g at first, as heat makes new cheeses sweat; is fixed upon an axle that bas its bearings drought dries them too quickly, and causes

in the top frame; on the same axle is them to crack ; and damp prevents them fixed a pinion of 8 teeth , not seen in the hardening and wonning, and causesthem figure, which works in the wheel i of 24

to contract a bitter taste. Exposed to a

teeth, fixed upon an axle which has its cool, dry, and calm air upon the shelves bearing also in the top frame; and this m, they will dry by degrees, and obtain a

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE.

287

firm skin . The skin becomes harder by 14 inches broad, or more, according to the being dipped in hot water, but I see no size of the cheeses manufactured , by one advantage to be derived from such a prac Fig. 383. tice. It should be wiped with a dry cloth , to remove any moisture that may have exuded from it, and the cheese turned

daily. Some cheeses burst , and throw out sequence of whey fermenting which ought to have been pressed out. A cheese that changes its shape raises the suspicion of some organic change going on within it ; a serous- like fluid , which happens in con

but if it does not crack , so as to admit the

air, it will soon become ripe and be mouldy, and may prove of fine flavour. The incon venience of cracks is, the facility afforded to the cheese -fly to enter and deposit its

eggs in the cheese ; and to prevent their egress,the cracks should be filled up every day with a mixture of butter, salt, and pepper , made to a proper consistency with oatmeal . In Cheshire, where the cheeses

are made unusually large, they are bound with fillets of linen when removed for drying in the cheese- room , until their form

inch thick .

attain a sufficient degree of firniness.

and lipped over the posts, and each shelf

THE CHEESE - TURNER .

The shelves are tenoned into

is finished on both sides with a knife- edged

4246. The tumbling cheese-rack, or lath, nailed along the back edge. As the cheese-turner, is a machine invented by figure represents a rack that will contain Mr William Blurton of Fieldhall, Uttoxe. 5 cheeses on each shelf, a corresponding ter, and its merits are believed to be suf- number of pairs of vertical laths k , are ficient towarrant its adoption on dairy nailed upon the back edge of the shelves. farms. The object of the machine is to The shelf-frame thus formed is provided

save much of the labour required in the with two strong iron gudgeons or pivots

daily turning of a large number of cheeses fixed in the side-posts at mid -height, and in the drying-room ; and this it does very these are received into corresponding holes

effectually, for, with a rack containing 50 in the outer or bearing posts, so that the cheeses, they are turned over in very little shelf-frame swings poised upon the two

more time than would be required to turn pivots; and it is further provided with an a single cheese.

iron latch at top and bottom on one end,

by which it may be tilted and secured with 4247. Fig 383, is a view of the cheese- either the shelfg or ef uppermost. turner, as constructed to stand alone, and 4248. When cheeses are placed upon on its own feet; though this is not the best mode of constructing the machine. the shelves, it will be found that the knife It consists of an external frame a b c d , of edge laths keep them free of the body of which a b and c d have each a cross foot the shelf, and thus permit air to pass under a and d, and connected at top by a top- them, while the pair of vertical laths keep rail b c. If constructed in a cheese-room, the cheeses in theirproper position on the the posts should be at once fixed to the shelf. The beight between the shelves is floor at bottom ,and to the joisting or tie- such as to leave a free space of one inch beams overhead, becoming thus a fixture between the cheese and the shelf above it ; in so far as regards the external frame. and whatever number of cheeses may be

The second part of the machine is a mov- lying upon the shelves, the simple act of able frame or rack , formed by the two in- tilting the frame will place every cheese

terior posts e and f, which are framed upon resting on a shelf, on its opposite side, the 12 shelves from e to g, which are each

upon that shelf which immediately before

288

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

was above the cheese, but by the tilting is ferment, and burst, and lose their shape. now below it. The vertical laths serve to The best cheeses in Scotland sell from prevent the cheeses from falling out while 50s. to 60s. the cwt.

the frame is tilting, and each cheese has only to fall one inch in that operation, or

4251. I have not recommended the em

from the one shelf to the other, in a re- ployment of annotto or arnotto for dyeing versed position.

cheese, because I think by it the cheese

farmers impose upon themselves a very

4249. It will be also observed , that the useless pieceof trouble. It is employed in fixed external frame is best adapted for an Gloucestershire to the extent of 1 oz. of extensive cheese -room , where the racks annotto to 1 cwt. of cheese ; and in Che

may be placed in rows extending the length shire, 8 dwts. to 60 lb. of cheese, and it of the room , leavingfree passage between costs from 18. to 1s. 6d. per lb. Annotto the rows . The width of the passages re- is a precipitate from fermentation of the quires to be equal to half the height ofthe seeds of the Bixa orellana of Linnæus . shelf-frame, or 3 feet ; a room , therefore, It is manufactured in two forms, one in 20 feet widewould contain 4 rows of such flags or cakes of 2 lb. or 3 lb. each, of a

racks ; and if the length were equal to 10 diameters of the cheeses, or containing that number in the length, the room would contain in all 440 cheeses in the best possible

bright-yellow colour, soft to the touch, of good consistence, and comes from Cayenne wrapped in banana leaves, and is much used in giving an orange tint to silk and

condition for their being prepared for mar- cotton goods, but which is fugitive ; and

ket, having free ventilation , and access for the other kind is called roll annotto, which

the dairy -maid to handle and wipe any is small, not exceeding 2 oz.or 3 oz. each, cheese at any time. We have no experi- hard, dry, and compact , of a brownish ence of this cheese -rack in Scotland ; but, colour outside and red within, is brought

judging from its apparent capabilities, from Brazil, and is the kind used in the there is reason to think that it might be dairies. The duty on the roll kind used employed with good effect in the extensive to be £5, 12s. per cwt., then 48.; and is

cheese-dairies of Ayrshire and Galloway. now imported free.* When employed, it The price of a portable rack , as here is put into the milk before the earning, figured, capable of holding 55 cheeses, and it is prepared by rubbing down the is £ 4. requisite quantity in a bowl of warm milk. Dr Ure says, that “ the decoction of an 4250. The casualties I have mentioned, notto in water has a strong peculiar odour, as befalling cheeses when drying, are less and a disagreeable taste. Its colour is

likely to befal skimmed -milk cheese, the yellowish red, and it remains a little turbid . making of which I have hitherto been de- An alkaline solution renders it orange

scribing, than sweet-milk cheese. These yellow, clearer, and moreagreeable ; while are made exactly in the same manner with a small quantity of a whitish substance is

the milkasit comes from the cow. One day's milk being insufficient to make a cheese, the fresh morning's milking is mixed with those of the previous day, the oldest part of which willhave thrown up a covering of cream , which is mixed through themilk, and the entire gatherings are heated with a portion of the morning's milk . The rennet is applied in the samemanner,but in rather larger quantity. Greater difficulty will be found to squeeze the whey entirely from the curd than from that of the skimmed milk ; and it is this difficulty

separated fromit, which remains suspended inthe liquid. If annotto be boiled in water along with an alkali, it dissolves much better than when alone, and the liquid has an orange hue.”+ All the quantity employed is said to impart no peculiar flavourto the cheese, which, being acknowledged, of what utility is it ?—for as to improving the appearance of the cheese, I suppose itwill not be denied that Stilton and Dunlop cheese look as well on the table as Glou cester and Cheshire. Marigold flowers, saffron, and carrots, are also employed to

of expressing all the whey out of them that colour cheese, and the use of these also renders sweet-milk cheeses more liable to imposes unnecessary trouble. * M'Culloch's Dictionary of Commerce - art. Annotto. + Ure's Dictionary of the Arts - art. Annotto.

289

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE .

4252. The dairy operations of a carse -farm are confined to supplying milk and butter to its inhabitants . The same remark applies to a

pastoral farm , whether of cattle or sheep. Dairy -men in towns derive their chief profit

work -people in the villages, and the whey is given to the pigs. 4253. The convenient accommodation of the

cows, and the means of containing and preparing

from the sale of sweet-milk and cream , and their food, are of paramount importanceto the the skimmed milk is readily purchased by work- successful conducting ofa dairy-farm. A good and people. From the dairy - farms in the vicinity of towns, sweet-milk , cream , and butter are disposed of ; and the butter-milk and skimmed

commodious steading is, therefore, an essential requisite on such a farm . I have already given the plan of a convenient and commodious byre

milk sold to thework-people. True dairy for the cows of a dairy -farm , together with the farmers conduct their operations irrespective arrangements for containing their food and pre of the immediate wants of towns ; and butter paring it in fig. 93 ; but to show the entire accom is made by them from cream as well as from modations which the steading of a dairy-farm new milk. Skimmed milk and new milk are ought to possess, I give the plan of one in fig.

made into cheese ; the butter-milk is sold to

384,where a is the byre, 64 feet long and 54 wide,

Fig. 384.

h

e

0

m

!

ART Moana

b

d

CO

OD

CO

DO

n

Scale, 50 feet. PLAN OF A STRADING FOR A DAIRY- FARM .

on the same plan as is given in fig. 93 ; but here it is represented in connexion with the other apartments of the dairy and of the steading, and not as an isolated building as shown in fig. 93.

is supposed to be driven by the water -wheel in p, butwhere may be erected the steam -engine, if such power is more eligible ; a stair r , in the corn -barn leads up to the granary, 30 feet by 16,

The boilers for the preparation of the food are extending over the apartment e ; the power for in b, which is 17 feet long and 15 wide ; the tur- working the chaff-cutter f, corn -bruiser 9 , and nips are stored in c, 17 by 15 feet ; the dairy churn i is derived from the water-wheel in P ,and utensils are washed, dried, and cooled in d , also is accomplished by a lying -shaft with belts and 17 feet by 16 ; which contains a boiler for heating pulleys ; s is the straw -barn, 35 feet by 16 ; t is water or milk ; m is the milk -house , 17 feet by the cart-shed , 24 by 18 feet, for accommodating 15, shelved round ; h,where the large churn i is 6 single -horse carts ; the outside stair u leads to situated , moved with power, is 17 feet by 15 ; a second granary above the cart-shed, 24 by 18

k, an apartment for containing the salted butter, feet; o is thehay-house for the work -horses, 11 cheese-presses, and the smaller utensils not in immediate use, is 17 feet by 15, and in it is the stair l that leads to the cheese- room above, extending over this apartment, the churning. house, and the milk -house, in all 54 feet long and 16 wide ; the apartment €, 30 feet by 16, contains the hay to be cut with the chaff-cutter at f, and the corn -bruiser g, for bruising the corn for the horses, both driven by power ; n is a large

feet by 18, having the horse corn -chest in it and communication with the work -horse stable,which is w , 43 feet by 18, affording accommodation to 6 horses, and a loose -box stall ; y is the riding : horse stable, having two stalls 12 feet wide ; and z is an apartment 18 feet square, containing two boilers - one for preparing the food for the horses, the other for that of the pigs and other purposes. The piggeries, and the byre for the apartment, 54 feet by 15, for containing raw young heifers brought up to renew the cow turnips and uncut hay for the cows ; o is the stock , may be erected at convenient places. corn barn, 30 feet by 16, situate immediately

below the threshing -machine, which, in this case, VOL. II.

4254. The large churn, moved by power in T

290

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

the box - churn, fig. 374, or of the common plunger churn . As I have already given a figure of the box -churn, I shall now give one of the plungerchurn , moved by power, as fitted up and used in

case is that of the horse, which seems necessary to be adopted where no water is available for the purpose, and where a churn only is to be driven ; for a steam -engine, which would only be employed, in such a case as this, every other day,

one of the most successful dairy districts of Scot.

for 3 or 4 hours, and be restricted to give out

extensive dairies, may be of the construction of

land, Renfrewshire. Fig. 385 gives a view in only one-horse power, would be too expensive perspective of the horse-course and churning- an erection for so diminutive an application of room in relation to one another, and which is the power. Where a threshing-machine is used, and more clearly shown by removing a portion of the chaff-cutters and a bruising -machine employed wall that separates them . The power in this along with the churn , a steam - engine would be an Fig. 385.

04

PLUNGER - CHURNS FITTED UP WITH POWER.

economical source of power. Taking the horse

turns in bearings in the upright frames, and which

power, in this instance, as the best in the absence shaft, at the nearest end, bears a toothed pinion of water, a b is the lever in the horse- course, to which the horse is yoked by the swing-tree at a ;

which is moved by the spur -wheel on d , and at the other end carries a fly -wheel k, to equalise

o is the pit containing the bevelled wheel, the motion of the lever f,and compensate for the and the four arms of the frame which support inequality of the resistance to the plunger-rods in the upright axle to which the lever abis attached their ascent and descent. The light shears ! This wheel moves horizontally, and acts upon a embrace the connecting -rod within its forked

bevelled pinion fixed on the nearest end of the end at h, and at the other end is connected with lying shaft d , which, being represented in dotted

an adjusting-screw for the purpose of lengthen

lines,must be supposed to work under ground ; ing and shorteningthe distance l h, and so chang and its farther end is attached to and moves

ing the position of the head of the connecting -rod.

a spur-wheel, situated in the churning-room , The head f of the lever is mounted with a pair close to the working gear of the churns. On the of side-links, jointed at one end to the cross bottom of a corresponding pit in the churning- head at f, and at the other with the wooden room rise two parallel frames of cast-iron, con-

cross-head intowhich the endsof theplunger-rods

nected together at the top, and kept asunder of the churns i are placed side by side. These by a flanged iron-bar. The reciprocating cast- side-links, jointed as they are at top and bottom , iron lever f is supported by its fulcra near the produce an imperfectparallelmotion,but sufficient top of the frame, by means of a centre shaft pass- to answer the rise and fall of the plunger-rods. ing through the frames. A counterpoise is placed at the short end of the lever f, to bring it nearly 4255. When this machine is in operation, the to an equilibrium . The connecting rod g is revolutions of the crank produce a reciprocating jointed upon a bolt that is fitted to move along action in the connecting -rod, whichis communi the oblique groove h formed in the lever f, and cated to the lever, and thence to the plungers ; the crank to which the lower end of the connect- and it will be seen that, by moving the head

ing -rod g is jointed is formed on a shaft that h of the connecting- rod in the oblique groove

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE .

291

of the lever, the strokes or reciprocation of the from one of his cows 11 lb., and from the other 8} plungers will be short or long as the joint h is lb. of butter from 1427 lb. of grass given to each moved upward or downward in the groove. It in 14 days. + is found , from experience, that there are advan

tages to the process derivable from this ; hence, at the commencement of the operation, the head

of the rod g is kept at the lower extremity of the slit at h, producing the shortest stroke. As the milk becomes heated, and, from the consequent

4258. The value of the produce of a cow may be estimated in this way : - a cow that yields

half a pound of butter a day throughout the year, and gives 300 gallons of skimmed milk, is a good one. Hence 182 lb. of butter at 18. per Ib. is £ 9,

effervescence, its bulk is increased, the stroke is 28.; and 300 gallons of skimmed milk at 3d. the gradually lengthened by turning the handle of gallon, £3, 159,, making the value of her annual the screw at l, and by thus shortening the dis- produce £ 12, 178., exclusive of the manure. tance l h, the point h is brought to the head of 4259. The circumstances affecting the quantity the slit, producing a stroke of the greatest length ; and when the effervescence ceases, and the butter of milk given by cows, are the breed , the kind of has begun to form , the stroke is again gradually food , and the time after calving. The smaller shortened, till the process is finished with the breeds of cows yield the smaller quantity of milk ; shortest stroke. The usual rate of the plungers and the yearly quantity of the large and small in these churns is about 50 to 55 double strokes breeds has been stated to vary from 49001 to in the minute, subject to the usual variations 2400 quarts. Cows fed on succulent food , as required in the different stages of the process. moist meadow grass, brewers' and distillers' re The price of this machine, completed with horse- fuse, and new sown grasses will yield a larger wheel and gearing, is from £ 15 to £ 18. quantity of milk than hay, roots, and pasture.

Cows, with Dr Thomson, that were fed on grass 4256. The variety in the quantity and qua- or steeped entire barley, fell off in their milkfrom lity of the milk afforded by cows is so great 22} lb. to 171 lb., and from 22 lb. to 19° lb. a that to account for them requires a knowledge

day. According to Mr Aiton, a variationin the

of other causes than the circumstances in which

yield takes place from 1200 quarts the first 50 days, to 300 quarts the sixth 50 days after calv

the cows have been bred and fed. I have my . self had cows of the same breed which gave as wide a difference as 12 to 25 } quarts a -day, and I have known a cross-bred cow give 45 quarts a-day.* I have had cows whose milk

ing. S

4260. The circumstances which affect the qua lity of milk are more various. The breed has an only gave a film of cream in the course of the effect; the small ones yielding richer milk than first 24 hours after being drawn, whilst the milk the large, in which respect the small Kerry cow of others, in the same time, would admit of the is superior to the large Yorkshire. The kindof

cream being lifted off with the fingers. Mr R. food ,hay, corn , and oil-cake, produce richer milk Piggot has given his experience of the yield of than turnips and straw , and yield more butter; milk . A Norfolk cow gave 3977 lb. of milk in 39 weeks, beginning to register the quantity a

and bean -meal and tares afford more cheese than

Norfolk cow gave 3046 lb., or nearly 17 lb. a -day, for 26 weeks. A true home-bred cow yielded from 16 to 18 lb. a meal, or 35 lb. a -day, 9 weeks after calving. Dr R. D. Thomson states that of the cows he experimented with ,one gave from 26 to 22 lb. of milk a -day, and the other from 23 to 21 lb. a -day on grass.

of a cow , called the beistyn (2248) and (2276 ,) is much richer than the ordinary milk which

oil -cake, corn , potatoes,and turnips. In the time fortnight after calving. Å half-bred Scot and from calcing, it is wellknown that the first milk the cow afterwards gives. In wet and cold weather the milk is less rich than in dry and Warm ; and on this account more cheese is ob tained in cold, and butter in warm though not thundery weather. The season has its effect:

the milk in spring is supposed to be best for

4257.As to the yield of cream from milk, Mr drinking, and hene it is then best suited for Pigott finds 120 lb. of milk gave 10 pints of calves; in summer it is best for cheese, and in cream ; which on being raised to the temperature autumn for butter — the autumn butter keeping of 52°, by placing it before a fire or in a water- better than that of summer. Cows less frequently bath, yielded 60 ounces of excellent butter in 40 milked than others will give richer milk ,and or 45 minutes of churning. New milk , at 1d. consequently more butter. The morning's milkis per pint is equal to butter at 1s. per lb., - l quart richerthan the evening's. The last drawn milk yielding 24 oz. ofbutter, after standing in a glass of each milking ,at all times and seasons, is rich milk -pan for 40 hours. Dr Thomson obtained er than any other part of the milk, and much

• Dr R. D. Thomson , in his Researches on the Food of Animals, p. 138, regards the quantities of milk which I gave at page 1275 of the 3d volume of the former edition, as extraordi nary . They were given for such ; and a cow that requires to be milked five times a -day, to keep her easy, must be an extraordinary milker. The Scottish pint then used to measure the milk I cannot define; but supposing it to contain threeEnglish pints, as stated by Dr Thomson , and two such pints to make a quart, the 17Scottish pintswill make 25£ quarts; and the 30, the extraordinary quantity, 45 quarts, the terms I have now given in the context being more likely to be gene rallyunderstoodthan the old Scottish measure. + Thomson's Researches on the Food of Animals,p. 49 and 50. # Dickson On Live Stock, vol. i. p . 226 .

§ Aiton's Treatise on Dairy Husbandry, p. 43-5.

292

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

richer than the first drawn, which is the poorest.

amidst equally numerous albuminous globules,

A cow , before she becomes again in calf, gives richer milk than when she is pregnant, a portion of the secretion which supplies the richer milk being, no doubt, withdrawn to support the fætus.

they cannot rise to the surface without taking with them a greater or less number of the globules of albumen . Hence, at the end of twenty-four

A well- formed cow will generally give more and better milk than an ill-formed one. Old pasture will produce richer butter than new. Cows kept

constantly in the byre are said to give richer milk than those allowed to go at large at pasture, but the latter are supposed to yield more cheese , -

hours, we find on the surface of the milk a crust composed of two layers, the upper one of which contains more butter than milk , while the lower

contains more milk than butter. The separation will take place equally with or without the con tact of the air. The liquid part which lies under the crust contains the dissolved albumen and oil,

the exercise,perhaps, preventing thelarger deposition of the richer secretion. Many other circum-

with a portion of the sugar, the soluble salts, and a certain quantity of the albumen and oily glo

stances may be known in different localities to affect the quantity and quality of the milk of cows; but a sufficient pumber have been here related to show how varied are the circumstances which affect the produce of the dairy, and how

bules."

perplexing it must be to conduct it in the most profitable way.

4262. Milk consists, besides water, of organic substances destitute of nitrogen-sugar and but. ter; ofan organic substance containing nitrogen in considerable quantity - curd or casein ; and of

4261. Milk . - Tlie phenomena accompanying the

inorganic or saline matter, partly soluble and partly insoluble in water. This is the composi tion of cows' and ewes' milk , according to Henri

changes inmilkare well known to every dairy-

and Chevalier;and of mares' milk, according to

maid , but few of them know that the constituent parts of milk are only mechanically commixed ;

Luiescius and Bondt:

and this must be the case even in the udder of the

cow , otherwise the afterings, which had occupied the upper part of the udder, would not be the richest portion of the milk, nor the first-drawn the poorest. All, therefore, that is required to

separate the different parts of milk is rest and time. The cream or fatty part floats to the sur

Casein , Mucus, Butter ,

Sugar of milk , Salts ,

Cow . Ewe. Milk , Beistyn . 45.0 150.7 44.8 20.0 26.0 42.0 31.3 50.0 trace 47.7 6.8 6.0

Mare . 16.2

trace 87.5 896.3

Water,

803.3 870.2 856.2 1000.0 1000.0 1000.0 1000.0

face in the course of a few hours; in a little

longer time, according to the state of the temperature, the caseous portion becomes sour ; and in a greater length of time the acidity becomes so

Butter gives its richness to milk, sugar its sweet ness, casein its thickness, water its refreshing

powerful as to coagulate the milk in one mass,

property as a drink, and salts its peculiar fla vour . Of the different kinds of milk enumerated,

and in a still greater lapse of time the coagulated mass separates into two parts, one becoming firmer, or cheese, the other again Auid, or whey. The rationale ofthis natural process is thus well

the superior sweetness and thinness of mares' milk are accounted for by the large proportion of sugar and the small quantity of casein it con tains. It appears that beistyn contains nearly

given by M. Raspail :- “ Milk, when viewed by three times more casein than milk, and only a the microscope with a power of only 100 diame- trace of sugar of milk , no salts, and a large pro ters, exhibits spherical globules, the largest of portion ofmucus ; and nine times more casein than which are not more than *0004 of an inch in dia-

mare's milk .

meter, and which, from their smallness, appearof a deep black at the edges. These globules disappear on the addition of an alkali, such as am-

4263. Milk boils and freezes about the same temperature as water. Milk may be prevented

monia, and the milk then becomes transparent. becoming sour by being kept in a low tempera If the proportional quality of milk be more con- ture; in a high temperature, on the other hand, it

siderable, it forms a coagulum of a beautiful rapidly becomes sour, and, at the boiling point, it white colour, on the addition of concentrated sul- curdles immediately. The acid of milk is called phuric acid. This coagulum does not arise sim-

the lactic acid ,which in its nature resembles acetic

ply from the adhesion of the globules to each

acid, the acid of vinegar.

other, but it may be plainly seen by the microscope,that the globules are evolved in a transpa-

takes place when milk becomes sour is easily understood," as is well observed by Professor

rent albuminous membrane, which has no appear-

Johnston .

ance of a granular structure. Milk, then , is a watery fluid, holding in solution albumen and oil, by the agency of an alkaline salt or a pure alkali,

the elements of a portion of the milk -sugar are made to assume a new arrangement, and the

“ The change which

“ Under the influence of the casein ,

sour lactic acid is the result.

There is no loss of

and having suspended in it an immense number matter, no new elements are called into play, of globules,which arein part albuminous and in nothing is absorbed from the air, or given offinto part oily. The albuminous globulesmust tend to subside slowly to the bottom of the vessel by their specific gravity, while the oily globules must have a tendency to rise to the surface. But the oily globules being dispersed in myriads

it ; but a simple transposition of the elements of

the sugar takes place, and the new acid com pound is produced. These changes appear very simple, and yet how difficult it is to conceive by what mysterious influence the mere contact of

* Raspail's Organic Chemistry, p. 380-2.

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE .

293

this decaying membrane, or of the casein of the facilitated by a rise, and retarded by a depres milk , cancause the elements of the sugar to break sion of temperature. At the usual temperature up their old connexion, and to arrange them- of the dairy at 50° Fahrenheit, all the cream will selves anew in another prescribed order , so as to probably rise in thirty -six hours, and at 70° it form a compound endowed with properties so will perhaps all rise in half that time ; and when very different as those of lactic acid." *

the milk is kept near the freezing point the cream

4264. The composition of the ash of milk is as follows, according to the analyses of 1000 lb. of milk each of twocows, by Haidlen : 2:31 lb. 3.44 lb. Phosphate of lime, Phosphate of magnesia, 0.42 Phosphate of peroxide of iron, 0:07 1.44 Chloride of potassium ,

0.64

Chloride of sodium ,

0-24

0:34

Free soda,

0-42 99

0.45

4.90 lb.

6.77 lb.

0.07 1.83

9

will rise very slowly, because it becomes partially solidified. Lassaigne found no difference in the ratio between the bulks of cream and whey from the same cow, fed on beet-root, hay, and straw ,

from 42 days before to 4 days after parturition, when the quantities were 200 volumes of cream to 800 of whey ; but by 30 days after par turition the volume of cream had decreased to 64, and that of whey had increased to 936, aud by that time the water in 100 parts of milk had also increased to 90.

4268. “ Cream does not consist wholly of fatty matter, (butter,) ” observes Professor Johnston,

4265. Lassaigne obtained some curious results on observing the composition of the milk of a

“ but the globules of fat, as they rise, bring up

with them a variable proportion of the casein or

cow , which he examined at ten different periods, curd of the milk, and also some of the milk four of these before and six after parturition. sugar. It is owing tothe presence of sugar that The milk examined during the first three of the former periods, namely, 42 days, 32 days, and

cream is capable of becoming sour, while the casein gives it the property of curdling when

21 days before parturition, contained no caseinat

mixed with acid liquids,or with acid fruits. The

all , but in place of it albumen ; no sugar of milk and no lactic acid, but a sensible quantity of uncombined soda. The milk examined eleven

proportion of cheesy matter in cream depends upon the richness of the milk , and upon the tem perature at which the milk is kept during the

days before and just after parturition ,contained rising of the cream. In cool weather the fatty both albumen and casein ; while milk eleven days before parturition , and always after it, con-

matter will bring up with it a larger quantity of the curd, and form a thicker cream, containing a

tained free lactic acid and sugar of milk , but

greater proportion of cheesy matter.

no free soda. The milks examined 4 days, 6 days, 20 days, 21 days, and 30 days after parturition , contained casein and no albumen. It

position of cream , therefore, is very variable much more so than that of milk - and depends

would appear from these observations that the milk of the cow is at first very similar to the

The com

very much upon the mode in which it is col lected.” In warm weather, therefore, the cream should be rich, though thin. Cream, at a specific

serum of blood ; and that the casein, sugar of gravity of 1.0244, according to the analysis of milk, and lactic acid, to which it owes much of Berzelius, consists of— its distinguishing characteristics, begin first to

Butter , separated by agitation ,

make their appearance in it about eleven days before parturition .

Curd , separated by coagulatingthe butter-milk , Whey ,

4.5 3.5

92-0 100-0

4266. Brisson states the specific gravity of various milks : but it is important to remark , that it varies so much, even in the milk from the same animal, that it is impossible to give a correct mean . The specific gravity of cows' milk is low , being 1 :0324 ; its whey is, of course, still

lower, 1.0193; and that of ewes' milk is the highest, being 1.0409.

Lassaigne examined the spe-

cific gravity of cows' milk at various distances of time before and after parturition, at a temperature of 46 ° Fahrenheit, and the results were generally, that 21 days before parturition it was highest, being 1.064; and lowest at 6 days after parturition, being 1.033.

4269. The quantity of cream which any given milk containscan be easily measured by the galac tometer, which consists of a narrow tube ofglass not more than 5 inches in length, 3 of which is

divided into 100 parts, and on being filled with milk to the top of the graduated scale, whatever number of degrees the thickness of the cream embraces, will be the percentage of the cream yielded by the milk. For example, if the cream covers 4 lines of the scale, it is 4 per cent ; if 8 lines, 8 per cent.

4270. M. Raspail alleges that the dairymen in 4267. Cream . - Cream cannot rise through a the neighbourhood of Paris take off the cream from their milk, and supply its place with raw

great depth of milk . If milk is therefore desired to retain its cream for a time, it should be put into a deep narrow dish ; and, if it be desired to

sugar, and an emulsion either of sweet almonds or hemp-seed. Milk is sometimes adulterated

free it most completely of its cream, it should be

by the addition of starch , and sometimes a por

poured into a broad flat dish, not much exceeding

tion of carbonate of potash is added to it to pre

one inch in depth .

vent it from curdling.+ I have detected magnesia

The evolution of cream is

* Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 1007. + Raspail's Organic Chemistry, p. 385.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

294

in cream in Holland, put in to thicken it. In How much of the 16 per cent usually consists of London, the milk is so adulterated with water, cheesy matter may be seen by this statement : that some dairymen have adopted the practice of two samples of fresh -butter, from cream , exa driving their cows along the streets, and supplying mined in my laboratory, have yielded only 0:5 it to their customers direct from the cow . Both and 0-7 per cent cheesy matter respectively. This

the milkand cream obtained from the dairies in is certainly a much smaller quantity than I had the neighbourhood of Edinburgh are generally expected. Does butter from the whole inilk con free from adulteration . The worst material put into the milk in the public dairies of Scotland is

tain more ? ”

water,

4275. The proportions of butter yielded by milk varies considerably, from 1 lb. of butter

4271. It has been observed that the Equisetum from 15 quarts of milk , as in Holstein ,to 1lb. fluviatile, the great water horse-tail, gives the from 8 quarts of milk of the Kerry cow.t It is a good cow which gives 1 lb. of butter a-day its cream. It is believed that the leaves of the during the season ; and perhaps 8 or 9 ounces bulbous buttercup, Ranunculus bulbosus, is per. a -day would be nearer the mark, as the quantity

milk a leaden or bluish colour, and deprives it of

nicious to the milk, but there is no sufficient given by the general run of cows over the king. foundation for the assertion , as cows will not eat the plant ; but it is known that the broad -leaved wild garlic, Allium ursinum , is eaten by cows,

dom.

4276. The changes induced in milk and cream

and gives a most offensive flavour of garlio to to the production of butter by agitation in a milk and cream . This is an annoyance to which churn, are not yet well understood . It appears the settlers in some parts of Canada are pecu-

certain that the presence of air is not necessary

liarly subjected .

to the conversion of a part of the milk into but

ter, since a close barrel-churn produces butter as 4272. Skimmed milk.

The constituents of

well as an open one. The formation of butter,

skimmed milk, according to the analysis of Ber- therefore, must be purely a chemical process, and zelius in 1808, are it becomes the chemist's office to explain the sensible changes which always accompany the 92-875 Water , 2.800 churning of milk . These sensible changes are, Curd , not free from butter , Sugar of milk , 3.500 the milk becoming sour, and the butter being 0-600 Lactic acid , and the lactate of potash, separated from it in a solid form . The sourness 0.170 Chloride of potassium , of the milk is explained by the change of the 0-025 Phosphate of potash , sugar of milk into lactic acid , effected simply by

Phosphate of lime and magnesia, with trace of iron ,

0-030

a new arrangement of constituents. The separa

100.000

tion of the butter from the sour milk , in a solid

form , is owing to the breaking up of the enve lops of the globules of fat, and the mutual adhe 4273. " Natural emulsions,” observes Professor sion of these globules when they come into con Johnston, “ such as the substance of the nerves tact with each other. It is evident that this is and brain, are considered by Mulder to contain entirely a mechanical effect, but it is probably a species of chemical compound of the fatty mat- facilitated by the action of the acid thinning ter with albumen, which has the property of away the envelops of the globules of the fat, mixing with water. In the nerves of a dead when they begin to burst. animal, this compound begins immediately to 4277. Butter consists of two elements, in as decompose, the fat retreating inwards, and forming a transparent axis, the albumen gathering far as its fatty matter is concerned ---margarin itself towards the exterior of the fibre. Is milk, and elain, ( 1634,) the former giving it hard then, a natural emulsion, which, while in the ness, and the latter softness. In winter, the udder of the cow , is under the secret influence margarin is in greater proportion in butter than of the vital power, and which, when drawn from in summer, and in cool weather than in warm ; it, begins immediately to decompose, like the for it is possible, chemically, for elain to be par substance of the nerves and brain, because the tially transformed to margarin, by 1 part of liquid influence of life is no longer exercised upon it ?” elaic acid absorbing from the air , or from any

4274. Butter. " Butter," says Professor Johnston , " prepared by any of the usual methods, containsmore or less ofall the ingredientswhich exist in milk. It consists, however, essentially of the

othersource, 4 parts ofoxygen, giving off 2 parts ofcarbonic acid,and becomingtransferred tomar garic acid.I Such a transference is probable in churningin the open air, but it does not ex. plain the obtaining offirm butter in all circum

fat of milk , intimately mixed with a more or less

stances, since as firm butter can be made in a

considerable proportion of casein and water, and close barrel-churn as in any open one. with small quantity sugar milk. a of of Fresh butter is said to contain about one-sixth of its

weight ( 16 per cent) of these latter substances,

4278. Butter -milk. - Butter-milk is the portion of the milk or cream which is left by the butter,

and five-sixths ofpure fat, according to Chevreul. after the process of churning is finished. It is * Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, p. 807.

+ Journal of the AgriculturalSociety of England , vol. i. p. 386. # Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1847, p. 62.

295

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE .

sour to the taste, thick, and consists ofbutter, curd, and water. When fresh, it is a pleasant beverage, and the working classes relish itmuch as an article of diet at breakfast. When allowed to stand, it becomes sourer and bitter, and is fit

simply in therapid conversionof aportion of the sugar of milk into lactic acid, which acid, like vinegar, has the property of curdling milk. Many substances are recommended to be used as rennet besides the pig's stomach, such as pure

only to be given to the pigs, which relish it much curd, agreeable old cheese, the natural Auids of the stomach, the first extract of malt, and sour

as an article of food .

leaven. After suggesting these, Professor John

4279. Curd.— “ The casein of milk ," says ston “ particularly recommends trials to be made we are able to Professor Johnston, “ is similar in composition to of the pure prepared curd. If out of the mys

the fibrin of wheat, the legumin of the pea and

rescue the manufacture of rennet

bean, and the albumen of the egg, or of vegetable

terious and empirical hands of the skilled dairy

substances. Hence the opinion first suggested maid, and by the use of a simple, abundant, easily cancommand atonce by Mulder has been pretty generally received, prepared and pure rennet, of the milk, and a curd na that the cheesy matter contained in an animal's

a ready coagulation

milk is derived directly, and without any re- turally sweet, or of a flavour which we had fore markable change, from the food on which it seen and commended, we shall have made a lives. It appears that, in the presence considerable step towards the perfection of the of sugar, casein is capable of changing or decom- art of cheese-making .” + posing the fatty bodies also, and of giving birth to oily acids of various kinds. Now, in milk, in 4285. Curd for rennet may be prepared in cream, and in butter, the casein is mixed with this way : “ Heat a quantity of milk which has

the sugar of the milk and the fats of the butter, stood for 5 or 6 hours, let it cool, and separate and thus is in a condition for changing, at one

the cream completely. Add now to the milk a

and the same time, both the sugar into lactic little vinegar, and heat it gently. The whole acid, or butryic acid, and the butter into other will coagulate, and the curd will separate. Pour acids of a fatty kind. Among those acids into off the whey, and wash the curd well by knead which the butter oil is convertible, are capricing it with repeated portions of water . When

and caproic acids, which are still more unplea- pressed and dried, this will be casein sufficiently acid, and which are known to be present in rancid butter." +

sant to the smell and taste than the butryic

pure for ordinary purposes. It may be made still more pure by dissolving it in a weak solu tion of carbonate of soda, allowing the solution

4280. Exact and repeated trials have shown

rating any cream that may rise to the surface,

to stand for 12 hours in a shallow vessel, sepa

that about 15gallons of milk are necessary for again throwing down the curd by vinegar, wash making about 11 lb. of two-mealcheese, and that i lb. of curd is produced from 1 gallon of new milk .

ing it frequently, and occasionally boiling it with pure water. By repeating this process three or four times, it may be obtained almost entirely

4281. Whey.-- Whey is the watery substance

free from the fatty and saline matters of the

of milk let loose after the formation of the curd by earning. It has a yellowish -green colour,

milk . " I

and an agreeable sweetish taste, in which the flavour of milk may be distinguished. The last portion of the wh squeezed out of the curd is whitish in colour, and contains both curd and

to 3 acres of land is commonly supposed suffi

4286. Cheese.-- As the food afforded from 21 cient for the support of one

w the year round,

by taking the medium of 355 lb. of cheese for

butter. Almost the whole of the curd may be each cow , the quantity of cheese produced by one acre will be 118 lb., which is supported by a boiling temperature. By evaporation ,whey de- the authority of many statements. But during separated, by keeping the whey for some time at posits a number of crystals of sugar of milk, which constitutes about two-ninths of a per-cent of the

the summer season , cows will afford from 14 lb. to 20 lb. of cheese, or more , in the week, when

whey, the water forming 93.3 parts out of the 100.

no butter is made." S

4282. Whey is an excellent food and drink for 4287. The composition of cheese is as fol. pigs in summer, and particularly for a brood- lows : Skim Milk Cheddar. Ewe Milk . Dunlop sow , when suckling pigs. It forms a safe aperient Water , 43.82 38.46 36.04 40.13 for dogs -- no better medicine can be given daily to a pack of fox - hounds out of the hunting season.

4283. From 100 gallons of the whey obtained from sweet milk curd , 10 or 12 gallons of cream

Casein , Butter , Ash or

Saline matter ,

33.48

25.87 31.86

28.98 30-40

19.80

} 5-18

3-81

4.58

6.59

100-02

100-00

100.00

100-00

45.04 5.98

may be obtained , from which 3 lb. or 4 lb. of butter may be made in the ordinary manner . The quantity of butter in the Dunlop and Ched dar cheeses is great, and it is it which establishes

4284. Rennet. — The action of rennet consists

their rich character.

* Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 970-3. + Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1847, p. 65. I Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2dedition, p. 969. § Dickson On Live Scock, vol. i. p. 237.

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

296

4288. “ The saline matter of cheese is only

to the appearance of the cheese. If a little bit

derived in part from the milk . The phosphates of butter be worked into the curd , and the cheese of lime and magnesia attach themselves to the

curd in the making of cheese, while the soluble

kept for three or four months, it will then be very good -at least it will taste like ewe-milk

salts remain for the most part in the whey. But

cheese .

the cheese is cured with salt, and the quantity

scale, even from the produce of one cow." +

Cheese can thus be made on a small

added varies with many circumstances. Hence

the ash of cheese consists chiefly of the earthy 4292. Cheese, of good quality, it is said, is phosphates, mixed with common salt, and with a made from potatoes in Thuringia and Saxony in very small proportion of chloride of potassium . this manner : - After having collected a quantity of potatoes of good quality, giving the preference Dunlop. Skim Milk . to a large white kind, they are boiled in a caul 52-64 53:38 Earthy phosphates in a 100 of ash , cheese ,

Common salt in a 100 of the ash, cheese,

2-03 32-37 1.23

2.58 42:13 2-06

“ The most practically useful result exhibited in

dron, and, after becoming cool, they are peeled and reduced to & pulp, either by means of a grater or mortar. To 5 lb. of this pulp, which

ought to be as equal as possible, is added one

the above table is, that every 100 lb. of cheese pound of sour milk, and the necessary quantity contain, and therefore carry away from the land,

of salt. The whole is kneaded together, and the

24 lbs of earthy phosphates. A ton of cheese, mixture covered up, and allowed to lie for 3 or of therefore, takes away about 60 lbs. " *

4 days, according to the season . At the end this time it is kneaded anew , and the cheeses are

4289. The form of the cheese, as indicative of placed in little baskets, when the superfluous the kind or of the country in which it is made, is moisture is allowed to escape. They are then not attended to in Scotland. In England , the allowed to dry in the shade, and placed in lay double and single Gloucester, the North Wilts, ers in large vessels, where they must remain for the Cheddar, the Stilton, and the Cheshire 15 days. The older these cheeses are the more cheeses, are recognised at a glance ; and so are their quality improves . Three kinds of them those of Gouda, Kanter, and Edam in Holland,

are made. The first, which is the most common,

as also the Parmesan of Italy, and the Schap

is made according to the proportions just given :

zieger and Gruyère of Switzerland. The only

the second, with 4 parts of potatoes and 2 parts

determinate form of cheese I know of in Scotland

of curdled milk : the third, with 2 parts of pota

is the brick cheese of Lanarkshire, which has

toes, and 4 parts of cow or ewe milk. These

been introduced to public notice in the last few

cheeses have this advantage over other kinds, that

years. The neglect of a marked form of cheese, in the Scottish dairies, implies a want of status for their cheeses in the cheese market; and until this

they do not engender worms, and keep fresh for a number of years, provided they are placed in a dry situation, and in well -closed vessels." I

condition is complied with, the Scottish cheese will not take its rank amongst the well recog-

4293. The country between Cremona and Lodi

nised cheeses of other countries —— it will not pass current in commerce without suspicion and chal.

comprises the richest part of the Milanese. In

lenge of an assumed character.

4290. Cheese may be made from the curd ob-

Como the cows number 57,000, and at Cremona ,

9,700. The grass is cut four times a-year as fodder for the cows, from whose milk is made the well-known cheese called Parmesan. The

cows, which are kept in the stall nearly all the from the ordinary curd, if the whey is not desired year round, are fed during summer on two or to be given to the pigs in its pure and nourishing three crops of grass or clover, which are cut state . The curd thus obtained from whey, if green ; and in the winter in the other two, which not made into cheese, may be usefully employed are hayed. “ The cows are generally bought in in feeding poultry, which will willingly pick it up Switzerland, where they are generally reared at if thrown down to them in pellets. less expense. The calves are killed for meat . tained in heating whey , in the same manner as

The cheese known by the name of Parmesan, is

4291. Cheese is made from butter milk . This made chiefly in the country extending from Milan is a recipe for making it by Miss Neilson of to Pavia and Lodi, and from Abbiategrano on the Kirkintilloch :- “ The contents of my churn I Ticino to Codagno near the Adda. The value of put into a pot which I hang over a slow fire. the cheese annually made, on an average ,amounts The butter milk curdles, and the curd sinks to the bottom of the pot. I then pour off the whey, and work the curd as I would do that of other

to 37 millions of lire .”' S The farms are small,

cheese, giving it salt to the taste, which is about half the quantity given to skim milk curd. The curd is then put into a clean coarse linen cloth, tied tight, and hung from the ceiling to dry for a few weeks, when the cheese is fit for use . The linen cloth, when hung in a net, gives a neatness

required to make one cheese, and more fre quently that of from 60 to 100 cows are put into acheese. To attain this end, the farmers

not exceeding 60 acres, and the cheeses very large ; so that at least the milk of 50 cows is

club together, and lend their milk to each other

in rotation to the one who is making a cheese. Parmesan cheese is made of skimmed milk , which

Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 1007-8. + Journal of Agriculture for October 1843, p. 167. I Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. ix. p. 310. § Von Raumer's Italy and the Italians, vol. i. p. 173.

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE .

297

is earned by heating in a cauldron ; and the whey not require any more salt than that which was is separated from the curd by running down an put in with the curd . It should be a twelvemonth inclined board, upon which the curd is placed old before it is used , when it may be expected to before being placed in the cheese-vat. Parmesan have a little blue mould, and be rich in taste and cheeses are usually about 112 lb. each in weight, the heavier the better, and sells in retail at from

mild in flavour.

Stilton cheese sells at 1s. 4d.

per lb., or £7, 9s. 4d, the cwt. in retail.

2s. to 3s. per lb. or £14 to £16, 16s, the cwt. 4294. Cheshire has long been famed for the number of its cheese -dairies. So long ago as 1808, it was estimated that 100,000 cows were used in the dairies of that county, and which

4296. Besides the casualties arising from fer mentation , Fig. 386. (4 2 4 5, ) cheese , when yet quite fresh is subject

produced every year 11,500 tons of cheese of 60 Ib. each . The county contains 600,000 acres , one- third of which is in grass ; and allowing 2

to the at tack of an

acres for each cow, the yield of cheese, at that time, would be about 2

cwt. from each cow .

The produce now , 1849, is estimated at 3 cwt.

insect, the cheese - fly ,

the cow, and some cows give 5 cwt. Cheeses of the weight of 60 lb. eaeh lose about 15 per cwt. of their weight during the first year. Cheshire cheese sells at 8d. per lb. or £3, 13s. 10d. the

fig. THE CHEESE -FLY .--PIOPHILA CASEI. casei, 386. ' The fly is ready to deposit itseggs in the deepest crack

cwt. in retail,

it can find , by means of an extensile abdominal

Piophila

tube. The specific distinguishing characters of 4295. It is improbable that any farmer, not a this insect are, in the words of Mr Duncan dairy one, will try to make a Cheddar or a Che- “ About 2 lines in length, the whole body of a shire cheese, but many dairy-maids may be greenish -black colour, smooth and shining; front tempted to make a Stilton cheese for family use. of the head reddish yellow , paler yellow on the The following is a good recipe for making one. under side. Thighs ochre -yellow at the base and The cheese -vat is a tin -plate cylinder, 10 inches apex ; tibiæ deep ochre, the first and last pair high, 25 round on the outside, without top or black at the apex ; anterior tarsi black, the others bottom , having the side pierced with holes, to ochrey, with the 2 last joints and the claws let out the whey. The rennet is made in the black ; wings clear and iridescent, slightly tinged usual way, only the stomach of the lamb is used ; with rust colour at thebase ; halteres ochrey ." and in addition to the ordinary quantity of salt The cheese -maggots, fig. Fig. 387. 387, produced from this used in it, a lemon stuck full ofcloves is putinto the jar amongst it, the lemon adding to the efficacy fly , are as large as the fly, and commonly called jum of the rennet . About 9 gallons of new milk, and the When this maggot cream from 2 or 3 gallons of milk, warmed before pers. being put in the milk, are used for one cheese. prepares to leap, it first erects itself upon its anus, If sufficient new milk cannot be obtained, the as represented in the figure; night's milk and cream are used with the morn ing's milk, as well as the extra cream. The ren and then, bending itself into a circle, by bringing pet is put in warm when the milk is new ; and when it has become curd, it is not broken , but a

THE CHEESE - MAGGOT .

its head to its tail, it

strainer of coarse linen is laid in a cheese basket, pushes forth its unguiform and the curd put into it, breaking it as little as mandibles, and fixes them in two cavities in its possible ; the cross corners of which are drawn anal tubercles. All being thus prepared, it next together, and it remains in this way some hours, contracts its body into an oblong, so that the two until sufficiently firm to slice. The curd is put halves are parallel to each other. This done, it in the vat in slices, a layer of curd and a sprink- lets go its hold with so violent a jerk, that the ling of salt alternately : this is continued until sound produced by its mandibles can be easily the vat is full; then a flat square piece of board heard, and the leap takes place. Swammerdam is placed at the top of the vat, one having been saw one, whose length did not exceed the fourth previously laid at the bottom , placing one hand part of an inch, jump in this manner out of a box at the top, and the other underneath. The cheese 6 inches deep, which is as if a man 6 feet high is then to be turned over very quickly ; its own should raise himself in the air by jumping 144 weight is a sufficient pressure ; keep turning it feet ! He had seen others leap a great deal every two or three hours the first day and two higher.” + or three times next day. It is to be kept in the

vat three or fourdays, according to the firmness of the curd. When taken out, a thin piece of calico is dipped in boiling water and wrung out, and then pinned tightly round the cheese. This cloth remains on it until it is thoroughly dry .

4297. When cheese passes its stage of ripeness it becomes mouldy, if kept in a rather damp situation, which all ripe cheeses should be to

retain their moisture and flavour, and where the flavour is much enhanced by the production of

The cheese should be turned twice a-day ; it does blue mould. ' It is possible to inoculate new Quarterly Journal of Agriculture,vol.xii. p. 126. + Kirby and Spence's Introduction to Entomology, vol. ii. p. 283.

298

PRACTICE - SUMMER .

Home Consumption . Imported . cheese with the mould of old, and thereby at once 1847 354,802 cwt, 366,289 cwt. to impart the flavour of ripeness. This process 431,401 » 1848 444,032 is easiest done by inserting rolls of moulded cheese extracted by the scoop or spyler, into holes pre . The import duty, by the tariff of 1846, is 6s. the viously made in the new cheese by the same cwt., and ls. 6d. when brought from any British scoop , an instrument usually employed by cheese- possession . I

mongers to taste cheese .*

4298. Towards a still further period of decay

4302. According to the microscopical observa tions of M. Turpin , it would appear that the

than this of mouldiness, cheese isattacked by the globules of milk ,which in a pure healthy state their form and colour when mite, Acarus siro of Linnæus. “ We often wonder become changed inthe influence of the disease

well -known, and, by some, highly -prized cheese- are always large, numerous, spherical, and alive,

how the cheese-mite is at hand to attack a cheese

the cow is under

we learn from commonly called in France the cocote. The cocote wherever deposited; but when Leewenhook that one lived 11 weeks gummed on seems to be the same disease which afflicted the its back to the point of a needle without food, our

cattle of this country some years since, by ren

wonder is diminished,” say Kirby and Spence. dering their feet hot and sore, and their tongue, Both cheese-maggots and mites, when numerous, destroy cheese rapidly, by crumbling it into small

and the inside of the mouth , inflamed and blister ed , inducing a considerable discharge from it of

pieces, and by emitting a liquid substance, which

saliva in a viscid state .

causes the decayed parts to spread speedily. They 4303. This disease, when it appeared in this may easily be killed, however, by exposure to strong heat, or by plunging the cheese in some country some years since, was considered a new liquid, such as whisky, capable of destroying the one ; but that it visited this country many years

may be learned from these observations: larvæ, without communicating any disagreeable ago, “ In the hot summer of 1736, this distemper

flavour.

began under the tongue, and swelled the throat 4299. Rats and mice are remarkably fond of, downtothe breast, which, if not speedily reme and commit sad havoc amongst all kinds of died , kills in a very few hours." ſ cheese, but particularly old ones. Nothing but 4304. Amongst the first symptoms of the a well-fed cat can deter these vermin from a

cheese cellar, where poison cannot be employed milk being affected, after the cow has been seized with impunity. 4300. Prussic acid is said to have been found

with this complaint, is the change ofcolour from the natural one to a dirty yellow . The globules become irregular in size, some individual ones

by Dr Witling as a spontaneous product of the acquiring a considerable magnitude, others shrink decay of unsound cheese. “ In one experiment, I examined 230 grains of decayed cheese, by digest ing it in a small quantity of distilled water, and gently distilling the mixture. The liquid thus obtained had the odour of decayed cheese, and contained ammonia, but not the slightest trace of

ingin diameter and dying ; whilst numbers of diffe rent sizes cluster together, and a few , after death , assume a green olive hue.

At a more advanced

stage of the disease, the globules all die, and be come corrugated in the edges, more equal in size, larger, and fewer in number. At a still later

prussic acid could be detected in it by the most date, the globules are of unequal sizes, less regu delicate tests.

This experiment was repeated

larly corrugated, and much fewer in number,

with Stilton and other cheeses in various states floating about in a serum ofadirty yellowish -green of decay ; but even the sulphur test failed to colour,when the odour becomes fetid. “ One can show that any portion of prussic acidwas pre- not give the name of milk ,at least of pure milk," sent. Large quantities of decayed cheese are observes M. Turpin , “ to all the liquids which come

sold to the poor in London , but we never hear of out of the teats of a cow whose udder is in a sulting from its use . I have found such cheese to be of a brown colour, of a highly offensive odour, and possessing an acrid bitter taste. The decayed portions of the better kinds of cheese, in all stages of animal decomposition, and covered with vegetable growths, are, it is well known, eaten by the epicure also without accident. If prussic acid were produced, as is alleged , nothing

state of irritation, and the interior of whose teats is inflamed with pustules. In this pathological state, all the functions of the udder are in dis order, and the three great secretions of the lympo, blood, and milk are wrong. Their respective glo bules, altered in their form and ordinary colour, lose their special characters, often to the de gree of being not recognisable. The particular route which each of these different secretions fol

could prevent its volatilisation as rapidly as it was formed, unless it was pretended that the acid was

break through, and the three kinds of globules,

any effects like those caused by prussic acid re-

lows near each other, in a state of health , they

fixed ! Unsound cheese may act as an irritant,

being confounded together, come mixed to the

but its poisonous effects are then not due to the

outside by the end of the teats. The cows, sick in the cocote, furnish those liquidsin that state. It is well to know that milk containing lympha

presence of prussic acid .” +

4301. The quantity of cheese imported, and tic and bloody globules is not hurtful to health . entered for home consumption, was as follows: - We think , in spite of the disgust which it may * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol.ix ., p . 232. + Taylor On Poisons, p. 697. # Parliamentary Returns, 26th February 1849. § Ellis's Modern Husbandman, vol. iv., August 1745, p . 114.

299

MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE .

excite,milk in that state may be nourishing, if

4312. Cream may be used as an emulsion with

the globules, though dead, are entire, and not yet all sorts of preserved fruits, of which it enhances decomposed and passed to a purulent and fetid the flavour; and perhaps no form of cream is state . One thing surprises at first, if we more agreeable or more generally admired than do not know that the udder of a cow is composed, blancmange flavoured with almonds. by contiguity and connexion, of four distinct udders, eachterminating by its own teat, and the 4313. Iced -cream , flavoured with pine-apple or functions of which are carried on independently vanilla , tastes rich and cool in warm weather. of one another, as much as the separate breasts of a woman - is to see the same cow , affected with the 4314. Cream -cheese. « One pint of cream being disease, often produce from one of its teats excel- mixed with 12 pints of noon -day milk , warm from lent milk , and from another, situated at the same

the cow, a little rennet is added , and when the

side, a dead inodorous milk, and from a third a curd is come, the whey is poured out gently, so purulent milk with a horribly fetid odour. This as to break the curd as little as possible. It is proves the independence of the sources of the then laid in a cloth , and put into a small sieve ; physiological functions of the four simple quar- the cloth is changed every hour during the day, ters of the udder, though intimately bound by and in 24 hours it will be fit for use. It may be approximation in one udder.” served on a breakfast plate with vine leaves under it, and it will keep perfectly good only one 4305. It is in the power of everyfarmer, what- day. ” + A simpler mode is to put rich cream in ever may be the kind of farming he pursues, to muslin cloth, and change the cloth until the cream furnish his table at all seasons, and particularly comes to the consistency of taking the form of in summer, with many pleasant and wholesome a mould , when serve on vine leaves or green dishes from his dairy. I shall shortly enumerate rushes. a number of those dishes. 4315. New churned unwashed butter is a great

4306. Curds are obtained by simply earning a dishful ofnew milk. It may be served up simply in

treat to breakfast.

4316. Hatted kit is one of the pleasantest pre the dish in which it has been made, or with grated loaf-sugar sprinkled over the curd deprived of parations of milk. Make 2 quarts of new milk whey, whichgives it the appearance of a prepared scalding hot, and pour upon it quickly 4 quarts of fresh butter-milk ; let it stand, without stirring, dish , and is eaten with sugar and cream . 4307. A sour cog is a dish of milk allowed to stand with its cream until the milk becomes

till it becomes cold and firm ; then take off the hat or upper part, drain it in a hair -sieve, put it into a shape for half an hour, turn it into a dish ,

thoroughly coagulated by sourness, and the sour and serve with cream and sugar. The slight cream and milk are eaten together with or without acidity of this dish, with the richness of the sugar. It is served in the dish in which it is made. cream , and the sweetness of the sugar, combine to make it a very delicious dessert.

4308. Plain cream , whether sweet or sour, is 4317. Float-whey is another preparation equally an excellent accompaniment to oatmeal or barleymeal porridge, ( 1931,) or to sowens. Without good as hatted kit, and more delicate. Pour in cream , tea and coffee would lose much of their all the whey drained from the new -milk cheese relish ; and so would pastry and jellies and pre- that has just been made, into a small furnace -pot; served fruits. Flour-bread, eaten with cream , apply a slow fire, and raise the whey near the makes a nice dessert. boiling point, but not to let it boil, else the curd

will fall to the bottom . During the heating,a 4309. The clouted cream of Devonshire is pre- scum of curd forms upon the surface of the whey.

pared by straining thenew-milk into a shallow Take then one quartof fresh butter-milk, and dish , into which a little warm water has been pour it gently over the scum , and as much as previously put ; and after allowing it to stand until the scum has attained some thickness and from 6 to 12 hours, it is carefully heated over a consistency. After pouring in some cold water slow fire or hot plate till the milk approaches to to lower the temperature of the whey, thereby

the boiling point; but it must not actually boil, rendering the scum more consistent, skim off the or the skin of cream will be broken . The dish scum upon a hair-sieve, put it into a mould, and is then removed to the dairy, and the cream al- on turning it out a short time after, serve with lowed to cool, when it may be used as cream or made into butter.

sugar and cream .

4318. To make Irish troo-milk whey, put

4310. Milk oatmeal porridge ismore agreeable two-thirds of sweet-milk into a saucepan , to the palate than water porridge, and when and make it boiling hot; then pour in one-third eaten with cream forms a rich diet. of butter-milk, gently stirring it round the edges of the pan.

Let the whole come to &

4311. Half-churned cream is a better accom- boil; take it off the fire, let it settle, and strain paniment to oatmeal porridge than plain cream , off the whey, which makes an excellent drink in the slight acidity impartinga pleasant taste. fever .

* Turpin, En Mémoires de l'Academie Royaledes Sciences, tom . xvii. p. 214 and 239. + Dalgairn's Practice of Cookery, p . 467.

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

300

AUTUMN.

SUMMARY OF THE FIELD OPERATIONS, AND OF THE WEATHER IN AUTUMN.

is this which makes the principles of sea sonal action thicken upon us as the year advances, and the autumn to become the

4319. In taking a retrospect of the harvest of knowledge, as well as of the fruits

different seasons, we have seen Winter of the earth. Nor can one help admiring the season of dormancy, in which all na-

that bountiful and beautiful wisdom which

ture desires to be in a state of repose, —

bas laid the elements of instruction most

Spring, the season of revival, in which the abundantly in the grand season of plenty returning power of nature inspires every and gratitude.” But grateful as the hus created being with new vigour,-Summer, bandman must always feel for the boun the season of progress, in which nature ties of Providence , so much labour is

puts forth all her energies, to increase and bestowed, so much anxiety is felt by him, multiply her various productions,--and now we contemplate Autumu, the season of fruition , in which nature, in bringing the individual to perfection , makes

as regards the effects of the vicissitudes of

the seasons, before “ he gathers his wheat into the garner," that the reflections to which the consummation of harvest is

provision therein for the future preser- calculated to give rise are, I fear, con vation of its kind.

While, however, the strained, and even selfish.

“ For as the

natural action of spring and summer is annual harvest which we obtain from the single, that of autumn has a compound earth, is received by us as resulting from character. Thus, if we follow out the that in which we have a right of property, study of the autumn in a proper manner, a merit in labour, or both united, we are it leads us to all the revolutions that apt to forget the part which Nature bas

have taken place in the surface of our in the productiveness of the year, and look planet ; and in this way, a plant of which upon the whole produce as the return of

we can, in a few months, see the begin- our own capital and our own skill, just as ning, the perfection, and the decay, be we do in any mechanical work , or mercan

comes to us an epitome of the system of tile speculation. That this is the true state growing nature in its widest extent, and of the case, is proved by the habitually

through its most prolonged duration. This proverbial fact, that the cultivators of the is the grand advantage wbich study- ground, for what purpose soever they may ing the productions of nature in their cultivate, are always complaining of the

connexion, and the events and occur- weather, as the grand enemy by which all rences of nature in their succession, has their labours are frustrated, and all their over the mere observations of the indivi- products diminished. They are nowise at dual substance and the passing moment ; fault themselves, but the 'weary weather '

and it is this which gives to the law of never will be obedient to their dictates. beauties of the seasons taken in their indi- with heat, what with cold, each thrusting

the seasons so high avalue above all the What with rain, what with drought, what vidual character.”

itself forward at the time when its oppo

site would have been by far the more

4320. Autumn matures its products, in beneficial, the crop they get is always

which the toiling labones ofthe husband - belowafair average;'and whatthey do man, for the preceding twelve months, get, is gotten in spite of the weather, and find their reward. In it, hope is lost in not by means of its co -operation. It is

the possession of the thing hoped for; and in vain that the fable of the farmer — into also the season for gratitudeand joy. “ It ment of the weather, and who, by having because it yields a plentiful harvest, it is whose hands Jupiter gave the manage

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.

301

rain, and drought, and sunshine, and snow , servatory, Greenwich, made simultaneous when and where he wished, brought his observations with the aneroid, and a com

land into a state of such utter sterility, mon standard barometer, during the whole that he was fain to plead more earnestly of March 1848, at nine in the forenoon than ever, that so dangerous a power might and three in the afternoon, and the devia be taken out of his hands -- has stood on tions were very trifling, at least for popular the record against them from remote anti- use ; and it is his opinion, that, had the

quity; for the majority contend stubbornly, mercurial barometer been subjected to the that all the merit is their own, and that all same range of temperature, from 28° to 80°,

the blame falls upon the weather, which, it would have been equally affected. He

notwithstanding all the examples which finds the movements ofthe aneroid always have been set before it, and all the expe- consistent. It is a delightful companion, rience it must have had, ' will not under- may be carried in the pocket, in a steam

stand and obey the rules of good husban- boat, a carriage, in the hand in mounting dry .

*

elevations, without the chance of being injuriously affected. It is therefore highly

4321. The temperature of autumn is useful, its indications preventing many an bigh-August in Scotland, affording the excursion which would haveended in disap highest average of the year, on account of pointment. The tourist should never travel the warmth of the night as well as of the without it ; and the seaman will find it a

day, though the sun is not more hours safe guide when the motion of the mer above the horizon than in March ,

but curial column renders the marine barome

Autumn follows the radiance of Summer, ter almost useless. In all cases, Mr Bel

while Spring just escapes from the frigidity ville affirms, in his short but interesting of Winter. Such is the heat, that it is memoir on meteorological phenomena, that no uncommon occurrence for reapers to be “bas used the aneroid as its inventor

be seriously affected by it in the harvest- intended it should be used ; and its move field .

ments are so far perfect that they merit

4322. Aneroid barometer .

This new

the calm and impartial investigation of the true philosopher, whose vocation is to aid

instrument has lately been invented by M. the development of ingenuity, and not to Vidi of Paris, for ascertaining the varia- crush its efforts because they are not per tions of the atmosphere. Its action de- fection.” + This instrument is extremely

pends on the effectproduced by the pres- delicate in its indications. On this point sure of the atmosphere on a metallic box, from which the air has been exhausted and then hermetically sealed. The instrument is so constructed that, as the weight of the

Captain Mangles relates,that, “for the last twelve years I have used one mercurial barometer, two sympiesometers with oil in the tube, and two more with a mineral

atmosphere is increased or diminished, so solution in the tube : all these I register is the surface of the corrugated elastic box depressed or elevated, as is also at the same time the spiral spring upon which the principal lever rests ; and this motion is

at ten at night and seven in the morning, and I regularly insert their movements in a diary. For the aneroid, at the beginning

of this year, 1849, I had a fresh column

communicated through the levers to the ruled ; and by this arrangement I soon per arbour of the hand. The tension of the box in its construction is equal to 44 lb. At the back of the instrument, which in size is like a large chronometer, is a screw to adjust the hand to the height of any

ceived the forewarning properties, and consequently greater value as a weather

guide, of the aneroid, as compared with the five rivals.

I could cite various in

stances of this superior sensitiveness, but

standard mercurial barometer. For com- that of Saturday morning, May 5, 1849, parative observation, the aneroid must be was most remarkable. I was much struck, placed in the position for which the ad- on coming down at 8, while the sun was shining bright, and there was every ap justment is made.

pearance of a fine day, to find that my 4323. Mr Belville, of the Royal Ob- instruments stood thus: * Mudie's Autumn, p. 25-7.

+ Belville's Description of the Aneroid Barometer, p. 48.

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

302

Mineral

011

Barometer . Aneroid . Sympieso - Sympieso

May 4, 10 P.M. 29.82 5, 8 A.M. _ 82 Difference.

daily mean temperature, for 30 years, occurs on the 8th and 9th of January. The greatest monthly mean pressure occurs in

meter .

meter .

29.871 29.78 _ 82 — 78

-75

June, and the lowest in November. From

0

June the monthly mean pressure declines

0

5

29.75

0

till November, when it again rises and

Here we hare the aneroid in full sunshine, attains a second maximum in January ; with a bright sky, and every appearance and, again falling, comes to its second of a lovely day, still uncomfortable and minimum in March. During 38 years, the

in doubt as to what is forthcoming, while greatest altitudeattained by the barometer his companions say nothing. I confess was in 1825, when it was 30•89 inches ; that, looking at appearances, while I and the greatest depression observed was wrote down my register, I almost doubted in 1821 , when it was only 27.99 inches. whether this time the aneroid could be

right, but at 1 P. M. I became convinced

4325. The phenomena accompanying

that there was no mistake. Let me add, the oscillations ofthe barometer ofa gene that at least four or five times sincé ral character, applicable to all seasons, are

January 1 , 1849, this instrument has given me similar evidence of its superiority as a forewarner .” * On the day alluded to, a flower-show took place in the Chiswick gardens, and in the afternoon a very heavy rain fell. The aneroid, as a

these :-A fall of the mercury with a S. wind is invariably followed by rain in greater or less quantities. Great depres sions arefollowed by changeof wind, and afterwards by much rain. If the mercury

rise with the wind at S. W., S., or even forewarner of weather, thus seems an ex- S. E., the temperature is generally high. A

cellent instrument for the farmer to possess. rising barometer with a S. wind is usually followed by fair weather. Such a rise,

4324. In bringing our meteorological observations to acouclusion, I shall confine myself to giving a few results of a general nature. The mean height of the

however, is ofrareoccurrence. Storms of wind, especially when accompanied with much rain, produce the greatest depres sion of the mercury. No great storm

barometer for every month of the year, ever sets in with a steady rising barome

of wind and rain, at Greenwich Observatory for thirty years, ter. If, after a stormsteady at the point from 1815 to 1844, was as follows, accord- the mercury remain

ing to the seasons as we have all along to which it had fallen, serene weather may divided them : Average of each Month .

WINTER ,

SPRING,

AUTUMN,

follow without a change of wind ; but, on the rising of the mercury, rain and a . change of wind may be expected.

29.801

November, December , January ,

29.884 .

4326. If the weather, during harvest

29.909 29-864

time, has been generally fine, and a fall of the mercury, with ashower, occur if the wind turn a few points to the N., and the

29.857

barometer rises above 30 inches, the weather

February, . 29.859 29-857 March, .

April, SUMMER ,

Average of each Season .

May, June, July,

.

29.865 29.884 29.910 29.894

may be expected to be fair for some days. 29-896

4327. Winds. - In England, the winds which blow for the greatest number of days together, without intermission , are

29.871

the W. and W. S. W. They blew strongly for five consecutive days in 1849. The

29-890

( August, September,

29.872

October,

29.851

Average of the year,

29.872

E. and E. N. E. are the winds next most

It seems the greatest daily mean pressure for the year occurs about the 9thJanuary, and the minimum daily mean depression towards the end of November. It is a remarkable coincidence that the lowest

prevalent. The W. winds surge mostly by night, and their average force is twice that of the E. winds. The E. winds are generally calm at night, but blow with some power during the day. On an

* Gardener's Chronicle, May 1849.

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS.

303

4330. According to the same authority, average, sunrise and sunset are the periods of the twenty -four hours in which there the number of rainy days in the same An hour or two after period is as follows:

is the least wind.

noon is the period when the wind is the highest. As a general rule , when the wind turns against the sun, from W. to S., it is attended with a falling mercury ;

August,

16.3 days.

September, October,

12:3

16-2

44.8 days.

when it goes in the same direction as the sun, or turns direct from W. to N., the 4331. According to Kirwan , after 41 mercury rises, and there is a probability of fine weather . In high pressures the years' observations, in the beginning of upper current nsually sets from the N.; in every year, the probability ofa dry autumn

low pressures it sets from the S. and S.W. occurring is as 11 to 41 ; of a wet one as 11 to 41; and of a variable one, as 19 to 4328. Rain . — The following is the

41 .

quantity of rain that fell in each month at Greenwich, in an average of 25 consecutive 4332. Clouds. -- The cirrus cloud is years, from 1815 to 1839, arranged ac- seen at all seasons of the year, and at all cording to our division of the year : heights of thebarometer. If the mercury Average of each

Average of each Season .

Month .

WINTER ,

November, 2.49 inches. December, 2.25 January, 1:57

be falling its changes are rapid, and, on the

approach of rain its delicate texture be

comes confused, and is ultimatelylost in one dusky mass, resembling groundglass. 2.10 inches.

( February, 1.56 SPRING ,

.

4333. The cirro- stratus is also seen at

1.71 1.83

1.70

y, . S Ma June , July ,

AUTUMN ,

.

all seasons of the year; and is the imme diate precursor of rain or wind, and of a

2-01

1.91 2:41

:::

SUMMER,

...

March , April,

falling barometer. It is in this cloud that halos, parhelia , & c. are formed . 2.11

( August, . 2.33 September, 2.50 ( October, 2.52 2.45

Average of the year,

4334. The cirro-cumulus attends a ris ing barometer. Coloured coronce have their origin in this cloud.

2.09

It appears that the greatest average quantity of rain falls in October, and theleast in February The heaviest rains, or those which yield the greatest quantity in

4335. The cumulus frequently attends a rising barometer. If, during a fine

morning, this cloud suddenly disappear, and it befollowedby thecirro-stratuscloud, with the wind tacking to the S., the mer

the gauge, come down in the summer and cury falls and rain soon follows.

The

early autumnal months. In the summer, cumulus usually evaporates an hour or two 14 inch will sometimes fall in less than before ; but when it increases after sunset,

an hour in short but impetuous torrents ; and shines with a ruddy copper -coloured in autumn the same quantity will occupy light, it denotes a thunder-storm . many hours in falling. * 4336. The effect of the cumulo - stratus

4329. The quantity of rain that falls in cloud on the mercury appears to be to give the autumnal months as we have divided it a tendency to rise. It indicates thunder

them , taking the mean as 1, is, according gusts, showersof hail, and sudden changes

to M. Flagergues, in August, September, October,

of the wind. It is the densest modification 0.0679 0.1236 0.1370 0.3285

of cloud, and, as it passes overhead, it causes a reduction of temperature. 4337. The nimbus is never seen with

the barometer at great elevations. The * Belville's Manual of the Barometer, p. 16 to 33.

304

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

rainbow is the lovely attendant of the intensely as he can depicture exquisitely, seem to supply the moral to the sentiments just expressed :

nimbus only. 4338. The stratus is the cloud nearest

the ground. Calin weather is essential to the formation of the stratus. It is frequent in fine autumnal nights and mornings, sometimes resting on the ground, some times hovering some hundred feet above it. It obscures the sun until his rays have raised the temperature of the air suffi-

“ A cloud lay cradled near the setting sun: A gleam of crimsontinged its braided snow.

Long bad I watched the glory moving on O'er the soft radiance of the lake below.

Tranquil its spirit seemed ,and floated slow : E'en in its very motion there was rest ; While every breath of eve, that chanced to blow, Wafted the traveller to the beauteous west.

Emblem , methought, of the departed soul, To whose white robe the gleam of light is given ;

ciently to evaporate it, when it gradually disappears and leaves a clear blue sky.

And, by the breath of mercy, made to roll Right onward to the golden gates of heaven,

The stratus deposits moisture. It is called

Where to the eye of faith it peaceful lies, And tell to man his glorious destinies." WILSON .

the night cloud, and is most frequent from September till January . It has no sensible effect on the barometer.

4341. Objects in the horizon - trees,

houses, and ruins - are projected in bold 4339. In hut sultry weather, especially relief against the clear cool sky of a after a slight fall of the mercury, small calm autumnal evening at sunset. Such a clouds sometimes suddenly form in a clear scene as this — if gemmed, moreover, with blue sky, and as suddenly vanish : this is the radiant and lustrous evening -star

a sure sign of electricity. If the clouds directs the mind to thoughtful medita are without any progressive motion, and tion, deeply tinged with melancholy. Who

increase rapidly, a storm , in all probabi- would disturb the holy aspiration ? lity, will be in the vicinity ; but if they move hurriedly towards any particular 4342. The tension of vapour in the quarter of the heavens, the storm will be autumnal and winter months, according in the direction whither the clouds are to our division of the year, is as fol seen to hasten : these signs of thunder lows :

are seen , though the storm may be 150 miles distant.

In certain states of the

atmosphere, when the clouds rise confusedly, and change their forms abruptly, it is difficult for the inexperienced to class

them ; the prevailing modification of the day,in connexion with the movement of the barometer, is, however sufficient to establish the character of the weather.

In August, it is » September, „ October, Their sum , In November, it is, 9 December, January , .

Their sum ,

10.701 9: 560

7.868 28 129 5.644 5.599 4.509

15.752

4340. “ The splendid crimson," observes

Mr Belville , “ contrasting with the deli- At the approach of winter,when the heat cate azure of a fine autumnal sunset, and diminisbes, the quantity of water precipi

the golden flood encroaching upon the tated in the form of rain, dew , and hoar deep blue of a summer's sunrise, are chiefly frost, greatly exceeds that which passes referable to the lofty cirrus and cirró- into the state of vapour. The quantity

cumulus clouds. Perhaps no climate in the of vapour goes on diminishing, while the temperate zone can boast, during the fine humidity is continually increasing, and period of the year, of clouds of so many is greater in November and December beautiful and so varied forms as Great than in the month of January. This isthe

Britain. They are the productions of origin of the damp cold which characterises Great Nature's hand, and are anticipated those two months.t with equal delight the painter, mind." the me* teorologist, and theby contemplative 4343. Prognostics. — The autumnal flora The following lines ofa poet, who can feel consists of Michaelmas daisies, starworts, * Belville's Manual of the Barometer, p. 28-32. + Kaemtz's Complete Course of Meteorology, p. 92.

805

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS:

and other late -blowing plants, with their as the result of accident. It is a curious companions the fungi and mushrooms, fact, that the poisonous properties ofmush

which is a remarkable class of vegetable rooms vary with climate, and probably productions. “ A large volume might be written upon the qualities and uses of fungi,” remarks Dr Lindley. “ They may be said to be important either as food or as poison, or as parasites destructive to the plants upon which they grow . As food, the

with the season of the year at which they are gathered. Another circumstance de serving of notice is, that, by idiosyncrasy, some individuals are liable to be seriously affected even by those species which are commonly regarded as innocent. There

most valuable are the Agaricus campestris, do not appearto be any satisfactory rules or common mushroom , the various species for distinguishing the mushroomswhich of Heloella or morel, and Tuber or truffle ;

are wholesome from

those which are

but a considerable number of other kinds poisonous. The best test is that assigned are used as food, in various parts of the by Dr Christison, namely, that the poison world . About half-a-dozen species are ous vegetable has an astringent styptic only eaten in London ; and in Paris none taste ; and perhaps also a disagreeable, are permitted to appear in the markets but certainly a pungent odour. All mush except the common truffle, morel, and rooms that are highly coloured, or grow mushroom , the latter being cultivated to a in dark or shady places, are generally very considerable extent in the ancient poisonous. quarries which run under parts of the city . It is necessary to exercise the utmost care 4345. “ Ketchup, a liquor made from in employing fungi, the nature of which mushrooms, has occasioned faintness, nau is not perfectly well understood , in conse- sea, and severe pain in the abdomen, dis quence of the resemblance of poisonous appearing only after some hours. There and wholesome species, and the dreadful are two ways of explaining this effect effects that have followed their incautious use.

either that the individual labours under

It is universally known that the idiosyncrasy with respect to mushrooms in

common mushroom is cultivated with as general; or that noxious fungi bave been much certainty by good gardeners as any gathered, by mistake, for esculent mush

other vegetable. The excellent Boletus edulis hasbeen partially cultivatedin the south of France . The common truffle has been attempted with more or less success. Polyperus fomentarius has been artificially produced in Germany, and five or

rooms. The poisonous principle contained in mushroomsiscalled fungin : it appears to be of a volatile nature, and soluble in water ; for some varieties ofnoxiousmush

rooms may be eaten with impunity, when they have been well boiled in water and

six crops have been obtained in a year. A afterwards pressed," + or pickled in salt curious parasitical species, Cyttaria Dar- and vinegar. winii, forms the principalpart of the food of the natives of Terra del Fuego ,during 4346. It is in autumn that irregulari many months of the year. Fungi are much ties in the functions of the digestiveorgans used in Australia bythe natives, especially such as cholera, diarrhæa - happen, be

of the genus Boletus. The large truffle, sides the many diseases that in tropical Mylitta Australis, (Berkeley,) which climates accompany particular winds or attains a weight of more than 2 lb., is weather. It is difficult, in certain states of known under the name of native bread. the atmosphere, to regulate the bowels,

The marsupial animals are particularly either by medicine, diet, or exercise, so as fond of fungi, and some species they hunt to effect the desired changes in the animal for so greedily, devouring them before economy. It is possible there may be they burst through the earth, that it is different states of atmosphere which act as very difficult to procure a well-grown specific stimuli, and produce their corres specimen ." *

ponding peculiar, diseased, nervous actions,

which are further varied by the particular 4344. “ Poisoning by mushrooms,” ob- state of constitution, and other circum serves Dr Taylor, “ is by no means unusual stances of the patient. There seems no Lindley's Vegetable Kingdom, p. 37-9. VOL. II.

+ Taylor On Poisons, p. 768. U

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

306

other way of

explaining either the recur- of Skye ; the breaking of the bannock, and

rence of the cholera in this country, from the firing of a feu-de-joie in honour of the

1832 to 1849, or of its decided effects in vanquisher of Lucifer and his host, by St Michael and his angels - an emblem of which, in the vane, surmounts the steeple 4347. There are four proverbs extant, of the town - house of Brussels ." .

one locality more than in another .

connected with the months of autumn :

4349. An atmospherical delusion , occa Dry August and warm , doth harvest no harm .

sioned by a cloud common in autumn, the

If the twenty-fourth of August be fair and stratus, 'is recorded as having happened clear, some years ago at Florence. A stratus of

Then hope for a prosperous autumn that year. shallowdepth, but very intense where it

September, blow soft, till the fruit's in the loft.

Good October, a good blast, To blow the hog, acorn and mast.

prevailed , intercepted the view of the dome ofone of the churches from the spec tators in the streets, while the gilded image

at the top was left exposed to view. The 4348. Of meteorological antiquities, consequencewas, that the populace, seeing “ the feast of St Peter ad vincula, or

the bright form of an angel through the

Lammas day, 1st August, is said to have mist, which just then began to be thin

been the first of the Egyptian year ; and enough to admit of the image being seen , old legends relate certain curesof disorders in the throat, made this day, by touching the chains of the saint. On the assumption of the Virgin Mary, August 15th, it was formerly the custom to implore a blessing upon herbs and plants ofdiverse kinds, which, being afterwards burned ,

ascribed the appearance to the realdescent of some celestial being. Had the fog con tinued till night, there is no saying what new miracle might not bave been recorded, as the testimony to the phenomenon was both numerous and respectable.

were esteemed a charm against witches.

4350. Mean of the atmospherical pbe

The 16th ofAugust,dedicated to St Roch, nomena of autumn are as follows: was celebrated as a harvest home, a prac tice stillkept up in many countries. The

quantity of knives given away at Croyland Abbey, on St Bartholomew's day, 24th of August, as noticed by Mr Richard Gough, originated probably in the story of the knife with which the apostle was flayed

Mean of the barometer in England in August, September, October,

28.91 inches. 29.92

29.92

Mean of autumn, 29:58

Mean of the thermometer in England , in

alive. The feast of the exaltation of the

August,

Holy Cross, September 14, can have

September,

62º.20 56 ° .87

October,

50 ° : 55

no other connexion with the growth of nuts in the hedges, than that it is cele brated at a time of the year when they

abound ; yet an ancient custom prevailed of going a -nutting on holy -rood day, which it was esteemed quite unlucky to omit. The particular time of the year when nuts may be ripe has probably

suggested this notion ; as also the flinging of apples and cabbages at one another, a custom practised at Kidderminster

Mean of autumn, 56 °:54 Tension of vapour for 569.54 - 22:09.

Mean fall of rain in England, in August, September, October,

.

Mean of autumn,

2:06 inches. 2.67 2:28 2:34

Prevailing winds in England, in

ceremony to commence which the bell in

August,

S.W. to N.W.

the turret of the town -house used to be rung .

September,

N.W. by S.W. to S. W. by S.E. to N.E.+

October ,

The 29th of September is the feast of St Michael and all Angels. Many customs remain in force on this day, as the eating

The number of storms in the west of Europe, in autumn, is 20.9 in 100. The number of hail -storms in England, in

of green geese ; the procession in the isle autumn, is 22 in 100. * Forster's Researches into Atmospherical Phenomena, p. 299. + Whistlecraft's Climate of England, p. 54-222.

SUMMARY OF FIELD OPERATIONS. Aurora borealis observed in 217 times. August, 405 September, 497 October, There are two maxima of aurora borealis, one

in March, another in October. Number of fire-balls seen in August,

307

in the sowing of a new crop of wheat, while the old crop of the same grain is in the act of being reaped ; and another is, that while the spring is the natural season of preparing for the reproduction of most of the animals of the farm , the autumn

is the one for the preparation of the re

69 51 61

production of the sheep, the most valu able animal of all, when the tup is put In August, when shooting-stars are common, amongst the ewes. September, October,

then are also many fire -balls.

4354. A tendency to disease seems to 4351. The great event of autumn is the exist in autumn in the animals of the

harvest, which engrosses the entire time and attention of the farmer and all his assistants, until the crop is secured beyond danger in the stack -yard ; and until it is secured, the farmer cannot rest in quietness. During this eventful period, the farmer

farm : sheep are liable to hepatitis ; calves to quarter-ill; the horse to colic, and even inflammation of the bowels ; and stallions and geldings lose their spirit. Perhaps the nutritiousness of the aftermath excess of nitrogen - on which all the ani

ought to look about hím night and day, mals subsist in autumn, may predispose regarding the “ face of the sky," and to act the animal system to secrete one class of with circumspection. The results of the fluids, and thereby induce particular com

whole year of labour being at stake,unless plaints in the others. If this be the true he feels that he has applied his utmost theory, preventive measures should be skill, and exercised his best judgment, sought for and obtained ; and oil-cake during the year, he cannot be satisfied with seems to possess a counteracting property. himself. None can more anxiously than A preventive remedy against annoyance the farmer follow this advice : The wind, the rain , the sun, Their genial task have done, Wouldst thou be fed, Man, to thy labour bow, Thrust in thy sickle now , Reap where thou once didst plough , God sends thee bread . JAMES MONTGOMERY.

to sheep from parasitic insects, and cold, is bathing and smearing. 4355. The sports of the field commence in August. The gatherings on the hills

on the famed 12th of August, in quest of the unique -flavoured red grouse, Lagopus Scoticus - of which Scotland should be

When every straw is safe in the stack -yard, prond as its only indigene — find a home in and he has closed the stack - yard gate for shielings, which, at other seasons, in the the season, then, and not till then, ought enjoyment of urban luxuries, would be the farmer to be satisfied that his task is contemned. Partridge- shooting follows in

finished , and that he may now enjoy re- September, sometimes even before the corn pose. The labour of barvesting a crop is is cut down - hare-hunting finds ample almost incredible. Only conceive the entire farinaceous food of such a nation as

room by October — and, last of all, the attractive “ music ” of the pack gather

this, in value worth a hundred millions, around it, from hill and dale, all the active reaped and carried into safety, in minute Nimrods of the country. portions, in the course of a single month ! 4356. In taking a retrospect of the

4352. Besides the harvest of the cereal plants, that of the leguminous, as well of all the rootcrops, takes place in autumn ; for although the turnips are not wholly

seasons, we have passed in review , we must own that our climate is far from being genial. The frequent changes to which the weather is daily susceptible,

removed from the ground at one time, like render the cultivation of the soil always a the other crops, they are begun to be so in difficult, and not unfrequently a vexatious, autumn .

occupation. Such vicissitudes, no doubt, sharpen the intellect of the farmer, and

s, 4353. Some curious anomalies in farm the stimulus imparted by them, perhap g the

labour occur in autumn .

One is found has been the chief means of elicitin

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

308

high skill which is generally acknowledged land is then in a comparatively drier state, to be apparent inthe agriculture of this and may be worked to advantage before kingdom . Skill will always be so stimu- the arrival of the bad weather usually lated in our insular position,which subjects experienced in the latter part of autumn. our atmosphere to be perpetuallyacted upon The later harvest in Scotland, and the

by the heat of the adjoining continent, and earlier arrival of winter weather, will not the moisture of the surrounding ocean. permit the immediate cropping of the Placed thus in a fretful climate, no wonder stubble after a grain crop ; and I am not the farmer would rather have one of equa- sure that, even if time did permit the soil

nimity, so that he is sometimes tempted to to be put into a proper state for a crop, envy the bright skies which illumine the any crop would be taken ; for, according Continent. Would hewish always to enjoy to the rotation usually followed in Scot

a beneficent climate, let bim take this ad- land, the only stubble ground available in vice , - “ If any one has, as Ihave, a hor- autumn for a succeeding crop is that of ror of icicles, and who would never have the oat, which terminates the rotation, and

the mild temperature of the air interrupted by the presence of a hoar-frost, let himmigrate with theclimate. Let him spend the month of January in Portugal; February in the Madeiras ; March in Spain ; April in Sicily ; May in Lapland ; June in Italy ; July in Switzerland ; August in France ; September in England ; October among the forests of America ; November in

which presents the land in the foulest state it is in before it is fallowed . The other stubbles are occupied with new grass, and are not available for another crop. Now, in England the circumstances are dif ferent ; for, independently of an earlier harvest and a stubble sooner cleared, most of the stubble land is bare, not occupied with new grass, little new grass being

Crete ; and December in the islands of the sown amongst the white crops, on account

Cape de Verd. By this rotatory motion of the large extent of old grass on most he may enjoy a delicious temperature,and farms. The stubble therefore of a white revel in honeysuckles and roses all the year crop, which had been taken after a fallow round .” * But the occupation of a farmer crop, is quite in a state of freshness and does not admit of his flitting so much abont cleanliness for a forage crop ; and since the as is here recommended, so he must con- climate offers no injury to such a crop in

tent himself with the climate, in whatever winter, the very natural desire to have a locality his lot is cast.

forage one that will cut early next year,

may be gratified with certainty. Andwere 4357. Before attending to the practical the practice of autumn culture confined to operations of autumn, I should premise the stubble of the land in fresh condition, that several crops sown in this season are there could no valid objection be urged

not only treated in a way different in against it ; but when the practice is pur

! .

1

England from what they can be in Scot- sued on the stubble, which exhausts the land, but some of them cannot be sown in rotation and the soil at one and the same

Scotland atthat period with impunity. time, it is highly objectionable: it renders Most of the forage plants sown in autumn any autumn crop so taken a catch crop ;

in England, for the purpose of affording it exhausts the land beyond its strength, early food in the following spring, as and renders it foul with weeds to a shame crimson clover, winter tares, cannot be ful degree.

But in ordinary circum

sown at that season in Scotland, because stances all autumnal crops render the land they cannot withstand a Scottish winter ; foul, there not being sufficient time to and several plants which may be sown work it after harvest, before the succeed

with impunity in England, on the stubble ing crop should be sown ; and also want ground, after the removal of the white of time in spring, after the autumnal crop, as the stone turnip and rape, cannot crop is removed, to clean the land for the with impunity be sown so late in the sea-

summer green crops. That the land is

son in Scotland. The harvest in England rendered foul by such a practice may be being aboutthree weeks earlier, the stub- adduced from the objection raised to sow

ble is not only bare so much earlier, but the ing the artificial grasses among the grow * Note - Book of an Oxonian - John Bull, 5th August 1843.

1

SOWING TURNIP FOR SEED.

309

ing white crops, for the reason that they sown broadcast. No species of turnip will would prevent the hoeing of those crops in attain a large size with such culture, nor can summer, whereas the land ought to be so the soil afterwards be otherwise than foul. clean, as all the weeds in it should injure neither the growing crop nor the new

4360. The stone turnip in autumn is

grasses ; and it would be so clean, but for cultivated in every respect as the common the practice of taking catch crops in turnip, as regards the working of the land, autumn; and it is actually so clean under its manuring, the sowing of the seed, and the Scottish practice.

It must be owned, the after culture, both manual and imple

however, that the attainment of a forage mental, as described from (3204 to 3282, ) crop that will cut early in the season isa and need not be repeated here. desideratum in Scotland ; and I cannot see

that it is to be obtained, in the circum-

4361. Turnips intended for seed are

stances of that country, but by the entire sown in the drill in autumn, as well as abandonment of bare fallowing,and the ap- transplanted by the bulb in spring, de propriation of a portion of thefallow -break scribed from ( 2476 to 2483.) The cul to well-manured antumpal crops. It is in ture, up to the singling of the plants, is the this way that I propose describing the cul- same as that of the common turnip from

ture of the autumnal crops for use in the (3204 to 3260 ;) and where the land is dry succeeding spring, making reference at the below by drainage, natural or artificial, it same time to the practice of England by requires no further work all winter; but which those cropsare usually raised.

where the subsoil is still retentive, it is ex pedient to set up the drills a little with the

double mould -board plough , fig. 209. ON THE SOWING OF THE STONE TURNIP, AND ON THE SOWING OF TURNIP FOR SEED.

4358. The stone turnip, both yellow and white, is raised in gardens for use in winter. It is a turnipof an oblate spheroid in shape, and having a small neck at the shaw , and a small filamentous tap -root.

4362. I much prefer raising turnip seed

by transplantation of the bulbs to sowing the seed, because it is a method more cer tain of raising pure seed, though it sacri fices a portion of the crop of turnips, and is attended with some trouble. It is true that spurious plants may be easily distin

For particular reasons, the white variety guished by their flower when the crop is of stone turnip maybe successfully raised in blossom , and pulled out, but the soil in in the field ; and the reasons are — that the mean time has been employed in grow

when the state of the weather, or of the ing spurious plants to its disadvantage ; land, has prevented as much ordinary white and although there should be but few of turnip being sown in time as was desired, these, there will be many genuine ones of

it is prudent to relinquish the farther sow- weak constitution, which will produce ing of it untilthe time arrive for sowing the stone turnip, which, sown in the early part of August, will attain maturity and a good size by October. Or, when some

weak seed. Judiciously selected bulbs, on the other hand, will produce stout, equal sized plants, and large and healthy seed. It is also true that bulbs cannot be trans

early turnips are wanted, the stone turnip planted over many acres, without sacrifi may be sown before the time for any of cing a large proportion of the crop that the field turnips. should be consumed ; but the comparatively large return of seed received from trans

4359. The English practice is to sow planted bulbs will probably remunerate the stone turnip on the stubble land after both for the sacrifice of the crop , and the a white crop ; and there being but little additional trouble incurred in transplanting time to work the land aright, and the crop them . If this point has not been already

being sown broadcast, it does not grow ascertained, it should be made the subject larger in that country in the field than it of experimental inquiry. But even with

does in the garden. All the culture the the precaution of pulling out the spurious land usually receives is a shaving off the blossoms, many of the plants left to grow stubble with the skim -plough, fig. 240 ; may produce seed which will grow thick and after a grubbing, fig. 215, the seed is necked turnips; and I quite agree with

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

310

Mr S. Trewecke of Breage, Cornwall, as winter tares in England is one furrow from regards the raising of turnip -seed, when the stubble ; but if there is time between he observes, “ I have found, from several harvest and winter, and the weather at all

years' experience, that thebetter the quality favourable to field -work, theland should of the turnip the less is the quantity of receive more labour than a single furrow , the seed, and the worse it is to bring to in justice both to itself and the crop . The

maturity ; while with the stringy, spongy, stubble should at once be cross- ploughed, long necks and bushy roots, a large quan- (2613) then barrowed, and then gathered

tity of seed may be saved with little up into ridges (749) beforethe seed is sown trouble. I think farmers in general pay on it. The winter tare is usually sown too little attention to the quality of the without dung, and on rich kindly clays the seed, if they can get a cheap article, or crop will be good without its assistance; grow a large crop.

but land in poor condition, and naturally

lightsoils, should be manured. When there 4363. By much the largest proportion is only time to give one furrow in autumn, of the turnip seed raised in Scotland is so the dung should be applied on the stubble ;

from the seed, and not from transplanted bulbs ; which being the case, we may doubt the genuineness and strength of the vitalityof the seed so grown ; and, for all the seed the most extensive grower of turnips requires, it is in his power to raise as much

but with two furrows, it should be applied in the second ploughing, when the land is ridged up. The reason for preferring the second ploughing in manuringthe land is sufficiently obvious, since the second ploughing in ridging up would bring to the

as will supply his own wants from trans- the surface the unrotted dung ploughed planted bulbsin acomparativelysmallspace down in the first ploughing. of ground. The crop sown from the seed in autumn will not mature its seed before the

one transplanted from the bulb in spring. ON TUE SOWING OF WINTER TARES.

4366. Where the tare stands the winter

well, it may be sown alone, with from 2 to 2į bushels of seed to the imperial acre, according to the condition of the soil ; but a little wheat amongst it will not only pro

tect it from frost, but serve to augment the 4364. When tares are sown in autumn, amount of forage in spring. For this pur

to stand the winter, care should be taken pose half a bushel of wheat will serve.

to procure theproper seed ; there being two Rye is very commonly sown among winter sorts of tares in the market, one called the tares, but the wheat plant will support the

winter tare, which should only be sown in autumn, and the other the spring tare, which would be destroyed in winter were it sown in autumn. No such botanical distinctions exist between the plants as to

tare plants better, while its habit of growth is more consonant with that of winter tares, as the rye will outgrow the

tares in spring. Wheat is not pleasant to stock as a forage plant ( 2468 ,) but in

constitute a distinct species, the winter tare this case it will be better than overshot rye,

being only known by its smaller growth, and oats do not stand the winter. You and its seed -pods being more smooth and may err in sowing tares too thick, which cylindrical. Little difference is observable they are when the stems grow small, and in the seeds, the winter variety being small the roots are crowded on the ground, in and of uniform size ; the spring varies in which case the plants will rot off in damp

size, which characteristic has obtained for weather, especially on naturally or artifi it the appellation of vetches, while the cially made rich soils. If the weather and smaller kind is called tares. The differ- land are sufficiently dry in early spring to ence of habit in the plants has arisen allow a light roller, fig. 222, to pass over,

entirely from the circumstance of their the young tares and wheat, the ground havingbeen continued for years to be sown will be much improved for the cutting of the crop by the scythe ; but if the rolling in winter and spring respectively. cannot be then done, the crop will have to

4365. The usual cultivation given to be cut in spring on the rough ground by * Mark Lane Express, July 1841 .

SOWING CRIMSON CLOVER.

311

hand with the sickle, as it would be im- farmers might, therefore, cultivate winter proper to roll the ground immediately rape, while no inducement existsThforrafar

e pe Should the tares be sown mers who feed stock doing so. early in autumn, the ground may be rolled is not affected by insects in winter, as is immediately after being sown. the case in summer (3454.)

before winter.

4367. In well-sheltered good soil, tares will stand the winter in Scotland, where

they prove very valuable forage in spring ; in this generally, as in manyother respects

ON THE SOWING OF CRIMSON CLOVER IN AUTUMN.

4370. The crimson clover, Trifolium much the advantage of his Scottish brother. incarnatum , ( 2676 ,) is one of the most Winter tares should not be attempted to beautiful plants cultivated in the fields, its

as regards climate, the English farmer has

be raised in Scotland without manure, nor stem rising to eighteen inches or two feet

uponstubbleground,unless in a season when in height, with spikes of tapering,nodding, the harvest has been finished very early. It beautifully bright scarlet- coloured flowers. will be more safe to sow them on the dunged It has long been cultivated in the garden fallow -break, or on the land from which

as a border annual, and has only found

early potatoes have been lifted , and where its way into the fields within these few wheat is not sown after potatoes. years. It is an excellent forage plant, and, when sown in autumn, so quick is its

4368. The autumn culture of tares is growth that it affords the earliest cutting precisely the same as for summer, detailed in spring of any plant sown at the same from (2464 to 2469.) The crop has time. It has been very successfully cul

little chance to be affected by the slug in tivated in the south of England, and per winter.

ON THE SOWING OF RAPE IN AUTUMN .

haps the chalk formation answers its nature best of any soil ; but in Scotland its success is at least doubtful, even in the most favoured spots. I suspect that the

climate of that country is too humid and 4369. Rape is cultivated in autumn, in cold for this plant. England, on the stubble after a white crop

without manure, and it thrives very well all

4371. Of all known plants it is best

winter, and gives an early forage in April suited for culture on the stubble of a white

or May. It will not endure such treat- crop, an apparently favourite mode of ment in Scotland ; the land must there be culture in England for many plants. worked , manured, and sown in the same “ There,” observes Mr Lawson, " it has manner as for turnips, as detailed from been found to succeed best, either drilled

(3204 to 3230.) Rape plants not being in summer in rows of from eight inches to singled, the culture of theturnip,in regard one foot distant, or sown in autumn in to hand -hoeing and the use of horse im- broadcast on stubble, after the corn crop has

plements, is not required for them. The been removed, and with no previous pre summer culture of this plant has been detailed from (3448 to 3451 ,) and the crop thus raised is consumed in autumn. Itswinter culture is not much attempted

paration save a harrowing or two, so that the seed may be the more easily covered. In very tenacious soils a very shallow ploughing is given, but in general it is

in Scotland, because turnips afford a more found better to dispense with the plough substantial and certain food for sheep, ing altogether; for the many failures which which are the only species of stock put on occurred previous to its culture being pro

rape, it never being cut and brought to the perly understood, are now attributed en steading to the cattle, though it might be tirely to the ground having been too much consumed by the cows in spring, when loosened and pulverised by repeated probably its leaves would notimpart so ploughings.” strong a taste, if any, to the milk and but ter, as turnips are known to do. Dairy-

4372. In England, from 18 lb. to 20 lb.

* Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual, p. 154.

312

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

of seed are sown on an acre, in broadcast; cut, its produce was nearly a third heavier and when the crop is drilled, the quantity than that of any other clover.”+

is increased or lessened according to the nature of the climate and soil.

It ripens

4375. The crimson clover would be a

its seed easily in England, and English seed of the first year after importation is the best, being heavier and more free of the seeds of weeds than the foreign

great boon to Scotland as an early forage plant in early summer, were it rendered so hardy in its babit as to stand the winter and spring frosts. The subject is worthy

seed.

of experimental investigation by farmers

and agricultural societies. Perhaps the 4373. When sown in autumn, the entire best way to obtain the object would be crop may be grown , cut down, and cleared for the best English seed to be sown in

off, by the June following, allowing the Scotland — in some favoured locality at ground to be worked up for a late sowing first — withthe view of raising seed from the of turnips, to be consumed inthe following autumn. When cut in full flower, it makes a hay much relished by horses, and its entire yield is said to be more than the common clovers. It is better suited to

plants, and then to sow such seed in suc cessive generations for a few years, until the plant becomes naturalised to the cli mate ; after which it might stand the win ter and grow as a forage plant.

sow on stubbles than even the stone turnip, (4358.) It is more rapid in its growth

4376. The pecuniary advantages at

than winter tares, (4364.) On light land tending the cultivation of the crimson a crop of buck-wheat may be readily ob- clover are thus summed up for the acre tained after it, (3464.) Italian rye -grass by Mr Foaker : £3 0 0 may be sown with it, and will grow as 11 acre of food , cut green at £3 , 4 0 0 rapidly, ( 2644 ;) and after the crimson i : clover has been cut, the rye - grass will

hay, 24 tons, at £ 4 per ton ,

seed, 12 bushels,at403. the bushel , 3 loads of threshed haulm at 30s.

continue to grow and afford anexcellent

Value of 3 acres ,

second crop. The crimson clover has the property of smothering early weeds, on account of which property, it is not well

Deduct seed and labour on do., Profit, Profit from one acre ,

24 0 4 10

0 0

35 10 1 14

0 0

33 16 0

11 5 47

suited for sowing among a corn crop. * 4374. A variety of the crimson clover, named tardif, or late-flowering, by the

ON TIE SOWING BOKHARA CLOVER.

French, was introduced to notice in France

about 1836. If sown immediately after 4377. Having raised the Bokhara clover, the common variety in autumn, it will Melilotus leucantha major, for several

flower next season after that has yielded years past, as an ornamental plant, and its

crop , and thus form a valuable succes- having found it to stand the winter and sor to it. Its characteristics are lateness grow early in spring, I am induced to of flowering and tallness, with vigour of recommend it as a forage plant that may be

growth. Mr Lawson says, that the late sown early in autumn, and cut early in

“ Sir John Robison ofEdinburgh bad the spring ; and also sown in spring, in April merit of first introducing this variety to or May, and ready to be cut in August,

Scotland, having, in 1837, given a quantity after the first cutting of the red clover is of its seeds, as well as those of the com- over, and before its second cutting, if

mon crimson and Molinor's clover, to the there be any,

ready.

If sown after

Highland and Agricultural Society of early potatoes in Scotland, and upon early

Scotland — the results of a comparative stubble in England at the end of August, trial with which were, that the plants of the plant will,I think, be so far advanced this came into flower when those of the as to stand the winter-at least it has done

common were nearly over ; and, on being so with me ; and although its herbage is * Rham’s Dictionary of the Farm -- art. Clorer. + Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual - Supplement, p. 47. # Foaker's Obserrations on the Cultiration of Scarlet Trefoil, p. 16.

SOWING RED CLOVER FOR SEED.

313

4381. The soil best suited for raising cut down by the frost, its roots send up shoots early in April. It should be cut seed from the red clover is described in when young

and succulent, for after it has (2671 ;) as a forage plant the red clover is

attained the height of above two feet, the stems become fibrous, and harsh to the taste . The best way of sowing it is in rows of 9 inches apart, that the land

mentioned in (3886 ;) it now only remains to relate how it should be managed as a seed - bearing plant. Were it allowed to stand for seed, at the first cutting, when

may receive a hoeing in spring to loosen the blossoms do not appear simultaneously, it about the roots for the admission of air. theseed of one plant would be matured, It is a plant that bears much moisture while that of another would be scarcely in the earlier stage of its growth, and is formed. At the second cutting the flow ers blossom all at once, and the plants all attain about the same height ; and the crop

all the more succulent for it.

4378. When allowed to grow up, in the then appears one of the richest descrip the plant being a biennial, it tion in our fields, in a favourable season.

second year,

sends up six or eight stems, which easily The second cutting of 1849 was a particu

attain the height of seven to ten feet, and larly fine one, and continued full until the throw out side branches. It becomes early frost of October injured it. The

covered with a profusion of small, neatly first cutting in ordinarypractice is delayed formed white flowers, having a scent not unlike that of the sweet scented vernal grass, Anthoxanthum oderatum , when made into hay; or of the woodroof, Asperula oderata , when dried ;-the racemes growing on and appearing in succession from June, until the frost in November or

December cuts them down. The honey bee is very fond of its flowers, and on that account, as well as for its own beauty and stateliness as a plant, it is deserving of a

until the plant is in full bloom , and some times till after the bloom has begun to decay, so that no surprise need be excited when a full second cutting of clover is not obtained after such treatment. When the seed sown is imported direct from Holland or France, a full crop in the first cutting should only be expected, for a good second cutting from suchseed is never obtained, as has been shown in ( 2671. ) The loss of the second cutting may thus be accounted

place in every farmer's and cottager's gar- for in cases where foreign seed has been den. It was introduced into this country in sown urknowingly by the farmer. To 1839, and at the time created a sensation secure a good second cutting, the first crop from its luxuriant habit of growth. should therefore be cut before the plant

comes into bloom ; or sheep in adequate ON THE SOWING OF RED CLOVER FOR SEED

numbers should eat down the crop by the end of May or beginning of June ; and no foreign seed should be used. The second

growth will then conie away thick and with vigour.

4379. Red clover seed, Trifolium pratense, as you have seen in ( 2633,) is not sown alone among the graincrops in Scotland, and cannot therefore be reserved for growing seed, though the climate would in some seasons allow it to be ripened. I have gathered its seeds in particular sea-

black. By the time the heads of the red

sons as fine as any grown in England.

clover are ready to flower, the apion de

4382. The red clover is injured by in sects when in bloom. It is affected by a weevil named Apion apricans, in length about 1 ?line, the colour of the body being posits her eggs on the calyx of the florets.

4380. In England, the rye -grass, Loli- As soon as they are batched, the larva, an um perenne, is not in so great favour as a forage plant as in Scotland, so that crops of red clover without rye- grass are there more common than in the latter country, although not intended to bear seed. Where the red clover is raised for seed, the seed is sown without any admixture of white clover, Trifolium repens, or of rye -grass.

extremely minute whitish worm , with a black head, eats its way through the base of the floret, and consumes the rudiments of the future seed. So extensive is the injury occasioned at times by this creature, that, in 1798, a crop of red clover covering 44 acres, producing 16% bushels of seed, was worth £41 , 178. 6d. ; while the like

314

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

extent of ground in 1800, produced only 74 bushels, worth £ 18, 158.; thus this little insect occasioned a loss of £ 23, 2s. 6d. on

the produce of 4 acres of land.

1849.

1847 . Foreign clover seeds imported Entered for home consumption ,

295,347

98,994 cwt .

176,334

134,142

(2681) and ( 9692.)

See

4386. The composition of the ash of clover seeds will be found in (3897.)

(3894.) 4383. When the blooms of the plants become withered and brown, the crop should be cut down, which may be done

ON THE SOWING OF ITALIAN RYE -GRASS IN AUTUMN .

either by the hand with the sickle, or 4387. In ( 2644) I gave it as my to be cnt down in the end of August or opinion, that Italian rye- grass, Lolium

with the scythe; and it may be expected

beginning of September. If put together Italicum , growing rank and quick as in heaps on being cut, a slight degree of it does, is not so well suited for sowing fermentation ensuing will cause the seed among a grain crop as by itself, when it to leave the busk themore readily on being is to be used as a forage crop. Its nature

thrashed ; and on the fermented heaps certainly indicates that it is much better being spread out to the sun, the crop will adapted for a forage than a pasture plant.

soon be dry enough to lead home tothe steading, to be thrashed with the flail or thrashing -machine. Should the weather be good, this plan may be adopted, but should it prove damp, the crop should be

Viewing it in this light,it should be sown land, in August or the middle of September at latest, that it may acquire sufficient strength to stand the winter. It may be

made into sheaves, and set into stooks to

sown broadcast, there being no use of

by itself in a portion of the dunged fallow

won, and afterwards carried to the stack- drilling it, since it will grow as early in yard and built intostacks, to be thrashed spring as any weed, and will outstrip it at any convenient time.

in growth. From its natural tendency to

produce many stalks from the same root 4384. There is little danger of clover and its upright habit of growth, not form seed falling out from its husk, as it is ing a close turf, it should be sown thick, rather difficult to thrash out ; but the fer- and particularly so when sown in autumn, mentation of the plant recommended above to stand the winter. Three to four bushels renders the huskbrittle, and easily broken of seed to the acre will therefore be re

by any process of thrashing. Where a quired to have plants enough in spring large quantity of clover is cultivated for for an early cutting. If the ground and seed, the thrashing -machine may be em- weather are both dry in spring, the roller, ployed to take out the seed; but of a small fig. 222,should be passed over the crop quantity a considerable proportion might to smoothen the surface. The crop will be

be lost in the mill, so the fail, fig. 350, ready for cutting in May, and may yield should then be used. The fanners, fig. 149,

from three to five tons offorage to the acre.

will blow away the husky light matter, while the heavy seed is falling down the

4388. Mr Lawson says, that " the Italian rye

corn -spout, from which it should be sifted grass is synonymous with the Lolium Bouchi of Kunth, who in his about Agrostographia thus throughthe sieve, fig. 162, to free it of anum describes thrice as long it : Spikelets

dust and sand and blind husks, and then as their glumes, and each containing five to ten measured into the bushel, fig. 168. Should awned florets ; root perennial; native of Italy.'

the farmer raise clover seed only for his And farther,that this species differs from Lolium own use, he need not take the trouble to perenne in its florets being awned.' Like all plants subjected to artificial culture , the thrash the seed out of the husk , but sow other Italian rye -grass is productive of numerous sub

it in the husk—which plan has been sug- varieties, asa proof ofwhich we received, in 1838,

gested to prevent land becoming clover- specimensof no lessthan50 distinct spikes, from sick, (3890.)

Mr Robert Arthur, which he collected in a field near North Berwick . In this country, no atten tion has, however, as yet been devoted to the

4385. The importation of foreign clover selection and cultivation of any variety possess seeds was thus in

ing permanency and superiority of character. ” * * Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual - Supplement, p. 37.

PICKING AND DRYING HOPS.

315

4389. The composition of the ash of the seed stances, to

pick a hop - garden, but the more of the Italianrye-grass was givenin (3897,) and usual time is three weeks. In picking, the pounds of ash in one ton of the plant in flower is as follows, according

to the analysisof every leaf should be taken away ,and alí the inferior hops separated from the good.

Professor Way and Mr Ogston : Ib.

17.2

Potash ,

5.5 3.1

Soda,

Chloride of sodium ,

13.8

Lime,

3.1

Magnesia , Peroxide of iron , Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid , Silica,

1.1

4394. Hops, when picked, are either put in baskets containing 7 or 9 bushels each, or in bins on cloths made on purpose, laid over frames. One man takes charge of

the bins, and every particular connected with every set of pickers - consisting of 8

8.8 3.9 81.7

or 10 grown -up persons, or of children

138.2

labour - and the ground is allotted to

capable of performing an equal amount of clear 100 hills by each set of pickers.

“ The composition of the ash," observes Professor

Way , " is but little altered by the presence of

Hops areinto picked by the bushel, containing aremeasured a basket the seed ; probably, because it is small in quan: and4395. other cereals, a siliceous plant ; and indeed, in the 10 gallons imperial. The price paid varies tity. It is seen that Italian rye-grass is, like

quantity of silica it removes from the soil, it sur-

with the plentifulness or scantiness of the

passes even wheat-straw,which containsabout 60 lb. in every tonweight. When, therefore, the use of liquid manure is able to produce many successive luxuriantcropsofthisplant, there can be no wantofavailable silicainthesoilfor

crop, from 3 or 4 to 9 or 10 bushels to the shilling. About three-halfpence a bushel is the usual price paid for picking, and in fineweather, and with a good crop,a family

any crops. ” *

of five will earn from 7s. to 10s. a - day at that rate.

ON THE PICKING AND DRYING OF HOPS.

4396. There being 1194 hills in the quincunx, and 1031 in the square mode of

4390. We left the summer culture of cultivation in the acre, (3160,) and al

the hop in (3183;) we have now to attend lowing one peck of hops to every bill, and to the saving of the crop, which usually 2 lb. to the bushel, the crop will not ex

commences in the first week of September. ascertained ceed 5 cwt.average to the acre, which was the

of the prepared crops

4391. Hops when ready to be picked for 28 years, from 1807 to 1835 ; though become close and firm , and the seed hard the crop while green will weigh four times and brown on the outside, with a general that weight. But the crop of hops is so appearance of ripeness. precarious that, at Binstead in Hampshire, a farmer grew 4} cwt. on 10 acres in 1825,

4392. Before picking commences, the and 9 tons from the same land in 1826.

bines are cut over at 3 feet from the The general average in 1825 was 1084 lb. ground, and the poles raised out of the the acre, and in 1826 it was 9 cwt. 105 lb. ground by means of a lever,and laid upon The attack of insects and of mould, (3184) their side in a convenient place and posi- to (3192,) will make that difference in

tion upon supports, that the pickers may two consecutive years. The year 1848 reach the hops easily.

proved a good year for the hop, while in 1849 the crop nearly failed.

4393. The picking should commence where the crop is ripest, which is always

round where the male plants grow .

4397. Immediately on being picked,

It is hops are artificially dried, because they feel

conducted by whole families, it being the damp and clammy, in which state they interest of the hop - farmer to gather to- would not keep, and would mould. They gether as many hands as he can, that the are dried in circular kilns, 16 or 18 feet

picking seasonmaybe as short as possible. in diameter, on haircloth,and heated by One month will suffice, under any circum- coal, coke, or charcoal. The kiln - floor * Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. ix. p. 144 .

316

PRACTICE - AUTUMN.

is situate at 10 or 11 feet above the fire, thought of a corn -farmer, were he to and the height of the kiln is 18 or 20 feet fumigate the barley he had to dispose of above the kiln - floor, surmounted with a withsulphur, in order to make the bright

cap-cowl 7 or 8 feet in height, and 3 or 4 coloured, over-ripened ,and stained samples feet diameter at bottom , a free circulation seem all alike ? If light-coloured hops of air being kept up through the fire and are indispensable to the brewer, let him

hops to the top of the kiln. The hops fumigate it, when he gets it, with as require to be rapidly dried to keep the much sulphur as he pleases; but let the pickers in operation, and on that account farmer deal only in the genuine article, the

the kilns ought to take on a bushel of production of the soil— let him always sup green hops on every square foot of flooring, port a character for downright honesty. and to be filled twice a -day, giving 5 or If he must have fair-coloured hops, to

6 hours to each kilnful, so that from 200 please one class of his customers, let him to 250 bushels of hops may be drying on pick them in the proper season, and exer each kiln at a time. For two kilnsof these cise his skill in preserving them in the

dimensions, a cooling room of 20 feet in best way, but let him eschew every species width, and 40 feet long, is required on a of deception. And what avails him the level with the kiln - floor; and another use of sulphur, after all, when the ale

room of similar dimensions, under the cool- brewers alone like the light- coloured, and

ing room , for stowing and weighing the the porter brewers alonedesire the brown hops in the bags.

coloured lops ? In producing both varie ties, he will have customers for both,

4398. Great caution is required to re- although he did not use a particle of sul gulate the fires of the kilns; for if too phur.

strong at first, when the hops are naturally moist, they will partake of the smell of 4400. The hops, when taken from the fire, and be much deteriorated in quality. kiln, are laid in heaps on the cooling - floor, The fire may be increased as the drying not only to cool, but to acquire a state of proceeds, and be pretty brisk near thelast; adhesiveness, which, though dry, causes it but the heat should not much exceed that to lump together when squeezed in the

of boiling water, 212° Fahrenheit. The hand, and yet not so much as to lose its hops shrink in bulk as they are drying. elasticity. This is an important point in About 13 cwt. of coal, with a little char- the process of preparing hops forpacking, coal, will dry a ton of hops at a cost of for if they are not sufficiently dry, they will not keep, and if too much dried they about 25s. the ton, or 1s. 3d, the cwt. will becomebrittle, break into pieces, and

4399. Sulphur is also used in the dry- be unsaleable. It is, therefore, betterthat ing of hops, from the weight of a quarter there be a few tough parcels, to put back to one cwt. to the ton of hops. It should again upon the kiln, than that the whole

be cautiouslyemployed at first,otherwisea be too dry to injure its quality materi fierce heat will be excited. The object of ally .

The drying will cause a loss of

using sulphur seems to be to improve the weight of 4 lb. at least in the green stato colour of the hop, for it is of importance for every pound of prepared hops. to the seller to present his hops in the market with a light-coloured delicately

4401. Since the heat for driving off the greenish hue. The hops from Farnham moisture from hops is not great, it might have long been esteemed the best for their perhaps be as efficaciously done, and cer delicate colour, chiefly derived from great tainly more safely , by means of hot water, care in subdividing the pickings, and instead of open or furnace fires. It might,

perhaps, be effected by such an arrange ment of a hot water apparatus as is shown in fig . 388, which gives a vertical section of a drying -house and apparatus, where colour, unless they are glad to employ it a a are the walls ; b b the ground on which partly, no doubt, from the use of sulphur in the drying process. It is surprising that purchasers who are judges of hops submit to sulphur being used to affect the

as a means of deceiving customers who the house is built ; cc a place excavated in never saw hops growing, and know not the ground in front of the house, in which how they are treated. What would be the boiler d for beating the apparatus is

PICKING AND DRYING HOPS.

317

situate ; f the gangway up to the door g, adapted for the drying of hops, perhaps

stretching across the excavation ; h h the perforated cast-ironplates, like thefloor through flooring, which may be of any material besting of grain kilns in Scotland , Fig. 388.

h

h

k

k

LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE HOP DRYING -HOUSE .

which the heat would ascend from the ducting supports, such as bricks, and seen system of pipes k k, traversing the space twisted here in convolutions under the between the drying floor hh and the door. This pipe should be continued to Fig. 389. ground b ; 1 is the cistern for feeding the boiler and pipes with water. This cistern

is supplied with cold water from a pipe, and it is also provided with a waste pipe, to allow any water of expansion to escape.

e

4402. As the pipes in this apparatus are always open to the atmosphere, any steam or vapour generated can easily escape; and it is evident that, in an appara tus constructed in all its parts on the same level, the heat can never exceed the point of boiling water, 212°. If the feed cistern, however, be elevated at a considerable

с

m

NA

the water in the latter will be greater than

is 270° instead of 212°, and the mean

k

g

a

height above the boiler, the pressure on usual, and the boiling point will be raised in proportion to theheight of the supply cistern. Thus, in an apparatus in which the boiler is 60 feet below the cistern and highest parts of the pipes, the boiling point

k

C

k

PLAN OF THE HOT- WATER PIPES .

within 16 or 18 inches of the surface of

temperature of the circulating pipes, in the water in the cistern l ; m n is the re such a case, will be 185 °. By raising the turn pipe, which should be covered with site of the cistern to the required height, the non -conducting felt used for covering

aobtained proportionate degree of heat may be boilers, and wbich, of an inch in thickness, from the pipes.

costs 2s. the square yard ; a a are the walls ; b b the ground ; c c the excava

4403. To explain the circulation which tion ; d the boiler ; e the gangway ; g the

the hot water takes in such pipes, we have door of the drying-room ; h k the drying only to examine fig. 389, where k k k k is floor above the pipes. the ascending pipe, as in fig. 388, supported and kept clear of the ground by non -con4404. The hops are put into the bags in

318

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

the stowing -room by means of an opening deduction of the drawback of one pound in the floor of the drying-room into bags in every 10 lb., the impost still amounts suspended for the purpose, and the bags to the considerable sum of£4, 12s. 3d. the are named bags and pockets. A bag is acre ; and on the supposition that 53,816 fixed by statute to be 4 feet wide and 7} acres are under the cultivation of hops, the

feet long, to consist of 5 yards of cloth, average annual duty payable on them must weighing 54 lb., and costing 6d. the yard ; amount to £ 248,226 , 6s. Why such a and it holds 2 cwt. 2 qr.,or 280 lb. gross, direct impost on the produce of the soil, as and 252 lb. nett, thelaw allowing a deduc- the duty on hops is, should be continued to tion in the weight of hops weighed up, one be levied at a period of the history of the

pound for every 10 lb. gross weight. A Kent pocket is 3 feet wide, and 7 feet long, to consist of 5 yards of cloth at 7d . the yard, to weigh 5 lb., and to contain 1

country when reductions on the importa tion of foreign products of the soil seem the determined policy of government, requires a definite answer. It seems to me a mis

cwt. 2 qr. 5 lb. gross weight of hops. The nomer to call that free - trade which relieves

hops are tramped into these bags bya man, the foreignerfrom the interference of the while a boy supplies him from a basket, and it will takehim 3 or 4 hours to tramp each bag, and to tramp 4 bags at 9d. each is a very good day's work for a man. In treading, the man becomes covered with yellow dust, to which powder Dr Ives

customs, while our own people are sub jected to the trammels of the excise. 4406. Whenever the bines are cleared

of the hops, they ought to be taken off the poles, and the poles piled in a place of

ascribes the whole virtue of the plant. It safety from wet. After the picking is all nearly chokes the man, and he must be concluded, the poles are stacked up in the supplied with beer to keep his throat clear. ground, to be near at band when wanted. the culture is followed in the square Hops cannot be too firmly trod in, for the W better to exclude the air, for which end form , as in fig. 250, they are put up in

the Bramah hydraulic press has been re- conical stacks, with the sharped ends on commended for pressure, and also painting the ground, having fonr legs striding over the outside of the bags. It is difficult, a bill which should be right under the

however, to exclude the air from hops, centre of the stack. The triangular form which makes them shrink in, and lose from of culture, fig. 251 , admits of the stack

5 lb. to 10 lb. the cwt., on which account being supported with six legs, each leg in old hops are not worth halfthe price of new. one of the six spaces around the centre of Those containing the most seed will retain the hill, the apex of the stack being also

their weight the longest, and therefore the right above that point.

The stacks stand

plants which grow nearest the male produce the best hops for keeping. Damp ruins hops, and those which absorbed most sulphur and saltpetre in the drying keep the

firmer on six than on four legs, and they also stand clearer of the hills, which is necessary , that every hill may be dug around. Each leg of the stack should be

worst . *

bound round with three bines, deprived of their leaves and twisted into a rope, which

4405. After being packed, and weighed binds the stack close and compact, and pre

by the excise, hops, after remaining 12 vents the poles being stolen, or a theft hours, may be removed anywhere for sale. more easily discovered. The small refuse The nominal duty on hops is 2d. per lb., poles are bound together, separating those

but with the drawback on the weight of which may be used for the young binesof

one pound in every 10 lb., the duty is the first year, from those which may be 16s. 9 d . to the cwt. instead of 185. 8d., at 2d. per lb.: this, with the additional 5 per cent duty, makes the entire duty payable £ 17, 12s. 9£d. the ton , or 17s. 8d. the cwt. Taking the crop of hops at the general average for a number of years at

burned into charcoal. 4407. The following is the cost of pick ing, and the subsequent expense op a ton of hops per acre, averaging 1300 bushels of green hops to the ton, as calculated by

54 cwt. the acre, and the duty with the Mr Rutley : * Lance's Hop - Farmer, p. 111-26.

PICKING AND DRYING HOPS. Picking 1300 bushels, at8 bushels for 1s., 10 binmen at 23. 3d. each , over 10 bins com panies, of 8 pickers each , I man to measurehops, 1 lad to tally and keep accounts, Boy, van , and Ihorseto carry hops and baskets, Fuel for drying hops, Carriage of fuel, :

Sulphur, i cwt. to a ton ofhops at 123. per cwt., 2d . each ,

2 6 3 0 0 30 0 6 0 1 5 0 0 5 0 09 1 17 11 1

0

0

2

2

65 yards of cloth for 13 pockets, at 7d . per yard, Making and marking 13 pockets , and ink , at

£8 2 6

Treading and putting in 13 pockets, at iod. each ,

Driers , one at os., and an under one at 58. a - day , 5 gallonsof beer for driers, treaders, & c.,at is. per gallon, supply of new pokes, and tear and Annual wear of old , Wearand tear of óast hairs, and hop bins, & c. Men to weigh hops, move loads, & c.,

0 10 10 0

11 0

05 06 0 0 5 0 0 60

Loss of time by weather, 3 days' work, £ 7 , 1ls. 6d . , say ,

Wood for fuel, and straw for stranger pickers, Gift to each picker and binman , at ls. each , with beer ,

Carriage of13 pockets to London,at 25. each, Factor's commission on 13 pockets, at 4s. each ,

0 10 0 10

0 0

0 8 1 6 2 12

0

319

James I. This act was little attended to, and never having been repealed, is strongly con trasted by the act of Anne, which inflicts a pen

alty of £20 on all brewers who shall use any other bitter than that of hops in their malt liquors. S 4409. Such has been the increase of the cul

ture of the hop since that period, that in 1835 the exportation to foreign countries amounted to 1,091,659 lb. or 487 tons 6 cwt., of which only 29 tons were ofthe growth of 1835, and 744 tons of the year 1834-the remaining quantity being made up of old ones, together with 2 tons of foreign. The returns of 1848 do not mention hops.||

4410. Hops may be used medicinally : a pillow of hops will insure sleep to a patient in delirious fever when every other expedient will prove ineffective. The imbricated scales of the hop

0 0

are scattered over with resinous spherical glands, which are easily rubbed off, and have a powerful

5 11

principle has been named lupuline. By pressure

17 12 9

hop -heads yield a green, light, acid oil, calledoil

agreeable odour and bitter taste, and their bitter £21

Duty,

£38 18 84

of hops, to which the plant owes its peculiar The best hops are grown in England,

aroma .

In blight years,"perconcludes much more "“ as given for bushel isMrRutley, picking, and as there will not be so many hops, it will cost more per ton to pull the

and those of Kent afford the largest cones,and are most productive in useful secreted and soluble matters ; and those of Worcester have an agree able mildness of flavour, greatly admired by many ale drinkers. Next to the English are the hops

poles ; and taking it inround numbers, if of Alost in Belgium . we were to average the cost of picking, 4411. “ The best hops," says Dr Ure, " have golden yellow colour, large cones, an agreeable another, at £ 40 the ton, 40s. the cwt., we aaroma ; when rubbed between the hands, they should not be very wide of the mark ." * leave yellow traces, powerfully odoriferous, with

and subsequent expenses, one year with

out any broken portions of the plant, such as leaves, stems, and scaly fragments. When was it known in this country till the reign of alcohol is digested in good hops, from 9 to 12 Henry VIII., in 1524 , + after the return of his per cent of soluble yellow mattermay be obtained expedition to the Netherlands against Tournay by evaporating it to dryness. This is a good test 4408. The hop is not a native of Britain , nor

in that year. We therefore conclude that the

of their quality .”

art of using hops was learned during that enter prise.

It is probable that the Dutch gardeners,

who came to England during Henry's reign, might have brought over some hop plants with other roots and seeds, and that we then availed ourselves of the manner of cultivating this bitter herb. From them we probably derived the name, which, in German, is hopfen ; and hoppe, hop, and hoperuyt, in Dutch. It had not become a favourite with the people for many years after

4412. The composition of the ash of the hop is as follows, according to Mr Nesbit : Yellow

Golding Hop. 24.50

Potash ,

15.56 5.63

Lime ,

Magnesa, Phosphate of iron,

7.26 5.27

Grape Hop. 18.61 23.75 6.13

6.79

nuisances, and these were Newcastle coals in

9.54 Phosphoric acid , Carbonic acid, 2.61 Chloride of sodium, 7.05 Chloride of potassium , 1.63 Manganese, 20-95 Silica , .

4.16 5.26 3:36 3.18 2.21 1.59 24.96

regard to their stench, &c., and hops, in regard

100.00

100.00

9.90

15.80

Sulphuric acid , .

that period ; for Walter Blith records, in 1653, this remarkable popular error, that “ It is not many years since the famous city of London petitioned the parliament of England against two

they would spoilthe taste of drink, and endanger the people ." I The use of hops was therefore forbidden by an act of parliament in the reign of

Percentage of ash ,

* Journal of the Agricultural Society of England , vol. ix. p. 566-82. + Beckman's History of Intentions, vol. iv. p. 339. I Blith's Improver Improved, p. 240. § Philips' History of Cultivated Vegetables, vol. i. p. 240. || Lance's Hop -Farmer, p. 200. Ure's Dictionary ofthe Arts--- art. Beer.

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

320

l,hops eaves bines .and

of Total

of bines .

lb. 289

.leaves of

MINERAL

lb. 1464

500 lb. . hops of

4413. Weight of the various mineral ingre dients, removed from an acre of land by the Golding hop, is as follows :

INGREDIENTS .

Potash, Lime,

Magnesia, Phosphate of iron, Sulphuric acid , Phosphoric acid, Carbonic acid , Chloride of sodium

lb.

Potash ,

oz .

Ib.

3 33

2 10 0 1 8 10 06 0 10 0 14 0 7 1 10

0 12 99

22

11 31

Soda ,

Lime, Magnesia ,

7 14 2 3 2 4

Phosphate of iron , Sulphuric acid , Phosphoric acid , Chloride of sodium , Do. of potassium , Silica ,

OL .

9 5 61 6

44 8

Ib .

OL .

lb.

oz .

Chloride of potassium , Silica ( soluble)

2

6

16 0

3 1

Sand and charcoal,

3 13

064

0.70 27.10 21.80

1981 3

99.10

54

3 154 3 10

0 99

5 61

0 10

0 15

5 7 1 11

0 94

12 44

9 11

71 93

6

17

02 54

0 0

1.45 23.70 2.75 2.50 3.05 4.10 9.00 2.95

Percentage of ash,

10.40

4417. The import duty on hops is £2,5s. thecwt. ON THE SOWING OF WINTER BEANS.

of Total , eaves lhops and bines .

1155 lb. of

of lb. 380

.bines

MINERAL INGREDIENTS .

. leaves

1732 lb. of .hops

4414. Weight of the various mineral ingre dients removed from an acre of land by the Yellow Grape -hop, is as follows:

4418. The common field horse-bean, fig . 189, it is well known, is unable to with stand the weather in winter. A new bean

to the agriculture of this country was

introduced into England in 1825, and is found to stand the winter in the south of Ib . oz .

Ib . oz .

Potash , Soda , Lime, Magnesia , Phosphate of iron Do. alumina ,

42 6 1 14

54

13

26 11

13 15

15

Sulpburic acid, Phosphoric acid , Chloride of sodium

Do. potassium , Manganese, · Silica ,

5

2

73

07

9 77 11 154 7 0 4 15 3 10

3 0 3 0 3 14

56 141

16 14

Ib. or .

Ib , oz.

England with considerable certainty. It

6 15 14 9 4 6 12

25 13

winter, as the few attempts which have

1 11

17 0

0 14 1 11

been made to grow it have been rather

14

4 5 55 3 0

53 91 3

2

90 03 0 14

23

195 16 3 4 15 3 10

is doubtful whether it will bear a Scottish

unsuccessful; and unless the autumn is very favourable to vegetation, it is believed

that it will not prove profitable.

76 124

4419. This bean is called the winter. 65

219 13

2

40

8

325 70

and sometimes the Russian, bean. It grows to the height of 3 or 4 feet ; is remark

ash of the flower the analysisofMrably The composition hardy and prolific; the seedbeing according toof the the hop, of4415. Frederick Eggar, are as follows: Golding Нор.

24.88 21.59

Potash , Lime,

Magnesia , Peroxide of iron, Sulphuric acid, Phosphoric acid,

.

Carbonic acid , Chloride of sodium ,

Silica,

25.56 18.47

in a ton

of Hops.

of the same colour of the common bean,

with a dark -greenish spot on the short

Ib.

29

small, heavy, and very plump, seldom having any depression in its sides. It is

5

27 5

side, a little below the termination of the

5 4

small black eye. It was at first con founded ,but is now proved to be a distinct

4.69 1.75

5.27

7.27 14.47

11.68 17.58

25

2

variety from the Heligoland bean .$

2.17 3.42

19.71

4.54 1.12 4.34 9.99

4 25

1 6 0

cultivates the winter bean is Mr Hewitt

99,95

99.96

136

1

Chloride of potassium , 0

Yellow Grape Нор .:

Mean of analysis

1.41

7 2

12 3

4420. The only one I have heard who Davis, Spring Park , near Croydon, in

de ; }

calculated dry ,

5.95

Surrey, who thinks it a valuable crop in soils unsuited to the common bean.

If

7.21+

taken after potatoes, the land should be drilled in the double form ( 2397) in Sep

4416. As spent hopsareused for manure, the tember, and the seed, from sixto eight analysis of their ash, by Mr Nesbit,may prove pecks to the acre, then sown upon the instructive :

drills by the bean barrow, fig. 219. * Journalof the Agricultural Society of England, vol. vii. p. 212-18. + lbid. vol. ix . p. 145. # Ibid. vol. vii . p. 220. § Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual, p . 63.

The

PULLING , STEEPING , AND DRYING FLAX .

321

land is cleaned with the scuffler, fig. 262, ON THE PULLING, STEEPING , AND DRYING

drill-grubber, fig . 264, and hand -hoe, fig. 266, in spring. It comes early in spring into blossom, may be harvested in some

OF FLAX.

4424. We left the flax crop after it was

years as early as July, and yields from 4 weeded, in (3115 ,) and shall now describe

to 5 quarters an acre. It possesses the the mode of removing it from the ground. advantage over the common bean of never 4425. The fax plant is removed from being attacked by the black dolphin or collier, fig. 335, probably on account of its the ground by being pulled up by the

rapid growth anticipating the period of roots, and not by being cut over with any the existence of that pest; and this discri- sharp instrument. The pulling is not mination was strikingly exemplified by attempted until the plant has done flower comparison in 1847, a year in which a ing, and the seed bas attained a certain

large proportion of the common bean was degree of maturity in the capsule or boll which contains it. The test of ripeness, according to Mr Henderson, is this : - “ Í 4421. If the winter bean is taken after have found the test recommended by Mr stubble, the land should be drilled in the Boss, to ascertain the degree of ripeness

destroyed in England by this apbis.*

double manner ( 2397,) dunged in the drill, that gives the best produce, with the finest

as in ( 2433,) the seed sown on the top of the dung by the drill-barrow, fig . 219, in the same quantity as specified for beans in spring ( 2442,) and the dung and seed

fibre , perfect. It is this : Try the flax every day when approaching ripeness, by cutting the ripestcapsule on an average stalk across, horizontally, and when the

covered over with the double mode of seeds have changed from the white, milky

drilling. Other modes of sowing beans substance which they first show, to a with and withont manure are described greenish colour, pretty firm , then is the from ( 2427) to (2432.) time to pull. The old prejudice in favour of much ripening is mostinjurious, even 4422. After the autumnal dunging, the as regards quantity ; and the usual test of land should be top -dressed in spring with the stalk stripping at the root and turning some alkaline manure, as nitrateof potash, yellow, and the leaves falling off, should wood ashes, or common salt, 2 or 3 cwt. not be depended on. Where there is one man that pulls too green , five hundred

to the acre .

over- ripen .” 4423. Mr Davis grows turnips between the rows of winter beans, and carrots may

4426. When thus properly ripened, the

be grown in the same manner ; but fax should be pulled in this way : - " I although Mr Davis regards the turnips as use the Dutch method, by catching a few

valuable for folding sheep upon them after stems of the flax at a time close below the removal of thebeans, it is questionable the bolls, whichallows the shortest of the farming to make the land produce two Such a style of farming is common in Flanders, and it is carried there to the extreme length ofgrow-

crops at the same time .

flax to escape. With the next handful the puller draws the short flax, and keeps the short and the long each byitself,to besteeped in separate ponds. It ismost essential to

ing a green crop amongst grain, such as keep the flax even at the root end, and carrots amongst barley, but the green crop is unworthy of the name. Should the stone turnip (4358) amongst winter beans be desired , the beans may be sown in

this cannot be done without time and care; but it can be done, and should always be

done. The beets or sheaves should always be small, equal sized, straight and even,

double rows at fifteen inches apart, and and should never be put up in stooks or nine feet between the double rows, which winrows, but taken to the pond the day

would afford the ordinary room of twenty- they are pulled, or the day after at longest, seven inches between the two drills of tur- especially in bright weather - for the dis

nips. For two rows of carrots seven feet coloration produced by the sun on green between the double rows will suffice .

flax will never be removed till it goes to

* Davis's Farming Essays, p . 64. L. II .

X

322

PRACTICE --AUTUMN .

the bleacher, and will give him some of each downwards : one layer at a time is trouble also.” said to be safer, and perhaps is so, although I have tried both ways and have observed

4427. On being pulled the plant is de- no difference. The flax should be placed prived of its bolls or seed -capsules by rather loose than crowded in the pond, rippling, which consists of drawing the and laid carefully straight and regular.

stems of the plant through the teeth of an Having an abundant supply of water, I iron comb 8 inches in length, set upright do notlet any into the pond till the first

upon a form , across which two men sit layer is first placed in it. I cover the opposite each other, and ripple their hand- flax with sods laid perfectly close, the fuls alternately. The ripple is placed on shear of each fitting to the other. Thus

a barn sheet, (1740.) . The arrangement of covered, it never sinks to the bottom, nor

labour should be such that the rippling floats above the water, nor is affected by air should go on simultaneously with the or light. It is generally watered in il or pulling, and with as little loss of timeas 13 days. A gentle stream should, if pos

possible. The rippled plants should be tied sible, always pass slowly over the pond ; in sheaves to be taken to the watering-pool it carries off impurities, and does not at to be steeped . Some steep the bolls on all impede due fermentation. Flood and the plants, but no good is attained thereby. impure water should be carefully kept off ; and perhaps the best way to do this is to

4428. Next comes the steeping, which make a drain or ditch around the pond. is a most important process, and is the one The greatest cause of injury in steeping least understoodby the growers of flax in is exudation of waterfrom the sides or this country. The object of steeping the bottom of the pond. Stripe and discolor flax -plant is, that as thestem of flaxconsists ation are mostly imputed to the quality of of two parts, possessing very different pro- the water brought to the pond ; whilst in

perties - one , the outer, fibrous, affording most cases the water oozing from the sides the flax which is kept — the other, the inte- and bottom of the pond itself is the cause. rior, pithy, to begot rid of by fermentation in Even if such water were pure, which it steeping and loosening its hold of the fibre. seldom is, it is injurious ; but when im

The adhesive substance betwixt the two pregnated with iron or other materials, it is mucilage, and the sooner the flax is put does immense barm . If such ponds must into steep after being pulled, the more continue to be used, the injury may be mucilage will be dissolved from it. If the steeping is as long continued as to affect the texture of the fibrons coating, the flax will be injured ; and should it not be continued until the pithy matter may

partially amended by draining around the sides and ends, at 6 or 8 feet distance, and 18 inches deeper than their bottom, and filling the drains with tiles or stones. No other thing I know of does so much

be easily loosened, much labourwill after- injury as this springing of water within wards be required to get rid of it. Proper the pond. The Dutch test of being suffi steeping, then, is not only an essential, but ciently watered is certain and perfect; at a nice process, and clear instructions least, I never found it otherwise. It is regarding it are valuable : — “ Flax is sub- this :-Try some stalks of average fineness ject to injury from neglect in every pro- by breaking the woody part in two places,

cess, but in steeping especially. The water about 3 inches apart, at the middle of the brought to the pond should be pure from length ; catch the wood at the lower end, all mineral substances, clean and clear. and if it will pull downward freely for The water from large rivers is generally to those three inches, without breaking or

tearing the fibre, it is ready to be taken be preferred ; but spring-water which has out. This trial should be made every will have deposited any mineral impurities day after fermentation subsides, for some it may have contained ; but that immedi- times the change desired is rapid. Flax is

run some hundred yards becomes soft, and

ately from the spring seldom does well. more frequently injured by too little than

If the water be good and soft, it is injurious to allow it to stagnate in the pond before being used for steeping. I put in two layers, each somewhat sloped, with the root-end

too much of the water. Great care and neatness are necessary in taking the flax out, as broken or crumpled flax will never reach the market. Set the sheaves on end

PULLING, STEEPING , AND DRYING FLAX. against one another as taken out of the flax altogether.

pond, to drain the water off them the more quickly Spread the flax on the same day it is taken out, unless it is happens to be heavy rain . Light rain does little

323

Any other crop will

abide more negligence. So much has been said and written of late of the advantage of flax- culture, that it to be feared some may be led to carry it to an undue extent,

harm ; but, in any case, spread the next and sow it on land not fitted for it ; in

day , for it will heat in the pile, and that deed, this has already been often done, and I know of nothing more injurious to the

heating will be destructive."

farmer.

4429. Flax “ should be spread even,

Flax is proverbially either the

very best or the very worst crop a farmer

straight at its length, not too thick, and can grow." * well shaken, so that there shall be no

clots ; indeed, if possible, no two stalks 4433. I think that, as far as the farmer should adhere. I have ever found it in- is concerned , he should have nothing to do jurious to keep it long on the grass : it is with the steeping of flax, nothing to do in the steep the wood is decomposed ; on with its manufacture at all, which should

the grass the fibre is softened and the be left entirely to the skill and practical wood little if at all affected. I rarely management of the manufacturer, who let it lie more than 5 days, sometimes only must know, much better than the farmer,

3 : one year it had only 3 days, and I the processes best suited to preserve and never had better flax. It should never, if render the fibre most fitted for his own pur

possible , be spread upon the ground where poses. And by following what is termed it has grown -- it claps down, and the clay the Courtrai system of management, it is and weeds discolour it : clean lea, or lately in his power to avoid all trouble and risk cut meadow , is the best ground.”

incidental to the steeping and dew- retting of the crop .

This system is simply to set

4430. “ Lifting, like all other opera- up the sheaves,on being pulled and rippled, tions, requires care and neatness to keep into stooks to be dried, and, after it is so, the flax straight in its length, and even at to stack it, ready for sale to any purchaser,

the roots. This operation is too frequently or to dispose of it in the stook. The steep ing can be done after the plant has been hurried and coarsely done." dried, although it takes a longer time to

4431. “ If the steeping and grassing takeeffect; and the steeping may be super have been perfect, flax should require no seded altogether, now that the mucilage

fire ; and to make it ready for breaking and pith maybe dissolved and removed and scutching, exposure to the sun should a process of heating in steam , which by has

be sufficient ; but if the weather be damp, been invented by an American gentleman, the flax tough, and must be wrought off, Mr R. B. Schenck. His apparatus consists

then it must be fire-dried. Such drying of asteam -boiler and vat, in which is main is always more or less injurious ; and if it tained the flax andwater at a temperature be put on the kiln in a damp state, it is of 90° Fahrenheit,for 60 or80 hours, at the ruinous ; it is absolutely burnt before it is end of which time the flax is as completely dry. All who can afford it should keep fitted for drying and breaking as when such flax over to the ensuing spring or steeped for 14 days. The water is heated

summer, putting it dry into stacks, when by the steam passing through a coil of it will work freely without fire-heat.” pipes lying in the bottom of the vat,

which has a false perforated bottom , upon 4432. In his concluding remarks, Mr which the flax is laid. Henderson shows that he is well acquainted with the nature and effects of flax culture :

4434. The crop of flax, after it is dried,

— “ The proper culture and preparation of is bulky for its weight, and yields from 3 flax require more care, exertion, and ex- to 10 cwt. per acre of dried plants. From

pense than the old slovenly method ; and 30 to 40 stones, of 14 lb. each, an acre of those who will not give those requisites, dressed flax, is considered a fair crop, and, would do wisely to abstain from growing if of fine quality, will fetch perhaps £90 * Henderson On the Cultivation of Flax, p. I.

324

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

a ton—that is, from 4 to 5 acres are re- flaxen fibre, 25 parts soluble in water, (apparently extractive and albumen,) and 17 parts insoluble quired to furnish 1 ton of flax. The return in water, being chiefly gluten. By obtained is from £ 18 to £ 22 per acre, ex

breaking the

harl, with either hot or cold water, the latter

clusive of the expense of preparing it by substance is dyed brownbythe soluble matter, beetling, scutching, and beckling, which while the fibres retain their coherence to one will still leave from £ 10 to £ 15 an acre of another. Alkaline lyes, and also, though less

profit. But should the flax prove coarse by improper management, or be injured in

readily, soap water dissolves the gluten , which seems to be the cement of the textile fibres, and thus set them free. The cohesion of the fibres in

drying, much waste will be occasioned in the rough harlis so considerable, that by mecha dressing it, and the profit reduced to per- nical means,

as by breaking, rubbing,& c., a com haps one -third of those amounts. So that plete separation of them cannot be effected, unless with great loss of time and rupture of the fila the safest plan for the farmer to pur ments. This circumstance shows the necessity sue, in regard tohis flax crop, is to dry it of having recourse to some chemical method of for sale, after the pulling and rippling. decomposing the gluten. The process employed

The observation of Mr with this is a species fermentation, to being either the best or Henderson,of worst crop for flax the which the view flax stalks are ex ofsed . It is called

farmer, receives corroboration according to retting, a corruption of rotting, since a certain degree of putrefaction takes place.” + the manner in which it was treated . 4437. “ Mr James Thomson and Mr Bauer,"

4435. When the flax is raised of fine

relates Dr Thomson, “ have shown, that the

quality, the seed is not of much value asa fibres of fax are transparent cylindrical tubes, marketable commodity ; but the bolls articulated, and pointed like a cane; while the with the seed in it, such as it is, make filaments of cotton are transparent glassy tubes, good food for cattle, and have been success-

flattened, and twisted round their own axis. A section of a filament resembles, in some degree,

fully used as such by that eminent breeder, having the figure 8, the tube originally cylindrical, collapsed most in the middle , forming

Mr Hugh Watson, Keillor Farm , near Coupar-Angus. When the flax is allowed to stand, more for the sake of obtaining seed than fibre, every 8 bushels of bolls may be expected to produce one bushel of clean seed ; and the price of the bolls, after

semitubes on each side, which give to the fibre, of a flat ribbon, with a hem or borderon each edge.The uniform transparency of the filament is impaired by small irregular fissures, probably when viewed in a certain light, the appearance

wrinkles arising from the desiccation of the

being driedin the sun, is 6d. the bushel; tube. Inconsequenceofthis difference between the structure of linen and cotton fibres, Mr

at which price the farmers of Ireland ex- Thomson and Mr Bauer were enabled to ascer. press themselves satisfied at the profit mummies tain , that the cloth in which the Egyptian derived from this part of the flax crop. *

are wrapt is always linen, and never cotton . It is clear from this, that the opinion

4436. The structure of the flax plant, and the entertained by some, that what is called in proportions which the parts bear to one another, our translation of the Old Testament fine linen is thus described by Dr Ure :- " In it two prin- of Egypt, ought to be the cotton cloth of Egypt, cipal parts are to be distinguished-the woody is erroneous. We have no evidence from the

heart or boon, and the harl, (covered outwardly cloth wrapt about ancient mummies, that the with a fine cuticle , which encloses the former like a tube, consisting of parallel lines. In the

Egyptians in those early times were acquainted with cotton." I

natural state the fibres of the harl are attached

firmly not only to the boon , but to each other, by 4438. The desire to grow flax has been strongly means of a green or yellow substance. The expressed, in Ireland, for a few years past ; and, rough stems of the flax, after being stripped of on the stimulus given to the subject, by the their seeds, lose in moisture, by drying in warm society instituted for the purpose of promoting its air, from 55 to 65 per cent of their weight, but culture, little doubt exists that more flax is grown somewhat less when they are quite ripe and at present, in Ireland , than has been for many woody. In this dry state they consist, in 100

years bypast, and as so large an importation took

parts, from 20 to 23 per cent of harl , and from

place so lately as 1,052,089 cwt. in 1847, and 1,462,097 in 1848, the probability is, that the de

80 to 77 per cent of boon. The latter is composed, upon the average, of 69 per cent of a

mand for it will be of so permanent a character as to encourage its growth for many years to come.

peculiar woody substance ; 12 per cent of a matter soluble in water ; and 19 per cent of a

But while the Irish farmers have been supplied

body not soluble in water, but in alkaline lyes.

with wholesome advice by the kind offices of the

The harl contains, at a mean, 58 per cent of pure

society referred to, there have not been wanting

* Sproule On the Growth and Management of Flax in Ireland, p. 19, note. + Ure's Dictionary of the Arts,-art. Flax.

# Thomsou’s Organic Chemistry , Vegetables, p. 849.

PULLING , STEEPING , AND DRYING FLAX. injudicious friends to mislead them into a belief that flax and flax seed may be grown together,

both equally good,and that the flax plant is notan exhauster of the soil. Such fallacies have doubt-

less been propagated by persons unacquainted with agriculture ,-for every farmer in Scotland

325 FAX.

Pos .

Alkaline salts, chiefly common salt and sulphate of soda, Phosphates of lime and magnesia,

8.93

9.58

17.89

14.12

and a little phosphate of lime, Carbonate of lime , Carbonate of magnesia , Insoluble siliceous matter ,

45.56 6:38 21.24

51.43 9.2 15.63

100.00

100.00

1.29

1.780

who has raised flax knows, that if it is allowed

to stand until the seeds are nearly ripe, the fibre becomes coarse. The finest flax seed comes to

Percentage of ash in the dry fibre,

this country from Russia, and from thence also is imported the coarsest flax. I have been in formed , by an extensive grower of flax in Lithua-

4440. After giving the analysis of flax -steep

nia, that,to raise the best quality of seed, the seed extract, with and without ashes, Sir Robert is sown thin , that the plants may find room to

Kane observes, that “ It is thus seen that the

throw out branches, and the fibres then become

steep-water dissolves out a great quantity of

short and coarse. There is, therefore,this dilemma nitrogen, and of the inorganic materials of the in the matter, the quality of the flax or of the

stem ; in fact, that it removes from the plant

seed must be sacrificed , for both of the best almosteverything that the plant removes from quality cannot be simultaneously raised. The the soil. This is confirmed by looking at the seed alone will not pay the expense of culture. Seed is produced from 6 to 12 bushels an acre :

composition of its ashes, which are shown by the following analytical results. There are found 42

taking the largest, 12 bushels, 14 quarter ; and parts of ashes in every 100 parts of flax -steep supposing it all fit for sowing, and worth, at the highest current price of 1850, 55s. the quarter, the gross return would only be £4, 28. 6d. the acre .

extract, consisting of Chloride of potassium , Sulphate of potash, Carbonate of potash,

4.4

3.8

13.2

Carbonate of soda,

4439. Every farmer also knows that if flax is cultivated as a green crop, having the manure applied directly to it, its fibre becomes coarse ;

3.8

Carbonate of magnesia,

2.0

Carbonate of lime,

4.0

Phosphate of iron and alumina, Phosphate of lime,

3.2 2.1 5.5

and if cultivated as a white crop, it must either occupy the place of another white crop, and compete with it in profit, or be taken after an other white crop , when it must exhaust the land. It was this last position which flax occupied when cultivated in Scotland ; and it left such

The steep-water thus dissolves, especially the

evident marks of exhaustion upon the soil, that

alkaline ingredients, and the phosphates of the

landlords prohibited its culture in express terms in the lease. This result is well known

plant, and hence leaves the rotted stems in a condition of almost pure ligneous matter. ” The conclusion formed is, “ that the materials drawn

to the agricultural community ; and yet the Irish farmer has been informed , on the authority of Sir Robert Kane, that the igneous or woody fibre, which finally is converted into the linen thread, is composed of the same elements as starch and

Silica,

42 :0

from the soil by such a crop, ( filax,) should be found in the waste products of its manufacture, and should be available by being returned to the soil, to restore it to its original fertility .” +

sugar, and in nearly the same proportions.

Suppose , ” observes Professor Johnston , “ the

Hence this fibre, which constitutes the entire

money value of the flax crop, is produced during the life of the plant, by the elements of the atmosphere ; and the materials taken from the manure and from the soil are, in reality, employ-

flax-steep water, therefore, to be returned to the land , and even the scutchings also, which is rarely the case, the fibre as it comes from the mill, and even as it goes to market, would still carry off a considerable quantity of valuable

ed by the plant in organising substances which do

matter from the soil.”

not make any return to the farmer, but which

tice, the land on which flax is sown is never

are, on the contrary , under certain circumstances,

watered afterwards, and the contents of the

considered to be positively a disadvantage. It is therefore of importance that it should be

steeping pool would only put it in a bad state for the succeeding crop ; and, besides, the expen

I will add that, in prac

understood, that, by a proper system, the growth sive carriage of tons of water would be of no of flax and similar fibre crops should be destitute

of all exhausting influence. ” * The sentiments just expressed seem to imply that the fibre of the filax plant contains no mineral ingredients whatsoever : an opinion at all times improbable, and now proved to be unfounded, as may be seen in the results of the analyses of the ashes of dressed flax, and of its refuse, the pob, by Professor Johnston :

use to such a crop, since the ingredients from flax would only benefit the flax plant. To render

the water-carrying therefore profitable, another crop of flax should be taken, which no farmer would do. It has been stated atpublic meetings in Ireland that I am entirely inimical to the culture of flax in the United Kingdom. Now, the sentiments I have always entertained are, that the flax crop has been found in Scotland to

• Kane's Industrial Resources of Ireland , p. 325-6. + Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 383. # Kane's Industrial Resources of Ireland , p. 326-8.

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

326

be a very exhausting one to the soil ; that it cannot fail to be an exhausting crop if raised after a grain crop ; that if raised after a green crop the fibre becomes too coarse to be useful for fine fabrics; that if raised as a substitute for a grain crop, it comes into competition with it on

4445. In commencing the harvest the male plants are selected first, and they

are easily known by bearing no seed. is reaped by pulling it up by the roots like flax , and care should be exer

The crop

the score of profit; that fine seed and fine fibres cised in the pulling, not to break the stem sacrificed, except forthe feeding of cattle ; and root. Before pulling each stem, the leaves thatif fine seedis desired to beraised,the crop should be pinched or cut, and the male

cannot be produced by thesame plant;thatif when taking a hold of the plant near the fine flax is desired to be raised, the seed must be must be sown thin, and the flax rendered coarse

tops cut off ; and when pulled the stems

and short.

should be made up in small handfuls, with

roots placed together, and tied in bundles 4441. Flax is manufactured into fabrics,vary; the at three places, one near each end bagging employed

ing in texture from the coarse to pack cotton or hops,to canvass,linen,cambric, and one at the middle, with the small and the finest lawn, differing in value between stunted plants found growing between the bagging and lawn, from 3 £ d . to 28s. the square

tall ones.

yard. Best Russia flax, in 1850, cost from £ 34 to £ 35 the ton ; so that a crop of 40 stones should realise for the acre of this coarse quality of flax,

4446. The bundles should be carried to

from £ 8, 103. to £ 8 , 15s. The finest flax realises

the watering-pool as soon after being

a price from £90 to £ 120 the ton.

pulled and made up as practicable. It is recommended by some growers to dry the plants for a day before putting them

ON THE PULLING, STEEPING, AND DRYING amongst the water; but as the watering OF HEMP.

only removes the mucilaginous substance

by which the fibre is attached to the pith, 4442. The last notice of the hemp crop, it is evident that the mucilage will be dis after sowing and weeding, was taken in solved more easily, and in shorter time,

(3136.) According as it is desired to when the stem is green, than when it has cultivate the plant for the seed or for the become indurated by drying. The bun fibre, it should be thinned out in the row dles should be put into thepool with the

after the plants have attained a height of root end downwards, and laid against each from 4 to 6 inches. If seed be chiefly other in a sloping direction, and kept desired, the plants should stand at 2 feet under water by the pressure of green turf distance in the row ; and if fibre, one foot laid closely above them , to exclude the

distance will suffice -- the finer the fibre the light. A fermentation ensues in the course higher the price will be obtained for it.

of a few days, according to the state of the atmosphere, which hasthe effect of sepa

4443. The hemp having the sexes on rating the fibre from the stem . About different plants, the entire crop comes to three weeks will be required to effect this

maturity at different times, the male plants separation entirely ; but in case the fer

becoming mature immediately after they mentation should be carried too far, and fibre — and the inju female injury be done to the course have deposited the pollen on thethree very rapidly or rious effect runs its

flowers, and the female not for four weeks thereafter. This difference of after it has commenced-a bundle should

time in arriving at maturity causes the in- be examined at least every day after a convenience of reaping the crop at different fortnight, and the fact ascertained whether times, which must be submitted to, al- the fibre separates easily from the stem ,

though some farmers reap the entire crop and whether the stem snaps easily asun at one time, to the injury of the fibre.

der, which when it does, thebundles should

be taken immediately out of the water. 4444. When the male plant is ready to

be pulled, the leaves hang down and be4447. As the bundles are taken out of come yellow at the points, and the skin the water, they should be set up against of the stem assumes a white colour. The each other, to drip the water from them as

female plant is not ready for pulling until much as possible ; and when any of them the earliest seeds begin to assume abrown seems dirtied with mud or otherwise, they should be rinsed in the pool before being

colour on the apex.

PULLING , STEEPING , AND DRYING HEMP. taken out. After dripping for a day, the

327

4451. I am of the same opinion, in

bundles should be taken toan airy place to regard to the culture of hemp, as of that dry ; and the plants may either be spread of flax, that the farmer should have no singly upon a piece of bare grass, or, what thing to do with its manufacture, and that is better, spread against a paling or wall all he should do after the pulling of the

having a drying exposure. "Hurdles, such cropis to dry it and stack it in the best man as fig . 40, set up with a considerable in- ner for the manufacturer to purchase. The clination backwards, form a convenient steam process of Mr Schenck (4433,) or erection for bearing hemp to be dried. other means, themanufacturer, no doubt, possesses to render the crop available to 4448. Three weeks, and even five, ac- himself, without the assistance of the

cording to the state of the weather, will be farmer ; andby such a procedure thefarmer

required to make the hemp completely will avoid all personal responsibility save dry ; after which it ought to be again tied in the growing of the crop. into bundles, and built in a stack and

thatched, ready to be sold to the best

4452. After the seeds have been rippled

off, they should be dried and thoroughly won, with as much of the capsules as remain 4449. The water in the pool should be with them , to be given, after preparation, to

purchaser.

soft and clear. Some are of opinion that the cattle in winter as part of their food .

it should be soft and muddy, the mud pro moting the fermentation. Mud may pro4453. When the crop is raised for mote putrefaction and heighten the dis- seed, the seeds when ripe easily come coloration of the fibre ; but clear water

out of the capsule. When the crop has

is evidently the best means of dissolving the mucilage, and preserving the natural colour of the fibre . A gentle current should also pass over the water of the

to be watered , the seed should be rippled off and dried and beaten out afterwards ; but when the crop is to be dried without watering, the seed is beaten off the stems

pool, to carry off the impurities thrown after these have been dried for about a

up to its surface by the process of fermenta- week, by being struck against some object, tion amongst the bundles, although some as a stool placed upon a large barn sheet. growers of hemp maintain that the water The seed thus beaten out should be win

stagnant state ; but if a nowed, and laid in the granary to win. The slight current is beneficial to the steeping produce may be expected to be from 2 to 3 of flax (4428,) there seems no reason why quarters an acre, and at 38s. the quarter,

should be in

it should not also confer the same benefit the best price in 1850, will yield from upon hemp, as the object of steeping both £3, 16s. to £5, 14s. an acre. plants is identically the same. 4454. The produce of hemp is about 4450. By the time the male crop is 40 stones to an acre , the crop varying

ready to be taken out of the pool, the from 30 to 50 stones an acre,Thaccording e hemp female one may be expected to be ready to the season and the soil. to be pulled . The process of pulling and may be expected to leave a profit of from bundling it is nearly the same as that of the male plant, with the difference, that although the leaves are pinched, the tops are not cut off the female plants, but kept on, and the seed rippled out of them before the stems are ultimately

£ 5 to £ 8 an acre, exclusive of the seed obtained in the rippling off the capsules for cattle food.* The best hemp , the Riga Rhine, cost in 1850 , from £32 to £35 the ton, so that an acre of 40 stones should realise from £8 to £8, 15s.

bound up for the watering pool. The

rippling of the seed will prevent the

4455. The principal use to which hemp is

watering of the female plants until the applied is the making of cordage of all kinds, the

day after the pulling . The processes of fibre being both strong and durable. “ By this

watering, drying, and stacking are the Plants, cordage,"say s Coles quaintly ,in his Paradise of “ ships are guided, bells are rung, beds same in both plants.

are corded, and rogues kept in awe. ” A first

* Wisset's Treatise on Hemp, p. 93 to 220.

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

328

rate man -of-war is said to require 80 tons of labourers than usually live on the farm , a rough hemp to supply her with necessary tackle. sufficient number should be engaged be Taking 40 stones the imperial acre as a good crop , 4 acres are required to raise one ton ; so

forehand, to assist those on the farm .

that a man-of-war consumes one year's produce Farms in the immediate vicinity of large to

of 320 acres of hemp for an outfit of cordage ! Old cordage is converted into paper, and there-

wns may obtain the requisite number of reapers daily, from the nearest town, who

fore should never be destroyed .

will go home to their own lodgings at

4456. I am not aware of any analysis having night; and the convenience of obtaining a been made of the ash of the hemp, but the com- day's work at good wages, within a few ponent parts of the ash of American hemp scut-

chings, by Professor Johnston, are as follows:

Alkadinelbelts chiedy common salt,

3.32

Phosphates of limeand magnesia, and

19.15

a little of phosphate of lime, Sulphate of lime (gypsum ,) Carbonate of lime,

Carbonate of magnesia, Insoluble siliceous matter ,

minutes' walk of their own homes, induces most of the inhabitants of towns, who de sire to harvest, to prefer engaging on farms near them ; and thus both parties accom modate each other. Such reapers are

3.26 26.45

usually paid their wages in money every

2.80 45.02

evening. 4461. On farms at a distance from

100.00

Percentage of ash in the dry fibre,

14.43*

towns, no reliance can be placed on their inhabitants as reapers at harvest-work . Labourers must therefore be hired, to

with the 4457. The driedrefuse of the stems of hemp, remain all the harvest along reapers receive

after the fibre has been separated, is used as fuel, and may be converted into charcoal fit for gunpowder.

4458. Dr Taylor says that “ the inspesated

people on the farm . Such

their food daily as part of their wages, and their money wages are paid them at the termination of their engagement.

resinous exudation of the leaves and stems of

Indian hemp, known in the East as churras and haschisch, has been introduced into the country

4462. To obtain additional hands for

a few days, when a large breadth of corn as a substitute for opium. In a large becomes suddenly ripe, in consequence dose Indian hemp produces a pleasant species of of the state of the weather, and to enable intoxication.

The nervous system is also most

singularlyaffected, whilethe intellectual powers people to obtain harvest-work whose pre remain unaltered .

According to Mr Ley, the

vious engagements are finished, a hiring

inebriation is of the most cheerful kind, causing market is established in every country the person to sing and dance , and to eat food

with great relish. It also excites aphrodisiac propensities. The intoxication, which lasts about

town early on Monday morning, where reapers and farmers form engagements

three hours, and is sometimes attended with un

for the week.

controllable laughter, is succeeded by sleep. There is no nausea, sickness, or diarrhea; and

4463. The period for collecting the

theday following there may be slightgiddiness; reapers on the farm is when the grain with vascularity of the eyes. If this drug should come into general use , it is not unlikely that it may give rise to serious accidents. It appears to be very uncertain in its effects." of

ON REAPING WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, AND RYE .

is just ready to be cut down ; for if cut down too soon, or allowed to stand too late, loss will be incurred in both cases. Corn may thus be ascertained when fit to be cut down :-It may be laid down, as a general rule, that corn in a healthy state comes to maturity first in the ear, and then in the straw ; and when the

4459. In the case of reaping, I place straw becomes matured first at the root,

all the crops, which have occupied our the grain suffers premature decay. When attention bitberto separately, together, as ever the straw isobserved to be first ripe they are all reaped in the same manner, at the root, the crop need not be allowed to

and therefore subject to the same remarks. stand longer on theground, as it can derive no more benefit from it; and its grain will 4460. As harvest-work requires more win as readily in the stook as that unreaped ; * Johnston’s Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 383.

+ Taylor On Poisons, p. 791 .

REAPING CORN CROPS.

329

and whenever the ear is sufficiently ripe, soon , it is apt to shrink, and have a bluish the crop should be cut down, as the straw

tint in the sample ; and when too ripe, the

will win more rapidly in the stook than chaff opens from the grain, which is apt standing on the ground. The most ready to fall out on the least wind ; and some way of judging when the ear is ripe, in sorts of white wheat are thus very subject wbeat and oats, is the state of the chaff in to fall out, even before reaching the point of

the ear, and of 2 or 3 inches of the top of maturity. Barley, when reaped too soon, the straw under the ear. If all these parts also shrinks, and assumes a bleached are of a uniform straw - yellow colour, and

colour.

Much less loss attends the reap

feel hard in the ear in the oat, and prickly ing of oats too soon than the other grains.

to the hand in the wheat, on being In every case, it is much better to reap grasped, they are ripe. On examining the crop before it is ripe, than to allow it the grain itself, it should feel firm under pressure between the finger and thumb,

when ready for reaping ; or when the neck

to stand until too ripe.

4465. As regards the ripening of oats in

of the straw yields no juice on being twisted with the fingers and thumbs. Bar ley should be of uniform yellowcolour in

particular ,Mr Alex ander Murray, Neth er Mill of Cruden, in

Fig. 390.

Aberdeenshire, made

the grain and awns, and the rachis some what rigid ; and as long as the head moves freely by a shake of the hand, the grain is not sufficiently ripe, nor will the colour be uniform .

experiments to ascer tain not merely the natural progress to wards ripeness, but the state of thegrain

When very ripe, wheat bends

down its ear, opening the chaff, becoming stiff in the neck of the straw , and clearly

at 1

indicating that nature intends that the grain shall fall out. Red wheat is less liable

с

different

He could distinguish six stages. The first

to be shaken than white; but any kind will 2

shake out when too ripe, provided the plant is in good health, and the grain of good quality ; for it is difficult to make

the

stages of ripening. stage was the lowest

A 2

immature grain leave the chaff even when

leaf a, fig. 390, be coming yellow ; the second w ben the next

hardened, and spelt wheat has so tenacious

leaf b became yel

a hold of its chaff that it is difficult to dis

low ; the third when

engage it even by the blows of the flail,

the leaf c turned yel

fig. 350. It might be supposed, that when

low ; the fourth when

the ear and the entire straw are of uniform

the uppermost leaf d was yellow ; the fifth

yellow colour, the plant is no more than

S OF RIPENING stage was when the ripe; but by that time the straw hasripened PROGRES IN A STALK OF OATS. parts of the stem to the root, and the ear has rigidly bent and is ready to cast its seeds with the slightest where the panicles e é e are attached were wind. The same rule will apply to still green, and the sixth and last stage was barley as to wheat. When the neck of the when the stem there became also yellow . straw is ripe, it is time to cut, and when

too ripe the ear bends itself down, diverging the outward row of awns nearly at right angles with the rachis, and the entire head is then easily snapped off by the wind. In regard to oats, the same rule applies to the straw ; and when over ripe the chaff stands apart from the grain, which easily sbakes out by the wind.

4466. The condition of the grain at each

of these stages of ripeness was easily dis tinguished from each other, and the grains could be arranged in consecutive order. Such was the rapid change effected in the condition of the grain between the fifth and the sixth or last stage, that it ac quired the additional weight of from 14 to 2 lb. in the bushel. *

4464. It is not equally prudent to 4467. All the kinds of grain are cut reap all sorts of grain at the same degree of maturity. When wheat is reaped too down by either of the two very simple * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, January 1847, p. 624 . 1

330

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

implements, the sickle or the scythe. patent is based is a blade of rolled cast And first, in regard to the sickle. Reapers steel swedged into a form that gives a provide their own sickles, but scythes are sufficient degree of stiffness to the blade, furnished to the mowers by the farmer. without the increase of weight that accom As the arrangement of the reapers is dif- panies the thick-backed or the other patent ferent in the field when using these imple- ribbed - back sickles. In the new patent,

ments, I shall first describe the method of the advantage of a small quantity of the cutting down grain with the sickle and very best material - cast-steel - is com then with the scythe.

bined with extreme lightness and a due degree of strength and stiffness, the latter

4468. The sickle is a very simple, but arising from the swedged or moulded back .

at the same time, as far asit goes, a very The toothed sickle cannotcut straw until efficient instrument ; and its varieties are the straw is beld firm , either directly by

confined to two very distinct forms, the the hand, or against a handful of cut corn.

toothed and the smooth -edged sickles. Fig. Its proper use, therefore, is tocut the corn 391 represents the toothed sickle, an in- in small portions at a time. It requires no strument so well sharping, and occasions no cessation ofwork . Fig. 391. known that it It costs 6d. or 7d. each, according to size. requires little description here.

4469. In the formation of the sickle, the

The blade, in the curvature of the blade is a point of more common toothed

importance than to a careless observer

sickle, is princi- may appear; and though the ordinary pally made of reaper is seldom qualified to judge in this iron, but with an matter, he may feel pleased to be informed,

edging of steel ; the teeth are formed by striking with a chisel

that there is a certain curvature that will give to the muscles of his right arm the least possible cause for exertion, while there are other curves that, if given to the

and hammer, in blade of the sickle, would cause him to the manner of expend a great amount of unnecessary THE TOOTHED SICKLE,

file-cutting, the exertion in the arm , anda consequent un cutting being only on the lower side ; necessary fatigue would follow . Fig. 392, but when the blade bas been bent to the

Fig. 392.

proper form , tempered, and ground on the smooth side, the serratures are brought prominently out on the edge of the blade ; and as the striking of the teeth is per formed in a position oblique to the edge of

representing the large smooth edged sickle, has a curvature ap

proaching very near

to

that

which , in this instrument, may

the blade, at an angle of about 70°, the serratures on the edge acquire what is called a hook towards the helve, thus

be termed the

causing the instrument to cut keenly in that direction , when drawn through the standing corn. When the blade has been

curde of least

exertion ; throughout portion of sickle that

thus finished, a wooden helve, of the sim

plest form , is fitted upon the pointed tine formed at its root for that purpose. The toothed sickle is made with various degrees

and that the per

forms the cut THE SMOOTH- EDGED SICKLE.

ting process, it of curvature and of weight, but chiefly as possesses this peculiar property, from the

represented in the figure; and it has been following circumstance, that lines diverging

the subject of several patents, chiefly de- from the centreof the handle of the sickle at pending on the formation of the blade. a, and intersecting the curve of the cutting One ofthese is now of some years' stand- edge, all the diverging lines willform equal ing, and is an important one.

Messrs angles with the tangents to the curve at

Sorby and Son, of Sheffield, are the paten- the points of intersection. This property tees ; and the principle npon wbich their gives to the cutting-edge a uniform ten

REAPING CORN CROPS.

331

dency to cut at every point in its length, is his duty to restrain the impetuous, to without any other exertion than a direct urge the slow reaper ; to keep every one pull upon the helve. Were the curvature in the best humour for work ; to cause the

less at any point, a pressure of the band ground to be neatly cleared of the crop, would be required tokeep the edge to the and the crop itself to be judiciously handled . work; and were the curvature greater at The man who fulfils all these duties as

any point, or on the whole, the exertion they should be, during the entire barvest, to make the cut would be greater, as it accomplishes no easy task , either of body would then become more direct, instead or mind. He should not be mounted on of the oblique drawing or saving cut, horseback, but be active on foot, ready to which in all cases is the most effective, keep everything in its appointed time and and productive of least resistance. This order : for a single minute's loss of work, sickle is broader in the blade than the or a confused arrangement of a large band toothed kind, though in curvature it re- of reapers, causes a great loss of time in the sembles it; and the chief difference lies in gross amount of work . The farmer him

being ground on both sides, to form a fine self, when not superintending, may move and thin sharp edge. This edge is kept about on horseback ; but a horse is a trou keen by means of a fine-grained sandstone, blesome companion to a superintendant

like a scythe-stone, fig324, 6 inches long who has to move backward andforward and an inch square, and it is only used on behind work -people in a harvest- field. the under or rounded side of the sickle.

The prices of these sickles are as follows, according to size : No. 1. d.

No. 2 . S. d.

8.

Common , 0

9

0 10

0 11

Patent,

2

1

8 .

3

No. 3.

1

d.

4

their waistcoats too.

No. 4 . S.

d.

10 ) 1

4471. Reapers are very lightly clothed. The men casttheir coats at least, and many If the hat be laid

aside, its place is taken by a nightcap. The

each.

women wear caps, not bonnets, and their nether garments will incommode them

Some reapers fasten a narrow strap of the less in stooping, when cutting with leather along the bandle of the sickle, in the sickle, if tied under the knee with the

order that it may pass in an oblique direc- garter; but the loose petticoat is found tion across the back of the hand, with the useful in making the ends of the corn square

view to assist the draw of the implement in gathering it after the scythe. Long through the straws of the grain ; but iſ the gowns are now in fashion, as much in the

sickle be kept sharp, which every reaper country as in the town ; butthe old short ought to be able to do, such astrap is gown is the most convenient dress, in every rather an encumbrance than assistance to respect, for a reaper.

The sharp edge of this sickle 4472. There are various arrangements will cut through straw with a stroke, although the straw be not held by the of harvest work in which the sickle is hand. From this circumstance it may be used ; one of wbich is the band -win method

the reaper.

supposed that this is a much easier instru- of reaping, which I shall describe first. A ment to cut with than the toothed sickle: band -win of reapers consists of seven per

and so it really is, but the dexterous use of sons divided into three reapers on each of either instrument depends altogether on two ridges, and a bandster for both ridges. habit and practice.

The bandster must always be a man, a wo

man not being able for the work of binding 4470. The barvest-field will not be the sheaves. The reapers may all be men,

properly conducted, unless a person be ap- or all women, the women being able to cut pointed to superintend the reapers ; for to down as much corn as the men ; but a de none of the reapers can such a task besirable distribution of men and women in

deputed, as his own occupation is sufficient the band-win method, is to have a man to occupy all his attention. The steward and two women on each ridge. The reason is the person who should undertake this for the band -win arrangement is, that one duty, unless the farmer undertakes it him- man can bind the corn cut by six reapers,

self. It is his duty to announce the time and the six reapers can cut down twoacres

for commencing work, and for leaving it, a -day. Band-win reapers are hired for as also the hours of meals and of rest. It the harvest, and receive their money wages

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

332

when the reaping is finished . This system bandster to take the lead. This is neces prevails to a greater or less extent over sary, both as a pattern that cannot be the whole of Scotland, but particularly in excelled by any other band -win , and for the Border counties.

the quantity and thequality of the work

performed . This effect may be insured 4473. It should be made a point to by hiring the same band -win year after select a band -win of picked reapers and year. The man a fig. 393, makes the bands Fig. 393.

6

4 ARRANGEMENT OF THE REAPERS IN A BAND -WIN ,

from the crown of the ridge — and as the the sheaves larger than they should be. heaviest and longest straw generally grows even so as to render it almost impossible

there, he is the fittest person for taking for the bandster to make the ends of the the heaviest part of thework .

band meet. Bands too much filled should

never be bound, as the sheaves are apt

4474. The corn -band, fig. 394, is made to burst in being handled, and they are too large to be easily forked about. The Fig. 394. women, having nothing to do with the making of the bands, devote theirwhole time to reaping, and filling the bands with corn . C

4476. On commencing to reap with the

THE CORN -BAND READY TO RECEIVE THE CUT CORN . sickle, the reaper sets berself as d,fig. 393,

by cutting a handful ofcorn, and dividing setting the feet apart, in order the more it into two parts, and by plaiting the corn - ends a of the straw together, and twisting them into a knot, as at b, so as the ears shall lie above the twist, away from the reaper, when the band is stretched

easily to bow the body down. The body on being bowed down, its weight is mostly borne upon the right leg, as e, while the

sickle reaps the standing corn before the reaper, while she gathers it with the left

at length upon the ground, from c to c, hand. It is the duty of the women e and g, to receive the corn .

4475. It

is

whose hook -bandles are next the open fur row, to clear the corn of that furrow as far

the man's duty to as the furrow -brow ofthe ridge upontheir

have a band ready to lay down as soon right hand, not only because theirs is the as the one previously laid down is filled leading ridge, but because the woman d,

with corn sufficient to make a sheaf. employed on the ridge to the right of e, In this mode of reaping, no regard is cannot gather the corn in the open furrow paid to the size of thesheaf ; which being so well with the point of the sickle, as e

the case, the reapers uniformly make can with its rounded body. Clearing the

REAPING CORN CROPS.

333

open -furrow being the most troublesomelel with the ground, the standing corn is part of reaping, the two women e and f, or cut, and is received and held up with the

g and d, exchange places at every landing, left hand on this side, and by the standing and take the reaping of it alternately. corn beside it on the other. A creeping

The succeeding position of the reapers is advance is slowly made of the body to shown at f, where the woman, having cut wards the left, which brings it to rest the corn from the right hand, is accumu- equally on both legs, while successive cuts

lating it in a heap with the left one, and are made with the sickle; and the addi resting the weight of the body now on the tional corn thus acquired isstill gathered left leg. After cutting down as far as the and supported by the left hand and the furrow had been cleared by the preceding standing corn. The man c on the second

reaper, she lifts the severed corn partly on ridge is seen in this the second position. her sickle and partly on her left arm, as Proceeding in breadths, measured by the seen with g , and deposits it upon the band stretch of the arm , the body comes to rest 6, as seen on the band h. These are all entirely on the left leg, while the right is

the positions assumed by reapers while in stretched out as a balance ; and this position the act of reaping. The man on making is continued until as much corn is cut as the band as shown at a, after laying it can well be kept up by the left band, by

down on the crown of the ridge with the rolling it against the standing corn, when

corn heads away from him as at 6, then the whole is lifted by the hook and left begins to cut down the corn on the crown hand, and placed into the band to assist in as shown at c; and by the time he has making the sheaf. The position on the left reaped an armful for the band, it is time leg is seen in the womanf, and the woman to make another band, as the women g is taking the quantity cut to the band 6

from both sides will have had enough lying on the ground, to help to make up reaped to make up the sheaf. Thus the the sheaf.

Any uncut straws on the

women in a band-win each actually cut ground are cut, and loose ones swept by down more corn than the men, they being the hook amongst the standing corn. continually employed in reaping while he 4478. The great object, in good reap is making the bands. Such an understanding exists among the members of a band- ing, is to make short stubble, because more win, that, should any difficulty occur in straw is thereby gained to the sheaf, and the reaping of both the ridges, such as a spot less left on the field ; and it is impossible of corn much laid, the reaper who encoun-

to cut the stubble short, unless the body is

ters the difficulty is immediately assisted by all her companions. Thus the bandwin reap till the two ridges are cut down, when they return to the end of the field

brought as near the ground as to allow the arm to sweep the sickle parallel with it.

Reapers who bow the body down from the haunches, and keep the legs upright, draw

they began at, and commence upon new the sickle

ир

towards their knees, causing

ridges. Band -win after band-win do the the stubble to be cut in a series of notches, same till the entire number of band-wins leaving the stubble high next them . This

are again placed, or stented, into their is bad work . In using the toothed hook , ridges, in the same order as they were by the corn is cut in small handfuls, retained thesteward at commencing the reaping of firmly in the left hand, and collected in the field .

it tiil it can contain no more, and is then put into the band. With the body

4477. It is not easy to describe the only bent forward this instrument can be best mode of cutting corn with the sickle. easily wielded, as small bandfuls can al In commencing to cut a sheaf with the ways be cut nearthe ground. The nearer smooth-sickle the body is brought low , by the ground the more easily is the straw cut ; resting chiefly on the right leg donbled but the straw cut with the toothed sickle

under the body, and the left one stretched is always too firmly squeezed in the band. out to act as a stay and a balance to the

whole frame. This first position is repre4479. The bandster, as soon as one band sented by the woman e. The right arm is is filled with corn , begins bis operations, then stretched amongst the corn, and in and he should bind the sbeaves in this way :

drawing it toward you, near to and paral-

— Going to the stubble end of the sheaf,

834

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

with bis face to the cornend, he gathers When the weather is good , and likely to the spread corn into the middle of the band continue so, there is no objection to this

with both hands, and taking a hold of the mode of stooking, particularly now , when band in each hand, near the ends, he turns the sheaf as much round as to place the corn end beyond his left elbow ; then crossing the ends of the band, pulls as forcibly as he can, mostly with the right hand, and as close to the shear as possible, keeps the purchase thus obtained good with

but few weeds are allowed to grow amongst the corn, stooks require to stand in the field for a comparatively short time. Nevertheless in wet, and even damp wea

ther, and in high situations, corn is too much exposed in such stooks, and others which afford greater security against the

the side of the left hand, while he twists weather should be used.

Such a form is

the end in the righthand, round below and shown in fig. 396, where two sheaves, a behind his left hand, and then thrusts the Fig. 396. twist under the tightened part of the band, pushing it still with the right hand ,

as far as to make the band keep a firm hold of it round the sheaf. After this operation ,

the corn end a of the band, fig. 394, is held firm by the pressure of the sheaf against the ears of corn and the twisted part of the band at b. It is requisite to attend to the position of the band in regard to the sheaf.

If too near the bottom of the

sheaf the lower part of the straw will be too much compressed, and the air pre vented winning it ; and if too near the corn - end the sheaves will spread out too much below, and be unable to stand erect . The sheaves bound up on the near ridge are carried by the bandster, as k fig. 393, A BARLEY OR OAT STOOK HOODED . to the far ridge upon the middle of which they are all stooked. and its opposite, are taken by the band ster, one in each arm, and set on their stub TAN

4480. As every two sheaves are bound ble endsa little apart on the ground, and they are set upas an isosceles triangle i, their corn ends brought together, in such fig. 393, and four or more sheaves thus set aposition on theridgeas that the length

up take the form of the stook shown of the stook shall stand N. and S,; and in fig. 395. All the kinds of grain are now these constitute the centre of the stook . Fig. 395. Other two sheaves, b and its opposite, are set on one side of a in a similar man

ner, independently of, and not leaning against them ; other two, c and its oppo site, are placed in the same manner on the other side ofa, and so on, with d and e and their opposites, until ten sheaves in a double row of five are thus set, to com

plete the body of the stook . A sheaff is then split from the band to the corn

end, and laid astride upon the corn tops of

half the number constituting the body of the stook, in nearly a horizontal position, and another sbeaf is placed in a similar manner with its but- end stuck into that

of the other, as at f, upon the tops of the AN ORDINARY STOOK OF CORN .

other half number of the sheaves, and the

stooked in this form , for the purpose of stook is then complete. These last inclin being made quickly ready for the stack . ing sheaves are called hood sheadcs, and

REAPING CORN CROPS.

335

are intended, by their drooping position, number of reapers being gathered for work to ward off the rain from the corn in the into a comparatively small breadth of the body of the stook.

field , one band -win after another entering at the end of the ridge — the leading one

4481. Were the stooks of every two keeping foremost, and the rest following in

ridges set on the furrow -browof each side regular echelon order. Its disadvantages of the central open furrow of every four are, that a desire frequently arises for ridges, the time of clearing the field of the striving, or what is commonly called crop by the cart would be very much ex- kemping, in the latter band-wins, to finish pedited.

the reaping of their ridges before those who had entered theirs prior to them ;

4482. The sheaves in the body ofa stook the certain consequence of which is bad are set by method. Were the corn in the knots of the bands set outwards in the stook, as seen in the nearest sheaves of the stook, fig. 395, the rain might injure it ;

work, while not unfrequently resentful feel ings are engendered between the band wins. To provide against such tendencies, a vigilant superintendence on the part of

and as it bears a sensible proportion to the the steward is absolutely requisite. corn of the whole stook, the sample might be materially injured. By simply turn-

4486. Another method of reaping corn ing the corn -knots inwards, and the root- with the sickle is by the thrave, which ends outwards, as in fig. 396, such injury to simply consists of placing one person on

the sample is easilyprevented. But thecorn- everyridge, and paying him or her for the knots are placed uppermost in the hood- number of tbraves cut down, by the day sheavesf, and exposed to the rain ; because, or week, or the harvest, as the terms of the

were the other side of the sheaf exposed agreement may express. A thrave consists

upwards, where a groove runs down the of two full stooks of each kind of grain, length of the sheaf, by the straw being the stook of barley and oats containing gathered into that form , while making the twelve, and that ofwheat fourteen sheaves

root-knotof the band, the rain might pene- each sheaf being three feet in circum trate by the groove through thebody of the ference, or twelve inches in diameter at the sheaf, lying in its horizontal position, to the band. corn in the standing sheaves below, and

would inflict a much greater injury than 4487. The proper size of the sheaf is merely spoiling the corn -knots. ascertained bymeans of a sheaf-gauge, fig. 397.

4483. Wheat stooks are seldom hooded,

This instrument is carried in the Fig. 397.

because they stand but a short time in the field ; but stooks of barley and oats are frequently hooded , because they have to

hand by the steward as walking staff, with which be does not pretend to gauge every sheaf, but only those which seem to

a

stand in the field for a considerable time ; and should the weather continue wet, they will inevitably suffer if wanting the hoods.

him to be below the mark,

and which his eye easily detects after a little expe

In favourable circumstances they do not

rience.

require hoods any more than wheat. When stooks are completed with hoods, the

When used, the

prong of the gauge abcd с

wheat stook is furnished with fourteen

is made to embrace the

sheaves, and that of barley and oats with

sheaf when lying on the ground, along the band,

twelve sheaves each .

and if the sheaf just allows 4484. In this way a band-win of reap

the points of the gauge, a THE SHEAF -GAUGE .

andb, to slip easily down set up in stooks, two acres of barley daily ; to the ground, and the band to touch the

ers will cut down, bind into sheaves, and

a little less of a strong crop of wheat, and upper part of the prong cd, while the points

a little more of the strongest crop of oats. a b reach the gronnd, the sheaf is of the requisite size, the prongs of the gauge 4485. The advantage of the band -win being one foot long and one foot asunder system is its great efficiency in a large inside.

336

PRACTICE-AUTUMN.

little distance into the country every day, may reap as much as they can, receive their earnings, and return home at night. It is also a convenientone for the young members of a family learning the art of

4488. A bandster is commonly em ployed by the farmer to bind the sheaves and set the stooks after thravers, as these are apt to make the sheaves smaller than they should be, when they themselves bind them , and also to practise the fraud of doubling up some of the corn in the heart

or friend.

of the sheaf, to make the bound sheaf seem

inasmuch as it is the direct interest of

of the requisite size.

reaping, under the exampledisadva of a parent But it has ntages,

When labourers are

the reaper to make very small sheaves, scarce, however, thravers undertake to which materially augments the cost of

bind and stook what they cut down, and reaping ; and, when thravers bind and set

are paid for the extra work. In order to the corn, strony temptation is placed in separate every thraver's work, the corn is stooked upon the ridge where it grow ; and to facilitate the carting of the stooks, they are ranged on the furrow brows of adjoining ridges. A bandster having to walk across a greater number of ridges cannot bind to so many thravers as to reapers in

their power to deceive their employer in the size ofthe sheaf. One check over such a practice is the appointment of a bandster to bind the sheaves and set the stooks ; and when he proves a sterling man, he will not bind a sheal that is less than the proper size, and will place it before the reaper :

band-win, where his work is confined to

but it is rare to find a bandster that will

two, so that perhaps one bandster to every act in this manner, his sympathy being

four thravers maybe about the proportion. easily excited to favour the “ poor widow,” “ the lone woman , ” or “ the helpless or

4489. After the stooks are all set on the phan.”

There is inconvenience, too, in

ridges, the steward counts the number of placinga large number of reapers on single thraves, and marks them down in a book . The thravers themselves count the number of stooks by pulling a straw from each as they walk down a long ridge to the end of the field, where they re- enter a new one.

ridges, inasmuch as, the different thravers having different powers of reaping, one

cuts throngh the ridge far ahead of his next neighbour, whilst others may delay cutting out their ridges for several days. The party who passes the others

4490. Thravers who work by the day are bound to clear both the furrows of the have their accounts cast up by the steward ridges. No inconsiderable trouble is im at the end of the day's work, and paid on posed on the steward in counting the

the spot ; but they should be made to finish thraves of every ridge, and marking them the reaping of every ridge entered before down in a book, and in calculating every they are paid, otherwise confusion will day's reaping of those who are hired by ensue in the thrave-book, by having the the day. The carting off the stooks from names of different individuals on the same

every ridge causes the horses to walk

ridge. If any individual thraver cannot double the distance in clearing a field . conveniently finish his ridge, he must find 4492. The immediate effect of reaping some friend to do it for him , to avoid this confusion, or not be allowed to enter a new with the sickle, on the state of the cut crop ,

long ridge at the end of the day, but may particularly in thraving, is the pressing of the straw and of the sheaf together, and the loose and unconnected position given to 4491. The simplest way of reaping corn the ears , when the sheaves are bound too

be placed on a short one.

is by the thrave, and its advantages are, near the but-end, much against the stabi

that the reapers are paid in money for what lity of the stook and of its winning. they cut down, and give no trouble in providing food for them. Thravers cut

4493. The powers of reaping by single

corn low , and make a clean stubble, as it individuals are best exhibited in thraving. is their interest to make up the sheaf as I have seen more than one young woman

soon as possible, so that they seldom require cut twenty -four thraves of oats a -day ; to be reproved for bad work. The system and many that cut twenty thraves, all also affords convenient occupation for the good sizable sheaves—for it is the old and inhabitants of towns, who, by walking a infirm who practise tricks in filling their

REAPING CORN CROPS.

337

sheaves. When I mention that from eight about oneyard wide.* In Worcestershire, twelve thraves considered good

to are a bagging is executed by a tool called a day's work, such exertions will be better bean-hook, and the straw is cut by a understood. In all great feats of thraving, stroke instead of a cut of the sickle, hold I have found women superior to men, and ing or collecting the straw in the left

more enduring for a length of time;and, hand. The best baggers use a wooden

with the exception of one tall blacksmith, hookin the left hand,to collect and bring who wielded with uncommon strength an together the cut wheat in a bundle- like extra -sized scythe-hook of his own making shape to the ground. Some reapers in in his left hand, I never saw a man who Scotland practise the bagging mode of cutting corn , and use the left hand to steady the corn while it is in the act of

cut the largest quantity mentioned above .

4494. Reaping with the sickle is exe- being cutby the right. The mode is techni

cuted in England in a manner technically cally named dinging- in , or cuffing. A named bagging, which is performed in this manner in Buckinghamshire : First make a band, as in fig . 394, and lay it down ; then, standing inthe furrow with the left hand to thestanding corn , cut a handful ;

man practised in it will do one-half more work than is usually done in the common

way ; but the stubble is left less regular, and there is a want of tidiness in the work, even in the most expert hands.

put the stubble ends of this handful all 4495. A mode of cutting corn with the it in the left hand eight or ten inches from the end ; and with this sickle is practised in some parts of Eng assistant lay a little of the standing corn land by using the smooth-edged sickle, fig. back, or from you, and with the scythe- 392, in cutting the straw so as to leave a even, then grasp

hook, fig. 392, chop off, cutting inwards high stubble, the corn being gathered under close to the ground, the corn so laid off; the hand, and the strokes of the sickle move the left hand forward, lay back the made as in bagging. The stubble is after corn as before, and make another cut, and wards cut with the scythe, and carried to

so proceed — moving left hand, one foot, the stackyard. Probably this practice was and the scythe -hook simultaneously — originally adopted to avoid weeds being across the“ land ” or “ ridge,” or half way across it, if there are two persons on it: four to five yards being the usual breadth taken. Having reached the breadth intended to be taken, drop the corn which till now has been held in the left hand, among the cut corn wbich now leans against the standing corn, and commence collect

cut downalong with the valuable portion of the crop, which would be the more easily win and sooner carried home without them; and they were mown with the stubble, and sometimes the stubble and they were set on fire together. It is scarcely necessary to condemn a practice which causes two cuttings of the same

ing what has been cut. For this purpose, crop ; and it is as unnecessary to observe, walk backwards over the same ground, or rather a little nearer the standing corn_use the left hand, the hook, and the right foot - roll over the cut cord with the

that the system of farming which permits the ground to be so foul with weeds as to occasion such two- handed work is repre hensible.

hook, and at the same time cut some more

with the point of it, and keep walking

4496. The Hainault or Flemish scythe

backwards and collecting all together till may be regarded as an intermediate you reach the furrow from whence you implement between the sickle and the started , when you will find you havegot cradle-scythe. It is beld in the right an armful. Lay this armful into the band, band by a handle fourteen inches long,

cut another left-handful as at first, and again go on cutting inwards; returning withthe armful, lay it in the same band, which is then enough for a sheaf. Make another band for another sheaf, and proceed as before, cutting forward, and cut-

supported by the forefinger, in a leather loop. The blade two feet three inches in length, is kept steady in a horizontal position, by a flat and projecting part of the handle 4 inches long, acting as a shield against the lower part of the wrist.

ting and collecting backwards, clearing The point of the blade is a little raised, * Mark Lane Express, August 1841 . VOL . II .

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

338

and the entire edge bevelled upwards to hook, which is suspended to the wrist by avoid striking the surface of the ground. a leather belt passed through a slit in On this account the sharping-stone is the handle, acting for a similar purpose, seldom used, the handle of the hook being but in a superior manner to the bandful of of hard wood, used as a straik, fig. 323. straw held in the left hand.* By the ac

Two men work best on the ridge, along a companying fig. 398, an idea of the form space of ninefeet, which they cut down of the Hainault scythe and its hook, and of at seven or eight strokes each, and form the mode of usingthem in reaping corn as

into four sheaves. The reaping is done described , may be formed . I accompanied by pressing the back of the hook with the the Flemish reapers, Jean B. Dupré and

left hand, against the standing corn, in Louis Catteau ,through Forfarshirein 1825, the direction of the wind, and by cutting and drew up a report of their proceedings in with thescythe close to the gronnd against thatcounty for the Highland and Agricul

the standing corn, with a free swing of the tural Society. The impression on thefar right armlessbyforce thanby the impetus mers present was, that a saving of about of the blade— till in three or more strokes, one -fourth might be effected by the Hain according to the thickness of the crop, a ault scythe in comparison with the common

sufficiency is severed, which, when caught in the book, with a portion of the standing corn against which it rests, is rolled into the form of a sbeaf by the workman walk-

sickle ; but it has not at all made, nor will it make its way into this country, since it is not equal in its work to our cradle-scythe.t

ing backwards, and cutting any of the standing corn caught by the hookwith the

4497. The other mode of cutting com

point of the scythe, until he reaches the is with the scythe. Scythes are mounted

point he startedfrom , where by gathering in various ways for the purpose, and for and keeping the heads in a line by means a considerable period has been mounted, of the hook, closes together the but-end in Banffshire or Aberdeenshire - where it of the sheaf with the scythe, and then, is extensively used for reaping - in the with both, by a little adroitness, and the form of the Cradle -scythe.I of this form assistance of the foot, a perfect sheaf is of mounting a reaping -scythe, there are lifted from the ground, and placed in the many varieties; but they all agree in one band ready for binding. It will be ob- point, that of having two shorthelves,the served that this operation is very similar one branching out of the other, instead of to that of the bagging executed in Buck- the common long belve or sned. Fig. 399 inghamshire, anddescribed in (4494 ;) the is a view of thecradle -scythe in one of its Fig. 398.

Fig. 399.

REAPING WITH THE HAINAULT SCYTHE,

THE CRADLE - SCYTHE FOR REAPING .

* Radcliff's Agriculture of Flanders, p. 121.

+ Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. vii. p. 244 . # Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. v. p. 106.

REAPING CORN CROPS.

most approved forms, wherein a is the scythe -blade, three feet four inches to

339

line, as at b, the extremity of the blade should be also three feet distant from the

three feet six inches long ; b the principal point b.

Iron has, in many cases, been

helve, four feet in length, to which the blade substituted for wood in the construction of is attached in the usual way, the hook of the belves ; but it does not, by any means,

the tine being sunk into the wood, and an appear to be so well adapted tothe pur iron ferule brought down over the tine, pose as the wooden helves. When con

binding it firmly to the wood ; but the structed of iron, if they are made suffi blade is further supported by the addition ciently light, there is too much elasticity

of the light stay c, termed the grass-nail. in the fabric, which is fatiguing to the The minor helve d , three feet in length, workman, by reason of the tremor pro is tenoned into the former ; and the two duced at every stroke of the scythe. bandles e f are adjusted by wedges in the usual way , to the height and mode of 4498. The common scythe with the

working of the mower , the distance be- straight sned, fig. 400, is mounted with a tween the helves, at the handles, being twenty -four inches. The cradle or rake

cradle

Fig . 400.

consists of a little wooden standard 9,

for

the purpose

about eight inches high, jointed to the

of cutting grain , and so

heel of the blade, so as to fold a little up

is the com

or down across the blade. Into this is in

mon scythe

serted three slender teeth, following the direction of the blade, and may be from six to fifteen inches long : the head of the standard is supported by a slender rod of

with the bent sned, fig .

any of the

iron, which stretches about eighteen inches

scythes are

322.

When

up the handle, where it is secured by a

to be used

small screw -nut, capable of being shifted

in reaping,

up or down to alter the position of the standard and its teeth to suit the lay of the

the straik , fig. 323, and

corn .

The standard or rake head was at

the scythe

one time recommended to be made in the

stone,

segment of a circle,* for which there seems no good reason , either practical or philo sophical; but the idea was seized upon, and the cradle-scythe, mounted in that

324, are as much in re

fig.

THE COMMON REAPING -SCYTHE. quisition as when

used

form , was widely distributed. But instead for any other purpose. They should only of this supposed improvement tending to be used as often as to keep a keen edge increase the favourable opinion of scythe- on the blade. reaping, the practice seems rather on the decline ; and there is good reason to be4499. Of all these varieties of form of

liere, that this malformation of the rake the reaping-scythe, the cradle-scythe, fig. may have had no small share in producing 399, is the greatest favourite amongst a distaste for scythe -reaping as a practice; mowers, because it is found to be most whereas, under proper management, and easily wielded by the arms, and it causes a judicious choice of implements, there can less twist in the lumbar region of the body, be no doubt of considerable advantages wbich last effect is the eatest objection being attainable from scythe-reaping, as to all the common scythes in use. Yet it

compared with the sickle. In setting the is not easy to discover why the cradle blade, the following rule is to be observed : scythe, borne by the arms alone, in front - When the framed helves are laid flat on of the body, and not admitting of being a level surface, the point of the blade balanced in one hand, like the other should be from eighteen to twenty inches scythes, should be less fatiguing to the above that surface, and measuring from a workman ; but the fact is so, and in con point on the left helve, three feet distant sequence more work is done with it than from the heel of the blade, in a straight with any of the others. * Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. vi. p. 30.

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

340

4500. The gleanings of the stubble is an heads - namely, a bead of three scythe object of considerable value in reaping ; men, three gatherers, three bandsters, and and to secure it for the benefit of the far- one man -raker; or, what may be regarded a

mer different implements are employed. better arrangement, a beadof twoscythe The principal, and the most effective of men, two gatherers, two bandsters, and one them , is the hay horse-rake, fig. 343 ; but woman - raker. A larger number of heads on as it can only be used in the harvest field the latter arrangement may be employed on after the crop has been carried away, and a large farm , while a small farm may em after the gleanings have become deterio- ploy one head on the former arrangement. rated in value by exposure to the weather, 4502. The best beginning that can be the hand-rake is a more convenient implement during the reaping. Fig. 401 is a made of a field for scythe-reaping is to representation of this rake, which is of mow along the ridge, parallel with the Fig. 401 .

d

fence on the left hand, from the top to the bottom , or from the bottom to the top of the field, as the corn happens to lie ; and if not laid, the inclination of the corn and the direction of the wind should both be from

the right. While one head of mowers is opening up the side of the field , either from the bottom or the top, another mows either headridge at right angles to it, in the direction of the wind.

Thus two sides of

the field are opened up, leaving an angle of

the corn to commence future ope ratistanding on up s

on.

b

MM are

4503. The first head, which should be conducted by an experienced and steady mower, commences mowing at this angle,

THE HAND STUBBLE - RAKE .

across the ridges, as the scythes more

simple construction, the form being pre- most easily over the open furrows in that cisely that of the bay-rake, fig. 345, but direction, laying the corn in swaths at The head a bright angles to their line of motion, upon

of enlarged dimensions.

is five feet long, and should be made of and towards the mown headridge — the good tough ash, two and a half by two straws of the swaths lying parallel with inches; the helve c d may be six feet in one another, over a distance of six ridges height, of the same material, and furnished

or thirty yards, which is as far as scythes

with a handle e that can be fixed in any will cut straw at one sharping. To main desired position, by means of a ferule and tain the essential requisite of laying the wedge.

The belve is tenoned into the swaths even, the mower should not swing

head, and supported by the iron brace fc his arms too much to the right in entering g. The teeth are of iron, seven inches in length, and set at four inches apart, but formed in the lower part so that the bend rests on the ground, preventing the points of the teethpenetrating and mixing the

the blade of the scythe amongst the stand ing corn, as he will not be able to turn far enough round to the left to lay the swath in the proper position , but will be short of the right angle. Nor should he bring his

earth with the gleanings.

arms too far round to the left, as the swath

The best me-

thod of fixing the teeth isby a screw -nut, will be laid beyond that angle : and in as in the horse-rake, as they are thereby easily removed in the case of being broken, without risk of injuring the head. It is also advisable to have the ends of the head hooped , to prevent splitting.

either case the straws will overlap each other, be difficult to separate, and their ends arranged in echelon order instead

of a straight line. To lay the straw thus disarranged right in the sheaf, will waste much time and labour. He should proceed

4501. Reaping with the scythe is best forward in a straight line, with a steady

executed by the mowers being placed in and regular motion of the arms and limbs,

1

REAPING CORN CROPS.

341

bearing the greatest part of the weight of whereas, on the contrary, beginners with the body on the right leg, which is kept the sickle soon learn to reap neat enough,

a little in advance. The length of the grasping every portion with the hand,but sweep , from the entrance of the point of are defective in point of speed.

the scythe into the corn until the exit of the head of the sned out of it, is from seven

4504. Fig. 402 shows the arrangement

to seven and a half feet, and its breadth fourteen or fifteen inches. Beginners with the scythe soon learn to reap fast enough, but are defective in point of neatness;

of the various work -people engaged in scythe- reaping, three scythemen being in troduced merely to show theforms of the different sorts of scythes, and where 6 67

Fig. 402 .

TA THE MOWING OF CORN WITH THE SCYTHE IN HEADS,

are the three mowers forming a head, each side of a stook, and not at its end, to pre

with a different kind of scythe, laying vent the ventilation of the air through it. over the corn in the beautifully square This is much better than putting the rak and even swaths a a a. The women- ings into the heart of a sheaf, where they gatherers C C c, follow by each making a will not thrash clean with tbe rest of the band, fig. 394, from the swath, and lay- corn ; and as they may contain earth and ing as much of the swath upon it as will small stones, and inferior grain from straws make a suitable sheaf, as d d - and so which may have fallen down before the

carefully as to leave the ends of the band mowing, it is better to thrash the rakings free, for the bandster to take hold of easily by themselves. When the mowing and

and quickly. The gatherer requires to be gathering are properly executed, the rak an active methodical person , otherwise ings should not exceed from four to five per she will make rough work. The bandster cent of the crop, which is not more waste e follows her, and binds the sheaves in the than in reaping with the smooth sickle.

manner described in (4479,) any two of the three bandsters f f setting the stook g

4505. Every species of the cereal grains

together ; and in crossing the ridges, they may be mown with the scythe. Many shouldall be set upon the same ridge, to give farmers still believe that the scythe is an the people who remove them with the cart unsuitable implement with which to mow

the least trouble. Last of all comes the wheat ; but I can assure them , from long raker h , who clears the ground between experience and observation, that it is as the stookswith his large hand stubble -rake suitable as the sickle, and that mown be made to look well, pro i, ofall loose straws, and brings them to a sheaves may

bandster, who bindsthem together by them- vided the gatherers are proficients at their selves, and sets them in bundles at the work. Doubtless mowing wheat is severo

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

342

work, and so is reaping it. Oats are the barley that one man can bind and stook most pleasant crop to mow , their crisp in a day of ten hours, by the three modes straw being easily cut with the scythe; of reapiug, he mentions as differing thus and being smooth , and not too long, does Ofsheaves reaped by the scythe, 1500 or 622 thraves . smooth sickle , 1200 .. 50 not injure the hands in binding like wheat, :: :: :: toothed sickle , 1200 .. 50 and the sheaves are easily set in stook.

Barley strawbeing covered with a gummy The difference is accounted for by the matter, which gives it a malty smell, soon bandster not having to go froin ridge to takes the edge off the scythe, and being ridge in following the scythe, but con brittle, not hard, is easily broken in the tinues at the same row of swath. In

binding. When much young grassis found practice, however, the bandster binds less among the barley straw when mown, it in a day to the scythe than to the sickle, should be shaken out by the gatherers, because he binds but to one scythe, but to while holding the straw by the corn end, six reapers with the sickle, who reap more as it will detain the crop too long a time in than one scythe— the time of the bandster

the field in winning ; and rather than run being filled up in assisting the gatherers to that risk, it is better to incur the extra cost make bands. Mr Taylor has bound and of getting rid of the grass by a little sacri- stooked 1680 sheaves of oats, containing fice of time at reaping, or even by the en- nineteen and a half quarters of grain cut

gagement of extra hands. It is scarcely by the scythe, and ofsheaves cut by the practicable to shake out grass from corn sickle only 1360 ; and yet, the latter im

while reaping with the sickle, as the instru- posed upon bim a decidedly harder day's ment would constantly be required tobe laid work. A bandster will do more work with aside, both hands being required in the ope- soft than with hard straw ; and with a luxu ration. To cut the stubble as high as the riant than a poor crop, because he walks

grass, would make the straw in the sheaf over less space from sheaf to sheaf, and too short. from stook to stook. * 4506. A good mower will cut one acre 4509. A judicious remark is made by Mr of wheat, or perhaps rather more, a day. Taylor in superintending harvest people, If a stroke of the scythe covers seven feet that in the first week, should the weather in length and fifteen inches in breadth, an prove warm , the workers should have a rest

area equal to 1260 square inches, it will of twenty minutes, whenever found requi take about 5000 such strokes to reap an

site ; and he adds— “ I find it a plan both

acre. Two acres of oats may easily be humane and profitable.” mown in a day, thus indicating that a man will mow double the extent of oats he will

4510. In using the common scythe, I

do of wheat, or make about 10,000 strokes observe, in many parts of the country, the of the scythe in a day. Nearly two acres swath laid up against the standing corn,

of barley may be mown in a day, time be- and is gathered while in that position . ing wasted in the extra sharping required Why this mode of disposing of the swath should be preferred to laying it flat on

in cutting barley straw.

the ground, it is difficult to conjecture, for

4507. Mr John Taylor, steward at Cor- not a single advantage does the method riestone, Aberdeenshire, gives the follow- possess ; while the disordered condition in ing as his experience of the comparative which the corn is taken away by the quantities of ground reaped and mown by gatherer from the standing corn, compared seven persons, on an average of ten hours' with lifting it up from the flat ground, work : is a sufficient objection to the practice. Wheat. Oats and Barley. A.

By the scythe, By the smooth sickle , By the toothed sickle,

2 1

1

R.

P.

3 0 1 18 0 8

A.

R.

4 2 2

0 20 2 10 0 10

P.

4511. The immediate effect of mowing on the state of the corn , is to cause the straws to hook on to one another, as is

4508. And the average number of evinced by the difficultyofdividing a mown sheaves, of an average crop of oats and sheaf when about to be passed through the * Transactions ofthe Ilighland and Agricultural Society, July 1844 , p. 259-63.

REAPING CORN CROPS.

343

thrashing machine; and also to cause the wet with dew in the morning, or even corn ends of the different lengths of the when wetted with rain, rather than lose straws incident to a crop to come to- a few hours' work of reaping every morn

gether ; and the consequence is, that the ing, or at nightfall. Gaitins, it is trne,are

corn end of a sheaf is more crowded than very apt to be upset by a high wind; but the straw end — a state conducive to quick after having got a set, it is surprising what a breeze they will withstand. After be winning after mowing. ing blown down, however, they are not 4512. One mode of setting up corn to easily made to stand again, and then three dry quickly is in gaitins — that is, the band of them at least are required to be set of the sheaf is tied loosely round the straw , against each other ; but whatever trouble just under the corn , as at a, fig. 403, and the resetting should create, they should not be allowed to lie on the gronnd, and

Fig. 403.

it will be found that a windy day wins them quickly .

4513. Rye, though not particularly specified, may be reaped or mown in the same manner as the other cereal grains. Its straw , being very tough, may be mado into neat slim bands. It usually ripens a good deal earlier than the other grains ;

and its straw , being clean and hard, does not require long exposure in the field , and on that account the stooks need not be

hooded.

4514. The scythe cuts a shorter stubble than the sickle by 24 inches, although a long stubble may be cut with the scythe, which is useful for a scytheman to be able to do, when the young grass is rank A GAITIN OF OATS .

the loose sheaf is made to stand by spreading out the lower end of its straw in a circular form , from b to c. Gaitins are set upon every ridge ; the wind whistles through them, and the rain does not hang upon but passes through them. Gaiting is only practised in wet weather, and even then, onlywhen a ripe crop is endangered in

standing by a shaking wind.

amongst the corn ; for, in failing to use such a caution, the heart of the young clover in

that growing state may be cut off, to the injury of the plant all winter. 4515. Reapers, when hired for the har

vest, whether to use the sickle or the scythe, receive food, lodgings, and wages. Those who reap by the thravereceive only

It is con- remuneration in money for what they reap,

fined to oats, wheat and barley never being gaited ; because when wheat gets dry, after being cut in a wet state, it isapt to shake out in binding the gaitins ; and when

and no lodgings or food. The food given to reapers in the southern parts of Scot land consists of oatmeal porridge and milk at breakfast and supper, and bread and

barley is subjected to the rough usage of beer at dinner - fine wheaten bread , 1 lb. binding, after being won, the heads are in weight, and a drink, besides, of half a apt to snap off altogether : and, besides, so quart of beer in the afternoon . Any of much exposure, as in gaitins, injures its col- the people that go home to supper, as all our, and renders it unfit for the maltster.

cottars on the farm do, receive about 6

Oats are protected by a thick husk, and pecks of barley in lieu — the old firlot.

In

out in the more northern parts, the breakfast and the grain is not very apt to shake which are dinner consist of i loaf of bread and i

handling, excepting potato-oats,

seldom gaited, thecommon kinds only be- quart of beer, and the supper of porridge and beer again. The ing so treated. But, for my part, I would and milk , or bread not hesitate to gait any sort of oats nen bread is made of oatmeal, baked with yeast,

PRACTICE - AUTUMN.

344

10 loaves from 1 peck or half a stone of reapers stale, that is, twenty -four hours oatmeal — making each loaf, when baked, old, and a stock of beer in barrel laid in 14 oz. weight. Some people cause 12 before harvest. A fresh supply of new

loaves to be bakedfrom the peck of oat- baked bread should be received every day, meal.

The meal allowed in lieu of supper as also a fresh supply of beer from the

to those who go home, consists of 24 stones of 14 lb. for the harvest, which is equivalent to 2 oat loaves each night, without beer. The food on Sunday, on many farms,

brewer, which will have time to ferment and settle before it is wanted for use. In this way the bread and beer will be in the best state for use ; whereas when those

consists of mutton broth, with bread and provisions are received as the necessity potatoes instead of beer. In England, food occurs, which ismost commonly the case, is seldom given to reapers, but beer always the bread is obliged to be distributed in is ; but instead of ale, an equivalent in a warm , and the beer in a fermented state

money is frequently given. “ Wegave, in

- both conditions being injurious to the

one case, 1s. 2d. per acre,” says Mr Burness. health of work -people in a state of heat “Sometimes, again, an allowance of malt or and perspiration. It is entirely in the

money isgiven for the whole periodof har- farmer's own power to have the porridge vest, or four weeks, termed the harvest properly cooked, and the milk in a sweet month, provincially . In some districts state for use, cider is used insteadof ale. The drinking

largely of ale and cider,” continues Mr

4517. Another circumstance entirely

Burness, “ is, perhaps, peculiar to the in the power of the farnier himself to labouring population of England. The regulate, is giving the reapers their meals allowance made to them during harvest is at stated times every day — regularity no doubt well meant, and, to a certain ex- in this respect having a material effect in

tent, absolutelynecessary ; but, like all other keeping the work of the field in good good things, the boon has been very much order ; for whenever a meal arrives at the abused in numerous instances. Much more appointed hour, there will be no flagging importance has been attached to it, by both onthe part of the reapers ; but should it master and servant,than sober inquiry will not arrive when expected, the work is justify. Hard work requires eating as carelessly done, and the people have no well as drinking, and that of a peculiar heart to go on.

The hours that seem to

be well adapted for the appetite, and which divide the day into pretty equal parts, are,

quality." *

4516. Considerable trouble is imposed 8 o'clock in the morning for breakfast, on the inmates of the farm -house, in providing and cooking food every day for a large number of reapers. The making of oat-meal porridge for perhaps from fifty

and start again to work at 9 ; dinnerat 1 in the afternoon, and again to work at 2. Have a resting -time of a quarter of an hour for the drink of beer at 4, and

to seventy persons twice a -day, morning then to work till dusk-having begun at

and evening, and the distributing to each dusk in the morning in a late harvest, and band - win bread and beer at dinner, and at5 in the morning in an early one. From beer in the afternoon, are attended with 5 in the morning to 7 in the evening gives much trouble, and considerable anxiety

12 hours of work, and 2 hours for meals,

in what is done giving satisfaction to the which is as long a day's work as reapers people. Complaints may be made that can endure for a harvest of 3 weeks, espe theporridge istoo thin, or that it has not cially in warm weather. been enough boiled ; that the milk is 4518. In order to keep proper disci skimmed or is sour ; that the bread is not well baked ; the beer not well pline among the reapers, not a person

brewed, and, perhaps, that the whole is ought to be permitted to leave a ridge dealt out in scanty measure .

The farmer without consent asked and obtained from

has little control over the baker and brewer ; but this rule should be followed in regard to thesetwo purveyors namely, the bread should be distributed to the

the person intrusted with the superin tendence ; and when the food arrives, there should be no cessation of work till the word of command is given by the

* Journal of Agriculture, October 1849, p. 153.

1

REAPING CORN CROPS.

345

superintendent, who should be guided by oats and barley, and 4d. the thrave for the watch—not disbanding the reapers till wheat. When they bind and stook what the hour of repast actually arrives, and they cut, they receive 3 d. for oats and

thrave. not allowing one minute to pass beyond barley, and 4d. for wheat per gather the hour of recommencing work. When In England, mowing costs 2s.6d., reapers find no advantage of their own ing 1s. 6d., binding and stooking 28., and time taken , they will be less tempted to raking 6d. an acre, in all 6s. 6d. ; but

take advantage of the time of their en- heavy or lodged crops will cost 98. an ployer; at any rate, they are then deprived acre . The prices are the same, whether of every excuse for so doing. the mowingis from or up to the standing corn . In that country corn is usually cut 4519. As the farm servants in Scotland by the piece, and wben standing, reaping

cannot attend to their own domestic affairs costs from 8s. to 108. ; when lodged, 10s. while attending to the harvest, all the to 128. an acre . The mowing of the members of their families receive food

stubble costs 28. an acre

more .

The

during the weeks the harvest is presumed prices paid for wheat and oats are the to last. same ; and barley, being seldom bound up and stooked , is mown for from 2s. to 2s. 4520. The lodging afforded to reapers 6d. an acre. In Scotland it is not un

is generallyamongst straw in the straw- usual to give a slump sum for the harvest, barn or outhouses. Those hired for the irrespective of the number of days it may harvest receive two pairs of blankets, one last , though three weeks are understood

pair of sheets, and a chaff bed and bolster to be the duration of harvest. When it

for every two ; and those hired for the ends before that period, it is conceived the week, one pair of blankets with plenty of harvesters have gained an advantage, and straw , the same allowance of bed -clothes so does the farmer, in the shortness of the

being given to thravers who cannot go harvest; and when it exceeds that time, to their own homes every night, and only also the reapers conceive they incur a loss, as does the farmer in a double sense--in

on Saturday night. It is not an uncom mon practice for stranger reapers, hired for the week, to purloin part of the bedclothes allowed them , and the only check to that species of depredation is the

the protracted barvest, which is never favourable to him, and inthe extra food given to the reapers. The slump sums are to the reaper £ 1 , 16s., the bandster

obligation to deliver up the clothes before £ 2, 5s., and the mowers £2, 14s., besides their earnings are paid to them . Much food. inconvenience is experienced in the stead 4523. Harvesting is very seldom under ing when a large number of reapers have to be accommodated at night, so that those taken by the acre in Scotland ; and, on the who can go home to their own houses are other hand, in England the practice is quite

preferred. Separate apartments ought to common, and piece-work is undertaken be fitted up for the women from the men. by men who work singly. The advantage to the mower or reaper is, that he may

4521. Reapers' blankets of English have his family with him ; and to the manufacture cost at present, 1850, 7s. 9d.

farmer, he can easily inspect the work

a-pair ; and coarser, of Scotch manufacture, done. These advantages are also attendant 6s. Strong twilled sheeting, fitted for the on the system of thraving. In England, use of reapers’ beds, costs 9d. a yard, yard four weeks are regarded as the “ barvest wide, which makes each sheet of 24 yards month .” long, 3s. 9d. 4524. Taking the price of bread and

4522. The money wages of the different classes of reapers are as follows:-Reapers with the sickle, men and women , receive 2s.,and bandsters 2s. 6d. a - day. Mowers with the scythe get 3s., bandsters 2s. 6d., and women gatherers 2s. a -day. Thravers receive 3d . the thrave of two stooks of

oatmeal as they are in 1850, and as they are likely to be from that time forward, at 1d. per lb. for oatmeal, and 14d. per lb. for white wheaten bread, the cost of the food of harvesters will be as follows: –10 loaves out of 1 peck of oatmeal, gives a weight to each loaf of 11.2 oz. of

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

346

Oatmeal.

oatmeal, and oatmeal at 1d. per lb. fixes the value of the loaf at 2.8 farthings. The

cost of baking with yeast being 1 farthing per lb. of oatmeal, including yeast and salt, the baking of one loaf of 11.2 oz. in creased with yeast, salt, and water to 14 oz. , will be 0.7 farthing. Each oatmeal loaf baked with yeast will thus cost 2.5

farthings = 24 farthings. Thus at 1 loaf to each harvester at breakfast , 1

Costs per day , Wages of 3 mowers at 3s. a - day ,

L.

S.

d.

0

4

2

09 0

3 gatherers , at 2s., 3 bandsters, at 24. 6d .,

1 raker, at 23. 6d .,

0

6

0

0 0

7 2

6 6

£1

92 8,

Thus 6 acres of oats cost per acre, 5 barley,

wheat,

d.

4 105

Loaf bread . L.

&

d.

0 63 09 0 0 6 0 0 7 6 0 2 6

£ 1 11 3 &

d.

5 29

5 10

6

7 34

7 98

3

With the wages reduced in the proportion

24 farthings

dinner,

2

::

::

supper ,

mentioned above, the cost would be re

5

Makingthedaily expense inbread at10 farthings = 2;d. To which add 2 quarts of beer to each bar . vester at breakfast and dinner , at id. per quart ,} 24d .

Making the daily cost for bread and beer of each 5d.

harvester ,

duced to the following sums per acre : For oats , barley,

wheat ,

8. d . 4 2 50 6 3

8,

4 5 6

d.

6 5 6

It should be observed that the prices of

With loaf bread at 11d. the loaf, the cost of each harvester with beer would be 7 £d. Oatmeal porridge and milk at breakfast and supper, the milk being a half quart each meal to every person,would reduce the

the articles of food mentioned in ( 4523) are estimated at the market value, which is beyond what it costs the farmer to raise them, and that being the case, the cost of harvest -work is here represented fully

price below that of bread and beer of any above the mark . kind ; but how much I do not know, as I have never observed it ascertained how 4527. I have repeatedly ascertained

much meal is consumed by each harvester that thraving never costs less than 12s. an acre, including the wages and food to in porridge . the bandsters. 4525. The food

of a band-win

of

reapers, of six reapers and one bandster,

4528. It will be observed, from the

at 5d. each for oatmeal, and 74 for loaf foregoing statements, that mowing is much bread , the cheapest mode of reaping corn, on Oatmeal. Loaf bread . which account it should be universally 8. d. S. d. adopted, as harvest expenses form a heavy

2 11

Costs per day,

Wages of 6 reapers at 2s.per ? 120 day, or 12s. per week, Wages of I bandster at 2s.6d. per day, or 15s. per week, Making the daily cost of a band-win,

}

12 0

item in the farmer's books, and every available means should be used to lessen

2

6

2 6

them. Any plan that would deprive the ordinary dwellers of a farm of work, I

17

5

18 10

would hesitate to recommend ; but when the farmer is obliged to go into the public

Taking 2 acres of wheat, barley, and oats overhead, as a fair extent of barvest-work, for a band-win, the expense of reaping at 17s. 5d. a -day is 8s. 8 d . an acre, and at 18s. 10fd. a - day, 9s. 5 d. an acre.

market of labour to procure assistance in cutting down his crop, he is justified in relying, if possible, on his own resources. It is scarcely practicable for him to do so,

On without throwing his horses idle for a

reaping the respective kinds of grain, long time ; and as uo economy is found in barleywould cost the sums stated, wheat such a course, the only alternative left a little more, and oats a little less. At him is to economise the cost of barvest

the reduced wages of 103. the week for labour. Now, the scythe is both an eco reapers, and 12s. 6d. for bandsters, the nomical and efficient implement, and cost would be 7s. 6d. and 8s. 27d. an acre whoever has used it has never relinquished for barley, and a little more for wheat, it. A prejudice at first existed against it, and a little less for oats. on account of a mown stook not looking so trim as a reaped one, and of the diffi

4526. In mowing, the food of 3 mowers, culty of building a neat stack with mown 3 gatherers, 3 bandsters, and one raker, sheaves. There is roughness in the appear 10 persons at 5d. and 74 each , -

ance of mown sheaves, but it is not at all

REAPING CORN CROPS.

317

detrimental to the corn, and would not especially when cut by thrave, the straws even seem unsightly, were mowers careful are straight and hard pressed, between to lay the swaths at right angles to their which the rain finds its way into the line of motion, as by b, fig. 402 ; were heart of the sheaves ; while the straws in

gatherers to lift the swaths with both hands the mown stooks, being somewhat bent meeting, as seen at c ; lay the armfuls even

and broken, and interlaced on the surface,

in the bands, as shown at d. Although form a texture which prevents the rain it is difficult for work -people to bestow penetrating, and rather serves to throw it

their utmost attention constantly on their off. Besides this property, mown sheaves work, yet practice makes proficiency in are more pervious to the air than reaped

this manner of harvesting, as I have found to be the case , after having em ployed the same hands at it for successive years.

ones .

4531. An advantage of another kind obtained in mowing corn, is the very short stubble left in the field, and the larger

4529. Besides economy, mowing en- quantity of straw carried to the stack ables the corn to be carried, after it has yard. The following statement may be been exposed in the air to win, in half depended on, as being the result of ex the usual time. Reaped oats must stand periment:

in the stook a fortnight ere they will Weight of straw per acre, when cut to keep in the stack ; mown oats, in similar

weather, may be carried in a week. Barley, when reaped, is not fit to lead in

2 inches of the ground, 8

Cwt. qr. Ib. 26 10 23 16

210 2 12 less than three weeks ; when mown, it may be stacked in safety in ten days. So that a half cwt. of straw is left per acre

Mown wheat will carry in three days.

with every inch of stubble.

When we

know that the value of straw is about 28s. 4530. It is an error to believe that a mown stook takes in rain ; on the con-

per ton. ( 15s. per load of 36 trusses,) we cannot but feel surprised at the barbarons

trary, I have frequently ascertained that mode of using the wheat-straw in some it takes in rain less than a reaped one. In places of England, by bagging, ( 4495,) in one remarkable instance, I remember a first reaping the ears of corn and then

field of potato -oats on being finished in cut mowing the straw . ting, that heavy rain fell the next day, and continued , without intermission, for three 4532. The proportion which the straw

days, the last of which was very windy, and grain bear to each other cannot be and when the wind changed from E. to stated with sufficient accuracy. I have W. it faired . About one-third of this received the following statement of their field bad been reaped with the sickle, and relative weights in the neighbourhood

the reason that implement was used in it of Edinburgh, from Mr Andrew Gib at all was to give a little harvest-work at son of the Dean Farm , whose superior

thraving to a few elderly men and women , farming is well known :-Froni a crop of cottars and binds' wives, who, having to

wheat, of 40 bushels to the acre, or of

attend to young children, could not under- 2600 lb., at 65 lb. per bushel, the straw take the regular work of a harvest- field .

will weigh 9 kemples of 440 lb. each, or

impressed with the common belief, that 3960 lb., affording just one-half more mown sheaves must take in rain, I went

weight of straw than of grain. From a

to the field after the rain had ceased, to crop of barley of 60 bushels, weighing ascertain the state of the stooks, never 56 lb. per bushel, or 3360 lb. per acre, the doubting they would be soaked, while the weight of straw is 7 kemples, or 3080 lb.,

reaped ones would be comparatively dry ; being one -tenth of less weight of straw but the fact was the very opposite, none than of grain, ( 1911. ) From a crop of of the mown sheaves being wetted to the

60 bushels of oats, at 45 lb. per busbel, or

heart, while the east side of the reaped ones were soaking to the bands. On consideration , I accounted for the difference in this way :-In reaped sheaves, and

2700 lb. per acre, the weight of straw is 8 kemples, or 3520 lb., being one-third more weight of straw than of grain. These are all average quantities. In ordinary

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

348

crops at a distance from towns, the pro portion is about double the weight of straw to the grain.

4535.

DRILLED

Weight of Weight of stub Plants in a straw and chaff ble and roots square yard . on an acre . on an acre .

4533. Mr M‘Lagan younger of Pum pherston, in Mid-Lothian, kindly made

32 53

some experiments for me on the relative

Ib.

18,150 37,510 14,520

7260 4235 6656

78

proportion of grain and straw , and the following are the results obtained in 1849. Of four experiments with oats dibbled,

Ib .

5445

94

14,520

140

5748

12,100

208

6050

17,244

the average weightof grain per acre ob- With the exception of the case of 53 tained, was 3479 lb., and of straw and to the square yard, which yielded chaff 7260 lb., or more than double the plants five times of stubble and roots to the

weight of straw to the grain. Of six ex straw and chaff, the differences in the

periments with oats drilled, the average relation of thestraw to the roots is not

weight ofthe grain was 2974lb. per acre, material,being 1 to 2 and 3. and that of the straw and chaff 5836 lb., being less than double the weight of straw to the grain. Of four experiments with oats sown broadcast, the grain weighed per acre 31764 lb., and the straw and chaff 6428 } lb., or rather more than double the weight of straw to the grain. Double

BROADCAST.

4536.

Weight of Weight of stub Plants in a straw and chaff ble and roots square yard . on an acre . on an acre .

19 52

the weight of straw to the grain may thus be regarded as near the truth, at a distance

lb.

Ib.

3932 6050

13,330 20,570

from large towns, while in their imme- Here the difference between the straw

diate neighbourhood the grain bears a and roots is agaiu about 1 to 2 and 3. Professor Johnston mentions that, ac larger proportion to the straw . cording to the experiments made by

4534. Connected with the proportions Hlubek in the agricultural garden at Lay of the different parts of the same crop, is bach, the sheeps-fescue and perennialrye the relation which the stubble and roots grass left of roots in the soil three times

left in the ground bears to the straw and the weight of the hay produced in the same grain carried off it.

Mr M‘Lagan's ex- year ; and in old pasture the roots are four

periments enable me to state this rela- times as heavy as the bay yielded by it.

tion in reference to oats sown broadcast, Even after the roots hadbeen thoroughly drilled, and dibbled ; and the results, which dried , they weighed half as heavy again * T'he results of the foregoing might have been expected to be various, as the crop .* are surprising and anomalous. Thus , tables indicate that the roots are from 2 to 3 times heavier than the straw of the

DIBBLED .

Plants in a

square yard.

Weight of Weight ofstub straw and chaff ble and roots

oat, with some surprising exceptions. 4537. These same data afford us the

on an acre .

on an acre .

Ib.

lb.

average gross weight of the produce of the

49

6050 8470

19,360 27,830

entire oat crop from the comparatively

75 120

4840 9680

29,040

sinall weight of the whole of the seed

10,588

sown . Thus :

26

Grain,

Here extraordinary differences may be perceived between the case where 75

plants grew upon the square yard, the stubble and roots weighed six times the weight of the straw and chaff ; and that where 120 plants grew in a similar space,

Dibbled .

Straw and chaff,

3479

7260

Stubble and roots, 21,704 ton . cwt. Ib.

32,443 = 14 Grain , Drilled .

Strawand chaff,

9 75

2974

5836

Stubble and roots, 19,007 the straw and chaff, and the stubble and roots, were nearly equal in weight. 27,817 = 12 * Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d Edit., p. 746.

8 41

REAPING CORN CROPS. Broadcast.

Grain, Straw and chaff,

3176 6428 ton . cwt. Ib .

Stubble and roots, 11,450

349

The largest return, 16 quarters an acre, specified in these tables, is when 120

9 7 110 plants occupied the square yard from dib

21,054

bled seed ; and the smallest return , 6}

It thus appears that dibbling raised the quarters an acre, is also recorded with largest weight of crop from the smallest dibbled seed when 75 plants occupied the weight of seed, and broadcast the smallest square yard — which last result is equalled weight of crop from the largest weight of from 19 plants occupying the square yard from seed sown broadcast : the 19 plants thus yielding four times in fold that the

seed, in about the proportion of 14 to 9.

4538. These results were obtained by 75 did, as may be observed in comparing weighing the stubble and roots as they the columns of the increase in fold in cases were takeu out of the ground and only both the

.

We cannot explain

deprived of their earth. M. Boussingault whence such discrepancies arise. The re made experiments of a similar character on turns in general, exhibited in the tables, the stubble and roots of wheat, oats, and aregreater than what is commonly received, clover of crop 1839, dried in the sun and air, as one might expect would be the case,

where experiments are conducted with weights per acre were as follows andtheir 54 cwt. Wheat stubble and roots, more care than ordinary culture, and all 8 Oat,

the produce is carefully preserved ;

154

Clover,

whereas much waste is occasioned from

4539. In prosecuting the experiments an ordinary crop passing from one hand instituted byhim to an end, Mr M‘Lagan and process to another, before the ultimate

obtained the results desiderated in (3532,) result is ascertained. Such comparisons, which were the amount of produce in grain, however, should inculcate carefulness in and that was as follows in oats :

all the operations connected with the field culture of every crop .

DIBBLED .

Number of In bushels crease

Plants Number of in a square grains raised in

yard .

a square yard .

26

7,500

49

11,700 5,400

Weight of grain on an of 40 lb. acre .

in fold .

per acre .

that “ there is one thing that

Ib .

75 120

2724 3859 2118 5294

4540. in a square yard .

68 96

the great preponderance of pickles reaped

In

when only 2 pickles were put into the hole, compared to the result when 3 were put in. One pickle in a hole gave a much better yield than three. Might

132

Number of

Number of Weight of bushels of grains raised in grain on an 40 lb. per acre . a square yard .

crense

in fold .

acre . lb.

32

7,500 7,900 5,600

78 94 140 208

3025 3632 2420 3025 2875

6,900

234 150 72 73

91 60

75 71

71

4541 .

BROADCAST.

Plants in & square

Number of

grains raised in grain on ar a square yard .

19

5,100 8,000

acre .

In crease

40 lb. per in fold . acre .

52 68

87

8,700

3113 3632 3632

bling is to be much practised, it will be better to make more holes, and put fewer seeds into each hole ? There is some con firmation of this from the results obtained

from broadcast, where there is a gradual increase of produce according to the quan

4543. “ The rest of the field ,” con tinues Mr M‘Lagan, “ not experimented on, was sown the same day as the parts on

Ib .

2117

we not argue from this, that, if dib

ground.

Weight of Number of bushels of

yard .

me as curious and interesting - namely,

tity sown - owing, I suppose, to the seeds being more equally distributed over the

: :

2875

75

strikes

288 240 72

DRILLED

Plants

4542. As regards these results, Mr M'Lagan truly remarks that they “ are most capricious ;" and judiciously observes

53 78 91 91

270

which the above observations were made

154

at the rate of 41 bushels to the acre .

128

was in full ear on the 9th and 11th July, and was reaped on the 8th of September.

Boussingault's Rural Economy, p. 486-7 - Law's translation .

It

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

350

Drilled in one square yard.

I also sowed some at the rate of 23 and 3 } bushels to the acre . It was also a

Seeds

good crop, and was nearly as soon ready for reaping as the rest of the field . Í made several observations about the time the corn came into ear, and found that it came into ear according to the thickness

of sowing, the thickest sown being first in ear, and the drilled portion being always

sown .

Average,

but I wasobliged to cut them before they Average ,

were cut on the same day they were not equally ripe, the thinnest sown always

798

578 854 1132

446 - 2:09 334 - 1.41

480

448

855

406 -1.90

439 - 4.15

POTATO OATS.

144 432 864

135 407 823

603 821 915

468 = 4.46 times . 414 = 2:01 92 - 1.11

480

455

780

345 - 1.71

Drilled in one square yard.

being greenest."

4544. In continuation of the experi ments recorded of Mr Hay of Whiterigg,

403

Dibbled in one square yard.

had strong straws and magnificent heads, Although several parcels

139

Increase of stalks by tillering .

144 432 864

4547.

the most forward . The thinnest sown

were ripe.

Seeds Stalks brairded . cut .

Average ,

144 432 864

137 407 795

540 711 798

403 = 3.94 304 - 1.74 3 = 1.00

480

446

683

237 - 1.53

in (3533 ) and ( 3534,) he obtained the

following results in yield of straw from 4548. These figures instruct us that, dibbled and drilled grain respectively. where the seed is sown thin , the disposi Thus, from tion of the plant to tiller increases ; which shows that the soil endeavours to support a WHEAT

Dibbled in one square yard . Seeds SOwn .

144 432 864 480

336

Average,

Seeds Stalks brairded . cut . 97 330 439 296 616 614 336

Increase of stalks by tillering 3.40 233 143 1.48 none .

188

461

1.37

Drilled in one square yard. 144 432 864

Average ,

480

105 327 652 361

343 507 680

3.26 238 180 = 1.55 29 = 1.04 149

510

1.41

times.

definite proportion of plants, according to its ability as regards its state of fertility. We see that, where the seed is supplied so scantily as 144 to the square yard, or 696.960 to the acre , which is about 1

bushel to the acre, ( 1856,) that the tiller ing in the wheat plant takes place to the extent of about 3}times the plants brairded from the seed ; in the barley plant from 3} to 8 times ; and in the oat plant about

44 times. At 2 bushels of seed to the acre, the tillering of wheat is 1 } time

more than the plants brairded ; of barley from 2 to 3 times ; and of oats about 2 times.

BARLEY.

4545.

Dibbled in one square yard .

Average ,

144 432 864

95 335 687

668 1002

480

372

666

235 - 3:47 333 = 1.99 315 = 144

330

294

Average,

86 318 747

680 934 1225

480

384

946

about 1d more than the plants brairded ; and oats about 14 more than the braird. The average tillering in all the instances

1.79

of wheat is about 14 to the braird ; of barley about twice the braird ; and of oats about in time more than the braird. If

594 - 7.90 616 = 2.93 478 - 1.64

any conclusion can be drawn from the

Drilled in one square yard. 144 432 864

With 3 bushels of seed to the

acre, wheat tillers scarcely at all ; barley

503

2.46

foregoing statements, it appears to be

this, – that as thick sowing brings the crop sooner to maturity, it is best adapted for a cold, late season ; and as thin sow

HOPETOUN OATS.

4546 .

Average ,

ing retards the ripening of the crop, it is

Dibbled in one square yard.

best suited to a fine season .

144 432 864

ter of the season must be taken as that

480

129 403 800

588 806 1092 829

459 – 4.55 403 = 2.00

The charac

292 mm 1.36

presented at the time of sowing, and the

1.86

judicious farmer will proportion the quan

385

tity of seed to be sown accordingly.

The

REAPING CORN CROPS.

351

yield of grain in the above experiments then of 53 lb .; and oats now of 43 lb. the were not ascertained, as both the wind and bushel as it was then of 40 lb.

birds had destroyed a large number of the heads, and in consequence rendered the results uncertain .

4555. These results have been realised

in the course of years, not so much from the superior as from the inferior classes of

4549. On the 28th of September 1849, soils. The latter have increased more in Mr Hay manured an undrained cold clay fertility in that time than the former, and field with 24 tons per acre of farmyard they became so entirely from ordinary

manure, and dibbled in on one part of it good farming, and before the introduction four tenths of a bushel of Hunter's Impe- of the special manures.

rial Hopetoun wheat per acre upon ribs, at 4 seeds to the hole, at a cost of 58. 7 d.

4556. Farmers neglectful of weeding per acre ; and on another part of the same their corn give reapers much uneasiness,

field, treated in the samemanner, hesowed and waste much time, while getting rid on the same day, broadcast, 1 bushel 5 } of large weeds, someof which often injure tenths of the same seed, at a cost of £ 1, the hands of both reapers and gatherers 1s. 61d. per acre. On the 6th of June very seriously. Of these the corn dead

1850, the dibbled wheat measured 3 feet nettle, Galeopsis tetrahit, is dangerous, afforded from 14 to 21 thick strong stalks hands ; as also the biennial spear-thistle, 8 inches in height including the roots, and causing swellings, heat, and pain in the

from each hole. The broadcast measured Cnicus lanceolatus, the spines of which 3 feet 4 inches of height, including the breaking in the flesh, inflict acute pain roots ; the stalks were smaller ; and 21 when touched, and are exceedingly trouble of them weighed one eighth of an ounce some to extract. The only safeguard less than the same number of the dibbled against such accidents is the wearing of from one hole. On the 15th of June, both gloves made of sheep -skin, called shearers' lots of wheat were in the ear. gloves, which only cost 1s. the pair ; but 4550. A crop of wheat varies by soil,

it is more pleasant for the work-people when the corn is so free of weeds as to dis

situation, and season, from 20 to 56 pense with gloves. from the same causes from 59 lb. to 68 lb. 4557. It is in reaping a field , as in the bushel, ( 1856.) ploughing it, that short ridges waste much time in passing from one end of them to 4551. Barley varies in produce by the the other ; and frequently much time is same circumstances, from 36 to 60 bushels also lost in going from one field to another. an acre ; and its weight from 50 lb. to 59 It tends to economise time, when an lb. the bushel, ( 1911.) acre or so of a field happens to be left bushels an acre ; and the weight varies

uncut, after all the band- wins have com

4552. The yield of oats varies in pleted their stented quantities, to takethe similar circumstances even more than troop of reapers at once to another field wheat or barley, from 30 to 90 bushels than remain in the one they are in to

an acre; and its weight from 38 lb. to 48 finish the small portion left, which can be cut up by the part of the hinds' families Ib. the bushel, ( 1930.) who cannot undertake regular harvest

4553. It is as easy now , 1850, to raise work. Should such a portion be left at the 32 bushels of wheat on an acre , as it was end ofa day's work, it is most economical

30 years ago to raise 24 bushels; to raise to work a little longer and faster to com 54 bushels of barley as it was to raise 42 plete the field before leaving it for the bushels; and to raise 60 bushels of oats evening; but if found impossible to com plete it, the reapers should not return to it in the morning, but proceed to a new 4554. In like manner, it is as easy to field, and leave the remnant to be reaped

as it was to raise 48 bushels.

raise now, wheat of the weight of 65 lb. by the odd bands I have mentioned. the bushel, as it was then to raise it at 63

lb.; barley now of 56 lb. the bushel as it was

4558. Harvest generally commences

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

352

with the reaping of the winter wheat, allowed to becomeripe ; when we consider that which may be expected to be effected by by cutting this sooner we should produce an

the end of Julyin England, and themid- increase of 154per cent of flour, and realise an increased value of 7s. 6d . upon every quarter dle of August in Scotland. During my produced ; and that we should produce food for recollection the harvest commences earlier

1,362,857 persons over and above what we now

of L.512,491, produce,andanextraannual begin- and than itwasthe the period. in Scotland did, when would this increase when we consider that income usual ning of September Beans are never ready for the sickleuntil be so muchaddedto the wealth of the country, that it is equal to the proceeds, at three per cent, of an estate worth L.17,083,033 ; and that

all the cereal grains bave been reaped. 4559. That one period of their age is better than another for reaping grain crops has been

proved by careful experiments,made by Mr John Hannam, North Deighton, Yorkshire. Without entering into their details, I give only their results. Of wheat reaped at various ages, the

the increase of our population demands an in creased supply of food, I would ask , what is our duty in this case ? ” *

4563. Upon one occasion I cut down a few stooks of potato -oats when quite green , though

following were the advantages and disadvantages

full in the ear, to allow carts to pass to a place destined for the site of a hay -stack, and after

derived :

standing till the rest of the field was brought

No. 1, reaped quite green on 12th August,and stacked

in, they were thrashed with the flail by them selves, and the sample produced was the most

26th August, gave a return of L.ll, 17s. per acre. No. 2, reaped green on 19th August, and stacked 31st August, returned L.13, 6s. No. 3, reaped raw on 26th August,and stacked 5th September, returned L.14 , 18s.

No. 4, reaped not quite so raw on 30th August, and stacked '9th September, returned L.14, 178. 4d.

No. 5, reaped ripe on 9th September, and stacked

16th September, returned L.13, lls. Bd. per acre . Hence, A loss of £ 1 14 8 per acre on No. 1 compared with No. 5. 0

A gain of 1 1

3

5 6 5 1

8 4 8 0

No. 2 No. 3 No. 4

No. No. No. No.

No. 3

5. 5. 5. 1.

4560. Wheat reaped a fortnight before it is ripe gives an advantage namely :

on

beautifully silvery grain I ever saw ; but not having made the experiment with any view to improving the crop , I pursued the investigation

no farther, and cannot say what effect would have been produced upon the quality and quan tity of the meal.

4564. There are various ways of stooking or shocking corn besides those represented in figs. 395 and 396. In Ireland, a safe plan against wind and rain is practised in clustering the standing sheaves with their tops close together; and after placing two hood-sheaves almost in a perpendicular position, with the stubble end uppermost, these are lashed together by a wisp

from one hood being passed under the band of the

every point, other. Stooks are also set, with the standing

In weight of gross produce, of

sheaves in the form of a cross , across an open 134 per cent.

equal number of grains, nearly In quality and value, above In weight of straw , above .

furrow or sheugh, and covered with four hoods meeting with their but-ends in the middle .

equal measures, nearly 23

Other advantages are, straw of better quality, a

4565. In Germany the rye is stooked in a sub stantial and elegant form . The sheaves are all

made as large as a man can only carry one. In

better chance of securing the crop, and a saving forming the stook, one sheaf is set up having in securing it.

two bands, and around it in a circle, a little asunder, are placed eight sheaves with their

4561. On the other hand, wheat, reaped a

heads meeting together, and one large sheaf acts

month before it is ripe, gives an advantage of twenty-two per cent in weight of straw com

as a hood to the others. The hood sheaf is pre pared in this way :-It is placed on its but- end upon the ground, and the straw is broken down at the band from the outside of the sheaf to the centre, and arranged in a circular form , after which the sheaf is lifted by two men , who place the circularly spread out straws as a thatching

pared with the ripe, but suffers disadvantage in every other point, namely : In weight of gross produce , 11 , ' per cent. equal measures, above equal number of grains, above 13% In quality and quantity , above

4562. Some of these may seem trivial advantages and disadvantages when confined to the area of a single acre ; but when computed on the extent of ground under wheat culture in the kingdom, the results are striking, as exemplified by MrHannam , — “ When we consider that there are in England and Scotland about 4,000,000 acres

over the heads of the standing sheaves, with its but-end projecting upwards. The straws are then neatly trimmed around the stook, making them cover every sheaf equally, and reaching nearly to the bands of the standing sheaves. Sucha stook will ward off any quantity of rain, and resist any force of wind . In eight days the rye is ready to be carried, but it lies broad - band

of wheat grown annually, producing 12,000,000 upon the ground several days before being thus quarters of grain , of which three -fourths are

bound into sheaves and stooked .

* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xii. p. 22—37 ; and vol. xiii. p. 170-87.

REAPING CORN CROPS.

353

4566. An effectual way of keeping sheaves Carmylie, in Forfarshire, in 1827 or 1828. It dry and exposing them to the air is practised in Sweden, by Fig. 404 . thrusting the end ofa small pole six or

clips the straw by a series of scissors, and places the cut straw upon an endless web, which deposits it on the right or left hand in a continu ous swath. It also requires horse power and a man to manage .

feet

seven

long, a, fig.

404 , into the ground ; and after impaling one sheaf b upon the stake, with

4570. The next machine, as to its time of exhibition , in 1832, was that of Mr Joseph Mann , Raby, near Wigton, Cumberland . The cutter is a disc of a regular polygon of twelve sides, and the gatherer a revolving drum with rakes, from theteeth of which a comb strips the straw , which then drops at one point of the machine in

but-end

a continuous swath . It requires horse power ,

standing on

and a man to guide. 4571. The country where the reaping machine

its

the ground , others c o are

spitted upon the stake at bands, the

is most in use is in the western counties of the United States of America . There the large

to

fields of wheat, in the prairies, are obliged to be reaped with machines , manual labour being too

above

scarce, andin consequence too dear to secure the

each other,

harvest. The greatest varieties in the form of this machine may therefore be observed , and are in use, in that country.

parallel and

till the stake

is filled — the sheaves

in

clining with

4572. No doubt exists but that the reaping

their heads downwards ,

machine can cut down a grain crop at a cheaper rate per acre than any implement used by the to throw off hand of man ; but, beyond the mere cutting, the the rain . gathering, binding, and stooking will still have This plan has to be accomplished by labourers. Even includ been tried in

proved that corn may be cutdown by it for 3s, the acre .

well Irvine

chase — not less, perhaps, than L.30 — and more than one will be required on a large farm ; yet their original cost may be redeemed, by economy in

of

King-

causie, THE SWEDISH STOOK .

ing the binding and stooking, Bell's machine has

this country by Mr Bog in Kincardine-

Such a machine is expensive to pur

time and labour, in the course of a few years .

shire, with success ; and I should conceive, in fields surrounded with woods, and where larch

4573. As to the extension of the use of the

weedings are abundant, the plan an excellent

scythe, Mr Taylor is justified in believing that

one for winning the corn well and fast.

“ the practice of mowing grain is slowly gaining

4567. To instance an opposite extreme, the

barley in the south of England is never stooked at all, but left on the ground as mown in

ground, and will in all probability continue to do so until it be universally adopted. In the north -eastern districts of Scotland, the scythe has been in general use for upwards of twenty years ;

swaths to win, and carted home to a large barn

and numerous are the individuals of my acquain

like hay- a more slovenly and objectionable mode cannot be imagined, of treating so delicate

tance who have had twenty harvests reaped by the sickle before the scythe was introduced, and

a grain for colour, and one so easy to germinate who are now as clearly convinced that mowing as barley.

is an improvement in reaping, as the wooden two-horse was an improvement on the twelve

4568. I shall not say much on reaping machines, oxen plough of their fathers.” as none have yet been generally used in this country . The first one was presented to public 4574. A curious statement was made at the notice by thelate Mr Smith of Deanston in 1814 or council meeting, in March 1850, of the English

1815, and afterwards exhibited in an improved Agricultural Society, by Mr Dyer, to the intent form in 1837.* This machine cuts the grain by a circular disc, and gathers it in a continuous swath on the left hand with a revolving drum. It requires horse power, and a manto manage the horse and machine. 4569. The next one was produced by the Rev.

that, for the last ten years, he had observed that a remarkable correspondence existed in his crops between the number of grains of wheat in the ear, and the number of bushels of wheat on

the acre. Thus, in his crops the average num ber of grains in the ear had been twenty -eight, while the bushels per acre produced had also

Patrick Bell, present minister of the parish of been twenty-eight. He did not mean to express * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. x. p. xi. Preliminary Notice. Z VOL . 11.

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

854

his beliefthat thiscurious was a generallaw, but merely broadcast, (3981 ,) are only reaped with referredto circumstance occurring sickle instrument used it as a

within his own observation. At the first consi

deration ofthis remarkablestatement, general

the ; and the is in is, that case each in manner same the the stems areheld steady by the lefthand

experience would seem to support it ; for it is

knownthat a thick crop produces small ears, being pressed palmwards against them, and a thin one large ears, and that the numbers and, almost coming under the arm , are of the former make up for the size of the latter.

cut with the point of the sickle by the

Thus a thick crop might have forty ears on a givenextent of ground,which, at thirty grains right hand, thereaper stepping backwards to the ear, would yield as much produce as a asthe work proceeds. Thus, as each stem thin crop of thirty ears, on the same extent of requires to be cut separately, the reaping ground, with forty grains in ear. But, But, as as does not proceed very quickly when the in each each ear. Mr Baruch Almack observed, if the ear alone crop happens to be strong. as the criterionof the crop,oneof weretaken these crops would have ten bushels more of

wheat upon it than the other, which would be

4579. When the haulm is short and

estimate, since both contained 1200 small, it is not unfrequently pulled up by anerroneous grains. The correct mode, therefore, he con- the roots ; but as the barn is thereby made ceived, would be to count the average number of grains in the ear, and the number of ears in a very filthy with dust, pulling should never given space. Mr Dyerhadremarked that he be practised. sowed three bushels to the acre, consequently, in

Mr Almack's opinion, two remarkable facts were

4580. The scythe might be used in

finds asmany reaping beans, but the operation is so generally proved. First,That as heare grains in an average harsh to the arms that no reaper likes it; bushels per acreas there usually

has about as many ear, it follows that he wheat ears per acre as there are grains in à and, besides, the stems are difficult to be bushel of wheat. Second, That as he only collected aright by the gatherer. obtains as many ears of wheat per acre as there are grains of wheat in a bushel, and as he sows

4581. When beans are sown by them

three bushels on the acre, it follows that he sows threegrains ofwheat for each ear thathe selves , straw -ropes are laid down on the obtains. Hence it would seem that the rule ground for bands: when pease are sown with would only hold good where the number of ears them, their haulm makes excellent bands. per acre are the same, or nearly so . 4575. In reference to the portion of the crop left in the soil after harvest, M. Boussingault

observes, that“ allthe world acknowledges that the residue of the crops that enter intoa rota-

tion compensate, in greater or less degree, for what is carried away in the shape of harvest,and that in some cases they even add to the fertility of the soil, for in growing crops that leave a large

4582. The stems, cut as directed, are then laid evenly upon the band, whether of straw -rope or of pea -baulm ; and the size of the sheaf very much depends on the length of the stems. Short stems will notbind together in a thick sheaf, nor will a thin sheaf of long stems stand well up

quantity ofresidue, itis precisely asif asmaller right upon the ground. quantity were taken from a given extent of sur. face ." *

4583. The bandster follows the reapers, and binds the sheaves in the manner he

ON REAPING BEANS, AND PEASE , AND TARES WHEN GROWN FOR SEED.

binds those of the cereal grains, and sets up the stooks in regular order in rows, composed of four or more sheaves, each pair set together on end. A bean -stook is

4576. The leguminous crops, having never attempted to be hooded. It is of either stiff or trailing stems,are reaped in a importance to keep bean sheaves always somewhat different manner from the cereal.

on end, as they then resist most rain ; for if allowed to remain on their side, after

4577. Whenever the stems and pods of being blown over by the wind, the least beans become black, the crop is ready to rain soaks them , and the succeeding be reaped. drought causes the pods to burst and spill the beans upon the ground. 4578. Beans, whether sown in drills,

( 3979,) or in rows on the flat, (3980,) or

4584. Whenever the straw and pods of

.

Boussingault's Rural Economy, p. 478 —- Law's translation.

STACKING CORN .

355

pease become brown they are fit for reap- field, before it will keep in the large

ing ; and in seasons when the straw grows quantity composing a stack or in a barn. very luxuriant, it is cut down whilst it That time dependsmostly on the state of retains much of its greenness.

the weather ; for if the air is dry, sharp,

4585. None but the sickle can be used in reaping pease, as the trailing stems of the plant would inevitably entangle themselves around the head of the scythe. The reaper pulls straight the lying stems with the left hand, while the point of the sickle is used by the right to sever the plants from the ground — the reaper stepping backwards — most of the plants coming up by the root.

and windy, the corn will be ready in the shortest time ; while in close, misty, damp air it will require the longest time ; and it depends partly on the state of ripeness or condition of the corn when reaped. On an average, one week for wheat, and two

weeks forbarley and oats, will suffice to win them. In this respect mowing manifests a decided superiority over reaping, inas much as mown wheat is ready for the stack in three to five days, and barley and oats in eight or ten — the chief cause of the

4586. Pease are not bound at first, but difference being the loose and open state laid on the ground in separate bundles, in which mowing places the straw , while where, after winning for some time accord- the straw reaped by the sickle is much ing to the state of the weather, the bun- compressed inthe lower part of the sheaf dles are rolled into an oblong form , and which most requires exposure. The

made firm by a wisp of itsown straw celerity of winning is an important matter acting as a binder round the middle. The in effecting the safety of the crop, as may bundles may be set together in pairs to be observed from an instance adduced by form a sort of stook, or left singly over Mr John Taylor in the barvest of 1841 . the surface of the field . Pea bundles are “ On the 28-9th of September , I had 30 bound by women as well as men. acres of oats carted and stacked, which

had been cut by the scythe the preceding

4587. Tares are most easily and quickly reaped by mowing with the scythe. They are separated in bundles after the mowers, by the gatherers, and placed asunder onthe ground to win, and after-

week. On the evening of the 29th it began to rain, and continued very rainy for twelve days, during which harvesting was at a stand-still; and had the produce of those 30 acres been reaped by the

wards bound in a similar manner to the pea . sickle, it would unquestionablyhave been exposed to those twelve days' rain , and

4588. Such is the diversity in the luxu- thereby much deteriorated." * I have riance of the crop of beans in different myself observed many similar instances. seasons, that the cost of reaping them varies from 4s. to 78. an acre. Pease cost

38. 6d. an acre .

Tares cost 28. 6d. an acre .

4591. Mere dryness to the feel does not constitute all the qualities requisite for

making new cut corn keep in the stack . 4589. In some seasons, such as dry and The natural sap of the plant must not only warm ones, pease and tares may be as be evaporated fromits outside, but also early barvested as the cereal grains ; but from its interior. The outside may feel beans are always late, and sometimes not quite dry, whilst the interior may be harvested until three weeks after all the redolent of sap ; and the knowledge of its other crops have been housed . ON

THE

CARRYING

AND

STACKING

OF

condition constitutes the whole difficulty of judging whether or not corn will keep in the stack . One criterion exists by which it may be ascertained with cer

WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, BEANS, AND tainty, in the straws being loose in the PEASE .

sheaf, and easily yielding to the pressure of the fingers, and in the entire sheaf

4590. It is necessary that reaped corn feeling light when lifted off the ground, remain for some time in the stook in the by the hand thrust into its middle, * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1844, p. 261.

366

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

beyond the band : for if the sheaf is dry wheels, and the axles greased ; and the and light in the heart, it must be so on the ropes should be attached to the carts. The

outside. In the winning, the sap of the straw of the cereal grains is no doubt converted into woody fibre,asthatof the grasses is on being converted into hay, (4073.)

forks fit for pitching the corn in the field , and from the carts to the stacks, should

be ready for use in the field and in the stackyard. Negligence and want of fore sight in all these particulars indicate im

4592. The winning of corn is compara- provident management in the farmer. tively an easy matter when the weather 4594. The tops or frames for placing on is dry ; but in windy and showery weather, the stooks are apt to be blown the tilt-carts, fig. 175, are a light rectan

the gular piece of frame-work represented down and become wet, andatincur the first in fig. 405, where a, b are the two main trouble of setting up again recurrence of calm . When the air is calm , bearers, fitted to lie across the shelve dull, damp, and warm , every species of ments of the cart. The foremost one a

grain is apt to sprout in the stook before it is ready for the stack. When much rain falls, accompanied with cold, the grain becomes sooner ready than the straw for the stack ; and, to win the straw , the bands are not unfrequently obliged to be

is slightly notched at a and b, fig. 406 ; and the hind one rests against the back board of the cart, its top sides e, fig. 175, being first taken off. A pair of slight side-rails c and c, fig. 405, are ap Fig. 405.

loosened , and the sheaf spread out to dry in the wind and sun ; and, in like man ner, the sheaf should be spread out in

d

dry weather, when a large proportion of young grass is mixed amongst barley straw . Corn wins in no way so quickly

b

as in gaitins, fig 403. 4593. While the first reaped corn is

winning in the field , the stackyard should be put in order to receive the new crop,

by removing everything that ought not to be in it, such as old decayed straw , which should have been used in time for

litter : weeds, which in many instances

a

are allowed to grow , and shed their seeds, and accumulate to a shameful degree during summer, such as strong burdocks, thick common docks, tall nettles, and rank grass ofevery kind : and the larger

e

classes of implements too are there accom modated, to be afterwards dispersed and exposed to the weather, for want of sheds to keep them in. Where stathels, fig. 132, are used they should be put in repair. Loose clean straw should be built in a small stack on one of the stathels, or other place, to be ready to make the bottomings of stacks as wanted. Drawn

plied on each side, crossing the bearers, and notched upon and bolted to them with screw -bolts. These are again crossed by two rails d behind, and by three more e, e in front; and as these last project over the back of the horse, they are made in arch form as seen by c d c, fig. 406, to give

straw should be ready in a stack for thatch

Fig. 406 .

ing the stacks of barley as they are built, in case of wet weather occurring. Straw ropes should be piled up in the bay- house, ready to be used in thatching. The tops or frames should be put on the tilt

THE CORN AND HAY FRAME.

d a

o

f TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE FRAME.

carts; the corn carts should be put on their freedom to his motions.

The extreme

STACKING CORN .

length, from outside to outside of the front and back rails, is usually about 104 feet, aud the breadth in the same manner is about 7£ feet, affording a superficial area for the support of the sheaves of corn of

357

4595. But the common corn or bay cart is a more convenient and efficient vehicle for carryingthegrain crops into the stack yard than the tilt-cart with the frame, in asmuch as the load is more on a level with

76 square feet. A simple and effective the horse draught, and, the body being method of securing the frame to the cart dormant, the load is not liable to shake with

is by means of the bolts, ff, figs. 405 and the motion of the horse. Fig. 407 is a 406, in the bearers, the front ones passing perspective view of such a cart. Light through the head-rail of the front of the ness being an object in its construction,

cart, andthe hind one through the top -rail the shafts a a are usually made of Baltic of the tail-board .

fir, and are about 17 feet in length, of Fig. 407.

UTEN

6

a

THE CORN AND HAY CART.

which 64feet go for the horse yoke and the body being set upon those belonging 104 feet for the body, measuring over the to the tilt-carts. The load -rail, 9 inches cross-heads 6 b. These are secured to the broad, is convenient to sit upon in driving,

shafts by the iron standards passing and to stand upon when forking the through them and the shafts. Their sides are supported by oak standards c c ; and these in their turn , along with the iron standards, support the inner top rails d d, dd, 12 feet in length, and the load -tree or rail e. The outer rails ffff, also 12 feet

sheaves in unloading. This cart is easily converted into a dray -cart by simply removing the framework, which should then have the standards c c based upon two longitudinal rails, instead of being mortised into the shafts. In such a form it

long, are supported by iron standards is eminently useful in carrying large tim resting on the extremities of the cross ber. It weighs 8 cwt. heads6 b, and also by those of the broad load - rail é. The extreme breadth of the 4596. A corn and hay cart, simple in outer rails is 7 feet, and as the outer rails construction, but possessing complete effi support thesheaves of corn over the wheels, ciency, and greater safety from upsetting

and are 12 feet in length, it will be seen than the former, was contrived by a farm that the superficial area of the cart for the servant, Robert Robertson, andwas intro

load is 84 square feet, which is greater duced in 1832 in the west of Fifeshire, than that of the top -frame of fig. 405. and of which fig. 408 is a view in perspec

The two front cross-rails f f over the tive, with its wheels and axle in full horse's rump are arched, to give him free- working order. The shafts and body dom of motion.

The body is nsually frame of this cart may be considered as

close -floored, besides having a low ledge- identical with the one just described, board running inside the standards co which, without the upper works, is the

to keep in the corn that may have simple dray -cart. Upon this body- frame Corn carts are is placed the fore and back cross -heads a not furnished with wheels of their own, a and b, projecting beyond the body, their

shaken out of the sheaves.

358

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

extreme length being 7 feet. The other these are laid a longitudinal rail on each and lighter cross-rails are applied one before side, and two similar portions of longitu and another immediately bebind the wheels, dinal rails are also laid on each side, and the whole bolted to the shafts.

Upon extending from the fore and back cross Fig . 408,

ROBERTSON'S IMPROVED CORN AND HAY CART.

head to the wheel-rails ; over these longi- ing. There is also the advantage of its tudinal rails is laid another light cross- easy conversion into an open dray-cart, for

rail behind, and the parts all secured with carrying timber or the like, by removing

bolts. A light frame dd is raised upon the upper framework . It weighs 7 cwt. the fore cross -head a a to a height of two

4598. The forks already described in and these surmounted by an arched rail, (1420) are only fitted to be used among which issupported against the pressure of loose straw. Those used in the loading of the load bytwo iron stays fromthe shafts. corn require to have long shafts, not less The outer longitudinal rails, being cut by than six feet, and small prongs. Such a

feet, with two iron stanchion rods at each ,

the wheels as above described , are con- length of shaft is required to lift the sheaf nected again by the arched iron bars e and from the ground to the top of a loaded e, which are bolted at the ends to their cart, or from the load -rail of the cart to respective rails; and these are connected the top of a stack. The fork used in the

by the broad load -railf, the arches rising field should have a strong stiff shaft, as sufficiently high to allow the wheels to the load on the cart is at no great eleva have freedom to turn below the load -rail f. tion. That for unloading the cart to the A side-board g is also raised on each side stack should be slender and elastic, as

upon the body-frame,and under the load- many of the sheaves have to be thrown a rail, extending a little before and behind the wheels, thus preventing the sheaves from coming in contact with the wheels. The body -frame is floored over in the usual

considerable height above the head. The prongs, being small,just retain hold of the sheaf, without being so deeply pierced into the band as to be withdrawn from it with

manner,and the space between the body difficulty. A deep and firm hold with long and the inner longitudinal rails isfilled up prongs renders the pitching ofa sheaf a with narrow hinged flap -boards, which pre- difficult matter ; and if one of the prongs vent the loss of the grain that may have happens to be bent, or a little turned up at been shaken out of the sheaves into the cart. the point,the difficulty is much increased . The best fork for the person on the top of 4597. Carts of this construction possess the stack to use, in assisting the builder,

several advantages : from their simplicity is the short stable-fork, of the form , but is derived cheapness; and from the load of shorter prongs than fig. 110. assuming its full breadth over nearly the 4599. The loads of corn and hay on the whole floor of the cart, at the lowest possible position , the centre of gravity of the carts are fastened with ropes,which should whole load will be very considerably lower be made of the best hemp, soft and pliable. than in that of the formerly described cart, They cost 440. per lb. Ropes are either and still more so than on the top -frame. single or double,and both are required on This last quality produces greater stabi- the farm . Double cart-ropes are from 30

lity, and reduces the risk of upsetting, to 24 yardslong and single ones half those besides affording a greater facility of load- lengths. The longest double rope weighs

STACKING CORN .

359

rather more than 11 lbs., and costs 59. ground, as earthy matter, of whatever The single ones are used on ordinary occa- kind, soon causes them to rot. When sions, when a small load of straw or other wetted by rain they should be spread out

bulky article is carted to short distances in the air to dry. On being loosened on the farm ; but in harvest and hay time, when the load of corn is to be delivered to double ropes are always used for security the stacker , they should be coiled up

to the load. The double rope is made fast before the load is disposed of, and not to the corn - cart by first doubling it, and allowed to lie on the ground till the cart is then measuring its middle from the centre unloaded. A soft rope holds more firmly,

of the cross-head of the hind part of the is more easily handled, and far less apt to body of the cart to its extremity on both cut than a hard one. sides, where a turn or two are taken round the iron standards and the cross -head by

4600. Straw -ropes are made by means

each division of the rope, the ends of which of the implement named the throw - crook . are then passedin the inside of the upper Various forms of this instrument is in use, cross-beads, and brought over them to the and one of the most common is represented outside.

Each division is coiled up by in fig. 410, which is made of a piece of

holding the rope in the left hand at about two yards from the cart, and handing the remainder in coils with the right handuntil the end of the rope is gained ,when the coil is made to take a turn alongthe loose part of the rope in its middle, and then the loose part still remaining is slipped through one loop of the coil and passed over it soas to

tough ash , about 31 feet Fig. 410.

long, the bent part of which is thinned off until

it is capable of being bent to a curve, and is there

retained by the iron stay a ; the part 6 being left projecting beyond the

make a loop knot, which holds thecoil sus pended from the cart about three feet from

stay, for the attachment

the ground. Fig. 409 represents the rope

that is to be made. The end c is furnished with

of the first end of the rope

Fig. 409.

ferule and swivel ring, by which it is either attached

to the person by a cord passed round the waist, or held in the hand.

In

с

using this implement the rope -maker is stationary, OLD THROW-CROOK.

usually sitting beside the straw ; and the spinner, with the throw crook, moves backwards as the rope extends.

In its action this form of throw

crook is attended with a jerking motion, when the left hand holds the swivel c, and

the right one revolves the instrument round the shank. The direction of cb is in

the line of the rope, and the twist given to the rope is effected by the revolution of the body of the implement around this line, in COILED UP CART- ROPE . generating which a pull is given to the rope coiled and suspended, when not in use. at two opposite points in the circle of When a ring is fastened in the cross-head

revolution, which may be greatly nentra

of the cart, the middle of the rope is passed lised by the spinner causing both hands to throngh the ring, and a turn taken round revolve in small circles. the extremity of the cross-head on each side of the cart, as above. Cart- ropes

4601. Fig. 411 is a form of throw -crook

last according to the care bestowed on in use in the western counties of Scotland . them .

When used with the corn -cart It is used by holding the wooden hollow

they should never be allowed to touch the cylinder b in the left hand.

The end of

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

360

the

rope

is attached to the hook , and the

Fig. 411 .

cross-head is a hollow box or case adapted

iron spindle a , in contin

Fig. 413.

nation of the hook , is made to revolve by means of the handle c, which is attached to one

end of the same crank d d

to which the spindle a is. In theory, the strain upon

the instrument,

while in action, should be along the spindle a, from the hook to the

crank d ; but in practice it acts in a line from the hook to the handle

ANOTHER FORM OF C, causing an uncom THROW - CROOK . fortable strain upon the left hand, while the right one works the crank -handle with difficulty.

I THE STRAW - ROPE SPINNER .

4602. I think the best form of throw Fig. 412.

crook is represented in to contain the machinery, consisting of five light spur -wheels, about six inches diame of the straw -rope is in a ter, placed as seen in the case c d . Of these,

fig. 412, where the strain

straight line from the

the central and the two extreme wheels

hooka, along thespindle are mounted upon axles, which terminate e to the handle d . The left hand holds the

swivel-ring C , and the right hand causes the part ebd to revolve round the line a e d by means of the handle 6, which is

in the hooks eee ; the other two wheels

being merely placed intermediate, to pro duce revolution in the three principals in one direction . A winch -handlef is fixed upon the axle of the central wheel, on the side opposite to the hooks ; and to prevent the machine from moving with the strain

covered with a loose hol- of the ropes, a few stones, or other weighty low cylinder of wood, substances, are laid upon the sole -frame. the rest of the instru- The machine is then put in operation by THEBEST FORM OF ment being made of the driver turning the handle, and the THROW - CROOK . iron .

three ropemakers, each with a quantity of

straw under his arm , commences his rope

4603. The straw -rope spinner is an instrument of recent introduction to the farm , and is of considerable importance in facilitating the process of straw ropemaking on large farms. Comparing it with the old and primitive instrument,the throw -crook , fig . 410, the advantage

by binding a few straws round the hook appropriated to himself. He then proceeds backward, letting out the straw as he advances ; and the rope takes the twist, until the length required is completed, when each man coils up his rope into an oval ball. The price of a spinner is from

is considerable, inasmuch as two persons £2, 5s. to £ 2, 10s. are engaged in the making of one rope with the throw - crook ; whereas, with the 4604. Another form of this machine is spinner, four persons are only required to that which is strapped to the body of the

make three ropes,thus effecting a saving driver, he moving away from the station ofone-third of the time occupied bythe ary ropemakers. This methodis attended old practice. Fig. 413 is a view of this with inconvenience, especially to the machine, consisting of a sole frame aa, driver, who, having the machine strapped with an upright post b tenoned into the in front of his body, the handle being at sole, and carrying the cross - head cd. The the end, and the machinery consisting of

STACKING CORN.

bevel gear, having the external form of the cross-head alone of fig. 413, the bandle is brought so near to his body that much of the muscular force of the arm is lost by its misapplication.

361

straw ropes are made, otherwise they will be picked and appropriated by the twist ing-rope. Afterthe rope has been let out to thedesired length, the spinner winds it firmly in oblique strands on his left hand and arm into an oval ball, the twister ad

4605. Straw is twisted into ropes in vancing towards him as fast as the spinner this manner : The left hand of the twister, coils the rope, which is finished , and made

a field -worker holds by the swivel ring at firm by passing the end of it below one the end of the shank of figs. 410 and 412, of the strands. In the Borders the spinner and by the cylinder 6 of fig. 411. Her works the straw into form with both hands,

right hand grasps the middleof the shank while stooping with his head down and his of fig .410, and of the handle c of fig. 411 , back turned to the twister; but the rope and of b fig. 412. On the spinner, a man, thus made is always thick and rough, com placing a little drawn straw in the book, pared to the mode described above. If the twister causes the hook to revolve thistles have been negligently left in the round an axis, as described in (4600,) and straw , the spinner will be sure to suffer walks backward, along a path swept clean, severely by their stings. Fig. 414 repre

in a shed or the stable . The spinner sits on sents the process of making a straw -rope,

a stool, or on bundles of straw , and nearly as just described. closing the left hand, lets out the straw

gradually between the thumb and the fin-

4606. The best sort of straw for rope is

gers, retaining it till sufficiently twisted, that of the common or Angus oat, which while the right hand is engaged supply- being soft and pliable, makes a firm , ing small portions of straw in equal and smooth, small tough rope.

sufficient quantities to make the rope uni form in thickness throughout, the twister

4607. The ordinary length of a straw

drawing away the rope as fast as the spinner rope for a large stack may be taken at lets it out.

Where the rope is let out thirty feet. Counting every interruption,

unequally, it breaks at the small part ; when twisted too much, it snaps asunder ; when not twisted enough, it comes asunder at any place by the least pull ; and when the twister does not keep the rope straight

a straw -rope of this length may take five minutes in the making — that is, a hundred and twenty ropes in ten hours. A man's wages, 20d., and a woman's, 10d., making together 28. 6d., will make the cost of

as fast as it is let out, it twists into loops, making a single rope just one farthing. which are not easily made straight again. As three spinners let out to one twister, Fig. 414 .

and as

a machine spins as fast as a

throw -crook, the cost of making each rope with the machine, fig. 413, will be as much less than one farthing as the saving of the wages of two twisters. 4608. In using the throw -crook the

spinner sits, while with the spinning machine he walks backward, and in coiling up the rope walks forward again to the machine, where he is ready to begin to spin again. Inconveniences attend the use ofthe machine, fig. 413 : when one of the spinners breaks bis rope, he is thrown out of work till the others begin a new one ; and all

the spinners must let out with the same velocity, otherwise a longer and softer, and a barder twisted and shorter rope will be THE PROCESS OF MAKING A STRAW - ROPE ,

made at the same time.

All loose straws and other material should

be swept away from the walk in which

4609. Fig. 415 represents a straw - rope

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

362

coiled up in the neatest and most con- about fifteen inches in diameter, the man venient Fig. 415.

form. makes a thumb-rope, by twisting a little

When the ends of undrawn straw round the thumb of his

are made smal- right hand drawing it out with his left and ler than the twisting it with his right alternately, until middle, the rope ashort rope is made, one end of which be can

be easily places on the floor and puts bis foot upon

taken hold of, and carried, aud when the form is oval rather than spherical,

by the side of the drawn straw ; and, keeping hold of the other end in his left band, puts the drawn straw into the rope with his right; and then, holding both ends

the coil can be

binds the straw into

Fig. 416 .

the more easily thrown upwards to a greater height, such as to the top of a A STRAW - ROPE COILED UP.

of the rope, a bunch as

firmly, and in the same manner , as

stack . A BUNCH OF DRAWN STRAW .

a bandster does a sheaf

4610. Among the other things required of corn, (4479.) Fig. 416 represents a to be in a state of readiness before the crop bunch of drawn straw . is led into the stackyard, is straw drawn in 4613. The carts, forks, straw , and ropes, parallel reeds and bound up in bunches. being in readiness at the steading, and the manthis in bunched and drawn is Straw ner :-The : straw was mowed in the straw- corn fit for carrying to the stackyard, the barn, ( 1763 ;) and in commencing to draw first thing is to provide an efficient person it, the man takes a wisp from the mow , and to fork the corn in the field to the carts ;

places it across his body, and after making and a man is the best for this work, as he the straws straightfirstwith one hand and is able not only to wield the sheaves with then another, he takes hold of each end of ease, but possesses dexterity to place them the wisp, and on spreading out his arms in the positions most convenient for the separates the wisp into two portions. carter to build them on the cart.

Throw

Bringing both bands together, he lays holding the sheaves in an indiscriminate man of the severed wisp with the left hand, and ner, or too quickly upon the cart, makes on taking hold of its other end with the the work no easier for the forker ; while right draws the straws asunder, as before. the carter has the additional trouble of turn Bringing again both hands together, he ing the sheaves to arrange them as a load, goesthrough the same process, and as often when his footing upon thecart isatbest inse until he sees that the straws are parallel and cure. A loss of two orthree minutes incurred straight, when he laysdown thenow drawn in any way, in loading each cart, makes a wisp carefully upon the floor of the barn. considerable loss npon the day's work . 4611. The state of the straw , and the

4614. In carrying the crop off the

kind, render the drawing more or less easy ground, the object is to do as little injury and expeditious. When it has been much as possible to the land with the cart-wheels,

broken in the thrashing, it requires the particularly to the young grass ; for which

more drawing to make it straight; and of reason, as well as for forming an unerring all the kinds ofstraw that of wheat, being guide, the horses should walk in the open long and strong, is the most easily and furrow between the ridges, while the quickly drawn, (1964,) barley straw being wheels pass along their furrow -brows,

the shortest and the most difficult to draw , (738.) When corn is cut with band ( 1968.) Oat straw is the most pleasant win reapers, the stooks of two ridges being placed on one, the cart clears the produce of two ridges; and the same

of any to draw, ( 1972.)

4612. After as much has been drawn may be the case with the mown corn , and laid down as to make a bunch of provided the bandsters are instructed to

STACKING CORN .

363

set the stooks in the same position upon or shelvements of the cart, other sheaves

the ridges. When the stooks are set on are laid across them in a row along both the furrow -brows of the ridges, on each sides of the frame, with their but -ends

side of the centre open -furrow of the four projecting as far beyoud the outer rail of ridges occupied by two band -wins, as the frame as the band, the particular suggested in (4481,) thecarts would at once sheaf on each corner of the frame being

clear the stooks of four ridges. In thrav- held in its placeby transfixion upon a spike ing, the stooks being set on every ridge, oftheelongated bolt which secures thecorner the forker is obligedto go from one ridge ofthe outer-rail frame, fig. 407f. Another to another to clear two ridges, thereby oc- row of sheaves is then placed upon these casioning much loss of time. last, and their corner ones are kept in their

places by a wisp from each sheaf being 4615. In forking a hooded stook from laid under and held fast by the weight

the ground, the hood sheaves are first of the adjoining sheaf. Sheaves are then body of the stook as they were placed in their but-ends to both its ends, to hold

taken, and then the sheaves from the placed along the middle of the cart with setting the stook — that is, the sheaves at in those below them , and to fill up the the ends are taken before those in the hollow of the load. Thus row after row

middle, and one pair is taken away before of sheaves is placed , and the hollow in a sheaf in the next pair is touched . More the middle filled up, till as much is built loss of time is involved in disregarding this on asthe horses can conveniently draw,

order of removal of the sheaves than might 12 full stooks being a good load. Bo appear without consideration, for if the fore finishing, it should be ascertained

centre sheaves are taken away before the that the load is neither too light nor end ones, not only more force isrequired too heavy upon the horse's back ; and to do it, but the end ones will likely fall if the cart has been evenly laden ac down in the exertion to extricate the cen- cording to its form , there is no risk of tral ones ; and if one side of a stook is either inconvenience being felt by the taken away before the other, the remain- shaft- horse. A load thus built will have ing side will fall down. In either case the but - ends of all the sheaves on the the sheaves will be reached by the fork with outside, and the corn ends in the inside, inconvenience. When stooks have stood as may be seen at f eg in fig. 417.

long upon the ground, they require more force to remove them from the ground than

4618. The ropes keep the load froni

those which have stood for a shorter time. jolting off the cart upon the road, and in crossing gaw -cnts onthe head - ridge of the 4616. On forking gaitins from the field , fields. They are thrown across the load they must first be bound into sheaves, diagonally to the opposite shafts at the

which is done by loosening the slack band front of the cart, and an end is made fast from its tying, and slipping it down the to each shaft, the forker on the ground bodyof the gaitin to theproper place, and holding on the slack , while the ploughman then binding it in the manner of a sheaf

on the load gives efficacy to the rope, by

when reaped. A number of hands are re- pulling it tight from behind, and trampling quired to bind gaitins as fast as they are on the sheaves to make them the more

carted off, and they are not stooked when firm . The crossing of the ropes at the bound, nor left scattered on the ridges as centre prevents the load splitting asunder they stood before, but are laid in heaps, with over the sides of the cart, while shaken

the corn ends away froin the cart, on alter- along the road . Some ploughmen profess

riate ridges, as near the furrow brow as to to show their dexterity in building loads be mostconveniently placed for the forker. of corn , by bringing them to the stack yard without the assistance of ropes ; but 4617. A corn - cart isloaded withsheaves there is no use of runningthe risk of los sheaves lying with their but-ends towards ing the road with sheaves. Such a fate , the shaft-horse's rump at one end, and the even with the assistance of ropes, attended

in this way :—The body is first filled with ing time by breaking the load and strew back-end of the cart at the other. When these sheaves come to the level of the fraine

the first load I tried to build.

When the

corn is mown, a woman should be em

364

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

ployed to rake the ground on which the first stacks are built on the stathels, stooks stood, as they were set before the fig. 132, arranged on the outer margin ground was raked at the time of mowing of the stackyard along the fence, and require no peculiar preparation for the 4619. When corn is fit for stacking, the reception of the stacks. The steward

carrying is continued from break of day should build the stacks unless he be to twilight, provided there be no heavy specially engaged with the reapers in the dew at morning or evening. From a little field, when another man should be hired after sunrise to a little after sunset, the to do it ; but on a large farm more than corn may be taken in with great safety. one stacker will probably be required at all It is customary, in some parts of the country, to keep the horses in the yoke all the time employed at leading during the day, and to feed them with corn in nose-bags while the carter is dining, and also to give them green food, such as tares, while the cart is unloading at the stack .

times. When more than one is employed, each shouldhave a head ofcarts leading to him, in conformity to the distance the corn has to be brought; and when both heads are should leading from the same field, both have the same number of carts. The same carts and forker should serve the same

In other parts, the horses are taken out of builder , that the corn may be brought to the yoke, watered , and put into the stable, each in a regular routine . where they receive their corn while the sta fill

men are at dinner .

This is the easiest

plan for the horses, in which they will work the longest day's work with less fatigue, though it usually occupies an hour of the best part of the day before they are again on the road, whereas half an hour, spent in the

4622. In

ing a

ckyard , the barley

being first thrashed their stacks should be placed nearest the barn ; and wheat being the last thrashed , their stacks are placed on the stathels round the outside of the

stackyard .

Oats being required at all

other case, is sufficient for the men to dine, seasons, their stacks may be placed any and the horses to feed on corn . Some horses where. The stacks of pease and beans are apt to take fright, when the bridles either fill up the heart of the stackyard at slipped off their head for last, or are placed in a convenient place are tempor bit out of their on the outside. the purposearioflytaking the mouth , to allow them to eat the tares with freedom . Such an occurrence is doubtless

the result of bad breaking in. To avoid it, in the case of a horse known to be easily frightened, the bit should be fastened with asmall strap and buckle to the near side

4623. In setting a loaded cart to the stool or stathel of a stack , it should be studied to let the ploughman have the advantage of any wind going in forking the sheaves from the cart. The stack

of the bridle.

should be built in this way :—Set up a

couple of sheaves against each other in the 4620. A load of tares is brought to the centre of the stathel, and another couple

steading fresh in the morning, for the horses against their sides. Pile other sheaves employed at leading. Tares are not fit for against these in rows round the centre, borses until the pods are pretty well filled with a slop downwards towards the cir with grain , as prior to that state they are cumference of the stathel, each row being

apt to purge and weaken them, when placed half the length of the sheaf beyond working much in the cart, which they are the inner one, till the circumference is obligedto do when carrying in the corn. completed, when it should be examined ; and where any sheaf presses

too hard upon

4621. While the first cart is going to another, it should be relieved, and where and loading in the field , and returning to a slackness is found, a sheaf should be in

the stackyard, the builder of the stacks troduced. Keeping the circumference of collects his forks and ladders, ( 1743 ) the stack on the left hand, the stacker lays and trimmer, fig. 418 ; and his assistant, a the sheaves upon the outside row round field -worker, who pitches the sheaves con- the stack, placing each sheaf with his hands

veniently for him on the stack, fetches upon the hollow or intermediate space be a few straw -ropes, fig. 415, and a hand tween two of the sheaves laid in the preced rake, fig. 345, into the stackyard. The ing row , close to the last one, and pressing

STACKING CORN .

365

it with both his knees, as represented ath, row , along the bands of the outside one, fig. 417. When the outside row is thus laid, with a few sheaves crossing one another in the centre, make such a stack com

Fig. 417. k

pletely hearted. Where long wheat is raised, as in the Carse of Gowrie, which often reaches from 5 to 6 feet in length, the

stack should be at least 18 feet in diameter, to give room toafew sheaves for the hearting. 4625. A stack of 15 feet in breadth is rather too much for the carter to fork

heavy sheaves across to the stacker, when m

the stack has attained the height of his head, and when the load in the cart becomes as low as the load -rail. The

stacker should always receive the sheaves within easy reach, as he cannot rise from his knees to take them without much loss

of time, and without the risk of making bad work. To expedite the building, a field -worker k should stand on the stack , to receive the sheaves on a short fork from

the carter, and to throw them to the stacker

in the position they are wanted by him, as the sheaf l is shown, in order to save him THE BUILDING OF A STACK OF CORN .

the trouble of turning them. By a little

an inside one is made with sheaves whose management, the field -worker might re

but-ends rest on the bands of the out- ceive every sheaf as the carter pitches it

side row as seen at i , thereby securing from his fork upon her fork; and, to pre the outside sheaves in their places, and at vent it falling from the fork , she should

the same time filling up the body of the catch the coming sheaf at the band with stack firmly with sheaves. A few more her fork , at which point the sheaf is bal

sheaves may be required as an inmost anced, and most easily wielded, being its row , to make the heart of the stack its highest part. It is of immense benefit to a stack to have its centre well filled with sheaves, as it is the heart sheaves which retain the outside ones in their places in the circle, with an inclination downwards from the centre to the circumference ; and

centre of gravity, and throw it in its proper position a little before and at the right hand of the stacker, with the but- end always pointing to the circumference of the stalk . That the work may go on in the most regular order, the carter should pitch the sheaves from the cart just as fast

it is this inclined position of the outside as the builder can use them, and no faster,

sheaves that prevents the rain finding a having only one sheaf in reserve on the passage along the straw into the very stack in advance of the builder - for any heart of the stack, where it would easily more is of no use to him , and he must leave find its way, were the sheaves inclined them behind him. It will also be easier downwards to the centre of the stack, and work for the field -worker, as well as for

where it would soon spoil the corn. The the better laying of the sheaves to the sheaves that are so spoiled are said to have builder, that she is able to use the fork taken in pen -wet.

equally well with the right and the left hand, as otherwise she will be obliged to 4624. The number of rows of sheaves swing and throw the sheaves across her

required to fill the body of a stack, depends on the length of the straw and the diameter of the stack . For crops of ordinary length of straw , such as from 45

self for half the round of the building of the stack . The field -worker remains on the stack as long as she has a footing to hand the sheaves to the builder.

to 5 feet, a stack of 15 feet diameter is

well adapted ; and in which one inside

4626. As each cart is unloaded, the

366

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

stacker descends to the ground, by means the same angle as a common roof, one foot of a ladder, such as fig. 143, and trims the below the square, as explained in build

stack ,by pushing in with a fork the end of ing the top of a hay-stack, (4045.) any sheaf that projects further than the The bevelled bottoms of the sheaves,

rest, and by pulling out any that may have acquired by standing in the stook, answer been placed too far in . As the stack risesin the slope of the top pretty nearly. The height with cart-load after cart-load, the hearting of the top of a stack should trimming cannot be conveniently done with be attended to particnlarly, as on rain

a fork ; a half-inch thick flat board about 20 inches in length, and 10 inches broad, nailed firmly to a long shaft, fig. 418, is Fig. 418. an appropriate instru-

obtaining admission from the top of a stack it cannot be prevented descending through its entire heart. After the area of the top bas contracted to a space on

ment for beating in the which 4 sheaves only can stand upright, projecting endsof the they are so placed erect, with their but-ends

sheaves, and giving the spread alittle out, and their tops gathered body of the stack a uni- in so as to complete the figure ofthe cone . form roundness. It seems These top sheaves are held in their posi to be considered by build- tion against the effects of wind, by means ers necessary to make the of a straw rope wound round them , the

stack swell out as it pro- ends of which are fastened to the stack . ceeds in height, if we may judge from common 4629. When stacks are built on the practice ; but no such ex- ground, stools of loose straw are made for

pedience is necessary for them to stand upon ,to preserve the sheaves throwing off the drops at the bottom receiving injury from the of rain froin the eave, dampness of the ground. A stool for a as the eave itself, on stack is formed inthis manner :-Stick a

the stack subsiding after fork in the ground, on the spot where the A STACK TRIMMER. being built a few days, centre of the stack is desired to stand, as a , projects sufficiently out to throw off the fig. 419. Put a quantity of dry straw round drops.

The leg ofthe stack should, there

fore, be carried up perpendicularly. As a

Fig. 419.

stack of 15 feet in diameter should ulti

mately stand 12 feet high in the leg to maintain a due proportion, an allowance of about one foot for subsidence, after the top is finished , is generally made . The height is measured with the ladder,

and allowing 2 feet for the height of the stathel, a 15 - feet ladder will just give the desired measure of the height of the leg before the top is built up. Fig. 420 represents a stack built upon a stathel. MAKING THE STOOL FOR A CORN - STACK .

4627. The eave of the stack is formed the fork, and shake it up with a fork as according to the mode in which it is to be the litter of a horse in a stable is shaken, thatched. If the ropes are to be placed and then spread it out in equal thickness lozenge -shaped , the eave row of sheaves is

over the area the stack shall occupy. Then

placed just within the topmost row of the taking a long fork b, with the radius of the leg. If the thatching ropes are to run from stack notched upon its shaft, embrace the the crown of the stack to the eave, the shaft of the upright fork a between its eave sheaves are made to project 2 or 3 prongs; and pnsh in and pull out with the

inches beyond the topmost row of sbeaves. foot the straw , so as in walking round the circumference ofthe stool to give it the form 4628. In building the top of a stack, of a circle, b, c, d, 1, having a diameter every successive row of sheaves is taken equal to twice the radius notched upon

as much farther in as to give the slope the sbaft of the fork .

STACKING CORN .

367

4634. The thatching of a stack is done

4630. Sheaves cut with the sickle bav-

ing a more uniform stubble end than when in this manner - I shall first describe the

mown with the scythe, are more easily lozenge-shaped thatching, as being the built into a stack, and give it a more most common : On the thatcher ascending

handsome appearance ; but being close, to the top of the stack by means of a lad exclude the external air, and cannot be so der, which is immediately after taken soon stacked. A stack of mown sheaves away by an assistant, a bunch or two of

is rough but open, and can be put up in drawn straw , fig . 416, are forked up to safetyin a stateof dampness which would him by one of his assistants, a field be disastrous to shorn sheaves. When worker, which he keeps beside him behind sheaves are mown by inexperienced hands, a graip, stuck into the top ofthe stack,as a considerable quantity of grain is exposed noticed in covering the bay -stack, (4049.) on the outside of the stack, owing to the The straw is first laid upon the eave, be straws having been irregularly laid in yond which it projects a few inches, and

the swath and into the sheaves ; but with then in an overlapping manner upwards to dexterous mowers the quantity thus ex- the top. Where abut- end of a sheaf pro posed is very trifling, and will only hap- jects, it should be beaten in, and where a pen when the wind has blown in a direc- hollow occurs, a but-end of a sheaf should tion contrary to that in which the crop be drawn out, or filled up with a little ad

has been partially laid, and yet not suffi- ditional straw . In this manner the straw ciently strong to turn it completely back. is evenly laid all round the top of the

stack, to the spot where the thatcher be 4631. A rough stack of mown sheaves gan. Supposing he has thus put the

may easily be made smooth, and free from

covering on thetop of the stack, fig. 420,

projecting ears of grain, which need not

Fig. 420.

be lost. A man can dress a stack in an

hour with a scythe -blade fixed to a fork shaft, causing the shorn heads to fall on a barn -sheet spread on the ground to receive them. A field -worker should assist in shift

ing the sbeet round the stack , emptying it, and carrying it from stack to stack . Such a shaved stack is represented by c, fig. 143. с

4632. Seldom is leisure found to thatch

stacks as long as there is corn to carry in, and the finer the weatber the less leisure

presents itself. A damp day, however, which prevents leading, answers very well for thatching, as the thatch straw is not the worse of being a little damp; but in heavy rain it would be improperto thatch and cover up so many wet ends of sheaves

as the top of a stackcontains. 4633. The materials should all be at

hand before commencing the thatching of

stacks — drawn bunchesof straw , coils of

THE LOZENGE MODE OF ROPING THE COVERING OP A CORN - STACK .

straw -ropes, ladders, forks, hand -rakes,

and graips. To get on with the business all round to the line from a to b, before quickly, a man and two assistants are re- closing up whichhe makes the top a, con quiredfor eachstack - the mostconvenient and thrifty assistants being field -workers, who fetch straw and ropes when wanted, supply the thatcher with straw , and tie

sisting of a small bundle of well -drawn piece of cord ; the tied end is cut square

the ends of the ropes.

end is spread upon the covering, and forms

long straw , tied firmly at one end with a with a knife, as shown at a ; and the loose

368

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

the finishing to it. To secure this top in straw -ropes not in a coiled state, they could its place,a straw - rope is thrown down by not be thrown down by the thatcher within thethatcher from a to d , the end of which reach of the assistant. Thus the thatcher

his assistant on the ground fastens to the puts on every rope parallel to each other side of the stack , as far up as she can con- below g, till the last on that side veniently tie it. After passing the other has reached h. To give the ropes a

end of the same rope round the top, he closer seat, they should each receive a throws it down in the same direction,

tap here and there with a fork, from the

where it is also fastened to the stack. In like manner he throws down both the ends of a rope from a to c, and they are also fastened by the assistant. The returningparts of these two ropes are seen at e and f. Having thus secured the top, the thatcher closes in the coveringfroma

thatcher, whilst the assistant is pulling the last end tight. He then takes the ladder to d , and placing and fastening it there, as he did at c, he puts on every

rope parallel to each other below f, till they reach the last one, i. Ropes thus placedparallel from opposite sides of the

to b, where the ladder is placed to let him top of a stack cross each other in the

down. Taking a longer ladder to c, he diamond or lozenge-shape represented in inclines itsupper part nearly parallel to the fig. 420. On a stack 15 feet diame

covering of the stack, and secures its lower ter at the base, 16 feet diameter at the end from slipping outwards by a graip eave, 12 feet high in the leg, and 6 feet thrust against it into the ground. He then high in the top ,10 ropes on each side are mounts and stands upon the ladderat a re- quite sufficient to secure the thatch. quisite height abovethe eave c, where be receives a number of coils of ropes, fig. 415,

4635. The ends of the ropes are fastened from his assistant, which he keeps before to the stack by pulling a small handful of him between the steps of the ladder.

straw from a sheaf a little out of the stack ,

To give the thatch -straw smoothness, it and winding part of the rope round it; should be stroked down with a long supple and the ball thnsformed is pushed through rod of willow, before the ropes are succes- between the rope and the stack, which sively put on. Holding on by the loosened end of a coil of rope, he throws the coil from where he stands on the lad-

keeps the rope as tight as would a knot. 4636. Windy gusty weather is very

der above cdowntowards the direction of unfavourable for the thatching of stacks, d to theright of the top a, tohis assistant, the thatching being rufiled up by every who, taking it in the hand, allows the gust.

thatcher to coil it up again upon his hand, without ruffling the covering of

4637. Another method of roping the

the stack, till asmuch of it is left as to thatching of a stack is shown in fig. 421 . allow her to fasten it to the side of the

Fig. 421.

stack , while the thatcher adjusts its posi

tion parallel to the rope he formerly placed round the top a, and the round of which is seen at e.

The thatcher then

throws the newly coiled end in the same direction of d , to the left of the top a,

where, on his assistant taking hold of its end, he retains the rope in his hands by the double, and adjusts it in its position parallel with the former rope round a,and keeps it there till the assistant pulls it tightly down , and makes it fast to the stack like the other end. The return of

this last rope is seen at g. The reason

THE NET - MESH MODE OF ROPING THE COVERING OF A CORN - STACK .

that the thatcher is obliged tothrow down the rope at first coiled, and to coil up The straw is put on in precisely the same again the second end - before it is thrown manner as described for fig. 420. The down, is, because, were the ends of the ropes are then all crossed over the crown

369

STACKING CORN.

of the stack, and are so arranged as to of short straw is placed upon them , to subdivide the top into equal similar trian- serve as a cushion for the ropes to rest

gles, as b a c, ca d , and their ends are upon, and which is put into its place after fastened into the side of the stack. The most of the covering has been laid on. ropes, at their crossing over the top, are The thatcher then perches himself upon fastened together by a rope, which is tied the top of this hard bundle, where he re above them , and cut off in the form of a ceives the ropes as they are wanted, on

rosette, as at a. The ropes which cross these

the

prongs of

a long fork , on being thrown

are either put on spirally from the top a, up to him . Some dexterity is required till they terminateatd, as represented in the to throw a coil of straw -rope fig. 415, to figure,and to which form it is well adapted, the top of a stack . The best position to as every turn round the perpendicular rope do it is to stand as far from the stack

brings the horizontal one to a lower level ; as to see the thatcher entirely clear of its head ; and then, taking a coil by

or separate ropes are put on in bands,

parallel to the eave, andtwisted round each the small end, pitch it upwards with a full swing of the arm , parallel to the from the top a to the eave-rope ef. This covering of the stack , towards the mode of roping requires fully more ropes thatcher's feet, and he will catch it firmly crown- rope, at equal intervals of space,

than the last method, though the crown- on the prongs of the fork ; if aimed at ropes may be fewer in number than shown a higher level or to either side, the fork by a b, a c, and a d ; but it perfectly se- will be almost certain of missing it, the cures the thatch against any force of critical position of the thatcher not allow

himthe freedom of his body, and only wind, and is therefore well adapted for ing his arms. He thus receives a number of to be seen in the Highlands of Scotland, coils, and places them at his feet. Un and in other northern counties. coiling the half of a rope, by coiling it on

exposed situations. It is not unfrequently

his right hand, the thatcher throws the 4638. Another mode of roping the hand-coil over the eave tohis assistant, who

covering of a stack is applicable to all holds on by that end while he throws the stacks whose eave is formed of a row of other coiled half down in exactly the oppo sheaves projecting beyond their bodies. site direction, across the top of the stack , It is shown in fig . 422, and was once in to the other assistant, who lays hold of Fig. 422. its end : then both assistants pull the ends of the rope, the thatcher tapping it firmly with the fork , and the ends are

fastened to the opposite sides of the stack . One assistant may suffice, by tying first one end of the rope, and then the other ; but with two assistants the roping is not

only conducted with greater celerity, but much more firmly. Thus rope after rope is thrown, at equal intervals of space, to

the number of30, from c to d , e, f, be fore the top of the stack is sufficiently THE BORDER METHOD OF COVERING AND ROPING A CORN - STACK .

roped. The ropes, where they cross at the

top, are tied together with a piece of straw common use in Berwickshire, but now rope, to prevent their slipping off. A ladder seems confined to Northumberland. The is placedupon the thatching, down which first thingdone, is to put a strong eave the thatcher then descends to the ground.

rope round the stack , below the projecting row of sheaves from a to b.

The straw is

4639. Another method of thatching

then put on in a similar manner to that stacks, most common in England, is the

last described, but rather thicker, and it

insertion of handfuls of well- drawn wheat

is made to project farther down than the straw into the buts of the sheaves on line of the eave -rope. The tops of the the top of the stack, and which are kept finishing sheaves of the stack are pressed down withstobs of willows, or sewed on down, and a somewhat large bard bundle with tarred twine, being in imitation of VOL. II .

2 A

370

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

the thatching of cottages. In this method ef, is first put round the stack. The no straw ropes are used ; and, finished by crown -ropes a b, a c, a d, are passed at a dexterous thatcher, it gives the stacks each end round the eave -rope e f, and are a remarkably neat and permanent appear- fastened to the stack immediately under ance. I am not sure that this method the straw projecting from the eave in the

would resist the force of much windy manner described in (4635.) The pro weather , though its smooth surface would jecting straw at the eave is cut short with detain the snow upon the tops of the a knife, in the fashion shown from 6 to d. stack a much less time than any of the ropings described above.

4643. The difficult part of roping, in fig. 422 is in finishing the eave, which , if well

4640. It is seldom that the thatching of done, looks remarkably neat ; but, if other a stack is finished when the straw and wise, has a very slovenly appearance. The

ropes are first put on ; the object of eave is finished in this way ::thatching being first to place, in the shortest time, as many stacks as possible beyond danger from rain ; so that most of them are covered to a safe state, and the finishing is left till more leisure is found, and until the stacks subside to their full-

The eave

rope having been already put up, the ends of the ropes are loosened from the stack, and passed from below between the eave rope and the stack, and, on being brought upwards, are passed behind the ropes themselves, about 8 or 9 inches above the

est degree. Stacks to be early thrashed, eave- rope. The end of the first rope, sup

such as those of barley, seldom receive pose c d, being thus fastened, the part of finishing at all ; and many farmers only the thatch straw which projects beyond finish the outside rows of stacks, and some the eave is brought horizontally along particularly so only if conspicuously seen its face ; and the second rope ce, on being from a public road . It is a mark of loosened from the stack, is placed over the slovenly management to leave stacks un- horizontal straw , before being passed below finished in the thatching, and in windy the eave- rope, and then brought upwards weather unfinished stacks are liable to be and passed behind itself, as the first rope stripped of their thatching altogether. It was . The end of the first rope, and that is excusable to leave a few of the stacks to of the second, as also the projecting

be earliest thrashed unfinished in the thatch straw, are then placed horizontally thatching; andfor the same reason theymay along the face of the eave; and the third safely be built on stools instead of stathels. rope cf, loosened from the stack , is placed But finishing should be the rule, and it is over these, and also passed below the

inexcusableto neglect it when both wea- eave- rope and brought up and passed ther and time permit it to be done.

behind itself like the two preceding ropes ; and thus every rope all the way round

4641. The finishing of the thatching in the stack, at both ends of the 30 ropes, are fig. 420 is done in this manner :-A rope treated. In carrying the ends of the is spun long and strong enough to go ropes roundthe eave , they terminate suc round the stack at the eave, from k to l. cessively till their length is exhausted ;

Wherever two ropes from opposite direc- and it will be observed that, while the tions cross the eave -rope, they are passed end of one rope fails to go beyond its round it, and, on being cut short with a length, the end of another one is gained, knife, are fastened to the stack in the so that the band of ropes along the face of manner described in (4635.) After all the eave remains of the same breadth

the ends of the 20 ropes are thus fastened round the stack. When ropes are so long to the stack, the projecting part of the thatch at the eave is cut with a knife all round the stack, to the effect shown along d , b, c. Of all the modes of thatching, I see none more efficient and better looking than the lozenge shaped.

as to become cumbrous, they are broken

off. The last finish is made by bringing the ends of the 2 or 3 last ropes along the face of the eave, behind the 2 or 3 first ropes,wherethe finishing commenced. The stretch of the ropes between the eave and top are prevented from being shaken with

4642. The mode of finishing the thatch- the wind by 4 or 8 ropes being put on , ing of fig. 421 is this :-An eave - rope, as a h b, and i k and i g are, and which in

STACKING CORN.

371

fact quarter the top of the stack, on their down to the ground to cool my feet. ends being fastened to the eave -rope.

Heated wheat is bitter to the taste, ( 1859.)

4644. Of the cereal grains, barley is 4647. Partial heating is induced in most liable to heat in the stack, partly the compressed part where stacks lean

owing to the soft and moist quality ofthe over soon after being built. To prevent a

straw , and partly because clover is always stack leaning to one side, props, made of mixed with it ; on which accounts, it is the weedings of plantations, should be advisable, in most seasons, to make barley loosely set around it, to guide its subsi

stacks smaller than the others,both in diameter and height, and to build them upon bosses. Much careshould be bestowed on building barley stacks to heart them pro-

dence, especially if it has been rapidly built ; but in using props, the caution is requisite, that, if oneis pushed harder in than the others, it will cause thestack to

perly , which is the best expedient to pre- swerve from it. Some stacks begin to vent heating. The least heat spoils bar- sway the inoment their top isfinished, when ley for malting, and it should be remem- props should be immediately set to keep

bered that malting barley always fetches them upright. 4648. To push a prop, firmly into a

the highest price in the market. Besides injuring the grain, heating compresses barley straw very firmly, and soon rots it. When a single stack only is seen to heat, it may be instantly carried into the barn and thrashed, the ventilation attending which will cool both grain and straw ; but when a number show symptoms of

stack requires the strength of two men, one to pull backwards between the stack

and the prop, with both hands clasped upon the outside of the prop , the other to push forward with the shoulder planted against the outside of the prop, immedi

leaning to one side, about 24 hours after ately below the other man's hands. being built, or exhibit a depression in the top, a little above the eave, you may sus 4649. As a safeguard against heating, pect heating not only to have commenced, a structure of wood is erected, around and but to have proceeded to a serious de- upon which the stack is built. These

gree. Incipient symptoms of heating structures are in Scotland named bosses, are when moisture is observed on any part which signify hollows ; and the object of of the top of a stack early in the morning , usingthem is to occupy the space which delicately indicated on cobwebs — before would otherwise be filled with the collected the sun bas evaporated it, or when heads of the sheaves of corn, with a void heated air is felt, or steam is seen to rise.

into which air shall be conducted from

Heated barley lubricates the thrashing- the exterior of the stack. When stacks are machine with a gummy matter.

built on bosses erected on stathels, fig. 132,

the air finds ingress into them through the 4645. Oats are less apt to heat than frame-work of the stathel ; but when built barley, though their heating is stronger. upon the ground, a conduit, in the form of

If theleast sap remains in the joints of a tressle,is formed of wood-work, by which the straw , oats will be sure to heat in the the air is led into the interior of the stack. Heating gives to oat straw and stack. When such tressles are placed at grain a reddish tinge, and renders the both sides of a boss, a ventilationis main

straw quite unfit forfodder, and the grain tained through the body of the stack . bitter and unpalatable, both to horses as corn , and to people as meal.

4650. The most common form of boss

is a three -sided pyramid, formed of three 4646. Wheat seldom heats, but, when small trees, weedings of a plantation, of it does, the heat is most violent.

I never larch or Scots fir, tied together at the

Baw stacks of wheat heated but once, smaller ends, and the thicker ends placed when they were foolishly led into the at equal distances upon the stathel or the stackyard the day after being reaped. I ground. Fig. 423 represents one of these cast down one of those heated wheat

common bosses, where the three trees are

stacks, and such was the intensity of the tied together at the top, at a, standing heat that I was frequently obliged to come about 8 feet in height and 3 feet

372

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

asunder from each other ; and b b are ground it requires two tressles as well fillets of wood nailed on the trees, for the as the other sort of boss, to complete the ventilation of the air within the stack .

Fig. 423,

This has the advantage over the other kind, of supporting the top of the stack evenly, when it subsides upon the upper end of the prism, relieving the body of the stack of the weight of its top. 4652. Other means than a boss are 3

employed to form a hollow in the heart of a stack, by setting the upright sheaves which form the foundation of the stack,

around a long cylindrical bundle of straw , firmly wound with straw -rope; and as the stack rises in height, the bundle is drawn up through its centre to the top where it is removed, leaving a hole through the height of the stack . This hole creates a current of air through the stack , allow ing the heated air to escape, while the cool air enters from below by means of a tressle, or stathel. A PYRAMIDAL BOSS AND TRESSLE ,

purpose both of retaining them in the

4653. In wet weather corn is built in

pyramidal form , and of preventing the small stacks even in the stackyard ; and sheaves falling into the interior of the A tressle c, about 2 feet high, is placed on one side to conduct the air into the boss. The inconvenience of this form boss.

should the weather prove settled wet, a dry moment should be seized to put 2 or

3 stooks into what are called hand -huls in the field, that is, small stacks built by

of boss is, that, as the stack subsides, hand, bya personstandingonthe ground. the sharp apex a penetrates through the Sometimes corn is built on a headridge of sheaves lying above it, and, in thus dis- the field, instead of being carried to the turbing their arrangement, disfigures the stackyard, as the same strength of men form of the upper part of the stack .

and horses will stack more corn there in

a singlefine day, than when it is carried to

4651. Fig. 424 representsa form ofboss the stackyard ; and the stacksderive more which I prefer to benefit from the air in the field than in Fig. 424 . this. It consists of the yard. Such stacks are also thatched

in the field, and carried to the thrashing of weedings — 7 machine during the winter. It is not an 3 stems of trees,-

feet long, held to- uncommon practice of some farmers to

gether in the form build a portion of their crop in the field of a prism , whose every year ; but the practice is not com side is 3 feet in mendable in ordinary circumstances, as, width, by fillets of besides the trouble and waste created in

wood of thatlength carrying straw for thatch to the field, much being nailed to confusion and loss are experienced in car them . The prism rying the corn to the steading in winter, is set on end, and when some of it cannot fail to be shaken on a stathel only out of the sheaves, and when the stacks

requires to be nail- wanted cannot, perhaps, be brought in ed to it at the bot- for a tract of bad weather, or through deep snow . A scheme may be justifiable under ther means of sta- peculiar circumstances which would be

tom ; but as a farA PRISMATIC BOSS .

bility, a spur from each tree should be nailed wrong in ordinary practice, and the build to the stathel within the prism. On the ing of stacks in the field is one of them.

STACKING CORN.

4654. The bundles of pease are turned in the field till they are win, and they become smaller by being tied with a wisp of their own straw . Pease straw is very

373

in of the corn, and with the thatching of the stacks, are finished. It is left for a long time littered with the refuse of the thatching straw, which, when it becomes

apt to compress in the stack, and to heat, wetted with rain, is not only useless as and should therefore be built with bosses, litter elsewhere, but soon heats, and causes either in round stacks or oblong ones, like an unpleasant odour around the stacks. a haystack. The largest stack I ever saw The spare straw should be removed, after

was one of pease, at Beauchamp in Forfar- it is of no use in the stackyard — that to shire, which was 150 yards in length ; a tressle, under which a person could have walked upright, was erected through the entire length of the stack. When pease become very dry in the field before they are led, the pods are apt to open aud

the straw - barn which is drawn and bundled ,and that to the sheds of the ham mels which is loose, to be ready as litter for the cattle which will soon occupy

them for their winter quarters. The ground should then be raked clean . After spill the coru, particularly in sunuy wea- this cleaning, the air will become sweet,

ther; and to avoid such a loss, the crop is the stacks have free circulation of it usually brought quickly into the stack- amongst them , and the poultry will have yard, and built on bosses. the opportunity to pick up every particle of grain that may have fallen upon the

4655. Beans are a long time of winning ground.

After such a necessary act of

in the field in calm weather. As it is cleanliness is done, the stackyard gate desirable to have the land they grow on should be closed, which brings the labours ploughed up for wheat, they are not unfre- connected with the ingathering of the crop quently carried to a lea -field and stooked to a termination.

upon it, till ready to be stacked .

Being

hard and open in the straw, they keep

4658. Where rough grass grows on a farm ,

pretty well in small stacks, though not such as on a bog which is partially dry in sum mer, I would suggest its being mown and quite winin; and risk ofafter keeping isworth running drythe weather much rain, sheafed, for covering stacks. A day or two spent in mowing such grass, after the harvest is over,

when the pods are very apt to burst and

are well spent, even at the rate of wages and

spill the corn on the ground. In building both pease and bean stacks, the sheaves are laid down with their corn end inwards, and tramped with the feet; and the

food of ordinary harvest-work. Not only does such vegetable materials save the drawing of clean straw when it is scarce, but of itself forms good covering for stackswhich are soon to be thrashed ; and by the time it has served the pur

stacks receive but little trimming, the pose ofthatch, it becomes dry enough to litter pease none at all, the beans with the

back of a shovel, fig. 83.

courts. Bog-reeds, Arundo phragmites, might be used in the same way, where they do not find

a profitable market as thatch for cottages. year I caused a large quantity of such materials 4656. The thatching of pease and bean Every to be mown, immediately after the stacks is conducted in the same manner reaping of the harvest was finished. The reapers

as described for those of grain ; but less enjoyed the work as a sport and relaxation on pains are bestowed in finishing thein off. the winding upof the harvest,and the produce of As, however a good deal of corn is ex their work added many tons to the manure heap. posed on the outside of both pease and 4659. “ The soil of the great Nankin cotton

bean stacks, the thatching is not unfre- country,” says Mr Fortune, “ is not only remark quently brought down their legs, and keptably fertile, but agriculture seemsmore advanced, and bears a greater resemblance to what it is at home, than in any part of China I have seen .

on with straw - ropes.

One here meets with a farmyard containing

4657. I would advise you not to imitate the practice of those farmers, who, because

stacks regularly built up and thatched, in the same form and manner as we find them in Eng

gratified to have their crops safe in the land ; the land, too, is ridgedand furrowed in the way ; and were it not for the plantations of stackyard, seem regardless of the after state all in same which thestackyard itself isleft, bamboo, andthe long tailsand general costume of the natives, a man might almost imagine him *

the operations connected with the leading self on the banks ofthe Thames.” * Fortune's Wanderings in China, p. 126.

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

374

for stacking.

ON REAPING BUCKWHEAT.

It requires turning and

moving several times , in preparing it for 4660. The buckwheat is a plant re- the stack ; and these should be donegently markably dependent on the weather. It and in the dew, to disturb the seed as

requires dry weather immediately after little as possible, as many of them will time of greatest drought. But after put- easily spoil when lying on the ground. ting forth its third leaf, it requires rain for To allow it to be early carried, it should the development of its flowers. During be built in small stacks with bosses,

being sown, and it springs up during the belost, although the plant does not

the long time it continues in flower it re- (4651. )

quires alternate rain and sunshine, to enable the flower to set. The flower drops off in

4664. A considerable diversity of

thunderstorms, and they wither in violent opinion exists as to the productiveness easterly winds. After flowering, the plant of buckwheat — Thäer considering 20 again requires dry weather to bring the bushels an acre an extraordinary crop very rarely to be obtained ; while Mr

seed to maturity

Hewitt Davis says that he has reaped 70

4661. “ The ripening of the grain is quarters from 12 acres, which is rather very unequal, ” says Thäer, “ for the plant more than 46 bushels an acre. is continually flowering and setting. We must therefore cut it at the time the

greatest quantity of grain is ripe.

4665. The straw of buckwheat makes

It excellent fodder for cattle, as long as it

sometimes happens that the first flowers is fresh ; and the green plant, when raised do not set, or that they produce nothing with manure, affords such a forage in but barren seeds, destitute of farina, while summer as causes a great increase of those which come out later yield better milk in cows, but it produces a stupifying seed . But the grain will ripen, and even effect on them . The green plant is also the flowers set, while the crop is lying on a valuable manure for wheat .

, especially eif rain the ground after cutting ce fall.

This occurren

is therefor

con-

4666. No grain seems so eagerly eaten

sidered favourable ."' *

by poultry, or makes them lay eggs so soon and abundantly, as buckwheat. It 4662. In the south of England a con- is also relished by borses amongst oats.

siderable period of both hot and dry weather Its meal fattens both poultry and pigs. is necessary in autumn to harvest it. It Its flour makes good unleavened cakes, may be reaped with the sickle or with the which must be eaten fresh, as they soon scythe, or it may be pulled up by the roots turn sour. Its blossom is considered, in -which last method is recomnended by Flanders, to afford the best food for some, as less likely to shed the seed when bees. fully ripe. In dry weather it should be reaped early in the morning, or late in the 4667.

“ The farina of the buckwheat is yel evening when the dew is upon it,and should low,like the pollen of the cedar,” says M.Ras

not be moved too much in the day. It may pail. “ The grains of its fecula are so small that be tied up in sheaves, or made into bundles they rarely attain to .0004 of an inch. The cel

like pease ; but, in either way, it should lular texture which contains them breaks down angular fragments of .0055 be protected from birds, which are very under an inchintoin size,which,by to .004theof pestle their facettes fond of the seed .

and their yellowish appearance, resemble fatty grains. By a certain degree of maceration the

4663. Owing to the thick knotty stems grains of fécula may be rendered discernible in of the straw , the green state in which it is the interior of these fragments.I

cut, and the late period it comes to har 4668. The import of buckwheat, for the year vest, a succession of fourteen or fifteen ending 5th January1850,was 308quarters ; and fine days are requisite to dry it sufficiently of buckwheat meal 1095 cwts.§ ( 3472.) * Thäer's Principles of Agriculture,vol.ii. p . 484—Shaw and Johnson's Translation. + Davis' Farming Essays, p. 68. * Raspail's Organic Chemistry, p. 122. § Parliamentary Return, March 15, 1850.

HARVESTING MAIZE .

375

colour, but it should be left standing as long as the weather is favourable for ripen 4669. When the stems and discs of the ing; and even an occasional day's rain or sunflower become withered, and the seeds frost will not damage the grain . shining and dark - coloured , the plant is ON HARVESTING TIE SUNFLOWER .

ready to be removed from the ground . may simply be pulled up by the roots —which in a strong crop, however, may require considerable force ; but the stem may be easily cut over at the ground with It

a sharp sickle, fig. 392.

4674. When ripe, the cobs should be pulled off the stem , thrown into the cart,

and carried to the barn, where it should be husked as quickly as possible, else the grain will become musty . The cobs should not be pulled off at one time in larger quantities than what can be husked.

4670. The discs are afterwards easily cut off the stems with a sharp knife, and

Six people in the field - men , women , and

Lawson informs me that from 30 to 40

ber of people require the same time to

boys—will, in one hour, break off the cobs the seeds must be rubbed out with any with a downward pull, from two rows, suitable instrument, such as the Ameri- and throw them into heaps on the ground, cans use for rubbing out the maize. Mr from one acre of maize. The same num

bushels of seed, per acre, may be deemed cut off one acre of the stalks by the a fair crop of sunflower. These will groundwith a sharp knife, and lay them yield 50 gallons of oil ; the refuse will in small beaps. The pulling off the cobs make 1500 lb. of oil-cake ; and the and the cutting down the stalks are done stalks burnt into ash will afford balf

simultaneously.

Carts then follow , the

a ton of potash. Professor Johnston men- cobs are thrown into them, and the stalks tions that the seed yields 15 per cent of are also removed to the dung stance. oil . 4675. The husk is taken off in this 4671. “ The seeds of both the common and dwarf sunflower ( 3475,) yield an oil little in ferior to that of the olive for domestic purposes, ” says Mr Lawson . “ In Portugal the seeds are

manner : - In the evening of the day the cobs are brought from the field, three

people, for every quarter of maize to be made into bread, as also into a kind of meal ; and husked, sit down in the barn floor against,

in America they are roasted, and used as a sub or if the heap is in the middle of the floor, stitutefor coffee ; but the purpose for which they around the heap, with theirbacks to the seem best adapted is the feeding of domestic

fowls,pheasants, and other game. The greatest maize, and a two bushel basket before

objectiontotheir culture is, that they require every four of them. Putting the band very superior soil, and are a most impoverishing behind, they pick a cob of maize from crop, particularly the taller growing sort, Heli- the heap, bring it before them , pull off annuus which anthus

; from

circumstance the

dwarf species, Helianthus Indicus, has been

pre

the husk, spread it open, and whisk it off

ferred by some cultivators in France,who assert by the jerk of a little pointed stick, held that, as its dwarf habit of growth admits of a in the right hand, and throw the busk on greater number of plants being grown on a given

the floor before them and the head of maize

space, it is not so muchinferior to the other in into the basket. When the heap of husk quantity of produce, as, from its appearance , one would be led to expect.

before them

rises to about two feet in

height, the people face about and sit upon 4672. “ In addition to the uses above men-

it, having the maize and the baskets before

tioned, some French authors assert that the

them ,when they throw the heads of maize into the baskets, and the husks over their

leaves, either in a green or dried state, form ex cellent food for cows, and that they are greedily eaten by them. The stems also form good fuel,

and yield a considerable proportion of potash .* ON HARVESTING MAIZE.

shoulder upon

the heap. Two men carry

away the baskets as they are filled, and empty them in a corner of the barn . 4676. So long as the heads of maize are kept in the barn, it is sufficient to turn

4673. About the 10th of September the them over occasionally, raising what is at entire plant of the maize assumes a dry straw the bottom of the heap to the top. Much * Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual, p. 292.

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

376

air existing among the heads, there is high-flavoured flesh like the pheasant. When so fed, their eggs are of superior turned to change the sides, and let the colour and flavour. Hams are in high damp out, the corn will acquire a musty repute from pigs fed on maize. smell. So treated, they will keep for any

no danger of the grain heating ; but if not

length of time. 4677. The grain may be taken off the

4683. In detailing the culture of buck wheat, maida, and maize, my object is not to recommend them as constituent crops

heads, when in a fresh state, by pressing of the farm - for I greatly fear none of or rubbing them against any blunt- edged them will find such a climate in the

instrument, and after having been gathered British isles as will allow their full de two or three months, theymay be beaten velopment - and consequently, their pro out with a stick or flail, fig. 350.

In duct, whatever it may be, would not compensate for the labour and expense

America, I believe, the heads of maize are put into trough like a cart body, having

bestowed upon their culture; but, as the both ends open ,and a number ofauger holes potato cannot now be depended on to perforated in the bottom ; and on their yield a constant return, I would direct beingbeaten with a stick by a man at each your attention to such crops as these, that,

end of the trough, the grain falls throngh should you possess some favoured spot,

the auger holes into baskets, or on the enjoying a good soil and genial warmth, floor. One bushel may thus be beaten you might endeavour to raise one or all of out in ten minutes.

them, and raise a supply of food for the poultry. That object is of less im

4678. After the grain has been beaten from the heads, it should be kept in a dry place, where are both light and air, and frequently turned over ; and here it may be kept for any length of time, if free of damp, and taken away as it is ground into

portance now , in 1850, that the price of oats and barley has descended so low, as to be only a little more than a halfpenny

per lb., whereas maize here is three far things. The ordinary grains of your own raising may therefore now be given to

meal, which ought to be used fresh, other- ponltry without stint, as the cheapest food becomes wise it soon

sour.

you

have to give them.

4684. The average quantity of nutritive mat 4679. The produce is about six quarter derived fromanacreof maize yielding thirty The bushel of maize weighs bushels an

ters an acre .

acre, or 1800 lbs., is of husk or

60 lb., and affords 100 lb. of maize bread . *

woody fibre 100 lb.; starch, sugar, &c., 1260 lb.; gluten, &c. 216 lb.; oil or fat from 90 to 170 lb.;

4680. The husks of maize may be used and saline matter 27 lb.t to stuff mattresses, to make door -mats or

brown paper. The pith of the cob makes

4685. America is the great field for the cul ture of maize,

and of the United States, Ken excellent fuel, and the produce of an acre tucky, Tennessee, and Ohio raise much the will furnish a family fire- lighting for a largest quantity of any of the other counties in the whole winter. The stalks, when burnt, States. The quantities raised in the entire

were as follows : afford the best smoking for hams. The Union In 1841

leaves, as taken off in summer, when dried make a hay of the finest odour.

4681. The produce of an acre of maize may be estimated thus :

...

...

1842 1843 1844 1845

387,380,185 bushels. 441,829,246 494,618,306 421,953,000

417,899,000

4686. The money value of the produce of

6 quarters ,at28s. per qr ., in 1850 , 10 cwt. leaf hay, at 3s. 6d . per cwt.,

Pith and stalk for firing ,

£8 8

0

1 15 0 10

0 0

£ 10 13 0

4082. Poultry fed on maize acquire a

1845, 417,899,000 bushels at 25 cents, is

104,474,500 dollars ; and reckoning 5 dollars to L.1 British currency, the amount is L.20,894,900. The quantity of maize raised, as compared with wheat, is in the ratio of 4 to 1 , on account of the growing fondness of the people for it as an article of food, more than for exportation.I

* Keene's Facts for Farmers, p. 8-16.

+ Johnston's Lectures onAgricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 928. Journal

Agriculture, March 1850, p. 360-2.

BIRDS DESTRUCTIVE TO CROPS. 4687. “ Almost all the grains of the fecula of the maize," observes M. Raspail, “ are damaged by the mill, on account of the great hardness which the seeds acquire by drying, from the oil, the gum, and the sugar they contain. The greater part are agglutinated together, and present the appearance of a cellular texture, with

877

4690. The Jerusalem artichoke, Helianthus tuberosus, occupies the same place in the botani cal system as the sunflower, (3475.) Its leaves are rough ; stem six to ten feet in height ; root tuberous; perennial ; native of Brazil; introduced

in 1617. Seldom or never produces its flowers, which are yellow, in this country, except the

small meshes. They are folded, and more or

tubers be carefully removed when they begin to

less wrinkled and irregularly rounded.

form . The naine Jerusalem is a corruption of

The

largest of them scarcely exceed .000,98 of an

Girasol-turning to the sun - an imputed pro

inch, and but few are so large.

perty to this genus of plants.

But if, instead

of examining this fecula as it is found in the farina, it be taken out of the unripe seed when the perisperm is, so to speak, yet milky, the

4691. “ Before the introduction of the potato into this country,” observes Mr Lawson , " the

grains have a totally different appearance. They

common Jerusalem artichoke was held in much

are perfectly spherical, smooth, and entire ; and it appears to me that more fecula could be obtained, by expression of the seeds a little

esteem, as it is even yet on the Continent. Fowls, particularly pheasants, are remarkably fond of its tubers,as are also swine, cattle, hares, rab bits . The tubers are produced in considerable quantities ; and as they are not liable to be injured by slight frosts, their limited cultivation, instead of potatoes, for feeding the above mentioned live stock, has been recommended. They might also be planted in woods and waste places, on good lightish soil,not too much shaded, as winter food

before they are quite ripe, than by grinding the ripe seeds. For by the former method the un.

ruptured grains fall to the bottom of the liquid ; while in the latter, being torn and bruised by the mill, they give out their soluble substance to the water, and remain suspended in the liquid, being as light as simple membranes. This is the reason why Parmentier, who analysed the

farina of maize by the second mode, obtained so

for game. The tubers, as is well known, are also eaten at table, cooked in various ways. " I

little fecula from it." *

4688. The import of maize, for the year end-

4692. “ When the bulbous roots of the Jeru . salem artichoke are bruised and expressed, a

ing 5th January 1850, exceeded that of 1848, mucilaginous liquid is obtained. When heated being 2,249,571 quarters ; but the import of to 212 °, this liquid coagulates so strongly, Indian corn meal decreased in that period, being that it may be employed to clarify other li 102,181 cwt. (3495.) + quids." S 4693. The ash of the tubers of the Jerusalem

artichoke, according to Boussingault, consists of ON THE COMMON JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE.

the following ingredients :

pigs with, and as a relishto their horses, for which purposes it is well adapted, I have

Potash , Soda, Lime, Magnesia, Oxide of iron, alumina, & c., Phosphoric acid,

refrained to recommend it for culture in

Sulphuric acid,

6:39 13.27 2.70

the fields, because when it gets possession

Chlorine, Silica,

1.97 15.97

4689. Although some farmers raise the common Jerusalem artichoke to feed their

54:67 traces 2-82

2.21

of the land no weed is so difficult to era

dicate. Where a piece of ground is de tached , and is not appropriated to a

100.00

Percentage of ash in the dry state,

6:00 11

better purpose, this plant might be cul tivated ; and its culture is in all respects

like that of the potato on the flat ground in every third furrow of the plough, (2774.)

ON TUE BIRDS DESTRUCTIVE TO THE

Its stem rises from six to ten feet in height,

GRAIN CROPS.

and when it has witbered it is cut off, and

the crop raised out of the ground by means

4694. Of late years the opinion seems

of the spade or graip. The tubers may be to gain ground, that birds do more good pitted , but are more conveniently stored in an outhouse when in daily use by stock . They should be cooked before being given to the pigs. Raspail's Organic Chemistry, p. 120.

to the farmer and gardener, by devouring destructive insects,than harm in eating and spilling every kind of seed. A closer obser vation of the habits of birds may bave + Parliamentary Return , 15th March 1850.

# Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual, p. 234. § Thomson's Organic Chemistry - Vegetables, p. 843. || Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 384.

378

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

caused such a change in opinion, and it is rally more shy than the chaffinches, but less conducive to the cause of truth that obser-

so than the corn -buntings.

vations on the subject have been made ; for the prevalent opinion formerly was, 4697. The seed -bunting, or black -bon that every bird which consumed grain did net, Emberiza schæniculus, mostly lives so much unmitigated mischief ; whereas it on seeds, though the small patches of oats is now ascertained beyond doubt that on the crofts in the upland districts are every bird feeds its young on animal, and almost certain to attract its notice ; and

not entirely on vegetable food. Like most flocks of black -bounets will devour the changes of opinion, however, this one is half- ripened oats on such moorland crofts likely to reach the opposite extreme, and as late as October. Not being shy, it is the tendency at present inclines to the not easily scared from its food. It is denial of birds doing any damage to the migratory in mostparts of Scotland, depart products of the fields - always excepting ing in October, and reappearing in the game birds. The confirmed truth is, that beginning of April. birds are neither entirely insectivorous nor entirely granivorous, but that they gene4698. The corn -buuting, Emberiza rally feed their young with insects and miliaria, feeds wholly on grain, and in molluscs, while the adult bird itself eats early spring, together with the yellow such fruits and seeds as are found to their

hammer and others, devour considerable

liking in the products of the gardens and quantities of the newly sown seed - corn,

the fields. This being the real state of particularly oats and barley. After the the case, let us consider which of the birds breeding season it feeds on the ripening are most destructive to grain in the fields. seeds of beans, pease, wheat, vats, and 4695. The greenfinch , Linaria chloris,

barley, while during the autumn it feeds on the stubble lands; and at this season it

in the seed season, accompanied by their sits as close as the skylark, although it is

young brood, will attack almost every usually shy. It does not omit to visit the sort of seed that is ripe or ripening, but new -sown wheat on the fallows and after are more particularly destructive to turnip- potatoes. In winter it becomes remark seed and flax, where these are grown, and ably fat, and is superior as an article of

to oats among the ordinary grains. Oat food to most of our small birds. 66 It fields, and even wheat fields near woods could hardly be supposed ,” observes Mr

and hedges, suffer considerably, the green- Knapp, " that this bird , not larger than a finch being a great eater, its bill being lark , is capable of doing serious injury ; seldom idle, shelling and munching from yet I this morning witnessed a rick of sunrise to sunset.

barley, standing in adetached field,entirely

stripped of its thatching, which this bunt 4696. The yellow-hammer, or yellow- ing effected by seizing the end of the

yite, Emberiza citrinella, prefers for its straw, and deliberately drawing it out to own eating grain and seeds, particularly search for any grain the ear might yet oats; and in new -sown fields of oats, as contain ; the base of the rick being en

well as wheat, it may be seen busily pick- tirely surrounded by the straw , one end

ing up the grain from the moment it is resting on the ground, and the other sown till the period of its brairding. By against the snow , as it slid down from autumn, when the broods are reared and the summit, and regularly placed as if by the corn crops begin to ripen, they assem- the nd ; and so completely was the

ble with sparrows and corn -buntings, thatching pulled off, that the immediate and other plunderers, which leave little

removal of the corn became necessary.

alongside the hedges but empty husks on The sparrow and other birds burrow into the standing straw . When feeding in the the stack, and pilfer the corn ; but the deli stubble fields, they advance by very short berate operation of unroofing the edifice

leaps, with their breasts nearly touching appears to be the habit of the bunting the ground ; when apprehensive of danger, alone.” crouch motionless ; and when alarmed ,

Such a circumstance as this

shows the risks which stacks built in the

give intimation to each other by means of field run, when they might have been

their ordinary short note. They are gene- safely secured in the stackyard.

BIRDS DESTRUCTIVE TO CROPS.

379

4699. The common skylark, or laverock, to search among horse-dung for undigested Alauda arvensis, is much more destruc- grain. The chaffinch devours more seeds tive than the corn-bunting, both to the of weeds than of grain, and in that respect newly sown seed-corn and the ripening is useful in keeping them down, and may

crops, inasmuch as the species is greatly be ranked as a benefactor to the farmer more numerous; but who wonld grudge the laverock all that he can glean from the fields ? In winter larks assemble in vast flocks, grow very fat, and are taken in great numbers for the table. They cannot be considered of much importance as an article of food, yet vast numbers are sent to our markets in winter, especially in London, and some other English cities ; but in Scotland they are in little request. They taste well-- not better,however, than the corn-bunting, and are decidedly infe-

on the same footing as the goldfinch, Car duelis elegans. Dr Bechstein says “ that the passion for this bird is carried to such an extent in Thuringia, and those which sing well are sought for with so much activity, that scarcely a single chaffinch that warbles tolerably can be found throughout the province. In Rbul, a large manufacturing town in Thuringia, the in hab who are mostly cutlers, have such a passion for chaffinches, that some of them have gone ninety miles from home

riorto the blackbird, fieldfare, and thrush. to take with bird -lime one of those birds, At Bonneville, on my way from Geneva distinguished by its song, and have given to Mont Blanc, I was obliged to dine on one of their cows for a fair songster ; from

larks for want of more substantial fare. awhich has arisen their usual proverb chaffinch is worth a cow. A common 4700. The grey or brown linnet, rose lintie, Linaria cannabina, does much more damage to corn than is generally supposed . In the first place, it visits the

workman will give as much as 16s. fora

patches of fields of turnips left to ripen for

this country do not regard the song of the

chaffinch he admires, and will willingly

live on bread and water to save the money for this purpose." * The peasantry of

seed, (4188,) and then frequents the newly chaffinch as remarkably attractive. sown turnip -fields. When the young families begin to wander in small com-

4702. The house -sparrow , Passer do panies as the grain becomes ripe, they mesticus, is a well-known depredator in

devour large quantities of the standing our corn - fields. As the crop ripens, it corn , voraciously living upon it from the feeds upon grain and pease , which it moment it begins to whiten until led to the abundantly obtains during several weeks stackyard . After this period the smaller in autumn on the standing corn , and less

families associate in larger flocks , fre- profusely supplied in winter when it quently combining with the greenfinch , searches the stubbles. As Buffon observes, and subsist on the stubbles, until the

sparrows follow the sower in seed -time,

autumn wheat is sown , when they frequent and the reaper in harvest ; they attend the the newly sown fields and thin the seed- thrasher at the barns, and the poulterer corn in detached patches so much , that when he scatters grain to his fowls; they

the scantiness of the braird is ascribed to visit the pigeon -honse and pierce the craws the attacks of some grub . This linnet, of the young pigeons to extract the food .” however, is easily scared by watching.

It is supposed that a sparrow eats its

own weight of corn every day, when it 4701. The chaffinch, shilfa, Fringilla can get it for the taking ; and Buffon celebs, frequents the vicinityof housesin the estimates that a pair of sparrows will eat

autumn, searching for food in thefields and 20 lb. of corn every year. When as many ſarmyards, which consists of seeds of vari- as 3000 have been caught on one farm in ous kinds,but especially of oats and wheat. a single day with a net, one may calcu

As the winter approaches, they collect in late from such data the quantityof grain large flocks, and associate with green- they consume on a single farm.t finches, grosbeaks, yellow -hammers, and 4703. These are the principal small or sparrows, and other speciesof this order frequenting the farmyard, and settlingon roads passerine birds which infest the corn - fields. * Bechstein's Cage Birds, p. 183, note.

+ Quarterly Journal ofAgriculture, vol. vii. p. 284-98.

380

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

Others of a larger description also frequent such haunts, and among these the common pheasant, Phasianus colchicus, is accused of committing great havoc amongst grain crops. Its true habits are thus described by Professor Macgillivray : “ Its favourite places of resort are thick plantations or tangled woods by streams, where, among the long grasses, brambles, and other shrubs, it passes the night, sleeping on the

pease, and of the field -mustard and char lock. In spring it also feeds on the leaves of the turnip, and picks the young blades of the red and white clovers. At this season, I have several times found its crop distended with the farinaceous roots of Potentilla anserina, obtained in the

ploughed fields. This root is highly nu tritious; and formerly, in seasons of scar city, was collected in the West Highlands

ground in summer and autumn, but com- and Hebrides as an article of food, and

monly roosting on the trees in winter. eaten either boiled or roasted in the peat Early in the morning it betakes itself to the ashes. In summer they eat grass, and open fields to search for its food, which con- other vegetable substances ; in autumn,

sists of the tender shoots of various plants, grain, beech -mast, acorns, and leguminous

grasses, bulbous'roots, roots of grasses, seeds. The beech -masts and acorns they and Potentilla anserina, turnip tops, as swallow entire, their bill not being suffi

well as acorns and insects. In autumn, ciently strong to break them up .” * and the early part of winter, it obtains a

plentiful supply of grain, acorns, beech 4705. The wood- pigeon destroys the mast, and small fruits. In severe weather, growing cropin this manner, as described however, especially where great numbers by an eyewitness :-—“ The wood -pigeon

are kept, the pheasants require to be fed has a weak bill, but nature has provided with grain, when they learn to attend to her with very strong wings ; when the the call of the keeper.” In the natural flock , therefore, settle upon the lying por

state, and in small numbers, pheasants tion of a wheat field, instead of breaking prefer insects and the young shoots of off the heads and carrying them away, plants, to corn, of which they pick at a time they lay themselves down upon their only a few grains; but when semi-domes- breasts upon the grain, and using their

ticated, and congregating in large num- wings as flails, they beat out the pickles bers, they assume the babits of the domes- from theheads, and then proceed to eat tic fowl, and will eat and trample down ex- them . The consequence is, that, the

tensive patches of the growing corn , in the immediate vicinity of their preserves —and this they do between the ripening andthe reaping of the crop. The remedy against their destructive effects is to restrain their numbers within moderate bounds. Their numbers have multiplied greatly in Scot-

pickles having been thrashed out upon a mattingof straw, a great proportion of them fall down through it to the ground, and are lost even to the wood-pigeon : in short, they do not eat one pickle for twenty which they thrash from the stalk . I have repeatedly watched this process

land within my recollection, and are now from behind the trunk of a large willow certainly too numerous even for sport. tree, growing in a thick-set hedge on the

edge of a wheat field, and scen the opera

4704. A far more destructive bird, indi- tion go on within a couple of yards of me. vidually, than the pheasant, is the ringed The pigeons descend first singly; but, hav dove, or cushat, or wood - pigeon, Columba ing left a watcher upon the highest tree

palumbus. Its powers of destruction may in the neighbourhood, the whole flock are be estimated by the wholesale levy it soon at work on the same spot, and the makes on the products of the fields and of loss of grain to the farmer is very great. the woods, as thus enumerated by Profes- They are also gluttons in quantity ." + sor Macgillivray: From its roost in the This bird has increased to incredible num larger branches of trees, “ it issues at sun- bers in Scotland within the last thirty rise to search the open fields for its food, years. which consists of seeds of the cultivated

cereal grasses — wheat, barley, and oats ;

4706. The common partridge, Perdix

as well as of leguminous plants - beans and cinerea, doubtless devours grain in the * Macgillivray's British Birds, vol. i. p . 123 and 263. + Burn Murdoch's Obsertations on Game, p. 11 .

BIRDS DESTRUCTIVE TO CROPS.

fields ; but however plentifully it may breed in any locality, it leaves no marks of its effects upon any crop, and is always a favoured bird with people in the country.

381

learnt that the wind first breaks a stack at the eave, and not at the top, while, on the other hand, the top is the very part the

rook always breaks into, because it knows, probably by the smell, that the heads of 4707. The rook or crow , Corous frugi- sheavesstand accumulated there. These are

legus, has a bad reputation amongst far- all facts which I have myself observed of

mers, and not without cause ; for how- the rook , and they are sufficient in number

ever sedulonsly it will follow the plough to support the assertion that it is a destruc and harrow , in search of worms and in- tive bird to the farm . At the same time, the

sects, as long as it has to support its period, it becomes omnivorous, and will eat anything that comes in its way. It will pick meat clean off the bone — it will pick horse-flesh, as long as it is fresh - it

rook, in moderate numbers, would do no

young, there is no doubt that, after that material injury in the fields, and it is only

when it is nourished in excessive numbers, in large protected rookeries, that it does sensible injury. It is no palliation of their injury that rooks do no greater injury in

will eat fish - it will goto the sea -coast in the neighbourhood of large rookeries than

search of shell-fish, when food is scarce elsewhere, for, although they may not feed on the land — it will carry off and eat near their rookeries, they must go to find the stray eggs it may happen to find at food somewhere. He who asserts that the the steading—it will eat the boiled potatoes and oatmeal porridge set down for the poultry — and when a bowlof barley broth comes within its reach, it will soon empty

rook does no harm to crops, and does good alone by the removal of insects from the soil, must either be a prejudiced or inac curate observer of its habits.

it, and the sooner, the thicker the bar ley is in the broth - it will eat the boiled

4708. As to insects existing in the barley and pease out of the horses' mash- ground, there must be very large num tub-it will take up the young plants of bers in it every spring ; and of those

potatoes after they have sprouted for which might do harm to crops, that are their own sake, being then in a sweet state, ( 2809,) and not merely in search of any insects in them, as I have particularly determined — it will pull up the young plants of turnips, to get at insects that may happen to be near their roots in

the manure, and it is poor consolation to the farmer to be told that the plants were destroyed that insects might be captured

removed from the soil, by whatever means, the agents that remove them save the crops to that extent. But it does not follow that, because insects always exist in the soil, they must necessarily injure the crops sown in it ; for, if they did , since insects always inhabit the soil, the crops would invariably be injured to the same extent every year à result not in accor

-it will eat fruit off the trees — it will dance with the experience of any far mer. My belief is, that it is only when all kinds, and pick upon laid corn of more alightscratch than it can insects increase in any year, by circum out much and

eat — it alights also on stooks of corn , and pulls out the ears, and eats the grain— it will fly to a great distance to eat the crowberry, Empetrum nigrum — it will

stances unusually favourable to their exis tence, beyond what their ordinary food will support them, that they subsist on the

sown corn to an injurious extent. That break into the heads of stacks to get at the some corn is everyyear devoured by in

grain ; and in this respect MrWaterton is sects in the soil is a matter beyond doubt, notcorrect when he saysthat, “ in winter, the and the loss not being estimable any rookswill attack the corn -stackswhich have season, it is not complained of. lostpart of their thatch by a gale ofwind."* 4709. Many devices have been formed And he takes the occasion to rebuke the farmers of Yorkshire for being slovenly in to scare destructive birds from corn - fields most common delaying to repair the damage done by the and green crops, and theScarecrows

wind ; whereas, if he had observed more

one is the scarecrow .

are

closely and accurately, he would have made of various forms and materials ; but * Journal of Agriculture, July 1844, p. 505.

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

382

we all know that every tatie-doolie or serves , for the purpose of destroying shoy -hoy is habited in the similitude pheasants and other birds. During the of men or women . Pieces of bright last spring, ( 1846,) two blackcocks were tin

are

made to flicker in the

beams, at the end of a string.

sun-

sent to me for examination from tbe ex

Lines of tensive preserves of a nobleman in Scot

threads are hooked on from one object to land. They had been found dead on the another. But as soon as birds become ground. A quantity of arsenic was dis

familiarised with the permanent form of covered intermixed with oats and the any scarecrow , it loses its terrors. The shoots ofthe larch in the crops and gizzards contempt shown for them by birds is thus of each bird, and arsenic also existed in

described by Cobbett, in his own peculiar the pectoral muscles and soft organs. CG

manner :

Shoy-hoys," be observes, There had been previously a very large

“ exercise their influence but for a very destruction of game on the estate, as it

short space of time. The birds quickly was inferred, from poison . There is hardly perceive that their guardianship of the a doubt that, when the animal dies soon treasures of the farmer is a mere sham ;

after the ingestion of poison, and ob

and, like the sparrows in my neighbour's viously from its effects, the flesh would be garden at Botley, they will, in a short poisonous to man , although it might re time, make the top of the hat of a shoy- quire a large quantity of the fleshto pro

hoy a table, whereon to enjoy the repast duce a fatal result. Professor Christison which they have purloined .”

reports a case which renders this opinion highly probable. ” * 4710. Poison has been recommended for 4712. Gunpowder is the most effectual the destruction of sparrows, but in taking

their lives by this means, the lives of valu- means of any of scaring birds from fields,

able birds might be destroyed at the same ( 2809. )

Rags steeped in a solution of

time. Where ivy is plentiful, in which gunpowder, dried, and placed on the wind sparrows delight to harbour, a net has ward side of a field, will act as a scare as

captured as many as 3000 in one day. long as they last, but the renewal of them Sparrows are easily shot with a gun loaded is a troublesomebusiness. I contrived an with sparrow -hail, when congregated on a apparatus, which I named a rook battery, bare piece of ground, lured thereon by a to keep up a fire throughout the day, favourite sort of food being strewed upon it. with little trouble. It is seen in per spective in fig. 425. It consists of a cir

4711. In regard to the use of poison in killing birds, Dr Taylor makes these ob

Fig. 425.

servations in answer to the important

query , “Is the flesh of poisoned animals poisonous ? This is a question which it is necessary to consider , because poultry and game are not unfrequently poisoned wilfully or accidentally , and in this state they may be eaten unsuspectingly. It is well known that grain is often saturated with a solution of arsenic for agricultural

a

purposes before it is sown : if this grain be eaten by poultry, it will destroy them ; and a question may arise as to the effects which the flesh of the animals so poisoned is liable to produce on man. In other in stances, poison has been placed in the way of these animals with the malicious object

THE ROOK BATTERY ,

of destroying them. Thus oats saturated cular plate of strong tin, a b, eighteen

with arsenic, or with that poison inter- inches in diameter, upon the circumference mixed, have been placed in game pre

of which is soldered a hoop of equally

* Taylor On Poisons, p. 164.

BIRDS DESTRUCTIVE TO CROPS.

383

strong tin, three inches in height, and ther intimidate the rooks, and cause the through which are pierced twenty -four discharge of the cannons at longer inter enibrasures, three quarters of an inch vals to suffice. Both these means would square each, at equal distances from one also intimidate pigeons and small birds. another. At each embrasure is mounted The position of the battery should be a brass cannon, four inches in length, upon changed every day, and a piece of laid a carriage soldered to the bottom plate, corn is the best spot for erecting it on to

and removable at pleasure by means of a be most seen from a distance. It may be

clasp . The plate and rim are covered by set amongst potatoes, as also in aplotof a conical tin top, c, similar to the cover turnips growing for seed , (4188.) The of a street lamp, with an eave projecting number of such an apparatus required for one inch to prevent thedrip of rain run- a farm would depend on the number of ning down the rim . The cover is sur- the corn - fields subject to the attacks of

mounted with a cylindrical. lantern d, 24 inches high, pierced with holes. The cannon areloaded with finegunpowder, and wadded with woollen wadding to prevent

birds, and also on the succession in ripen ing of the different crops . Batteries could bemade of any size and to fire as often as desired ; and the smaller-sized ones,

its ignition . They are fired with a match when longer in use than all the cannons consisting of cotton thread dipped in a solu- can reach the time, the cannons might tion of saltpetre ; and the thread is brought be loaded oftener than once a -day. over and held upon the touch-hole of each cannon, by a bit ofcopper-wire attached 4713. No wild birds are so destructive to the carriage. The match -thread is to standing corn as the poultry of all kinds made longer and shorter as the time is at a farm - stead. Hens pull down the determined on between the discharge of standing stalks of corn , and, after shaking each cannon ; and to dispose of it for this a few grains out of an ear, leave it and

purpose, the central part of the plate ab is pull down another stalk ; and where the divided by perpendicular partitions of tin, corn is laid they scratch the straw and so arranged as to form numerous alleys, ears with their feet, and cause many more

along which the match -thread is made to grains to come out than they consume. traverse at that length as to burn it down Turkeys, being tall, are fully more de in time to reach the touch -hole at the given structive than hens, and are less easily

hour. Plate a b is affixed to a circular satisfied. Geese pull down standing corn, board e, nine inches in diameter, and one and nibble the grain out of the ear ; and

inch in thickness ; and in its circumference being stout .birds they munch the ears are attached three legs, f ff, which sup- pretty clean of the grains, but they tram port the apparatus in tripod form, at a height to elevatethe apparatus above the standing corn . The battery is placed in the part of the field most frequented by

ple laid corn quite flat, and entirely de stroy the straw . Ducks usually content themselves in shovelling off the ground the grain the hens and turkeys have spilt, but

the rooks, and where it may best be seen. they also trample laid corn flat. The Suppose that the guns are loaded and common pigeons rest much on the laid par

the match lighted at five in the morning, ticles of wheat, and pick the grains clean and that by eight at night it is time to out of the ears by shaking them in their cease firing, which is fifteen hours, in bills, when numbers of the grains fall be

which time thirty -seven and a half mi- tween the straws to the ground, ( 1606.) nutes will require to elapse between the

discharge of each of the twenty -four can4714. The only means of saving the nons. Such discharges are much more to growing crops near the steading from be depended on for regularity than the destruction by the poultry, is to confine

firing of any fowling-piece by a herd -boy. them all within the steading for a In addition to the discharges of the guns, period before the corn is ripe, until it is

if a piece of woollen rag, steeped in asolu- cut down, as they do comparatively little tion of gunpowder and dried , were placed barm to stooks. An excellent and con

in a cup of tin at d , immediately below venient place to confine them in summer the lantern of the cover, and set fire to, is in the court I, in the Ground-plan of the smoke arising from it would still fur- the steading on Plate II., which should

384

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

be covered over with netting. The sheep time ; but only those gimmers and ewes nets, fig. 44, will answer the purpose by which have been selected from the drafted

lashing their edges together, and suspend- ones (4007 ) are put to the tup. In ing them as high as to allow a person to a small flock , when both gimmers and ewes walk under them . Subdivisions could be do not exceed in number whatone tup can made both in the shed D as well as in the serve, they are classed together to be served

court, by means of hurdles, fig. 40, to keep by the sanie tup ; but in larger flocks the

the different sorts of poultry separate from gimmers and ewes are kept separate dur each other. Food and water must be ing the tupping period , and served by given them daily while under confine- different tups. ment, as well as sand and gravel to swal 4719. Both the ewes and gimmers low, and dry earth or ashes to burrow in, and no barm can overtake them. If a should have been for two or three weeks on number of the courts of the hammels M fresh grass, or rape, before the tup is put were covered over with netting, they to them, in order to bring the season upon

would form convenient divisions for sepa- them more quickly and simultaneously, rating the different classes of poultry. (4011.) Thus the farmer possesses ample means 4720. Before the tups are put to the of accommodating the poultry in the steading at a season when it is not occu- ewes, the under part of their brisket is pied by the other stock , and thus saving coloured with keil or ruddle, (3591 ,) in

the crops of the neighbouring fields from destruction. The value of all the corn and straw destroyed by poultrymaynot amount to much in value, and it will cost as much, and more perhaps, to maintain them

order to let the shepherd know which ewe he has served by leaving the red mark of the keil upon her rump. The keiling requires to be daily renewed when the tupping is active, and when the weather

underconfinement;but the neglectful man- is damp.

agement evinced in allowing the poultry to roam at large when the temptation of a

4721. A shearling tup (925) will serve

corn field is near, is discreditable to every 60 ewes or gimmers, and an aged tnp 40 ; farmer.

and these numbers should never be ex

ON PUTTING THE TUPS TO TIIE EWES.

ceeded when produce is desired to be strong and healthy. When tups are too fat they become lazy, and serve the ewes reluc

tantly ; and when such is the case with a 4715. When the 8th to the 11th of Oc- favourite tup, he should be put with a few

tober has arrived, the tups should be put ewesinto a small paddock of grass,

where

amongst the ewes for the purpose of pro- he will have little occasion to travel about. ducing lambs to support the standing Gimmers are more restless in the serving flock of the farm , as also for disposal in than ewes, on which account, should an the market. aged tup serve them, he should receive the fewer number. Tups that have served 4716. The ewes now tupped may be ewes long are apt to become spavined in expected to lamb ( 2546 ) about the 8th to the hind hocks, in consequence of baving 11th of March following — the period of to sustain the great weight of their carcase gestation of the ewe being 5 months, or at in the act of serving. least 151 days. 4722. Tup -hoggs (924) are never al 4717. About the beginning of October lowed to serve ewes or gimmers, not bav

the skin on the flanks of the tups (924) becomes red, which is best observed when the animal is turned up ; and this redness is the certain and only symptom that the tups feel the desire to serve the ewes.

ing attained maturity in any particular ; though one is at a time made to stimu late the activity of an aged tup ; and whenever he dares approach a ewe, he is driven off by the old fellow. To pre vent bim effectually from serving a ewe,

4718. The gimmers, (924) as well as a piece of cloth named a brat, or apron,

the ewes, ( 925) are put to the tups at this is sewed to the wool below his belly.

TUPPING EWES.

When particular ewes are not desired to be served until a specified time, a piece of cloth is sewed on the wool behind them , to hang over the tail. When fastened on

385

notice what ewes are tupped in succession, and which of them return in season, that be may know the succession in lambing of every ewe, ( 2546. )

below the tail, as is sometimes done, the

ewe is interfered with in making water.

4727. After 3 weeks have elapsed from putting the tup amongst the ewes, he 4723. Tups are not selected for ewes should be withdrawn ; as lambs begotten

by mere chance, but for such qualities as so long after the rest, will never coincide may improve those in the ewes. When with the flock . After serving, tups should

ewes are nearly perfect, they may be be put on good pasture, as they will have selected for breeding tups. A good ewe lost much of their condition, feeling indis flock should exbibitthese characteristics : posed to eat their ordinary quantity of food

- a strong bone, which, supporting a during the tupping season. roomy frame, affords space for a large development of flesh, - an abundance of

4728. The ewes and gimmers may now .

wool of good quality, which clothes all be put together on such ordinary pasture the body in inclement weather, and in- as the farm affords.

During the antumnal

sures profit to the breeder,-a disposition months they will find plenty of food on to fatten early, which enables the breeder such ; and for the winter, a rough pasture to dispose of his draft-sheep readily,- field should have been reserved for them .

and prolificacy, which increases the flock When none such has been reserved, they rapidly, and is also a source of profit. will require a few turnips every day ; but Each one of these properties is advan- you should bear in mind, that a fat ewe

tageous in itself, and when all are com- always bears a small lamb, (2565,) and is bined in the same individuals, the flock very subject to inflammatory fever after bas attained a high degree of perfection. lambing ; and from the recovery of which will probably have a scantiness of milk.

4724. In selecting tups, you should Swedish turnips produce fatness on ewes observe whether or not they possess one or more readily than other kinds, so that white

more of the above qualities, in which the turnips should be reserved for them should ewes may be deficient; and if they do, they receive turnips at all ; but the rough their union with the ewes will produce in their progeny a higher degree of perfection than exists in the ewes themselves. But, should the ewes be superior in all points

pasture is greatly more for their advantage than any turnip, and a little oil-cake, 1 lb. a -day to each in addition, will bring them through any period of severe weather.

to the tups examined, no such tups ought 4729. On carse, dairy, and pastoral farms, on to be used , as they will certainly deteriorate the progeny, part of which will have to which only wethers are reared, as also on farms in the neighbourhood of large towns, no standing make up the future ewe flock . flock of breeding ewes are kept. 4725. Most of the ewes will be tupped 4730. On pastoral farms on which breeding by the second week the tup bas been is pursued , a standing rule should be, not to put amongst them , and in the third week they the tups to the ewes till such a period that the may not appear in spring before a suffi will all be served. It is likely that some lambs ciency of food is found to support the ewes. of the first served ewes will return in sea

son, and will have to be tupped again

4731. On the middle district of mountain pas

amongst the last served , the season return- turage, theCheviot breed is chiefly bred in Scot ing on ewes in a fortnight. When ewes land ; and their

tupping season is from the 15th to the 22d of November, with the expectation of

do not that return season, it may con cluded theyin are in lamb ; andbe those

receiving lambs from the 15th to the22d of April.

which again exhibit symptoms of season,

4732. A few days should always be allowed

after being served again, at an interval of a to elapse before the tups are put to the gimmers, fortnight,will not likely be in lamb, and will because, being less able than ewes to endure the hardships of lambing and of giving suck, their become tup-eild or barren ewes, ( 929.) lambing season should be the longer postponed, until the weather is milder, and the pasture

4726. It is the duty of the shepherd to yields more nourishing food. VOL . II .

2 B

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

386

4733. The number of ewes or gimmers to a having occurred amongst both lambs and ewes tup should be 60, but where the grazing is more are of rare occurrence, and confined to seasons than ordinarily steep, a smaller proportion of

of unusual severity.

ewes would be advisable . *

4734. In regard to the management of Blackfaced sheep on the highest mountain districts, the following observations of Mr Little are very sensible : - “ Taking the seasons on an average ,” he says, “ since I had anything to do with sheep , and the average of situations where I have had opportunities of making observations, I consider

4737. Letting of tups. — Breeders of tups, besides disposing of them out and out at stated prices, by private bargain , appoint a day in autumn for

lettingtheir spare tups for the season, by auction, to the highest bidder, on the condition of being returnedin good health and condition at the end of the tupping season . Times I have seen , when

the 27th November as being the most proper time

£50 have been obtained for the use of a Leices ter tup for the season , and 60 ewes were the

for letting the tups to the ewes. Those whose

most he could serve ; now £5 is nearer the mark,

situations are favourable for an .early lambing-

not because tups were so much better then , but

because fine tups are now everywhere to be found in the country . This mode of disposing of extra will derive advantage by their being let so early, stock is a good one, both for the breeder, who as what is gained in size and strength by the thereby realises an annual profit, and for the lambs is lost in condition by the ewes. Besides, hirer, who thus finds a suitable opportunity for there is a greater risk of bad weather and less improving his flock . time, might let the tups to the ewes a week sooner ; but very few breeding mountain stocks

grass, than when the lambing season is later. In bad situations, a few days or a week later in the

lambing-time ought to be preferred, as safest for preserving the condition of the ewes and the lives

of the lambs ; and although the lambs should be a little younger, they can be allowed to suck a little longer, as the ewes are able to afford milk,

without injuring themselves, when the land is full of grass, than in a barren spring. Besides, those farmers that have least grass in spring

have most in autumn, and this brings them nearly on a level with farms that have early grass, taking the whole year round. Whatever time the tups are let to the ewes, all the ewes that

4738. But the sheep thus offered to be let ought to be presented in their natural state - that is, washed and cared for in every pos sible way, as to food and shelter, but not trimmed, for the purpose of imposing qualities on them which they do not possess. Such a prac tice cannot be too much deprecated ; and I am happy to say that most of our Scottish tup

breeders possess more integrity than to be lured into it. The English breeders, however, have

fallen into the snare, and carry it to such an absurd pitch that a novice even, of the points of a sheep, could easily detect one of their

are intended to bring forth lambs the same sea- trimmed sheep. son ought to be let to at the same time, as the best time for the young and lean is certainly the 4739. It is necessary to explain to you that Every shepherd trimming, or dressing, consists in clipping away best for the others. knows that, among hill sheep, the ewes are much with the shears the points of the locks of wool more kindly to their lambs , and careful about over all the body, where they are considered to them , when they are themselves in good condi- injure the appearance, or to affect the symmetry .

.

tion and have plenty of milk , than when low in condition and scarce of milk . The later in the

season that lambing -time is, they have a better chance of being in good condition, and having plenty of milk ; and it rarely happens that the

olderlambs are the best at weaning time.” +

of the sheep; and the clipping is carried to such

a degree that, on close-woolled sheep, such as the Southdown, the trimming is exercised over the entire body, so as to produce apparently fine

points of symmetry in those parts of the sheep in which it is naturally deficient. This is nothing less than intentional fraud, to take in the igno

4735. Threescore ewes will be enough for one

rant and the unwary ; for no judge can be de

tup, and tups should never be longer than four orfive weeks with the ewes, as every ewe tupped

ceived by it, and no one aware of the practice but must discover it at once. The eye of the in

later than that period is injured for the ensuing season , and her lamb never turns out to good

experienced might be deceived by it at first, but the handling will dispel the illusion instantly. Such a practice is countenanced at all, I suppose ,

account.

for no better reason than is the hefting of cows

4736. When overstocking mountain pasture prevailed some years ago, soscanty was the food for ewes in late seasons, that thousands of lambs were swept away with a fatal mortality, and the

( 2250) of their milk , because it is a custom . For the sake of fair dealing, it is hoped that this fraudulent practice will be forthwith aban doned.

ewes also perished through the dire disease of the hunger rot; but now, when mountain pasture

4740. The yellous. — The yellows is a complaint is stocked, like other pastures, according to its to which ewes are subject in autumn. It is jaun capability, not only is the stockmaintained on it dice ,exhibiting yellowness ofthe eye, the mucous all the year round in better condition, but such cases of epidemic death as I have mentioned as

membranes, and the urine. Bleeding,and purging with aloes and calomel, are the appropriate reme

* A Lammermuir Farmer's Treatise on Sheep, p. 73-4 . + Little's Practical Observations on Mountain Sheep, p. 74-5.

BATHING SHEEP . dies. Fat draft - ewes which have fed some time upon aftermath are most liable to the disease.

Inflammation of the liver is the cause, in which the pain of the affected part is very obscure, and the natural language of the sufferer not very expressive; nor is the symptomatic fever marked. Here a striking analogy is noted between the lower animals and man, inasmuch as there is

387

he used to gain 5 or 6 weeks on his neigh bours ."

4743. I have already said, ( 947,) that when sheep have access to salt, they are never known to be affected with rot. I have little doubt, that

had oil- cake been put within their power in such a wet and cold summer as 1817, they would have

generally a sympathetic pain in the right shoul-

escaped the malady. Change of pasture from a

der, so strongly marked, as often to be mistaken

wet to a dry situation may be the means of cur

for the principal disorder, and treated accord-

ing the rot, atan early stage of the disease. All land that has been irrigated in summer, and pro

ingly . Whenever you observe, therefore, a lameness of the right leg of any fat sheep

on foggage, you may suspect the existence of yellows, and examine the inside of the eye-

duces a rank growth of grass in autumn, should be avoided by sheep as much as a pestilence.

Soft spongy soil, clayey, and never free of mois

lid, and observe whether any yellowness exists

ture, in its natural state, will affect sheep with

there.

rot when grazed upon it. Draining would ren der such land sound; and sheep -drains have made many pastures so, that were formerly subject to the complaint every year. When the rot is in

4741. The rot. — The rot is a serious disease, causing the death of numbers of a flock in a short period. Deficient food in summer , and a flush of rank wet grass in autumn, injure the health and constitution of sheep. In the wet

and cold season of 1817, when sheep could not

evitable, sheep cannot be long kept on the same farm , but must be sold in the course of a few months ; and the safest flock , in such circum stances, is a flying-stock, especially of ewes, for

obtain a mouthful of good food in summer, and

they are the most easily affected with rot. Lime

when the autumn arrived, accompanied with a flush of wet herbage, I knew a farmer on the Cheviot hills who lost 300 Cheviot ewes in the

has rendered land sound, which was subject to rot even after it had been drained . Sudden frost and thaw, alternately , in spring, produce

course of a few weeks by this disease.

rot, according to the old proverb Mony a frost, and mony a thow , Betaken mony a rotten yow.

4742. The early symptoms of rot are very ob scure - a circumstance much to be lamented , as it

is in the first stage alone that it admitsof cure. “ The animal is dull," observes Mr Youatt ; “ lagging behind his companions, he does not feed so well as usual. If suspicion has been a little

excited by this, the truth ofthe matter may easily

4744. Flukes.-The liver of rotten sheep al

ways contains the well-known animal the fuke, so named from its striking resemblance to a flounder. Its nature has not yet been satisfac

torily examined. It was named Fasciola by Lin

be put to the test ; for if the wool is parted, and

and Distoma hepatica by Rudolphi. Its especially about the brisket, the skin will have a næus, intestinal ducts contain great numbers of grains pale yellow hue. The eye of the sheep begin- of a pale red colourlike sand, which aresupposed ning to sicken with the rot can never be mis taken : it is injected, but pale; the small veins at the corner of the eye are turgid , but they are filled with yellow serous fluid, and not with blood. The caruncle, or small glandularbody at

to be its eggs ; and as no difference of sex has

been observed , it is believed to be a hermaphro dite.

It is supposed that its eggs find their way

to the grass,fromwhich sheep receive them into their stomach, and thus are supposed to find their

the corner of the eye, is also yellow . Farmers, way into the liver. The eggs are found in the very properly, paygreat attention to this in their biliary ducts,in the intestinal canals, andeven in examination or purchase of sheep. If the caruncle is red , they have a proof, which never fails

them , that the animal is healthy. If that body

the dung of healthy sheep ; and they swarm in the dung of rotten ones. The ducts of a single

liver have been found to contain more than a

is achite, they have no great objection or fear - it thousand, while the germs are quite innu is generallyso at grass ; but if it is of a yellow merable.. colour, they immediately reject the sheep, al though he may otherwise appear to be in the very best possible condition ; for it is a proof

that the liver is diseased , and the bile beginning to mingle with the blood. There is noloss of condition, but quite the contrary ; for the sheep, in the early stage of rot, has agreat propensity

ON THE BATHING AND SMEARING OF SHEEP.

to fatten . Mr Bakewell was aware ofthis, for he 4745. Immediately after the tups are used tooverflow certain of his pastures, and when put to the ewes, arrangements are made

the water was run off, turn those of hissheep fora part of the sheep stock to be prepared upon them which he wanted to prepare for the market. They speedily became

to be fattened on turnips (901 ,) and the

fat with wonderful rapidity. By this manouvre

preparation consists ofbathing them with, or in a particular liquid . I have said that

rotted ,and in the earlystageof the rot theyaccumulated flesh and

* Youаtt On Sheep, p. 445-62 ; Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. v. p. 503, and vol. vi. p. 331-34 ; Parkinson On Lite Stock, vol. i. p. 419.

388

PRACTICE-AUTUMN.

sheep are affected by a troublesome insect , the keb or ked, or sheep -tick , fig. 308,— which increase so much in numbers, as the wool grows, as to be troublesome to the sheep in autumn; and were means not taken to remove them , the annoyance they would occasion would cause the sheep to rubthemselves upon every object they could find, to a degree to tear their fleece, and

deteriorate its value considerably.

in the proportion of 1 lb. of tobacco to 20 sheep, it is put into a boiler with 1 quart of water to each 1 lb. of tobacco, and boiled gently for several hours. The tobacco is then wrung out, and the liquor taken out of the boiler; and the tobacco again returned into the empty boiler with half a quart of fresh water to each 1 lb. of the original weight, and boiled as long as any colouring matter is obtained from it, when it is wrung out and thrown away.

4746. Another reason for bathing sheep The water boils in to 1 quart to the 1 16. is, that on experiencing so great a change of the tobacco, and forms a decoction much of food, as from grass to turnips, cutaneous stronger than an infusion. eruptions are apt to appear on the skin, even to the exhibition of the scab ,

4749. The soft soap is also used in the

( 1071 ,) which deteriorates the fleece even proportion of 1 lb.to 20 sheep, and it dis more than the rubbing occasioned by the solves thoroughly in a sufficient quantity ked. In severe cases of scab, bathing is of warm water. too mild an application, mercurial oint 4750. The flour of sulphur is mixed ment being required. When lambs are rubbed with this ointment, inflammation with the soap in the proportion of 2 oz. to will ensue if warm weather follows, though 20 sheep, with which it combines, and

ewes stand the application much better. assists in preserving the colour ofthe wool But I believe that spirit of tar by itself, from the staining of the tobacco-liquor. or diluted with a little tobacco -liquor, is as efficacious and a much safer remedy.

4751. The tobacco -liquor is put into a tub, and the solution of soft soap is inti

4747. The liquid to be used as a bath, mately mixed with it, the sulphur being to be of service, should combine the pro- put in last, and the whole mixed together. perties of killing the ked with certainty,

and of preventing eruptions on the skin, 4752. A tin flask easily holding one without injury to the staple of the wool ; quart, and provided with a handle and long

and both these ends are attained by the spout, small at the end, is used to pour the use of tobacco-liquorand spirit of tar, the bathalong the shedded wool of the sheep , former instantly destroying the ked , and and is represented by fig. 426. the latter acting as a preservative to the

Fig. 426 .

skin, ( 1070.) The bath is necessary for all classes of sheep, to kill the keds ; but

the spirit oftar is specially useful for sheep bought to fatten on turnips, as travelled sheep are almost always affected with cuta neouseruptions, and particularly theBlack faced breed direct from the hills, after they have been on turnips for some time. As a matter of safety for a sound and clean flock, every sheep that is purchased ,

whether for feeding on turnip or increas

A BATII - JUG .

ing the flock , should be bathed immediately on its arrival on the farm , and before it mixes with the standing flock.

4753. The spirit of tar is measured into a wine -glass from a grey beard,and poured into the flask of bath when about to be

4748. The materials used in the bath

used, in the proportion of half a wine -glass

are tobacco, spirit of tar, soft soap, and to 1 quart, and the mixture stirred. sulphur. The tobacco is best in the state of leaf, but I understand it is illegal for 4754. Some people mix stale human tobacconists to sell it in that state. Taken urine with the bath to make it stronger,

1

BATHING SHEEP.

389

but spirit of tar is more powerful than any c, its greatest width being across at d . The anmoniacal gas.

legs e e,are 18 inches high, attached by

means of iron bolts passing through their 4755. This is an effective bath, and upper part and the frame of the stool, and inexpensive, the tobacco being 3s. 6d. secured with nut and screw . per Ib., a bottle of spirit of tar 6d., soft soap5d.,and sulphur ls. perlb . - making the 4757. Dry weather should be chosen for cost 5s.6d. for 20, or 24d. for each sheep. bathing sheep, else the rain will wash away the newly applied bath .

4756. A useful implement in bathing sheep is the bath -stool, fig. 427, which Fig. 427.

4758. Coarse aprons should be worn by those who apply bath to sheep, it being a dirty process.

4759. The bathing is conducted in this way : The sheep being penned, one is caught and placed on the stool upon its

belly, fig. 428, with its 4 legs hanging through the spars, and its head towardsthe shepherd, who sits astride on the seat. The staple of the wool is divided by the shep

herd with the thumbs of both bands, begin

e

ning at the head and ending at the tail of the sheep ; and when he has made one shed , THE BATH - STOOL FOR SHEEP.

is made of the best ash .

It consists of a

an assistant, a field worker,pours the liquor from the flask, following the hands of the

seat a, for the shepherd to sit on while shepherd in their passage along the shed, bathing the sheep, 1 foot square ; a which he keeps open from the tail to the

sparred part 3 feet long, has a frame head of the sheep. Fig. 428 shows the bathed sheep in a different pen from the un

and bars 30 inches wide in front from b to

Fig. 428 .

И

BATHING SHEEP .

bathed ; the process ofbathing as described: measure, the greybeard containing the also the tub of tobacco - liquor, the quart spirit of tar, and the wine- glass, all at hand .

390

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

4760. The sheds made are one along each on which account their bathing ought side of the back-bone, one along the ribs on to be conducted with great care, as a

each side, one along each side of the belly, twist or rack given to the body in catch one along the nape of the neck, one along ing, or in lifting them hastily off the

each side of the neck, and one along the ground, or in putting them recklessly upon counter. From these sheds the bath will the stool,may cause them to cast lamb; and, spread over thewhole body. The sheep is in case of such an accident, the sooner they turned on its sides and its back, to obtain are bathed after being tupped the better,

easyaccess to these several parts. When the the body then not being much under the sheep is lying on its back on the stool, its legs are not tied, so the assistant sbould be aware of receiving a kick from the hind feet on the face, or on the flask. Some

influence of the fetus. I am not aware that any case of ewes casting their lamb can be traced to this particular cause, but it is certain that injury to the body of any

liquor is put on the tail, head, scrotum , female in the period of gestation is liable inside of the thighs, brisket, root of the to cause abortion ; and there is no reason

neck, and top of the shoulder, because why injuries sustained at bathing should these are the parts most likely to be affect- not produce that effect, as well as other

ed by scab, and are chiefly the seats of occasions of injury. I dare say this parti the nidi of insects. The shepherd and his cular source ofinjury to ewes has hitherto assistant will bath 40 sheep in a day.

been overlooked both by farmers and shep herds.

4761. Shortly after bathing, the keds willbe seen adhering to the points of the 4764. The tups ( 928) are bathed imme wool, dead ; and the fleecesof those sheep diately before or after the ewes. which have been much infested by this vermin will be speckled thick with their

4765. A syringe has been recommended

bodies. Sheep exhibit different effects by keds : those which recover from a lean to a

to be used to bath sheep, because it can be introduced amongst the wool without dis better condition, on change of food, are turbing the adherence of the staples of the most liable to be overrun with them , as fleece,which shedding must do. No doubt, some cattle are with lice when improving fleeces that have been shedded are more in condition on turnips, ( 1375. ) Onthis ac- apt to be blown asunder by the wind, but count the ked may be expected to increase only for a short time, after which they

rapidlyon sheep which have been some time

recover their coherence ; and the uncer

on turnips, and hence the necessity of tainty of knowing whether or notthe whole bathing sheep before putting them on tur- body has been covered with the bath when

nips. Hoggs are most liable to their attack, because, perhaps, they get most rapidly into condition after being weaned, and because they bear the largest quan-

applied by a syringe, more than counter balances any advantage the fleece may derive from being kept entire. From the viscid nature of thebath, it is pro

tity of wool, (3942.)

bable that a syringe will not eject the liquid at all times with the same effect.

4762. Hoggs (924) are bathed first, because, being put early on turnips — say the middle ofOctober—they should be prepared before the ewes have returned from the tups.

Such an instrument, in the bands of a rude operator, might tear off piles of wool un hidden to view, and even abrade the skin. I am disposed to believe that the manual operation of bathing will not easily be superseded by mechanical means.

4763. Ewes (925) should not be bathed till after being tupped, as the smell of the 4766. Instead of bathing sheep in this bath might counteract the effluvium of the manner,which isone of long standing,it has season, and deceive the tup ; and its effects been recommended to dip them bodily in upon the skin may even prevent the sea- tubs containing a bath -liquor. It is evident

son coming in a regularcourse upon the that any liquid, to be applied with certainty Be the effects of bath what they to the entire body of the sheep through its

ewe.

may, the safe practice is not to bath wool, must be as limpid as water; and,

flock -ewes till after being tupped ; hence, all dipping compositions are dis

BATHING SHEEP.

solved in large quantities of water.

391

A has contrived a dipping mixture, which

solution of corrosive sublimate will easily kills vermin in sheep, and is said to im kill keds and harden the skin, and it is prove the wool. The mixture is sold in as limpid as water. I would not myself packets. A packetful is dissolved in 2

employ any composition that contains imperial gallons of boiling water for 10 arsenic.

minutes, and poured into alarge tub, con taining 40 gallons of cold water. To this

4767. Mr Bigg's sheep - dipping compo- is added 4 lb. of soft soap, and the quantity sitionis soldat 9d. per Ib ., or incasksof will bath 50 hoggs. It will destroy all

100 lb., sufficient to dip 500 sheep, for kinds ofvermin insheep in half-an -hour, £3, 10s., wbich is rather more than 14d. but at what cost I have not heard. per sheep, and is thus a cheap appli 4769. The apparatus in which the sheep are dipped is shown in operation by fig.

cation .

4768. Mr Wilson, chemist in Coldstream , 429, which consists of a wooden box for Fig. 429.

WILSON'S SAEEP - DIPPING APPARATUS.

holding the bath, 34 feet in length at top, for use. The apparatus may be conveyed and 2 feet 9 inches in width, and 32 feet to any given place on cast -iron wheels, in length at bottom and 2 feet in width, and horse shafts might also be attached to it. givingthe box a projection at the top over the bottom of 9 inches.

This box will

4770. Three men and a field -worker are

easily contain 100 gallons of the dipping required to use the apparatus, and they con liquid. Close to the right upper edgeof the box is a drainer, 18 inches in width, consisting of spars of wood ; and below it is an inclined plane the lower edge of

duct the process in this manner :-Every sheep is held by two men, one on each side of the box. One man holda the head with the left hand, and the two fore-legs with

which passes through the side of the box the right; theother holds by thetwo hind and conveys the dropped liquid into it legs. They dip the entire body of the again. The sheep are slid down an inclined sheep, with the back undermost,with the

plane into the pen. The pen is 8 feet in exception of the head, in the bath for a length, and 4 feet in width, and capable few seconds.

They then place the sheep

of containing "10 or 12 hoggs at a time. upon the drainer where the field -worker A wicket at the end of it allows the sheep squeezes the bath out of the wool with her

to go out. Its floor is boarded and grooved, hands, which returns immediatelyinto the to allow the liquid dripped from the sheep box by the inclined plane below the to run to an orifice, from which it is drawn

drainer. The sheep is then slid down on

off by a cock, and again put into the box its side on the inclined plane into the pen

392

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

by the field -worker, where it remains for

4774. Now the practice of smearing is unsup

a time to drip the bath out of the wool. ported either by theory or common sense ; for over the skin with an should plastering adhesivesubstance protect The third man catches and brings the sheep why the body from cold,

to the men at the box, to be bathed, from whileits natural clothing of wool is incapable the enclosure in which they are confined of affording 'it the warmth required ? Does

by hurdles, fig. 40, or nets, fig. 44. In this not the plugging up of the pores of an animal's its health ? Why should an exter way three men and a boy dipped 28 scores skin injuretion

of hoggsin 7hoursat Paston ,Roxburgh- nalapplica totheskinpromote the growth shire. This is quick work , and is a great the body of the animal ? No doubt, tery lean saving of time and labour, as also of bath. sheep may be injured from the united effects of Cheviot hoggs have clipped 6 lb. or 7 lb. rain and cold ; but sheep in such condition are not sufficiently covered with wool to protect of wool aftersuch dipping,and the process their lean bodies from the elements . Common bids fair to supersedethe bath of tobacco sense suggests that a thick covering of flesh and liquor and spirit of tar described above. fat on the bodies will withstand cold and throw off rain better than tar, while the natural func

4771. Wilson's dipping liquid being tions of theskin will be preserved ;that a thick poisonous , care is necessary in putting of wool better than butter and that a thick away the last portion of it which not covering of wool, flesh, and fat, will ward off used by the sheep, so as none of the pigs cold and rain better than any substitute that and the poultry may be poisoned by it. I man can apply. Food and shelter, then, are

am not acquainted with the composition alonewantingtofree hill-flocks fromthe filthy process of smearing ; and it is satisfactory to of this dipping liquid, and therefore can observe hill-farmers arriving at the conviction of not recommend it on its own merits; but

the insufficiency of smearing, as an equivalent for

Mr Wilson's dipping apparatus is a most food and shelter. But still mountain sheep, like convenient one , and may be used with any all others, ought to be relieved from the annoy .

dipping composition, and has evidently ance of vermin. been constructed from practicalexperience,

4775. But another circumstance, extrinsic of

and does not impose a peculiar mode of the farm , tends to force thesame conviction on

dipping to suit its construction, as other hill-farmers, in the desire of the woollen manu apparatus does which I have seen , on

facturers to obtain wool free of extraneous matter,

because it in suitsthetheir purpose better manufacture which account I have noticed it in pre- lesseaste wool , than inthecausing ference to other forms.

ordinarily supplied from hill -farms. The waste in scouring and dyeing wool that has been smeared 4772. Wherever sheep are kept as a standing is one-half ; and when it is smeared with tar and flock over the winter in the low country ,bathing butter, it is five-eighths of its bulk . Hence the is requisite ; and when sheep are bought in to low price always offered by dealers for smeared be put on turnips in winter, as is most frequently

wool

It might be impolitic to relinquish smear

done on farms in the neighbourhood of towns, ing entirely , until other means have been con bathing must there be also practised. On carse trived as a substitute. The sudden abandonment

farms, where no sheep are kept, the process is of smearing might endanger the health and con unknown.

stitution of hill- sheep.*

4773. Hill flocks are prepared for the winter

4776. There are many varieties of salves in

by putting substances upon the skin, not merely for the purpose of killing vermin, but of protect-

use, and trials of new ones every year evince the dissatisfaction of hill-farmers in them , because

ing their bodies against the effects of severe cold

they have failed , and I have no hesitation in

and rain . For this latter purpose a thin liquid

will not suffice ; it must have such a consistence

affirming they will all fail, as substitutes for flesh and fat, to raise wool worth the manufac

as to withstand melting by the natural temperature of the body, and washing away by the most

turer's consideration.

drenching rains.

salve approved of by several hill- farmers, it would appear that its chief quality consists in

The substances which possess

those properties in a high degree are tar and

butter. The tar itself would effect both purposes, as its pitchy tenacity prevents its melting at a low temperature, and rain has little effect upon

From the remarks of Mr

Boyd of Innerleithen , on the efficacy of a new destroying vermin.f That vermin ought to be destroyed at all hazards, is certain, from the cir cumstance that when sheep of every sort, and

it ; but the butter is added to neutralise the caustic effect of the tar upon the skin , and at the

especially those on the hills, are annoyed by them , they will not settle to their food, but will

same time to encourage the growth of the wool.

rub against every object they can find-a stone,

When the skin of a sheep is covered with such tree-stump, earthy banks, or roots of heather substances, it is said to be smeared . and tear off their wool, and expose themselves * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv . p. 652-62. + Ibid., vol. xiv. p. 62-3.

BATHING SHEEP.

393

more and more to the effects of the weather. position as when the first shed is opened from the They will also run about impatiently, and become heated, and then become chilled by the first blast they afterwards may encounter. Rain makes vermin more active, and the annoyance created by their increased activity is almost fit to render sheep frantic.

ear along the upper part of the ribs, and about 5 or 6 inches from the back, to a little below the

loin bone, the mixture, which should be poured in double quantity, may run towards the middle of the back, and it will serve to saturate all the

wool left unopened towards the back . Other 3

4777. The three following salves are recommended, and considered improvements, by the

long sheds on the side, 2 on the edge of the belly, 2 on the shoulder and neck, with a little salve on the breast, between the thighs, and the front of

farmers of Peebles and Selkirk shires, on those in common use . The first, at the price of grease butter in 1850, from 34s. 6d. to 36s. per cwt., is

the other side of the sheep, and lay it exactly in the same position as at first, that is, with the

as follows : 3. d.

lb. crude white arsensic, at 5d . per lb.

0 33

28 1b. butter at 33 per lb. 5 lb. black- soap, at 3d.per lb., gallon turpentine, at 3s. per gallon,

8 9 1 3 1 6

the hip, will suffice for one side. Then turn up back lowermost, the do. liquid running pour Then towards will readily it, whichtoit facilitate on this side as was done on the other, always taking care not to carry the sheds towards the tail farther than in a line drawn from the top of

the loin to the middle of the thigh . The descent 11 93

from that line being towards the tail, the liquid

will find its way to that part. The principal This compound, with 60 quarts of water, forms object to be attended to in the above process is a salve for 100 sheep, and costs something less to keep the exposed parts of the animal as free than 1 ?d. a sheep. The water being heated, serves to keep the salve in a liquid state during the time it is applied to the sheep ; and too much

of sheds in the wool as possible, which will thus be done, and yet the whole of the wool be suf ficiently saturated with the mixture.” * The

attention cannot be bestowed on stirring the

hinder part of a sheep bears the coarsest wool,

mixture, as the arsenic is apt to fall to the bottom ; and on spreading the salve evenly on the skin .

and as the sheep always exposes that part to the storm , and as the top of the back is most exposed to falls of rain, these particular parts being kept

This salve was proposed by Mr Ballantyne, Holy.

lee, in Peeblesshire,and differs from that adopted

free of sheds, the wool will there scarcely be

by the farmers in 1833 by the addition of the

thrown open by the wind. When using this

turpentine, which, having resinous properties, is

liquid, the shepherd should protect his legs with

said to keep the wool closer over the sheep.

a leathern apron, and a man and a boy will pour

4778. Another of the salves consists of the

following ingredients :

70 sheep in a day ; but when everything is con veniently placed, and no delay occurs, they will pour 80 in that time. It should be remarked,

S. d.

1 lb. arsenic, at 5d. per lb., 12 lb, butter, at 33 per lb., 3 lb. black soap, at 3d. рег lb.

2 bottles of best fish-oil, at 3s. per gallon,

0

5

however, that all animal oils give a brown tinge,

3 0

9 9

and moss-water, when employed to wash sheep , gives a blue tinge to wool-both of which colours

10

have to be got rid of in manufacture, though neither may injure the texture of the wool .

5 11

These, mixed with 60 quarts of water, will bath 100 sheep, at a cost of rather more than 4d. a sheep. This salve is made in this manner :-

4780. The third of the salves was proposed by Mr Joseph Stewart, Leslie, in Fife , a practical shepherd. A lengthened experience in the smearing of sheep has convinced him that the

“ To 12 quarts of water add 3 lb of black soap ; greaternumber of the substances usually em more or less injuri and when it comes to the boiladd 1 lb. of arsenic, ployed for that purposeandaretheir wool. Such he

and let the whole boil together for 10 minutes. Then add 12 lb. of butter, and 2 bottles of fishoil , and boil the whole 5 minutes longer, stir-

ring the mixture all the time. Then pour in as much water as to make 60 quarts. When used, a little is heated at a time in a pot, as it is

ous, both to the sheep considers to be the effects of tar, turpentine, to bacco -juice, and arsenic ; and as to arsenic in

particular, he regards it so deleterious as to be inadmissible into any sheep salve-an opinion with which I coincide.

He has known sheep,

after being smeared with a salve, of which ar senic formed a part, remain in a dull and un thriving state all winter ; and when the use of

too thick for use when cold. It should be poured on the sheep out of a tin teapot, and a long handled tin -ladle should be used for stirring up the mixture in the pot, and pouring it into the teapot. The last quantity of the mixture should

the salve was persevered in for 3 consecutive years, the sheep lost their teeth. To avoid such

have a little water added to it, as it will become

an evil, he had recourse to simpler substances,

too strong by reason of the deposition of the

and found that a mixture of oil and tallow , in

arsenic to the bottom . "

4779. This salve, when liquid , is put on the

sheep in this manner : - “ The sheep should be laid on the smearing-stool, fig. 427, in such a

equal proportions, answers the purpose well. These may be used alone, or in admixture with a small quantity of tar ; but he conceives that the oil and tallow of themselves form the best

salve for sheep that has hitherto been tried , and

* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv. p. 67-8.

394

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

is convinced, that if the sheep -farmers of Scotland would use that salve alone, they would find their advantage in obtaining a third more money for the wool on account of its superior quality, im-

proved partly by the better condition of the sheep.

of an arsenical powder for the cure of a schirr ous breast. The arsenic (absorbed ) was dis cerned in various parts of the body, but especially in the liver, which contained as much as is usu

ally found when the poison has been swallowed : the quantity was greater than that found in all

4781. In applying tar-salve to sheep, when the other organs together. This case presents thick,

it may be taken up on the fore and middle fingers of the right hand, and spread along the shed, and worked amongst the wool ; and when thin , the palm of the hand in a hollow shape is

many pointsof interest. Thepoison did not be gin to produce its well-marked effects until after the lapse of about ten hours. Death took place in about six days, and the urine was suppressed

used for lifting and pouring it on, and working throughout. The mucous membrane of the sto it in. The stool, fig . 427, is employed for laying mach and intestines was in its natural state : in the sheep on, though this convenient implement the duodenum it was slightly swollen or thick is not used so much as it ought. American tar ened .” in 1850 was from 14s. to 15s. 6d. per barrel. 4784. “ Several cases are reported, in which ar 4782. Besides a covering from the weather, senic has acted as a poison through the unbroken afforded by stells, bratting has been adopted as skin . Some of theseare of old standing, and do a substitute for smearing in winter; and the

not appear to have been accurately observed. If

method of using a brat, and the figure of a brat- the arsenic be in solution , it may become speedily ted sheep, and the utility of bratting, will be absorbed ; but when in powder, absorption would found explained in ( 1038 ) and ( 1040 ,) and fig. 61. take place much more slowly. It is well known, that comparatively insoluble substances may be

4783. The effects of arsenic applied externally introduced into the system by the endermic tothe skins of animals, is worthy of the consider. method, and arsenicdoes not appear to present ation of those who employ arsenical solutions for any exception to this mode of operation. The bathing sheep. “ Instances of arsenic destroying thin skin of the human subject appears to absorb

life when applied externally," observes Dr Tay: the poison more readily than the hard thick skin lor, "are by no means unfrequent. Two cases of of animals ; but M. Flaudin found that dogs its operating fatally in children, when applied to the skin of the head for tinea capitis, will be

were speedily killed when arsenical ointments

were rubbed upon the skin of the abdomen, or on

found in the Annales d'Hygène, 1830, ii. 437. the inside of the thighs. All the symptoms of In both, the mucous membrane of the stomach was found inflamed, and in one extensively . A

arsenical poisoning, although not appearing for two or three days, have been witnessed in the

trial has recently taken place, ( Reg. v. ' Port, human subject in those cases in which powdered Chester Winter Assizes, 1844 ), in which a man, pretending to curecancer, was charged with the death of a female, by the application of an arsenical plaster, as it was supposed , to the breast. The woman died in a fortnight. No satisfactory evidence was obtained of the symptoms during life, except that there had been vomiting ; and the accused had taken care to remove the plasters as soon as serious symptoms had begun to appear ; hence there was no direct chemical evidence of the nature of the substance actually

arsenic has been used as a depilatory .” 4785. It thus appears from the observations of Dr Taylor, that arsenic, whether in solution or in powder, may be absorbed by ulcerated sur

faces, such as scab ; by abraded skin, such as oc casioned by rubbing from the irritation of keds, or the attack of maggots; and even by unbroken

skin. The safest course , to avoid such risks, is to render arsenic unknown in all farm operations.

employed. This case , however, shows the great 4786. Even the use of corrosive sublimate is utility of the discovery of the absorption of ar- not free of danger, for although Dr Taylor ob senic into the body. Dr Brett, of Liverpool, was serves, that it is not likely that any question will able to detect the absorbed arsenic in the sub-

stance of the stomach , liver, and spleen : the

quantity detected was less than a quarter of a grain . The æsophagus, stomach, and intestines were found extensively inflamed. . In January 1845, a man in London died apparently

ever arise respecting a poisonous impregnation

of the flesh , from the use of a lotion for the pur pose of destroying the fly in sheep, yet he refers to a case, reported by Mr Annan, of two sheep which died from the effects of the external ap

plication of corrosive sublimate - a poison , he

from the effects of arsenic absorbed through the remarks, which is mosteasily absorbed. (Med. skin of the arm. He was engaged in the manufacture of candles, to which arsenio was added

Times, July 25, 1846, 331. ) “ The flesh of these animals might have proved dangerous if it had

in large proportion, and it was supposed that an

been eaten .

abrasion of the skin had facilitated the absorption of the poison. The medical opinion given at the

inquest, was decidedly that the deceased had died from the effects of arsenic thus introduced into the system .

M. Flaudin states, that on one

occasion he had to examine the viscera of a

4787. As this is the last opportunity I shall have of speaking of sheep before they are put on turnips in winter, (901 ,) I would recommend a sheep-rack which was exhibited by Mr James Kirkwood of Tranent, the inventor and maker

woman who had been killed by the application of many ingenious and useful implements, and * Taylor On Poisons, p. 323-5, and 165 .

LIFTING POTATOES .

which obtained thefirst premium at the Highland

395

Immediately after the fields are cleared of

and Agriculturalshow at Glasgow , on the 1st of corn , the potatoes should be taken up and August 1850. Fig. 430 gives a view in perspec secured, to allow the land to be ploughed Fig. 430. up for wheat.

4789. Two modes are followed in lift

ing potatoes — one with the plough, and the other with the hand by means of the potato -graip. The plough affords the most expeditious means, thongh the ground is most thoroughly cleared of the potatoes by means of the graip. 4790. In employing the plough to take up potatoes, the common one, with two KIRKWOOD'S WIRE SHEEP - FODDER RACK. tive of this elegant, strong, and useful fodder. rack for sheep, to be used either on grass, or on turnips in winter. It consists of wire-work , the body being 6 feet long, 2 feet 9 inches wide at

horses, answers well ; but as the potatoes

run the bazard of being cut by the coulter, it should be taken out, the sock lifting up the potatoes from the bottom of the drill,

top, 8 inches wide at bottom , and 2 feet 34

and the mould -board turning them out

inches in depth.

upon the surface. The ploughman should

The cover consists of sheet-

iron , curved to throw off the rain , and the fodder take in a feering, fig. 19, of as many is put into the rack by throwing open the hatch drills as covers about two ridges ; and in a, in the cover. The refuse from the fodder, going up the outside drill he splits it, and such as hay, falls upon the troughs b b, made also of sheet-iron, and may be eaten by the sheep, in returning by the outside drill on the and at all events saved from being trodden into other side of the feering, splits it also,

the ground. The troughs are provided with a throwing the potatoes out of the ground, hole at each end to allow the rain to drain off,

and might be used in dry weather for holding salt, oil-cake, or corn for the day. The ma

in both cases, to his right band — but no faster than a band of gatherers, of field

chine is mounted on axles andwheels, and may workers, can gather them in baskets. be moved to any desired spot. The iron supports and axles being malleable, the implement is rather costly - being L.4, 4s.—but its strength and durability must be great ; and perhaps it may be made for less money when it comes

into general use, which it certainly deserves to be.

Feering after feering is thus made, and the potatoes gathered. 4791. The gatherers, chiefly field workers, but assisted by hired women,

labourers, or boys and girls, when their numbers are insufficient for the work,

follow the plough, each provided with a ON LIFTING POTATOES.

round basket with a bandle, fig. 235 ; and if these are not sufficient in number, two

4788. The harvest -work of a farm cannot be said to be completed until the potato crop has been taken out of the ground, and secured against the winter's frost. By October the potatoes may be expected to

gatherers fill a basket between them, into which they gather the potatoes as fast as possible; and as soon as any basket is filled, it is taken and emptied into the cart, loosened in a convenient part of the field,

be ready for lifting. Potatoes indicate to receive them . In light and clean soil, the their fitness for being lifted by the decay potatoes easily part from it, and are agree

of the baulms ; for , as long as these are ably and quickly picked up ; but in heavy green , you may conclude the tubers have not arrived at maturity. In an early season potatoes ripen before October ; and although the weather should then con-

soil, and in all soils in foul condition, the plough -furrow is apt to turn over entire, and the potatoes to be enclosed within it , in which case a stout field -worker should

tinue fine, the best plan is to letthem re- precede the gatherers, and follow the main in the ground until all the grain plongh witha small common graip, fig. 82, crops are harvested ; but in ordinary sea- and shake the furrow loose, and free the sons the corn is cut down and carried be- potatoes from the soil and the baulms for fore the potatoes are ready for lifting

the gatherers. Every the smallest potato

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

396

should be gathered, not only for the sake 4794. A simple instrument, fig. 431 , of economy, but of removing a weed from which may be substituted in the plough the succeeding crop. The gathering for the mould -board, for turning the po so late in the tatoes out of the ground, was contrived by should not be continued evening as that the potatoes cannot be

Fig. 431.

easily seen, nor should it be persevered

he b

in in rain.

4792. After the field has been gathered

of its potatoes in this manner, the har rows are passed over the ground a double tine, to bring up the concealed potatoes to the surface, and to shake the baulms free of the soil. The potatoes thus after -gathered

are usually reserved for the pigs and the d

poultry.

THE POTATO RAISER OR BRANDER .

4793. Whenever the field is cleared of Mr Lawson of Elgin . It consists of 6 the crop , the haulms are gathered by the malleable iron bars, the outer ones of an

field -workers and carried to the compost inch square, theinner ones half an inch in stance, to be converted into manure, diameter, joined together in the form of ( 2042 ; ) and these are the only direct return a brander, 26 inches long from a to b ; 5 which the potato crop makes to the soil, inches in breadth from b to c, at the fore

except thepart which happens to be con- part, where is a plate of iron ; 27 inches in length from c to d ; and 18 inches in

sumed by the cattle on the farm .

Fig. 432.

al

THE POTATO - RAISER ATTACHED TO A PLOUGH .

breadth from d to a.

The openings

between the rods will thus be rather more than 3 inches at the widest end of the brander, between a and d . This brander is attached to the right side of the head and stilt of a plough , in lieu of the mould-board, by the screws e e, the

4795. The gatherers follow this plough with baskets, the same as the common plough—but some of them must throw the haulms upon the gathered ground which lies to the right hand of the drill they are gathering the potatoes from ; and the reason why this must be done is, that, as

fure end b c being placed close behind the soon as the potatoes which lie on the sur

sock, as seen at a, fig. 432, which shows face are gathered, the plough returns, and the plough mounted with the brander, proceeds through the remaining part of the

having its upper angle e, 8 inches, and the drill in which the potatoes lie, still turn plane of its face so bent down as to have ing the earth and potatoes to the right the lower angle d only 4 inches above the sole of the plough. The mode of operation of the brander is, that while the earth partly passes through it, and is partly pushed aside by it, the potatoes are left exposed upon the surface of

hand. This second operation raises to the surface any stray potatoes which the first may not have turned up, and which the women gather. This plough pulverises the soil in an extraordinary degree, and scarcely leaves a single potato in it. Mr

the ground on the right hand of the Lawson observes, “ I have never before ploughman. been able to clear my fields of potatoes so

LIFTING POTATOES.

397

effectually as by this implement, or at has bought the crop in the ground, the nearly so small an expense .' potatoes aremeasured, fig. 168, or weighed ' *

from the basket on the spot into sacks, and

4796. When potatoes are taken up by delivered out of the sacks. Fig. 433

manual labour, it is done

by means of the potato4802. When the farmer lifts them to graip, fig . 433, the send to the London market direct from prongs of which are flat- the field , the potatoes are first separated

tened. To use this graip by wire riddles, through which those under

efficiently being rather the stipulated size, if inch in diameter, severe work , men

are

pass, and the others are measured into

employed to lift the sacks and carried directly to the ship’s potatoes with it, one side. The potatoes whichfell through the man taking a drill riddle are taken home by the farmer. close beside that of his

fellow -workmen, wbile

4803. The potato -riddle is made of

women, wire, in meshes of from 1 to it inch boys, or girls, to every square, and when rimmed with oak, costs man, pick up the pota- 25. 6d . each, fig. 160. 2

gatherers,

as he turns them

toes

4804. Potatoes are most commonly put them into the bas- made up by measure in Scotland into out of the ground, and

kets. THE POTATO- GRAIP.

what are termed bolls. The boll is a given weight, which varies with the custom of

4797. In using this graip, it is inserted the district. They ought in all cases to be into the side, not upon the top of the drill, sold by weight. and below, not above the potatoes, with a push of the foot; and the earth thus un-

4805. The boll weighs 2 cwt. or 16

dermined is turned over into the hollow of the drill, exposing the potatoes to view upon the inverted spit, from whence they are gathered off. The men then pass the

stones of 14 tb . to the stone, in some parts of the country, and double that weight in other parts ; while in some places it is as much as 40 stones. The lightest weight is

prongsof the graip here and there through called thesingle, and the heavier one the the soil, to exhume and expose to view double boll. It is surprising how difficult every potato lurking beneath it.

it is to introduce a uniform system of

weights and measures into a country. 4798. In this manner, 1 man and 2

women will take up, of a good crop of 80 4806. The produce of potatoes varies bolls of 16 stones or 2 cwt. per acre, 20 amazingly, according as the season is very bolls a -day, which will cost 16s. per acre, dry or wet. Even before the existence or rather more than 24d. per boll, at the following wages :—1 man 2s., and 2 wo-

of the failure, it varied from 30 single bolls 3 tons, in a very dry season ;

or 60 cwt.

-

men at 1s. each per day, without food. The to 120 bolls or 240 cwt. = 12 tons to the boll of 32 stones or 4 cwt. will cost, near acre in a moist, growing one. The dis

towns, 6d. for liſting.

ease has cansed a still greater variety in the quantity.

4799. Potato - graips cost 2s. 3d., and when handled 38. each .

4807. The price does not vary with the quantity, a scanty crop seldom exceeding 4800. When a farmer lifts the potatoes 6s. the single boll of 2 cwt., and the plen on his own account to be disposed of tiful one not under 4s. Since the disease

afterwards, they are put into the cart the price has risen to 30s. the small boll, without measurement or selection, and car- which I have paid for good seed. ried directly to the pits. 4808. Taking a medium potato crop at

4801. When lifted for a purchaser who 60 small bolls of 2 cwt. each, or 6 tons, Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. viii. p. 551-2.

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

398

4810. I may bint, on lifting the crop, and a medium price of 5s. the boll, it yields £ 15 an acre ; and allowing 40s. an acre that a few potatoes prove an acceptable as the cost of all the labour connected with gift to the lone cot -woman who works in

the disposal of the crop, the return is still your fields, or whose daughter fulfils the £ 13 an acre — a large sum ; but it ought useful office of field -worker. to be reinembered that potatoes, when 4811. Those who desire to plant unripe entirely disposed of, leave no manure on

the farm , while they require more than an potatoes as seed, should take up the quan ordinary quantity to raise a crop ; and tity required before the baulm indicates they also incur considerable trouble in the a ripened state in the general crop. Per delivery, and, being a perishable commo- haps thesmall potatoes of the crop would dity, cannot be preserved beyond agiven answer the purpose, as they are the latest time. Since the occurrence of the disease, efforts of the potato -bearing fibres ; not no particular sum can be relied on from this small potatoes as such, since the entire crop

crop ; and in consequence its culture has may consist of small potatoes, and be fully become an uncertain speculation. Hence- ripe, and as unfit for seed as the fully forward the returns from this crop must ripened largest ones. be left out of calculation .

4812. The proportions of the component parts 4809. Where farm - servants have potato of the potato will be found in (1255) and ( 1256.)

ground given them as part of their wages, Its nutrient properties are mentioned in ( 1254,) is taken up with the rest of the ( 1259,) and ( 1260.) Its inorganicconstituents their crop

are given in (1257) and (1258.) The composition

field , and the cost of taking it up falls of the ash of the potato leaves upon the master. Where they receive a stated in (4159) and (4160.)

stipulated quantity of potatoes, instead of a given space of ground, it is delivered to them as taken up from the field . :

and stems is

4813. Potato -starch may be converted into a

substance having the properties of tapioca. An The acquaintance of mine in Forfarshire, the late Mr

stipulated foris7 or 8 bolls,of JamesScott, Beauchamp,raised large quantities quantity 32 stones each, or from 28 to 32 cwt. The of potatoesevery year before the appearance ofthe quantity should be measured or weighed, disease amongst them ; and instead of disposing but the body of the cart is usually made of them in the bulk, converted them into

theinstrument of measurement; andI tapioca. For thispurposehe erected machinery in connexion with his thrashing-mill steam believe they prefer taking their chance in engine, to grate the potatoes into pulp,andto this, well knowing the quantity is never wash the starch out of the pulp. The pulp was under the just amount. Of the two modes afterwards dried in tin vessels in an oven.

The

ofpaying servants, in prolific seasons they celsof a pound weight,and sold to a house in are well supplied when the ground is

Glasgow at, I believe, 8d. per lb. The delivery

planted for them ; but in bad seasons they suffer privation, which they bear patiently, knowing that the deficiency arises from

of the tapioca at the shipping port of Arbroath was a great saving ofcartage, compared to what

has a control ; and those who receive a

would have been the delivery of the potatoes in bulk. The refuse of the manufacture, consisting chiefly of the fibrous matter of the potato , was retained to give to pigs ( 1593) and farm -horses,

stated allowance every year, suffer in a bad year by deterioration of quality.

4814. The fecula of the potato presents very

no circumstance over which their master

The former classof servants have always variedforms, and no other known kind acquires so large a size, observes M, Raspail. “ When a direct interest in the quantity, andboth first obtained from the organs of the plant, it have so in the quality of the crop . Since exhibits concentric wrinkles on its surface , which the potato failure, instances have occurred about disappear when it dries. The largest grains are .0049 of an inch in size . The most com when it was out of the power of themaster to pay the stipulated quantity to the ser

mon size is from .004 to .0015. They are oval, contracted in the

middle, like the cocoon of the vants, and a compromise has been sub- silk-worm ;gibbous, obscurely triangular, or

stituted of £ 3 in money,or of 3 bolls rounded , and thesinallestare spherical.The = 24 stones of meal, of 14 lb. to the stone. potato is the only plant whose fecula is used for

Those who had the ground planted had no culinary purposes, as it can be obtained at a claim on their master on account of the cheaper ratethan any other . To extract it, the tubercles are washed and scrubbed, after which

failure of the crop ; but some allowance, they are rasped under a stream ofwater, which I believe, was made in most cases.

carries the raspings to a sieve, through whose

LIFTING POTATOES.

399

meshes the fecula alone passes into a vessel placed When the operation is finished, the below . water is poured off, and the fecula is repeatedly

cylinder revolves and takes the potatoes with it through the water; and as the potatoes find their way along its inclined bottom in the water,they washed until the water carries off no soluble are taken up by a twisted sparred inclined matter ; after which it is dried in the sun or in plane, which carries them to the openingf in its a stove. This fecula then has the appearance of

boarded end, c, to a level of the edge ofthe box,

an impalpablecrystalline powder, having a white

over which they run down the inclined plane of colour with a bluish tinge. The grains are less the slide g, which conveys them as far as h, altered in this than in any other variety of where a tub, barrow , or basket, is placed on the fecula . " +

ground to receive them in a thoroughly washed and clean state.

4815. Fig. 434 gives a view in perspective of 4817. The peculiar advantage of this machine is, that in turning the winch -handle e to the right, and keeping the hopper d supplied with

Fig. 434.

dirty

potatoes, it washes them and throws

them out clean in a continuous stream to the

bottom of the slide h. On turning the winch handle e to the left, the potatoes are retained

within the cylinder, until the washing is effected as completely as you desire ; and then, by turn ing it to the right, you get quit of the potatoes instantly. In machines heretofore in use, the washing process is stopped to fill and empty the cylinder , which must be raised out of the cistern

for those purposes, and lowered again into it, by a tedious and laborious process. The price of this machine is L.3, 10s. h

4818. Potatoes are generally given to cattle in an unwashed state ; and when they are taken up in dry weather from dry soil, but little earth

adheres to them ; but in rainy weather they can not fail to take away much of the soil, most of which the cattle are obliged to receive. With

SHE SELF - DELIVERING POTATO -WASHER .

such a washer as this, the quota of potatoes given

an excellent potato-washer, which was exhibited

to the cattle may be washed every day in a few

at the Highland and Agricultural Society's Show minutes; and it ought to be washed without fail. at Edinburgh in 1848, by Mr Richard Robinson of Belfast . It consists of two cast- iron frames

a aconnected together by means of three round

4819. “ When potatoes are boiled, they lose from 1 to 1 $ per cent of their weight. The

be separated from them is malleable iron rods. In the forks of these frames juice which may The meal is insoluble even in

is inserted a wooden box or cistern b, wider at

sweet- tasted.

the top than at the bottom , to contain the water to wash the potatoes. The cylinder o, having a larger diameter at c than at the other end, is

boiling water, though potato -starch forms a

sparred with fillets of wood fastened on with iron hoops, at such distances as to prevent pota-

toes slipping through between them . The cylinder o is hung on the box b by means of an iron axle, which passes through both ends of the cylinder, and turns upon plumber-blocks, the nearest end being extended as far as to allow

the trough g to be suspended between the box and the winch -handle e, which is supported on its

transparent solution with hot water. Thus it

appears that, by boiling , the albumen, fibrous matter, and starch combine together, and form

an insoluble compound.” Simple as the process seems, it is not every cook who can boil apotato weil.

4820. “ Dr Peschier of Geneva has detected the presence of mucous sugar and of gum in the potato. This explains why it is capable of undergoing the vinous fermentation. The acids

extremity. The hopper d receivesthe potatoes,

contained in potatoes in the natural state were

which pass over a grating in its inclined bottom ,

ascertained by Einhoff to be a mixture of the tartaric and phosphoric acids.”

through which any earth or sand falls to the ground . 4816. The washer is used in this manner :-

Water is poured into the box b until it is nearly full. The potatoes are then put into the hopper d by means of a shovel or basket, and after pass-

ing over the grating find their way into the cylinder. On turning the winch -handle e, the

4821. “ It is well known that a spirit can be extracted from potatoes. From this spirit

Messrs Bertillon and Guietand extracted a volatile oil, which M. Pelletan found to be a colourless limpid liquid, having a strong smell, hot acrid taste, very soluble in alcohol, and obviously containing much alcohol. " +

* Raspail's Organic Chemistry, p. 111.

+ Thomson's Organic Chemistry -- Vegetables, p. 481 and 842.

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

400

4822. I remember seeing potatoes that had for pitting small quantities of potatoes, a mealmill,which seemed likelamps of brown cottars ; the prismatic isused for storing theskinbeing translucent though as rough as in large quantities. For both sorts of pits, à

lain neglected for some timein adamp corner of and is well adapted for small farms and

the natural state. On boiling a few , I found situation sheltered from the north wind

they regained the ordinary meally character of should be selected ; and the ground as dry a good potato,and tasted as well. This incident of itself as to absorb the rain as fast as it falls, or as much inclined as to allow sur face water to run away quickly. The site

occurred before the appearance of the failure.

should be conveniently chosen for opening the pits and admitting carts to them, at the

ON STORING POTATOES.

corner or side of a field, so as not to interfere

4823. The object of storing potatoes is with its work in winter, and as near the to place them beyond the reach of frost. steading as possible. No difficulty is found in doing so in the early part of winter, when the temper4825. A conical pit of potatoes is

ature is merely low , and not frosty, and formed in this manner :-If the soil is of vegetation dormant. Potatoes may there- ordinary tenacity, and notvery dry, let a fore be kept in almost any situation in the early part of winter ; but if damp is allowed to reach them for a length of time, they will rot ; and if the air finds access to them in winter, the frost will not only reach them, but vegetation will

small spot of its surface be smoothened with the spade. Upon this spot let the potatoes, as they aretaken outof the cart, be built by band in a conical heap, not exceeding 2 feet in height ; and the diameter which a cone of that height will

be awakened in them in early spring. occupy, so as not to impose much trouble To place them effectually beyond the in piling up the potatoes, will be about 6 influence of the elements, they should be stored in a dry place, and closely covered up ; and no mode affords both requisites so completely as ordinary dry soil.

feet — that is, 1 foot in breadth to 1 foot in height. The potatoes are then covered with a thick thatching of dry clean straw —not drawn, as is too commonly the case, but broken . Earth is then dug with a

4824. Fig. 435 exhibits the two ordi- spade from the ground in the form of a nary forms of pits, one conical , the other trench around the pit, the inner edge a, prismatic. The conical form is employed fig. 435, of the trench being cut as far from Fig. 435.

b

THE CONICAL AND PRISMATIC FORMS OF POTATO - PITS ,

the pile of potatoes as will be the thickuess of both the covering and of the earth to be put upon it, whichmay be about 1 foot. The first spadeful is laid upon the lower

have upon it, and penetrate into it the less distance. Thus spadeful after spadeful of the earth is taken from the trench, and heaped on the straw above the potatoes,

edge of the straw , and round the heap of until the entire cone a b c is formed,

potatoes in a circle; the earth being chopped wbich is then beaten smooth and round fine and beaten down with the spade, to with the back of the spade. The sharp render it as impervious to cold as possible: apex of the cone at b will be about 3 feet and the drier it is, the less effect will frost

3 inches in height, and the diameter of

STORING POTATOES .

401

the cone from c to a about 8 feet. The in spring quite fresh and good. Potatoes, trench round by a c should be cleared of I know , have been pitted amongst earth, earth ; and an open cut made from its and kept well enough all winter; but the lowest side, to allow any water to run experiments were conducted on too small freely away . a scale to recommend the plan for adop tion on a farm .

It must be admitted that

4826. When the soil is naturally the analogy between this mode of pitting, dry, the site of the pit may be dug out of and of preservation in the field in winter, the solid ground a spade depth, forstoring is far from correct. In the pit one layer the potatoes into what is then really of potatoes lies above another, with inter

a pit, and the height of the heap above vening layers of earth — a relation in which, the surface of the soil will be proportionally when one potato rots, it cannot fail to less ; but unless the soil is as dry as sand affect the one lying immediately above or gravel, the potatoes should be piled and below it ; whereas in the field every upon the natural surface of the ground. potato lies singly , and in one layer, sur rounded by earth, independently of others,

4827. The prismatic or long pit, d e f and although it should become rotten,

g h, fig. 435, is formed exactly in the it cannot possibly affect any other in the same manner, with the exception that the

field . Nor is the condition of potatoes potatoes are piled in a straight line along improved when stored in cellars or out its sides and ends d h and d e, instead of houses ; for, independent of the heat, the round, as in a conical heap. The height probable dampness of the cellar may cause

of the pile of potatoes should not exceed many to rot ; and constant exposure to 2 feet, and its breadth will spread out to the air, if not directly conducive to vege abont 7 feet; and allowing 12 inches of tation, will cause as much evaporation thickness for the straw and earth, the height of the water of the potato as to produce

of the finished pit will be 34 feet, and considerable shrinking. Until, therefore,

breadth 94 feet. The direction of a long experience discovers a better plan, the old pit should always be N. and S., to place one of pitting must be followed ; and if both its sides within reach of the sun's rays certain bad effects have been experienced in winter, to counteract the effects of frost. by heating, in consequence of the heaps

having been made too large, modifications 4828. It is found that, when fresh pota- should be adopted in the construction of toes are heaped together in large quanti- pits to avoid the evil complained of. I

ties, a certain degree of heat arises, which think that, if potatoes are placed in heaps increases as much as to awaken vegetation

of the dimensions I have mentioned above,

in the potatoes; and one proof of such heat they will run little risk of heating. having existed is eridenced by the long sprouts in the heap when opened in spring. 4830. It is difficult to explain the diffe The thick covering of dry straw upon the rent effects which the same mode of pitting potatoes may be the means of retaining produces now that it did twenty years ago the heat thus evolved, and hence it has and upwards. Then, let the pits be formed

been suggested to leave openings along ever so large, and the cut- sets heaped on the ridge of the pit for the heat to escape; the barn - floor ever so high, either for a long

the openings to be left at intervals through or a short period, not a word was heard of upright bundles of drawn straw, held to- failure ; but if there is any truth in the gether by cord, and cut square on the top, conjecture, that the failure is ascribable to before the earth is thrown up and beaten the ordinary mode of pitting, the conclu down near the ridge.

These straw chim- sion is irresistible that some change have come over the potato itself, there is none in the pitting. What, 4829. To preserve potatoes cool in the we all want to know is, why whole

neys may be seen at i and k, fig. 435.

must since then, pota

pits during winter, it has been recom- toes heat now in the pit, and cut ones in mended to mix earth amongst them and to the barn, when no such effects were seen have no covering above them but earth, twenty years ago ? Since no satisfactory in imitation of the state they happen to be answer can be given to this question, let

left in the ground all winter, when found the pitting of potatoes in winter, and the VOL . II .

2c

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

402

treatment of the cut- sets be changed to and preventing the rot. Such ventilators suit the altered condition of the plant; are conduits for air made of laths and but the adoption of a safe change in prac- slabs of wood, and of pipe tiles ; and tice should not induce us to neglect the although in many cases they apparently circumstance that causes the change, nor checked the first symptoms of the disease,

content ourselves with secondary causes, yet where the disease was decidedly active, although a remedy may seem hopeless. they proved as ineffective as the expedi This leads us to revert to the rationale of ents mentioned above.

the potato disease, which has been already discussed in (4161 ) and (4162.)

4835. The soil most protective of the potato against disease is moss.

Out of 32

4831. As long ago as 1843, a foreign cases of the cultivation of the potato in cultivator " found that, five weeks after he moss in England, only 5 suffered much,

had harvested a crop from a field planted and 17 little, while 10 escaped altogether ; with diseased potatoes, they began to of 31 cases in Scotland, none were bad ; undergo a dry corruption ; and that, even

if, externally, they had a sound appearance, they had internally a number of the blue spots, called stagnation spots, which, whenthe potatoes were boiled, remained hard, were rejected by cattle, and which

of 41 Irish cases, only 2 suffered much, 24 little, and 15 escaped ; and of Welsh the one case escaped. It would seem that peat mixed with other manures acts to some extent as a preventive, 2 instances

of escape occurring in England, and 15 in Ireland ; while no example of failure oc brandy, as, besides being unsuited for the curred in England and Scotland, and but could not be used for the manufacture of

purpose, the potatoes would not go through 4 in Ireland, and 1 in Wales. The con

peat moss, the crushing -mill." * These are precisely clusion is-in pure well-drained little from disease. the characters of the disease observed in potatoes suffer very

our own potatoes, and they afford infallible means of detecting the existence of the disease .

4836. On heavy land the disease is considerable.

4832. As expedients have been adopted,

In England 129 cases suf

fered much out of 163, only 34 escaping ; in Scotland the result was better, 16 cases

during the growth of the potato, to evade escaping out of 27, the suffering being the disease on the stems and leaves, and

much in 11 cases ; but in Ireland there

by consequence on the tubers, as has been was no escape, and 11 cases suffered much, particularly mentioned from (4153 ) to

and the same was the state with Wales, 2

(4158 ;) as many expedients have been cases suffering much .

And where the

adopted in the pitting to ward off the heavy land was also wet the proportion of disease from the potatoes themselves, but suffering increased : in England it was as none as yet have succeeded in doing so, far 153 is to 34 which escaped ; in Scotland less in staying the plague, after it has manifested itself.

16 to 17 ; in Ireland 13 to 1 ; in Wales 4 to none ; and on the whole 186 to 51. And

if to these rich land is added, the pro

4833. Of such expedients dry materials portion of loss rises still higher, as 237 have been mixed with the potatoes in the to 44. The conclusion is, that potatoes in

pits — for no one has entirely condemned very rich, wet, or heavy land are exposed

the use of pits — such as dry sand, sawdust, to disease in a most dangerous degree, dry powdered peat, ashes of various kinds ; as 272 to 9, unless the land is very dry , and if any of these really prevented the or the climate cold, or the planting per wet rot, they had no power to retard the formed in the autumn or very early in progress of the dry rot.

spring—so that not more than 1 crop in 30 can hope to escape in such land.

4834. Ventilators of various kinds be

sides those of i and k, fig. 435, have been

4837. On light land the results were

recommended in pits, with the view of the opposite to those on the heavy : in evaporating the moisture from the potatoes, England the number of escapes being 313 * Journal of Agriculture, March 1844, p. 395.

403

SOWING WHEAT.

to 79, which suffered much ; in Scotland whole matter may thus be summed up 129 to none ; in Ireland 48 to 1 ; and in

thatover-luxuriance, arising from whatever

Wales 20 to none, the proportionof great cause, was highly favourableto theprogress disease being about one-seventh. The of disease, and vice versa.* conclusion is, that in England the chances 4839. My belief is, that, if we ever sball are 313 to 24 against the appearance of

much disease in light lands, unless plant- be able to check the virnlence of the ing is late, or manuring excessive, or there potato disease, we ought to be contented is a heavy wet subsoil : that is, not more to raise small crops, compared with what than 1 crop in 13 suffers much in light we were for many years accustomed to land, if moderately manured, planted do before the disease appeared, with small early, and resting on a dry subsoil. In quantities of well-prepared manure; and

other parts of the kingdom no failures although such a method of cultivation will occurred on light lands, except in one in- not give the pecuniary returns which have stance near Londonderry.

hitherto been derived from the potato, we :

must dispense with large crops and large:

4838. The connection between manures profits, for the sake ofagain enjoying a and the potato disease is not so easily pleasant constituent of the dinner table. traced as is the case of soils, the experi- Overgrown potatoes, forced with inordi ence of cultivators being of the most oppo- nate quantities of putrescent manure, are site nature. “ No doubt can exist as to as unpleasant to the palate as precarious the cause of these discordant statements. to the purse . The circumstances under which the trials 4840. “ When potatoes are exposed to the have been made have not been the same, and therefore the results have also been different. Or, as has commonly happened,

action of frost, it is well known that they be come soft, and acquire a sweet taste.

This taste

is succeeded bya sour taste,owing to the rapid

effects have been ascribed to manures, evolution of acetic acid, and the root soon passes which have in truth belonged to other to putrefaction . From the experimentsof Einhoff,

and unsuspected causes." As regards

we learn that the sugar is formed at the expense

of the mucilage ; for the other ingredients were guano, the inference is, that, under all cir- found inpotatoes sweetened by frost, in the usual

cumstances, two crops manured with gnano proportion . He considers this sweetening pro have been saved out of three ; that, if cess as connected with the vegetative powers of

applied to autumn and early spring plant- the root.” + ed crops, it is advantageous, but that it is 4841. Since the removal of the duty, a consider dangerous in late planting. The conclu able trade in the import of potatoes has arisen sion arrived at in the use of farmyard with Holland, Hamburg, Belgium, and France.

manure is, that if used abundantly, in In 1848 the quantity imported was 940,697 a very rapk condition, and especially in cwt., and in 1849 it increased to 1,417,863 cwt.I this state to late planted crops, it is an extremely disadvantageous application. Ashes are a safe manure, when applied by

ON SOWING WHEAT IN AUTUMN .

itself, in the proportion of 27 to 4, and when mixed with farmyard dung 54 to 4842. “ How ceaseless is the round of 15. Saline manures have not been pro- rural labour!” may the poet truly exclaim,

ductive of injury, and are perhaps benefi- for no sooner does the farmer secure one cial .

Without manure the results are

crop than he commences to sow a new

favourable. InEngland, 32 cases suffered one ; and his efforts in autumn are exerted much, for 96 which escaped ; in Scotland to prepare as much land to sow with wheat 1 suffered for 11 that escaped ; in Ireland as he possibly can. 1 for 7 ; and in Wales 1 for 2 : the whole giving 35 cases of suffering for 116 which 4843. We left the working of summer

escaped. Nothing is discernible in favour fallow after the land was dunged, (4172 ;) of salt ; nor does sea -weed indicate a better effect. The conclusion of the

and when it was to receive no lime. It is now our business to finish the summer fal

* Gardeners' Chronicle, Feb. and March, 1849. + Thomson's Organic Chemistry - Vegetables, p. 481. I Parliamentary Return , February 12, 1850.

404

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

lowing, by sowing wheat upon the land the dry ameliorated soil upon the surface, so prepared for it. The first process is and accelerate the seed-time considerably. the levelling of the drills which cover the dung, by barrowingthem across a double 4848. The land being thus prepared for

tine; and, if theland is strong clay, the seed, the variety ofwheatintended to another double tine will be required across be sown just now should have been selected the first one.

in time from your own stock, or purchased from that of another.

It is quite possible

4844. After the land has been harrowed for a part of the new crop to be thrashed level, the root weeds that may bave been ont for seed in time for sowing in autumn ; brought to the surface should be removed,

but those who sow early in autumn will

but the surface weeds will soon wither in not have the opportunity of procuring the sun and air.

4845. The land should then be feered ,

their seed in this way. 4849. Some farmers prefer sowing wheat

to be gathered up (749 ,) into ridges ; and on fallow land in September ; and where if thoroughly drained, or naturally dry, there are much bare fallow and strong

one gathering -up will make a good seed- laud, that month may be a proper seasonto bed ; but wet land, to lie safe ail winter in the ridge, should be twice gathered -up, (764.) The second gathering -up, however, should not be ploughed immediately after the first, but such an interval of time should elapse as to allow theland to subside, and the subsidence will be much accelerated by rain .

begin. The objection is, that, should the later part of autumn and the early part of winter prove mild , the wheat plant will be come proud ( 2660, ) before cold and frosty weather set in to check its growth. Octo ber,in my estimation , is the best period for sowing wheat, as it avoids the risk of proud growth, and also of bad weather setting in at the latter part of November, after which

4846. Should the fallow land have had

no wheat should

be sown

until the

the dung spread upon the surface, and spring. ploughed in with feered ridges, the feerings 4850. But although the new crop were had been made to leave a half ridge at the

side of the field, (4170 ;) which, now that secured in good time to afford seed for the land is about to be gathered -up for sowing in autumn, it is better to sow old the seed -furrow, is converted into a whole wheat than new in antumn. New wheat

ridge, to be uniform with those of the will germinate quicker in the most favour rest of the field .

able circumstances of soil and weather

than old ; but it is more easily affected by 4847. But a practice has come into use bad weather, and by insects ; and in con

since the introduction of the grubber, fig. sequence its braird is generally neither so 215, which possesses advantages on strong thick nor so strong as from old wheat land, in certain circumstances, which is, to that is, from seed of the preceding year ; put the sown wheat into the ground with for very old wheat may bave lost its vita

the grubber, upon the gathered -up ridges lity, even in the stack, or have been much which had covered in the dung of the fal- injured by the weevil, ( 1859,) in the low, instead of gathering -up the land again granary. for a seed - furrow ; and to finish the work

with a double-tine harrowing along the ridges. Wben the grubber is contem-

4851. The varieties of wheat well suited to be sown in autumn are so numerous

plated to be so used, the land should have that a few may be found adapted for been feered for gathering-up in the summer every locality. " Hunter's wheat has long fallow , so as to finish with full ridges over been a , favourite in Scotland, on all the field, as the contemplated grubbing classes of soils. The Chidham wbite cannot alter the form of ridges. When a wheat is a favourite in many parts of the tough waxy clod is expected to arise on kingdom , on the best loams. Both belong ploughing strong land, rather wet below, to the class of wheat represented in fig. for a seed -furrow, or when unsettled 177 . Upon inferior soils it is always weather prevails, the grubber will keep safest to sow a red wheat, which, although

SOWING WHEAT.

realising a lower price in the market, will always yield a larger increase. Of the red wheats the Danzig creeping has long stood the test as a hardy, tillering, and prolific variety. This wheatbelongs to the second class, represented in fig . 178. As no specific rule can be laid down for a special

405

Wherever the land is harrowed as fine as meal, in autumn, the rain never fails to batter its surface into a crust, and the frost to heave it up in spring like fermented dough, in which action the plants are raised along with the soil, and left on the surface almost drawn out by the roots, after

variety of wheat to be sown in any given the subsidence of the earth onthe frost locality, you must exercise your own judg- becoming thawed by sunshine (2660.) Such ment, on hearing the opinions of farmers in an effect can only occur where a consider your neighbourhood, as to the varieties able quantity of moisture, ready to be acted best suited to your own locality. on by frost, has been retained by the sub soil 'immediately under the surface - soil.

4852. Wheat sown in autumn is pickled Draining is the only safeguard against in the same manner as that sown in spring, the young wheat plant being thrown out (2308.) by frost from the ground in that particular manner.

4853. Wheat may be sown broadcast, drilled, and dibbled in autumn, and there

is no peculiarity in exercising either process at this season. Sowing broadcast is done by the hand, as has already been described in ( 2319 ) and ( 2320, ) and with a machine in (2333 ) and ( 2334.) The

4856. When land is naturally strong enough to grow wheat, and yet is some what soft, and as wet below as to make it probable that the plant will be thrown out, ( 2660,) ribbing with the small plough (2626 ) and (2628) is a better mode of

drilling is effected by the machines repre- ploughing it, to make it retain the plant, sented in figs. 205, and 206. The dib- than common ploughing: The wheat is bling may be executed by the machines represented in figs. 291 and 292. Broadcast sowing is still most common in Scotland. Drilling is the usual method in England, as also in the neighbourhood of large towns in Scotland, because that form of sowing permits the surface weeds being most easily destroyed by mechanical means amongst growing crops.

sown broadcast overthe ribs, and harrowed

in with only a double tine along, (2696. ) The ribbing gives the seed a deeper bed in the soil than mere harrowing, and the plant a deeper hold in spring ; and it has one advantage in common with thegrubber, of moving only the dry surface soil for the seed -bed . Ribbing can only be practised, however, on land that has been ridged up for some time, as the small plough goes

4854. The finishing processes of harrow- too deep, and makes the drills too wide on ing, described from ( 2352) to (2358,) and new-ploughed land. Ribbing is never of water-furrowing (2361 ,) are conducted attempted on land that has not been ridged

in the same manner now as in spring ; but up, the small plough being unfit to turn up with this difference in autumn, when water land in a hardened state. is more likely to stand upon the land, that 4857. Another mode of preventing the gaw -cuts (779) must be made with the spade, fig. 237, in hollows on the surface, throwing out of the wheat plant on soft

across headridges ; for, however land, otherwise well adapted for wheat, is, first, to feer the land into ridges, fig . 19, thoroughly drained land may be, channels of sow the seed broadcast between the feer

and

must be provided to carry large falls

rain quickly away.

ings, cover it with a light seed -furrow ,

with the common plough,either gathering

4855. As regards the harrowing, it is up ( 749 ) or casting it (755,) according of importance to leave the wheat land all

to the texture of the soil, and leave the

winter with a round large clod upon the land unharrowed and rough all winter. surface.

Such clods afford shelter from

wind and frost to the young plants, and,

4858. As the ground is desired to be

when gradually mouldered by frost, also left in a rough state all winter, no use serve to increase the depth of the loosesoil, ought to be made of the roller in and give the roots a better hold of it.

autumn .

106

PRACTICE-AUTUMN.

4859. The land that has grown beans the subsidence ofthe land before being sown with wheat, because that plant always

is the next sown with wheat in autumn

after the bare fallow, with the exception thrives better in soil in a firm state than

perbaps of the small space which had been when it is as loose as the plough leaves it. occupied by the summer tares, and which may be in the same field with the beans,

4863. Wheat is sown in autumn in a very

so that both may form one break to be now slovenly manner in many parts of Ireland. The sown with wheat. The land after beans and land is sown in the state in which it is left tares is usually feered and gathered-up on taking up the potatoes, without being

(749) for the seed -furrow at once, and sown ploughed , grubbed , or dug, and the seed is with shovelfuls of earth taken from the immediately, as the season is far advanced covered trenches or shoughs between thelazy-beds or

by the time the bean -crop is carried in ridges. The large crops grown after such treat and stacked ; but the seed -bed isin a better ment are surprising. The deep trenchesformed state for wheat when the soil is allowed

between the narrow spaces of ground forming

subside for a few days before the seed the lazy-beds keep the land dry all winter, and this may be one means of safety to the crop from the injurious effects of undrained land . In

is sowu .

Martin Doyle's opinion, this mode ofsowing wheat

4860. Where the soil is strong, and the is better than the English one of sowing upon the ploughed land , because it “ gives far better ridges round, the grubber may anddeeper be usedsufficiently on the bean-stubble, as on the covering to the seed, and thus pre vents the plants from being thrown out in the fallow -land, to let the wheat, sown broad- the spring,as frequentlyhappens after severe

cast, into the ground ; for which purpose frost, and when the seed has been imperfectly

a 4-horse grubber will be required. The earthed by the harrow ,and also allows amould

grubber succeeds in such a case very well, ing to theplantsin spring, ifthe ridges be then as far as the wheat is concerned,and it harrowed down,as they ought to be, previous to heavy has the advantage, in a late autumn, of get- tion ." rolling, which is a most important opera ting through the work expeditiously ; but on strong soil, not thorough drained, and

4864. “ It is very common also in Ireland, to

wheat broadcast on lea, ploughed with as in a comparatively flat state, grubbing is sow flat and thin a furrow as possible, and to cover on not the best preparation for wheat the seed by means of the spade and shovel, from bean -stubble ; because the seed incurs the furrows previously ploughed as deeply as the risk of rotting in such soil, left in possible, for the purpose of yielding earth enough.

that state all winter, and the soil itself is The clover leas, as well as the rich old pastures, almost universally treated in this latter way apt to become sour, from which effect are for wheat, where this is the chosen crop in Ire

the land would scarcely recover, even if Soil thus grubbed requires of harrowing only a

land ."

double tine along the ridges.

requires to be pickled to protect the crop from

bare - fallowed the succeeding year.

4865. I have said that wheat sown in autumn

smut, as well as that which is sown in spring,

(2307 ,) and that arsenic is a dangerous 4861. The land that has grown potatoes, dient farm , to employ in any operation of the ingre after which wheat is usually sown, ( 2699) ( 4785.) In corroboration of the comparative

must beploughedfor a seed -furrow , as upon may inefficacy of arsenic asa pickle for wheat,I adduce the following account of experiments the drills in which the potatoes were

on purpose to set that point at rest. grown the grubber cannot be employed “made Public attention,” says Mr E. H. Durden, to advantage, that implement leavingthe Dublin,“ havingbeen called to the employment surface in the same form it found it. Only of arsenic in agriculture, by a letter addressed

one furrow is given after potatoes, and it by Dr Fuller, ofSt George's Hospital, to some the medical journals, I forward you some is a gathering-up, ( 749) if the soil is at of remarks on the subject, containing the results of all strong, and a casting (755) if of light the investigation of a commission appointed at

texture.

It is better that the soil have

Rouen in December 1842, having for its object

time to subside a little, although the usual to determine the best process ofpreventing the in wheat, and to ascertain whether other practice is to sow the wheat upon it as smut means less dangerous than arsenic and sulphate

soon as it is ploughed.

of copper (both of which are extensively em

ployed in Great Britain, ) were productive of

4862. I have frequently recommended equally good results. The labours of this com * Martin Doyle's Practical Ilusbandry-art. Wheat, p. 501 .

4

SOWING WHEAT.

mission extended over the years 1843, 1844, and

1845, and the experiments were repeated two years following on the farm of M. Fauchet, one of the commission, at Boisguillaume, in the department of the Seine Inferieure. My friend M. Girardin , Professor of Chemistry at Rouen , and corresponding member of the Institute, took

407

decided beneficial action than that which they possessed alone ; for instance, lime then becomes very efficacious, and sulphate of copper produces better results than when employed singly : that arsenic does not possess anything like the de structive action on the smut which is generally supposed : lastly, that the mode of steeping the

a very active part as a member of the commission, grain in a preparation of sulphate of soda and and drew up a report on the subject, a copy of lime is really very efficacious. ” which he presented to me, and to which I am indebted for the information I now forward to 4867. It is interesting as well as useful to you. As long ago as the year 1779, M. Duhamel ascertain if the different plans of pickling the du Monceau, in his Elements of Agriculture, wheat exert an influence on the produce of the noticed the employment of arsenic by the farmers grain and the weight of the straw ; and the of France for the prevention of smut ; and whilst conclusions drawn from the results obtained speaking of the dangers arising from the use of were, “ that in all respects it is advantageous to arsenic for this purpose, expressly points out enploy only sound wheat for seed : that the the dangers arising from the partridges, pigeons, wheats least productive of grain were those which &c., eating the poisoned seeds, and thus endangering the lives of those who used them for food . It would appear that, in the 10 years from 1830

were steeped in arsenic, lime and salt, and lime alone : that the wheats most productive of grain

to 1840, there has occurred in France 235 public

with sulphate of copper, sulphate of copper and salt, sulphate of soda and lime : if the washing with water was favourable to the production of grain , its weight is remarkably diminished : the

accusations of poisoning, out of which number 110 were against individuals connected with

agricultural pursuits ; and it was considered that

were those which were washed in water treated

this arose from the readiness with which they

heaviest wheat of the same bulk or volume is that

were enabled to obtain poisons, especially arsenic,

which has not received any preparation, and next to that the wheat treated with sulphate of soda.”

for the purpose of steeping grain,” (4711.) 4866. The means used for testing their efficacy

4868. Now, as sulphate of copper is as poisonous

in protecting wheat from smut, were -- wheat perisperm was still in a milky state : unripe

as arsenic, it ought be used ; and sulphate of soda, glauber salts, being innocuous, should be preferred ; and, when associated with lime,

wheat gathered when the perisperm was solidified , but when the epidermis was still green :

it proved an almost infallible remedy. But as in no case did the crop escape smut when the

wheat gathered when the grain and ear were yellow, but when the grain might still be cut

seed employed was ripe, which is the usual state

gathered before arriving at maturity whilst the

with the nail : wheat gathered when the grains had acquired their hardness and transparency :

perfectly ripe wheat, not smutty, nor having received any preparation : smutty wheat washed in pure water : smutty wheat plunged for two

of seed wheat, especially for sowing in autumn , it may be said that there is in reality no specific or radical and infallible remedy for smut. The conclusions on the entire experiments are : “ That it is best not to sow seed without steep

ing : that it is best to make use of the sulphate

hours in a solution of sulphate of copper and salt : smutty wheat prepared with sulphate of copper

ofsoda and lime process, inasmuch as it is more

alone ; smutty wheat prepared with arsenic :

simple and economical, and in no way injurious

smutty wheat prepared with lime and salt : smutty wheat prepared with sulphate of soda

to the health of the sowers, or inimical to the public health, and that it yields the most pro ductive and soundest wheat : that as arsenic, sulphate of copper, verdigris, and other poisonous

and lime. Of all these means none prevented

preparations can be advantageously replaced by

smut but the first four, with wheat gathered before it had become perfectly ripe. The remaining are placed below in the order of their

sulphate of soda and lime, the use of the poisonous preparations should be interdicted by the Govern

smutty wheat prepared with recently slaked lime :

ment." *

efficacy : Sulphate of copper and salt. Sulphate of copper alone.

4869. With regard to the use of sulphate of soda, perhaps 1 lb. dissolved in 2 quarts of water

Sulphate of soda and lime. Lime and salt. Arsenic.

would answer for 4 bushels of wheat, and the

Washing with pure water.

4870. In using old wheat for seed, the pro bability will be that many grains will have been

grain then dried with powdered quicklime.

Lime alone.

Hence “ that sulphate of copper is one of the

deprived of their kernels by the wheat weevil,

most powerful means of preservation from smut :

Calandra granaria. In steeping the wheat in the baskets in the process of pickling, it is a good precaution with old wheat to stir up the

that lime produces but very little effect, and its

use is even less advantageous than simple washing of the seed in water : that common salt

grain in each basket with a stick, and skim off

exerts a very marked influence, as the substances with which it is associated acquire a more

empty husks will readily do.

* Ga

all the grains that float to the top, which the

Chronicle, 6th January 1849.

PRACTICE - AUTUMN

408

4871. It is said that “ in granaries the perfect insectconi may destroyed by sorting the grain into cal beheap s, when the beetles cluster at the top , and may be taken away in great quan tities." * I have observed it somewhere stated, that boards covered with pitch suspended in granaries will inevitably drive the weevils away ;

Seed wheat, 34 tenths ( .375) ofa bushel, at 5s. 1 104

per bushel,

Time of a woman hoeing ruis onthe drill,7 07

hours, at 10d. per day of 10 hours,

Time of a mansowing the seed by hand, 5 hours, at Is. 80. a day, Time of a man and horse covering the seed,4

0 10

3 24

hours , at 8s. per day,

and to keep them away the boards have only to

6

6

13

0

be repainted with the pitch. The remedy, being

a simple one, might be easily tried .

Cost per acre,

4872. Mr Hay ofWhiterigg in Roxburghshire continued his experiments with dibbling, ( 3533 )

This mode would be much better performed if the rut were made on the top of the drill, and the

with the view of ascertaining the comparative seed sown in it by a machine similar to the bean expense of sowing broadcast, in drills, and with

drill, fig. 219.

the dibble. For this purpose he divided in the autumn of 1849 two acres of summer - fallowed

land (4164) into four portions, each of which was manured with 8 cart -loads of well-rotted farm-

4877. The last portion of ground , containing half an acre, was drilled in the same manner as the last mentioned portion into 30 drills, and

yard manure, and ploughed in on 4 ridges of 15

wheat sown on the top of the drills with Newing

feet in width each .

ton's dibble, at the rate of 4 tenths of a bushel

(.4 ) of seed to the acre, and the cost of sowing was 4873. One of these portions, containing half an as follows: d. acre, was ribbed (2626 ) into 40 ribs at 18 inches Seed wheat, 2 tenths (-2) of a bushel, at 53 . 1 0 apart, and sown with wheat by the hand (2319,) per bushel, at the rate of 15 bushel to the acre, and har. Time of a man dibbling, 44 hours, at is. si. 09 per day of 10 hours, rowed in the usual way, (2352.) Theexpense of the sowing was as follows : 1 95 3 .

8.

d.

Cost per acre ,

Seed wheat, 74 tenths (-775 ) of a bushel, at 58.

7

3

3 104

per bushel,

Time of a man and a pair of horses, sowing, harrowing, and water-furrowing, 4 horses at 88. per day of ten hours,

Cost per acre,

3 21

4878. Some interesting results were obtained by Mr F. King, Thedam, in Essex , on a similar species of experiment. The following are the

7

1

results of planting 1 grain of wheat to 9 in

14

2

one hole, allowing 4 holes to the square foot, and taking 14 square feet of ground for the experi Weight the of . ears

ears of No. . corn

grains of No.

. holes 56 in

No. grains of square the foot .in

of grains No. in

. hole each

. foot square

tenth part of a bushel, and such a measure will always be found a very convenient one on a farm .

No. 14 in holes of ,and feet square holes the to

ment :

4874. The tenths of a bushel are most easily obtained by having a measure which contains the

4875. Another of the portions, containing half an acre, was also ribbed with 40 ribs as the above lot was, and sown with wheat, on the tops of the ribs with Newington's dibble, fig. 292, at

56

56

8

the rate of 54 tenths of a bushel (.525 ) of seed

56

12

to the acre ; and the expense of the sowing was as follows :

56 56

16 20 24 28 32 36

d.

wheat, 24 tenths (.275 ) ofa busliel, at 5s. Seed per bushel,

1 45

dibbling,64 hours, at 1s. 84. å Tiine of a man hours,

1

day of 10

56 56 56 56

9

205 250 286 300 304 301 358 352 244

3

64

3

94

3 114 3 12 3 13 3 6

3 114 3 2

2 2

1

2 53

Cost per acre ,

Ib . OL . 56 112 168 226 280 336 392 408 504

4 11

4876. A third portion of ground, containing

It will be observed in these results that 7 grains to the hole give the largest number of ears of wheat, 358 in the 14 square feet; but it will be found that that number does not weigh heavier

than the produce from 3 grains in the hole ; and , besides, the 3 lb. 11} oz. weight of the ears from

half an acre , was drilled up in the double way

the 7 grains in the hole is ina somewhat preca

( 2397) into 30 drills at 24 inches apart, and

rious position, as the weight above and below it is 3 lb. 6 oz. and 3 lb. 2 oz. respectively. The

dowed with wheat along the top of the drill in a

rut made by a field -worker with a hand -hoe, fig. heaviestweightof ears, 3 lb. 13 oz. from 5 grains 266, at the rate of 74 tenths of a bushel( .75) of in a hole, is also in the precarious position of seed to the acre. The expense of sowing was as follows:

being next to 3 lb. 6 oz. So that on the whole I would prefer the produce from 4 grains in the

Maunder's Treasury of Natural History - art. Weevil.

SOWING BARLEY.

409

hole, as being likely the steadiest result of any, barley from (2690 ,) (2693.) The finishing since it is as much as 3 lb. 12 oz., and it is situ

is the sameas described in ( 2696 ;) ated in the safe position of beingsupported by process andin (4858) is mentioned the state in the high weights of 3 lb. 1 1 oz. and 3 lb. 12 oz. When the seed is as thickly planted as 9 to the

which the ground should be left for the

hole, both the number of ears and their weight, winter. When sown after beans, I refer diminish very rapidly. to (4859) and (4860,) and after potatoes to (4861.) ON SOWING BARLEY IN AUTUMN

4883. Barley which has stood the win

ter produces a much heavier grain than 4879. I mentioned in ( 2702) that when sown in spring. barley cannot stand the winter in Scot land as wheat does, but that it does so in

4884. Barley may be sown in autumn

the warm calcareous soils in the south of

as a forage plant for early cutting in

England.

spring, for which purpose it should be sownas early as the end of August or the

4880. When the winters are mild and beginning of September. Tbäer mentions the spring dry, as in the south of France, a variety of barley, named the Siberian or

Italy, and Spain, or where the snow lies deep all winter, and the sun is powerful immediately after the melting of the snow in spring, as in Russia, Poland, and North America, barley may be sown in winter. Wherever the winter consists of alter-

quadrangular naked barley, Hordeum cæleste, which possesses properties of this nature to a remarkable degree - as

when sown early, like autumnal corn, it has been cut several times in the course of the summer, and in the succeeding year

nate snows and thaws, and the early part yielded a good crop ; but be regards of spring is wet, as is the case in England, Scotland, and Ireland, winter barley is apt to suffer from those vicissitudes, and the spring-sown barley becomes a much more certain crop. In the south of Europe, barley is grown for the horses ; but no such inducement exists for its growth in winter in this country, where the horses are better

this account of it as exaggerated. This variety requires a rich, fertile, well-tilled soil, and it is distinguished from other barley by its plants being fuller, more bushy, and putting forth more blades, even when both kinds are grown on the same soil, and the plants sown at equal distances from each other. The stems which bear the

fed on oats.

ears are much thicker than those of large barley. The ear is longer than that of

4881. The six and four -rowed, or small barley, and contains a greater number

square-headed barley, is what is termed of grains." ** These are all valuable pro winter barley, so that the Scotch bere or perties in a forage plant. Its grain is bigg, fig. a 180, should be the sort best reckoned as valuable as rye for bread and distillation. suited for sowing in autumn . 4882. If you determine to sow barley

4885. I observed in 1849 a rather sin

instead of wheat after beans, potatoes , or gular practice in the neighbourhood of tares, -for no one would think of substitut- Edinburgh, in a field belonging to a cow ing the former for the latter on the bare feeder, who had sown it with the ordinary fallow — the culture is precisely the same flat-eared barley, and as the ground was

as for wheatdescribed in (4845,) when the rich the crop grew luxuriantly. Instead land is to be feered for ploughing; or in of allowing it to grow , be cut the berbage ( 4847,) when the grubber, fig. 215, is to be used instead, or in (4856,) when the land is to be ribbed instead of ploughed or grubbed. Barley may be sown broadcast by hand or machine, drilled by machine, or dibbled by machine, as instanced in the case of wheat in (4853,) and of spring

for green food for his cows, and then gave the aftermath liberty to grow for grain, which it did in about three weeks after

the general harvest, and yet in good time to be reaped and carried in good order.

The latest aftermath was thin on the ground, but that from the first cutting was

* Thäer's Principles of Agriculture, vol. ii . p. 430. -Shaw and Johnson's translation.

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

410

a fair crop ; and had the whole been cut for it is better to take a green crop after the forage about the same time, the crop would stubble, such as turnips or mangold -wur no doubt have been uniformly good.

zel ; and where it is strong, beans are a much better crop in every respect .

4886. " In genial climates, such as Egypt, Barbary, and the south of Spain ,” says Mr 66

Rham, two crops of barley may be reaped in the same year - one in spring, from seed sown in the preceding autumn ; and one in autumn from

4890. Thäer mentions a practice in a

few places in Germany, where “ the far mers are in the habit of covering a field

a spring sowing. This explains a passage in sown with pease with a layer of straw , Exodus, chap. ix. v. 31 , where the effect of the hail is mentioned which desolated Egypt, in con sequence of the refusal of Pharaoh to let the

and then leaving the pease to make their

happened in March ; the first crop of barley was

this may be done with advantage, and

way through it, to vegetate. By this children of Israel depart , — ' The flax and the means the weeds are all stifled , the soil barley were smitten, for the barley was in the kept moist ; and those stems which fall ear, and the flax was bolled ; but the wheat and to the ground prevented from rotting. the rye were not smitten, for they were not Where there is a plentiful supply of straw come up.' Commentators agree that this event therefore nearly ripe, and the flax ready to pull : the straw will afterwards be available as but the wheat and the rye sown in spring were not yet sufficiently advanced in growth to be in jured by the hail.” *

manure ."

4891. Pease may be sown in autumn as an early forage crop in the ensuing spring, ON SOWING PEASE IN AUTUMN.

which is the most legitimate use this crop can be sown at this season. “ In

4887. Pease are not sown in the field Flanders, pease, beans, tares, and barley in autumn in Scotland, though they are in are sometimes sown thick together, and gardens ; but they are sown in autumn in form an abundant green crop, which is cut

the field in parts of England.

as soon as the flower is past, and given to the cows and pigs, which thrive well on

4888. Although manure is never given to this succulent food. The surface of the pease sown in spring, (2459 ) it may be ground is so completely shaded, that no afforded in moderate quantity to that sown weeds can spring up, and as there bas in autumn .

On clean oat stubble the been no seed formed, little is taken from

manure, ten cart-loads to the acre, should the soil. The land is immediately plough be spread on the surface, and plough- ed up, and sown with another crop, such ed in with the common plough ; and in as potatoes and turnips, which sometimes every third furrow the seed should be are off the ground in time to allow wheat sown in the bottom of the furrow by means to be sown the same year.” # of thebean -drill,fig. 219. The ploughedsur face would be the better for a double tine 4892. Professor Johnston mentions an instance

of the harrow , to close all the openings of adecideddiscrimination made by the slug in left by the ploughing, and to protect the its attack on a field of winter pease. “ I lately The saw ," he says, “ at the home-farm of Lord St crop may be expected to ripen a little John , at Meshborne in Huntingdon,afield of winter pease, sown in November 1848, which earlier than if it were sown in spring, had been all treated and manured alike, but on seed and young plants from the frost.

and the land worked, cleaned, and manured one half of which the seed sown was the early again for sowing wheat upon it in autumn . maple - a common field -pea ; on the other half the Ringwood marrow dwarf - a white pea. The The after culture of the pea sown now latter was attacked at Christmas by the slugs,

is the same as that in spring , described and in great part devoured , so as to require fill

in (3987,) and its reaping and carrying grey inguppeawith fresh seed ; while the former - the --- was untouched by them. There may the same as in ( 4576. )

have been some other reason besides the differ

of variety for the limited attack of the slug ; 4889. Such a course of cropping, how ence but it is obvious that circuinstances or liabilities ever, affords no advantage to the farmer, of this kind may materiallymodify the effect of

for when the soil is light enough for pease, chemical applications made to our crops, and * Rham's Dictionary of the Farm -- art. Barley, p. 21. + Thäer's Principles of Agriculture, vol.ii. p. 466 - Shaw and Johnson's translation . # Rham's Dictionary of the Farm - art. Pea, p. 378.

411

SOWING MESLIN .

may be the often unsuspected cause of discordan- jured for the others : at all events, if the seasons of their maturity are not exactly den pease, both in the straw and fruit, are the same, the entire crop must be reaped

cies in our results .” * I am not surprised at the discrimination evinced by the slugs, as the gar

when the plant which grows the more pease, which have all a bitter harsh taste, as vigorously, or ripens the more quickly, long as they are unripe. has attained the stage of maturity. In

much sweeter to the taste than any of the field

such a case the other plants may ripen after they have been cut down, as does ON SOWING SEVERAL VARIETIES OF GRAIN TOGETHER.

buckwheat; or they may be useful although not attained to full maturity, as in the case with oats.

4893. On the continent of Europe it is not an uncommon practice to grow different sorts of the cereal, and of the leguminous crops together, and to reap them

Thus, so many consider

ations which amount difficulties attend the growth of mixed crops that it is bet ter not to attempt it. Were the object merely to obtain a rank growth of forage,

together. That practice is studiously two or three varieties of plants may be avoided in this country, the desire being grown together as exhibited in (4891 ;)

to bave every species of grain as free of but this entirely misses the end aimed at admixture from other sorts as possible. -to obtain a superior material for bread, I have heard it recommended to sow more or food for horses, as well as a greater re than one variety of wheat together, be- turn. cause bakers aver that the four is in

a better state to make good bread from a

4895. The

most

common

mixtures

mixture of two or three kinds of flour grown on the Continent are wheat and rye

than from one kind. I believe there is for bread, which is said to be agreeable much truth in this opinion of the bakers ; and nutritious, and the mixture is called

but their object would be more certainly meslin. Flat barley and oats are grown obtained were the varieties of wheat known to produce the best flour when mixed, in proper proportions mixed before together being ground into flour,

together, the oats always predominating, and both are said to give a large yield. Some persons rye to their add spring The most common mixture on lightsoils.

than if the same varieties of wheat were

mixture of cereals and legumes is that of

sown in those proportions in the field ; for, let us sow whatever seeds we please in the field, we cannot be certain of obtaining from them returns in any given proportion to those sown, and the uncertainty in-

oats and vetches, which makes good food for cattle when prepared with the chaff cutter, whether the crop be allowed to ripen or be mown in a green state ; and both barley and spring-wheat are also

creases as the varieties of the seed sown are increased in numbers.

sown with vetches. Pease in small quan tities are associated with spring-wheat, and the quantity of wheat, it is said ,is not there.

4894. It is quite correct in theory to by diminished. On sandy soils, pease are expect an enlarged yield by sowing dif- associated with spring -rye. On calcareous, ferent varieties of grain together, since clayey, and meagre soils, it is usual to sow different varieties of plants take different beans amongst oats. A mixture of beans,

kinds and quantities of ingredients from vetches, and oats are grown together for the name of beans. It is cut by growing plants together of very dif- when the seeds begin to form ,and in some

the soil in different proportions; and the the purpose of a green food for cattle, and theory is the more strikingly illustrated goes by ferent natures, such as the cereals and countries the horses are entirely fed on it.

legumes. Experience supports the theory as being correct thus far : but then , to obtain the full results of the theory in practice, the different sorts of grain grown

The character of the mixture is determined by the nature of the soil : in clayey soils the beans are increased in quantity, and in the lighter soils more vetches are used.

together must reach maturity at the saine Vetches are also mixed with buckwheat,

time, otherwise one variety will be in- when the crop is to be cut in a green state.t * Johnston's Experimental Agriculture, p. 16 . + Thäer's Principles of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 486-9-Shaw and Johnson's translation .

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

412

4896. Some farmers in Scotland sow become indifferent, the red wheat pre different varieties of oats together, and oats vails ; and the white wheat becomes red only of all the cereal grains. The prac- after a few repetitions of sowing it in tice hadprobably originated in some va unfavourable circumstances. rieties of that grain having occupied the ground too sparsely. The Georgian oat,

for example, which was brought into ON PLANTING POTATOES IN AUTUMN. notice rather more than twenty years ago , always came up and grew thin , whatever quantity of seeds were sown ; and even 4898. Amongst the expedients sug the Hopetoun oat, though otherwise a gested for evading the potato disease, none

good variety, indicates a similar habit of growth. To fill up the spaces thus left in the ground by the Hopetoun oat, other varieties are sown with it in certain proportions, according to the situation and nature of the soil -- and the compound crop

bas been more confidently recommended than planting the sets in antumn ; but the suggestion has been but partially adopted. The planting of such a crop in autumn cannot, in truth, be practised everywhere, nor extensively in ordinary circumstances ;

is superior to either of the single ones. I because potatoes being not only a green, know no fariner who has carried this ex- but a fallow crop, and a green crop being periment to a greater length than Mr always taken after one of grain, the stub Finnie, Swanston, near Edinburgh ; and ble of the grain crop is generally not in

the following table shows the results of a fit state to receive the manure, before undergoing the process of cleansing by some of his experiments : means of the plough, the barrow , and Bushels. the grubber, as the land for a fallow 59 Potato oats alone, produced, per acre, crop ought to be ; and, in Scotland at 52 Hopetoun,

62

least, too short time intervenes from the

Kildrummie,

62

Dun,

61 56 51 49

harvest of the grain crops to the occurrence of bad weather in the early part of winter, to permit the land to be cleaned in a satis factory manner. Hence very few cases can occur in which the stubble may be

Early Angus,

Blainslie, Grey Angus, Sandy — seed changed, Sandy- seed unchanged , 5 of Hopetoun and 1 of Kildrummie produced , per acre ,

5 of Hopetoun and l of Sandy,

5 of Hopetoun and 1 of Early Angus, 5 of Potato and I of Early Angus, 5 of Potato and 1 of Sandy,

45 68 64 61 53 53

manured in October, for a crop that is to occupy so important a position as every green crop does. This is one reason , and it is a sufficient one, why so few cases of

autumnal planting takes place in the potato ; and the obstacle to it is to be re

It is thus seen that mixtures with the gretted, since in the few cases attempted Hopetoun produced larger crops than did the result has proved advantageous. Out the Hopetoun alone, and their effects were of 64 English and Welsh returns of the crop of 1849, 53 were in its favour and the opposite upon the potato oat.* only 11 against it ; and no bad cases were

4897. We constantly read in the foreign corn reports of mixed wheats, the different grades being four - White, Highmixed, Red mixed, and Red wheat. The

reported in Scotland, while there were + good. The conclusion arrived at was, that autumn planting was a greater safe guard from_disease than that of early

White is a mixture of pure white wheats. spring. In England, the autumn planted, The High mixed has a very small mix- with that of the months of January and ture of red. The Red mixed has perhaps February, was better in the ratio of13 to a third of red wheat in it ; and the Red 11 ; and in Scotland, March may be taken, wheat is a mixture of red wheats. In

after the autumn, as the best month, the

Upper Poland, where the finest wheat is ratio of loss being only 7}per cent. The raised, it is nearly all white, or all High general conclusion over the kingdom, in mixed ; and as the soil and climate 1849, was that the earlier the potato * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1850, p. 316.

EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.

413

planting is performed the better, and the The stubble should get one furrow with later the worse .

the plough, in the contrary way the

ridges are formed. Harrowing along and 4899. A rather unexpected corroboration has been given , in 1850, of a curious and important factobserved in 1846 — that diseased potatoes may be safely and advantageously used for seed. Mr Benjamin Smith of Wokingham , Berksbire, planted very much diseased sets of ash - leaved kid-

then be given , and any weeds that may have been brought to the surface by it should be gathered off. If there is time, the grubber, fig. 215 , should be used across the ridges to cut into pieces the furrows made by the plough ; but should there

neys on the 18th of March, in drills 5

not be time for this efficient operation,

across the ridges a double tine should

inches deep , and the crop was taken up the land must be drilled up in the

sound and ripe on the 2d of August, with- double way ( 2397) in preparation for the out disease ; while sound sets of ash -leaved dung. The farther operations go on as kidneys and others, a mixed lot, were stated in (2745) and succeeding para planted in February as before, and on graphs. being taken up in August, were found to be much diseased . Very rotten late po

4902. I think it advisable to use whole

tatoes were planted in November 1849, potatoes for seed instead of cut sets, in the 64 inches deep, covered first with two autumn ; for which the small ones will

inches of earth, then by a layer of half- answer the purpose well, ( 2739, ) and the decayed weeds, and lastly by earth , and time will be saved that would have been

the crop was taken up in the beginning of occupied in the cutting. The whole po August without disease . A blacksmith in tatoes must be planted in the drill at wider

Wokingham , Abraham Lewis, experienced intervals than cut sets are, —from 10 to the same results on the 8th of August

12 inches asunder.

1850 .

4900. It is the opinion of Mr Smith that diseased sets are much better for planting than sound ones. The former soon rot when the live part has begun to grow ; the latter are apt to remain hard,

4903. Much attention is required at this season, after committing any crop to the ground, to have surface channels cut with

the spade, (779,) wherever there is a hollow in which the least chance of water may stand for a time, as also across the

flesby, and brittle, even when the new lower headridge into the adjoining ditch, crop is ripe ; and he thinks that, in

or outfall of the field .

the former case, there is an effort of nature to throw off the

disease .

On

this Professor Lindley remarks, that “ it is possible that the morbid matter

ON THE EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.

which causes disease may disappear in the 4904. For a very long period in the general decay of the tuber in the one case, practice of agriculture, no other manure remain unchanged in the other, was put upon the soil but what was ob prepared to seize upon the haulm as soon tained from the straw of the cereal crops,

and may

as it is ready to receive its influence. At from the leaves, bulbs, and tubers of the least, no better explanation of this curious green crops, and from the dung voided by fact presents itself to us at present : but the different kinds of animals supported

the fact itself is certainly, in practice, very upon the farm , as also the materials ob valuable." *

tained from the streets, and houses, and stables and byres of towns. The manure

4901. The method of planting potatoes in autumn is precisely the same as in spring, which has particularly described from ( 2745)been to ( 2754 ;) but there

made upon the farm was, and has always been emphatically termed, farmyard manure, and that derived from towns was called street or police manure. Those manures served to support the heart of

will not be time to stir the land so much

as is recommended in ( 2733) and (2734.) the soil, as long as farmers were contented * Gardeners' Chronicle, 17th August, 1850.

414

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

to spread over that part of its surface necessary ingredients referred to are the every year what was made on the farm ; compounds of ammonia and phosphorus. and if more or less manure was thus made, Ammoniacal salts and phosphates thus

according to the favourable or unfavour- stand at the head of the list of special able circumstances attending the crops in manures. It is, no doubt, on account of the

different seasons, the soil received all that valuable properties of those ingredients was made. It is the practice still what it which render farmyard manure, bone-dust,

was then, ofthe street manure being used and guano so great favourites with far only on the farms in the immediate neigh- mers. bourhood of towns, in lieu of the straw, the grass and the hay, and the turnips

4907. But although farmyard dung is

sold by them to the cowfeeders and not of itself a specialmanure, such manure stable-keepers in towns. But after the cannot be treated of irrespective of that demand for green crops extended — important material ; for experience has

whether from towns, or from the neces- already proved that their value is evinced sities of the farm itself, in feeding live more as auxiliaries to farmyard dung than

stock to heavier weights or at an earlier in intrinsic properties possessed by them

age — other manure to assist that of the selves. The same remark applies also to farmyard was inquired after by farmers at guano and bone-dust, which in this respect a considerable distance from towns, who stand in the same relation to farmyard knew that no such material could be pro- manure as the special manures them cured from towns, but at an unreasonable cost. It is thus that bone-dust was first

selves.

employed to extend the turnip culture ,

4908. In consequence of the great num

and at a later date guano was purchased at a high price, to attain the same end. In prosecution of similar ends, at a still later period, many simple substances have been used with a view to evolve the peculiar

ber and varieties of the special manures which have been presented to the notice of farmers by chemists and others, space will not permit me to relate even a small pro portion of the results which have already

properties of each of the many varieties of been obtained from their application in plants cultivated ; on which account those multiplied combinations to every species substances have obtained the name of spe- of crop raised on the farm . Suffice it to examine only the largest results obtained from each of the crops, whether the manure 4905. Let it be understood that I do not was applied singly, or in combination with

cial or specific manures, (205. )

place farmyard manure, bone -dust, and others, or with farmyard manure . It will

guano in the category of special manures, be right, however, at the same time, to as they all possess properties which bene- show in a distinct manner the relative

fit in a greater and less degree every spe- value,asmanures,of farmyard dung, guano, cies of crop ; nor should I call those bone -dust, and the special manures; but manures special which have avowedly before proceeding to state particulars, it been concocted as substitutes for bone-dust is necessary to remind you of the compo and guano .

sition of farmyard manure, given in ( 2025,) ( 2028, ) and ( 2029 ,) and of that of the

4906. Time has not yet decided which

urine of animals in ( 2094,) ( 2096 ,) ( 2100,)

one of the special manures is the most ( 2101 ,) and ( 2102. ) The analysis by beneficial to all the crops, although, doubt- Sprengel, in (2094) gives the general less, some one does possess that property ;

composition of the fluid and solid excre

nor has experience yet proved whether ments of animals ; and the analyses by special manures are equally beneficial in Boussingault were evidently made from all soils, situations, and seasons ; but suf- dripping fresh dung, unlike the state it is

ficient time has already elapsed to decide, usually applied to the soil ; but the analy that the special manures in which certain sis made by Mr Richardson was from farm

ingredients preponderate are not only more yard dung as it is applied to the field, and beneficial generally than those which is therefore the most interesting to the want those constituents, but are necessary

farmer.

It will be found in the accom

for the healthy development of plants. The panying table, where all the constituents

EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.

415

are conveniently given in proportions to capable of dissolving in water. These one ton of prepared dung.* In one ton .

Water,

1455.104 lb.

Organic matter, containing 16.584 ibs. ammonia, Potash , Soda, Lime,

Magnesia , Alumina,

Manganese, Peroxide of iron, Silica ,

Carbonic acid, with earths, Sulphuric acid , Phosphoric acid, Chlorine, Sand, Carbon,

Alkali, and loss,

553

7.481 6.317

21.427 4 : 337 trace. trace .

4.623 62.585

11 :393 7.571

17.468 7.280 71.702 1.926 7.282

observations will, of course, regulate us in the management of the “midden .' When ever any moist organic matter absorbs oxygen , its chemical union with its carbon

gives rise to an increase of temperature, which increase enables the surrounding

portions to absorb oxygen more rapidly than they otherwise would do ; these parts in their turn become heated, and thus the

influence extends through the entire mass, the amount of beat being proportionable to the size of the mass, its degree of moisture, and quantity of air contained in its interstices. By careful management you can retard or accelerate the fermenta

tion of your ' midden' to almost any ex

2240-000 lb. tent, from scarcely any change taking place, to so great a rapidity as toendanger Any other remarks regarding farmyard the whole taking fire from the heat evolved. manure than what are contained in these The most profitable way for dung to fer

references,supposes the dungto be in the ment is slowly but steadily, so that, by the best state for applying to the land, which time it is required foruse, it will readily is the sappy rich state, neither too wet nor too dry ; the utility of which is thus explained by Dr Henry R. Madden :“ Whenever dead organic matter, either

cut with a spade like soft cheese, and exhibit a uniform rich brown colour, and emit no smoke unless the air be very

frosty. During fermentation, the azote

animal or vegetable, is exposed to air in contained in the various constituents of a moist state, it absorbs oxygen, which, the dunghill unites with hydrogen, and by entering into combination with its carbon, destroys its original composition, and gives rise to the production of various fiew compounds, which in their turn suffer decomposition by means of

forms ammonia or hartshorn, which being very volatile, is apt to escape with the watery vapour and other gaseous products of decomposition. Various means have been of late recommended to prevent this,

fresh supplies of oxygen being absorbed, but none ofthem appear to me at all satis and so on in a continued series, until the factory, and, I believe, have not as yet whole mass is reduced to chemical com- given very satisfactory results when ap

pounds of such stability as to resist the plied to practice. The best condition for further action of oxygen under ordinary à ‘midden' to be in is, when it contains a circumstances. During this series of changes, the various solid compounds are converted first into fluid and then into gaseous products ; which latter, by escaping into the air, become lost. Čhemists

sufficiency of water to cut moist, and yield a little liquid by pressure, but not enough to run from it spontaneously ; this is easily effected by draining the middenstance, if in the court, so that all superfluous

are much divided as to what precise moisture runs off into the drains, which, of

amount of decomposition is requisite to course, must lead to the liquid manure render organic matter in a proper state to tank, from which in dry weather it should

become food for plants; all agree that be pumped up and scattered uniformly over the midden .' In this state of moisture, some maintain that it must be completed. scarcely a perceptible quantity of ammonia My own belief, founded on extensive ob- is lost, as it all remains in solution ; and servation and not a few experiments, is, I believe that this plan will be found in that all the products of decomposition , in all cases to be superior to every other

decomposition must have commenced ;

every stage, are available as food for hitherto devised for preserving farmyard piants, provided they are either liquid or dung." Philosophical Magazine, July 1845.

PRACTICE-AUTUMN.

416

4909. I know of no more particular a large proportion of the ammonical com

analyses of bone--dust than what are given pounds, as may at once be seen by the

in (3331 ) to (3334.)

The following following comparison. The ammonia is

may prove useful in applying cer- as follows: tain quantities of bone-dust to the acre . In Peruvian guano, ( 32 specimens) 17.41 per cent. An example will best illustrate its use : Ichaboe, 7.30 ( 11 Supposing that the drills are 36 inches Patagonian, ) 2.54 ( 14 apart, then 1 bushel of bone-dust should Saldanha Bay, ... ( 20 1.62 manure 484 yards along such a drill to give the land 10 bushels to the acre . The The phosphate of lime is as follows in the width between the drills is confined from same specimens : table

...

24to 36 inches, the limits of practice, in different parts of the country, in cultivating green crops. The bushels per acre do not extend beyond 16, which are found

Peruvian guano , Ichaboe, Patagonian ,

24.12 per cent. 30.30 44.60 56.40

Saldanha Bay,

ofNដង inches umber ៩៩ |ម ៩៩

to be the maximum quantity that produces As all guanos have no doubt originated tances in the table must of course be taken.

or more tons of the Peruvian, from which

Number yards of in drill one along

from a similar source, every ton of the

Saldanha Bay may be regarded as two fermentation and rain

Number of bushels per acre , which .an acre

.drills the between

the greatest results. When two drills are manured at the same time, half the dis-

should extend along the preceding

have removed

the greater part of its ammoniacal com pounds.

yards on a drill.

4911. Below are four of the analyses of

16

Peruvian guano, exhibiting the largest pro portions of ammoniacal compounds and

302 311 320 330

specimens imported in 1847, 1848, and

453 418 388 363 340

now, 1850, the sole importers of the true

562 510 5808 580 528 468 481 432 446 401 416 374 387 351 363

Peruvian guano, (3351.) I say of the true, because other varieties are imported from South America, from Bolivia and Chili, which are represented as the Peru vian, although they are more nearly allied

10

36

32 30 29 28

27 25 24

11

12

13

4810 484 440 403 372 4978 497 452 414 382 5124 512 465 427 394 5280 528 480 440 407 5445 5620

544 |495

*14 1515 345 355 366 377

320 331 341 352

6008 600 546 500 462 422 400 375 6222 622 565 518 478 444 414 388

6453 670 645 609 586 537 496 478 460 446 430 418 403 558 515 6701 6969

696 | 633 580 536 497 464 435

7260 726 660 605 558 518 484 453

4910. Professor Way has analysed such a greatvariety of guanos since the analyses

earthy phosphates, out of 44 analyses of 1849, by Messrs Anthony Gibbs and Sons,

to the Ichaboe than it, (3349) : Water, Organic matter and

Salts ofammonia , }

of Professor Johnston in (3349,) that I Sand, Earthy phosphates, must abstract a few of his results, as they Alkali ne salts, will be found highly interesting to the farmer. From the small quantity of guano that may now be expected from the African coast and from Patagonia, any

Peru vian .

Peru . vian .

Peru vian .

16.16

8.88

11.24

8.97

57.13

58.82

57.64

1.17 19.46 6.08

25,27 5.67

55.17 1.46 27.89 4.24

8.69

100.00 100.00

100 } 18.94

Ammonia from 100

1.36

17.86

Peru vian .

1.12

23.58

100.00 100.00

18.27

18.56

parts,

other kind than the Peruvian need not at tract the attention of the farmer, at what

ever price it may be offered in the market. 4912. The following table contains an Another consideration beside quantity analysis of Angamos guano, a variety renders any guano but the Peruvian of which comes from Peru, and is known little value to the farmer, which is, that there as a recent deposit, and is collected

as guano is chiefly employed for the sake by band. It is very rich in ammonia, and of its ammonia, the African and Patago- somewhat whiter in colour than the ordi

nian kinds being composed chiefly of nary Peruvian. The other analyses are

phosphates of lime, are not suitable as sub- each the best specimen of Ichaboe from 11 stitutes for the Peruvian, which contains specimens, of Patagonian from 14 speci

EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.

417

mens, and of Saldanha Bay from 20 spe- of it. We thus have the explanation why the manufactured guanos have not proved so efficacious as the natural production.

cimens. Icha

Pata. Saldan

mos .

boe.

16.29

26.5

gonian. ha Bay. 27.0 15.27

4 } 58.8 3.29

41.0

14.69

Anga

Water, Organic matter and Salts ofanimonia, Sand ,

Earthy phosphates, Alkaline salts,

0.3

28.5 6.0

23.28 3.07

28.7

41.5

49.01

20.07

may be convenient to have a

quantity covers a certain number of yards along the top of a drill, at a given distance

6.89

from another drill.

100.00

Ammonia,

4915.

table showing the quantities of guano ap plied to an acre, when a given small

3.25

9.5

Number of inches be tween the drills.

2.49

4913. Of true guanos, the important

constituents are ammonia or its elements, phosphate of lime, and potash ; and of the remaining constituents the water and sand are valueless ; and the sulphuric acid, the lime, the chlorine, and the soda, can be

36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29

28

Number of yards Number of yards along along a drill in an

a drill, manured with

acre at those dis- 1 lb. ofcwt. guano , equal to the acre . 1 tances apart.

4840

43

4978 5124 5280 5445 5620 5808 6008 6222 6453

44 45

47 48

50 51 53 55

27 57 easily and cheaply supplied by gypsum explanation. farther and common salt. Estimating the essen- This table requiresthis example

tial elements of Peruvian guano at the As regards the third column, an market price, and taking itsaverage com- will best explain it. Supposing that 1 lb. position from the numerous analyses men- of guano extends 43 yards along the top

its intrinsic value per ton of a drill which is distant 36 inches from above,follows: tioned should be as

Ammonia , 17.41 per cent, -388 lbs. at 6d . per lb. £ 9 14 0 Phosphate 24.12 540 .... 4d .

of lime, s

Potash ,

3.5

-78} .

21d...

1 13

9

the nearest one, then 1 cwt. will be given to the acre ; if 2 lb. are thus spread along the same 43 yards, then 2 cwt. will be

0 14 8 applied ; if 3 lb. then 3 cwt., and so on

for any number of cwt. desired to be given to the acre. When the drills are The only other substances from which am- closer set, the lb. of guano will have to £ 12 2 5

monia might be easily supplied, are the extend along a greater number of yards muriate and sulphate ofammonia . Muriate to afford 1 cwt. to the acre : thus, at 27 ofammonia , being at least £ 19 per ton, is inches asunder, the pound of guano will

too expensive for agricultural purposes ; require to go along 57 yards of a drill to and even the sulphate of ammonia , at £12 give 1 cwt to the acre. per ton , is dearer than Peruvian guano at

£ 10 per ton , for which the farmer buys

4916. In applying guano, it should be

ammoniaat the same price as that afforded kept in mind that all seeds, and sets of

in the sulphate - while he gets the phos- tubers, when placed in the drill in contact phate of line and the potash for the extra with it, will be injured, and most likely

68., between the value of the phosphate of deprived of their vitality. A portion of lime and potash, £ 2, 8s. 5d., and the earth should therefore always intervene balance between the above sum and

between the seed and the guano.

£ 10.*

4917. It is also useful to remember, that

4914. Uric acid being only obtain- a top -dressing of guano to a crop will able from one or two sources, such as

often convert the loss that would accrue

the solid urine of serpents, or the dung of from it to a sensible gain, and therefore sea -fowl, wbich latter in fact is guano, no farmer should grudge to try a top

Professor Way considers guano a manure dressing of guano on any crop, if the of its own peculiar kind, and that it is weather is favourable for its application, impossible to produce a perfect imitation which it only is when in a moist condi * Journal of the Agricultural Society of Enyland , vol. x. p. 202-25. VOL. II.

2 D

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

418

tion ; because all organic manures, of what- 20th May 1845, upon wheat sown on the ever kind, become inert, or even mischiev- 27th September 1844, which had been ous, in the soil in the absence of rain or manuredwith 13 cwt. of rape -cake dust sensible moisture. All mineral manures to the acre, at a cost of £3, 5s., and ob

are supposed to act upon organic ones, so tained on the 24th September 1845, 48 as to extend and equalise their action, and bushels of wheat of 52 lb. to the bushel, thus render them more durable in the soil.

and 440 stones of straw .

4918. Wheat.-Having thus cleared the way in explaining the nature of the manures most to be relied upon by the farmer, and made a few general observations on their mode of application, it is

had been manured with the rape-cake only yielded 364 bushels of wheat of 54 lb. to the bushel, and 390stones of straw . The increase realised by the dressing was therefore 114 bushels of wheat, and 50 stones of straw , incurring this loss :

now time to consider the effects of the

special manures upon the crops commonly

114 bushels wheat at 58., 50 stones straw at 2d.,

The land that

£ 2 16 0 8

.

3 4

raised on the farm , and we shall begin with wheat.

Deduct value of nightsoil,

4919. Mr

F.

Alexander

Gardner ,

Loss,

3 3

4 5

7 0

£0

0

5

steward to Mr Fleming of Barrochan,

Renfrewshire, applied 5 Cwt. of rape-cake The soil was a moderately heavy clay, rest dust to the acre, at a costof 33s., as a ing on a pure red chattery clay, very top -dressing, on the 12th of May 1843, on difficult to work, the pick being obliged to white Hunter's wheat, sown in October be used in its drainage, when it afforded a

1842, and obtained 48 | bushels of wheat good deal of under water. This experi of 62 lb. to the bushel, and 1224 stones of straw from the acre. That which received no dressing yielded 32 bushels of wheat of 62 lb., and 824 stones of straw . The increase produced by the dressing was therefore 164 bushels of wheat, and 400 stones of straw to the acre, affording a profit

ment was made on rising ground with a considerable acclivity to the S.E. Pre vious to being drained , the ground was very wet; and now it is of superior quality , and of much increased value. The soil was to undergo subsoil ploughing in the ensuing winter.

thus :

164 bushels wheat at 58., 400 stones straw at 2d.,

.

£4 3

1 6

3 8

4921. He tried the effects of a salt,

saltpetre refuse, obtained from powder

mills, of which he applied 3 cwt. to the Deduct cost of rape -cake,

.

Profit,

7 7 11 1 13 0

acre, at 14s. the cwt., at a cost of £ 2, 2s. to the acre, and obtained 574 bushels of

£ 6 14 11

Hopetoun wheat of 533 lb. to the bushel,

and 354 stones 4 lb. of straw. The ground The soil was a stiff loam about 9 inches not manured with the saltpetre refuse

deep, subsoil stiff yellow till, full of small yielded 40 bushels of wheat of 541 lb. to

stones, superincumbent on sandstone, had the bushel, and 217 stones of straw. The been thoroughly drained, and dug. The increase of crop derived from the dressing wheat was sown after potatoes, which was 17 bushels of wheat, and 137 stones had been madured with 36 cubic yards of 10 lb. of straw . The results stand

farmyard dung ; was reaped on 15th Sep- thus: tember, and weighed in the second week 17 } bushels of wheat at 58., . 137 stones of straw at 2d.,

of October.*

£4

4920. Mr Alexander James Main, stew

ard to Mr Wardlaw Ramsay of Whitehill,

Mid - Lothian, applied 13 cwt. of nightsoil

Deduct the value of the salt petre refuse,

to the acre, at £5 per ton, at a cost of £ 3 ,

salt- }

Profit,

6

3

9

5 11

3

2

0

£3

58. an acre, as a top -dressing, spread on * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1844, p. 238 + Ibid ., October 1846, p. 406 and 422.

7

2

93

EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.

419

This experiment was made on the same stated as a means of comparison with the ground as on that of the preceding experi- above result. It was 41 bushels of wheat, ment. The wheat was sown in October of 604 lb. to the bushel, and 224 stones of 1846, after potatoes that had been manured straw; but as this result is less than the

with 20tons to the acre of farmyard dung, produce of the same field which had re and which completely failed. The top - ceived no top-dressing at all, we would

dressing was sown broadcast on the 18th be induced to conclude that the larger May, and the crop was reaped on the 1st quantity of saltpetre applied at once as a top -dressing had had an injurious rather than a beneficial effect . + 4922. Mr John M'Lintock , Harley Works, Glasgow , tried the effects of using 4923. These instances give the effects

of September 1847.*

a similar ingredient, pure saltpetre, (nitrate of the application of single substances.

of soda,) as a top -dressing at two distinct Mr Main tried the effects of the combined periods of the same season on the same action of nightsoil and nitrate of soda on field of wheat. Thefirst top -dressing was wheat : 1 } cwt. of nightsoil at 4s. = 68., made on the 17th April 1843, on wheat and it cwt. of saltpetre at 19s. 6d. the that had been sown after potatoes in 1842, cwt. 29s. 3d., at a cost of £ 1 , 158. 3d. with 28 lb. of saltpetre to the acre, and an acre, produced 55 bushels of 53 lb. the the second of 56 lb. was applied on the 6th bushel of wheat, and 363 stones of straw.

of May on wheat sown after turnips, and This experiment being a part of the one the cost of both applications was 21s. 9d. related in (4921 ,) where the part undress an acre . The produce obtained was ed with special manures gave 40 bushels 52 bushels of 59 lb. of wheat, and 321 stones 6 lb. of straw to the acre.

of wheat, and 217 stones of straw , the

The increase received by the top -dressing was

part of the same field that was not top-

15 bushels of grain, and 146 stones of

dressed, buthad been manured with guano

straw .

for the turnips, and with 10 tons of ash dung for the wheat, yielded only 44 bushels of wheat of 58 lb. to the bushel, and 225 stones of straw to the acre, giving an ad vantage to the top -dressing of 8 bushels of wheat, and 96 stones of straw , which may be stated in this manner : 8 bushels of wheat at 58., 96 stones of straw at 2d.,

£2 0 0 16

0 0

The results were thus :

15 bushels of wheat at 5s. , 146 stones of straw at 2d .,

Deduct the value of the manure , A profit is left of

£ 3 15 1 4

0 4

4 19 1 15

4 3

£3

4

11

4924. Mr Main tried the effects of the

several specific manures on Hunter's wheat, which was raised on light clay soil, resting on an combined actions of

2 16

0

Deduct the value of the saltpetre, 1 1 9

impervious clay subsoil, many parts of which was full of stones, and naturally The soil was sandy heavy loam, and had very wet. It was drained in 1846 at 17 been drained in 1841 to the depth of 22 feet apart, and 2 feet deep, and a bene Leaving a profit of

inches .

£ 1 14

3

The effects of this experiment ficial

change was the

consequence.

would have been more satisfactory had a The field is bounded on three sides with top - dressing of both the quantities ofsalt- woods; the exposure is from S.W. to

petre at one of the above periods been N.E., and there is a gentle acclivity in made with a view to comparison, but as the line of exposure. The land was bare much as both the quantities, namely, 84 fallowed after being drained, and manured lb. of saltpetre, at the same cost of 21s. with 18 tons of farmyard dung, and 6 cwt. of rape -cake dust an acre . The wheat above periods — namely, the 17th of April, was sown in the autumn of 1846, and cut on wheat that was sown after potatoes on on the 10th, and weighed on the 15th of 9d. per acre, was top-dressed at one of the

the 7th November 1842, on deep sandy September 1847. loam ofanother field , whose produce may be consisted of

The special manures

* Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, March 1849, p. 492 and 513. + Ibid ., January 1849, p. 416 and 437.

# Ibid., March 1849, p. 492 and 531.

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

420 Bones, dissolved ,

.

104 lb. at 7s. the cwt., L.0 52 .. at 12s .

Sulphuric acid ,

Carbonate of potash ,

26 .. at 358.

Carbonate of soda ,

17 .. at 12s.

6

64 15 94

05 8 0 1

.

0

0 11 94

Carbonate ofmagnesia , 60 .. at 22s.

L.l 13

8

Lothian, tried the effects of nitrate ofsoda on barley in 1843. The field in which the experiment was tried, at an elevation of 600 feet above the sea, had a southern

exposure, and the soil of medium quality,

This mixture was not applied, from for- of a depth of 8 or 9 inches, sufficiently tuitous circumstances, until the 31st May free for green crops, but rather having a 1847, and drought set in immediately tendency to clay, with a retentive subsoil. thereafter; but the produce obtained was It had been furrow -drained at 18 feet 54 bushels of 52 lb. of wheat, and 263 apart. It grew turnips in 1842, manured stones of straw , wbile the land that was with farmyard dung , and with a propor not top -dressed only gave 454 bushels of tion of dairy dung procured from Edin

burgh dairymen, the whole crop being 523 lb. of wheat, and 202 stones of straw the difference in favour of the top -dressing carried off the field. Common Scotch

being 97 bushels of wheat, and 61 stones barley was sown on 14th April 1843, after of straw . The result stands thus :94 bushels of wheat at 5s., 61 stones of straw at 2d., Deduct the value of the manure,

A profit is left of

£2 7 0 10

6 2

2 17 1 13

8 8

£1

4

0*

4925. Barley . - Mr A. F. Gardner obtained at Barrochan from a soil, upon the side of a hill with a southern exposure, of light brown loam of medium quality, resting on stiff strong till of greatdepth, lying between trap and sandstone, thoroughly

the land had received two ploughings, and was reaped on the 1st September. The

top-dressing wasapplied on the 13th May, and benefited by rains immediately after ; 1 cwt. 114 lb. of nitrate of soda was ap plied to the acre , at a cost of 22s., and the crop reaped was 60 bushels of 56 lb. to the bushel, and 316 stones of straw .

What received no top -dressing yielded 49 bushels of 56 lb. to the bushel, and 212 stones 4 lb. of straw to the acre, affording an increase to the top-dressing of 11 busbels of grain, and 66 stones of straw. The balance stands thus :

drained, trenched out of lea 12 inches in

11 bushels of barley at 23. 9d .,

depth with the spade, at a cost of £3, 6s.

104 stones of straw at 2d.,

8d. an acre, and manured with 3 cwt. of

£2 10 0 17

3 4

3

7

7

2

0

5

77

guano to the acre, at a cost of £3, 158., a produce of 64 bushels of common bar ley per acre, of 54 lb. to the bushel, and 321 stones of straw . The ground with which the experimental lots were compared

Deduct the value of the manure ,

was dressed with 2 chaldrons of quicklime

4927. It is interesting to compare the

Leaving a profit of

£2

slaked with water, in which common salt effects of the cheap ingredient saltpetre

had been dissolved , and with 24 cwt. of Turnbull's dissolved bones in muriatic acid, and the return was 48 bushels of barley of 551 lb. to the bushel, and 220 stones of straw. The guano procured an

refuse with the nitrate of soda. Mr Main at Whitehill applied it to a soil of mode rately strong clay, resting in a retentive subsoil, having an inclination and an er posure to the S.E. The ground was very increase of 154 bushels of grain , and 101 wet before being drained , and is now quite

stones of straw. The cost of Turnbull's dry. Since thedraining, the soil bearsfair manure not being given , I am unable to crops of turnips and most luxuriant oats

estimatethe profit derived from the guano. and barley, on the latter of which the pre The barley was sown on the 14th April, sent experiment was made. The saltpetre

top -dressed in the beginning of May, refuse was applied on the 27th May 1845, reaped on the 25th August, and weighed at only 1 cwt. to the acre, to try the on the 15th October 1842.+ effects of a small quantity, at a cost of 10s., and yielded on the 20th September, 4926. Mr John Finnie, Swanston, Mid- 614 bushels of barley of 50 lb. to the * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society , p. 496 and 532. I Ibid., October 1844, p. 312-13. + Ibid., July 1844, p. 230.

EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.

bushel, and 495 stones 6 lb. of straw to

421

4929. Both barley and oats were steep

the acre. What received no top-dressing ed in different solutions before being sown

produced 55 bushels of grain of 51 lb. to by Mr Gardner at Barrochan, and the the bushel, and 291 stones of straw to the effect was to lessen the yield of grain by acre .

The increase caused by the top- at least half a bushel to the acre, while

dressing was 6 bushels of barley, and 204 the steeping increased the quantity of stones of straw to the acre .

The results

straw at the most 80 stones to the acre.

were these : 64 bushels of barley at 2s. 9d., 204 stones of straw at 2d., Deduct cost of manure ,

Leaving a profit of ·

£ 0 16 11 1 14 0 2 10 11 0 10 0

£2

0 11 *

The costlier nitrate of soda of Mr Finnie

4930. Oats.

I shall state the results

of guano

from oats, before specifying the effects of any of the special manures. Mr

Finnie, Swanston, applied 2 cwt. 1 lb. of guano to the acre ,at a cost of 12s. the cwt.or

24s. an acre, which produced 744 bushels of Blainslie oats, of 42 lbs. to the bushel, and 400 stones of straw .

Without the

left the larger profit; but the increase by top -dressing, the crop was 48 bushels of the saltpetre refuse was large in propor- oats, at 424 lb. to the bushel, and 223 tion to the cost, and was larger than that stones of straw, the increase by the dress from the nitrate of soda, by £ 1, 13s. 3d. ing being 264 bushels of oats, and 177 But the nitrate of soda produced grain stones of straw. The results are : 56 lb. per bushel, while that from the salt £2 13 0 26 } bushels of oats, at 2s., 1 96 177 stones of straw , at 2d., petre refuse weighed only 504 lb. 4928. The combined effects of a mix

ture of nitrate of soda and salt on barley was tried by Mr John Proudfoot, Pinkie

hill, Mid -Lothian, on good deep loam , on a gravelly subsoil in very superior order. It bad carried wheat in 1842, and the barley experimented on in 1843, so that it was the second white crop in succession .

Deduct the cost of the manure , And the profit is

4

2

6

1

4

0

£2 18

6

The field was elevated 600 feet above the sea , consisting of soil of scarcely medium quality, having a S. exposure, and easily affected by drought. The oats were after

One cwt. each of nitrate of soda and salt, pasture, succeeding a crop of barley, im at a cost of 26s., was applied to the acre, and the produce received from them was 62 bushels of barley of 57 lb. to the bushel, and 276 stones of straw. The ground that

mediately preceded by turnips, which had been manured by Edinburgh street manure,

and the third part of the turnips eaten off by sheep. The oats were sown on the

received no top -dressing yielded 56 bushels 20th of March 1843, the guano applied on of grain of 57 lb. to the bushel, and 256 the 13th of May, rain immediately follow lb.of straw , showing an increase by the ing, and the crop reaped on the 20th Sep top -dressing of 6 bushels of barley, and 20tember.I stones of straw. The increase isnot large either in grain or straw, but the land was

4931. Mr Charles Chalmers of Monks

in superior order, and could not be expect- hill, applied, on the farm of Rothes Bris ed to be stimulated to an extraordinary bane, in Aberdeenshire,one special manure, degree. The results stood thus : sulphate of ammonia, on Scots barley oats, on the 18th of May 1843, to the ex 6 bushels of barley at 2s. 9d., £ 0 16 6 20 stones of straw at 2d.,

0

4

tent of 2 cwt. to the acre, at a cost of £ 2, ls. 8d. an acre ; and the yield was

Deductingwhich from the cost }

0 19 10 1 6 0

814 bushels of oats, of 414 lb. to the

of the manures , Incurred a loss of

3

bushel , and 473 stones of straw .

The

ground that received no top -dressing yield £0

6

2+

ed 53 bushels of grain, of 43 lb. to the

bushel, and 321 stones of straw , showing * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, October 1846, p . 407 and 423. # Ibid., October 1844, p. 313. + Ibid ., January 1849, p . 434.

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

422

an increase on the top -dressed part of as a top-dressing on Early Angus oats, 27 bushels of oats, and 152 stones of and the produce was 754 bushels ofgrain, straw ; but the oats were 1 lb. per bushel and 804 stones to the acre. The un dressed portion of the ground produced lighter. The balance stands thus :704 bushels of grain, and 608 stones of £2 15 6 274 bushels of oats, at 2s., 152 stones of straw, at 2d., 1 5 4 straw, so that the increase from the top .

dressing was 54 bushels of oats, and 196 Deduct the cost of the manure ,

4

0 10

2

1

8

stones of straw . The result was thus : 54 bushels of oats, at 2s., £0 10 6 .

Leaving a profit of

196 stones of straw , at 2d.,

1 12

8

The crop was much lodged , which may

Deduct cost of the manure,

2 3 0 18

2 9

account for the lightness of the grain. It also constituted a crop of seven years rotation, which terminated in two conse

Giving a profit of

£ 1 192

£1

4

5

cutive white crops. The field sloped to The farm is 200 feet above the sea, four miles distant from it, and has a S. expo sure . The soil is a light loam on a mixed

the S.*

4932. A combination of simple salts subsoil, but sufficiently porous to admit of was tried on_Sandy oats, by Mr A. F. beingthoroughly drained, in the autumn Gardner, at Barrochan, which were the of 1839, with stone drains, 30 inches in nitrate of soda and the sulphate of depth and 32 feet apart. The land bore soda, of each if cwt. at a cost of 9s. 10d. in 1840, potatoes;in 1841, wheat; in an acre; and the crop produced was 78

1842, turnips.

The oats were sown on

bushels, of 40 lb. to the acre, and 303 the 20th March, with the drill-machine

stones of straw . The undressed ground across the ridges, and top -dressed on the gave 614 bushels of grain, and 240 stones 10th of May 1843.I of straw , affording an increase of 164 bushels of oats, and 113 stones of straw . The result was : £1 13 0 164 bushels of oats, at 28., 113 stones of straw , at 2d.,

0 18 10 2 11 10

Deduct the cost of the manure ,

Leaving a profit of

0

£2

9 10

2

0

4934. As a change of top -dressing, Mr Proudfoot, Pinkiebill, Mid -Lothian, ap plied 12 bushels of bone-dust, dissolved in 292 lb. of sulphuric acid, at a cost of £ 4, 6s. the acre, on a light soil, resting on a gravelly subsoil, on the 24th April 1843, upon oats after lea, at an eleva

tion not exceeding 100 feet above the sea. The crop yieldedwas 80 bushels of oats,

The soil was stiff alluvial loam of good of 42 lb. to the bushel, and 376 stones depth, the subsoil of strong yellow clay of straw to the acre. The undressed part

lying on trap and sandstone. It had been gave 68 bushels of grain, of 43 lb. to the years bushel, and 320 stones of straw , affording drained nine years, and lain someground bushels of oats, and 56 increase of 12 an in grass, worth £2 the acre . The was trenched with the spade in the spring stones of straw_thus :

of 1843, 16 inches deep, at a cost of £4 an acre, the turf being laid on the bottom of the trench, and the subsoil brought up to the top. The oats were sown on the

20th of March, top -dressed on the 6th of May, reaped on the 8th September 1843.4 4933. Mr John Dickson, Saughton Mains, Mid - Lothian , tried a combina-

12 bushels of oats, at 28., 56 stones of straw , at 2d.,

Deduct cost of the manure , ·

Incurring a loss of

4

0

9

4

1 13 4 6

4 0

£1

£2 12 88

4935. An instance should be given of

tion of nitrate of sodaand common salt, the effect of a variety of substances upon 48 lb. each, at a cost of 18s. 9d. an acre, the oat crop, and I shall take one from the * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1845, p. 31. + Ibid ., July 1844, p. 241.

I Ibid., January 1845, p. 364-6.

§ Ibid ., January 1849, p. 435.

EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.

423

practice of Mr A. F. Gardner at Barro- bushels of beans, and 172 stones of straw . chan, who applied, on the 20th of May The result is this : 1845, the following substances : 11 } bushels of beans, at 38., Peruvian guano ,

10 at £ 0 10 0 4

0 0

4

8

1 0 Animal charcoal , Dissolved in sulphuric acid , 0 56

Common salt, Silicate of soda, Horn dust ,

3 10

4

0

6

0

£3

4

4

Deduct the cost of the manure 0

1

0

1

0

0 1_0 0 12 0

1

0

0

at a cost of

£ 1 14 6 1 15 10

172 stones of straw ,at 2 d .,

cwt. Ib .

2

0

£ 1 13

8

Leaving a profit of

The field had a gentle inclination to the S. It was trenched with the spade 16

the spring of 1842, ont of on black Tartarian oats, on the 10th of inches deep, in seven years which tiles,been withhad and apart, at 20oldfeetlea, April, and obtained 70 % bushels, of 414 drained The part undressed yielded 47 bushels of moss and partly sand or gravel loam ,

1b. to the bushel, and 376 stones of straw . made perfectly dry. The soil is partly

grain, of 38 lb. to the bushel, and 242 which were mixed together in trenching. stones ofstraw, indicating an increase by Besides this, it wasdressed with 2 chal

the dressings of 234 bushels of oats, and drons of quicklime, slaked in water that resul

134 stones of straw .

The

ts are :

held common salt in solution, in the pro 238 bushels of oats, at 28., 134 stones of straw , at 2d.,

.

Deduct the cost of the manure

£2 13 1 2

6 4

portion of 1 cwt. to the chaldron of lime, before the beans were sown on the 6th

3 15 10

March 1843. They were top -dressed on

1 13

the 6th of May, and reaped on the 1st of

8

September.t Leaving a profit of

£2

2

2

4937. Mr Gardner tried to top -dress The soil was drained moss, from 8 to 12

with a variety of special manures, such as, feet in depth, resting on a sandy clay beans bottom .

Prior to 1844, it had lain in

cwt. Ib.

grass for two years ; and in the spring of Animal charcoal that year

20 at £ 0 0 0 56 0

it was trenched with the spade Dissolvedin sulphuric acid , 1 0

two feet deep, laying the top -spading at Common Sulphate salt, ofmagnesia, the bottom ofthetrench, and bringing up Nitrate of soda,

2 1

2 2

6 0

0 16

0

0

0 0

8 0 94

the peat to the surface. The peat was burned into ashes, which were spread over £1 17 10 at a cost of the surface, and raised a crop of 25 tons to the acre of turnips. The surface was and obtained a crop of 69 bushels, of

pointed over with the spade in spring, and 58 lb. to the bushel, and 629 stones of the oats sown upon it. To supply the straw ; that which was not top -dressed

want of clay, thesilicateofsoda wastried, yielding 581 bushels, of 581 lb. to the as former experience had found that sili- bushel, and 483 stones of straw : showing cate of potash gave a strong, clear, shin- an increase, by the application of the top ing straw on moss- land. * dressing, of 114 bushels of beans, and 146 stones of straw .

4936. Beans. - Mr A. F. Gardner, at

Barrochan, applied 4 cwt. ofgypsum , at a

The result is :

114 bushels of beans, at 3s., . 146 stones of straw , at 2 d.,

£ 1 14 1 10

6 5

cost of 6s. an acre, to beans, and reaped 3 4 11 67} bushels, of 64 lb. to the bushel, and Deduct the cost of the manure , 1 17 10 the ground that received no top -dressing £17 1 Leaving a profit of yielded 56 bushels, of 63 lb. to the bushel of grain, and 491 stones of haulm : show- The soil was a stiff loam resting on sand ing an increase by the dressing of 114 stone ; was drained with tiles some years

663 stones of straw to the acre ; whereas

* Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1847, p. 18, 35. + lbid ., July 1844, p. 242-3.

424

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

ago, and has a gentle declivity to the E. of increasing the crop to a sensible degree. It bad lain in grass some years, and on By using acombination of such manures, Mr

being ploughed in spring the beans were A. F. Gardner, at Barrochan, has been sown broadcast, top -dressed on the 21st enabled to produce large crops of pota of May, reaped on the 8th of October, toes. Thus, with and weighed on the 12th November Farmyard dung, 15 tons at 5s., £ 3 15 0 1845.*

Animal charcoal, 1 cwt., Sulphuric acid , 56 lb.

4938. Pease . — Mr John Hannam , North Deighton, Yorkshire, tried the effects of gypsum on pease as an auxiliary to farm yard dung. The soil was a thin lime stone, worth 16s. the acre, the prior crops

being wheat rape- dusted, swedish turnips with manure, and barley with rape-dust. The pease were taken in lieu of clover for a change, and the land for them received 4 loads of farmyard dung to the acre; and

0

4

07 0 1

Carbonate of magnesia, 14 lb. Common salt, 1 cwt. Gypsum, 1 cwt.

0

Nitrate of soda, 28 lb.

0

0

1

6 0

£4 13

at a cost of

3 9

6

he planted the potatoes on the 29th of April 1844, applied the special manures along with the farmyard dung, and pro duced, upon very stiff clay loam , on the

the top -dressing of 4 cwt. of gypsum , at a 7th of October, 20 tons, 3 cwt. 19 lb. on cost of 12s., was spread on the 10th of an acre ; while 25 tons of farmyard dung, May 1842, and when reaped yielded 511 at a cost of £6, 5s., only produced 14 bushels of pease, of 61 lb. to the bushel, tons, I cwt. - giving an advantage of 6 and 253 stones of straw ; whereas that tons, 2 cwt. 19 lb., which, at £ 2 the ton,

which received no top-dressing gave 41 bushels, of 61 lb. to the bushel, and 205

is £12, 4s. 4d. an acre in favour of the special manures. The crop itself stands

stones of straw_showing the advantage thus : derived from the top -dressing to be 9 bushels of pease, and 474 stones of straw .

20 tons, 3 cwt. 19 lb. of potatoes, £40 7 at £2 per ton ,

The results are : 94 bushels of pease, at 38.,. 474 stones of straw , at 2 d .,

Deductcost ofmanure,

Deduct the cost of the manure,

£1

9

3

0

9

9

1 19 0 12

0 0

Leaving a balance of

0 6

4 13

£36 13 61

4941. A coarse variety of the potato,

called Counaught cups, afforded MrGard Leaving a profit of

£1

7

0+

ner a large return from a combination of

manures as auxiliaries to farmyard dung. Thus, with

4939. In the same experiment, pease Farmyard dung, 15 tons at 5s.,

£ 3 15

0

0

8

0

Common salt, 1 cwt.

0 0

94 1 0

Sulphate of soda, 1 cwt,

0

60

duce was 47* bushels of grain, of 61 lb. to

Horn dust, 2 cwt.

0

the bushel, and 262, stones of straw - giv

Sulphate of magnesia, 1 cwt.

0 5 0 16

0 0 0

1 10

0

£ 7 12

4

were tried by Mr Hannam with a com bination of a half cwt. of nitrate of soda

Animal charcoal, 2 cwt.

and 1 cwt. of the sulphate of soda, at a

Dissolved in sulphuric acid, 1 cwt.

cost of £ 1, 1s. 3d. an acre ; and the pro

ing a less satisfactory result than with

Muriate of ammonia , 1 cwt. Peruvian guano , 3 cwt.

gypsum alone, by only covering the ex pense.

at a cost of

4940. Potatoes. - Any simple salt, ap- the potatoes were planted on the 5th of

plied as a top-dressing to potatoes, pro- May 1845, and, when lifted on the 8th of duces but a trifling effect beyond what November, produced 21 tons, 15 cwt.;

farmyard dung will always produce; but while 30 tons of farmyard dung, at a cost a combination of special manures, as auxi- of £7, 10s., only produced 13 tons, 5 cwt. liaries to farmyard dung, has the effect -giving the above combination an advan * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1847, p. 19, 36 . + Ibid. March 1844 , p. 200-1 . I Ibid. January 1845, p. 409, Table C.

EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.

425

tage of 8 tons, 10 cwt.; which, at 358. the ton, being a coarse potato, still gives £ 14, 175. 6d. an acre. The field lying on the north side of a hill with a declivity,

yard dung and special manures, the farm dung was first ploughed in, and pigeons'

consisting of a medium soil, has a soil

carrot seed was sown in rows, in ruts, 14

dung sown broadcast on the surface and

harrowed in. On the harrowed surface the

about 16 inches deep, upon a subsoil of inches apart, covered with the rake bead great depth of yellow till, full of stones. and trampled down with the feet : 16 tons In 1843 it was drained with tiles, trenched of farmyard dung were used, at a cost of 5s. with the spade, and limed with the oats. a ton, or £ 4 ; and 4 cwt. of pigeon dung, Thespecial manures were sown broadcast at 4s. the cwt., or 168.-in all, £4, 16s. per acre . The produce was 14 tons 5 on the dung in the drills. cwt. 60 lb. , and that from 24 tons of farm

4942. But independently of farmyard yard alone, at a cost of 5s. the ton, or £6 dung, a combination of special manures an acre, was 12 tons 13 cwt. 64 lb.; so produced a large return toMr Gardner of that the increase caused by the pigeons' rough red potatoes, which were planted in dung was 1 ton 11 cwt. 108 lb., which,

the same field as the preceding on the 10th at 30s. the ton, gives a profit, by the spe of May, and lifted on the 10th of Novem- cial manure, of £ 2, 7s. 11d. an acre, over ber 1845. The special manures were and above the value of the 8 tons of dung. The case of the crop itself stands thus Peruvian guano, 6 cwt. per acre, £3 0 0 Animal charcoal, 2 cwt.,

0

8 9 6

Dissolved in sulphuric acid, 1cwt., 0 Horn dust , 3 cwt., Muriate of ammonia , 2 cwt., Sulphate of soda, 1 cwt., .

Carbonate of magnesia, 1 cwt., .

0 1 10 0 5 0 5

Common salt, 2 cwt., at a cost of

0 4 0

£6

14 tons 5 cwt. 60 lb. of carrots,

Deduct cost of manures,

0 0 0

2

0

5

4

£21

8

3

4 16

0

at 30s. ,

Leaving a profit of

£ 16 12

3+

4944. Mr J. M. Aynesley, Fern Hill, Tockington, raised two varieties of the and they produced 20 tons 9 cwt.; while 30 clayey a footquite in depth, resting on tons of farmyard dụng, ata cost of £ 7,108. carrot suit clayloam, on stiff — a soilnot anacre, only produced, in the same field, able for the carrot. The varieties were 13 tons 1 cwt. - giving the advantage to the Alteringham and the white Belgian. the special manures of 7 tons 8 cwt., which, The Alteringham was manured with 6

at £ 2 per ton, being a fine potato, is bushels of common salt, and 54 bushels of £ 14, 16s. an acre in favour of the special at a cost of £ 2, 23. 6d. an acre, and manures. The case of the crop itself stood soot, produced 22 tons 8 cwt. 64 lb. of carrots ; thus compared with 24 tons of farmyard dung, 20 tons 9 cwt. of potatoes at £2 = £40 18 0 Deduct cost of the manures ,

Leaving a balance of

at 4s. the ton, £4, 16s., which produced 21 tons 18 cwt. 64 lb., giving an advan £34 12 8* tage of 10 cwt. to the special manures, 6

5

4

which, at 30s. the ton, leaves a profit of 4943. Carrots. - Mr Main, at Whitehill, tried to raise carrots with other man

ure than farmyard dung alone. The soil was light sandy loam , resting on sand

and gravel.

The inclination of the field

was from N.E. to S.W.

158. per acre. is this

The case of the crop itself

22 tons 8 cwt. 64 lb. carrots, at 30s., £33 12 10 2 2 6 Deduct the cost of the manures, .

Leaving a balance of

£ 31 10

4

The field was

ploughed from old lea in 1844, and oats taken ; in 1845 it was in turnips, man-

4945. The white Belgian carrot was

ured with farmyard dung, guano, &c ; also manured with 6 bushels of common in 1846 it was in oats again ; and in 1847 salt and 54 bushels of soot, at a cost of turnips and carrots. In using both farm- £2, 2s. 6d. an acre, and produced 29 tons * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1847, p. 25 and 27. + Ibid ., March 1849, p. 502 and 533.

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

426

8 cwt. 64 lb. an acre ; compared with the crop was pulled at the end of those raised from 24 tons of farmyard October.

dung, which produced 28 tons 8 cwt. 64 Ib ., giving the advantage to the special 4948. In a similar experiment with 20 manures of just 1 ton on the acre, or 30s. tons of farm dung, and 6 cwt.of Peruvian guano, sown upon the drills after the crop of profit. The crop yielded was up, the produce was 25 tons 3 cwt. 29 tons 8 cwt. 64 lb., at 30s.,

£ 44

2 10

Deduct cost of the manures ,

2

2

6

Leaving a balance of

£42

0

4

67 lb. of Swedish turnips, while that quan tity of dung alone produced only 21 tons 7 cwt. 71 lb. - giving an advantage to the

guano of 3 tons 15 cwt. 108 lb., which, at or £ 10, 10s. the acre more in favour of 10s. the cwt., is £ 1,18s.3d. of profit an acre.

the white Belgian than the Alteringham The crop was sown on the 4th of June, carrot.

In both crops the seed was sown and pulled at the end of October 1844.7

on the 19th of April 1842, and pulled from the 4th to the 21st of November. *

4949. A combination of special man ures produced as marked an increase in

4946. Lord Lovelace, in 1843, gave a Swedish turnips as in potatoes. Mr A.

short account of having raised in several F. Gardner, at Barrochan, applied the years, but particularly in 1842, 43 tons following special manuresonmedium loam , 36 lb. of red carrots on the acre, with 15 after a crop of oats from lea, in 1845 :

cubic yards of farmyard dung alone. The only peculiarity of the cultures seems to

have been the subsoiling to the depth of 15 inches between the drills.

4947. Swedish turnips.

The power of

guano as an auxiliary to farmyard dung in raising a crop of turnips is considerable.

Farmyard dung, 15 tons at 5s., £ 3 15 0 Peruvian guano, 3 cwt. at 10s., 1 10 0 Animal charcoal, 2 cwt.at 4s., 0 8 0 Dissolved in muriatic acid , 1 cwt., 095 4 .

.

Carbonate of magnesia, 1 cwt., Sulphate of soda, 1 cwt., Sulphate of ammonia, 1 cwt., Horn dust, 3 cwt. at 2s., Common salt, 1 cwt.,

Mr A. F. Gardner, at Barrochan, applied 18 tons of farm dung to the acre at 5s. the

ton, £4, 10., and 3 cwt.of Peruvian guano at 10s. the cwt., £1, 108. — together making a cost of £6 the acre, produced, in 1844, on stiff clay land that had been

at a cost of

.

0

0

0 5 0 16 0 6 0 1

0 0 0 0

£7 15

4

which produced 46 tons 17 cwt. 6 lb. of Swedish turnips an acre, of value £23, 88. 6d., at10s. the ton; compared with 30 tons of farmyard dung at 5s.,

trenched with the spade 16 inches deep in £8, 158., which produced 34 tons 5 cwt. the winter of 1842-3, 34 tons 19 cwt. of 80 lb., giving the advantage of 12 tons Swedish turnips ; compared with 29 tons 11 cwt. 38 lb. to the special manures, 10 cwt., raised with 35 tons of farmyard amounting to £6, 58. 8d. an acre, at 10s. dung at 5s. the ton, at a cost of £ 8 , 159. the ton. The value of the crop itself stands an acre -giving an advantage of 5 tons 9 thus cwt. to the guano, which, at 10s. the ton, tons 17 cwt. 6 lb. Swedes at 10s. £23 8 6 gives a profit of £2, 14s. 6d. an acre. 46 Deduct the cost of the manures, 8 15 0 The crop itself stands thus Leaving a balance of 34 tons 19 cwt. swedes, at 10s., Deduct cost of the manures,

£ 17

9

6

0

£14 13 61

6 0

4950. With 15 cubic yards of farm yard dung, at 5s. the yard, £3, 15s.; 4 cwt. of Peruvian guano, at 10s. the cwt., whereas the balance left by the farmyard £2 ; and 17 bushels of bone-dust, at 23. 6d. Leaving a balance of

dung alone was £6 the acre.

£ 11

96

The guano the bushel, £2, 2s. 6d., Mr Robert Elliot,

was sown upon the top of thefarm dung Hardgrave, Dumfriesshire, raised 28 tons

along the drill on the 13th of May, and 9 cwt. of Swedish turnips an acre, in * Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. iv. p. 270. + Transactions of the Highland and AgriculturalSociety, March 1845, Table G. # Ibid., July 1847, p. 29.

EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.

427

1849, at a cost of £7, 178. 6d., the value well as on the Swede, and with similar of the crop, at 10s. the ton,being £ 14 ,4s.6d., good results. The manures were these leaving a balance, after deducting the cost of the mauures, of £6, 7s. an acre, and

Farmyard dung, 15 tons at 58.,

making the cost of a ton of Swedes

Peruvian guano , 3 cwt. at 10s., Animal charcoal, 2 cwt. at 4s.,

£3 15 0 0 0

1 10 0 8

only 58. 60.*

Dissolved in sulphuric acid, 1 cwt., 0 9 4 0

5

4951. Yellow turnips. - Mr John Finnie, Swanston, tried single special manures

Carbonate of magnesia , 1 cwt., Sulphate of soda, 1 cwt., Muriate of ammonia, 1 cwt., Common salt, 1 cwt.,

0

5

0

0 15 0 1

0 0

Potash , 28 lb., at28s. the cwt.,

0

6

6

Horn dust, 2 cwt. at 2s.,

0

4

0

.

.

.

as auxiliaries to farmyard dung, on a soil of rather good quality, having a retentive subsoil, at a depth of 12 or 13 inches. The

at a cost of

field is exposed to the N., was under

0

£7 18 10

wheat in 1842, preceded by potatoes,

raised with farm dung andEdinburgh and the produce was42 tons, 17 cwt. 10 street manure in equal proportions. Skir- lb. Compared with 31 tons obtained from ving's purple top yellow turnips were sown on the 15th of June, the special manure sown over 16 tons of dung,at 5s. the ton , £4, spread along the drill,and the turnips were pulled on the 1st of November 1843. Thus, 12 tons of dung at 59., £3, and i

30 tons of farmyard dung, at 3s. the ton, at a cost of £ 7, 10s, an acre, the advan

tage accruing by the use of the special

manures was 11 tons 17 cwt. 10 lb., at 89. the ton , amounts to £4, 15s. id.

The

value of the crop itself is this

cwt. 67 lb. of ammoniacal salts, at 20s.

42 tons 17 cwt. 10 lb. Jones'

the cwt., £ 1 , 12s., together making a cost

yellow, at 8s., Deduct the cost of the manures,

}

£ 17

3

1

7 18 10

of £4, 128. an acre, produced 33 tons,

6 cwt. 13 lb ; and which, compared with the produce of 16 tons of dung at 5s., £4,

Leaves a balance of

£9 4

30

25 tons 4 cwt., gives an advantage to the special manure of 8 tons 2 cwt. 13 lb. at

4954. On the farm of Balgray, in the 8s. the ton, of £3, 4s. 9d. an acre, over parish of Applegarth, Dumfriesshire, 29 and above the value of 4 tons of dung. The tons 3 cwt. per acre of yellow bullock turnips were raised by 35cubic yards of value of the crop stands thus dung, at a cost, at 58. the yard, 33 tons 6 cwt. 13 lb. yellow tur- } £13 6 6 farmyard of £8, 15s. an acre . The cost of raising nips, at 8s., the turnips was thus 6s. 4d. the ton. Deduct the cost of the manures, 4 12 0 Leaving a balance of

£8 14

6+

4955. White turnips. — Mr John Han

dam , North Deighton , Yorkshire, tried experiments with special manures both as 4952. It may

be mentioned here, that substitutes for and as auxiliaries to farm

ammoniacal liquor, obtained from the gasworks, is of greater or less value as it is obtained from the particular kind of coal the gas is extracted from . The purer the coal the gas is derived from , such as the cannel coal, used at Edinburgh, the am-

yard dung. The best substitute was burnt bones, 2 quarters of wbich an acre, at a cost of £ 2, 1s., produced 25 tons 17 cwt. 1 lb. of Matson's white-globe turnips, of 243 good turnips to each perch ; while the ground that had none produced only 16 tons

moniacal liquor is less rich in useful ingre- 1 cwt. of small bulbs — the advantage ob

dients than from coal of a more bituminous tained by the bones being 9 tons 16 cwt. character. Hence the ammoniacal liquor 1 lb., at6s.the ton, £ 2, 18s. Id. an acre . As of Newcastle or London is better than an auxiliary to farmyard dung, 12 bushels of that of Edinburgh . bone-dust and 6 bushels of rape-cake dust to the acre, at a cost of £ 2, 6s. 9d . pro

4953. Mr A. F. Gardner, at Barro- duced 26 tons 15 cwt. 5 lb., of 228 turnips

chan, tried the effects of a combination of to the perch, and secured an advantage of special manures on Jones'yellow turnip, as 10 tons 14 cwt. 5 lb., at 6s. the ton, £ 3, * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, March 1850, p. 237. + Ibid ., October 1844, p. 316.

# Ibid ., July 1847, p. 31 .

§ Ibid., March 1850, p. 238 .

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

428

4s. 2d. an acre . thus in value :

The crop itself stands

4958. This special manure was com posed of Organic matter,

26 tons 15 cwt. 5 lb. globes, at 6s. £8 0 6 Deduct the cost of the manure , 2 6 9

Leaving a balance of

£ 5 13

Inorganic matter, Water ,

9

16.3 63.9 19.8

.

100.0

The soil moderate limestone, worth 24s. To compare with this, 20 tons of farmyard Former dung, fermented until it could be cut with crops - grass pastured with sheep, wheat a spade, were applied to the acre,at a per acre, exposed on all sides.

rape -dusted, and oats rape -dusted.

The cost of £ 5, and it produced 31 tons of tur

turnips were drilled on the level on the dips, giving an advantage to the special

4th of July, at 12 inches apart, and pulled manure of 6 tons 8 cwt., which, at 6s. the on the 5th of November 1842. *

ton, realises a profit of £1 , 18s. an acre. The value of the turnips was 3s. 2d. the ton . This manure consisted of

4956. These special manures , Farmyard dung, 15 tons at 5s., Peruvian guano, 3 cwt. at 10s., Animal charcoal, 2 cwt. at 4s. Dissolved in muriatic acid, 1 cwt., Horn dust, 2 cwt. at 2s.,

Common salt, 2 cwt. at 1s., at a cost of

.

£ 3 15

0

1 10

0

0

0

8

Organic matter, Inorganic matter, Water ,

094 0 4 0 0 2 0

24.71 10.06

64.96 99.73

4959. Some curious anomalies were ob £6

8

4

tained by the use of these alkaline phos

phates. We have seen that 4 cwt. ofthem produced 37 tons 8 cwt. of turnips ; but when an addition of 10 tons of farmyard dung was made to that quantity of the phosphates, the produce shrunk to 26 tons 14 cwt. 32 lb., and the special manures the acre, making the value of the turnip

produced 34 tons 11 cwt. 48 lb. of purpletop white turnips. Compare this with the produce of 30 tons of farmyard dung at 59. the ton, at a cost of £7 10s., 33 tons

have only an advantage of 17 cwt. 16 3s. 2d. the ton : 26 tons were also produced lb. an acre, which at 6s.the ton is worth by 8 cwt. of the alkaline phosphates alone,

5s. 1d. The value of the crop itself is which made the value of the turnips 2s. when 10d. the

this :

ton .

But

10 tons of farm

yard manure were added to 8 cwt. of the 34 tons 11 cwt. 48 lb.white, at 6s., £ 11 7 4 Deduct the cost of the manure , 6 8 4

alkaline phosphates, the produce was in creased to 31 tons—the same amount as

Leaving a balance of

£ 4 19

0

from 20 tons of farmyard dung alone. The value of the turnips, from the dung alone,

The soil was medium loam . The preced- was 3s. 2d. the ton, but the dungand phos

ing crop was oats on trenched lea. The special manures were sown upon the dung in the drills, on the 26th June, and the turnips pulled on the 12th of November

platescombined, increased their value to 48. Hence we should conclude, that alka line phosphates and farmyard dung should not be combined, but applied separately. In

1845.7

like manner earthy sulphates, prepared by dissolving magnesian limestone in sulphu

4957. Hybrid turnips — Mr Thomas L. ric acid, and 20 tons of farmyard dung, each Colbeck, East Denton,Newcastle-on-Tyne, separately, produce 31 tons of turnips; but applied alkalinephosphates with ammonia, when combined, the produce falls to 26

the phosphates being prepared by dissolv- tons, and increases the value of the tur ing bones in an excess of sulphuric acid, nips to 4s. 1d. the ton. The sulphates are and neutralising by means of an alkali ; 4 composed of cwt. of which at 8s. 3d , the cwt. at a cost

of £ 1 , 13s. an acre, produced 37 tons 8

Inorganic matter, Water,

86.9 12.7

cwt. of hybrid turnips, making the cost of the сгор 10d. per ton .

* Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, March 1844, p. 171. + Ibid ., July 1847, p. 33 .

99.6

429

EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.

and they alone make the value of the tur- acre . this : nips only 1s. 9d. the ton. 4960. The turnips were Sown in May and pulled in December 1847 -the four preceding crops being, in

The value of the crop itself is

36 tons ofmangold -wurzel, at 10s., £18 0 Deduct the cost of the manure ,

Leaving a balance of

4 15 £ 13

5

0 0

0+

1843, turnips manured with farmyard dung ; in 1844, barley ; in 1845, pease in stead of clover ; in 1846, oats .

The soil

4962. Lord Lovelace raised , at Oakham

is formed from the disintegration of the Park , large crops of long red mangold upper red conglomerate of the coal series. wurzel — in 1831, as much as 58 tons 8

The neighbourhood is principally formed cwt. 60 lb. an acre; andon an average of from the clay slate of the same series. It is

12 years from 1831 to 1842, both inclu

consequently a strong wheat soil, worth sive, the quantity was 47 tons, 19 cwt. 403. the acre, and is considered a tolerably 59 lb. the acre. In 1841 and 1842 he good turnip soil.

It does not grow a fine raised 42 tons 3 cwt., and 43 tons 2 cwt.

sample of wheat, and is not yet dry of the orange globe variety to the acre. enough beneath for turnips, to be eaten off As the cultivation is peculiar, I shall re with sheep in winter. It is sufficiently late it in his lordship's own words. In

dry for ordinary cultivation without furrow autumn, the stubble is manured with 15 drainage, the outburst of water having cubic yards of farmyard dung and ploughed been taken off by cross drains. *

down . “ In April the ground is ridged at a width of 3 feet, by a double mould

4961. Mangold-wurzel. – This is a root board going out and returning in the same but scantily grown in Scotland, and the furrow . The subsoil plough follows im source of our information regarding its mediately along the furrow, and stirs the produce must be derived from the ground 15 inches deeper ; and the remain

experience of English cultivators. On light land, being in part a shifting sand, Mr Pusey of Pusey, in Berkshire, associated special manures with 13 loads of farmyard dung; and although Mr Pusey does not give prices at all,

ing 15 cubic yards allotted to each acre, in all 30 cubic yards, are put in the trench and covered in the usual manner. The mangold is sown on the newly formed ridge with the turnip -drill, about the end of April or beginning of May. Three or

I shall estimate the various manures

four weeks afterwards the furrows are

at the usual cost, and say that the subsoiled, (so that the field is thoroughly dung was worth 5s. the load, at a cost of £3, 53. an acre ; 7 cwt. of rags at 48. the cwt., at a cost of £ 1 , 8s. an acre ; and 3 cwt. of guano at 10s. the cwt., at a cost of £ 1 , 10s. an acre, each of which pro-

stirred) and the plants are left to stand at intervals (in the lines) of 14 to 18 inches, the lines being 3 feet apart. I will only add one word more about the second sub soiling. After the plants have come up,

duced 36 tons of mangold-wurzel an acre, and are five or six weeks old, if you exa making the value of the crop 28. 7d. mine them you will find that even then per ton. With 26 and 13 loads of farm- their fibres are nearly meeting ; the sub

yard dung an acre, 284 and 274 tons of soiling in the intervening furrow then mangold -wurzel were produced respec- heaves up the ridges on which they are tively ; and with no manure at all, 15 } growing, and they seem to float upon the

tonsan acre were obtained - so that the soil : directly afterwards, I suppose, they special manures secured an advantage of dive down in quest of further nourish 8 tons over the farmyard manure, and 20 tons over what received no manure. Estimating mangold -wurzel at the same price as swedes, 10s. the ton, the pecuniary advantage over the produce from the farm-

ment. The plants grow so rapidly as to take entire possession of the soil, and the shade of the leaves prevents the growth of weeds ; consequently, no hoeing is requisite after they have been once thin

yard dung is £ 4, and over that from the ned out to their proper distance.

They

ordinary state of the soil, £ 10, 5s. an are taken up in November, and have * Transactions ofthe Highland and Agricultural Society, January 1850, p. 141-62. + Journal ofthe English Agricultural Society, vol. vi. p. 530.

430

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

been kept till June, or even July, with MrJohn Finnie, Swanston, applied 1 cwt. *

care . ""

11 lb. of nitrate of soda, at a cost of 22s.

an acre on the 13th of May 1843. The 4963. Tares. - Mr John Finnie, Swans- grass was cut on the 10th, and weighed ton, applied 1 cwt. 224 lb., of ammoniacal on the 15th July, at 344 stones an acre ;

salts, at a cost of £ i, 3s. 11d. an acre, and obtained a cutting of 1143 stones. The ground that had not been top -dressed yielded 967 stones, so that the top -dress-

while that which was not top -dressed only yielded 181 stones - giving an advantage to the top-dressing of 163stones, which, at

6d. the stone, for half-made bay that year, ing gave an increase of 176 stones, which was £4, 18. 6d., leaving a profit of £ 2, 19s. at 11d. the stone is 18s. 4d., incurring 6d. an acre. The crop itself stood thus : 344 stones of clover hay, at 6d. the a loss of 59. 7d . an acre . The crop it£ 17 4 0 stone , self stands thus : 1 2 0 Deduct the cost of the manure , .

1143 stones of tares,at 14d . per stone, £5 18 11 Deduct the cost of the manure ,

Leaving a profit of

1

3 11

Leaving a balance of

£ 16

2

0

The field was exposed to the S. and the The field was exposed to the S., and con soil was eight or nine inches in depth, sisted of very light soil incumbent on easily pulverised,but having a slight mix greenstone. In 1841 it was under turnips, ture of clay, and resting on a retentive £ 4 15

0

manured with rich farmyard dungand subsoil. Edinburgh street manure ; and the third part of the crop was eaten on the ground with sheep

4966. Mr James M'Lean, Braidwood ,

În 1842 barley succeeded top -dressed clover and rye-grass with 3

the turnips, and was sown down with grass cwt. 4 lb. of guano, at a cost of £3, 188. 7th of May 1842 ; the seed. In 1843, the grass seeds not suc 7d. an acre, on thethe 24th of June, and ceeding, they were ploughed up on the grass was cut on 29th of March , and the tares sown on the the hay weighed and stacked on the 5th

1st of April following, with a mixture of of July, the produce being 3981 stones. four parts of tares to one of oats. The The ground that was not top-dressed

top -dressings were applied on the 12th yielded 125 stones, so that the top-dress of May, and the tares mown on the 10th ing procured the great increase of 273 stones an acre, which, at 7d. the stone, of August.t gives £7, 19s. 6d. an acre, and a profit of

4964. Mr James Melvin, Bonnington, £4, Os. 11d., after deducting the cost of Mid-Lothian, sowed beans and tares to- the manure. The crop itself stands thus : £ 12 12 5 3984 stones hay, at 7d the stone, gether in 1843, with 16 tons to the acre of Deduct the manure cost of the

farmyard dung, and top - dressed the ground afterwards with 1 cwt of sulphate of soda , and 56 lb. of nitrate of soda, at a cost of 13s. 9d. an acre, and the produce was 1760 The part that received farmstones.

,

7

3 18

Leaving a balance of

£8 13 10 1

4967. Mr A. F. Gardner, at Barrochan,

yard dung alone produced 1632 stones, applied the following special manures : giving an advantage to the top-dressing Animal charcoal, 1 cwt. £0 4 0 of 128 stones an acre, which at 14d. the stone is 13s. 4d., about the same amount as the extra cost of the special manures. The crop itself stands thus: 1760 stones of tares, at 1fd. per stone, Deduct the cost of the manures,

Leaving a balance of

£9

3 4

0 13

9

£ 8 971

Dissolved in sulphuric acid, 56 lb. at 9s. 4d. cwt.

Horn dust, 1 ) cwt. at 2s.,

O

0

4

8

0

3

0

0

Carbonateofmagnesia,14 lb. at 5s. 4d. 0

8

Šulphateof soda, 28 lb. at 5s. per cwt.,

0 1

Common salt, 56 lb. at 1s. per cwt.,

0

3 6 0

per cwt.

.

0

Sulphate of ammonia, 28 lb. at 16s. cwt., 0046

Potash, 28 lb. at 24s. per cwt.,

Carbonate of soda, 28 lb. at 8s. per cwt., 0 2 0 at a cost of

£1

6

1

4965. Hay of clover and rye grass. * Journal of the English Agricultural Society, vol. iv. p. 21 .

+ Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, October 1844, p. 314-5. # Ibid ., January 1849, p . 439.

§ Ibid ., October 1844, p. 314-17.

| Ibid ., July 1843, p. 30.

EFFECTS OF SPECIAL MANURES.

This mixture produced 931 stones 4 lb., while the ground that received no topdressing only produced 331 stones 12 lb., giving a balance in favour of the top dressing of 599 stones, which at 4£d. the

431

The grass was cut on the 12th of July, and the hay stacked and weighed on the 15th of August, at 497 stones an acre, while the undressed part only yielded 228 stones, giving an advantage of 269 stones

stone, or £3 the ton, are worth £11 , 4s. 7d. to the manures, at 4fd. the stone, £ 5,

an acre, and, after deducting the cost of Os. 10d. an acre, and, after deducting their the manures, leave a profit of £9,13s. 10£d. cost, leaving a profit of £ 3 , 11s.114d. The crop itself stands thus : 931 stones hay, at 41d. the stone, £ 17 91

an acre .

Deduct the cost of the manures, Leaving a balance of

The soil was medium loam .

1

6

1

£ 16

3

0

an acre .

The crop itself stands thus :

497 stones hay, at 41d. the stone, Deduct the cost of the manures ,

£9 6 45

1 8 10

Leaving a balance of

£7 17

65

It was

cropped in 1843 with potatoes, and in

4970. Rye -grass seed.

Mr Charles

1844 with barley sown down with grass Stevenson, Redside, East Lothian, top seeds. The grass was top -dressed on the dressed the second year's rye-grass for 28th of April, cut down on the 26th of seed, growing on red clay resting on stiff June, and the hay stacked on the 28th of clay. The farm is three miles from the sea, and elevated about 100 feet above it, August, 1845.* and the exposure of this particular field 4968. Hay of ten years old lea. - Mr was partly N. and partly S. It was fur

Gardner made experimentsoftop-dressings row drained in 1837 at 36 feet apart, with age from 3, 6, 10, 15, to 30 years, the preceding crops were in 1838 bare fallow ;

of special manures on old lea, varying in tiles and stones placed above them . The

results of which are all instructive, but I 1839, wheat; 1840, turnips ; 1841 , bar

shall confine myself to two of the most ley; 1842, hay; and in 1843, rye-grass for seed. The top -dressing, nitrate of successful instances.

In 1843 he top

dressed 10 year old lea with half a hun- soda, 1 cwt. 67 lb., at a cost of £ 1, 158. 3d. dredweight of nitrate of soda, at a cost an acre, was applied on the 7th of April,

’ of 8s. 9d. an acre, and obtained 5334 stones of hay; while that which received no top -dressing yielded 401 stones, giving the special manure an advantage of 132) stones to the acre, at 6d. the stone, £ 3, 6s. 3d.; and after deducting the costof the manure, 8s. 9d., left a profit of £ 2, 179.

the grass cut in July, and the hay weighed when maturely won , at 320 stones, while thepart undressed only yielded 174 stones, giving an advantage to the top-dressing of 146 stones an acre. Taking theprice of bay at £3 the ton,or 4£d. the stone, the advantage was £ 2, 14s. 11d., and

6d. an acre. The crop itself stood thus :

after deducting the cost of the manure, the profit was 198. 8d. an acre ; but the

533) stones of hay, at 6d. the stone, Deduct the cost of the manure,

Leaving a balance of

6 8

9 9

£ 12 18

0

£ 13 0

crop was worth more as one of rye -grass seed , the quantity not being mentioned by Mr Stevenson. The crop itself, as bay,

The crop yielded 325 lb. of hay from stands thus : every 1000 lb. of the grass cut green.t

320 stones hay, at 41d the stone, Deduct the cost of the manure,

4969. On eleven years old lea, Mr Gardner applied these special manures as

.

Leaving a balance of

£6 0 1 15

0

3

£4 4 98

& top -dressing on the 23d of April 1844 :

4971. These are the largest returns,

Peruvian guano, 1 cwt. at 10s. the cwt, £00 15 0 4 0 Animal charcoal, 1 cwt.

Muriate ofammonia,56lb. at 16s.the cwt., o

8

0

Common salt, 56 lb. at 9d. the cwt.

0 0

41

Gypsum , 1 cwt.,

0

1

6

at a cost of

£18 102

from the respective crops enumerated, I can find recorded ; and it might have proved interesting and instructive, by way of comparison, had I given the smallest returns also, and which I would wil

lingly have done had space been avail

* Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1847, p. 20. + Ibid ., July 1844, p 240.

# Ibid ., March 1845. Table B.

§ Ibid ., October 1844, p . 334.

432

able .

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

It would tend to no good result the observed effects

to draw general conclusions from the

different manures ; and What renders re

the influence of the seasons.

few cases that have been adduced; but sults still less availableis, that “the careful of experiments,” as Professor Johnston well the effects of certain classes of special sifter observes, “ must bear all such things in mind in

manures are so obvious, upon every species comparingresults, and in attempting to reconcile of crop they were applied to, that no harın such as differ, or to extract general rules and from such as agree . The maker of can accrue from noticing them . It seems, principles experiments, also, must neither be surprised nor then , that all special manures containing a discouraged if a series of trials which has cost

large proportion of nitrogen, such as rapecake, sulphate of ammonia, muriate of ammonia, nitrate of soda, and sucblike, reduce the weight of the grain they pro

duce, while they increasethe quantity of

him thought, trouble, and expense, should, by the chances of one unusual season, by the unsus pected condition of his land, or by other acci dents, be rendered wholly abortive. Such acci dents form one of those numerous sources of delay to which whi the progress of scientific agriculture is to

both grain and straw ; whereas chlorides, peculiarly liable,which have made its advance so sulphates, soda, magnesia, bone-dust, and slow, many of its steps in advance so doubtful

the like, increasethe weight but deterio- and insecure,and havedisheartened and driven frommy its view service many useful andusingthe talented men .' special thequality of the grain in comparison To ,theprospectof with ordinaryfarmyard manure.

manures as they ought and might be used, is very distant indeed.

4972. It may prove useful to give a list of the chemical and commercial names and current

price of the various sorts of manures recom mended for use. It is useless to specify the quan

4974. I am not sure that the following sub stances as manures comprehend the entire num . ber presented to the notice of the farmer. The

tity to be applied ofeach to the acre, asexperi• prices in 1850, Ihave endeavoured to obtain as ence has not yet determined the point with cer correctly as possible from authentic sources. tainty ; and it is equally unsatisfactory to state SALINE MANURES . the quantities used by every experimenter on every kind of crop, since the ingredients were

only used experimentally, and such quantities cannot therefore prove a correct guide for others to follow , and might rather have a tendency to mislead. The best results hitherto obtained are the only safe ones the attention can be directed to ; and cases of failure would perhaps have been equally instructive : but few of these are recorded

with the same degree of candour as the instances success. A long time must elapse of comparative ere certainty can be attained in a matter admitting of such a variety of quantities, and in the mean time every farmer must experiment for

Agricultural salt,

Soiled rock -sall. ls. cwt.

Carbonate of

monia, Carbonate of mag

Carbonate ofpotash , American potash , 28s. to 42s. cwt. Soda crystals,

soda,

Chloride of sodium , of

Muriate

Crystals,

monia , Muriate of potash , Nitrate of potash ,

farmyard dung, bone-dust, and Peruvian guano,

28s. cwt. 13s. cwt. 16s. cwt.

L.6 to L.8 ton . 15s. to 18s, cwt.

nia ,

Sulphate of lime,

time will no doubt arrive when a large accumu lation of facts will indicate the substances most

will appear from the following considerations :

8s. cwt. ls . 3d . cwt.

Nitre, Saltpetre, 29. to 30s. cwt.

soda ,

Silicate of potash , Sulphate of ammo

potash ,

4973. That a long time must elapse, ere the special manures can inspire the same confidence in their effects as is already placed in those of

Common sall ,

am

magnesia ,

and then the young farmer will reap the advantages secured to him by the experience of his experimenting predecessors.

50s. to 56s. cwt. 50s. cwt.

himself in his own peculiar circumstances. The to be relied on, and all others will be rejected ;

Sal volatile ,

nesia ,

Gypsum , Epsom salts,

Dry salts,

soda ,

2s. cwt. 8s. to 10s . cwt. 12s. to 14s. cwt.

48. to 6s. cwt.

Phosphate of am 50s. cwt.

monia ,

25s . cwt.

Phosphate of soda ,

CALCINED MANURES ,

Soda ash , Kelp salt , Clay ashes,

Refined kelp ,

Burnt clay ,

L.ll to L.12 ton . 4s. to 5s. cwt. 2d . bushel. 28. 6d . ton .

Coal ashes,

coal,

Dutch ashes , Peat ashes , Turf ashes , Wood ashes,

peaty soil , £3 ton . peats , 2d. bushel.

Kelp,

sods, 5d . 60 . wood , sea -ware , 5s. to 6s . cwt.

the influence of the varying quality of farmyard Charred peat, Peat charcoal, 408. ton . nominal. sawdust, dung on the results of comparative experiments, Burnt bones, Bone Black, 205. gr . in which it is one of the ingredients employed ; MINERAL ACID MANURES . the previous treatment of the land ; one ingredient counteracting the action of another ; the time, Sulphuric acid , Oil of vitriol, 40. lb. manner , and form of the application of the in- Muriatic acid , Spirits of salts, itd. Ib . gredients ; the physical condition of an ingre NATURAL MANURES . dient, its state of chemical action , and its ten Peruvian guano , L.9 to L.10 ton . dency to decompose in a given soil ; the differ Ichaboe guano , African, L.8, 10s. ton . L.5 , 10s. to L.6 ton . ent varieties of seed causing discordances in Patagonian guano ,

* Johnston's Experimental Agriculture, p. 71-2.

SPECIAL MANURES. Saldanha Bay guano , African , Pigeon dung , Poultry dung , Cow dung, Chamber lye , Urine, Cow wash , Cow urine,

L.5 to L.5, 10s. ton . L.4 ton. L.4 ton . 53. ton.

5d . gallon . 44 to 6d . butt .

Dung ,

Nightsoil, Dry nightsoil,

Dr dung , Fish compost, Shambles' refuse, Ground bones , Bone powder ,

Fish offal, Animal offal, Bone -dust,

Bone sawdust , Soot,

4s. cwt.

403. to 50s. hhd. 2s. ton .

6s. ton. 18s. 6d. to 20s. qr. L.6 to L7 ton.

3d . to 9d . bushel.

Coprolites,,

Phosphorite,

4s. 8d . cwt.

MANUFACTURED NANURES. Turnbull's guano , 8s, cwt. L.15 ton . Potter's guano , L.ll to L.12 ton . British guano ,

Clark's

desiccated } } }

nure ,

on purchasing them, should demand from the sellers a guarantee of the quantity of alkali and of acid that they contain ; and by comparing this with a list of the composition of the salts in a

crude state, before the practical chemist purifies them for the apothecaries, it will be ascertained whether the articles purchased are genuine or otherwise. These ingredients are generally pro cured from the drysalter, and not from the

manufacturers, who desire to deal with pur chasers on a much larger scale than farmers are likely to be.

4976. The percentage of the alkalis and acids

12s . cwt. 15s. cwt.

which enter into the composition of the chief chemical substances in the foregoing list, as

133. cwt.

articles of commerce, is as follows, and was

18s. cwt.

kindly furnished to me by Mr Tennant, of the Bonnington Chemical Works, Edinburgh. The

L.5, 10s. to LB , 10s. * ton. L.10 ton. L.7 to L.12 ton . 89. gr . 12s. qr .

Liebig's manure, Lawe's manures , Daniell's manure , Lance's carbon , humus,

sufficiently pure to answer the purpose of a manure ; but in order to test their value, farmers

73s. hhd.

compost,

Dalton's manure A , Dalton's manure B , Poittevin's desiccat . ed compost , Watson's compost , Ryan's azotised ma .

433

deficiency in the percentage of some of the num bers consist of water ; others are nearly pure, while most contain impurities. Percentage of

L.4 ton. 4s. cwt.

Turnbull's humus ,

impurity.

Carbonate of ammonia ,

prepared

48. cwt.

bones, Nesbitt's manures ,

L.7 to L.14 ton .

Spence's

L.8 ton .

prepared

magnesia ,

bone manure ,

Superphos phate of} Sulphated bones, L.6, 103. to L.8 ton . lime, Urate ,

Dry sewerage,

Animalised carbon ,

Animal black ,

potash , American

84s. hhd.

potash ,

3s. cwt.

Ditto dissolved in sulphuric acid ,

Is. cwt.

Nightsoil prepared

43. cwt.

with shells,

potash ,

Nightsoil prepared

Pearl ashes ,

4.8. cwt.

with gypsum ,

55.91 | carbonic acid .

36.58{ carbonic acid. } 20 potash , with va riable proportions 60 per of carbonic, sul cent of phuric , and silicic acids, besides sul phur. potash , carbonic 55.00 25.21

acid , with sul. phate and silicate of potash and im

purities.

Wheat manure ,

L.8, 10s. to L.9 ton .

Animal charcoal,

6s. to 6s . 6d . cwt.

soda ,

REFUSE MANURES .

Chloride of sodium ,

Whale oil refuse , Seal oil refuse ,

Whale blubber , 5s. to 79. ton.

Rape oil refuse , Pollards,

Rape-cake, { Fine , bran ,

Seal blubber ,

Sugar refuse , Horn dust ,

53. to 78. ton .

L.5 to L.5 , 10s. ton . L.5 , 10s. to L.6 ton . 4s. 6d . cwt. 20s. to 40s. ton . 2s. cwt.

Muriate of ammonia ,

potash , Nitrate of ammonia ,

Saltpetre refuse, Gunpowder refuse, 12s. ton. Gas water , Id. gallon . Ammoniacal liquor, Sulphuric urine, Sulphated wash , 16s. cwt. Chloride of lime, Bleacher's refuse, 283. cwt. Soap ashes, Soap -boiler's refuse, 10s. ton . Coal tar , d . gallon. Gas lime ,

78. 6d . chaldron . ls . 250 gallons. L. 4 to L.4 , 10s. ton .

Rag lye ,

Woollen rags,

Shoddy, Croppings, Singeing dust , Flax waste , Tanner's bark ,

44.09 y ammonia,

208. ton . nominal. nominal. nominal. od . ton .

potash , soda ,

Phosphate of ammonia ,

21.81 / soda , 15.43 | carbonic acid . 39.66 / soda , 60.34 chlorine.

33.89 ( ammonia , .53 potassium , 47.47 chlorine.

29.29 ammonia , 60.64 | nitric acid . 46.56 / potash , 53.44 | nitric acid . 36.60 ſ soda , 63.40 nitric acid . 42.29 ammonia ,

57.71 | phosphoric acid .

soda ,

20.40 phosphoric acid .

4975. In the nomenclature of the substances enumerated in the first section of the above list, it will be observed that they assume a strictly chemical character; but they are not entitled to

Sulphate of ammonia ,

such a distinction , as the salts sold to the far mers for the purposes of manure are not the pure

magnesia ,

lime,

potash ,

neutral salts which their names indicate , but

50 to

} 70

}5 46.31{sulphuric acid . } 5 60.52 { sulphuric acid .

16.70 / magnesia ,

32.40 sulphuric acid . 34.07 , potash , 45.93 ( sulphuric acid . 43.82 ( soda ,

salts in a crude state, containing impurities of

soda ,

manufacture.

VOL . II

5

17.88 , soda ,

39.48 ( ammonia ,

ploy. The cruder ones, being much cheaper, are

}5 }5

65.89 {phosphoric acid, }

lime,

50.54 , potash , 49.46 silicic acid.

The pure salts of those names would be far too expensive for farmers to em

} } 40

66.11 ( muriatic acid .

Silicate of potash ,

Waste bark ,

}3

So la ash , Kelp salt ,

56.18 | sulphuric acid. 48 per cent of soda.

5

40

} } 10

10 to 30 per cent soda . of carbonate of )

2 E

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

434

4977. The weight of some of these manures by the bushel is as follows = Agricultural salt, Bone dust , Clark's desiccated compost, Daniell's manure, Dutch ashes , Guano , foreign ,

Per busbel lb. Ib . 70 to 80 42 65 60 50

Potter's, Gypsum ,

Humus, Lance's, Turnbull's, Lance's carbon ,

Lance's manures , Muriate of ammonia , Nitrate of potash , soda ,

Poittevin's desiccated compost, Rape- dust , Soda ash ,

Sulphate of ammonia , soda ,

Urate ,

Watson's compost ,

40

56 65 84 80 56 28 45 70 65 .. 70 75 80 18 56 60 70 65 60 50 40 45

they would receive a much steadier custom . I do not suppose but that chemists could make up the mixtures better than the farmer ; and were a

skilful chemist to make up prescriptions for the land as honestly as he does for patients, or for the domesticated animals, I am sure he would establish for himself a large and lucrative trade; because farmers would much rather receive a manure already made up, in which they can

confide, than run the risk of mixing one, in the doing of which they might commit a serious mis take. But as manufactured manures are pre

sented to the farmer at present, he has no alter native but to have every sample analysed by a chemist, in no respect connected with a manu factory ; and even then he has no positive assur ance of receiving the stock in as pure a state as the sample. Every other trade that deals in

pulverised articles is in the same unsatisfactory state. No one is even certain of purchasing genuine oatmeal in the shops ; and as to tea, it is

4978. The above is a formidable array of adulterated beyond endurance with the leaves of auxiliaries to farmyard dung for the contempla other plants ; and they who purchase ground tion of the farmer. Without a classification, he coffee receive a large proportion in it of chicory. would feel bewildered amongst them ; and even When I mention that many of the saline ingre when classified, the names of many of the manu factured ones afford him no information as to

their component ingredients. The natural ones are most to be relied on, as they afford both The stimulating and fertilising materials .

saline are generally impure, as may be seen in comparing their prices with those of the

genuine salts in the shops of the druggists. The refuse manures are numerous, and, being generally cheap, may be employed to advantage in composts, or separately. The manufactured ones

are also a numerous tribe, and from their very

dients, enumerated above, are rendered heavier by the addition of water, even to the extent of 14 per cent, speak no more than the truth, and adduce sufficient grounds to warn the farmers

from purchasing manufactured compounded pul verised mixtures, whose composition cannot be estimated by sight. 4979. In applying all special manures, certain rules should be followed . It is the safest prac tice to avoid bringing the seed sown in imme diate contact with any special manure, so that

number are apt to excite suspicion . I have myself tried at least one of those to be found in the above list, and found it do as little good as

the manures and the seed .

so much black mould applied beside them. Even the famed Liebig's manure has proved a failure ;

4980. Earthy special manures should always be sown upon the ground after it has been drilled

and recent decisions in the courts of justice have have been sold to farmers bearing the name of good

up, whether they are used as a substitute or as an auxiliary to farmyard dung ; and the saline manures may be treated in the same manner,

manures containing valuable ingredients.

when desired to be so used.

proved that useless and inexpensive mixtures We

a portion of soil should always intervene between

have only to look at the composition given in

(3351 ,) to learn the nature of many stuffs which are passed off as natural guano.

The great ob-

jection to concocted manures is, that you can have no reliance on the effects to be produced by parcels of them obtained at different times, or even

from different parcels obtained at the same time.

4981. But saline special manures, being easily dissolved , are most efficiently applied to the crop after the plants have developed their leaves , and in the form of a top -dressing. In very dry weather, the saline ingredients will rather injure than promote vegetation, so that a

Those made up in large quantities at once, and time of rain, or of heavy dew early in the in a limited time, cannothave their ingredients morning, should be chosen for their distribution commixed with the desired degree of precision . Hence one small parcel produces one effect, andan other quite a different effect. Were chemists more

over the soil,

4982. Substances in a highly soluble form , such

as the sulphates, muriates,and nitrates, owing to their solubility, ought tobe sparingly applied genuine ingredientsshould bear to one another, each time, but repeatedly, say in two, three, --and indicating the crop each mixture is four, or five applications, in order to produce

intent on supplying farmers with well -considered prescriptions,setting forth the proportions which intended to promote, accompanied with such

their greatest practicable results at the smallest

instructions as the farmers themselves might expenditure of materials. This point still wants make up the mixtures in safety — than in con- elucidation, and can only be made practical by re cocting compounds for sale, they would confer peated experiments undertaken by farmers with far more valuable service on practical husbandry this sole object in view . Three to five years of such than they have hitherto done. They might not a course of experiment would put us in possession thus make so much money in a given time, but of indisputable data for future guidance .

SPECIAL MANURES.

435

4983. Every one has heard extolled the great industry displayed by the Chinese and Belgians,

proprietors have a curious kind of rich weed, which they cut into small square bits, and sell at

in collecting special manure for every species of

a very high price for the growing of plants in

crop. Mr Fortune gives a very good reason for such industry on the part of the Chinese : “ Firewood,” he says, " is so scarce in the country that

and lakes in the vicinity, where the Nelumbium

a great portion of the straw, cotton stalks, and

grass, which would go to manure the fields, is used for firing, and therefore the plan of growing manure for the land is forced upon the farmers by necessity. The plan of using manure in a fresh state ,instead of allowing it first to decay, has doubtless been found, from long experience, to be the best for the young paddy ( rice .)

pots . This is obtained chiefly from the ponds speciosum grows. This soil is so much esteemed, that the price for the best kind is 1 dollar for 3 peculs, ( 3 cwt. 63 lb.) and for the second best I

dollar for 4 peculs ( 4 cwt. 85 lb.) The inferior sort has frequentlybeen sent to England in plant cases from Canton ."

4987. Nightsoil and urine.— " For crops in a vigorous growing state no kind of manure is so

Prawns and fish ofvarious kinds are frequently eagerlysoughtafter as nightsoil,and every tra used for the same purpose, and in the same way." 4984. Black earth.-“ Burnt earth mixed with

veller in China has remarked the large cisterns or earthen tubs, which are placed in the most conspicuous and convenient situations for the

decomposed vegetable matter is another highly

reception of this kind of manure.

esteemed manure, and is common in all the agri-

be considered an intolerable nuisance in every

cultural districts. During the summer months, all sorts of vegetable rubbish are collected in heaps by the road sides, and mixed with straw, grass, parings of turf, &c., which are set on fire, and burn slowly for several days, until all the

civilised town in Europe, is here looked upon by all classes, rich and poor, with the utmost com placency ; and I am convinced that nothing would astonish a Chinaman more than hearing any one complain of the stench which is continually rising

rank vegetable matter is decomposed, and the whole reduced to a black earth . It is then

turned over several times, when it presents the same appearance as the vegetable mould used in gardens in England. This manure is not scattered over the land, but reserved for covering the

seeds, and is applied in the following manner :When the seed-time arrives, one man makes the holes, another follows and drops in the seed, and

a third puts a handful of the black earth on the

What would

from these manure tanks. Almost every Chinese

town is placed on the banks of a river or canal, and the water is not only generally led around the walls, thus forming a kind of moat, but also through many parts of the city. Long clumsy boats are placed in different parts of the town, into which the nightsoil and urine are emptied, and conveyed from thence into the country. The

fields in the neighbourhood of cities are generally

supplied with it by Coolies, who go every morn

top of them. Being principally vegetable mat-

ing to market loaded with the produce of their

ter, it keeps the seeds loose and moist during the

farms.

period of germination, and afterwards affords chanically as well as chemically in a stiff soil,

manure, slung at the ends of his bamboo pole. In England it is generally supposed that the Chinese carry the nightsoil and urine to their

them nourishment.

This manure is used me.

Each brings home two buckets of the

like that of the low lands of China, where the

tanks, and leave it there to undergo fermenta

seeds are apt to be injured in the process of germination . The young crop thus planted acquires

tion, before they apply it to the land. This, how. ever, is not the case -at least not generally. In the

assi-

fertile agricultural districts in the north, I have

a vigour in its growth, which enables it

milate the matter which formsthe strong soil, and observed that the greater part of this stimulant is being of course sufficiently to strike its roots firmly intoit.” This practice used in a fresh state,before applied to the it is is analogous to the one of putting powdered char- diluted with water coal near the turnip seed, to retain and collect crops. And there can be little doubt that in

the moisture about it in dry and strong land in this the Chinese act perfectly right, as the manure dry weather. The Earl 卷*of Essex tried charcoal must be much more efficient in this state than when a great portion of its ammonia has passed in this way with success. off into the air. The Chinese, as far as I could

4985. Oil -cake.-- " What is commonly known by the name of oil -cake is broken up and used The

learn, have no mode of disinfecting theirmanure ; but they seem to be perfectly aware that,if allowed free access to the air,a great loss must result,owing to the gases whichare given out and dissipated .

oil-cake is the remains or refuse of the seeds of

Without waiting, then, for fermentation or putre

in the same manner as the vegetable earth, and is also scattered broadcast over the land ,

different plants, such as the tallow tree, various faction, the manure is at once applied to the kinds of beans, and of the cabbage. There is a

great demand for this manure in all parts of the

growing crops. On the afternoons, or in cloudy days, the labourers are seen carrying water from

country, and it forms a very considerable branch

the nearest pond or canal to the manure tank,

of trade both by sea and land. Bones, shells, for the purpose of diluting its contents. This old lime, soot, ashes, and all kinds of rubbish, are also eagerly boughtup by the farmer for the purpose ofmanure.

being done,they fill their buckets, attaching one to each end of their bamboo in the usualway, and carry them off to their destination. When

4986. “ In the Fatee gardens near Canton, the

this is reached, each man takes a small wooden ladle having a long bamboo handle, and with

* Journal ofthe Agricultural Society of England , vol. v. p. 280.

PRACTICE-AUTUMN.

436

this he scatters the liquid over the growing crop. A strong stimulant like this would probably, in other circumstances, have an injurious effect ;

DUTCH ASHES ( grey.)

Best Inferior Worst

but, by using it only when the crops are young

quality. quality. quality.

and luxuriant, they assimilate its gases, and a most marked effect is produced upon their growth

and productiveness. This kind of liquid manure is generally applied to wheat, barley, and all the cabbage tribe, and other garden vegetables ; but not to rice, which is always flooded during its

Potash , Soda, Lime,

Magnesia, Oxide of iron , Oxide of manganese ,

growth . This manure is sometimes used after putrefaction and fermentation has taken place,

Sulphuric acid , Phosphoric acid,

and even in this state it is very efficient. In

the gardens near Canton, it is often dried and

Carbonic acid , Chlorine,

mixed with the soil taken from the bottom

Alumina,

of the Lotus ponds, and used for growing

Silica, Charred turf,

plants in pots, or for enriching any par ticular tree which may be a favourite in the garden." 4988. Dr Radcliff mentions that, in Belgium, the urine from the cattle byres and horses' stables,

collected in the manure tanks ( 2062,) is enriched by the addition of rape -cake in the proportion of from 2000 to 4000 rape -cakes of 2 lb.

each to 38,000 gallons of urine, and also with the nightsoil from privies — the mixture being applied in given quantities to the particular crop, varying from 10 % to 21 tons to the

0.2 1.0

13,6 4.9 6.6 1.0

7.2 2.0 4.1 1.2 4.5 47.1

0.2 3.9 8.6 1.6 5.4 4.3 6.4 0.8 6.4

3.0 3.5 55.9

0.1 0.4 6.1 3.9 4.1 0.2 3.4 1.3 5.5 0.5 4.1 70.4

6.6

100.0 100.0 100.08

4990. Charring peat. - Mr A. Grant, Galson, Stornoway, Isle of Skye, gives what seems a good way of charring peat, without incurring the trouble and expense of drying the moss into peats before charring. “ When beginning to cut the sod , ” he observes, “ I take a man that I know to be an active steady spadesman, and set him to cut a sod right across a given space. When he has advanced five or six sods I set

acre.t

4989. Dutch ashes . — Dutch ashes produce extraordinary benefit to the clover crops in Holland and Flanders. They are derived from burning dried baked peat in Holland, in the following manner : -“ In Holland there are two kinds of turf or peats used for burning-namely, those cut as in this country from the bogs, which burn easily, but give a whitish kind of ashes, which are of little use ; and another kind , more

generally used, as being more durable. Having witnessed the mode of making this kind ,” says Mr John Mitchell, Belgian Consul, Leith, “ I

another to follow him, and so on until there are as many as the space will give room to work on.

When the whole are started, it will be seen that there is an equal distance between each man, and that if one works less than another, he is imme diately cut out by the man following him. This

he will hardly submit to, and the consequence is that they all work regularly, and at the same rate as your best man ,who is their leader . The sods should be about a foot square , and if the

weather should be dry, they will burn in about ten days or less ; but if it has been showery, you must take up the sods and place them in small

shall here describe it. At those ditches or ponds

heaps,along the space dug to dry. When dry, the

made by cutting away the common peats, or upper part of the bogs, men are employed in dragging from the bottom , by means of long sticks, having hooped bags at the end, the soft portion of the peat under water, which they pour

fires should be lighted at the distance of about

out on the adjacent ground, where the water is

allowed to drain off. After exposure to the air, this substance becomes in a few days sufficiently consistent to be cut into pieces of the size of a

common building brick, which are dried for use.

ten yards, in a straight line along the space. The size of the fires will depend on the depth at which the sods were cut, and the quantity as well as the quality of the charcoal will depend on the state of the sods when burning. If they have been wet when the fires were lighted, although they will burn, still the fire cannot penetrate so fast into the centre of the sod, and the consequence will be that a great proportion will be reduced

The ashes from this kind of peat are of a yellowish -brown colour, and are of the kind so much

to ashes before you can cover your fires. As

prized in Flanders that carts go regularly round to the various houses where this turf is used, and carefully collect all the ashes that can be

heap, and you see that the whole mass is pro perly lighted , you must begin covering the fire very carefully with wet peat, beginning at the

soon as the fire begins to break out through the

obtained.”I A proverb is knownin Flanders in foot, and rising gradually with it,until you have these terms:- “ He who buys ashes for clover

the whole covered — just in the way a potato -pit

pays nothing; but hewho neglects doing so, pays is covered — and if the work has been well done, a double price.”

Their composition is as fol-

lows, according to Sprengel :

very little smoke will escape ; but if there should, you must put more cover on that particular spot,

Fortune’s Wanderings in China, p. 308-13. # Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. iv. p. 108. § Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 629. + Radcliff's Agriculture of Flanders, p. 49 and 90.

SPECIAL MANURES.

and beat the whole down smoothly with the back of a spade. In this way you will have a large pro-

437

hot-in which manner many tons per day may be done in one kiln. Thus rendered brittle, it

portion of fine charcoal, and very little will be

may be rapidly crumbled by a water- power

In other places, such as

crushing-mill. And as turf and water are both plentiful about the granite, this rough powder

burnt to ashes." #

constructed Lancashire, kilns of sods for the charring of peat, and the fire is comare

menced in them at the bottom by means of dried peat.t

4991. Burning clay. - Burning clay was in

might be sold to the farmer at a lower price than lime. Turf is the best fuel for the purpose, be cause it gives a low heat, and the lower red heat it has the tenderer it becomes. But where farmers have to burn it in the limekiln, at a dis

great vogue in Scotland about 30 or 40 years since, when all the clay districts in summer seemed to be covered with smoking heaps. Like

tance from the turf country, the coom used for lime will do very well, requiring less than half

every impulse of the kind, the fires soon subsided, but in England the practice is continued in many parts. There are two modes of burning clay sods — in large kilns of sods, and in heaps — the

not be in the kiln above one quarter the time required for lime. But it must go directly into the water whilst red hot, else it will harden again in cooling . As soon as it is band cold, it may be

latter being the simplest and most economical

drawn out of the water, to make room for more. The finer it is crushed before mixing with the lime, the better. It might even be burnt upon the ground in heap, with cinders and coal-ashes,

method, and is the one practised in Suffolk and Essex . The chief thing to be provided with is a

the proportion used for limestone ; and it need

good body of fire before any of the clay sods are put on, and the sods are laid on in the form of and a little coal to light it, (like clay burning ;) conical heaps so as to regulate and restrain the and when red hot through, the water is thrown on, fire; and when all this has been done, little atten- to quench it ; but there would be some parts not dance is required at the heaps. The expense of red hot when the water reached them, and these preparing such clay ashes per 100 loads, has been would not be much softened , so it is better to use thus estimated by a veteran clay-burner, Mr

a kiln if within reach.

Poppy, of Witnesham, in Suffolk : Digging and burning sods at 9d . per load ,

Filling, ls. 6d , the 20 loads, Carting, 3 horses and 2 men ,

Filling and spreading after burning , Carting and laying on over 2 acres,

0

4993. A ton of this powdered granite, mixed with a ton of fresh lime, being heaped up on a thick bed of earth, and closed in all round with earth , leaving the top open, water is to be poured

96

on gradually, enough to slake the lime entirely, and then all covered in, the bed of earth at bot

1..3 15 0 7 0 16

0 6 0

0 15 0 0 16 L.6

Being £3, 4s. 9d. an acre, allowing 50 carts to the acre .

4992. To prepare Granite manure. — Mr J. Prideaux of Cornwall recommends the burning of granite where that rock abounds, in order to obtain its potass for manure. This, being a new manure, would require to be tried at first on a small scale. From its slow solubility its effect

tom being about 2 feet thick, and round the sides 8 or 9 inches, making good the cracks produced by the swelling of the lime in slaking. After two or three days it may be uncovered ; the granite and slaked lime well mixed up with more water to a soft mortar ; and again all covered in close with earth . In this state it may be left two or three months at least, and better if longer

keeping it always wet and soft. When wanted is likely to be rather in the weight of produce, together, including the earth, which will be for four or five successive crops, than striking the impregnated with solution of potash . It is eye at first. The silica it contains, combined fit for with the potass, is likely to stiffenthe straw of then manures. I spreading, or mixing with other to use, the whole heap should be well mixed

wheat and other grain ; and it would seem to be

especially suitable for the peat soils, upon the

4994. Rape-cake and Rape-dust. - Rape-cakes

granite, they being deficient in its ingredients, should be of a yellowish green colour when new , potash , silica, lime, and alumina. The granite itself is in too hard and compact a state to yield to the weather fast enough for the purposes of a manure . But this hardness is not difficult to reduce. By turning , whilst red hot,into water, it is rendered quite brittle and crumbling ; and,

but they become dark on being long kept. They should be put past in the apartment allotted for their accommodation in a dry day and on a dry clay or wooden floor - and, except by their weight, they do no injury to wood ; but they should be neatly built up, free of the walls, in case they

being then mixed with fresh lime and water, is

should draw damp from them. The air, and

made much more susceptible of decomposition, and easily yields part at least of its potash. The

especially damp air, should be excluded from the apartment, as it is the cause of mouldiness, and

surface granite, already softened by the weather, will not do, having already lost a part of its

of losing their light colour.

alkali; the chippings and fragments of the solid stone, accumulating at the granite quarries, may be heated with turf in common limekilns, and

will not be great ; and to preventheating as

raked down into water as fast as they get red

New-made cakes

will heat a little after they are built up, but after the sweat they have had in the ship this much as possible, the small dust of the cargo should be kept by itself.

+ Gardeners' Chronicle, 1844. I Gardeners' Chronicle, 9th December 1848.

* Ross-shire Adtertiser, 14th July 1845.

438

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

4995. It is not likely that you will have occa-

oxygen, burning at the same time both the sul

sion to keep rape -dust — that is, rape-cake after it has been crushed to powder ; but in case you should wish to keep it in that state, the mode of doing so is as follows :-It should not be put together in a thick heap , for, however dry it may

phur of the sulphuret and a part of the interposed carbon, forms sulphurous acid, which is given off, and carbonic acid , of which a certain portion

seem, and however dry it may be kept, sooner or later it will heat. When put by dry on a dry

floor, it may be three weeks or a month before it will heat ; but if damp it will heat soon, and the heat will become insufferable to the hand . When-

ever it begins to heat it should be carefully and slowly turned over in shallow bins to cool it. When heated to excess it becomes burnt as black

as soot, and gets into lumps like coal-cinders, from which it is not easily distinguished, and in which state its efficacy is impaired. Many throw rape-dust into a corner of a cart or turnip -shed where pigs and fowls find their way to it, and where it is constantly exposed to the moisture of the air ; a practice to be avoided. You should purchase none but newly crushed rape-dust.

remains combined with the lime, and thus helps to displace the sulphur. In a future memoir, M. Caillat proposes to examine and compare the mineral substances contained in leguminous

plants growing on soils of like nature, but some with gypsum ; and he expects to show that it is probable that gypsum naturally finds its way into the crops which it occasions to grow so quickly. By the above method of treating plants with nitric acid, the silica, which lies in the tissue

of which have, and others have not been manured

of the epidermis, was isolated as completely as

possible : it was perfectly white. By examining silicious pellicles taken from some grasses, which , as is well known, contain a great quantity of silica in their epidermis, “ I found,” says M.

Caillat, “ that this silica , moulded in the cells of the skin, is very curiously disposed. It exists in little plates, from one to two hundredths of a

4996. Gypsum . — In the first part of his in- millimetre broad, according to the plant, packed quiry into the way in which gypsum acts when employed as a manure, M. Caillat has endeavour-

side by side, but whose edges are not smooth, but indented very regularly , and thus articulated

ed to show that the method of calcination usually

laterally. This organisation of the silica, which

resorted to, for the purpose of obtaining the in-

has not, so far as I am aware, been yet remarked,

organic parts of plants, gives inaccurateresults. The weight of the ash does not represent the mineral parts : in consequence of the high tempe

seems to me to be worthy of the attention of

physiologists.” *

rature to which a plant is exposed when calcined,

4998. Shell- fish and Shells.—Ground mussel

there is a loss in the quantity of nearly all its inorganic components ; and the sulphates espe-

and oyster shells are used as manure for turnips; but double the quantity does not produce the

cially are, to a great extent, either decomposed

same effect upon the crop as bone -dust ; perhaps it would require 40 bushels to produce the same

or destroyed. M. Caillat, by treating plants, such as lucerne, clover, and sainfoin , with diluted pure nitric acid, succeeded in eliminating nearly the whole of the mineral matters present; so much so, indeed, that, when the pulp was afterwards washed and burnt, not more than onefifth per cent of ash was left. This small residue consisted of silica and a small quantity of peroxide of iron, both of which are insoluble in the

acid employed . This method of proceeding always gave more mineral matter than could be obtained by calcining an equal quantity of the same plants; and it has been thus ascertained that there exists in many vegetables, especially in the leguminous plants used as fodder, much more sulphuric acid than has been hitherto sup-

effect as 16 bushels of bone-dust. One use made of shell-dust is the adulteration of bone-dust.

Whelks, cockles, and mussels, 16 bushels per acre, the bushel weighing I cwt., have been em ployed with success to raise turnips. Such man ure is obtainable by those residing near a rocky shore, where no fishermen have their haven - for there they gather and use such shell -fish as bait. 4999. Shell -marl. - In some parts of the country, as in Forfarshire, this substance is found in considerable quantities associated with

peat. It occurs in beds in deep peat-bogs, lined above and below with a layer of very fine unctu

ous clay . It is taken out of the bogs by means

4997. M. Caillat has ascertained that the loss

of a boat mounted with a dredging apparatus. When of fine quality, and in a dry state, it is as white as lime, not crumbling down into powder

of sulphuric acid in the process of calcination

like quicklime, but cutting something like cheese

arises from a partial decomposition of the sul-

with the spade, and adhering in large lumps when spread. It is applied at the rate of from 40 to 50 bolls an acre, the boll containing 8 cubic feet, and costs 9d . the boll, making the

posed.

phate of lime. When, for example, he mixed a known weight of pure burnt sulphate of lime with wheat starch in the form of paste, and calcined the whole, the residuary ash did not

mannring £ 1, 10s. to £ 1,17s. 6d . an acre, ex yield as much sulphuric acid as the sulphate of clusive of carriage. When applied to land as lime used contained . He also found, by another lime, it is beneficial; but, as is too often the case , direct experiment, that sulphate of lime, convert- when applied solely as a manure, in quantities of ed into sulphuret of calcium by the action of 35 to 45 cubic yards an acre, it never fails to be organic matter at a high temperature, became, mischievous. It does not easily injure new fresh in part, converted into carbonate of lime, under land ; but when repeated frequently as a sole the influence of the oxygen in the air : this manuring , I have seen old land reduced to such * Comptes Rendus, August 1849.

SPECIAL MANURES .

439

a state of pulverisation, that the foot, with a ing is a description of a machine that has proved stamp, sank into the ground as deep as the ankle , and raised a dust with the stroke. “ Ap

itself useful.

plied to lands followed by severe cropping,” remarks Mr Headrick, “ it has reduced them

99

5001. The soot-sowing machtine, from the limit ed supply of the article upon which it operates,

almost to a state of utter sterility, which they

can never be ranked amongst the most important class of machines on the farm ; still, owing to the powerful effect of the manure itself, its due

have not recovered to this day." .*

5000. Soot . — Soot is a good top -dressing for distribution is of importance, and, from its ex grass, though it renders pasture rather distasteful treme lightness, it cannot, without disadvantage, to cattle. Being a very dirty article to distribute by the hand, any machine that distributes it

be sown by the hand. The machine here de scribed was the production of Mr Main, factor

broad -cast will prove useful on farms where it to the Marquis of Dalhousie.t Fig. 436 is a view can be easily obtained in quantity. The follow- in perspective, the horse-shafts being broken off. Fig. 436.

5

THE SOOT - SOWING MACHINE.

5002. The operations of the soot-machine are which the horse-shafts b b are attached, and is effected thus :- A charge of soot is put into the mounted on a pair of low wheels c c, fixed upon cylinder, the chest closed, and the machine put The machine consists of a bed -frame a a, to

and turning with the axle, around which there in motion. By the revolution of the upper cylin is built a wooden cylinder d, fluted longitudinally. der, the soot is separated from the stones and A chest e is appended to the body-frame, and refuse with which it is always mixed, and so descends so far as to half embrace the cylinder passes into the lower part of the chest, from d, and is surmounted by a semi-cylindrical cover, whence, by the revolution of the fluted cylinder, which is left out of the figure. In the interior regulated by a brush extending the whole length of the chest is placed a cylinder of sheet- iron f, of the cylinder, it is distributed in an equal man perforated all over with holes of half-inch

ner upon the ground. When the soot has been

diameter, and as much apart, giving to it the

discharged from the upper cylinder, the cylinder

character of a riddle.

is raised from the chest by means of the knee

The cylinder is closed at

both ends, and has a trap-door on one side, jointed bars g 9, and when so elevated, the trap hinged, and secured at each end with hook and door is opened , and the stones and other refuse

eye. An axle of iron passes quite through the discharged, preparatory to the next charge of soot. cylinder, having journals that rest in two jointed bars 99 ; and on one end of the axle, produced

5003. The machine constructed as above de

beyond the bar g, is mounted a wheel h. The scribed , has been found liable to the inconveni axle of the carriage -wheels o carries also a wheel, and the two are connected by means of the intermediate wheel i, thus producing motion in the perforated cylinder, as well as in the fluted one that is carried by the axle. The purpose of the perforated cylinder, into which the soot is first delivered, is to separate stones or other hard substances that may be mixed with it ; that of the fluted cylinder is the distribution of it from

ence of ceasing to perform its wonted duties, by the soot being converted into a paste by the ac tion of the revolving parts of the machine, when ever the soot happened to be damp ; but which

has been effectually rectified by the adoption of broad -cast distributing-wheels, in place of the fluted roller. The bottom of the chest is conse quently closed , except the orifice for each wheel, all the other parts of the machine remaining as

the machine ; and thatof the hinged cover to they were ; orby a proper adjustment, the inter prevent it flying off during the agitation by the first cylinder.

mediate wheel i is left out of the construction. It is also to be observed, that the distributing

* Headrick’s Agricultural Survey ofForfarshire, p. 406. + Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xii. p. 535.

440

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

orifices for soot require to be about if inch diameter .

Phosphate of lime, Phosphate of mag . nesia ,

5007. Mr Lawes has established on the east

Ulmin -- a hydro -carbon , not well defined

.

Azotised matter,

.

Carbonateof lime, and a trace of carbonate of

30.20 20.00

14-66

magnesia , Water,

12:50

Acetate of lime , potash , magnesia, ammonia ,

5.65 .

Sulphate of lime , Carbonaceous matter , not soluble in alkalis, Ferruginous phosphate of lime, Silica ,

Asbolin - a peculiar acid and bitter principle, Chloride of potassium ,

3.256

59.008 – phosphoric acid , 27.669 *

5004. No correct analysis of coal- soot has yet been made ; but as long since as 1826, Bracconot

made the following one of wood-soot :

56.752

4.10 0.53 0.20

5.00 3.85

1.50 0.95 0.50 0:36 100.00

bank of Deptford Creek, near Greenwich, very extensive works for grinding to powder these

false coprolites or phosphates , to supply farmers with a valuable substitute for guano, under the accepted name of “ coprolite manure.” +

5008. Dried carcases of animals.- It is known that large quantities of the bides of cattle and horses are imported into this country annually from South America.

The carcases from which those

skins had been taken are left to be devoured by birds of prey and wild beasts, but their bones are collected and exported to this country. I

5005. Coprolites.— In the lower region of the have recently learned that the flesh of these car cases is now not to be lost but is dried, most lias at the Aust Passage Cliffs, on the left bank of the Severn, near Bristol, is thewell-known probably in the sun, and sent to this country for bone-bed, where two beds of lias, each from one to two feet thick, are densely loaded with

Thus we may expect that a large amount of animal matter may soon be made

dislocated bones, and teeth, and scales of ex tinct reptiles and fishes, interspersed abun

compost heaps.

manure .

available for the nitrogenous enrichment of our

dantly with coprolites derived from animals of 5009. A large skin trade also exists from the many kinds. Coprolites are also dispersed plen cattle of the Ukraine, and there the carcases of tifully through the strata of many other parts of the cattle are boiled down for the sake of the the lias, as on the coast at Lyme Regis ; but fat, which when collected is sent to this country neither there, nor in the bone-bed at Aust Pas

sage, is a sufficient quantity accessible at a cost that would repay the digging for the express purpose of collecting these mineralised fragments of skeletons and fæcal balls of digested bones for use as a substitute for recent bone-dust or guano.

The

as tallow , and the flesh thrown away.

tallow collectors,however, may be induced to dry the boiled flesh of the oxen and separate it from the bones, and send both to this country for man ure, as well as they do the tallow in commerce.

Geologists have long been acquainted with the 5010. Owing to the very low price of mutton

abundant occurrence of rolled fragments of the bones and teethof large quadrupeds, andof in Australia for several years past, the colonists

many marine fishes in the tertiary beds of gravel and shells, called crag, in the counties of Nor

have been induced to boil down the carcases of their old sheep, after depriving them of their skin ,

folk and Suffolk ; and in 1846 an abundance of in order to collectthe fat andexport it tothis the ear shells of whales, in the crag beds of country. They might dry the boiled flesh, sepa Felixton, on the coast of Suffolk , together with large quantities of rolled pebbles of phosphate of lime, then supposed to be coprolites, were found among the miscellaneous gravel and shells that compose the bulk of the crag formation .

rate the bones, and convert both into an article of commerce for this country. Thus large quan tities of the richest animal manures may yet reach this country from abroad, of much greater

value than many of the compounds offered at home as manures to the notice of the farmer.

5006. The following is an analysis of coprolites by Mr T. J. Herepath of Bristol : Water,

Organic maiter, : Silica ,

Carbonate of lime,

3.400 trace 13.240 28.400

Phosphate oflime. } 53.730 - phosphoric acid , 26.615

Magnesia , iron , & c.

Sulphate of lime ,

0.736

Loss , .

0.494

100.000

The idea formed by Dr Buckland with regard to the nature of coprolites is probably correct, and the supposition is borne out by the following analysis of the bone of an ox, which the copro

5011. Sugar refuse. The following analysis of sugar refuse was made by Professor Johnston ,

for the Leith Sugar -Refining Company, and the Messrs Schultz bave kindly furnished me with it. Water, 60-26

Organic matter, (refuse blood and sugar,

20-77

containing 1.06 of ammonia,) . Common salt, sulphates and phosphates of potash and soda,

0.77

Phosphatesof lime and magnesia, e

8-67

Carbonat of lime,

Insoluble siliciousmatter and alumina,

3-55

5.98

100.00

lite closely resembles in composition , when the It will be observed that the percentage of water bone is deprived of its fat and moisture :* Journal of Agriculture, July 1849 , p. 74. + Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. X. p. 520-3.

SPECIAL MANURES .

441

is large, on which account the carriage of this

one gallon of the King's Scholars' Pond sewer

refuse to a distance is expensive ; and the process of depriving it of a part of its water would

age at London affording only 85.34 grains of solid matter . This quantity of solid matter is partly

be too expensive. The quality of this article soluble and partly insoluble. The soluble por varies according to the mode of manufacture pursued .

5012. Animal charcoal. - Sugar refiners use a large quantity of aniinal charcoal; and as it becomes necessary occasionally to separate the

finer particles by riddling, they dispose of the latter for manure, which is found valuable as a top - dressing for grass, and might, no doubt, be used with turnip seed to absorb moisture around it in dry weather in strong land.

tion weighs 74.80 grains, and contains of 3.29 grains. Ammonia, 0.62 Sulphuric acid, Phosphate of lime, 0.29 6.05 Lime, 10.00 ne Chlori , 20.25

Potash , soda, soluble animal and vegetable matter, 53.55

...

74.80

5013. Severage water of towns.- The water The insoluble portion weighs 10.54 grains, and flowing from the common sewers of towns may

be regarded as a special manure.

tain many very valuable ingredients, such as the

contents of water- closets , the drainings from kitchens, and the washings from many sorts of manufactures.

The

contains of -

It must con

Metropolitan

Phosphate of lime,

2.32 grains.

Carbonate of lime, Silica,

1.94 6.28

Sewerage

Manure Company was established in 1846 for the purpose of delivering the water from the sewers of London to parties in the country who might choose to employ it as a manure ; and the efficacy of such manure is believed to be great everywhere from witnessing the effects produced on the Craigentinny meadows in the neighbour hood of Edinburgh . There, the irrigated meadows are begun to be cut for green food for cows in April, and continued at intervals until the end of November. As a natural consequence, the worth of the soil has risen in rent from 30s.

and £ 6 an acre, to £20 a -year. It is imagined that the sewerage water ought to have the saine effect on arable as it has on grass land, but such a result by no means follows; and a stronger instance of disbelief in its good effects on land under the spade, cannot be given than the sim ple statement of the fact , of the vegetable gardeners of Edinburgh not using it as manure in raising vegetables , though many have the

10.54

...

In large quantities, these proportions only afford 1 ton of soluble and insoluble matter in 560 tons

of water. 5015. The sewerage water of London is not so

rich as that of Edinburgh . Thus, one gallon of the clear liquid of the Edinburgh sewers, evaporated to dryness, gave 117.05 of solid matter, of which 78 grains were soluble, and contained of Ammonia, 4.45 grains. 3.00 Sulphuric acid, 6.84 trace . 12.10 1.06

Lime,

Magnesia, Chlorine,

Phosphate of lime,

27.45

...

Potash , soda, soluble animal and vegetable matter,

} 50.55 78.00

opportunity of doing so if they choose. Wher

ever a run from a public sewer passes through

The insoluble part weighed 39.05 grains, the

their gardens, they convert as much of the ground

animal matter predominating, and contained of

into a meadow as the water will fully irrigate ,

to supply their cows with green food ; and every

Phosph oflime; coloured} 6.6 grains, with ate iron,

gardener keeps cows where he has a byre to ac commodate them ; but, to raise vegetables, they

Carbonate of lime, Magnesia,

purchase cows' urine and cow and horse dung from the cow -feeders and livery stable keepers , at a large price. For example , they pay 58. the

Earth and sand, :

2.7

...

0.25 29.5

39.05 ...

ton for the dung, and from 4fd. to 6d. the butt of 102 gallons for the urine ; and they apply 60 tons of the dung, and as many gallons of the

urine in proportion to the acre, during the sea son , at a cost of £ 15 an acre . 5014. To cart sewer water to a distance is

attended with more trouble and expense than it

5016. The cartage of 560 tons of water, in proportion to 1 ton of fertilising ingredients held in it, is so expensive that it is proposed to dis tribute the water over the land by means of cast iron pipes, laid permanently under ground. When a farm is proposed to be manured with

Sewerage Manure Company propose to pump

the sewerage water of towns, instead of solid dung, a system of pipes is required to be laid

the water from the sewers by means of steam-

down in every field in connection with a main

is worth.

To avoid the inconvenience, the

engines, and distribute it for miles into the pipe, which originates at a tank at the steading, country through iron pipes, at 25s. the 100 tons

and through which the liquid manure must be

of the water. Now a very small proportion of propelled by means of the steam power which is the bulk of the sewerage water is solid matter-

used for the purposes of the farm at the stead.

442

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

ing. The late Mr Smith of Deanston gave an estimate of the cost required to distribute liquid

that the plant prefers the manure in a liquid

manure over a farm of 400 acres, both with

state from the hand of man, to that prepared by the rain -water. The effect of solid and fluid

earthen and cast-iron pipes. The statement in regard to earthen pipes was this :

manure is thus in fact a mere question of time, and not one of quality or efficacy. Can we be is better for the land that a large quantity of water should be put upon it at once lieve that

Steam - engine of 10 horse power, including L.250 00

boiler , gearing, & c .,

5600 yards main stoneware pipes , 3 inches in diameter at Is. 4d . the yard laid down ,

than as it gradually falls from the heavens ! I. 373

6 8

think we cannot, as long as we do not know the

Manure tank , 50 feet long by

exact periods of a plant's growth when manure is most acceptable to it. But granting that

12 feet broad , and 8 feet deep built and arched in masonry , 7 roods at L.6 , 10s. the rood , L.45 10 0

fluid manure is more efficacious than solid, and that 10 tons in that state tell as sensibly upon vegetables as 16 tons in the solid state, let us

Digging 430 cubic yards, at 1s. 21 10

the yard ,

for puddle, 50 cubic yds. Concrete at 58. ,

0

12 10 0 79 100

follow the effects of its application. To receive 10 tons, the acre must be deluged with 5600

200 yards of gutta percha, bore 2 inches dia meter,at 3s. per yard ,

30 00

Cranes, &c. ,

8 39

3 0

4 0

L.780

0

0

5 per cent. for contingencies, Amount of outlay,

tons of water , which would stand to a height of 544 inches. To insure a good and quick braird, suppose that half of this manure is required be fore the seed is sown , 274 inches of water would require to be directed upon the acre-that is, a

That is, L.1 , 19s. in the gross, or ls. 11 }d. yearly quantity of about a whole year's rain on the east interest per acre. The cost of cast-iron pipes coast, and three-fourthsof the average fall of was as follows : Steam -engine as above, 5600 yardsof cast-iron pipes, 3 inches dia L. 250 0 O meter , at 2s. 6d . the yard laid down , Manure tank, as above , Hose, as above, Cranes , & c . ,

5 per cent for contingencies , Amount of outlay,

700

0

0

79 10 30 0 8 3 52 6

0 0 4 8

L.1120 00

That is, L.2, 16s. in the gross, or 2s. 9 d . yearly interest per acre . *

the country , should be poured on at one time. How long would this quantity of water be in subsiding, and where are the drains that would convey it away in time, even although assisted

by evaporation ? The other half of the manure, 274 inches, should perhaps be applied at two dif

ferent periods of the plant's growth - that is, 13 inches at each time, equal to about a half of the average fall of rain over the country. But along with all this watering, we must remember that the rain has been falling in its wonted quantity, still further retarding the absorbing property of the soil, and testing the conductingpower of the

5017. That liquid manure proves beneficial to the grass land of the farm , and that sewerage

applying a very limited quantity of severage

water has raised the value of meadow land in

water is sufficient to show the impracticability

drains.

This simple statement of the effects of

the neighbourhood of Edinburgh very consider-

of the scheme, as regards arable land ; and if 15 tons of manure are prescribed to the acre, which water of towns is a proper application for arable ought to be to do justice to the crop, the above land anywhere has by no means yet been proved. results would be increased 50 per cent. But if Let us consider the probable effects of using less than the smaller quantity is sufficient for the sewerage water upon the land which only con- purpose of manuring any crop on arable land, tains 1 ton of fertilising matter in 560 tons of what is the quantity of sewerage water just ne ably, is beyond doubt ; but that the sewerage

water.

It is desirable the turnip land should

cessary to produce a given crop ?

I visited Mr

receive 20 tons of farmyard dung to the acre ;

Harvie's dairy at Hundred -acre- hill farm , in the

but let us take 16 tons as nearer the quantity on

neighbourhood of Glasgow, on the 3d of August

the average. It is alleged that every kind of 1850, to see the mode he has adopted of distri manure in a liquid form is much more effective than in a solid one. This is only assertion-we have no proof of it. No doubt, we believe that plants only receive manure into their textures in a state of solution ; and in as far as the soluble ingredients of the manure employed are concerned, they may be taken up by the plants in a

shorter time than when applied in a solid form . But there is no reason for believing that, when the solid manure is dissolved in the soil by rain water, it is less acceptable to plants than if it had been applied directly in a state of solution ; because, if we put greater faith in the dissolved

buting liquid manure, by means of pipes through which it is propelled by a steam -engine. This was the instance adduced before the Committee

of the House of Commons in 1846, of a suc

cessful application of liquid manure by means of pipes, by the Metropolitan Sewerage Manure Company, when they had their bill before Par

liament. The cases are not quite analogous,

as Mr Harvie applies cow urine directly upon the land . He has, in summer, 400 cows giving milk, which are fed on grass, in pasture, for four hours every day, and in the byres receive twice a-day a dry mash of distillery draff, ( 1277 ,) and

manure supplied by ourselves, we must prefer twice a day a drink of distillery dreg,( 1273) our own agency to that of nature, and believe

there called pot ale, both at stated hours. The

* North British Agriculturist, March 7, 1850 ; and Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1850, p. 332.

+ Report - Metropolitan Sewage Manure Company — 13th July 1846.

443

SPECIAL MANURES.

greatest part of the urine is conducted by drains to a large tank, but part of it must be carried away with the dung, which is wheeled

dred parts of wheat grown on a soil manured with cow-dung, ( a manure containing the smallest

quantity of nitrogen,) afforded only 11.95 parts of gluten, and 62.34 parts of amylin or starch ; while the same quantity, grown on a soil manured with human urine, yielded the maxi mum of gluten-namely 35.1 per cent, or nearly It is The pumps send the urine to the highest part of three times the quantity. the ground, where large reservoirs are erected obvious,” he concludes, “ that by collecting both

into dung-pits, and part poured upon the pasture field. The urine in the tank is kept in motion by means of an agitator, worked by the steam -engine when the pumps are in action.

to receive it, and from which it is conveyed in

the solid and liquid excrements of an animal fed

pipes to certain convenient points, where it rises tothe surface, and is distributed over the ground by means of hose-pipes, which extend to great lengths and are removable at pleasure. Although as old as to be in a state of incipient decomposition, as is evidenced in the reservoirs by the rising of gas bells to the surface, before it is

upon the produce of a certain surface of land, we are enabled to supply to it nearly the same quantity of nitrogen as that contained in the original produce. Thus, we supply to the land a certain quantity of ammonia in addition to that which may be extracted from the atmos phere by the plants growing upon it. ” + It thus appears, thatto deprive dung of the urine which

applied to the soil. It must therefore be of considerable strength , and yet cannot be nearly so

accompanies it, is to render it less valuable as a manure ; and although urine, in the form of

strong as the liquid manure used in Flanders,

liquid manure, be more valuable than dung, it is

where it is applied to the arable land. A tank

so at the expense of the dung. A farmer who would only employ the urine as a manure , as Mr Harvie does, and dispose of the dung, may en

the urine runs fresh into the tank daily, yet it is

containing the urine, as it runs from the stables and byres when voided by animals supported on green food, holding 30,000 gallons, is enriched with from 2000 to 4000 rape-cakes of 2 lb. each,

rich his own land, provided he has the command of a sufficient quantity of urine; but he would

to every 1000 gallons, and a large quantity of

thereby so much impoverish the land to which

the contents of privies obtained from the towns, and 2480 gallons of this rich manure are applied to the acre . *

the dung he sold would be applied. On a dairy farm , such as Mr Harvie's , such a system may be pursued ; but in ordinary farming it seems

5018. The urine is distributed over grass , turnip land, and garden ground ; and as far as I

questionable practice to deteriorate the value of the dung by separating the urine from it into a tank, as may be inferred from the statements of

could judge of its effects, I would say that the

Liebig given above.

ground was under-manured, and none of the Such a system

5020. Coal ashes. — Coal ashes consist in gene

seems practicable on a large dairy farm , but not where the command of a large quantity of urine

ral of lime, often in a state of gypsum, with mag nesia, silica, alumina, and oxide of iron, mixed

I am satisfied that sewer-

with a variable quantity of bulky and porous

crops were remarkably good. cannot be obtained.

age water could not have produced even so good cinders, or half-burned coal. Its composition an effect as the urine, by distribution from pipes. iscoalas: follows, according to the nature of the 5019. Of the comparative utility of dung and urine in supplying nitrogen to plants, we have the authority of Liebig for saying, that “ the solid excrements of men and animals contain

comparatively very little nitrogen,” and that the

Silica,

St Etienne. Cantyre. Thonias. Berthier. 45.5

Alumina, insoluble in acids, 62

43.9

Alumina, soluble in acids, Lime,

urine of cattle, horses, and sheep, contains far more nitrogen than their solid excrements . “ Now ," he continues, as it is evident that the nitrogen of plants and seeds used by animals as

Oxide of sulphuret of iron, Sulphuric acid,

food must be employed in the process of assimi

Chlorine,

lation, it is natural to expect that the solid ex crements of these animals will be deprived of it

Potash and soda, .

6

Magnesia,

3.2 3.3

Oxide of manganese , 16

1.4 1.7 0.1 0.3

100

99.4 #

in proportion to the perfect digestion of the food, and can only contain it when mixed with secre

tions from the liver and intestines. Under all ' Coal ashes are admirably suited for absorbing circumstances, they must contain less nitrogen any sort of liquid manure, and of first preserving The liquid manure and then imparting it to any crop it may be top than the food. of animals must, on the other hand, be of the dressed upon. Grass lands derive much advan highest value with respect to nitrogen, because tage from such a top - dressing, and when applied it contains all or nearly all the nitrogen origi. to strong soils, it has the effect of producing a

nally present in the food consumed.” Liebig favourable physical change upon them , (2803.) gives a striking instance of the different effects

of dung and urine on a wheat crop.

“ One hun-

5021. Wood ashes.— “ Wood ashes lixiviated

• Radcliff's Agriculture of Flanders, p. 39. + Liebig's Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture, 3d edition , p. 50-3.

Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 632.

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

444

with cold water,”, observes Liebig, " con- straw quarters, or 104 bushels, an acre ; and its to about a third more than the usual

tain silicate of potash in exactly the same pro-

portion asstraw , and that,in addition tothesalt it contains considerable quantities of phosphates., quantity. Such a result set other experi Different kinds of wood ashes possess very une menters to work , but no one has as yet qual value as manure. Thus, the ashes of the been able to reap similar advantages from

oakare of the smallest, those of the beech of the similar experiments asDr Forster obtained Wood ashes from oak contain 4 to 5 per cent ofphosphates; those from the beech from his; and it is doubtful, in the present

greatest value.

containthe fifth part of their weightof these state of our knowledge of the subject,

salts. The quantity of phosphates in the ashes that electro- culture will be prosecuted of firs and pines amounts to from 9 to 15 per further for a time. Still , it is requisite cent ; the ashes of the poplar contain 168 per that I give some account of the ineans

cent, and those of the hazel-nuttree, 12 per cent. employedfor obtaining the assistance of With every 100 lbs. of the lixiviated ashes of the beech, we furnish to the soil as much phosphates as are contained in 460 lb. of fresh human ex-

the electricity of the air; but, before doing

so, it will be satisfactory to show the

crements. According to the analysis of Saussure, relation which exists betwixt the elec

100parts of the ashes of grains of wheat contain tricity of the air and of the earth — and I 32 parts soluble, and soluble 44.5 parts insoluble, phosor al cannot do sobetter than in the wordsof together 76.5 parts andinsoluble phates. The ashes ofwheat straw contain in all Mr William Sturgeon of Manchester, who 11.5 per cent of phosphates. Thus, with every has bestowed much attention to the sub

100lbs. of the ashes of beech,wefurnish to the ject of electricity in all its bearings. field phosphoric acid sufficient for the production of 4000 lb. of straw, (calculating its ashes at 4

5024. “ It may not be out of place to

per cent, according to Saussure,) or for 2000 lbs.

of the grains of wheat, (calculating their ashesat remind those not accustomed to the study

1.3percent,accordingto Saussure.) Thedry "ofthat electricity,” observes nature Sturgeon, this active element ofMr is so ashes, possessing a of similar composition to the ashes ofmaize,and the grain of certain kinds universally diffused through every part of fruit of the horse-chestnut yields 34 per cent of

the terrestrial creation, that it becomes an occupant of every part of the earth's sur

of wheat." *

face, and of the shell of air that surrounds it.

This general definition necessarily

ON ELECTRO- CULTURE.

leads to tbe inference that all the various

objects which clothe the surface of the

5022. Any material that promotes the earth — such as trees,shrubs,plants, flowers, vegetation of plants may be regarded as a and crops ofevery kind-partake of this

special manure. In this view, electricity, electricdistribution, and that each indivi when applied practically to a crop, may dual object is possessed of more or less of be classed amongst the special manures. 5023. That some connection exists be-

this extraordinary element - or, in electri cal language, that each is possessed of its natural share. It must not be understood ,

twixt the growth of plants, or the germi- however, that this natural distribution nation of their seeds at least, and the evo- confers upon different objects an equal

lution of the electric fluid, hasbeen satis- share, either in proportionto their magni factorily demonstrated by M. Pouillet, tude, weight, or shape; but, on the con who discovered that positive electricity trary, that each object contains a share was given out from plants when germi- peculiar to itself, according to its degree nating, ( 127. ) As a consequence, it has of susceptibility of receiving the fluid, or

been suggested to render available the according to its capacity. But whatever influence of the electric agency, in raising may be the quality due to any individual plants on a large scale on the fields of the object, under ordinary circumstances, it farm . Dr Forster of Findrassie, near becomes exquisitely susceptible of disturb Elgin, was the first to draw the attention ance when the circumstances vary, and of agriculturists to this subject, in 1844 ; whether these be of natural or artificial

and in that year'he published the results

occurrence .

A disturbance of the electric

he obtained in the electro-culture of Che- fluid, in any body, may be accomplished valier barley, which was increased to 13 either by abstractions, additions, or by * Liebig's Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture, 3d edition, p. 184.

ELECTRO -CULTURE .

415

merely forcing a part of it tosome parti- electricity, but a bad conductor of heat. cular side of the body operated on. In the The metals are the best electrical conduc

first condition the body would be electro- tors; but there are many other kinds of negative, in the second electro-positive, matter which rank high in this capacity. and in the third electro -polar. These, Such are trees when full of sap — water, together with the natural electriccondi- and consequently all growing plants, by tion, would appear to number four distinct virtue of the water they contain . Moist

electric states or conditions that any body land is also a conductor of electricity. or object may assume, according to the Dry sand is a bad conductor, so is dry circumstances in which it is placed ; but mould of every kind ; but limestone rock as the terms positive and negative are ex. and dry chalk are still worse ; and dry air pressions which,in a strictly philosophical is a worse conductor than any of the rest,

sense, imply nothing more than the rela- though moist air is a tolerably good con tive electric conditions of bodies, any indi- ductor. When the electric Auid meets vidual body or object may be positive to with a good conductor, it spreads with another, whilst at the same timeit is ne- rapidity over the conducting surface ; but gative to a third . Hence the only abso- when it meets with an inferior conductor,

lute electric state that any body can ap- it has to encounter a resistance which, in

pear in is the polar - acondition growing some cases, it is unable to overcome, con plants must necessarily assume.

The sequently its forces are limited within a

various objects which constitute the vege- certain range of locality.” table clothing of the land are now in pre cisely the same electric condition, being

5026. “ Another grand law of electri

continually positive and negative with regard to each other . An oak and an ash tree, for instance, though both in their ordinary or normal electric states, are not

city, to be noticed by the electro -cultural physiologist, is the following :-In all cases of electrical disturbance, whether the fluid be in the act of absolute transfer

endowed with the same degree of electric from one body to another, or traversing force, one beingpositive to the other, and, conducting channels in the character ca consequently, the latter negative to the currents, or spreading itself over sur

former.

A similar inequality of electric faces of moistland or other conducting

force occurs amongst growing plants and matter, the transmission is uniformlyfrom their manures, and even amongst the the positide to the negative parts ; for in various elements which constitute the no case can the fluid be transmitted from

latter, no two of them being precisely a negative to a positive body, nor from a alike at the same time. The normal pro- negative part to a positive part of the ductions of the earth also , as decidedly as same body. Hence it is that those parts

those just noticed , display a diversity of the prime conductor of an electrical of electric action amongst themselves, machine, which are in the act of receiving

no two of them being found alike. Hence fluid from the revolving glass, are negative theparticles constituting each and every with respect to the latter, although, at the variety of soil are endowed with a pecu- same time, the remote parts of the con liar electric force - a circumstance of im- ductor be positive to all surrounding bodies,

mense importance in the comtemplation of and whether they be delivering the fluid the vegetable physiologist, andcarefully as fast as they receive it or not. There connected with all electro -cultural opera- fore the prime conductor is electro-polar, tions."

5025. “ When the electric fluid is in

under all circumstances, when the machine is at work . Now, as this is a universal law

when electric Auid is transmitted from one

abundance and in motion, it is accom- body or object to another, it follows that panied by a development of heat which, the electro-positive state of the air, contigu in some cases, is of sufficient intensity to ous to growing plants, causes the latter to

fuse the most refractory substances. Elec- become electro-polar,even when theyare in tricity, like heat, bas its conductors and the actof transmitting fluid to the ground non -conductors, but in some cases they are their upper parts being negative relatively different for the two kinds of force. For to the roots, wbilst thelatter, in their instance, charcoal is a good conductor of turn , are positive to the contiguous manure

446

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

and soil, to which they deliver up the table tissue that is formed within and upon fluid — or rather such portions of them as

the surface of the land .”

are not retained for the expansion and growth of the plants - as faithfully as the leaves and stems receive it from the air."

5027. “ From this train of reasoning, we are led to some of the most interesting points in vegetable physiology. The electro-polar condition of plants qualifies

5029. These observations of Mr Stur

geon will enable you to understand the principle upon which the electric fluid inay be made to operate on vegetation ; andthe only thing that now remains to render electro -culture intelligible, is to describe the mode of erecting such an

them in an eminent degree for the per- apparatus as shall secure the cominand of formance of those operations which deve- a greater supply of the electric fluid to the

lop electro - chemical phenomena ; and crop than it would naturally receive from what is very remarkable, the laws of this the atmosphere. Mr Sturgeon's apparatus

beautiful branch of electricityare rigidly is simple, and its arrangementmay be enforced and admirably complied with in seen in fig. 437. Dr Forster of Findrassie the decomposition of carbonic acid gas by erected bis apparatus in the line of the their foliaceous parts ; for, in this process, meridian, from an erroneous idea that an the electro-positive carbon is drawn to the electric current is constantly moving electro-negative poles of the plants, in pre- round the globe in the direction of E. to cisely the same manner as any electro- W. In these latitudes, the E. winds pre negative pole, artificially made, would vailing in the spring, and the W. winds in release the carbon from the oxygen , and summer, Mr Sturgeon erects his apparatus select it in preference. This remarkable in the direction of N.E. and S.W., and fact, based as it is on the strict principles N.W. and S.E., in order that the entire of electrical action, not only establishes a apparatus may receive those winds as near correct view of the modus operandi by to the right angle as they can. The com

which plants are enabled to acquire food ponent parts of the apparatus consist of through the instrumentality of their foli- poles a b c d, fig. 437, which should be age, but appe

ars to be well calculated to give a clue to every operation by which

Fig. 437. ſ

vegetables become nourished and elaborate

their food, in all the variety of structure

they so abundantly and beautifully assume. But as the electro -physiology of the vege

table kingdom hasnever yetbeen explored

a

8

beyond the humble examination of an

operation only, any farther remarks on a subject so imperfectly understood would be premature in this place ; although no doubt can now remain respecting the in fluence of electric forces in rearing, adorn ing, and giving full development to every class of vegetable structure.”

k 2 9

ELECTRO -CULTURE APPARATUS .

5028. “ Contemplations on electrochemical forces, thus disencumbered of complexity, lead, by easy gradations, to many recondite operations of nature, and to the discovery of those hidden actions by which the ever -varying transformations of matter are accomplished . They are

fixed at least 15 feet above the ground, and they may be of any sort of wood, and seasoned or not. Young larch trees would form good poles for the purpose . The pole c is set N.E. of a, and d is S.E. of b. The tops of the poles a and c are con nected by the wire e, and those of b and d by the wire f; and as one wire should be

well calculated to afford a clue to those

not less than 9 inches above the other, the

atomic operations which, in silent seclu- poles which bear it should be raised as

sion, select the appropriate materials, con- high above the other poles. The wires are vey them to their destination, and elabo- twisted round the poles and brought down rate them in the structure of every vege- into the ground, to connect with the sys

ELECTRO - CULTURE .

tem of wires under ground. The under ground wires connect the poles in the same mauner as those above ground ; the dotted wire g i connecting the poles u and c, and k h connecting d b. In order to spread the fluid over a larger snrface, collateral wires

447

ground wire and exterior to it at the ends of the enclosed plot, was much taller, had

stronger stems and blades, and of a far deeper green colourthan any other plot of oats on the field.” The influence was per ceptible on the crop as far as the fourth

are made to diverge at right angles from ridge westward, and exterior to the wires. each side of the principal wires g, h, i,

As to the barley, “ the ridge within the

and k . The ground wires should be sunk wire, even on those parts of it exterior to at least 3 or 4 inches under the sur-

face, that the fluid may be the more easily diffused by the moisture of the ground. The wires should be of copper, because of its superior conducting character, and its

the plot enclosed, was the finest barley in the field ; but the colour was only a mere shade deeper than that of the otherparts of the crop. The first ridge outside the wire was obviously the next best ; but the

capability of withstanding the damp air distinction here was nothing like so finely and moist ground.

The upper wires marked as in the oats.” The straw of the

should be elevated as high as practicable ; and as tall trees are conductors of electricity, the apparatus should not be erected near trees . Such an apparatus would

oats was 6 inches taller under the influence of the apparatus than that beyond it; and although the grains were in no respect superior, the numbers of them on each stalk

answer for a space included within 50 averaged 50, while the rest of the field yards square ; but should the poles be only averaged 35. The barley also showed placed at a much greater distance, the a superiority, but not much. The appa wires will be apt to stretch and bend down ratus erected in Sir Thomas Trafford's from their own weight, on which account field of oats, sown on mossland not it would be necessary to place another pole thoroughly dried, gave a greater length of

at the centre of bisection l of the ground ştraw of 10 inches, in the early period of and upper wires. The apparatus should its growth ; but at harvest the entire crop

be erected early in spring, immediately after the crop has been sown — and it may be erected on grass land as well as among the cereal crops; and every repetition of the apparatus of the above dimensions may be made to comprehend any extent of ground desired.

wasa fine one, measuring7 feet in length. Within the wires a splendid crop of this tles had sprung up. At Kirby Lonsdale, the apparatus waserected on a green field, and the result may be best appreciated when described in the emphatic provincial style of Cumberland, by William Muckald, one of the hinds, — “ Wy, I niver sa t like

5030. Since it matters not whether the in o me life ; it beat o t other eet field far

ground wires receive the electric fluid by enough. John Hodgson help'd ta maa 't, means of the upper wires or the poles, it en when we cam tet thick spot, he sed, occurs to me to suggest that metallic rods “ dam ť wires, t gerss is sa thick I can

might be used instead of the wooden poles, and dispense with the upper wires altogether. A few sharp points would convey abundance of electricity to the rods

hardly maa't . En I's sure it capt owght et iver ) saa ; that it did.” At Casterton Hall, the apparatus produced no im provement ; or, if any, very slight.”

orpillars. But perhaps the cost of these 5032. The conclusions that may be legi and wires, and any such difference is a con- timately drawn from the use of electric sideration for economy. wires in cultivation are, that in cold, dry rods would be more than that of the poles

easterly winds, the ground becomes so dry

5031. Mr Sturgeon erected , in 1845, and hard that, although the air be charged such an apparatus on a grass plot in the with the electric fluid, the dry ground can Botanic Garden of Manchester ; but no neither receive nor distribute it : that perceptible influence on the grass was when the air is dry over the crop, it offers He erected another on a considerable resistance to the dispersive the farm of Didsbury on barley and oats, tendency of the fluid , so that the points

known to occur .

the third crop from the fallow one ; and of the leaves and stems of the growing “ the ridge of oats, both within the under- crop cannot obtain sufficient quantity of

448

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

the fluid to stimulate them beyond ordinary precludes it from being acted on by the vegetation ; and the only part of the crop organs of plants. that does receive it in excess is that im

mediately round each pole : that genial

5035. Liebig's idea is, that as hydro

showers, laden with electric matter, soon gen, oxygen , nitrogen, and carbon, are

saturate the land with moisture, rendering liberated in the decomposition of animal

it a good conductor, and supply it abun- matter in the soil, and as hydrogen has a dantly with the electric stimulus : and predominating affinity for nitrogen, am that moist air, losing its insulating quality, monia is formed in the soil, in which the becomes more uniformly charged with roots of plants receive it in both the gase the electric fluid to a great height above ous and saline states, the latter being the surface of the land, and yields it with- formed by the union of ammonia with car

ont measure to the pointed and sharp -edged bonic acid, generated by carbon and oxy gen,and easily soluble in water ; butwhile other conductors more elevated in their the roots of plants thus receive ammonia

leaves of the corn and grass, as well as vicinity .*

as it is formed in the soil, part of the ammonia escapes into the atmosphere, and

5033. I do not suppose that electro- returns to the soil with the rain, for the culture can be extensively practised, even use of plants—the quantity received di

if experience should prove it to be benefi- rectly from the soil being greater than ·

cial, because it cannot be prosecuted near that brought back again by the rain. The trees with any effect; and the trouble and

inorganic constituents of plants are de

expense of putting up, taking down, and rived directly from the soil.t repairing the apparatus every year, is attended with more inconvenience than 5036. This is a very probable mode by can be followed out as a system. To a which plants receive their nitrogen, an limited extent, however, it does seem suited essential element of their existence ; but

to practice. It might promote the growth of a patch of turnip seed, ( 2476,) or of a small field of clover seed, ( 4379,)or a part of the potato or turnip crop. It might also prove useful around gardens.

if it be strictly true, it seems to a practi cal mind an over- straining of the subject,

to press upon farmers the absolute neces sity ofpreventing any escape of ammonia from their dung heaps. It appears that plants receive more ammonia from the

ON THE RATIONALE OF THE APPLICATION OF SPECIAL MANURES .

5034. The rationale of the application of the special manures is simple, if the views propounded of their action on plants be correct. You have already seen that every plant ismade up of two states of mat-

soil than from the atmosphere; and as the atmosphere supplies nearly all the am monia the cereal crops require, it is no stretch of improbability that the soil con tains as much asthey do require. If these inferences be correct, the necessity for incurring the expense and trouble of using the means of preventing the escape of ammonia into the atmosphere is not very

ter, the one organic , the other inorganic, apparent. ( 198.) The organic portion is said to be taken by the plant from the atmosphere 5037. Mulder's views of the manner

alone, because its elements, oxygen, bydro- in which the ammonia of the manures is gen, nitrogen, and carbon exist in the atmosphere in a free state. It is not supposed, however, that plants derive their nitrogen from the nitrogen as it exists in the atmosphere, but in the state of ammonia. The nitrogen of the air is con-

produced in the soil, are these : That several organic constituents of the soil namely, the humic, ulmic, geic, crenic, and apocrenic acids -- after being combined with ammonia, are taken up in solution by the roots and assimilated by plants, on

sidered necessary only as a diluent for the the ground that the compounds which oxygen , and its character of inactivity these acids form with ammonia are very * Journal of Agriculture, March 1846, 271.96.

of Liebig’s Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture, 3d edition, p. 41-59.

RATIONALE OF SPECIAL MANURES.

449

readily soluble in water, and because the cellular tissue of the plants. Now, it several of these acids possess polybasic is evident from this, that, as the said pro

properties, by which they are enabled to duction of humic acid is going on gradually, form combinations with potash or soda, there are only small quantities present at ammonia, lime, magnesia, and oxide of the same time in the soil, that which is iron, in which several of these bases are formed being instantly taken up by the present at one and the same time : that

roots.

ammonia is formed in the soil by the combination of the nitrogen of the air there with hydrogen in the nascent state , as liberated during the decay of vegetable

absorption of it ; and thus, though the liquid is always cold and weak, and so adapted to the tender extremities of the roots, it is constantly present, and so a

There is a continual formation and

and animal substances in the soil .

sufficient and nourishing supply is present

whenever required . The beautiful con

5038. Dr Fromberg thus explains Mul- nection which this theory constitutes be der's views of the action of plants upon tween the production and use of ammonia manures in the soil : “ In whatever way and the humic acid in the soil is evident,

the decay of theorganic substances present and certainly not the least of the advan in the soil be conceived — the main pro .. tages of the theory itself . It agrees re

ducts being humic, ulmic, and crenic markably well with the great rule of acids— there will always be a large ex- nature, that there is a close relation of cess of hydrogen, which, being in the causation between any two products whose nascent state, has all its properties un- presence is necessary to each other. The

weakened. It is, moreover, set free amidst experiment of Mulder, showing the luxu

a decaying and porous organic substance, riance of plants grown in a mixture of with a limited access of air, and at a low charcoal, asbes, and ulmic acid, superior temperature - conditions essential to effect to those grown in mere charcoal and ashes,

the production of ammonia, and to prevent and, at the same time, the larger quantity that of nitric acid, which latter substance of ammonia produced and assimilated by is commonly found in the heatof the tropical the former, apparently tends to solve two

regions. The decayingorganic matter sets problems at once.” free carbon ,hydrogen, oxygen, and a little 5039. In whatever way those organic nitrogen. The carbon, obeying its strongest tendency in this condition, forms carbonic constituents of plants, the nitrogen and

acid , in so far as it can find oxygen enough carbon, are derived, there can be little present in the air, which is continually doubt but that their inorganic constituents circulating through the porous soil. The are derived from the mineral ingredients small remainder of carbon, if a sufficiency of the soil, which, however, must first of oxygen cannot be procured, will com- assume that state in which they are most

bine with part of the hydrogen ; and hence easily dissolved by water, as a condition the quantity of carburetted hydrogen in in which the roots are enabled to absorb marshy places and stagnant waters . The them for use. While describing the cul remainder of the hydrogen takes the ni- tivation of each plant, I have specified its trogen , simultaneously liberated from the inorganic ingredients, that they might be plant, and also from its intimate mixture directly referred to when I came to speak with the nitrogen in the atmospheric air ; of theuse of special manures ; the theory and thus ammonia is formed . This am- being, that the knowledge of the compo-. monia, the extraordinary affinity of which sition of plants, and of the soil in which for humic, ulmic, and crenic acids is very they best grow, indicates at once the

well known, combines immediately with exact composition of the special manure part of the decaying substances, when still which should best promote the growth

in a state of humus, either extracting or and maturing of the plants. From the producing humic and ulmic acids, with which it forms humate and ulmate of ammonia, so extremely soluble in water, and fit for progressive decomposition within

vast variety in the proportions of the com ponent parts of different plants and soils, it seems almost impossible to concoct a special manure that shall produce a given

* Journal of Agriculture, October 1845, p. 50. VOL. II .

2 F

PRACTICE-AUTUMN.

450

result in each case ; but it is evident, commenced such an investigation, and has where the composition of both plant and already published some interesting parti soil is unknown, nothing but chance can culars on the composition of wheat clays.* guide the application of a special manure. At any rate, until the composition of all 5042. Possessing such analyses of plants the cultivated plants, and of the different and soils, agriculture would be made com

characters of soils, have been ascertained, paratively an easy art, as appears from no fixed formula of particular manures can these observations of Dr Fowdes, — “ If be prescribed with certainty.

we were in possession of a set of analyses of sufficient completeness and extent, both

5040. Much of late years has been done, of the proximate organic and mineral con and is now doing, by chemists, to ascertain stituents of all such substances, the pro

the composition ofthe cultivated plants at portion of water, and other things - this every important period of growth, and a information, combined with a knowledge great deal more has yet to be accomplished . of the gross weight of such crops, raised But it is feared that the proportions of on a given space of ground, would enable the mineral ingredients of those which us to manage matters that the nature of have been already subjected to analysis the food and the extent of its supply should

do not exist in the plant in the state the be duly apportioned toeach class ofplants; analyses represent them to us, nor are best suited for absorption into the plant. The method of obtaining the mineral constituents of the plant by burning, seems to imply that all the inflammable mineral substances must have been destroyed by

and that, instead of annually loading our lands with manures, frequently at a great expense, whose mode of operation we little understand, and in which it may happen that those very substances wanted are deficient, while others,already redundant,

the fire along with the large vegetable are supplied in injurious excess, we shall portion. Hence the quantity of sulphuric be able to proceed in a more systematic acid is probably always representedbelow manner, and give the quantity and kind the mark ; and such a result alters the of food required, and no more." + proportion which the rest of the ingre The only

dients bear to one another.

5043. I have no doubt but that much

way of practically remedying such a de- of the manure laid upon the land is given fect is to apply a larger quantity of each by farmers without a matured idea ofwhat ingredient than the apparent wants of the its constituents should produce; and had plant indicate. Each inorganic matter is farmyard manure been other than a ma

certainly essential to the wellbeing of a terial containing all the ingredients of the plant ; and although its proportion may plants raised on a farm, many more failures vary relatively to the other ingredients, it than have actually occurredin crops wonld takes its place according to some fixed law . have been experienced by the general body of farmers. But however easy it may be to 5041. The analysis of soils is a tedious apply manures, after the component parts

and dilatory process, and ere every variety of plants and soils shall be known, as can be analysed, ages must pass away. long as the limited knowledge on those But soils indicate distinctive characters particulars exists, manures must continue

which cannot be mistaken, at least by to be applied in the same manner they practical agriculturists, (332 ;) and were a have hitherto been, with such gradual im

few minute analyses of each class made, provement as the light of progressive from specimens selected from localities investigation and inquiring experiments famed for the kinds of crops which they shall direct. In the existing state of

raise, a standard for each class might knowledge, it seemsincredible to the prac be established which might answer all practical purposes for reference. Dr Thomas Anderson of Edinburgh, Chemist to the Highland and Agricultural Society, has

tical farmer that, after all the expense he has incurred in purchasing the best con structed implements, and the trouble he has bestowed on working the land with them ,

* Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1850, p. 281 . + Journal of English Agricultural Society, vol. iv. p. 535.

RATIONALE OF SPECIAL MANURES.

to bring it to the best degree of tilth

451

5045. “ They undergo various chemical

suited to the particular crop it is destined changes in the interior, chiefly while cir to grow — and after thelabour of preparing culating or contained in the sap, by which

the large quantities of manure which he changes they are prepared and fitted for directly lays upon the land, and the cost entering, when and where it is necessary, which he cheerfully expends in purchas- into the composition of the solid or fixed

ing auxiliaries to his home manure, to be parts of the plants. Thus the starch of the seed is changed into the soluble dex the growing crop - after all this toilhas trin and sugar of the sap of the young

used over and above as top -dressings on

been bestowed over a large proportion of the year, it seems incredible to him when be is told that it only secures a proportion seldom exceeding 5 per cent of the crop he has reaped, while the other 95 per cent has been derived from the atmosphere

plant, (3509,) and then again into the insoluble cellular fibre of thestem or wood, as the plant grows; and finally into the insoluble starch of the grain , as its seed fills and ripens.

alone—an element which he knows he can

5046. “ They each exercise a chemical

have at all times without stint or trouble. I am sure that every practically -minded man will receive such intelligence with incredulity; and if the soil is only cap-

action, more or less distinct, decided, and intelligible, upon the other elementary bodies, and the compounds of them which they meet with in the sap of the plant. In

able of affording the mineral ingredients regard to some substances, such as potash of the plants, well wrought and well supplied with manure as it may be, the farmer's exertions must be valued at a small amount ; and hence the consideration arises whether the same, or even greater results,

and soda, the sulphuric and the phosphoric acids, this last function appears to be especially important. These substances influence all the chemical changes which go on in the interior of the plant, and may not be attainable with less exertions which or the causenitroge its growth. the the true of same ismodify n which The upon than bave hitherto been bestowed

land. Let chemists decide this point, and plant contains. This elementary body, in in the mean time the farmer will conduct the form of albumen , or some other of the

his practice according to the dictates of numerous protein compounds which occur in the sap, presides over or takes part in almost every important transformation 5044. Out of the uniform mass of farm- which the organic matter of the living yard manure bid under the ground, with vegetable undergoes. Thus it is always his own judgment.

the addition of special ones, plants have abundantly present where the starch of the power of converting the materials they receive into the ingredients which the functions of their particular parts elaborate. Those materials act on plants at different

the seed or of the tuber (as in the grain of wheat or of the potato) is dissolved and sent up to feed the young shoot ; and again when the soluble substances of the

times, and in different parts of the same sap are converted into the starch of the

plant, according to theirrespective natures, grain, of the tuber, or of the body or pith as thus propounded by Professor John- of the tree, one or other of the protein ston :- “ They all form, more or less con- combinations is always found to be present

stantly and abundantly, a portion of the on the spot where the chemical change in fixed and solid matter of the plant, taken transformation is going on. as a whole. They may not be found in any one part of the plant, when separated

5047. “ Besides these general functions,

carefully from the rest; but in the solid the several substances found in plants partsof the plant, taken as a whole, they exercise also special functions in reference

are all and always to be met with. When to vegetable life and growth. Thus nitro thus deposited, they become for the most gen is most abundant in the sap of young part dormant as it were, and for the time plants, takes part in most of the changes cease to perform an active chemical func- of organic compounds which go on in the

tion in the general growth, though, as ves- sap, and fixes itself, as the plantapproaches sels or cells, they may still perform a maturity ,in greatest abundance in the seeds mechanical function .

and in the green leaves .

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

452

5048. “ Potash and soda circulate in the

the stem, in the case of the grasses and

sap, influence chemical changes very corn -yielding plants ; but what chemical much, and reside or fix themselves most

functions it performs, if any, in directly

abundantly in green and fleshy leaves, and promoting vegetable growth, we can scarce " * in bulbous roots.

ly as yet even venture to guess.”

5049. “ Sulphuric acid is very influen5055. You thus perceive that about 11 tial in all chemical changes, is found in mineral ingredients are removed from the most cases in those parts of the plant in soil by the crops usually cultivated on a

which potash and soda abound, and de- farm . But of these, four - silica, alumina, posits a portion of its snlphur wherever the magnesia, and iron - are usually found in

compounds of nitrogen form a notable part abundance in all ordinary soils, the peaty, the sandy, and the chalky being the excep

of the substance of the plant.

tions,and all these are limitedin extent. The

5050. “ Phosphoric acid exercises also lime is supplied to the soil as a necessary much influence over the chemical changes ingredient in the prosecution of good hus of the sap, and finally fixes itself in great- bandry, so that only 6 substances require est abundance in the seeds and other re- to be replaced which the crops carry off, and these are potash, soda, magnesia, productive parts of the plant. phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, and chlo 5051. “ Lime is very important to rine. Let us therefore ascertain, from

healthy vegetable growth, as practical some authority, how much of these ingre experience has long testified.

Among dients are removed from the soil by a

other duties, it appears to accompany the single ordinary crop of each kind. phosphoric acid in the sap of plants, and to deposit itself in combination with or-

5056.

Wheat. - Mr Prideaux states

ganic acids (oxalic, &c.) in the leaves and that the following quantities are removed bark, and with phosphoric acid in some from an acre of soil by a crop of wheat, of seeds and roots.

25 bushels of grain , and 3000 lb. = 1 ton, 6 cwt. 88 lb. of straw, a moderate

5052. “ Magnesia appears also to

attach itself very much to phosphoric acid in the sap, and fixes itself in combination

with theacid principally in the seed. 5053. “ Chlorine , the chemical func

lb.

Ib .

Ib .

Potash ,

7.15

Soda , Magnesia ,

2.73

22.44 0 29

3.63 15.02 0.07 0.00

6.89 5.54 10.49 1.97

29.59 3.02 10.52 20.56 10.56 1.97

28.60

37.62

Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid , Chlorine ,

tion of this substance in the sap is less understood even than that of the other substances above mentioned. It exists

chiefly in combination with soda, and is

crop :

By the grain . By the straw . Total.

Gross weight to be returned to an acre ,

76.22

5057. Barley.- Thequantities removed

much more abundantly present in some from the acre by a crop of 40 bushels of plants, and insome parts of plants,than barley, and 2650 lb. 1 ton , 3 cwt. 74 in others. Though, as I have said, its lb. of straw , are as follows : immediate chemical function in the plant is not understood, it forms a most impor tant constituent of the plant, in so far as

the after uses of vegetables in the feeding

By the grain . By the straw . Total. Potash , Soda ,

Magnesia ,

of animals is concerned.

Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid , Chlorine ,

Ib .

Ib .

7.24 4.32 3.97 20.74 0.05 0.02

10.29

36.34

25.72

0.92 5.25 5.02 2.66 1.58

Ib . 17.53 5.24 9.22 25.76 2.71 1.60

5054. “ Silica exists in the sap in a

soluble form, and deposits itself chiefly in the exterior portions of the stems and

Gross weight to be returned to an acre ,

62.06

leaves of plants. It is supposed there to 5058. Oats. - A crop of 50 bushels of serve as a defence to the plant against 1 ton, 13 cwt. 104 external injury, and to give strength to oats, and 3800 lb. -

* Johnston's Experimental Agriculture, p. 9-11 .

RATIONALE OF SPECIAL MANURES.

453

1b . of straw, take from the acre of soil the 5063. Cabbages.— A crop of cabbage 20 tons, 8 cwt. 4 lb. carries off from an acre following quantities : By the grain . By the straw . Total. Ib . Ib. Ib . 10.88 64.78 75.66 3.52 8.95 12.47 5.38 19.86 14.48 15.23 5.28 9.95 8.86 0.35 8.51

Potash and soda ,

Magnesia , Phosphoric acid ,

Sulphuric acid , Chlorine,

of the soil these quantities : 1b .

Potash , Soda , Magnesia , Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid ,

Chlorine , 34.51

105 184 54 112 192 52

97.57

132.08

Gross weight to be returned to an acre ,

5059. Beans.—Beans, of a crop of 25

Gross weight to be returned to an acre ,

699

5064. It will be observed from these

bushels of grain , and 2800 lb. = 1 ton, 5 results, the much larger quantity which cwt. of straw, carry off, from an acre of the green crops, potatoes, turnips, and the soil, these quantities :

cabbages, remove of the mineral ingre

By the grain . By the straw . Total. Ib .

lb.

Potash , Soda ,

Magnesia,

Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid , Chlorine ,

Ib .

which the grain crops, wheat, barley, and oats, carry away — the proportion being

27.52 2.25 4.65

4 times as much. This is a result which observation alone would not have antici

159.78

pated, because the expanded area of foliage which the green crops present to the air, would lead us to expect that their nourishment is derived more from the at

90.21

103.81

2.72 11.38 12 32 1.85 4.35

7.02

36.95

122.83

Gross weight to be returned to an acre ,

dients from the soil, compared with that

14.53

13.60 4.30 3.15 15.20 0.40 0.30

ordinary crop mosphere than the soil; and, on the other Red Clorer — An quantitiesfrom of 5060. red clover takes .these

hand, the cereal plants, having narrow

an acre of soil : Ib. 26.70 7.07 4.48 8.80 5.98 4.86

Potash , Soda ,

Magnesia , Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid ,

Chlorine,

57.89

Gross weight to be returned to an acre ,

5061. Potatoes. - A crop of 8 tons of 8 cwt. 104 lb. of tops, will remove from an acre of the soil the following quantities :

potatoes, and 1000 lb.

By the tubers. By the tops. 1b. 222.56

Potash ,

7.44 21.08

Soda , Magnesia , Phosphoric acid ,

50.20 54.48 17.04

Sulphuric acid , Chlorine ,

372.80

Ib. 50.44 29.27

12.76 13.72 12.38 22.19

Total, 1b .. 273.00

36.71 33.84 63.92 66.86 39.23

140.76 513.56

Gross weight to be returned to an acre,

leaves, should depend more upon the re

sources of the soil than they seem to do. But this apparent anomaly may perhaps green be explained in this manner :-The :

crops weighing so very much heavier than the grain ones, from three to eight times, they ought, as a matter of course, to take

a larger quantity of mineral ingredients from an acre of soil ; and as all plants require to absorb a large quantity ofwater daily, in order to keep the saline ingredi ents within them in a constant state of so

lution , it seems necessary that the green crops should be provided with a large sys tem of leaves to enable them to draw, both through the roots and from the atmos phere, the large supply of water which they require to bave in order to hold in con

stant solution the larger quantity of the saline ingredients they contain.

5062. Turnips. — A crop of 20 tons of turnips, and 1850 lb. = 16 cwt. 58 lb. of

5065. Now let us see by what means

tops,will carry off these quantities from these respective ingredients are to be re an acre of soil : By the bulbs . By the tops.

Potash , Soda ,

Magnesia , Phosphoric acid , Sulphuric acid , Chlorine ,

Total.

Ib .

Ib .

lb.

142.66 17.31 18.16

25.77 46.24 12.24

88.82 16.76 9.58 28.80 38.81 49.75

231.48 34.07 27.74 54.57 85.05 61.99

262.38

232.52

Gross weight to be returned to an acre ,

turned to the soil. “ The best supply of phosphoric acid for the farmer,” observes Mr Prideaux, “ will be bone -dust, because the fossil phosphates, such as the coprolites,

though cheaper, are so uncertain in strength that he would never know how much he

was using. Genuine bone-dust will con 494.90

tain about 25 per cent of phosphoric acid,

and will require one-half its weight of

PRACTICE-AUTUMN.

454

salt, and one-third its weight of strong

5069. Wheat.

The cost of raising

sulphuric acid to soften and render it solu- wheat with these ingredients on an acre ble ; and these will also more than supply will be as follows, according to the prices the sulphuric acid, the soda, and chlorine. attached to the list of the articles enume If the lime used on the land does not con-

tain sufficient magnesia, it may be put in

at very small cost, either in crude sulphate of maguesia, Epsom salts, or in the bit tern residual liquor of the salt -works.

rated in (4974.) 60 lb. of pearl ashes, at 36s. per cwt., salt, at Is. 3d. per cwt, bone -dust, at 2s.6d. per bushel,

40 80 40 50

sulphuric acid , at d . per Ib . magnesia , at 10s. per cwt.,

3 5

L.0 19 0 0 0

0

2

6

L.1 11 3}

The potash is the most difficult material to procure economically. Foreign pearl ash

5070. Barley. The cost of barley per contains about 50 per cent, and is rather acre is as follows : dear. Foreign potash is a little cheaper and L.0 11 3 35 lb. of pearl ashes , at 36s. per cwt.,

stronger, 60 per cent,but not so readily pro curable dry . Wood-ashes, wbich contain about 3 percent of potash , vary also, and are not easy to get sound and genuine. Crushed granite, averaging 7 per cent, digested with

lime, although the materials are inexhaust ible, is not yet in the market.”

50 100 50 40

0 0 64

salt, at ls. 3d . per cwt. ,

bone-dust, at 28. 6d.per bushel,

0

sulphuric acid , at id . per Ib. , magnesia , at 10s . per cwt.,

0

4

L.1

3

5071. Oats. The oats cost this per acre :

5066. The grain and the straw of the wheat crop enumerated above, containing

204 lb. of phosphoric acid, will require

100 lb. of pearl ashes , at 36s. per cwt., 40 salt, at 18. 3d. per cwt. , 80 bone -dust, at 25. 6d. per bushel, 40 sulphuric acid , at 1d . per lb., 60

magnesia , at 10s. per cwt.,

80 lb. of bone-dust, 40 lb. of salt, and

27 lb. of strong sulphuric acid, and which will also more than supply the soda, the sulphuric acid, and the chlorine. Of brown sulphuric acid 40 lb. will be required . The 294 lb. of the potash, of which three

fourths is in the straw , may be obtained from 50 lb. of potash , or 60 lb. of pearl

0

55

4 2 5

72 6 4

5072. Beans. The cost of the beans per 208 lb. of pearl ashes, at 36s. per cwt., 55 salt, at 18. 3d. per cwt., 110 55 70

bone -dust, at 23. 6d. per bushel, sulphuric acid , at 4d . per Ib. , magnesia , at 10s. per cwt.,

L.3 6 10 % 0 0

0 6

71 43

0 3 55 0

6

5

L.2 3 51

The

red clover cost

54 lb. of pearl ashes , at 36s. per cwt., 18 36 18 22

of bone -dust , 1 lb. of phosphoric acid , S 24 lb. lb. of salt , we have to take . 2 lb. of sulphuric acid .

0 0 0 0

acre is as follows :

of crushed granite. 12 to 16 cwt. of or fromhundre 5073. Clover. Halfa dweight crude sulphate of magnesia will supply 10 lb. of magnesia. per acre this : 5067. Thus, for every

L.1 12 13

L.2 5 0

ash, or 5 to 10 cwt. of common wood -ashes,

salt, at ls. 3d . per cwt. ,

L.0 17 43 0 0 21

bone-dust, at 2. 6d. per bushel, sulphuric acid , at 1d. per lb.,

0 0

magnesia , at 10s. per cwt.,

0 111

2 1

1 1

L.1 2 8)

the soda ,

Clearing also .

94 19

5 3

0 3 63

the sulphuric acid , the chlorine.

1 lb. of potash , we ſ nearly 2 lb. of foreign potashes, or fully 2 lb. of pearl ash . have to take 1 lb. of magnesia , we 5 5 lbs. of crude Epsom salts ,

Tor 1 gallon of salt-works bittern.

have to take

5068. Hence, the above crops will require these ingredients per acre :

5074. Potatoes. amount per acre :

Potatoes cost this

546 lb. of pearl ashes , at 36s. per cwt., salt, at ls. 3d . per cwt. , I.

128 256 128

170

L.8 15

6

0 1

5

bone-dust, at 28. 6d. per bushel,

0 14 104

sulphuric acid , at 4d . per lb. , magnesia , at 10s. per cwt. ,

0 8 0 15

0 2

1

L.10 14 115 Crude

Pearl Common Bone. Sulphuric Sulphate of dust ,

acid ,

lb.

lb.

lb.

Ib.

40 50 40 55 18 128 110 224

80 100 80 110 36 256 220 448

40 50 40 55 18 128 110 224

50 40 60 70 22 170 140 270

ash .

salt .

lb.

60 35 100 208 54 546 462 210

magnesia .

5075. Turnips. Wheat ,

Barley, Oats

Beans,

Clover , Potatoes ,

Turnips, Cabbages,

Turnips cost thus

much per acre : L7

8

salt, at ls. 3d . per cwt. ,

0

1

bone-dust, at 28. 6d. per bushel,

0 12

sulphuric acid , at 4d. per Ib. ,

0 6 104

462 lb. of pearl ashes, at 36s. per cwt., 110 220 110 140

magnesia , at 10s per cwt.,

0 12

L.9

6

14 7 6

171

ROTATION OF CROPS.

5076. Cabbages. cost this per acre :

And the cabbages journ on the coast of Peru, that the greater part of the azotised principles

210 lb. of pearl ashes, at 36s per cwt., 224 448 224 270

455

salt, at ls. 3d. per cwt.,

L.3 0

7 2

6 6

bone -dust, at 28. 6d. per bushel,

1

sulphuric acid , at 4d. per lb. ,

0 14

magnesia , at 10s. per cwt.,

1 4 13

6 0

L.6 14

0

of plants originates in the ammoniacal salts which exist or are formed in the manure.”

2

5078. It would seem that wheat and

grass require the most nitrogen of any of

5077. These are the quantities and cost the crops; wheat appears to require five per acre of the mineral ingredients re-

times more than it contains, and with a

quired to raise the crops enumerated deficient supply of this element, it yields above, and the quantities are understood poorly both in quantity and quality .

to be as much aswould suffice for them to With plenty of nitrogen, especially in the be substituted for farmyard dung ; but form of liquid manure, rye-grass, and par as farmyard manure 'contains all these ticularly Italian rye-grass, has produced ingredients, besides those which were sup- large crops, up to 50 or 60 tons on the posed to be supplied by the soil itself, it acre in a year.* The value of the saline in

is better husbandry to afford to the soil as gredients in procuring the nitrogen from the much of farm manure as can be spared atmosphere is thus asserted by Boussin

from the dunghills of the farm , or procured gault: “ Such istheir ascertained influence, elsewhere, and to employ the special that tobacco, barley, and buckwheat sown manures as auxiliaries to it ; and con- in soils absolutely without organic matter,

fidence may be reposed in them possessing properties which will secure a uniformity in the growth of the crops, year after year, which the precariousness of

but containing saline substances, and only moistened with distilled water, produced perfect plants, which flowered and fruited, and yielded ripe seeds. Whence it follows,

the seasons is apt to interfere with when that the presence of saline matter favours farmyard dung is employed alone. The remarkably the assimilation of the azote farmyard dung supplies a sufficient pro- of the atmosphere during the act of vege portion of nitrogen, which excites growth tation .” + and forms the most strengthening consti tuent of the food of animals, and also of

carbon which is requisite to give the crops firmness. It is said thatthe roots of plants do not absorb carbonic acid, and perhaps not directly ; but as they absorb large quantities of water, and water is seldom or never found devoid of carbonic

5079. Upon the whole subject of special manures, the rationale of their application may be based upon the certainty of the fact, that a large produce will be obtained, if we only return to the soil the mineral constituents of the crops we cultivate, in combination with nitrogenous substances,

acid, the body of the plant cannot fail and the materials should be in a state to obtain carbon through the instrumen- to become fit for assimilation by plants. tality of the roots. The experiments of

M. Gazzari, tend to prove that roots natu rally exercise, in their contact with solid organic matter, an incontestible absorbent

action in imparting solubility ; and these observations of M. Boussingault are found

ON THE ROTATION OF CROPS.

5080. Experience has demonstrated, that one crop after another of the same

ed on probability, that " plants possibly kind greatly reduces the fertility of all draw from the atmosphere more

tban

classes of soils.

This conclusion might

agriculturists commonly suppose ; and be drawn from reason as well as experi that the soil furnishes, ' independently of ence, since it is reasonable to supposethat

saline and earthy substances, a propor- crops of the same kind take the samesort tion of organic matter larger than certain of food out of the same kind of soil. Ex physiologists admit. There is every perience has also demonstrated, that one reason to believe, from what I could crop after another, of a different kind, does

learn respecting guano, during my so- not materially reduce the condition of * Gardeners' Chronicle, 2d December 1848.

+ Boussingault's Rural Economy, p. 454 and 490 - Law's translation .

456

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

soils. This deduction, then, seems fair- and the least exhausting of all, permanent that the condition of the soil is best main- pasture of the natural grasses. tained by taking different crops after one 5084. With a choice of such a variety another ; and, as every crop, though of

different kind, and deriving support from of plants, possessing various powers of ex the soil, assists in exhansting it, a limit haustion, there shonld be no difficulty of must be put to the number of crops that arranging a succession of them, as least to

should follow one another. Accordingly, deteriorate, and best to suit every kind of in practice, a limit is placed on the num- soil. There would be no difficulty of fix ber of crops taken in succession, of what- ing a succession in an abstract view of a ever kind, and this number and succession rotation ; but such a rotation cannot be is called a rotation of crops.

put into practice, as the cultivation of certain plants is dependent on local cir

5081. Though all crops derive support cumstances. For example, in the neigli from the soil, one kind appropriates food bourhood of large towns, potatoes, turnips, in a different degree to another, and even carrots, are cultivated more with a view the same crop takes food in different to supply the wants of their inhabitants, quantities, according to the state its pro- than the nature of the soil ; and stock duct is allowed to proceed. In practice, are not pastured there in summer, because

different crops are cultivated for very dif- the grass is usually cut for green food, or ferent purposes . One class is cultivated made into hay and sold . But though

for their seed, called corn or grain crops -such as wheat, rye, barley, and oats ; in which class may be placed beans and pease , which, although cultivated for their seed , their straw and habits differing, take a different sort of food. Other kinds are cultivated for their roots and

circumstances thus operate to modify the rotation in certain localities, the princi ples upon which all rotations are based may be followed everywhere. The great object in adopting a rotation at all, is to preserve the land from deterioration ; and as grains must be raised on every species

leaves, and are therefore called green of arable soil — not only because they con

crops, such as turnips, potatoes, clover, stitute the chief food of man , but because tares, & c. they also provide provender and litter to live-stock in winter, both which are re

quisite for their health and comfort in this cold and damp climate, as also are green crops in winter, when grass cannot be obtained, the only practical mode grains tax the soil more than clover or known of counteracting the deterioration 5082. Every plant that grows ripened seed taxes the soil more strongly for its support than that which only produces Hence the cereal leaves and bulbs.

turnips ; and yet if green crops are of the soil is to raise, between the exbaust

allowed to mature their seed, they ing crops, others which require manure in tax the soil even more than the cereal

grains, since, being biennial, they are the longer time dependent for support.

immediate contact with them to raise them

to perfection, as is the character of the green

crops ; and such an alternation of cropping just constitutes a rotation. All crops ex

5083. Practically we might arrange haust the soil less or more, so that it is the cultivated plants in the order of their necessary to pursue an enriching course of probable power of exhausting the fertility manuring, that the crops by the end of the of the manner soil in this

.

The cereal rotation may not be able to exbaust all

grains, perhaps, in this succession - wheat, the manure that has been applied in the oats, barley, rye ; then flax, potatoes ; course of it. Such a course of cropping, next the sown grasses, when made into hay, or rotation, is of general application. in the green state, and tares ; leguminous plants, as pease and beans ;the root-bear5085. It is true that the same sort of

ing plants in this order - carrots, parsnips, grain or green cropcan be raised on the Swedish turnips, yellow turnips, man- same soil, for years in succession , without gold -wurzel, wbite turnips; clover when apparent deterioration of the soil ; but it cut, as also lucerne, saintfoin, and crimson must be done by the instrumentality of clover ; the sown grasses, when pastured ;

manure .

The Rev. Mr Jaffray raised

ROTATION OF CROPS.

457

wheat for several years in succession on dered dependent on the state of the

his glebe, at Dunbar in East Lothian, by markets; but the profit from the mixed

applying manure to the soil every year. husbandry is not immediately dependent Theoretically, if the ingredients taken from on the markets, since the farmer breeds, the soil by any crop are restored to it the rears, and feeds the same animals, and if

soil will not be deteriorated. This theory any profit is obtainable at any period of is being put to the test at the present the animal's life, he receives it. Extra

time, 1850, by Mr John Dickson, Saugh- neous food may assist the crop in produc ton Mains, near Edinburgh, on a five -acre ing a greater profit, but it may not field, in which wheat is to besown for necessarily produce a profit in lieu of a five successive years ; and the effect of the crop. crop upon the soil, each year, is to be ascertained by analysis by Dr Anderson, 5087. Those who purchase stock to

Chemist to the Highland and Agricultural suit the quantity of food they raise, may Society ; and such manure is to be applied raise crops of every kind without a rota

to the soil every year, containing such tion, the only limit to their plan being ingredients as the analyses shall have the command of manure : but they who

shown to have been taken from the soil follow such a plan are as dependent on by the preceding crop.

the purchase of extraneous manure as on that of stock ; and if the manure cannot

5086. But although no doubt exists of be obtained, their plan cannot be pursued.

the ability to raise the same grain in the Such a plan cannot be generally followed, same soil in successive years, by means of for if all farmers purchased most of their manure, a regular course of cropping is manures extraneously, where would the incumbent to be established on all farmıs

manure be found to supply them all ? and

which follow the mixed husbandry of if all purchased stock to consume the crop and stock. A given number of stock, increased crop raised by the extraneous raised every year, requires a given quan- manures, there would be no breeders of

tity of food every year; and that quantity stock, except in the pastoral districts, and cannot be secured but by prosecuting a these couldnot supply a sufficient number

regular course of cropping. It is evident of animals. So that this significant fact that, if an inordinate extent of any one ought not to be lost sight of by the

crop be raised in any one year, it must farmer, that whenever be depends upon be done at the sacrifice of as much of the resources of his own farm , he must

another crop, which would have occupied adopt a regular course of cropping. the usurped ground ; and if the one crop is

as requisite for the support of the stock 5088. In every rotation of cropping, as the other, the stock will suffer so much permanent pasture should be left out of

For example, if more consideration, because, being an unchange grain than usual, and less green crop, is able condition of the soil, it cannot be em

for want of it.

raised in one season, the ordinary number braced in a rotation, which implies a fre of stock will either suffer want, by being quent return of the soil to the plough. A stinted of the requisite quantity of green large proportion of permanent pasture has food ; or partof them must be sold, to suit considerable influence in determining the their numbers to the food raised for them .

rotation on the arable land, which need

If they are stinted of food they will be- not be long under grass ; and this is a come of less value; and if part are sold, common practice in England. But it

the proportion in the breeding of the stock should be borne in mind, that where a is destroyed, and will require time to re- considerable proportion of the land is

cover the number. In reality, the regular under the plough, a large quantity of system of breeding, and the regularsys- manure should be applied to it at one time, tem of husbandry,would both be destroyed and that frequently. So that the practi

by the reckless innovation. The mixed cal effect of having one large portion of husbandry inust therefore be maintained by a regular rotation of cropping. If extraneous food is purchased in lieu of raising a crop, the profit would be ren-

a farm in permanent grass, and another in

arable culture, is to crop the grassy por tion easily, and the arable portion severely. Whereas, it would be better for the dura

458

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

bility of the entire soil to undergo a may bepractised for a few years on worn uniform and easy mode cropping. of

out land, until it is brought into good condition , when it might be relinquished 5089. Rotations for strong land . — Let for a better.

us now consider the several modes of

rotation practised in the different classes 5092. The following 4 -course rotation of soils found in this country, and under is very common in England. One

the different systems of husbandry (34) fourth of the arable land is in fallow - that pursued ; and I shall first give a few term , in all the rotations, implying the instances of rotation followed on strong period when the manure is applied - one soils, and you should keep in mind that half in corn, and one -fourth in grass. we are supposed to be farming 500 acres.

Potatoes, Tares,

First year, fallow ,

125 acres, 5090. A 2 -course rotation is practised on a few strong clays in England, which places half of the arable land under each Second year, wheat and 125

member of the rotation . First year, wheat, with manure,

barley, 250 acres .

Second year, beans, without manure, 250 500

Third year, 125 grass, Fourth year, wheat and 125 oats,

.

Turnips, Beans, Bare fallow , Winter wheat,

Spring wheat, Barley, Hay, Clover, Pasture , . Wheat,

.

...

Feed oats,

10 acres . 10 50 30 25

75 20 30 25 20 80 95 30

The grass land is permanent meadow . 500 500 The manure is given to the wheat; but the land, being naturally fertile, does not require much manure ata time. With so Wheat is a common crop after clover much wheat straw for litter, and hay and in England, rare in Scotland. The beans bean-haulm for fodder, part of the manure

are manured in drills.

The potatoes

made by the working and other stock is are manured , as also the tares. The put upon the meadows which yield hay. turnips are well manured . One-fourth of The land requires to have naturally a the land requiring manure every year, good stamina before it can bear so fre- and half of it under corn, the farm cannot quent a cropping with wheat. provide the manure required, so some must be purchased. 5091. A 3 - course rotation puts one 5093. A 4-course rotation is practised in third of the arable land in fallow , a third Scotland in the neighbourhood of towns, under corn, and a third in grass. Potatoes, 10 acres. where manure is plentiful. It has one First year,

fallow ,

Second year, wheat and barley , Third year,

166j ac.

Tares, Turnips, Beans,

10 50 40

1663

563 Rag fallow , Winter wheat, 1163 Spring wheat, 20 30 Barley,

1663 .

Clover, Hay ,

grass ,

Pasture, 500

20 50

963 500

fourth of the land in fallow , one- half under grain, and one -fourth in grass. First year , 125 acres .

fallow , Second year, wheat and

Turnips, Beans, 125

barley , Third year , 125

grass, This will answer a poor clay-loam , and Fourthyear, 125 on still inferior clay oats should be taken instead of wheat. The beans on the poor land will be best raised on drills, and re ceive a little manure . The tares should also have manure . The potatoes should

Potatoes, Tares,

oats, 500

.

.

.

30 acres. 10 65 20

Winter wheat, 80 Spring wheat, 15 30 Barley, 40

Hay, Clover, Pasture ,

Oats ,

35 50 .

125

500

There need be no bare fallowin the neigh

bourhood of a large town. Field potatoes have but little on the stubble. The land being now a precarious crop , early gar

should be well wrought for the turnips, den varieties are planted on farms, andthe and be manured for them . The whole ground is more early cleared for wheat in

rotation, being an easy one for the soil, autumn, ( 4788.) " The turnip break is

ROTATION OF CROPS.

now, by the help of special manures, greatly enlarged . Hay is always in demand, and cutting clover is now encouraged by means of top-dressings of special manures in spring. All the fallow crops are plentifully manured . This is a

459

on good strong land on farms which do not rear young stock. It puts one-sixth of the farm in fallow , four- sixths or two

thirds in grain of all sorts, and one-sixth in grass. 8 acres. st year , Potatoes, profitable rotation on good land in the Firfallow -83 acres, Tares, 101 , 65 Turnips, neighbourhood of a large town. Second year, Winter wheat, 181

}83}

wheat and

5094. A 5 -course rotation is very geneIt puts

ral at a distance from towns.

one -fifth of the land in fallow ; two- fifths

under grain ; and two-fifths in grass, one and two years old. This is, however, just the 4 -course rotation immediately above, with the grass member extended to two

grass ,

Fourth year, 83 } oats, Fifth year , beans, pease , and 83 }

Sixth year, } 83 Potatoes ,

3100

.

wheat and

100

80

...

barley, Third year , 100

Clover, . Pasture,

100

Pasture,

100

Potato oats,

.

500

30

Barley,

35 12 13

Hay, Clover, Pasture, Oats,

583 .

83 }

Beans, drilled, 43 Pease,broadcast, 104 Swedes, 30

Wheat,

83 }

15 65

.

100

...

60

,

500

The potatoes, tares, and turnips are all No bare fallow is requisite. manured . The hay is confined to what is required on the farm — the cutting clover being more

grass ,

{

wheat, 500

Turnips, Winter wheat, 20 Spring wheat, 30 50 Barley, 20 Hay,

grass ,

Fourth year,}

10 acres

Spring wheat,

10

100 acres. { Tares,

Second year,

Fifth year , oats,

Third year, 183

swedes,

years. First year , fallow ,

-83 }

barley,

40

useful in summer, and the pea -straw

answers partly for hay in winter.

A

few swedes in the fifth year, along with 500

the beans and pease a little manured, will be found useful, and keep the land in con

The potatoes, tares, and turnips are all manured, which it is now quite possible to be done by the assistance of bone-dust and guano to the turnip crop. There is no necessity for a bare fallow , the soil

dition by the manure. The swedes should all be pulled and stored in the autumn, to allow the land to be sown with wheat along with the bean and pea land. This rotation might be made a 7 - course one,

being better occupied with a green crop. by extending the grass period to two When the land is somewhat strong, a few years; and as the stock would be increased beans with manure may be substituted for by the extension of pasturage, the turnip a like extent of turnips. The hay miglit break might be proportionally extended

be confined to the wants of the farm , and in the fifth year, by a corresponding the cutting clover extended in the same diminution of the beans and pease, or by

proportion, or it might be thrown into the the suppression altogether of the pease.

pasture of the first year. Some ofthe lea This is a good and profitable rotation on on the last year might be rag -fallowed , good strong soil. ( 4183,) and wheat taken instead of oats. The 5 - course rotation is a profitable one 5096. Red clover fails in the neigh at a distance from towns. It might be bourhood of towns where the 4 -course modified into a 6 - course rotation by ex- rotation has been long and constantly fol

tending the second years' pasture into the lowed. The 4 -course therefore has been third year. This last course is a good one for the mixed husbandry, as it affords plenty of pasture for the young stock, and the oats yield very abundantly after a three years' lea.

modified into a 6 and 7 course rotation, which have succeeded in restoring the growth of the clover — at least such is the case in the neighbourhood of Dundee. The 4 -course has been modified into a 6 course, which puts two -sixths of the farm

5095. A 6 - course rotation, other than under green crop, three-sixths under grain, the one I have just mentioned, is practised and one-sixth in grass.

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

460 First year, Second Third Fourth

Potatoes, dunged. Wheat, half-dunged. Turnips, dunged . Barley, half-dunged.

Fifth Sixth

Oats, half -dunged.

20 acres,

Hay,

Fifth year, 62.. grass , Sixth year , oats, Seventh year,

Cutting grass ,

173

Pasture ,

25

62} ... { Oats,

Clover.

beans and

62. 22 }

Beans drilled , Swedes,

62 .

40

swedes,

Eighth year, } 62 ..

Winter wheat,

624

...

5097. The 4-course is changed into a 7 -course, thus, which gives two -sevenths of the farm to green crop, three -sevenths

wheat, 500

500

to grain , and two -sevenths to grass : First year , Second

Potatoes, decayed. Wheat, half -dunged. Turnips, dunged . Barley.

Third

Fourth

The bare fallow is limed .

potatoes are dunged.

It and the

The turnips in the

third year are half dunged . The wheat

Fifth Sixth

Clover.

Pasture.

after beans and tares, and half-dunged tur

Seventh ...

Oats, half-dunged .

nips, will not be too strong to sow down

Though the clover still reverts in five and with clover. The beans in the seventh

seven years, the frequent manurings keep year are half-dunged in the stubble, and the land fresh, and clover is wellknown the swedes dunged in the drill. This ro to thrive on land in a fresh state . tation requires good soil to bear so many corn crops, but its yield of straw is

5098. On the fine very strong land of ample. The land should not get sick of the Carse of Gowrie, a 7 -course rotation clover once in 8 years. has been followed for many years.

It

puts two- sevenths of the farm into fallow ;

5100. Rotations for light soils. A 4

four-sevenths under grain ; and one- course rotation ( 5093) cannot be safely practised on light soils, even with a com seventh in grass . It is this : First year,

Fallow , dunged and limed.

Second Third Fourth

Wheat.

mand of manure, these being rendered al most effete by the too frequent action of

Barley.

the plough . Their best effects are produced

Clover. Oats.

by consolidation , under grass. Near towns,

Fifth Sixth

the necessity of raising green crops, as the most remunerative ones, subjects every will It be observed, that two white crops follow in barley and wheat; and the reason class of soils to the plough ; and the change Beans and pease, stubble-dunged.

for this deviation from good farming, is, of manure and crops on the same break of that fallow wheat is too strong to sow down with clover, while the clover is always good after barley ; and that barley always proves a good crop, and exhibits a fine sample, after wheat. Clover does succeed better after barley than wheat ; still the rotation cannot be recommended on principle, and in practice it would be bet-

5099. An 8 - course rotation puts threeeighths of the farm in fallow, four

eighths in grain, and one- eighth in grass. Potatoes,

} 62} ac.

Second year, } 62 ...

8 acres .

Bare fallow , Winter wheat,

54 . 623

Beans,

27 25

-621

Tares, Winter wheat , Spring wheat,

tares ,

Barley,

10 373 10

15

:::

Turnips,

:::

62.

Fourth year, barley ,

Potatoes, First year, > 100 acres. < Tares, fallow , Turnips, Winter wheat, Second year, wheat and

Spring wheat, Barley,

100

Third year, clover,

Hay,

Clover,

-100

grass, Fifth year, oats,

100 500

Pasture, ...

15 acres. 10 75 25 25 50 10 15

75

Pasture,

Fourth year, } 100

wheat,

wheat and

are of course the same in light as in strong

barley,

Thus : --

Third year, beans, tur nips, and

5101. The 5 -course rotation ( 5094)

is therefore most commonly adopted on light soils, and the proportion of its crops soils .

ter, I think , to change it.

First year , fallow ,

land, is the only plan that can be adopted to perpetuate the active powers of the soil.

.

Potato oats , Common oats

100 60 40

500

On light soils this rotation will not supply

461

ROTATION OF CROPS.

sufficient manure to dung the entire fallow fallow , three -sixths in grain , and one-sixth break . On gravelly turnip soil, 300 acres in grass . in this rotation are unable to manure more than 40 acres out of 60 which was

the fallow division, even with a good crop of both turnips and straw . Extraneous manure will therefore require to be pur-

First year,

Potatoes

Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth

Wheat

100 acres. 100

Turnips

100

Barley Clover

100 100

Oats

100

chased for the remaining 20 acres, and 600 fortunately both guano and bone-dust are eminently suitable to such a soil The potatoes were manufactured into tapi for the raising of good green crops. It oca, (4813) and the refuse given to pigs. is worse than useless to bare-fallow such Their failure would scarcely now war soil .

rant such an extended culture as this ;

and yet, in 1849, a farmer in Wigtonshire 5102. But a preferable rotation to this, ventured to cultivate 92 acres of potatoes on light soil, is a 6 -course one, obtained on a farm of 260 acres, and follows no by extending the grass division to 3 years, rotation. Cattle are bought in to con which will reduce the fallow break from

sume the turnips. This 6-course rotation

100 acres to 83} acres, and extend the is a good one for keeping the land clean. grass from two -fifths to one-half of the farm .

It would be advisable to curtail

5104. If the clover division were ex

the potatoes to 10 acres, and extend the tended to three years pasture, the expenses proportion of turnips to 673 acres. I consider this rotation as the best for the pursuit of mixed husbandry, as it seems to balance the relation of the crops and stock. In adopting this modification, from the

would be diminished, and the land pro

bably yield a larger proportional return. Such a modification would convert the 6 course into an 8 - course rotation .

5105. Adherence to a good rotation con diminish, a little, the number of cattle ducts the operations of the farm with

5 - course shift, it will be advisable to

bred on the farm , and to increase that of the sheep, as of these the ewes are nearly independent of turnips, and the whole flock is almost independent of straw, in

regularity and ease ; but a slavish ad herence to any particular rotation evinces want of judgment. The judgment ought at all times to be exercised according to cir

winter - which is a consideration, as the cumstances, and the characterof the season ; and modifications thus introduced will

number of acres of straw will now be re-

duced from two-fifths to two-sixths of the most probably benefit both the soil and its farm ; but the meliorating rotation may occupier. A legitimate mode of deviating sustain the gross amount of both straw from a rotation is this :-The field which

and green crop. A 6 -course shift, on light grew a crop more exhausting than the land, gives one -sixth fallow , two-sixths rest in the course of one rotation, should

grain, and three-sixths grass. This rota- one. bear an ameliorating crop in the following

For example, where potatoes grew tion possesses the advantage of being extended to any levgth by repeating the in one rotation, turnips should be substi grass ; but an undue extension in this tuted in the next ; and potatoes, in like

direction interposes a barrier against every manner, may follow turnips.

An inter

other crop but itself, by reducing the fallow down to nothing, and occupying the entire farm . Even a moderate extension of grass would too much increase the summer provision of the stock, while it dimi-

changeof soil should take place between the different kinds of turnips, so that swedes being more severe upon the land should alternate with the white turnip. The bare fallow on strong land should al

nished as much their winter food .

ternate with a green crop ; and so should Even a severer barley with wheat.

5103. A remarkable 6 -course rotation

course is at times justifiable, such as

was followed on the farm of Beauchamp, taking wheat after lea, where there is in Forfarshire, by the late Mr James Scott. reason to suspect that oats will fail. A The farm consisted of 600 acres, and the root crop of a different nature, such as rotation divided it thus : two-sixths into mangold-wurzel, or carrot, or even cab

PRACTICE -AUTUMN .

462

bage, should alternate for a season with mediately before the formation and during the of the of blossoms ; theySubstances diminish after con the fruit. the development the ordinary roots cultivated . When any continuance

crop fails — and clover sometimes does - it taining a large proportion of carbon are excreted

should be ploughed up, and another of a

by the roots, and absorbed by the soil. Through

different kind taken in its stead . Potatoes

the expulsion of these matters, unfitted for nutri

often fail; they should be ploughed up, and tion, the soil receives again with usury the car

turnips substituted . Sometimes the swedes bon which it had at first yielded to the young plants as food, in the form of carbonic acid . The

are destroyed by insects ; then let white soluble matter thus acquired by the soilisstill turnips betaken as a substitute, or late capable of decay and putrefaction; and ,by un rape, or bare -fallow the land for autumn dergoing these processes, furnishes renewed wheat. In short, whenever one crop fails, sources of nutrition to another generation of

another useful one should be substituted plants, and becomes humus.” I in its place ; for if the soil is not occupied

5108. The power of plants to excrete from

with a useful crop , it will be soon taken possession of by a host of weeds. Where

their roots has almost been totally denied.

a change has been forced upon the rotation,

instituted experiments to prove that plants expel

Mr

Alfred Gyde of Painswick in Gloucestershire,

a field may be miscropped tobring it again that though plants haveno power of selection, under the rotation ; and of all means of but take into their texture any solution offered

miscropping a green crop is the safest, and to their roots, they have little or no power of with additional manure will recover the again excreting it ; that any excretions are only tone of the land sooner than any other ofthe true sap ; and that plants watered with excretion receive no injury from it . It cannot be denied that plants do excrete substances from

device.

their roots. As Liebig affirms above, that they 5106. No practice of husbandry requires, in

my opinion, explanation by a satisfactory theory, that its principles may be properly understood, so much as the rotation of crops, but as yet no unexceptionable theory has been propounded. The first was that offered by the late eminent

De Candolle, founded on the discovery of Brugmanns, of the excretory powers of plants, which

were corroborated by the experiments M. Macaire. * De Candolle's theory was, that the roots of plants imbibe soluble matter of every kind from the soil , and necessarily absorb substances not adapted for their support, which are subsequently returned to the soil by the roots as

excrements. As plants cannot subsist on matter which they eject, the more of this matter the soil contains, the less it becomes fit to support plants of the same kind.

This excrementitious

matter from one kind of plant, however, may be taken up by other kinds from the soil, and even rendered again fit for supporting plants of the former kind ; and if the latter kinds also expel substances from their roots which may be appropriated as food by the former kind , both kinds of plants will improve the soil in two ways.t

excrete substances from their leaves and blos soms, why should it be deemed incredible that

they excrete matter also from their roots ? In dependently of experiments made upon plants placed under unnatural circumstances, the sense of smell alone is sufficient to prove that plants excrete sensible substances from their roots. Examine the newly turned up ground where potatoes, turnips, carrots, have grown, and the peculiar odour emitted by each of these plants will at once be recognised arising from the soil. The raspberry bush and the mint have a very powerful odour. Indeed , the peculiarity of the odour at once determines the plant which has been growing on the soil. This existence of the odour will not be explained by saying that plants only excrete simple sap, since, sap being alike in all plants, and not distinguishable from water, the odour must proceed from something that has been elaborated by theplant from the sap. There is nothing incredible in the excretory theory ; for if the excretions from the roots are vege table excrements, it may be easily imagined that the excretions, once deposited in the soil, may

be as prejudicial to the plant which produced them as would be the excrement of an ani.

5107. Liebig at first adopted the theory of De

mal presented to it as food. But the objec

Candolle, but afterwards modified his assent in

tion to this view is, that it does not explain

these terms : —“ Transformations of existing all the phenomena of rotations, and there compounds are constantly taking place during fore cannot be received as a satisfactory the whole life of a plant, in consequence of theory. Its great difficulty is to explain why which, and as the results of these transforma- the excretory matter from one race of plants is tions, there are produced gaseous matters which not decomposed, and disappear from thesoil, long

are excreted by the leaves and blossoms, solid before the recurrence of the same kind of plant excrements deposited in the bark, and fluid

in the succeeding years. The excretory matter or

soluble substances which are eliminated by the roots. Such excretions are most abundant im-

of conservation, more than other organic sub

matters being organic, they can have no power

* De Candolle's Physiologie Vegetale, vol. i. p. 248-51. + Ibid., vol. iii. p. 1474-1520. I Liebig's Chemistry in its application to Agriculture, p. 33. Edition of 1843. § Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, October 1843, p. 80.

ROTATION OF CROPS.

463

stances, against the favourable antecedents of fer. theoretical provisions. One point in theory that mentation and putrefaction , heat and moisture.

5109. It was then conjectured that different species of plants require a particular nutriment ;

should agree with practice is this—that in no case is it possible to expect more organic matter, and particularly more azotised organic matter, than the excess of the same matter contained in

that wheat, for example, requires a different

the manure which is consumed in the course of

nutriment from barley or oats, or from any of the

the rotation.

green crops; and that, if it were cultivated per-

tion, the productiveness of the soil would be in

By acting upon another presump

severingly for a number ofyears,it would entirely fallibly lessened. Hence, it may be inferred exhaust the soil forwheat. Upon this idea the pre- how closely the study of rotations is connected sent barren state ofthe northern coast of Africa,

with that of the exhaustion of the soil.”

and of the island of Sicily, has been attempted to

be explained. It has been conceived that the constant growing of wheat in those countries, to supply the wants of the Roman people, after they

5111. The sentiments of M. Boussingault, regarding the position which the mineral ingre dients should take in deciding on a rotation , are

relinquished their own agriculture, impoverished sound. “ Professor Liebig," he observes, " in the soil to its present condition. Deprived of insisting with the greatestpropriety on the use manure, most soils will become impoverished by cropping ; but we have seen (5085 ) that wheat may be grown in succession on the same soil , if manure is applied. We have no proof that no manure was applied to the raising of the wheat for the Romans Sicily and Barbary. The

ful part played by alkaline bases and saline matters in vegetation, has shown the necessity of taking inorganic substances into serious consi deration in discussing rotations. It is long since I came to the same conclusion myself ; but it strikes me that, to be truly profitable, such a

progress of botanical physiology soon made it discussion mustnecessarily repose on analysis of appear that the organs ofeach plant derive their many juices from substances which concur in the

the action of plants which have grown in the same soil, and been manured with the same

nutrition of plants generally. In effect, plants the most opposite in botanical character and pro-

dung, the contents of which in mineral elements

perties, alimentary as well as poisonous, will live

account- current to be established between the

were already known . There is in fact a kind of

and flourish on the same mound of earth, and

inorganic matter of the crop and that of the manure. Although I give every credit to the cally withdraw nourishment from one another, fidelity of the analysis of vegetable ashes that which could not occur did each species need dif- have been published up to the present time, I ferent elements of nutrition . have not felt myself at liberty to make use of

on the same manure.

Such plants recipro-

5110. As opinions stand in regard to a theory of the rotation of crops, M. Boussingault's opinion appears rational. “ That there is no absolute necessity for alternation of crops,” he observes, when dung and labour can be easily 66

procured , is undeniable. Nevertheless there are certain plants which cannot be reproduced upon

any of them in the direction which I now indi cate. I have not thought that it would be

fair or reasonable to contrast such heterogeneous compounds, as the ashes of plants grown at Geneva and Paris, under such dissimilar circum stances, with those produced on a farm of Alsace, where the point is to be explained, though the results of this contrast had reference to a

the same soil advantageously, except at intervals particular species of agricultural phenomena. more or less remote . The cause of this exigence on the part of certain plants is still obscure, and

And then my business was not merely with the scientific question; the manufacturing or com

the hypothesis propounded for clearing it up far mercial element in the consideration also from satisfactory. One of the marked advantages

touched me. I had to ascertain how I was likely

of alternate culture is the periodic cultivationof to stand at some future time, did I presume to plants which improve the soil. In this way a sort of compensation is made for exhaustion . The main thing to be secured, in rotation of crops, is such a system as shall enable the husbandman

was nothing for me, therefore, but to analyse the ashes of the several plants which entered as ele

to obtain the greatest amount of vegetable pro-

but confining my inquiries to that portion of the

act upon the conclusion to which I came. There ments into the rotation followed at Bechelbronn,

duce with the least manure, and in the shortest plant which is looked upon particularly as the possible time. This system can be alone realised crop - so much of it as remains on the ground and by employing, in the course of rotation, those is turned in again, of course, taking nothing plants which draw largely from the atmosphere. from the soil. " The best plan of rotation in theory, is that in which the quantity of organic matter obtained 5112. To these practical conclusions has M. most exceeds the quantity of organic matter Boussingault arrived on this subject. “ In review introduced into the soil in the shape of manure. ing the chief points examined , ” he says, “ it will This does not hold in practice. It is less the be seen that, as far as regards organic matter, surplus amount of organic matter over that con- the systems of culture which, in borrowing most tained in the manure, than the value of this from the atmosphere, leave the most abundant same matter, which concerns the agriculturist. residues on the land , are those which constitute The excess required, and the form in which it the most productive rotations. In respect to should be produced , must vary widely according inorganic matter, the rotation to be advantgeous, to locality, commercial demand, and the habits to have an enduring success , ought to be so

of people -- considerations wholly apart from managed that the crop exported should not leave

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

464

the dunghill with less than that constant quantity flowers, and Papaver somniferum , the mineral substances which itoughttocontain: opium poppy.” Liebig mentions the con of A crop which abstracts from the ground a notable proportion of one of its mineral elements, should dition of tlre country around Naples, which not be repeatedly introduced in the course of a

is famed for its fruitful corn-land, that, the

rotation, which depends on a given dose of farms being situated from eighteen to manure, unless, by the effect of time,mineral twenty - four miles distant from one element has beenaccumulated inthe land.A another, and between them there being clover crop takes up, for example, 77 lb. of alkali per acre. If the fodder is consumed on the spot, the greater portion of the potash and soda will

no roads, and consequently no transpor tation of manure, nevertheless, corn bas

return to the manure after passing through the

been cultivated on them for thousands of

cattle, andthe land eventually recover nearly years withont anymanure - that is, without wise if the fodder is taken to market;and it is any part of thatwhich is annually removed to these repeated exportations of the produce of from the soil being artificially restored to artificial meadows that the failure of clover, as

it.

He also mentions that there are large

observed in soils which have long yielded abun- districts in Hungary on which, since the dantly, is undoubtedly due.

Accordingly a

memory of man, corn and tobacco ba

means has been proposed, byM.Schattenmann, been cultivated in alternate years, with of restoring to these lands their reproductive power, by applying alkaline manure. If, under out the restoration of the mineral ingre such circumstances, carbonate of soda would dients carried away in the corn and in act as favourably as carbonate of potash or wood- the straw . In the western parts of the

ashes, the soda salt, in spite of its commercial United States of America, wheat to the value ( 8s. per cwt.,) might prove seviceable, and deserves a trial.”

extent of 50 bushels per acre has been grown on the same soil without manure for 16 years.

ON THE FERTILITY OF SOILS .

5114. What the ingredient, or combina tion of ingredients, is, which imparts

5113. The fertile state of the soil is a fertility to a soil, is unknowu to us ; and I subject intimately connected with that of suspect that the most elaborate analyses manures when arable culture is under con-

of constituents will afford us no informa

sideration. Soils may be fertile by nature, tion . Liebig admits that the physical or made so artificially, by means of manures. Examples of the natural fertility of the soil have been observed in many parts of the globe. “ I have seen,” observes M. Boussingault, “ in the table-lands the Andes, wheat fields which had yielded excellent crops annually for more than two centuries. Maize may likewise be

conditions essential to the fertility of a soil are usually neglected in the calculations of the chemist ; and a mere chemical analysis is thus of very subordinate value, because the existence of all the mineral

means of nourishment in a soil does not necessarily indicate its value. And al though the chemical be combined with continually reproduced upon the same the inechanical analysis,which estimates

ground without inconvenience. This fact is well known in the south of Europe ; and the greater portion of the coast of Peru has produced nothing else, from a

the unequal quantities of mixed ingredi clay and vegetable matters-and data be thereby furnished upon which to form

ents — such ascoarse and fine sand,and of

date anterior to the discovery of America. more accurate conclusions, than by the Further, potatoes may come again and analysis of one class of ingredients; yet again upon the same soil : they are inces- no chemist can tell us, by mere analysis,

santly cultivated at Santa Fé and Quito, whether or not a soil is capable of sup and nowhere are they of better quality. porting the cultivated crops for an unli Indigo and sugar-cane may be brought mited period, without the use of manures. under the same category. In Europe the Jerusalem artichoke produces constantly in the same place. To this list might be added, according to the recent researches

This may be concluded from what Liebig states of the land in the vicinity of Vesu vius, which may be regarded as the type of a fertile soil. It is derived from the

of M. Braconnot, the bog -rose with double disintegration of lava, and cannot possibly, * Boussingault's Rural Economy, p. 459, 490, and 501 -Law's translation.

FERTILITY OF SOILS.

465

owing to its origin, contain the smallest genial; but, fortunately, we have themeans trace ofvegetable matter; yet every one of imparting a temporary fertility, which knows, as be observes, that when lava or has the effect ofproducing large crops from volcanic ashes have been exposed for a most of our soils ; and it is generally at

tained by manuring so liberally as to afford ture, all kinds ofplants grow in them with more nourishmentto the plants than they time to the influence of the air and mois-

the utmost luxuriance .” * We thus see, by appropriate to their use ; and the residue is Liebiy's own showing, that we cannot de- retained in the soil as a store for future

termine the principle which imparts fer- use, and as a means of establishing a per

tility to soils, since the existence of all manent fertility. The process by which the the mineral means of nourishment in a soil soil retains the soluble ingredients of man does not necessarily indicate its value, nor ures has been well illustrated by some does the want of vegetable matters render recent experiments of Professor Way of

it less capable of yielding luxuriant crops. London. He ascertained that sand and gravel retained only the mechanical ad

5115. Whatever may be the principle mixture of liquid manure, and that the

which imparts natural fertility to soils, soluble ingredients passed with the water in solution unchanged ; but the case with all-important element of fertility - not clay was quite different; and there can be heat merely, but also the corresponding no doubt that the property of soils to periodic and adequate supplies of moisture. remove colouring matters, and organic Those who can view nature with a com- matters yielding odours, from solution, was observation teaches us that climate is an

prehensive glance, and apart from local due to the clay contained in them, and it had the power of retaining the alkalis. see, from the poles to the equator, organic If a quantity of ammonia, highly pungent phenomena," observes Humboldt, 66' may

life and vigour gradually augment with to the smell, was thrown upon a filter of

the augmentation of vivifying heat." The clay soil, the water first coming away would be absolutely free of amınonia. So

same idea he thus expresses more beauti-

fully : “ The carpet of flowers and of ver- with the carbonates of potash and soda. dure spread over the naked court of our This is a valuable property of soils, inas planet is unequally woven ; it is thicker much as it renders rain unable to wash where the sun rises bigb in the now cloud- out of them those soluble ingredients, form

less heavens, and thinner toward the poles, in the less happy climes where returning frosts often destroy the opening buds of spring, or the ripening fruits of autumn ;" and more forcibly in these terms, “ It is under the burning rays of a tropical sun

ing a necessary condition of vegetation ; and even those compounds, when intro duced artificially by manure, are laid hold of and fixed in the soil, to the preclusion of any loss either by rain or evaporation . But more than this, such a property of

that vegetation displays its most majestic clay does not only affect alkalis and forms." +

That the constituents of the

their carbonates, but all salts of those

atmosphere, as such, have no share in this bases, with whatever acid they are com fertility, is evident from the fact of its bined. Thus sulphate of ammonia, on

constant movement causing an equal dis- being filtered through clay soil, left its tribution of the gaseous food necessary for the growth of plants everywhere, so that the tropics do not contain more of it than the cold zones. We of these northern latitudes may therefore feelingly exclaim

ammonia behind, and the sulphuric acid obtained was found combined with lime ; hence sulphate of lime had been formed in the process, and brought away in the water.

Lime was thus destined, in the

with Liebig : “Yet how different appears economy of nature, to be the means by to be the power of production of equal surfaces of land in these regions ! ”

which the salts ministering to vegetation

became localised and distributed through the soil, and retained there until they were

5116. We have no soils in this country required for vegetation. There wasno pro that will bear exhausting crops continually vision, however, for the salts of lime them without manure, because our climate is un- selves, sulphate, muriate, and nitrate of lime, Liebig’s Chemistry in its application to Agriculture, p. 116-18, 3d edition. + Humboldt's Aspects of Nature, vol . ii. p. 8-29. VOL . II .

2G

466

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

passing through the soil unchanged ; but new discovery. Henceforth we must re

quicklime, when dissolved in water, is re- gard the different salts,those of ammonia, moved by the clay ; and carbonate of lime for instance, as of value in relation to the in solution is so effectually removed , that price of ammonia, or other base contained hard water may be softened by the process. in them , since they are all alike when incorporated with the soil. This property

5117. It is not to be supposed that the of soils " explains and confirms," says separation of the salts in solution could Professor Way ," the variations in manur go on indefinitely by filtration . On the ing operations which are made to suit the

contrary, the limit was soon reached ; and nature of the soil. Clay has been shown though small in quantity per cent, the to be the active substance in repairing power of retention in reference to the bulk of the soil was great. It was found that pure clay would absorb, perhaps,two-tenths per cent of its weight of ammonia — that is, 1000 grains of soil would separate two grains of ammonia, and well cultivated clay soil wonld absorb twice as much . If,

manure, and sandy and gravelly soils not possessing asufficiency of clay will be ex pected to be less retentive of manure. Such is the fact, and soils of this descrip tion are said not to hold manure. On such soils manures must be applied more frequently and in smaller quantities than

such soil is cultivated to the depth of 10 in stiffer soils, where, owing to the reten inches, an acre would be capable of retain- tive power of the clay, the manure for ing two tons of ammonia, a quantity that several crops may be safely deposited.” would require 12 tons of guano to furnish. Again, “reference has been made to the Now, one-sixteenth of this power would possibility that clay possesses a power of

suffice for the preservation of the ammo- retarding the putrefactive process. It nia of a large dose of guano, and was there- seems clear that manures in a fresh state

fore a power of great activity. The extent are available to vegetation. What other

of the power of different soils, and for wise would become of the urine of sheep different of the alkalis, was ascertained ; folded on turnips, and to which the success

and the power wasdecidedlya chemical one. of the following barley crop is justly attri buted ? The property of the soil to arrest

5118. In desiring to ascertain the effect putrefaction and to combinewith organic ef of those principles on ordinary manuring, Auvia, is matter of conmon observation.” * it is obvious that if there is a provision in the soil for the retention of the salts of man-

5119. Another source of fertility to

ure, and for the ammonia and other pro- soils is the quantity of residue left in the ducts of the decomposition of animal and soil after the removal of a crop, such as

vegetable matter, the soil is the proper place for those decompositions to go on ; and, no matter how remote the period when the crop should be taken, it would be perfectly safe to get the manure into the land as soon as practicable after its

the stubble and roots of the grain, the leaves of the green crops, and the herbage and roots of grasses. Experiments over a rotation of four years were instituted by M. Boussingault, to ascertain the quantity of organic matter left by the residue of

low that those compounds furnished the ele

lbs.

2632 1203

282 460

lbs. 32 50

189 309

Clover hay roots ,

1833 615

75

523

299

32

232

dried in the sun ,

Oat stubble ,

we should seek to produce them by every

Sum of organic

means in our power. Liquid manuring,

substances, The manure con

much simplicity is introduced by the

Hydro .gen

Ibr .

Potato tops, Wheat stubble,

ments of nutrition toplants —consequently , wherever practicable , is an effectnal way of securing this distribution . In the case of special manures, such as chemical salts,

. acre

Residue of crops.

anp jad

the manure reached it, it would seem to fol

Weight resi of

production. Again, the equable distribu- the crops taken, and the results were: tion was a point also which seemed of con siderable importance ; for, if it was an ab solute necessity that a new class of com pounds was found in the soil immediately

836

6584

Ibs .

Iba, 14

Ibg .

26

178

112 67

30

1656

189 1313

46

387

3335

391 2403

186

2995

1679

202

140 2608

tained , Excess oforganic matter in the manure ,

* Journal of the Agricultural Society of England , vol . xi., p. 374-5.

1090

FERTILITY OF SOILS.

467

Mineral substances

in the

meme ww wi

5120 Similar experiments instituted lowing quantities of minerals taken up by over a rotation of five crops, gave the fol- each crop in its respective year : Phos

Sulphu- Chlo . phoric ric acid . rine . acid .

crops.

Potatoes,

1styear,

Turnips, half crop , Wheat, 2d and 4th years, Wheat straw , Clover, Oats, Oat- straw ,

3d year,

Ibs. 113 50 50

358 284

lbs. 13

lbs.

lbs.

Lime. Magne sia .

lbs.

3

2 24 11 18

8

Silica.

lbs.

lbs.

58 19 15

6 3 242 15 20 24

4

30

18

34

7

70

18

77

5th year ,

Sum of mineral substances,

lbs 6

Potash and soda .

3

60

13

954

763

5

26

16

304

32

114 533

16

419

Mineral substances in the manure,

7582

90

Excess of mineral matter in manures ,

6628

13 | 1772

5121. It appears that the residue of the several crops of a rotation represents the nature, and somewhat less in quantity than one half of the manure originally put into the ground.

1)

17

56,1225 339

310 5049

80 114

4739

136

Had thesecropsbeen powerfullyexhausting, we should expect that their residue, how ever considerable in quantity, could do no more than lessen the amount ofexhaustion produced ; in which case its useful influ ence, however real, would pass unnoticed,

5122. It is easy to perceive, from the were it estimated by the produce of the

preceding data, that, what with the orga- succeeding crop. If, on the contrary, a nic matters and the ashes, the land is crop has been but slightly scourging,

more than supplied with all the mineral whether in consequence of the smallness substances required by the several crops of its quantity, or because it may have de it produces in the course of a rotation, even rived from the air the major part of its constituent elements, the useful influence of lengthened duration . of the residue will not fail to be conspicu

5123. The large quantity of organic ous.” matter restored to the soil, by several of 5124. “ The excess of mineral matters the crops in the series, explains how the rotation may be closed without its being introduced into the ground over those that found indispensable to supply any addi- arise with the crops — an excess that ought It seems in-

always to be secured by judicious manage

dubitable that, without this addition of elementary matter, the fertility of the soil would decline much more rapidly than it does ; the residue of each crop is nothing

ment-enriches the soil in saline and al kaline principles which accumulate in the lapse of years, just as vegetable remains and azotised organic principles accumu

tional manure in its course .

more than a portion of the crop itself re- late under a good system of rotation." * stored to the ground : it is as if we only carried off one portion, the larger portion

5125. The only mode, therefore, in our of the crop, and returned another portion power io render the soil fertile, after it has

green. We “ learn that the visible appre- first been drained and wrought, is to give ciable influence of the residuary matters of it good manure more in abundance ofevery

preceding crops upon the luxuriance of kind of ingredients than are removed from succeeding ones does not result solely from their mass, even supposing each to be possessed of equal qualities; but they have a favourable influence out of all proportion with its quantity ; and this depends especially on an influence exerted

it by the several crops would amount to ; for, unless the manure is in excess, the soil will become sterile under the severe cropping which the cereal grains usually inflict on the arable land. With grass lands in pasture, the effect is different, for

on the soil by the crops which leave them . constant pasturage increases the fertility +

Boussingault's Rural Economy, p. 458, 489, and 501 - Law's translation.

468

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

of the soil. In this process, the grass which at the same time contains the earthy

plants themselves must have some effect and alkaline salts, ammoniacal salts, ani upon the soil, for it is evident that the mal matter in a state of putrefaction,

ground cannot receive so much matter back humus already formed, and vegetable re into it, in the form of dung and urine voided

mains in a state of transformation .

by the animals supported on the grass, as had been taken from it in the form of grass, 5129. “ In valuing a manure, it is ne since the animals fattened on the grass cessary to take into consideration not only must carry off a considerable proportion the quantity of nitrogen furnished by analysis, but also the state in which that of its products.

5126. Whatever functions the humus

nitrogen exists in the manure ; also the state of the ammoniacal salt, or of the put

may perform in the soil in regard to vege- rescible animal matter, and the state of tation -- andgreat diversity of opinion ex the soluble ammoniacal salt, or of the am ists on the subject amongst chemists - prac- moniacal magnesian phosphate. tically, there is no doubt of the fact that, the nearer the soil of the field approaches

5130. “ The analyses of fermented dung

in character to garden mould , the best which have hitherto been made are defec of which contains a large proportion of tive, in that they have not taken into cal

humus, the more fertile it becomes. M. culation the loss resulting from the action describes the part which manure plays in ammoniacal base, during the drying of E. Souberain, in his treatise on humus, of carbonate of lime on the salts with an

the nourishment of plants ; and his sentiments are these :- “ The woody fibre,which undergoes decomposition in contact with air and moisture, is converted into humus,

the manure. The result is, that the tables which have been published, representing the proportion of nitrogen in manures, give only approximate results. The compara

and at the same time furnishes carbonic

tive value of manures cannot be estimated

acid, which is perhaps absorbed by the by simply reckoning the quantity of nitro roots of plants. The proportion of carbon gen afforded by analysis ; because, on the in humus and manures never exceeds 56 one band, the nitrogenous matters are not to 57 per cent. This is the extreme limit the only active principles of manures ; and

which the decomposition of woody fibre on the other hand, because the value of can attain to in contact with air and manures depends much on the state of the moisture.

nitrogen contained in them - and, conse quently, it is impossible to frame a table 20

5127. “ Pure humus contains 2 per cent of equivalents for manures. of nitrogen, which appears to be essential

to its composition. Humus is scarcely altered in contact with

air.

Humus,

ON THE DISPOSAL OF THE FAT PIGS .

scarcely soluble of itself in water, acquires solubility by its combination with lime;

5131. We left the young pigs at their but the principal agent of its solution is weaning state in (2861,) and mention the carbonate of ammonia, which reacts ed the probable number that might be equally on free bumus, and on humus com- disposed of every year from two brood

Humus sows, after supplying the farm -house with rendered soluble is absorbed by the roots pork and ham , ( 2866.) At whatever age

bined with calcareous matters.

of plants; it serves in a direct manner for the pigs are disposed of, ( 2865,) and what

the nourishment of the plant. Humus has also a favourable action on vegetation, by attracting and retaining the moisture of the air and ammonia , by facilitating the

ever numberofbrood sows are kept, (2867,) the young pigs when weaned are put into the court m ,Plate II., and supported until the milk of the sow has dried up, and also

solution of the earthy phosphates, by sufficient food is ready for them in the

ameliorating the physical qualities of the grass fields. soil, and by moderating and regulating the decomposition of decaying animal matters. 5132. Newly weaned pigs ought to re ceive nourishing diet ; and if weaned early

5128. “ Manure par excellence is that in the season, the larger proportion of it

DISPOSAL OF FAT PIGS.

469

them there regularly with food. They rive, when cold food will suffice, although will no doubt thrive under such treatment, it should be cooked as long as they but not so well as when they are at free should be warm, until the mild weather ar-

are confined in the court.

To prevent dom to go about at all times in the courts,

indigestion arising from excessive action of the acid secretions of the stomach, which young pigs are liable to, salt should always be put into their troughs with the food. The court should be well

and to graze in the fields ; nor is their flesh so good — it will lack flavour, and the fat be laid on disproportioned to the lean. Such a breed ofpiga as is represented in Plate V. will always be ready for slaugh

provided with litter under the shed, ter, even when allowed to go about and

and the courtyard cleared of the dung every day. A trough of clean water should be placed in the court for them to drink out of, besides the troughs required

pick up what food they can, assisted with a little food at morning and in the afternoon . They are always delicate porklings at any age, and may be slaughtered foruse at any

for the wash they may receive from the time without the preparation of feeding. house.

Should one litter be weaned be

5135. Farmers usually dispose of their be placed together in the court; and, both young pigs at home : dealers coming round

fore another has left the court, both may

being fed at the same time in troughs to purchase them , pay the money and take placed at opposite sides of the court, each them away. From 5 to 7 stones are the

herd will keep by themselves - provided favourite weights for porkers, and pigs are both get plenty of food, which they ought worth most money at that period in pro to receive as long as they remain in the portion to their weight. Some, however,

court. For fear, or in case of quarrelling, may prefer to drive them to market to the younger litter may be placed in one of dispose of them ; and in that case they the brood sties b', Plate II., as it is not must be driven to it, or to the nearest rail

likely that both will be occupied at the way station. Whether or not you ever these, the younger litter may be put into acquainted with the mode of managing

same time by the brood sows. Failing send pigs to market, you should be made

the feeding sties a' ; and should all these them upon the road. It is a common be also occupied, which is improbable, opinion in the country, that pigs will

they can be put into an empty hammel neither lead nordrive— and the opinion is, M or N, or even into the out-house g'.

no doubt, founded on observation ; but

they may be managed by an appeal to the 5133. Whenever green food becomes appetite. If the drover walk before his abundant on the farm , in the beginning of drove, having a small bag of beans under June, the elder of the young pigs should one arm , and drop a bean now and then have a ring put into their noses, (2869,) to upon the road, his eager charge will follow prevent them digging in the ground, and him in search of the desired morsel. An

turned out during the day in a grass field old steady dog following the drove will -giving them some food before they go, easily prevent any straggling into fields;

after they return home in the after- but a young one, from his eagerness for and noon . On being driven a few times to a work, will annoy the pigs much more than grass field, and herded for a few days at assist the drover. In summer, pigs, when

first, and not annoyed by dogs, they will driven, should get leave to drink at any willingly go to it in the morning and re- brook or ditch on their way, or pluck

main all day grazing, but will desire to grass on the way -side. In the market return homeearly in the afternoon, as pigs field, pigs are retained in their stances by love to retire early to their litter, even in dropping beans now and then around a the longest and hottest days of summer. circle circumscribing the drove, when they

Notwithstanding their early retirement to will place their heads outwards to pick up bed, pigs are not astir so early in the tap the beans, and are easily kept back by a

morning as poultry

on the nose with a switch . I have

seen large lots of pigs managed in this

5134. It is the practice in some places way at the great fairs of Newcastle-upon to confine the young pigs constantly in Tyne. It is said by seamen that the best

courts during all the summer, and supply mode of shipping live pigs is to attempt to

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

470

prevent them getting upon the gangway, live pigs in Great Britain in 1836, at 18,270,000, the value of one- third of them at £2 each , when they evince a determination to run and and of the other two-thirds at 10s. each, inade along it, and in doing so gain the deck. the sum of £ 18,270,000.* of this number a large proportion belongs to Ireland; and as large 5136. To judge of pigs, we have only herds were no doubt sacrificed there in the year

put many of the rules for judging of oxen

of dearth, 1847, it is questionable that the number

into practice. On looking at the pig, fig. 438, we are convinced of the nearness

has yet been regained, with the uncertainty attending the culture of the potato .

5138. The number of pigs presented for sale

Fig. 438.

at Smithfield in London, in 1848 and 1849, in each month of the year, was as follows: 1849 .

October,

3140

November,

2326 1649

29,596

23,497

March ,

April , May , Jude ,

July, August, September, VIEW OF THE SIDE OF A FAT PIG .

1848.

2435 1935 2225 2818 2581 2641 2350 2443 3153

1185 1247 1820 1840 2193 2322 2040 2200 2310 2085 2116 2139

January, February,

December,

which the form of a well-made fat pig approaches that of a fat ox.

The rectan

gular wooden frame a b c d placed against 1847 , 30,125 the body of a fat pig is nearly filled up in The falling off in the numbers between 1847 and the same manner as is the frame by that 1849 will be observed to be 6628, no doubt of the ox in fig. 296, the only points of above. owing to the circumstance I have alluded to difference being in the hind quarter, where

the pig usually droops rathersuddenly to

5139. The number of foreign live pigs im the tail, as from e to the tail, as also the ported into London,duty free, in 1848 and 1849,

hams fall in more suddenly to the hough,

in each month of theyear, was as follows:

as from the tail to f, than in the ox. On looking at the pig both from before and behind, the carcase appears of a rounder form

January, February,

than the ox, the square frame on being

April,

applied having spaces at the angles more so than in figs. 297 and 298. On looking down on the back of a pig , as fig. 299

May, June, July,

1848 .

1849.

1

March ,

does on that of the ox, it will be observed

August, September,

that the body carries its breadth fully

October ,

from the shoulders to the haunch.

The

20 55

116

November, December,

19 9 2 104 302 290 243 409 128

hand is of little use in judging of a pig, 199

as the skin, being generally thick, and al ways tight , does not easily yield to the

1847,

1511

448+

touch ; although in a good pig theskin and It will be observed that the trade in foreign live fat yield on the pressure ofthe fingers, and pigs into London is very trifling, though an in regain their position by elasticity immedi- creasing one. ately on the removal of the band. The body 5140. The number of live foreign pigs im

shouldbewell covered with longhairslying ported,duty free, into all the ports of the king

close to the skin. The shoulder, hooks, dom in 1847, 1848, and 1849,was as follows: back, behind the shoulders, and the flanks,

are points which are well filled up good pig.

in

а

1847 , 1848 , 1849,

1242 2119

2653

Even for the whole kingdom the trade is a tri 5137. Mr M'Queen estimated the number of vial one, but it indicates an annual increase. * M'Queen's Statistics of the British Empire, p. 23.

+ Bell's Weekly Messenger, January 1849 and 1850. # Parliamentary Return, February 1849 and 1850.

471

MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

5141. Indigestion . - Should indigestion appear in the young pigs when confined in the court, from the cause indicated in (5132), after salt

ficial, according to Mr Youatt's opinion. He the meat, rendering it insipid , flabby, pale, and

had been used, the following drench should be

indisposed to take the salt. We should say that

says that measles “ sadly injures the quality of

given to each pig :-carbonate of magnesia, 1 oz., the flesh of measly pigs is positively unwhole tincture of rhubarb, 2 drams, tincture of opium , some, although perhaps there are no cases on dram ,warm water, 12 oz. This is sufficient for record in which it is proved that bad effects 8 doses, which ought to be administered to an have resulted from the use of it." * empty stomach.

5142. Every one has observed that the tails of young pigs are always curled, but very few

5146. Dr Taylor remarks “ that the flesh of animals over-driren, as well as newly killed meat in general, is liable to produce violent gastrio

know that the curl is always to the right, and irritation, and even cholera .” + very rarely to the left side. 5143. “ The skin varies in density in different

breeds of swine, " observes Mr Youatt.

“ In

ON THE MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

some of the large old breeds it is thick, coarse,

tough, and almost as impenetrable, in compari son, as the hide of the rhinoceros ; while in many

of our smaller breeds, and particularly in those

5147. We left all the young broods of the domesticated fowls after they were

which have a considerable admixture of Asiatic hatched, from ( 2880 ) to (2932,) to be for in the progress of their growth blood, and in the Chinese pigs themselves, it is cared summer a few observa .

I have still

soft, fine, and delicate, and bears no slight re-

in

semblance to the skin of the human being. It is not to be wondered at that the structure so delicately organised as the one we have been describing, should be subject to disease. In the hog it is peculiarly so ; many of the most serious

tions to make on their management after the hatching season, and on the treatment of eggs.

maladies to which he is subject have their seat in the skin .”

5148. Hens.—The practice is that the hatchingof thecommon fowl shall notextend 5144. Mange.— “ This cutaneous affection,” beyond the end of August or beginning of

observes Mr Youatt, “ which was formerly attri- September, and should notbe carried beyond

buted to want ofcleanliness, or to some peculiar that period, unless more than ordinary care state of the blood , is now generally admitted to arise from the presence of certain minute in sects, termed Acari. It is identical with the

scab in sheep ( 1071 ,) and the itch in the human

be bestowed on the rearing of the broods. The chickens then batched will be in excel

lent condition for Christmas and New Year,

being.” The hoy does not appear to suffer and be valuable in a pecuniary point of much from the mange; the pustules are usually view, should the farmer choose to avail chiefly developed under the arm-pits, and on the himself of such a market. But for the interior of the thighs, and from being simply red

spots at first, rub into large blotchy sores. Where the mange is recent, a tolerably strong

farmer's own use, and the presentation of a delicacy at his own table, beyond the

decoction of tobacco or digitalis willoften prove power ofmostto have, the hatching may be an efficacious wash for the diseased parts, or a continued until the coldest weather of solution of corrosive sublimate ; but if the erup tion is of long standing, an ointment of sulphur

This I have already winter arrives. and mercurial ointment, in the proportion of alluded to in ( 1617.) The natural hatch

1 oz. of sulphur to 1 drachm of mercurial oint- ing of fowls proceeds most successfully in carefully and thoroughly rubbed into the spring and early autumn, there being a ment, skin, must be resorted to ." cessation in the warm months of June and

5145. Measles. — This is rather a subcuta. July. It would be well to attend to this neous than an actual disease of the skin, con- hint from nature, though of course it is

, quite possible to continue the hatching in sisting in amultitude developed between theoffatsmallwaterypustules and the skin . Its the warmest months, by preparing cool appearance is of reddish patches somewhat raised above the skin, on the groin, the arm retreats for the broods. pits, and the inside of the thighs first, and sub

sequently on all parts of the body, and is seldom

5149. Notwithstanding all the care

fatal. Flour of brimstone put into apples out bestowed on fowls, the hen will make her of which the cores have been scooped , given pigs every day to the number of five or six , after own nest and bring out broods in the corn

having fasted for three days, and continued for fields, at the root of hedges and under the five or six days, is very likely to become bene* Youаtt On the Pig, p. 98, 102-3.

cover of shrubs.

After being missed for

+ Taylor On Poisons, p. 555.

472

PRACTICE -- AUTUMN .

a time, the hen will return to the hone-

mon practice is to whelm a large tub

stead with a fine healthy brood, all alike over more than one hen, with its mouth in size and colour, to establish her right raised at one side a little from the ground, for subsistence both for herself and nume- which allows as much light to enter the

rous progeny ; and joyous is the welcome tub as to let the hens see to fight with each she receives on her return home with her other, when their scalps are often bared to treasure . When such a brood is brought the bone,andone of them probably pecked forth, as long as there is plenty of food for and trampled to death. Some writers re them in the fields, the hen will rear them commend the hens to be indulged in their

in preference to bringing them desire for hatching, but as nost laying there home, and when they do return , the hens bave a desire to sit when the ovarium chickens will be strong and well fledged. for the time has been emptied of its con But when the hatching has been late, and tents, the number of broods would be the food is comparatively scarce, the re- increased beyond the powers of the house

and the hold to superintend with the requisite care, turn ofthe brood will be early, demands for attention to their wants were this desire generally gratified. the more clamorons.

5152. A hen will lay eggs when she is 5150. All fowls that venture to hatch

tending her brood, and if she has chosen

their broods in the fields are liable to a nest for herself, she will leave the brood

be destroyed by vermin, and many an when the desire for sitting overtakes her. anxious mother-hen, after feeding her But if her roost be known, and the eggs brood for some time, has been destroyed regularly removed, the desire for sitting

with all her young ones, by the ruthless will still come upon her, at the appointed fox. But as far as concerns myself, so time ; and then she must be treated as just bigh do I value liberty to fowls, on directed, to remove the desire. the score of health, and strength of body, and flavour of flesh, that the occasional loss

5153. Autumn is the season for select

of a hen and her brood would not induce ing the hens for laying eggs in winter;

me to deprive fowls of their liberty.

and they ought to be young, but of dif ferent ages, that a succession in the laying

5151. Many cruel experiments are may bemaintained. Hens readily take exercised by country people to prevent to the nests made for them at this season,

no desire to betake themselves hens clucking, when they do not wish them evincing to the fields. to sit on and hatch eggs, such as dipping

them in water for a few seconds, pulling 5154. Autumn is the season of moult feathers from a particular part of their body, and such like barbarities - all alike ing for fowls. The only care they require, ineffectual ; at least, I never heard of a in this periodic visitation, is to keep them

single instance of their success. Theonly warm at night. The nights of September

effectual plan I know , without giving become chilly. bodily pain to the animal, is to place them in darkness,and there deprive them of food

5155. Eggs.-- Hens begin to layabontthe

and water for two days and two nights, beginningof March, and continue to the and, in obstinate cases, for the third day. The simplest means of accomplishing this is to procure a number of light-made tubs, each just large enough to hold one hen within it when standing on her feet, with its top and sides pierced with holes to let

beginning of October. They do not lay every day, that is, every 24 hours, some laying every other day, and some missing one day in three. They lay about two

dozen of eggs at one period, then cease for two or three weeks, and again lay

in air, but to exclude bright light, which is other two dozen, and so on for the num

done by giving the holes such an inclination ber of months mentioned . Of all these

as to prevent them being directly, seen months, they lay most constantly in through. Such a tub, placed mouth down- March and April. After each period of ward over a single hen , in a quiet out-house, laying they are inclined to sit. not in the hen -house, for the time specified, will remove the desire to sit. A not uncom-

5156. One of the daily duties of the

MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

473

hen -wife, in summer and autumn, is to will afford easy access to nests situated collect the eggs. Whenever a hen is ob- above reach from the ground. Nine eggs

served to indicate a desire to lay, a nest weigh about a pound. should be provided her in a quiet and

convenient place ; and if directed to it at 5159. Neither dogs nor children should the commencement of her laying, she will be allowed to run after laying hens, as continueto frequent it ever after, if un- the chasing and fright make them part

disturbed. But a nest is not required for with their eggs before they are provided every laying hen, as several will lay in with the shell.

Guinea - fowls are inces

succession in the same nest, some hens sant chasers of hens. Eggs may be laid

laying earlier in the day than others; and by fowls, portions of which are devoid of so tenaciousare they of their right to parti- the shell ; and if such be derived from a cular nests, that two will not unfrequently breed which you desire to preserve, the occupy the same nest at the same time.

only way of rendering such an egg prolific

is to cover the part wanting the shell with 5157. Every place is not equally suit- paper and gum, or with a paste of stucco. able for a hen's nest. In other places than the hen -house, hens are not fond of

5160. The Rev. Mr Dixon has these

laying their eggs on a level with the ground ; though a quiet corner in a shed, under shelter, is not unfrequently selected by themselves for the purpose. But they

true remarks on the form of the eggs laid by the same hen . “ To every hen,” he observes, “ belongs an individual pecn liarity in the form , colour, and size of the

prefer to lay elevated above the ground, eggs slie lays, which never changes during such as in the mangers of stables, in a her whole lifetime, so long as she remains

trough of a shed or hammel, in the straw- in health, and which is as well known barn on the top of a mow of straw , in a to those who are in the habit of taking stack of straw in the stack-yard, on a her produce as the handwriting of their

compost dung -hill, or upon the top of the nearest acquaintance. Some hens lay wall of a stable, byre, or outhouse, under smooth cream -coloured eggs, others rough, the roof.

When nests are made in such chalky, granulated ones.

There is the

places as bens would themselves prefer, buff, the snow-white, the spherical, the they are much more likely to be frequented oval, the pear-shaped, and the emphati by them than when a determination cally egg -shaped egg. A farmer's wife is taken to make nests for them . One who interests herself in the matter, will

reason, perbaps, for their preference to tell you with precision, in looking over the manger of the work -horse stable is, her stores, “ this egg was laid by such a

that, in picking up the grainsof corn, left hen’-a favourite perhaps — this by such there by the horses while the latter are at work in the field , the manger affords the most convenient place when the pressure for laying overtakes them.

another;' and it would be possible that she could go on so throughout the whole flock of poultry. Of course, the greater the number kept, the greater becomes the diffi culty in learning the precise marks of each .

5158. The hen -wife should visit every From a basket ofthirty eggs, gathered in nest, and collect the eggs every day ; and a farmyard as they came to hand, eleven,

the time for collecting thelargestnumber laid by one or two hens whose race we of eggs, and disturbing the poultry the were desirous to continue, were selected least, isin the afternoon between 2 and 3 in about two minutes by the friend who o'clock, before the birds begin to retire to supplied us with them. If four dozen eggs, roost. A nest-egg should be left in every laid by no more than four different hens, nest, as it is an established fact, that hens were put at random on a table, the chances prefer to lay in nests containing eggs to are that it would be as easy to sort them

those which are empty — not because hens as the four suits in a pack of cards." * will sit the earlier or closer for that. Eggs are most conveniently collected in small

5161. Wbether eggs are used at home

hand -baskets, and a short light ladder or disposed of to the egg -merchant, they * Dixon On Ornamental and Domestic Poultry, p. 152.

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

474

should be treated so as to bekept in a by the fowls. Suet, to be used in this way, fresh state for some time.

This end is ought to be quite fresh, and rendered pure

attained by preventing the air penetrating by melting on a slow fire, which has the the pores of the shell, and the yolk com- effect of separating it from any muscular ing into contact with the shell. There is

or tendonous matter associated with it.

just one way of preventing the air enter- After packing the eggs on end in the vessel

ing the pores of the shell, which is of destined to contain them — as a barrel smearing it, while still warm, with butter or jar — the melted suet, in a warm, not hot This is not the general state, is poured over them, and which

or melted suet.

mode of treating eggs in farm -houses, is removed from the vessel, and used for whether intended for use at home or for domestic purposes, as the eggs are taken

sale --they being keptin promiscuous heaps, out. Eggs preserved in either of these and in the state as taken from the nests. The

methods I have found fresh for some

only means of preventing the adherence months, even so as to contain the milk in of the yolk to the shell, is that of change them — which is the popular criterion of a ing the position of the egg every day, from fresh egg, but is not so, since an egg may one side or end to the other.

If used on

contain it which cannot be fresh or new

the day they are laid, no particular care laid. Lime water is used to preserve eggs, need be used with eggs. When all trouble and answers the purpose ; but any dry

is desired to be avoided with eggs, they material is more agreeable than a wet are sold to the dealers every week,

one. In truth, any substance that will pre who go about the country with panniers vent the air entering the pores of the shell, or boxes, and purchase, pack, and take together with any weans that will pre them to the exporters in the nearest sea- vent the yolk adhering to the shell, will port town .

The price thus received in preserve them in a sweet state for a con

summer is very low, not exceeding per- siderable time. haps 4d. per dozen - a price unreniune rative for the trouble bestowed on the

5164. Turkeys. - Although the turkey

fowls. At the most abundant season, eggs are never below 7d. per dozen in Edinburgh ; and in winter, at Christmas, when the confectioners use large numbers, they are as high as from 14d. to 18d. per dozen.

hen is a watchful mother, the brood will require daily tending from cold blasts and beavy showers, until they are robust enough to withstand the weather, which may be in five or six weeks. When the disposition to lay overtakes her, the ben

5162. When eggs are desired to be sent slips away from her poults and forms a to a distance for the purpose of being rude nest under a bank , or among weeds; hatched, they should not be smeared, and and although the egg be removed every should be packed on end in hard -woodsaw- time she lays it, she will continue to lay dust — not in fir saw-dust, because of its in the same nestuntil the contents of her

smell of turpentine-or in bran, in small ovarium are exhausted, (2906,) not lieed boxes or casks, such as oyster barrels,which ing wbether or not a nest egg is left in ber nest. Turkey eggs are justly regarded as should be as little agitated as possible. a delicacy. 5163. To render eggs a remunerative

iten of farm economy, they should be preserved fresh, until the scarce season ar-

5165. The turkey should not be allowed

to sit to bring out a second brood, as the such birds will be too late to be of use the same rives, when they realise a fair price, preserve

as 8d. the dozen.

It is easy to

season ; and in winter the cold will be apt

eggs in summer, by first smearing them , to dwarf their growth, whatever may be while still warm, with butter or melted the care bestowed on their protection. suet, and then packing them on the small end in barrels in salt, oats, or melted suet. 5166. Geese.—Goslings are easily injur Salt will impart a salt taste to eggs, if ed with hailstones and heavy rains, until fresh ones, unsmeared with butter, are they are five or six weeks old, and ought packed in it ; but certainly not if first to be looked after and placed in shelter smeared with butter or suet. Oats form a until the storm subsides. A later brood good packing, and may be afterwards used of geese may easily be brought up through

MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

475

the winter, and will become fine large and contained, like the vitreous humour of the birds by the Michaelmas of next year. eye, in an extremely thin membrane, divided into cells ; the yolk, a thick and almost solid The goose egg is seldom eaten, being yellowmaiter,enclosed in a peculiar membrane;

strong tasted.

this membrane, by two ligaments, called chalaræ , is tied to the membrane of the albumen, and thus

5167. Ducks. — Ducks are great layers, the yolk is kept in the centre of the egg." dropping an egg almost every day. They various parts 5171. of these The, constitution commence at the beginning of April, and is as follows as appears from an analysis of Dr cease in July. They are very careless Prout. The shell of the common fowl consists of— layers, leaving their eggs wherever they Carbonate of lime , with a little of carbonate of 1} 97. magnesia , seek their food ; and these, on being dis Phosphate of lime and magnesia,

covered by the pigs, are champed up as

Animal matter, .

2.

the most delicate morsels that fall in their

100 .

way. To secure the eggs of ducks, the birds should be examined before being 5172. The membrana, according to Hatchett, let out in the morning ; and those indi consists of coagulated albumen. cating hard with egg confined in the house till they have laid, and afterwards 5173. The white or albumen coagulates into a set at large. They are easily examined firm white solid, when heated to 159° Fahrenheit;

by suspending them in the left hand by and when evaporated to dryness, leaves about the wings, and simply applying the points that it contains also alittlemucus. The consti of the fingers of the right band a little tution of thewhite, according to him, is under the tail.

Ducks should be hatched

neither too early nor too late, as they can

Water,

80 .

Albumen , Mucus,

15.5 4.5

not withstand cold when young. Many 100 .

people enjoy the flavour of a new -laid

duck egg. They are used in cookery as Dr Pront obtained , by combustion, the following freely as hen eggs.

fixed constituents in 1000 grains of the white of

egg, from three different eggs : --

, Sulphuric acid 5168. Pigeons.— The dove-cot should Phosphoric acid , be examined as frequently, all summer Chlorine, pigeons grow so rapidly in warm weather

Potash , soda, and carbonates of potaslı and soda ,

andthe car. Lime,magnesia, bonates of lime and mag .

0.49 0.87

0.18 grains.

2.92

2.93

2.72

0.30

0.25

0.32

4.90

4.72

nesia ,

that, unless the time is considerately marked when any particular pair will be ready to be taken, they may have be-

0.15 0.46 0.83

..

and autumn, as probability implies that young pigeons are to be obtained. Young

0.29 0.45 0.94

4.57

M. Mulder has proved that the sulphur and

come sufficiently Aedged and taken flight. phosphorus are in the state of sulphurand phos phorus, and not in that of acid ; and this was to expected, from ofan the egg. well- known reaction alkalinebeen 5169. The pigeons should be regularly have of the white

fed with the poultry, and, over and above they will go to the fields in search for a 5174. Dr Prout's analysis of the yolk of an egg variety of food, such as all the species of which was hard boiled in distilled water,

grains, turnip seeds, and seed wheat, and and weighed 316.5 grains, gave these results : upon the stubbles in autumn. 5170. “ The eggs ofall birds,” says Dr Thomson, “ so far as they have been examined,have a striking resemblance to each other. They consist of four parts,- the shell, which is white in the eggs of the common fowl and of many other kinds, but is often coloured or spotted of various colours,

Water, Albumen , Yellow oil,

170.2 grains, or 53.78 per cent. 55.3 91.0

316.5

17.47

28.75 :: 100.00

According to Planche, 1000 parts of yolk of egg furnish , at an average, 180 parts of oil. This oil consists of stearin 10, and of elain 90 parts ; the

so as to give it a beautiful appearance ; the mem-

stearin is white and solid , and does not stain paper like oil. He found this stearin and the

brana pataminis, a thin transparent pellicle, im-

fat of fowls to agree very nearly . The elain

mediately within the shell - at the great end of possesses the character of a fixed oil. Chevreul the egg this membrane is detached from the shell , leaving a certain distance between them, which

found two colouring matters in the yolk, the one red and the other yellow . Lecanu, besides the

is filled with air ; the white or albumen , a glairy

stearin and elain, extracted from the yolk a

liquid, consisting of albumen dissolved in water, crystalline matter,which melted at 293° Fahren

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

476

heit, and which he considered as of the same

It is strongly alkaline, and yields traces of all the

nature with cholesterin from the brain . Dr Prout determined the quantity of fixed constituents in 100 grains of the yolk, by incineration, in

fixed principles found to exist in the egg ; but

three different eggs, thus : Sulphuric acid , Phosphoric acid, Chlorine ,

Potash , soda, and the car. carbonates

of

0.06 3.50 0.28

4.00 0.44

0.50

0.27

0.51

0.68

0.61

0.67

5.34

4.72

5.81

the

lime and

obtained by evaporation in the form of white powder.

0.19 grains.

0.21 3.56 0.39

bonates of potash and soda,

Lime, magnesin , and

the carbonate of lime is most abundant, and is

magnesia ,

5179. The source from whence is derived the

bones of the chick while in the egg, is still an object of research . At the full term of incuba tion important changes in the constitution of the egg are completed. “ The albumen," as Dr

Thomson observes, “has disappeared, or is re duced to a few dry membranes, together with earthy matter. The yolk is considerably reduced

5175. When we compare the fixed constituents of the white and yolk, we cannot avoid

in size, and is taken into the abdomen of the chick , while the animal has attained a weight nearly equal to the original weight of the albumen,

being struck with the difference. The white together with that lost by the yolk, minus the contains a much greater quantity of fixed al-

loss of weight sustained by the egg during incu

kalis than of any other fixed constituent; while

bation .

in the yolk the most abundant constituent is phosphoric acid, which amounts to from 3.5 to 4

diminished in quantity, while the earthy matters

The alkaline matters and chlorine have

have considerably increased.

During

grains ; or, if we suppose it to exist as phos- the last week of incubation , the yolk has lost phorus, it varies in different yolks from 1.55 to 1.77 grains.

most of its phosphorus, which is found in the

5176. The specific gravity of a new -laid egg

This lime does not exist in the recent egg, but is

varies from 1.080 to 1.090 ; an egg, therefore, is

derived from some unknown source during the

animal converted into phosphoric acid , and , com bined with lime, constituting its bony skeleton.

heavier than sea-water, the specific gravity of process of incubation. Mr Hatchett made the which is 1.030. When kept, eggs rapidly lose

curious remark , that, in the ova of those tribes

weight, and become specifically lighter than of animals the embryos of which have bones, water, this is owing to the diminution of bulk there is a portion of oily matter ; and in those in the contents of the egg ; the consequence of ova whose embryos consist entirely of soft parts, which is, that a portion of the inside of the egg there is none . In what way the oily matter con comes to be filled with air. Dr Prout kept an tributes to the formation of bone it is impossible, egg two years, and found that it lost weight in the present state of our knowledge , to con daily, at an average rate of 0.744 grains. The jecture. Nor can any source of the lime of the original weight was 907.5 grains, and after two years' exposure to the atmosphere, it weighed

bones be pointed out, except the shell ; and it would be difficult to determine whether the

only 363.2 grains. The total loss amounted to 544.3 grains, or considerably more than half the original weight. The loss in summer was some

shell loses lime during the process of incuba tion .”

what greater than in winter, owing, no doubt, to 5180. M. Raspail, in investigating the nature the difference of temperature. When an egg is, of animal albumen by the microscope, as exem therefore, employed as a test of the strength of plified in the white of an egg, observes, that brine, the newer it is, the stronger is the brine " the albumen of the pullet's egg is composed of that floats it . an insoluble and regularly -organised texture,

5177. The relative weights of shell and membrane, albumen, and yolk, are very different. Supposing the original weight of the egg to be 1000 grains, Dr Prout found the relative proportions, in 10 different eggs, to be as follows Shell and membrane 106.9, albumen 604.2, and yolk 288.9 grains.

which contains in its cells a soluble substance much more susceptible of alteration than the

texture is. Chemists had previously acknow ledged the existence of an albumen soluble in water, and of another which was insoluble ; but had not remarked that these two sorts of albu men existed together in the white of eggs, and

they had considered this substance as a variety of the insoluble albumen.

But the in

5178. When an egg is boiled in water, it loses

soluble substance of the white of an egg is ren

weight, particularly if it be removed from the water when boiling, and be permitted to cool in the open air. The water will be found to con-

guished in this respect from the soluble sub

tain a portion of the saline constituents of the egg. The loss of weight from boiling is not con-

stant, varying from 20 to 30 grains, supposing the original weight to have been 1000 grains. The quantity of saline matter obtained by evaporating the distilled water in which an egg was boiled, amounts, at an average, to 0.32 grains.

dered apparent only by degrees, and accordingly there is a period when it can scarcely be distin stance, and this is when the egg is fresh - that is, recently laid . Hence, as I have already pointed out regarding the vegetable textures, the tex tures are formed by the aggregation of the par

ticles of the soluble substance, or, in other words, the soluble substance is converted by solidifica

tion into the parietes of cells. All these circum

* Thomson's Chemistry of Arimal Bodies, p. 446-55.

MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS.

stances establish a complete analogy between gluten in vegetables and albumen in animals.” * 5181. Of the nature of egg and of seed, the origin of animal and of vegetable individuality, and of the natural analogy between them, M.

477

operation . Since then I have seen a small prac tical treatise on the art which deserves atten

tion, inasmuch as by the use of proper instru ments, and appropriate appliances for securing the animal while under the operation, the opera tor may go through the process of caponing by himself with certainty, and with comparatively

Raspail thus expresses himself : " The egg and the seed are cells detached from the texture of little pain to the animal. The chicken is placed the mother, in consequence of an influence of an opposite kind. This influence may proceed from an external body which we call the male, or from an internal cause which we altogether ne-

position by a strap confining the wings, and a

glect to notice. The egg and the seed may more particularly attract our attention, in consequence

with a peculiar form of knife ; and held open by a pair of blunt hooks to allow the testes to be seen. These are then removed from their seat,

of their forms and dimensions ; but the slice of a

polypus, which becomes an entire animal, and the fragment of a potato, which produces a complete plant, are sufficient to teach us that the generative faculty is preserved by the whole organic system, and that the whole organised

being is complete in any one of its cells." +

lever holding down the legs a little asunder. An incision is then made in the side of the chicken

one after the other, by means of a scoop, which divides the membrane that covers them, and it is provided with a noose of horse hair, whose action, operating as a saw, cuts asunder the ligatures which bind them to the back -bone. The operation

is represented so certain that fifty chickens may be caponed without killing more than one or

5182. Putrid egys.— “ Dr Marchal has reported a case in which four persons were seized with well-marked symptoms of poisoning, after eating for their supper some eggs which were decomposed. One man appeared to be in a state of coma, from which it was difficult to rouse him : his face was livid, his lips blue, his eyes open and fixed, limbs flaccid , and respiration slow. His wife, brother, and one of his sons were

affected, although in a less degree, with similar symptoms — complaining of vertigo, weight and pain in the head, pains in the limbs, and disinclination to move .

with its left side downwards, and secured in that

It appears that the eggs

two.

5188. Chickens intended for capons may be operated upon at any age, though between two and three months old is considered the most favourable time. Old fowls seldom survive the

operation. At five or six months old they are less liable to have the testes burst in the opera tion than younger ones, but they are more apt to bleed to death than those from two to four

months old. They very seldom die after the operation, unless they have received some inter nal injury, or the flesh of the thigh has been cut

which had been eaten in a pudding had a dis-

through.

agreeable and slightly putrid smell, and the

poultry farmers in Sussex, Essex, and Herts constantly practice the art of caponing.

The wives and daughters of the

whole of these persons were taken ill soon after the meal . The symptoms were not those of irritation, but of narcotism : they all recovered.” I

5189. Previous to the performance of the ope ration, the chickens must be kept entirely without

5183. Mr M'Queen estimates the value of the poultry, rabbits, &c. in the kingdom in 1836 at

as that time has been ascertained by experiment to be the best to secure the greatest chance of

from £ 9,000,000 to £ 10,000,000.9

success, by causing the bowels to be empty, and lessening the tendency to bleeding.

food and even water for about thirty -two hours,

5184. The value of the poultry, dead or alive, imported into this country in 1849 was L.31,795, and the duty paid on them was L.1771 . The duty from British possessions is L.2, 12s. 6d . per cent ad valorem, and L.5, 5s. from foreign countries. ||

5185. The importation of foreign eggs into the kingdom was as follows, in number 1847, 1848, 1849,

5190. The effect upon a chicken being converted into a capon is, in about a twelvemonth, nearly to treble or quadruple the size of the bird. It has been ascertained that a pair of capons of the Dorking breed once reached the enormous weight of 25 lbs., a weight far superior to the majority of tur keys. The capon generally brings double or treble the price of common poultry.

77,485,487 88,097,277

5191. The writer remarks that, “ in regard to

97,903, 151

the feeding of capons, we wish we could say much in favour of the metropolitan, or even of many of

5186. The duty payable on the import of the provincial feeders. The fine large fowls foreign eggs is 104d. on 120 in number, and on which are seen in the poulterer's shops have those from the British possessions 2 d . I undergone the process of castration , and then they are placed in some dark place, enclosed in 5187. In (2957 ) I mentioned a method of con- coops, and crammed with barley or other meal, verting cock chickens into capons by a simple formed into a paste by means of hot liquor; and * Raspail's Organic Chemistry, p. 243-4.

+ 1bid ., p. 75-6.

# Taylor On Poisons, p. 562.

& M'Queen's Statistics of the British Empire ,p. 25. || Parliamentary Returns, 15th March 1850.

T Ibid ., February 1849 and 1850.

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

478

this mode of feeding is repeated several times in return to their haunts and carry off one

a day. The consequence of thisoverloaded crop after another, until a large number be is, that the to birdsleep, becomes to move, and is halfput and indisposed is soon quickly covered

abducted. The season in which he is most

with unwholesome fat. The capon feeders are very much belied if they do not go farther than

active in his predatory excursions is in the summer, when he has his young cubs

this : they mix ardent spirits with the paste with to support ; and

does not confine which the birds are crammed , and that and the his roamings totheheshades of night,but darkened place in which theyareconfined,dispose will almost boldly frequent the steadings them to be stupid and half asleep, and they be come literally bloated with fat. The process, in the afternoons when the animals are at

however, cannot be long continued ,for fever must pasture, and the people at work. Just of necessity ensue, or apoplexy willcarry offthe before the poultry go to roost, be frequently bird, or the whole of the carcass will be reddened

pays a visit to the steading, and snatches up a goose or a turkey, and runs off with 5192. In regard to determining the sex of eggs it to his earth. The abduction is so noticed in (2883,) this writer says, “ As in breed- quietly done, that the fowl may not be ing with a special view of making capons, male missed until next morning, unless it hap

and spoiled by the redundancy of blood . ”

chickens are required , those should be se pen to be a particular bird, such as the lected set under to alone hens which produce males

namely, such as have the sharpest points. The principal cock , oldestgander, turkey -cock, men who were formerly employed in the rearing

or peacock. Contrary to bis practice with

of game fowls were so expert in their selectionof lambs, he does not carry off the young of

themale eggs, that one instance ofa poultry he can conveniently lay hold of breederemployed byweknew a Mr Storer of Notting- the olderif bird. The loss must be put up ham , who out of 13 eggs would select 11 from

with ; for, whatever precaution the farmer may use in spring for the protection of 5193. “ It is rather singular,” farther remarks his new -dropped lambs ( 2545,) he would

which he undertook to produce male birds."

writer,“ that the emasculation of the young acquire an unenviable characteramongst this gander has never been tried in this country, for there is no reason why as perfect a capon (if one

sportsmen were he to lie in wait with a

may be allowed the expression) should not be gun for a fox.

Toorich kee

made of a gander as of a cock .' It is a practice followed in some parts of Germany and Russia, and in the latter country particularly in the town , weof which oncesawa and vicinity of Larko:Lelo of goose capons, the lightest must flock have

But such watching would

at any rate be useless, for the fox is too

cunning to return to the same place for

lbs. at six months old . The Rus-

some time to try his chance at another capture ; and he takes care to keep off a rival from a distance ; so that the missing

sians, however, entertain a strong prejudice

bird is almost certain to have been stolen

weighed 15 weighed

against making capons even of fowls, on areli- by a fox from the nearest covert. Foxes prejudices, founded in ignorance and supersti scent hens and turkeys to their nests in tion ." * The same may be said of caponing the the fields, and carry them off. On losing

gious principle ; but this is, like the majority of

male turkey, ( 2958.)

favourite birds, such as a turkey.cock,

Chinese gander, and young peacock , I have discovered their remains, neighbour hibited in Edinburgh in 1850,andI observe that feathers ,in thecoverts in the chiefly the 5194. Mr.Cantelo's hydro -incubator was ex

it has been improved in construction since I men

tioned its operations in (2948.) The tray in which the eggs are hatched is now covered with a plate of glass instead of water-proof cloth , and

immersed in water at the temperature of 108° Fahr., and beside being a safer receptacle, it affords the opportunity of noticing the process of incubation from first to last.

hood, where the foxes bad formed their earth formany years. Like the dog which buries his bone, the fox buries his plunder

in the earth to preserve it fresh . 5196. The Polecat. — Polecats or fou

marts, Mustela putorius, visit steadings ON THE ANIMALS DESTRUCTIVE TO

POULTRY.

under night, and if a hole in the door, or a slit in the wall, by which poultry enter,

be left open, they will creep in and com mit great havoc

among

the

grown-up

5195. The Fox. The common fox, Vul- fowls , sucking the blood and leaving the pes oulgaris, is the most formidable des

carcases. It is only by the negligence of troyer of poultry. If undisturbed, he will the henwiſe that they can find access into * Practical Instructions in the Art of making Capons, 16-28.

ANIMALS DESTRUCTIVE TO POULTRY .

479

the hen-house. Polecats may be caught on their eggs, is very considerable . The old by placing a steel-trap immediately behind black rat of the country, Mus rattus, is now the insideof the hole of the door of a hen- nearly extirpated ; and the fiercer, dirtier,

house, in such a way as that the intruder more mischievous, and dangerous brown

cannot escape the trap, which need not rat, Mus decumanus, has taken its place. be baited, but only covered with a little chaff, and will spring whenever the animal 5200. Of the many plans devised for the destruction of the rat, I suspect that places its fore- feet upon it. the box-trap is the most ineffectual. A 5197. The Weasel.-- Weasels, Mustela new trap may capture a few rats at first,

oulgaris, frequent steadings, and do both but it soon becomes recognised, and scru harm and good . They do good in des- pulously shunned, however luring the bait troying rats and mice, by sucking their it contains may be. blood.

I once observed a weasel and

brown rat meet under a shed, and, from 5201. Steel-traps are much more effec the attitudes they both assumed, I antici- tual, and when used with skill occasion

pated a fight. The weasel, however, was ally, not constantly, will destroy large evidently to be the aggressor ; and on ap- numbers of rats in a short time. ' Of all the feats of rat killing ever witnessed,

proaching near the rat, the latter squealed so in utter fear that he apparently could not run away On making a spring, the weasel seized the rat by the throat; and although the struggle between them was violent, the rat was soon silenced in death. When a weasel takes up its abode in a

none equalled that of a Yorkshireman, of the name of Johu Featherstone, by means of steel-traps. He had 21 small traps, which he always kept clean and bright.

On commencing his operations, be traced the tracks of the rats along the floors to

corn -stack, not a mouse dares remain in the tops of the walls, leading commonly by it ; and if a pole is placed from such a the corners of the apartments to the parti

stack to the window of the granary, the tion walls, which they surmounted below weasel will find its way into the latter, and the slates. After he had discovered their

effectually deter any rat or mouse from different runs, he made a number of small entering or remaining in it.

firm bundles of straw , which he placed against the bottom of a wall in the apart

5198. But unfortunately weasels do harm as well as good, in killing young poultry, by sucking theirblood — a chicken, a duckling, or a gosling, being in an un-

ments in which runs had been traced upon the floor, and also upon the tops of the walls where runs were observed under the roof. He used 7 traps at one place at a

safe place, if basking inthe sun at the bot- time, and a greater number of bundles of tom of a dry stone -wall facing the south. straw were used than merely to conceal They steal eggs too. One day I observed the number of traps at each place, em

a weasel crossing a road at some distance ploying his entire number in three places, from the steading, rolling an egg before at a little distance from each other, and it with its fore -paws. On allowing it to proceed, I traced it to a lot of felled trees at the road-side, amongst which it had accumulated a store of 17 hen eggs ; and

in different apartments. The traps were set in a row , behind the bundles of straw , and not allowed to spring at first, and baited with oatmeal, scented with oil of

it must have done so in a short time, as rhodium , with a little chaff strewed over

the eggs were all quite fresh.

them . They were thus baited for two days, the baitsbeing renewed as soon as it

5199. The Rat.—Rats, however, are the was discovered, by inspection, that they most troublesome vermin ,because they had been consumed. Onthese days, people harbour in the steading. They not only were prevented as much as possible from

make every place they frequent dirty, but frequenting the apartments in which the disgustingly so. The mischief they do in traps were placed , and dogs were entirely cutting holes in boarded floors, in under- excluded. Removing the check from the

nining stone pavements, gnawing harness, springs on the third day, and arming him consuming and wasting every edible thing, self with a short stout stick, having a and killing hens and pigeons when sitting game- bag slung across his shoulders ,

PRACTICE-AUTUMN.

480

Featherstone was on the alert ; and the of partition walls in steadings, I have re moment he heard the click of a trap he ran commended them to be beam -filled ( 1687;) to it, removed the bundle of straw , and under the floors of apartments I have

knocked the rat on the head if alive, threw also recommended a mode of constructing it out of the trap, set it again, replaced floors (1681 ) and of laying pavements the bundle, bagged the rat - all in a few ( 1687. ) seconds and then resumed the watch. In the course of the day, from morning

5204. Together with building up the

to afternoon, he had collected 385 rats; tops of partition walls, I believe there is and, allowing every trap to have done no way of scaring rats and mice from equal execution , each had caught more a steading so effectually as by cats. Let than 18 rats.

He bargained for 1d. a rat, one or two cats be brought up in different

and his food ; and in three days he earned parts of a steading, according to its size,

in money, £1 , 12s. 1d . All the rats were of and if situate at a distance from dwelling course not cleared off by this capture ; but they received such a thinning, as to prove comparatively harmless for years. Featherstone's first business, on the day following the capture, was to clean each trap bright, before setting out on his journey ; and he seemed to place greater reliance on the cleanly state of his traps than on any

houses, they will become vigilant guards against these vermin ; and if the steading is very near, the house-cats will perhaps frequent it sufficiently often for the pur pose. When kept in the steading, let each cat receive daily, at its own particular place, and at a stated hour, say il o'clock A.M., a mess of new milk and porridge,

and thereby, no

when it will attend to receive it as the

other circumstance

doubt, the suspicion of therats was allayed. hour arrives; and let each have a soft, warm , comfortable bed made for it in some 5202. Besides such mechanical means, quiet spot of the steading. At night, and others have been devised for the destruction early in the morning, they will watch and of rats. It is said that coal-tar smeared hunt on their respective beats ; and in the around the mouth of their holes will course of a short time, provided access be drive them away. Poison is a favourite freely afforded to every apartment of the instrument for the destruction of this ver- steading, the vermin will be seldom and

min. Rabbit fleshchopped up with arsenic, more seldom seen, until they disappear or carbonate of barytes, is recommended by one party ; and a salt herring so used is recommended as strongly by another. The following is a recipe for making rat

altogether. Cats are quite common about steadings and stables; but they are gene rally neglected of food, on the erroneous idea that, if fed ,they becomelazy and will

phosphorous poison, which, it is said, has not hunt. So far from this being thecase, a ping 1 } lb., of phosphorus 1 drachm, because it then hunts for sport ; and not proved efficacious: Take of lard or drip- regularly fed cat makes the best hunter,

spirit of wine 1 gill. Put the whole into feeling pressed by hunger, it will watch

a clean pint bottle. Melt them gradually, at the same spot for hours. Being in by immersing the bottle in a bath of hot stout condition, from its daily wholesome

water. When dissolved, cork the bottle, food, it feels itself strong enough to en and incorporate the ingredients by shak- counter any vermin, and will destroy ing. When cool, pour off the spirit of numbers in the course of a day. A starved wine. Take flour and rub white grated cat, on the other hand, which hunts for sugar in it, and make a paste with the food, eats the first prey it catches, and, contents of the bottle, melted. Divide the gorging itself lies down to rest, in accord

lump of paste into two portions. Flavour ance with the habits of the feline race to one with a small quantity of the oil of which it naturally belongs; and neglect rhodium ; the other with oil of anise. a cat of food — let it depend for sub Make balls ofboth portions of the dough,of sistence entirely on its own powers

the size ofmarbles each. Place them in the and hunger in the long run will prevent way at night where rats most frequent.

its watching altogether. The great use of the cat is to scare away, not devour ver

5203. As a means of the prevention of min ; and, when obliged to leave the stead rats lodging and breeding upon the tops ing in search of food, it will most likely

ANIMALS DESTRUCTIVE TO POULTRY.

481

go to the hen-house for an egg, to the with injustice ; but it sometimes carries

hatching -house for a young chicken, or to off a chicken or duckling, and sucks an the dove -cot fora young pigeon. even hunt the fields for game.

It will egg that may have been dropped abroad." I have The Professor relates several marauding

caused my greyhounds to run down and anecdotes of the magpie from various worry many a cat in the fields. The authorities, and one is from the work of the

truth is, most people will not take the late Bishop of Norwich : “ The female trouble to feed a cat daily aad regularly was observed to be the most active and in the steading ; and the consequence is, thievish, and withal very ungrateful; for that none will remain in it, to destroy although the children about the house had

and scare away vermin, when food can be often frightened cats and hawks from the spot, yet she one day seized a chicken, obtained more easily elsewhere. and carried it to the top of the house to

5205. The Greeks used to tie bunches eat it,where the hen immediately followed, of rue under the wings of their fowls, to and, having rescued the chicken, brought prevent cats worrying them , as cats, it it safely down in her beak ; and it was seems, have a strong aversion to that herb. remarked that the poor little bird, though

it made a great noise while the magpie

5206. Rooks. — Rooks,Corvusfrugilegus, watch for stray eggsthat may havebeen laid among the litter in the courtyards, or near the watering pond, and carry them off in their bills.

was carrying it up, was quite quiet,and seemed to feel nopain while its stri mother

was carrying it down.” * Two

king

anecdotes are related by Mr Weir of Bog head : “ Mr Wark , farmer at Hardhill,” he observes, “ told me that his brother,

5207. The carrion crow, Corous corone, upon his property of Old Hall, in the also carry off eggs and young poultry ; parish of Dunlop, shot off the leg of a but its art in effecting the destruction of magpie as she was carrying off a chicken poultry is simple compared with the cun- from his house. She was not seen during ning and vigilance of the magpie.

the winter and spring, but appeared again in summer.

Lame though she was, she

5208. The Magpie . — The habits of the still carried on her murderous operation. magpie, Pica melanoleuca , are thus de- One day he perceived her in pursuit of a

scribed by Professor Macgillivray : — “ The duckling ; it immediately ran to the water food of the magpie consists oftestaceous for protection . So intent, however, was mollusca , slugs,larvæ, worms, young birds, she upon its destruction, that she ventured eggs, small quadrupeds, carrion, sometimes too far in after it, and got herself so wet grain, and fruits of different kinds, in that, before she was able to rise in the air, search of which it frequents the fields, he knocked her down with a stick. A

hedges, thickets, and orchards, occasion- few years ago a boy told me, that while ally visits the farmyard, prowls among he was tending his cattle, he heard several the stacks, perches on the house - top, lond screams in a young plantation in the Being anxious to ascer the dunghill and places around . Although tain the cause of the noise, he immediately it searches for larvæ and worms in the ran to the place whence it proceeded ,

whence it sallies at times, and examines neighbourhood .

ploughed fields, it never ventures, like the and, to his astonisbment, he beheld a

rook and several species of gulls, to follow the plough as it turns over each successive furrow . It has been accused of picking the eyes of lambs and sickly sheep, I think

magpie standing upon the back of a hare almost balf- grown, picking out its eye, the other having been torn out before his arrival .”+

* Stanley's Familiar History of Birds, vol. i. p. 25 ) . + Macgillivray's British Birds, vol. i. p. 566-72.

VOL . II .

2 н

482

REALISATION .

ON THE DIFFERENCES IN THE PHYSICAL

5211. The causes which have operated

so to diversify the systems of farming in this country are perhaps these :-Sheep 5209. On the supposition that the pupil can occupy thewhole range of pasture from GEOGRAPHY OF FARMS.

in practical husbandry has acquired a com- the mountain tops to the plains. Cattle petent knowledge of farming to conduct a farm on his own account, by having familiarised himself with the entire routine of operations throughout the four seasons upon a farm , under an intelligent farmer, and by having consulted the in-

are confined in their pasture from the secondary mountain tops to the plains. Hence, the highest mountain range is occupied solely by sheep, and there, in con sequence, pastoral farms which breed sheep only are found ; and these are the hardy,

structions contained inthe preceding pages, mountain, heath-sheep, commonly called as a safe guide in leading him to anticipate the Black -faced breed. From the high and understand the several operations as elevation of sheep pastoral farms, they are they had occurred, the time bas arrived, in necessarily subjected to much wind and pursuance of the object I had in preparing rain , occasioning both wet and cold ; and this work of its being useful to the young were it not that the tops of mountains

farmer, for me to point out to him the face differentdirections -- onepart affording

particulars to which he should specially shelter and comparative warmth, while the direct his attention in looking out for å opposite may be experiencing the fiercest farm for himself—in judging of the land onsets of the elements — such farms would

in bargaining for the lease - and in provid- be unfit to be inhabited by even the most ing the stocking for his farm . Beyond hardy breed of sheep. these, it may be necessary for him to en close and drain the farm , and to erect

5212. On looking at such a farm with

farm -buildings upon it ; and in case be the view of taking it, the ground should in

adopt any kind of farming which under- the first instance possess diversified aspects, takes the breeding and rearing of live- and not one long stretch of inclination stock, he should be made acquainted with either to the S. or N .; because, in winter, the correct principles upon which the even the south face of a hill will often be

breeding and rearing of all the domesti- covered deep with snow, while the north is cated animals may be pursued with success. almost clear, where the sheep will subsist

on the young shoots of the heather. Steep 5210. The farms of this country occupy slopes are also of use in winter, as the snow every available space of ground, from the caunot lie deep upon them . The geological tops of the highest mountains, to the structure of the surface should be attended lowest level of the plains. On a diversity to. Where debris covers the rock the

of ground implied in such a wide range, subsoil will be porous, and the pasturage it is not to be expected that the same green with little heather ; and where no

system of farming can be prosecuted. On debris occurs, the rock will be covered with the contrary, in consequence of such a peat-earth and heather, encouraged by

diversity, the different kinds of farming the presence of water constantly descend I described from (36 ) to (51 , ) and the ing upon the face of the rock . Such water operations adapted to each , which I have proves useful in giving origin to springs treated in detail in their respective of pure water, wbich are grateful to the

seasons, bave long been pursued with equal sheep in the drought of summer. skill and success .

The

rocks on such farms are generally of the

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF FARMS.

483

primary formation, and where granite or ample, and drain pipe-tiles affording an clay slate prevails, debris may be looked easy means of filling them. for; but neither gneiss nor mica slate is usually covered with debris, and only with 5215. Were arable culture extended peat-earth.

further than it is on such farms — upon the

best baugh ground, for example, and on 5213. Since sheep can occupy the whole the slopes adjacent thereto — and a commo

range of farm grounds, and cattle only dious steading set down, both cattle and from the secondary hills to the plains, sheep might be raised with advantage as

it follows that both sheep and cattle may well for the tenant as the land, inasmuch as, be reared on the second description of where pasture is judiciously managed in

pastoral farms, (36.) The farms occupy- summer, by a proper admixture and distri ing a lower range of hills than the preced ing, have their surface diversified with large round - backed hills, suited to afford goodshelter to every kind of stock. And as bills cannot exist without corresponding valleys, valleys possessing considerable

bution of stock, it raises a porportionally large quantity of food for both cattle and sheep, than for either alone. Sheep follow and bite the pasturage closer than cattle, and the grass springs up afresh after the sheep. But, to derive the greatest advan

breadth, and abundance of haugh land tage from such an arrangement, the land along the banks of a river, are well suited to the rearing of cattle, either by themselves or in company with sheep ; but in narrow and steep valleys, sheep alone

should be drained, and the pastures en closed, to allow of the confinement of the stock in one place until the grass grow in another. Such an arable pastoral farm

should be preferred. The sheep bestsuited should have as much S. exposure as for such pasturage are theCheviot and the possible, which will be determined by Southdown breeds, and the cattle are the the circumstance whether it is on the N.

North and West Highland breeds, (35. ) or S. of a high mountain range. The Instead of rearing both cattle and sheep on direction of the valleys in which the such farms, commonly either the one orthe steading should be situated is a point

other is preferred, the cattle being reared worth considering, for as our greatest on those having most low grounds, and sheep having most high grounds. Even where extensive haughs are found, sheep are often reared in preference to cattle ; and few store-masters desire to be troubled with both cattle and sheep breeding, where accommodation for stock of every kind in

winds are from the S.W., and the greatest colds from the N.E., every valley run ning S.W. to N.E. will be much more exposed, both in winter and summer, than in any other direction. A plantation thrown across such a valley both above and below

the arable land would screen it, the stead

steadings is limited, and variety of winter ing, and the farm -house effectually ; and food not abundant.

the shelter besides of a higher hill to

windward, or to the N., ought not to be 5214. On reviewing such a farm , it overlooked in choosing such a farm . should possess as much green pasture as possible, which it is enabled to grow by

5216. On the slope of the ground from

the subjacent rocks being of slaty struc- the foot of the secondary mountains into ture, such as greywacke slate, and slate clay, through the fissures of which the water passes as through a porous subsoil. The less debris that covers those rocks the drier will be the pasture, for water passes

the plains, will be found the sites of all the systems of farming in practice, with the exception of the two kinds of pastoral farming which we have just been con sidering. The soil on such a slope rests on

more easily through their slaty structure trap alone, red sandstone alone, mountain than their debris, which consists of a limestone alone, or on red sandstone and

large proportion of clay. Where debris exists, extensive portions of flat surface may be expected to be occupied by swamps and bogs, which grow heather

limestone, containing projecting eminences of trap. Such a situation is eminently adapted for growing turnips ; and accord ingly we find prevailing there the mixed,

but which, however, may be easily dried (49,) the dairy, (45,) and that system of by drainage, the fall for drains being farming practised at a distance from towns,

484

REALISATION .

in whichno breeding of stock is attempted (48.) Generally on such slopes, though diversified by undulations, the soil on all the different kindsof rock requires drain-

in the best state of health on the farm all the year round, but when disposed of, being in fine condition , would fetch larger prices ; while in the low country, they

ing ; and where it does not, the dry soil would be quicker fed both on pasture in consists of travelled gravel and sand, con- summer, and on turnips in winter. The stituting the debris of rocks brought from carse farming cannot be materially altered ; a distance.

and the farming in the neighbourhood of towns must preserve its peculiar cha 5217. On the plain, towns and villages racter, as long as the demand for straw ,

are found on the margins of rivers which hay, grass, potatoes, and turnips, con are making their way to the sea or to an estuary. The soil is either thin clay or gravelly — both travelled materials — but resting upon diluvial clay, impervious to

tinues. While milk and butter and cheese are wanted, the dairy farming must be

pursued. The only change, then, that can be effected in the general farming of the

water. Draining is absolutely requisite country, is the extension of the mixed to render the soil fertile ; and the farming husbandry which includes the breeding there is generally different from that on of cattle and sheep, to the extinction of

the preceding locality, occasioned by the that species of farming which avoids breed demands from the towns and villages- ing and subsists on the purchasing of cattle the inhabitants of which derivealltheir and sheep from pastoral farms. It may be vegetable food from the adjoining farms deemed impracticable for farmers to be and gardens, (42.)

come breeders of stock in the low country, as long as pastoral farmers breed stock , and

5218. Where the plain extends to the dispose of them before they are fit to be bank of a large river or estuary, the soil slaughtered. I am not ofthat opinion; changes to a uniform mass of alluvial because, although a farmer breeds stock

strong clay, unfit for any of the preceding on his own farm , he need not necessarily be modes of culture, and is cultivated in a prevented purchasing stock to fatten in manner peculiar to itself, called carse winter on turnips raised on all his fallow

farming, (39.) Such soil requires draining ; break ; or in summer, on pasture or soiling Besides, where breeding cannot be worked, or even meddled with, in win- with propriety be adopted, as on carse farms ter, in rain , snow, or frost, on account of its and those in the neighbourhood of towns, but, even after being drained, it is unfit to grass.

unctuous aluminous character. It will cattle have to be purchased to be fed on grow turnips after being drained, but will turnips on carse farms; and both cattle and not receive sheep upon it in winter ; and hence no sheep are bred on such land. It cannot be pastured in summer, in a wet season, in case the surface be poached with

sheep may be profitably fattened, in the neighbourhood of towns,on the turnips and grass which have not been sold to the townspeople. Thus a large demand

the beasts' feet ; and hence no cattle are

would always be found in the low country

bred upon it. It is chiefly devoted to the for the surplus stock of the pastoral farms, raising of grain, straw, and bay, which it curtailed as these would necessarily be by

does abundantly, and is well adapted for an extension of arable culture. the soiling of cattle in hammels, in sum mer, upon the clover which it grows in luxuriance.

5220. In addition to these views of the

physical geography of a farm , when it is examined, other circumstances affect its

5219. Such are the various physical causes which have given rise to the different modes of farming practised in this country. No change can be introduced

value, such as of the following character: The land may have such a steep inclination as to require increased strength to work it.

The soilmay be too strong or too loose. It

or too dry a state. Its into the pastoral farming of either sheep may be in toowetmay The fields be

or cattle, except the extension of arable natural condition poor. culture, for the purpose of raising a suffi- may want water in summer,though there

ciency of winter food. Were this doue, may be abundance of it in winter or the stock would not only be maintained spring. The water may be only snpplied

CLIMATE .

485

from the surface, instead of from springs. torrid, temperate, and frigid

names

exclusively indicative of different degrees The fences may be either injudiciously of temperature. formed, or in a state of dilapidation. The position of the farm , in respect to exposure, to the N. or S ; the form of

5224. The torrid zone contains

the

the surface of the fields, whether each space inscribed by the ecliptic, and com slopes in more than one direction ; whe- prehends 23° 28' on each side of the equa ther the farm is exposed in an open tor, or one belt of 46° 56' in breadth . It country all round, or sheltered on one or is the hottest portion of the globe, the sun

all sides by natural or artificial objects ; being over the zenith, and the mean tem

whether coal and lime are far off, or near perature ranging from 84.2° to 78.8° Fah at hand ; whether the market town is renheit. distant or near, and whether it possesses 5225. The temperate zones lie one on the means of supplying a considerable

quantity of manure; whether the roads each side of the tropical, embracing a range are well planned, and kept in good repair, of latitude in each hemisphere of 43° 4', and or a railroad is to be found within area- extending to latitude 66° 32'. Its mean sonable distance ;-what effect all these temperature varies from 78.8° to 39.9º. circumstances of a physical character, in div col idually and

lectively, have upon the

5226. The frigid zones each compre

money value of the land, it may not be bends as many degrees from the poles as easy to determine ; but that they have the tropical zone extends from the equator

such an effect is most obvious to the —namely, 23° 28'. Their mean tempera understanding.

ture varies from 39.9° to 31 °.

5227. Within 10 ° of the poles the tem ON CLIMATE AND ITS EFFECTS.

perature differs little ; and the same is the

case within 10° of the equator. The mean 5221. The state of the climate is too temperature of different years varies very little attended to by farmers when they little near the equator, butmore and more are on the outlook for a farm ; and yet so as the latitudes approach the poles. their dailyexperience teaches them that cli mate hasa marked effect upon vegetation .

5228. Thus the temperature of the air diminishes gradually from the equator to 5222. The distribution of heat over the the poles. This diminution is found to

surface of the globe constitutes climate ; take place in an arithmetical progression , and as every place is affected by the dis- which is, that the annual temperature of tribution of heat, every place possesses a all the latitudes are arithmetical means climate in common with every other place between the mean annual temperature of

in similar latitudes. This constitutes the the equator and the poles. This law was general climate of the place ; but every first discovered by M. Meyer ; and by place also possesses a local climate, occa- means of an equation founded on it and

sioned by the particular configuration of afterwards rendered more simple, Mr Kir the locality which affects the distribution wan calculated the mean annual tempera

of heat, and which may render the local cli- ture of every degree of latitude between mate better or worse than the general one. the equator and the poles, and of every month of the year.

5223. General climate is measured from the equator to the polar circles in spaces,

5229. It appears, from these calcula

in each of which the longest day is halfan-hour longer than that nearer the equator; and from the polar circles to the poles, it is measured by the increase of a month.

tions, that, of the annual mean temperature of the months, January is the coldestmonth in all latitudes above 48° ; and that, in latitudes below that, August is the warni

The breadths thus assumed for these spaces est month.

In the northern hemisphere,

are quite arbitrary, as is most ofthe zones thetemperature rises from about the middle into which the surface of the globe is sub- of January, slowly at first, more rapidly

divided, and these zones are classified into in April and May, to reach its maximum

REALISATION.

486

point in July and August, when it begins below zero ; while in the Faroe Islands, to fall again until mid January, when it in latitude 62°, the ponds and lakes never is at its minimum .

freeze in winter, the winter temperature being only 40°

5230. The difference in temperature between the hottest and coldest months 5235. One of the grand characteristics increases in proportion to the distance of a maritime climate is the small difference from the equator. At the equator the between the mean temperatures ofsummer mean temperature is 84.2° ; at the ecliptic and winter. At Edinburgh that differ

it is 78.8 °; at Paris, in latitude 48° 50' it ence only amounts to 19°, while at Mos

is 51.4° ; at London, in latitude 51 ° 31 ', cow ,on nearly the sameparallel of latitude, it is 50.7° ; at Dublin , in latitude 53° 23', it is 50° ; and at Kasan, in latitude 56 °, it it is 49.1°; and at Edinburgh, in latitude is as much as 56.3°. 55° 57', it is 47.4º. 5236. “ The climates of different parts

5231. The hottest temperature which has yet been registered for the open air was that observed by Buckhardt in Upper Egypt at 117°, and the lowest by Captain Back in North America at 68.8° below zero, the difference between the two cases

being 185.8 .

5232. Modifications of temperature occur in accordance with a difference of configuration of the earth's surface. Were that surface uniform , the power of the soil

of the earth's surface are unquestionably owing in great measure to their position with respect to the sun . At the equator, where the sun is always nearly vertical, any given part of the surface receives a much greater quantity of light and heat than an equal portion near the poles ; and it is also still more affected by the sun's vertical rays, because their passage through the atmosphere is shorter than that of the oblique rays. As far as the sun's mean altitude is concerned, it ap

to absorb and radiate heatwould be every- pears from Simpson's calculations, that the where alike, and the climate of a place would depend on its geographical position : the isothermal lines would all be parallel with the equator. But the diversity in the surface causes the soil to be dry in one place, and swampy in another ; to be here a moving sandy desert, and there an umbrageous forest , all which cause corresponding varieties in climate , in proportion as the surface becomes heated in different degrees in one or other of those conditions .

5233. In penetrating great continents from the sea -coast, the temperature both in

summer and winter becomes extreme, the mean between them being great; and there are places which with different latitudes have nearly the same mean annual temperature .

5234. An island, a peninsula, and the

heat received at the equator in the whole year is nearly 24 times as great as at the poles ; this proportion being nearly the same as that of the meridian heat of a

vertical sun, to the heat derived at 231° from the poles, in the middle of the long annual day at the poles. But the differ ence is rendered still greater by the effect

of the atmosphere, which intercepts a greater proportion of the heat at the poles than elsewhere . Bouguer has calculated , upon the supposition of the similarity of the effects of light and heat, that in lat. 450, 80 parts of 100 are transmitted at noon in July, and 55 only in December. It is obvious that, at anyindividual place, the climate in summer must approach in some degree to the equatorial climate, the sun’s altitude being greater, and in winter to the climate of the polar regions.”

5237. But, how interesting soever it

sea-coast experience a more temperate and may be to know the annual mean tem

equable climate — the summers less sultry, peratures of places, they are not sufficient Onthe Continent,at Königsberg in Prussia, as it affects the products of the farm . in latitude 55°, the cold in winter is 18ó These mean temperatures are derived from the winters more mild — than a continent. to make us acquainted with their climate,

* Polehampton's Gallery of Nature and Art, vol . iv. p. 42.

CLIMATE .

487

observations made on thermometers placed it gives 9385°, being no less than 2430° in the shade. But as our crops are not more than is required at Turmero, and placed in the shade, and are exposed in 2175° than at Truxillo. the day to the full force of the sun's light and heat, and at night to a much reduced 5239. Boussingault informs us, that in

and it may be a chill temperature, what Alsace, with a mean temperature of 59°, we desiderate, before we can determine wheat requires 137 days, or 8083° to

the agricultural climate of any place, is a ripen ; at Paris, with a mean temperature series of observations from thermometers of 56 °, 160 days, or 8960° ; at New

placed exposed in the open air to all the York, with a mean temperature of 630, influences of the weather day and night, 122 days, or 7680°. summer and winter, from which we may

deduce, not mean temperatures, but actual temperatures occurring in any month of the year during the day and the night. A comparison ofmean temperatures will, no doubt, let us know which of two places

5240. In Egypt, on the banks of the Nile, with a mean temperature of 70°, barley requires 90 days, or 6300 °, to ripen ; temperature of 58.5 ', 122 days, or 7137º.

enjoys the greater beat on the average of days or months ; but it does not tell us

5241. In South America, maize comes

at Santa Fé de Bogota, with a mean

the greatest and lowest degrees of heat felt to maturity in 92 days, with a mean tem at the place in the course of any season ; perature of 81.5°, or 7497° ; or in 183

and it is this knowledge that most in- days, with a mean temperature of 59 °, or terests us in the cultivation of our crops.

We know that a given number of days, at a certain temperature, are necessary to

10,797º. 5242. At Maracaibo, near the lake of

bring a certain crop to perfection, and Valencia, potatoes require 120 days, with that another certain temperature will de- a mean temperature of 78°, or 9360° to stroy that crop ;

but the mean temperature ripen ; and at Antisana, they require 276

alone will not tell us whether or not that days to be in the ground, with a mean crop will thrive in any given place. 5238. Thus, at Venezuela, according to

temperature of 52, or 14,352º. 5243. From these and similar data, M.

M. Codazzi, wheat requires 92 days to Boussingault comes to the conclusion that ripen at Turmero, at a mean temperature of 75.6°, which is equivalent to 6955° ; and a hundred days at Truxillo, the mean temperature being 72.1°, which is equivalent to 7210 °. Now, in Scotland neither of these amounts of temperature

“ the duration of vegetation appears to be in the inverse ratio of the mean tempera ture; so that if we multiply the number of days during which a given plant grows in different climates, by the mean tempera ture of each, we obtain numbers that are

would suffice to bring wheat to perfection; nearly equal. The result is not only re for, suppose wheat to be sown in autumn, markable, in so far as it seems to indicate and that active vegetation commences at that upon every parallel of latitude, at all the 14th of February, it cannot be ex- elevations above the level of the sea , the pected to be reaped before the 15th of same plant receives in the course of its ex

August—that is, in 182 days; and as the istence an equal quantity of beat; but it mean tenperature of Edinburgh we have may find its directapplication by enabling seen to be 47.4 °, ( 5230, ) the number of us to foresee the possibility of acclimating

degrees of heat required to ripen it would a vegetable in a country, the mean tem be 8625°, being 1670 ° more than are perature of the several months of which is

required at Turmero, and 1415 more than known.”. In coming to this conclusion, at Truxillo.

But if we take the case of we perceive that M. Boussingault does not

spring wheat, the difference will be still take the mean temperature of the year of greater; for, suppose it is sown on the 14th any place, but that of the seasons in

of February, when vegetation begins to which the particular crop cultivated quicken, it cannot be expected to be reaped grows, and which, in truth, comprehends before the 1st of September, which is 198 all the temperature of the growing period days, and at 47.4 ° of mean temperature of the crop.

488

REALISATION .

5244. Another conclusion arrived at has a close connection with that of the

by M. Boussingault is, “ that plants in air immediately above it, and is mainly general, those of tropical countries very affected by the extent of the thermometri obviously so, spring up, live, and flourish cal variations in the superincumbent air in temperatures that are nearly the same. in the course of the year. In the higher In Europe and in North America, an latitudes, where the variations of the tem

annual plant is subjected to climateric in- perature of the air is great, the variable fluences of the greatest diversity. The depth of temperature in the ground is CON cereals, for example, germinate at from 43° to 47° or 48 °; they get through the winter alive, making no progress; but in the spring they shoot up, and the ear attains maturityat a season when the temperature, which bas risen gradually, is somewhat steady at from 74° to 78 °. In equatorial countries things pass differently : the germination, growth, and

siderable. M. Arago found that a ther mometer buried at 261 feet under the sur face at Paris did not remain absolutely stationary. Below a limited distance, however, under the surface, the tempera ture ceases to be affected by variations in the temperature of the generalatmosphere, and the point where the affection ceases is called the point of invariable tempera

ripening of grain take place under degrees ture. In climes of great constancy, the of heat which are nearly invariable. At point of invariable temperature will be Santa Fé, the thermometer indicates 79° found near the surface , and about the

at seed as at barvest time. In Europe equator the point is about the surface. the potato is planted with the thermome ter at from 50° to 54 ', and it does not

5247. Drainage raises the temperature

ripen until it has had the beats of July under the surface — that is, it permits the and August.

temperature of the atmosphere to pene trate deeper into the soil. In one quoted 5245. “ Germination , and the evolution case, in a garden in Hampshire, the tem

of those organs by which vegetables per- perature of the heavy soil was said to bave form their functions in the soil and in the been raised 15° by drains of 44 feet deep.

air, take place at temperatures that vary between 32° and 112° ; but the most important epoch oftheirlife - ripening - generally happens within much smaller limits,

But drainage not only permits the heat to penetrate deeper into the soil, it enables the soil to retain it a longer time. In March 1850, the temperature was very

and which indicate the climate best low - for 7 nights out of the first 18, the

adapted to their cultivation, if not always thermometer sunk to 26 ° —and yet the fol to their growth .

In high lati- lowing table shows a greater degree of

tudes, the disappearance of vigorous vege- warmth, at 1 and 2 feetin depth under the tation in plantsmay depend quite as much surface, than for several years preceding in

on intensity of winter colds as on insuffi- the same month, by 1.17º at 1 foot, and ciency of summer heat. The equable cli- 1.44º at 2 feet : mate of the equatorial regions is therefore much better adapted than that of Europe

1 foot deep . 2 feet deep.

to determine the extreme limits of tem Mean of March, 1838 ..

perature between which the vegetable spe

1839 .

cies of different kinds will attain to matu

1840 . 1844 . 1845 . 1846 .

rity."* Following up this idea in regard to the plants of the farm , the extremes of the temperatures of the following plants

99

"

1847 .

41 °.48

410.46

41 .46 39.24 41 .55

41 .93 41 .71 42 . 14

37 .79

38.37

44 .47 40 .22

45 .55

41 .03

may be stated as under : Wheat from 78° to 44º Barley, 80° ... 59 ° 78° Potatoes , 52° 74° 54 ° Flax, ...

5246. The temperature of the ground 44

Meayears n of...these preceding} | 41.16

41 .74

Mean of the first 18 days !

43 , 18

42 .33

in March 1850 ...

5248. One great cause of the reduction Boussingault's Rural Economy, p . 647-59 - Law's translation. + Gardeners' Chronicle, 20th October, 1849.

CLIMATE .

of the temperature of the surface of the

489

5249. Another disturbing cause of the

evaporation of the water equable temperature on the surface of the ground isthe Rain falls and penetrates the earth, is the inequality of surface into hill in it. ground by its gravity, and as it is gra- and dale. As we ascend a mountain the dually absorbed, a succeeding rain de- heat rapidly decreases, and it decreases scends still lower, until an equilibrium as more rapidly during the day than during

regards moisture is established from top the night, during summer than during to bottom of the ground. Whilst this is winter,where the mountain is abrupt than

going on interiorly, the air which rests on where it rises in steps, and near the surface the surface of the ground, and which is than at a distance from it.

If we take

imperfectly saturated, tends also to take 5904 feet as an average height, under the from the upper layer a portion of its humi- circumstances mentioned above, to be

dity, and evaporation takes place. The ascended to obtain a decrease of 10 of upper layer, dried in consequence, draws temperature, we shall not be far from the moisture from that which is more moist truth . This height corresponds nearly beneath ; and this moisture, in its turn, is with a depression of the barometric column

also taken up by the atmosphere. “Hav- of .7 of an inch, (86. ) The cold which ing observed for several days,” observes Mr R. Thompson of the Chiswick Gardens, “ the relative amount of evaporation from a surface of water, and that from earth completely saturated, in the month of August 1849, and under a temperature

prevails among lofty mountains is ascribed to the dilatation which the air from the lower regions experiences in its upward ascent ~ to a more rapid evaporation under diminished pressure , and to the intensity of nocturnal radiation.

of 73 ° to 75 °, the following werethe re sults :

5250. As the temperature of the atmo Evaporation from Evaporation from

Ist day , 2d 3d 4th 5th 6th

7th

.

sphere constantly diminishes on ascending

the Water .

the Earth .

.590 inch.

.161 inch . .097

above the level of the sea, the temperature of congelation must be attained at a cer

.070

tain height above every latitude ; conse

.531 .452

.472

.051

.460 .433 .370

.051 .047 .051

above that limit must be covered with

3.308

0.528

frozen region varies according to the lati

quently, mountains which rear their heads perpetual snow.

The elevation of the

tude of the place, being at all times bighest We see from the above with what rapi- at the equator and lowest at the poles.

dity evaporation goes on when the soil is In the higher regions of the atmosphere, completely saturated. On the first day it especially within the tropics, the tempera

is more than one-fourth of the evapora- ture varies but little throughout the whole tion from the surface of water ; but it year; and hence, in those brilliant climates, strongly

diminishes, and at the end of seven days the line of perpetual congelation is

it is scarcely one-seventh. When the surface becomes dry, the evaporation is almost inappreciable. On the second day the upper layer of soil is dried, under the above temperature, to the depth of onetenth ofan inch ; and at the end of eight

and distinctly marked. But in countries remote from the equator, the boundary of frost descends after the heat of summer, as the influence of winter prevails, thus

varying its position over a belt of some considerable depth.

days, plants of which the roots extend

5251. Beyond the line of congelation only to the depth of four inches begin to suffer, and require watering. From some is another, which forms the boundary of

observations made by Hales, on the amount the ascentof visible vapour, and thispoint of evaporation from soil, he concluded it is obvious mustbe less liable to change

that it was in the proportion of 3 to 10, than the point of congelation. At the as compared with that from a surface of equator the highest point of vapour is water. " * 28,000 feet, at the pole 3432 feet, and in * Gardeners' Chronicle, December 1849. + Kaemtz's Complete Course of Meteorology, p. 211 •16.

REALISATION.

490

N. lat. 54• it is 6647 feet. In tracing elevation will bring one to the climate of this point successively along every lati- Lapland." tude, welearn that beat diininishes, as we ascend, in an arithmetical progression. 5254. The meteorological habitudes of Hence it follows, that the heat of the air plants being extremely various, one germi above the surface of the earth is not owing nating at 38 °, a little above the freezing to the ascent of hot strata of air from the point, and another requiring a heat of surface, but to the conducting power of 100° or 120°, the geographical distribu the air itself. * tion of plants is a consequence of the distribution of heat over the surface - tbat

5252. Plains present only one species is, of climate. Applying this principle to of climate, which differs in its seasonal the temperature of the British Isles, M. A. characters alone ; but mountains exhibit Petermann delivered a discourse on the every variety, from their latitude to the isothermal lines of Britain, and the distri

polealong the meridian of the quadrant. bution of its plants, to the British Asso For this reason, high mountains, situate ciation for the Advancementof Science, in

in the tropics, present every variety of 1849, ofwhich the following is an abridged “ If we take each mountain,” form of the introductory part : The

climate.

says Mr Mudie, “ which rises above the climate of Western Europe is compara line of perpetual snow , as the index to its tively milder than all other countries of a own meridian, we shall find that each one similar latitude. The isothermals of 70° expresses, by its vegetation , all the and 30° Fahr. were in North America varieties of climate between it and the from 30° to 57° N. lat. ; in Asia, from 30°

pole ; and thus those lofty mountains be- to 50° N. lat. ; but in Europe, from 30° come means of far more extensive infor-

to 71 ° N. lat.

The British Islands are

mation than places which are situated placed almost in the centre of the latter near the main level of the sea, and more zone. The isothermals for January give especially than plains, which, when their a general direction from N. to S., instead surfaces are nearly flat, have no story to of from W. to E., as might have been tell, but the same uniform and monoton- inferred.

ous one, for many miles.” “ Upon each particular rock of the rapid slope of the Cordillera,” observes M. Humboldt,“ in the series of climates superimposed in

Between the Shetland Islands

and the southern coast of England, except Cornwall and Devon, there is no differ ence in the winter temperature ; but

between the E. coast of Eugland and the

stages, we find inscribed the laws of the W. coast of Ireland the difference amounts

decrease of caloric, and of the geographi- to about 10°, the former being at an aver cal distribution of vegetable forms."

age of 35°, the latter probably 45°. The coldest portion of Britain extends from

5253. Elevation above the surface has the Naze to the Firth of Forth, comprising the same effect in diminishing temperature to the west all the Pennine chain : in this as ascent in latitude.

“ Say thatthe alti- district an average temperature of 35° to

tude of the mountain under the equator,” 36° prevails. The average direction of observes Mr Mudie, “

upon which the the isothermalsof the hottest month (July)

seasonal action is displayed, is a little is from S.W. to N.E. The highest summer

more than three miles. Then, estimating temperature in the British Isles — indi in round numbers, one foot of altitude on cated by the isothermal of 64 ° -occurs in

the mountain will correspond to about the central portion of the S. coast of Eng

16,000 feet on the meridian — that is, a land, the lowest in the N.W. part of single foot of elevation on the mountain Scotland, and the difference appears to be is equivalent, in difference of temperature, at least 10° ; while the difference between to about three miles, or more nearly three the W. and E. coasts is much less.

The

minutes of a degree in latitude, and there- isothermal of 62° extends to Lincoln,

fore 20 feet are equal to a whole degree ; Birmingham , and the southernmost por and when one once arrives at the mean

tions of Wales. All Ireland, Wales, the

temperature of London, 400 feet more of northern part of England and Scotland, to Encyclopedia Britannica -- art. Climate, 7th edition.

+ Mudie's World , p. 132-6.

CLIMATE .

the foot of the Highlands, lie between the isothermals of 62° and 60°. North of the Highlands the temperature is very considerably lower, Inverness having only 55°. 7'. The author then alluded to the influence of temperature on the distribution of plants, the districts of which he had found to be strikingly corroborative of the general correctness of his isothermals.

491

the radiation of heated plains of consider able extent, the nature of the colour of the rocks, the thickness of the forests, the moisture or dryness of the soil, the vicinity of glaciers, the prevalence of particular winds, botter or colder, moister or drier, the accumulation of clouds, are so many causes which tend to modify tbe meteoro

logical condition of a country, whatever be its geographical position. In no other part of the globe is the diminution of

ing by a rise of level occasioned temperature Notwithstand 5255. subjectinof above the sea attached tothethemarked commonly more remarkable than terest general climate which we have been illus- among equatorial mountain ranges ; and trating, the characteristics of the local it is not without astonishment that the

climate engages the attention of the farmer European, leaving the burning districts muchmore than those of the general climate which produces the banana andcocoa put of the country which he inhabits. Local tree, frequently reaches, in the course of a climate may be defined to signify that few hours, the barren regions which are

peculiar condition of the atmosphere, in covered with everlasting snow . regard to heat, moisture, and wind, which prevails in any given place. The diversi-

5257. There is a phenomenon which fied character which it displays has been has a material effect on local climate — the generally referred to the combined opera- darting of cold pulsations downwards from tion of several different causes, which are the upper region of the atmosphere, and of all, however, reducible to these two- dis- warm pulsations upwards from the earth. tance from the equator, and height above This is different from radiant heat. Pulsa the level of the sea ; so that latitude and tions of temperature are detected by a elevation form the great basis of the law recently -discovered instrument called the

of local climate ; and the modifications of æthrioscope ; and although the experi this law by other causes have generally ments with it have as yet not been suffi but a partial and limited influence. ciently numerous to insure implicit confi dence in its powers, the experience of all

5256. The climate of every individual who have paid attention to the varieties country may be regarded as local, in refer- of circumstances which affect local climate ence to thatofall other countries in the same intimates that many influences exist, in

degree of latitude. Thus, islands are the atmosphere, to produce complicated warmer than continents. The E. coast of effects which cannot be indicated by the all countries is colder than the W. The W. coast is moister than the E.

instruments in common use .

Countries

5258. From all these facts and reason lying to the windward of great ranges of mountains, or extensive forests, are warmer ings, it appears that a slight difference of Small seas are elevation in a monntainous district of this warmer in summer and colder in winter country, which has so high a parallel of

than those to leeward .

than portions of great oceans, they being latitude, may make a considerable differ affected by the condition of the surround- ence on the local climate ; and that, other ing land . Low countries are warmer than things remaining the same, that farm high, and level plains than mountainous which is highly elevated has a greater regions. Places situated upon the same chance of being affected by changes of mountain-chain, nearly in the same lati- climate than one on a lower level; yet

tude and at the same height, have often very different climates. The temperature which would be proper to a place perfectly isolated, is necessarily modified by a con-

local circumstanceshave a material indu ence in rendering the general position of

any farm less desirable, such as, vicinity to a lake or marsh, or a leeward position siderable number of circumstances. Thus, to a hill or large wood in reference to the * Encyclopedia Britannica - art. Climate, 7th edition .

492

REALISATION .

direction from which the wind generally of the year, and under all circumstances ; blows—both which tend to lower the and no doubt whatever remains on my

temperature below that of the mean of the mind, but that our winters are generallya country. Any position in a long narrow good deal less severe than formerly, our valley, or on the baunch of a large isolated springs more cold and ungenial, our sum hill, or in a pass betwixt two mountains mers — particularly the latter part of them

separating plains, is more subject to vio- -as warm at least as they formerly were, lent gnists of wind than the mean of the and our autumns considerably warmer. country, the wind acquiring an accelerated He adds, “ I think that I can point velocity in such localities. An elevated out some physical causes, and adduce

table - land being subject to a lower tem- rather strong facts in support of these perature and higher winds than a plain of opinions.” the same extent on a lower level, is to be avoided . The windward side of a hill

5260. Of the physical causes of these

or large wood, or on flat ground backed changes, Mr Knight conceives that the with hills and woods to the N. and E.,

clearing of the country of trees and brush

insure a higher temperature and less wind wood, the extension of arable culture, and

than the mean of the country . An exten- the ready means afforded by draining to sive plain or valley, through which no carry off quickly and effectually the rain large river passes, or in which no large as it falls, have rendered the soil drier in lake or wood exists, is very little subject May “than it could have been, previously

to violent winds. In exposed situations, to its having beenenclosed and drained the snow lies long, and the winds are

and cultivated ; and it must consequently keen ; while in sheltered positions the absorb and retain much more of the warm snow soon disappears, and the wind is summer rain ( for but little usually flows gentle.

These different circumstances off) than it did in an uncultivated state ;

produce a sensible effect on the local and as water, in cooling, is known to give

climate of a small country like Great out much heat to surrounding bodies, much Britain ; and varied as it is in its physical warmth must be communicated to the geography, and surrounded on all sides by ground, and this cannot fail to affect the water, they have the effect of dividing the temperature of the following autumn. The country into as many climates as there warm autumnal rains, in conjunction with

are varieties of surface and differences of those of summer, must necessarily operate

position. Such local influences, in most powerfully upon the temperature of the seasons, have a greater effect on thetime succeeding winter.” Hence, a wet sum of growth, quantity and quality of the produce of the earth, than the general climate of the country ; although the latter exercises a predominating influence in some seasons, by excessive heat or rain, so as to overcome all local influences, and to stamp a generality of character over

mer and autumn are succeeded by a mild

winter ; and when NE. winds prevail after those wet seasons, the winter is always cloudy and cold, but without severe frosts ; probably, in part, owing to the ground upon the opposite shores of the Continent and of this country being in a the season . similar state. The fact adduced by Mr Knight in support of this opinion is that 5259. I may here advert to a generally of the common laurel withstanding the received opinion among farmers and others winter, notwithstanding its being placed who are much exposedin the air, that the in a high and exposedsituation , and its weather of Great Britain has changed wood not being ripened in November.

materially within the memory of the pre- “ Supposing the ground ,” continues Mr sent generation. I am decidedly of this opinion ; and I observe that Mr Knight, the late eminent botanical physiologist, expressed himself on this subject in these words : — “ My own habits and pursuits,

Knight, “to contain less water in the commencement of winter, on account of the operations of the drains above-men tioned, as it almost always will and gene rally must do, more of the water afforded

from a very early period of my life to the by the dissolving snows and the cold rains present time, (1829,) have led meto expose of winter will be necessarily absorbed by myself much to the weather in all seasons

it ; and in the end of February, however

493

CLIMATE.

dry the ground mayhave been at the win- the mean level of the sea.

It is from the

ter solstice, itwill almost always be found mercury being above or below this point of saturated with water derived from those 29.610 inches, which is the supposed mean unfavourable sources ; and as the influence of your farm , that you are to conclude what of the sun is as powerful on the last day weather may be expected there, from the

of February as on the 15th day of October, changes of the barometer. That same and as it is almost wholly the high tem- elevation will also make a difference of perature of the ground in the latter period half a degree in the mean temperature of which occasions the different temperature the year. of the air in those opposite seasons, I think 5262. On looking at a farm , it is your it can scarcely be doubted that, if the soil has been rendered more cold by having duty to apply the principles adduced

absorbed a larger portion of water at very above, as regards climate, to its particular near the freezing temperature, the weather circumstances — a mode of judging which is of the spring must be, to some extent, too often neglected by those who value

injuriously affected .” Hence, the springs farms, and isthe cause of much discontent are now more injurious to blossoms and fruits than they were thirty years ago. Hence, also, the farmers of Herefordshire cannot now depend on a crop of acorns from their extensive groves of oaks. *

to the tenant, after he has discovered the character of its climate by dear-bought experience. Let us run over the parti culars which require a serious attention on this subject. The temperature of the

locality has a considerable influence on all 5261. Since elevation of position above crops. The late Professor Playfair as the sea is a material element in determin- sumed that the lowest temperature at ing the local climate, it is of some im- which corn will vegetate is 40°, and that portance for you to ascertain the height of corn will not ripen below a temperature your farm above the level of the sea. If of 48°. He proposed to date the vege

you know that by other means - namely, by tating season from 20th March to the 20th trigonometry — the information is sufficient for your purpose; but should yon not be acquainted with its elevation, which is usually the case with farmers, the mean height of the barometer will ascertain it by a series of simple observations, made at a given time, over a year or more. For

October, and considered 56° as the mean temperature of a good vegetating season.I It may therefore be assumed, that if the mean temperature of a place, between

March and October, is below 56 °, it is not likely to bear good crops. The altitude of a place affects its temperature materi.

example, the sum of one year's observa- ally. We have seen that an altitude of tions, madeat 10 A.M. and 10 P.m. in 1827, was 21615.410 inches; and this number, divided by the number of observations, 730, or twice the number of days in that

5904 feet makes a difference of 1 ° of mean temperature — making the effect of ele vation the same as an increaseof latitude. This is a point which is very liable to be

year, gave 29.610 inches as the mean overlooked in the interior of the country, height or changeable point of the baro- where an elevation is insensibly gained meter.” + Now , taking the mean height much beyond belief. The country may

of the barometer at 29.948 inches at the appear pleasant, and everything indicative mean level of the sea , where the atmo- of a good climate, but, on inquiry, it may sphere always indicates the greatest den- be found to be 600 or 800 feet above the sity, deduced from nine years' observa- level of the sea — an elevation in which tions at the mean temperature of the air, wheat will not ripen, and at which even with a range from 28 inches to 31 inches, barley will be a precarious crop, in many it is seen that the instance adduced above

seasons .

At such an elevation it is not

of 29.610 inches gives .338 of an inch improbable that one or two crops may be

less than the mean, which, by the table lost in the course of a lease of 19 years. in (86) indicates an elevation of the place In such situations, the daily range of the of observation of about 265 feet above temperature is great, descending low at Knight's Horticultural Papers, p . 307-9. + Quarterly Journalof Agriculture, vol . iii . p. 3. # Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh for 1800.

REALISATION .

506

young cattle, or rain -spouts put round the crops injured at all seasons by an inordi

eaves. Though the outgoing tenant is bound nate quantity of game, protected for no to leave the fences in tenantable repair, a apparent purpose than to afford an un new fence may be wanted to run across a sportsmanlike battue once or twice in a field to make it smaller,or along the side year. Let the landlord, after all, enjoy sport of a wood, or public road. A farm - road is as he pleases ; but if he delights in breed

required for access to certain fields, which ing large quantities of game, let him con cannot be reached but by trespassing fine them and feed them within his own through other fields.

An embankment is

domain ; and should any wander beyond

required along the side of a rivulet which it to feed, let him compensate his tenants occasionally overflows its banks, and who maintain them . I have long been of damages the crops of a haugh, or the

opinion that tenants would make the

lower parts of several fields. Proper watering-pools are required in some of the fields. All these are improvements of a permanent character, and ought to be undertaken by the landlord ; but they should have been stipulated for in the offer, and not afterwards. When demanded afterwards and acceded to, injustice is done to the other offerers. Had they, when they

best protectors of game, were they al lowed to take a shot. The indulgence is not great, as they cannot enjoy it without taking out a license, and keeping a dog and paying duty for it-taxes which many farmers will not pay for the sake of sport; but were the privilege generally granted not as a right, but on the ground of good feeling — the game might devour as much

gave in their offer, understood these were corn and turnips as they please, without to be conceded, they would all have been a complaint being uttered by the tenants,

placed on the same footing ; but it is whether they be sportsmen or not, (4703) scarcely fair towards them to make so large concessions afterwards to one party,

and (4706.) Tenants who grudged to pay for a game-certificate and the duty on

since the others might probablyhave offered sporting dogs, would have themselves to more largely, had they had reason to blame if they were not sportsmen ; but they believe that propositions, which involved would take good care that no poachers the outlay of so much money, would have

came near them . Within these two years,

placed on the same footing as been favourably received by the landlord. hares are rabbits, and may be shot without a license. 5326. It is customary, in leases, for the 5328. The periods at which the rent is landlord to reserve for himself the right of opening quarries or mines, of making paid are specifically mentioned in thelease.

roads, of entering into woods through The most favourable terms for the tenant fields, and of doing anything on the farm that would benefit the estate, with the pro-

are Candlemas and Lammas — February and August.

By Candlemas, the farmer

viso of giving damage to the tenant where has had time to dispose of a great part of his crop or the land is injured. 5327. Reservation is also made for

his corn ; and by Lammas he has sold off his fat cattle, sheep, and wool. Both these terms being intermediate between

hunting and shooting game for the land- Whitsunday and Martinmas - May and

lord and his friends. The question of November — when the half-year's wages game has hitherto caused many heart- of the farm -servants, field -workers, and

burnings between landlord and tenant ; labourers, become due, he escapes too many much of which, I am persuaded, has ori- large demands at any one term . In Eng ginated in the severe restrictions imposed land, rents are paid at Lady-day and on the tenants against killing game on Michaelmas — April and October. their farms, who know that the crops

they raise feed the game, and yet are 5329. One of the principal clauses of a debarred from sporting amongst them . I lease is that which relates to the cropping am sure that tenants are desirous to witness

of the farm . It is customary to bind the

the sports of the field , and gratified in seeing their landlord and his friends partaking of them in a manly way. But they naturally feel displeased at seeing their

tenant to follow a particular rotation of cropping. Such a restriction is inimical to the tenant's interests, and may even prove detrimental to the farm itself.

COVENANTS OF LEASE .

507

For example : should a crop fail, such as ever the tenant chooses to leave more of clover or turnips, in the early part of grass, so much the better for the landlord the season, the tenant would not be at

and the land.

liberty to plough those fields, and try another kind of crop ; and as the ground

5330. I do not know why it is that

that should have been covered by a crop leases run for the particular term of 19 becomes a receptacle for weeds, the inte- years, as that period corresponds with rest of the farm suffers by such a restric- none of the rotations in existence. I think tion, while the farmer cannot avail himself it desirable for the farm , that the fields of a better mode of cultivation. Restric- be left under the same or similar crops

tions were necessary at a time when mis- they were entered to ; and to secure this

cropping was the practice of the day, and end, the lease should endure such a num they are still necessary in all cases where ber of years as would be those of the farmers are so unreasonable as to take

rotation which best suits the soil, multi

All restrictions plied by a given number of rotations. necessarily imply that the farmer cannot For example : A farm in the neighbour

advantage of the land.

manage the land properly, and requires a

hood of a town where the four - course

disciplinarian in the lease to keep him shift is practised , should have a lease of right. It is possible, however, to impose 16 or 20 years, the rotation having been such a single restriction as to preclude the four or five times repeated ; a farm of mixed

possibility of advantage being taken of the land, while it shall not interfere with the free agency of the farmer ; and it is this --that no two grain crops shall follow each

husbandry under the five -course shift, one of 20 or 25 years, and under a six -course shift, one of 18 or 24 years ; and for an eight-course shift, such as a carse clay

other—the land growing grain and green farm , 16 or 24 years. The advantage of crops alternately. With this restriction, such an arrangement would be, that as it is impossible to injure the land, provided the same fields would be in the same or

the fallow -crops are adequately manured ; similar crop at the end of the lease as at the and although it is as easy to neglect man- commencement, an easier comparison could uring those crops under the least as the be made whether or not the farm were in most severe restriction, the salutary check, better or worse condition at the end of this that green crops will not grow without lease than at that of the former ; a result

manure, is always in force against the tenant. By such a clause, the tenant is not bound to follow any system of rotation ; but as he must take a green crop

which would enable the landlord to deter mine whether the land would be improved under a different course of cropping, or only under more skilful management. In

between two corn ones, he cannot possibly the latter case, a better tenant would be follow a severer rotation than havehalf the an acquisition to the estate, whilst in the

land in corn ; and he will soon find that he former, a change of rotation would effect cannot sustain the land in heart with that the improvement with the same tenant. proportion of corn , without purchasing extraneous manure, and that if he does

5331. The conditions of lease are gene

not keep the land in heart, the means of rally the same for all the arable farms of paying his rent will rapidly decline. To- an estate, except a particular farm should wards the latter end of the lease, it is contain strong clay soil ; but, to be really probable that the tenant may take advan- beneficial to soils, it is clear that all con

tage of the land, by declining to purchase ditions should be made suitable to the extraneous manure, especially if he wishes circumstances of the individual farm .

I

to quit the farm . To meet such an exi- am convinced that inattention to this mat gency, it becomes necessary to impose ter causes many a farm to be ill -farmed ,

severer demands upon him on the subject and disappointment and loss of capital of manuring ; and moreover,still without insisting upon any particular rotation, it will be sufficient to stipulate that not less than a given proportion of the farm shall

to many a good farmer. A weak soil cannot endure the cropping of a strong one, nor a deaf soil support stock like a sharp one ; each class of soils requiresdif

be left in grass, laid down with a grain crop , aftera manured fallow one. Wher-

ferent treatment — why, then , should all be placed under the same conditions ? Simi

REALISATION .

494

night, after having indicated a high degree the crops will exhibit unequivocal symp during the day; and every farmer knows toms of its poverty. that a low temperature during the night has a most injurious effect upon thecrops: 5265. When the farm is unknown to

for warm nights, in effect, double the yon , the best season to look at it for the number of warm days, and a continued first time is in spring — in March—in dry existence of heat saves plants from the weather-after the largest proportion of injury arising from checked growth by the soil has been turned over by the plough,

cold. In travelling at night in England in summer, there is no circumstance so striking to a Scotsman, as to find the air as warm as it usually is in the daytime in

and when its natural state, in regard to drynessand wetness, and even condition, cannot be concealed. This is the only season to indicate whether or not the soil

his own country . Hence, the harvests in is in need of draining. England are always much earlier than in Scotland ; and such a superiority in 5266. But when you look at a farm , to climate will more than counterbalance have it valued for a lease, it is impossible superior skill.

The distribution of rain for you to undertake such a task, until you

in the vegetating season — it falling fre- have farmed practically, for a number of

quently being less favourable to vegeta- years. The only safe course for you is to tion, than in greater quantities at longer obtain the assistance of an experienced intervals — is deserving of inquiry ; also, friend, who is well acquainted with the

whether the locality is affected by vapour, part of the country in which the farm is thereby experiencing more cloudy than situate; or any one well versed in farming clear days . The lowness or highness of will answer the purpose. the dew point has a material effect upon crops. The relation between local climate

5267. I should mention, that it is con

and the growth and productiveness of the sidered amongst farmers a dishonourable different crops, you thus see ,is deserving act to look ata farm until you are assured of your utmost attention . What effect it it is in the market, by the knowledge that has upon the money - rent of land it is not the tenant is to leave it, or by advertise

easy to determine ; but that land so situ- ment in the newspapers — otherwise it is ate is of less value than that which is not an unfeeling act, and regarded as equiva

affected by such local influences, cannot lent to taking the farm over his head . admit of doubt.

ON THE JUDGING OF LAND.

5268. On judging of the soil, the sub soil requires as much attention as the soil, and it cannot be reached but with a spade.

Pits must be dug through soil and sub 5263. Land cannot be judged of at all soil, to ascertain the nature and texture of seasons, or at any given period. It may both, and whether they are similar or dis

be covered by snow , when it is shrouded similar in character. Most commonly they from all inspection. It may be saturated are dissimilar ; for, although they may

by rain , when it is impossible to walk over have been originally similar, cultivation it. It may be hard frozen, when it will and the application of various manures, not yield to the foot or the spade. It may and the effects of the roots of growing

be covered with a crop, when the texture plants, will have so changed the proper of the soil cannot be examined. Practi- tiesofthe upper soil as to render it quite of cally, the soil cannot be exainined when a different character from the subsoil. From the nature of the deposit in the Carse of Gowrie, it is probable that the

placed under any of these circumstances.

5264. When the soil is well known, agricultural soil and subsoil (344) were perhaps the best season to inspect a farm at one time similar, and that any diffe is just before harvest, when every species rence remarked now is the effect of cul of crop is in the fullest luxuriance - in tivation only.

The following analysis

which case you do not require so much to of the soil and subsoil by Dr Anderson , know the nature of the soil, as the condi- Chemist to the Highland and Agricnltural tion it is in ; and if it be out of condition, Society, of a soil farmed by Mr Walker

495

JUDGING OF LAND .

Rannie of Inchyra, on the bank of the easily rendered fertile, and kept so by the Tay near Errol, will show what I have numerous manures now at command . What is on the retentive subsoil, requires just stated : Potash ,

Soda, Lime,

Magnesia, Peroxide of iron ,

Sulphuric acid, Phosphoric acid, Carbonic acid ,

Soil.

Subsoil.

2.8001 1.4392

2.1761 1.0450

0.8300 1.0200 4,8700 0.0911

1.3938 6,2303

1.2756

0.2400 0.0500

0.2680

0.0396

draining before it cau be rendered per manently fertile with any kind of manure; but, on being drained and manured, it is capable of yielding good crops, whether green or of grain. 5271. A thin hard clay is often met

Chlorine, Alumina,

0.0098

0.0200

14.0400

14.2470

Silica ,

63.1954

61.6358 6.8270 4.5750

with, and almost always on a retentive subsoil. This invariably requires drain ing and manuring, and at first, even after the draining, requires much labour to

99.7032 *

render it loose and friable.

Organic matter, Wa ter,

8.5508 2.7000

99.8364

Ultimately

it becomes a tolerably good soil, and will It will be observed that the soil contains bear fair crops every year, provided it is more potash and soda than the subsoil, liberally manured in the course of the which have no doubt been added to it by rotation. the ingredients employed as manure. This soil has never been known to have been

5272. A thin loose soil, resting on a

limed, and hence cultivation has taken retentive subsoil, is also often met with. away a portion of its lime ; and the same It requires draining and manuring, but remark applies to its magnesia. No doubt, not so much work as the last mentioned. also, that cultivation would decompose a It is weak in constitution, and hungry as to part of its peroxide of iron. The silica manure, nor is it easily satisfied — not that would be increased by cultivation, and so it has capacity to take a large dose at a would the organic matter even in greater time, but will take it frequently. A little proportion ; and the subsoil may be sup- mixture of the subsoil by trench-ploughing

posed to have always more water in it than does it much good, and ultimately, by the soil, part of the moisture of which is kind treatment, in eating off turnips with

constantly exposed to evaporation. (457.) sheep, it will carry fair crops. 5269. A considerable diversity of soil

5273. A soil is not unfrequently met

may be expected to be found on most with which is deep enough, in as far Those which exhibit the most as the operation of the plough is con

farms.

uniform soils are on diluvial deposits, as in cerned, but is of black colour. It is deaf, the Carse of Gowrie, as also peaty soils very soft, and apt to be carried forward on high pastoral districts; and the great- on the breast of the plough. The straw

est diversity is presented by sandy and grown by this soil is thick enough, but clay soils, both which may be found in the same farm . Diversity of soils is no objection to a farm , asit admits of variety inthe rotation of cropping, a change of crops, and a chance for them to meet the exigency of a difference in seasons. To possess a diversity of soil in the most convenient form , they should occupy separate fields.

soft and brittle, and apt to lodge in wet weather ; and the grain, though suffici ently abundant, is thick-skinned and light. Such a soil, though deep, often rests upon retentive clay, and is easily affected by wet, although it will withstand drought for a long time. This soil has at one time

5270. The soils commonly met with in farms are, a tolerably deep clay loam resting on a porous or a retentive subsoil. That wbich rests on a naturally porous subsoil is a good soil for every kind of crop, whether green or of grain, and may be

It is much improved by thorough -draining, and trench -plonghing the subsoil amongst it.

been a moor, and yields crops readily at first, but does not continue to improve.

5274. A soil of quite an opposite char acter may be found — a sharp gravel upon a

* Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1850, p. 296.

496

REALISATION.

gravelly porous subsoil, which is admirably will be found the thinnest, and in the

adapted to raise turnips with bone-dust, hollows the thickest part of the soil. The bottom of an open fur forms the best lair for sheep on turnips in spade thrust intoat the once whether the soil is winter, and never fails to lay thick fat on

row will show

the kidneys. Both straw and grain from thick or thin ; and if thick in the furrow , it this soil, though not abundant in quantity, cannot fail to be so on the ridge. It is not easy by words to describe the characters of a good or bad soil, or to point out the

are of fine quality.

5275. The most uncommon soil is a deep distinction in regard to their state of fer

unctuous clay of uniform texture, both tility. It is only their physical properties on the surface and under the reach of that we can ascertain ; and as I have the plough . It is capable of growing already given these very minutely, from large crops of grain and straw , and is less (333) to (343 ) they need not be repeated adapted for green crops. It is difficult to here ; and to judge of these the land re

work, though this property might be quires to be in the ordinary workable state - not saturated with rain, nor frozen

greatly altered by draining.

hard, uor burnt up with drought. All 5276. Another kind is deep, dry, rich clay soils feel hard, or rather firm under alluvial deposits, either in flats along the the foot; loams feel soft. Smooth deep

banks of rivers or in the bottom of valleys, soils feel as in walking over a thick car constituting haugh -land .

This soil is pet, and thin soilsas over a thin one on a

equally fit to grow grain and green crops, hard floor. Soils in high condition ( 349) is easily maintained in a high state of possess friability ; in poor condition, they fertility, and is easily wrought. It requires are either hard or too loose. The mark little or no draining.

of the foot in soilin good condition is soon obliterated, by the elasticity of its par

5277. A thin peaty soil is found in ticles; but when in poor condition, it is

large extent upon many of our pastoral either indelible or remains a long time bility to grow natural pasture by sheep bleached by the weather, are more

farms, and is much improved in its capa- impressed. In low condition, soils seem drains upon and under the surface . When diversified in colour, are in want both so drained it is rendered sound land for of labour and manure, and are generally

sheep ; when not, they are apt to take the foul with weeds. Very thin clays (350 ,) rot upon it in certain seasons. hungry, (351 ,) and deaf soils ( 356 ,) are of doubtful character, and yield returns

5278. Boggy soils are also met with only according to the artificial condition to pretty large extent in parts of the into which they are put. As to this condi country in hollows, whether on a low tion, it will be requisite to ascertain whether level or elevated plain . They are of no or not they have been drained, wrought, use to the plough , or for live-stock, until and limed, and well farmed ; and if they first drained ; and then most of them yield have been so treated, and still indicate large returns in grain, green crops, or weakness, want of stamina, exhaustion, or in meadow. a bleached appearance, it may be con

cludedthatthey will bear little improve 5279. Pure sands are met with in cer-

ment ; but should they have been neglected

tain parts adjoining the margin of the sea, under these symptoms, draining, manuring, or on estuaries. When cultivated with the and good tillage may make them assume plough, they yield pretty good crops with a much better appearance in the course of w

a constant supply of manure; and when a fe

years.

in pasture, supply a short sweet herbage forsheep.

5281. If a considerable variety of soil exists on the farm , it should be observed

5280. All these varieties of soil are

whether they occupy different fields, which

judged of in the same manner. Every is a favourable arrangement, or whether

field must be walked over, and when the same field has a great diversity of diversity of surface exists, the knolls and them , which will be found troublesome. hollows must be traversed. On the knolls The amount of the good and bad soils

ESTIMATING THE RENT.

497

should be summed up separately, and seen the public road . Shelter by high land or which prevail. If the bad only occupy woods from the N., whence come cold winds from a fourth to a third of the whole, the and frost ; and from the SW.,

whence

farm may be regarded as a good one, and blows the strongest and most shaking its character for excellence will depend on

wind.

Market town of a moderate size to

the quality of its good soil ; but should supply the luxuries of life. Coal and lime, half of it be bad,the proportion is too and extraneous manures, at a short dis great for the good soil to do justice to it- tance from a railway station, which if on the self, and assist the bad ; and where the farm , so much the more convenient.

proportion of bad increases beyond the Grinding -mill of wheat and oats in the hall, the value of the good falls very vicinity . It is barely possible for one

rapidly. Whether on good soil or bad, it farın to possess all these advantages, and is better to succeed a slovenly farmer than it is not possible for every farm of a a tolerably good one : for the latter has country to possess them all ; but the more are conjoined, the better for

sufficient skill to make the land do its

of them

utmost, with the least means of amelioration, and to wear it out, and no state of land is so difficult to recover its tone as when worn out. A slovenly farmer may leave the land in a dirty state, and unpleasant to the eye, but be has rarely the skill to wear

the farm . It is not easy to determine the difference in the money value, caused by the presence or the want of all these con veniencies, but it cannot fail to be con siderable.

it out. But the fortunate chance is to suc ceed a farmer who has brought his farm

into, and has kept it, and leaves it, in full bearing

ON ESTIMATING THE RENT OF A FARM .

5284. All the varieties of soil mentioned

above are to be found on the various sorts

5282. Part of the farm may be in an of farms existing in this country. It is uncultivated state, which is not the most not to be supposed that the value of all

objectionable part in a worn -out farm . these soils is to be estimated on the same Its soil will be fresh, and will be brought principle, since some only produce grain, to bear well sooner than old worn-out and others only support live stock; but

land. This portion may be useful intoperwhatever may be the nature of their pro re-

mitting the older land to lie in grass

ducts, it is clear that the value of every

cruit for a longer period than an ordinary soil must depend upon their quality and rotation, whereby it will recover its tone, amount.

and bear better crops afterwards.

5285. The fixed money -rent of arable

5283. The most desirable appointments land may be estimated by taking the gross for a farm of mixed husbandry to possess amount of corn the farm is capable of arethese :-Extent from 200 to 800 acres. Soil, deep light clay -loam , capable of bearing turnips and wheat, incumbent on a naturally porous subsoil. A turnpike and a parish road crossing at its centre. Fields rectangular, and comprehending

growing, and the number of live stock it

can fatten in the course of a year ; and deducting therefrom the expenses inciden tal to cultivation and the care of stock ;

and on allowing a reasonable percentage on the capital invested by the tenant, the

Fences of remainder is regarded as the sum payable thorn hedges. Ground gently sloping, or to the landlord in rent; but as this last undulating to the S. Elevation not sum , on this supposition, would vary ac from 20 to 30 acres each.

exceeding 200 feet above the sea . Water cording to seasons, a fixed one is sub from springs or rivulets, accessible to stituted in its stead, as the rent to be every field . Steading situate near the annnally paid for the farm . Thismode of

centre of the farm , capacious enough to estimating the rent is applicable to carse contain all the cattle in winter, and con- farming, to farms in the neighbourhood of venient for every barn -work . Two or towns, and at a distance from towns where

three paddocks `near the steading for the mixed husbandry is not practised. calves, & c.

Comfortable farm -house and

neat garden , not far from the steading, and VOL. II.

5286. The fixed money -rent of a pas 21

498

REALISATION.

toral farm may also be estimated by the gross number of stock, whether of sheep or cattle, or of both, the farm can support in the course of a year ; and in deducting the expenses attending the rearing of the stock, and a percentage on the capital invested in them , the remainder is the

duce upon which the fluctuations in price can be made to bear is the grain, whether it be of one kind or of all the kinds usually cultivated on the farm . Wheat

rent due to the landlord . But as this sum

absolute fluctuations in its price were great, the relative fluctuations in reference

would also fluctuate, as well as that in

was at first chosen as the grain whose

price should regulate the fluctuating por tion of the rent; because, although the

the case of the arable farm , the practical to the price of the other sorts of grain were result is either to pay a fixed sum an- not so great, not exceeding 100 per cent. nually, or a sum per head for all the stock But on many farms no wheat was raised,

the land can support during the year.

and the possessors of them werenaturally apprehensive that the price of a grain

5287. The fixed money-rent of a dairy which they did not cultivate would not farm may be estimated by the gross fairly represent the priceexigible on the sort amount of butter and cheese it will yield

or sorts of grain which they did raise. At

in the course of the year ; and, on deduct- the same time, the price of wheat could ing the expenses attending its manage- not be disregarded, as it no doubt fixes

ment, and the percentage of the capital the relative prices of the other sorts of invested in it, the remaining sum should be given to the landlord in rent ; but, as in the other cases, a fixed sum is named for the fluctuating one, or a sum is payable for every cow the farm will support during the year — in which case the landlord has the farm in his own hands, and supplies the cows with food.

grain ; and that species of grain, besides, constitutes a large proportion of the crop

of the kingdom . All inconveniences in the matter were disposed of by adopting the price of the three grains most com monly grown in the country-wheat, bar ley, and oats—and their cumulative prices per quarter afford data by which to estimate the gross value of the grain raised

5288. The fixed money -rent of a farm on the farm . for mixed husbandry may be estimated by taking the gross amount of the produce 5291. But a rent paid entirely from in grain,andof the draft cattle and sheep, the fluctuatingprice of grain is satisfactory

and wool sold ; and, after deducting the to neither landlord nor tenant. When the expenses and percentage of capital, the price sinks very low, either from an ex sum to be paid in rent is found. traordinary crop or from extraordinary competition by the importation of foreign

5289. Were the price of farm-produce corn, the landlord will receive less than a fixed element, a fixed money rent would his just proportion of the crop ; and, on be most convenient for the tenant to pay,

the other hand, when the price rises to a

and the most equitable for the landlord to great height, from a large deficiency in receive ; but as price has fluctuated to an the crop at home, together with a limited

inordinate degree in the course of years— importation from abroad , the tenant will from 1771 to 1842 that of wheat bas pay a much larger sum in rent than be

absolutely fluctuated 364, of barley 391 , can realise from his crop. 5292. A compromise seems necessary has gradually fallen from the end of the

and of oats 314 per cent —and as price

war in 1815 to the present time, 1850, to meet the cases of both parties, and it is it seems reasonable, on the part of the effected in this manner :-Let one balf of tenants, to desire to have the rents so the estimated rent be always paid in cash, adjusted as to become the true exponents and the other half in grain, the value of oftener which at the cumulative price per quarter of the fluctuations in price at least than the fixed money -rent has of wheat, barley, and oats, fixed by the

hitherto been, if it cannot certainly be done fiars, or the general average prices of the at all times. country , shall be equal in amount to the half paid in cash at the time the rent was 5290. The only part of the farm-pro- estimated. The grain half of the rent will

ESTIMATING THE RENT.

499

Auctuate thereafter withFor theexample average -price, and, calculating these at the current prices, sup- the total value of the produce is ascer posing the rent of the farm had been esti- tained, and the rent determined which the as it rises or falls.

mated at £ 1000 a -year, and that the farm can afford to pay. Although they average prices of grain at the time were, estimate the rent of the land in its exist

for wheat 40s., barley 22s., and oats 16s. ing condition, they judge, besides, whether per quarter, so that about 128 quarters of the land is capable of producing more by each sort of grain at those prices respec- better farming, and give the rent a lati tively would make up half the rent, thus . £ 1000 0 0

The Rent,

€ In Cash , In Grain Wheat , 128 qrs . at 40s. £ 256 0 0 22s. 140 16 0 Barley, 128 Oats ,

500 0 0

128

16s.

102

8

0

128

78s .

499

4

0 499 4 0

tude in the offer to be made.

Upon this

last uncertain element, however, many rents have been offered beyond the intrinsic value of the land ; and when seasons be

come unpropitious, or prices fall, or the new 999 4 0

tenant proves himself an indifferent farmer, the rent he promised is soon found to be too high for his skill.

In future, no change would take place in the £ 500 paid in cash ; but the £499, 4s., 5295. “ One of the chief arguments in raised from the 128 quarters of each sort favour of a constant money rent," says an

of grain, would vary every year, more or intelligent writer on this subject, “ in less, with the average prices. Or, the opposition to every kind of fluctuating conversion of a money rent into a grain rent, is this—that, however ill the former

one may be done in another way. Sup- may be adapted to the times, or however pose that the £ 1000 a-year is 25s. the widely it may differ from the natural rent acre, then 78s., the cumulative price of of the farm , the tenant, from knowing its wheat, barley, and oats, per quarter, : 8, exact amount, can regulate his other ex the bushels in a quarter, 25s . : penditure accordingly, and the proprietor

2.564 bushels of each kind of grain, which, receiving such rent knows exactly what he at the respective prices per quarter, give has to spend. Now, as to the tenant, it appears to us that he is better enabled to 24s. 11 d . per acre. regulate his expenditure by knowing the

or nearly so, of his produce - say 5293. The rate of interest on money quantity, the number of stacks of wheat which he

should enter as an element in the calcula-

tion of rent ; because, the rate of profit derivable from the capital invested in the farm should vary with the general rate of interest. Thus, if the farmer expects 15 per cent on his invested capital when the rate of interest is 5 per cent, like other people in trade, he shonld be content with when the rate falls to 4 per 12 per cent If the rates of profit and interest cent. bear a different relation in the country, the farmer, of course, must submit to the

must lay aside as rent — than by knowing the sum of money when he is yet ignorant what proportion that sum will bear to the gross return from his farm . As regards the proprietor, again, we conceive that the virtual value of his income is fully as steady when made up of produce- rents as This results from the fact money-rents. that the staple products of the country, such as corn, butchers' meat, and wool,

general conditions of trade.

money. Thus, if the proprietor's income be regulated by these, or even by the

5294. But rent is seldom estimated by such a roundabout method, since experience has taught practical men to cometo a conclusion at once, as to the capability

most important of them , he may calculate on being able always to obtain out of it

of every soil, in the condition they view it; and it is this criterion of the maturity of their judgment that stamps an intrinsic value on their advice. They estimate the

life. But even if it were someadvantage, in ordinary cases, for both parties to know the amount of money in place of produce which they have to give and receive, such

acreable amount of grain which the land

knowledge would be of little consolation

are the chief regulators of the value of

pretty nearly the same quantities of the

necessaries, and even of the luxuries of

will produce, and the quantity of stock it to the tenant, when that money becomes will support, in the condition they see it ; double of what he would have to give, or

500

REALISATION .

to the proprietor, when it is only half of engaged in raising corn, a grain-rent what he would have to get, were a new seems almost indispensable for it, to pro bargain to be made. That such cases tect both landlord and tenant from the have often happened with farms let in great fluctuations which beset the corn fixed money - rents, during the last half market.

century, no one in the least acquainted

5299. A pastoral farm has nothing to do with the history of British agriculture will deny. There appears, therefore, to be no with a grain -rent, its principle of rent such advantage in a constant rent over a being so much money per acre for the fluctuating one, from the sure fixedness of pasturage, or so much money per head for the one over the variableness of the other, every sheep or ox it can support. as to make us prefer the former, if the

latter can be better proportioned to the means of paying it.

5300. When calculated in the manner I have

described, rent may be regarded as the natural value of the land. It is based on the supposi

5296. “ The propriety of making the tion that the landis worth the sum at thetime of the estimate. It

rent fluctuate evidently depends much on

also takes for granted that the farm is complete in all its appointments

the duration of the agreement, whether as

the house, the steading, the fences, and also that

originally determined, or as tacitly pro- the land is in fair condition. It may also be re longed. The natural rent of land for a single season can be calculated with a pro

garded as a rack -rent-- that is, the highest value

bability of sufficient accuracy to justify

530 ) . But when these appointments are in

the land can bear at the time.

the offer and acceptance of a fixed rent for complete — the house bad or awanting - the

it. For a period , however,such as that to steading incommodious — the fences dilapidated, which leases usually extend, it is difficult or the land in wretched order,—the rent must to suit the particular state of the to estimate rents with an approach to be modified . What proportion of the rent ought to be accuracy, even during the most undis farm deducted for a bad farm -house, a bad steading,

turbed progress of legislation and of agri- bad fences, it is not easy to decide ; butfrom During the extraordinary 23. 6d.to 58.an acre maynot be unreasonable.

culture.

changes which this country has experi

enced in its agricultural, as well as com

And for bad condition of the soil, from 5s, to 10s. an acre is not too great a deduction, since it may

require from

L.5 to L.10 an acre to put it into mercial, political, and social condition heart . The estimate of the deterioration by

within the last balf century, the calcu- such exigencies, in

the shape of pecuniary de lation of rents for the period has been ductions, converts the rent into a covenanted little else than wild conjecture, and the one, and itassumes thatcharacter also when the tenant undertakes

to build, or fence, or drain ;

pecuniary condition of proprietors and but when the landlord undertakes to supply the

tenants have in many instances been re- deficiences, the covenanted rent is still acted versed .

upon , because it is a covenanted one, and a per

5297. “ It is obvious that excessive

centage is paid over and above by the tenant, as the deficiences are all remedied ; but when

the entire rent, including the percentage, gainor loss to either party — both preju- ever is payable, it becomes the naturalone.

dicial to the advancement of agriculture -would have been avoided, or at least

5302. Both the natural and covenanted rents

greatly modified, had rentsbeen propor-

may either that constant or fluctuating; and rent I have fluctuating shownbe above the partially is

tioned to the balance of income over ex

the safest for the tenant .

penditure, out of which balance rent is

payable. The necessity of making rents fluctuate was this most felt where leases were granted. It was therefore in Scot-

5303. But the method of arranging the grain rent, as enunciated above, ( 5292,) is not quite correct, because it includes the value of the

land, and the parts of England wherethis stock,which ought not to be regulated by that of the grain ; for, although a correspondence

mode of tenure prevailed,that a system of more or less close may no doubt be observed, rent regulated by the price of grain ori- over an average of years, between the values of ginated, and still exists to a considerable grain and stock, yet there is often such a discrepancy between their prices in different

extent." *

seasons , as to render a rent calculated from the

one a very false representation of that payable

5298. A carse clay-farm being entirely

from the other. The natural rent payable for

* Journal of Agriculture, January 1846, p. 137-9.

501

ESTIMATING THE RENT.

stock is the value of the stock in the market, or the value of the stock - feeding crops, such as turnips, grass, hay. The market value of the stock would be extremely difficult to ascertain ,

since stock are brought into the market at all alive ; but the value of the stock -feeding crops is as easily estimated as that of grain itself, and

ages, and in all conditions, and both dead and their fluctuation also as easily estimated as those

of grain. On these accounts, the value obtained by selling the stock - feeding crops to be eaten on the ground and in the steading, ought to determine their portion of the rent ; and this mode would have the advantage of being a simpler guide than the value of the stock sold in any one

year, because their intrinsic value seldom corresponds exactly with the money received for them. 5304. From what has been said, it is price alone that has hitherto been attended to in regulating grain rents. “ This we consider a glaring defect in the system now followed,” observes the

true and proper elements in the calculation of

fluctuating grain rents ; and in like manner, in

calculating the fluctuating rents payable on cattle and sheep, the average acreable value of the stock-feeding crops throughout the county ought to be taken rather than the average price per stone of beef, mutton, and wool. Ido not

say that this plan would entirely compensate for the great depression of price occasioned by free foreign imports. I think it would not ; but it would certainly cause less loss to the tenant than any system of grain rents in existence, and much

less than any existing constant money rents. 5306. The difficulty of determining the sta tistical facts of the annual average acreable pro

duce of grain and of stock -feeding crops in each county, is the only considerable obstacle to the adoption of this theory of grain rent in practice; and it is evident that, until those facts can be ascertained , it will be impossible to institute the system of grain rent recommended.

writer formerly quoted , “ as applied to the pre sent, and more especially to what we hope will be the future state of our grain markets. We consider such a system in many instances to be

5307. It may be well to recapitulate the ad vantages attending the recommended system, as

unfair to the proprietor, and in others to the

would give the landlord and tenant their just

tenant. It is unfair to the proprietor when the crop of the county, and therefore presumably

provement of agriculture,without influencing the

well as to meet the objections against it.

] . It

shares of profit and loss from the general im

that of his own property, exceeds the average

gain or loss due to the tenant for his peculiarly

quantity of many years' crops in a greater degree

good or bad management. 2. When his land is

than its price falls below the average ; and for the tenant, when the crop falls under an average quantity to a greater degree than its price rises

above the average. But,suppose the fluctuations in price to be exactly the reverse of the fluctuations in quantity , the present method is far from

being a proper one for adjusting rent ; because, were the price to fall in the same proportion as the acreable produce increased, the tenant ought still to have the same income from his farm , which being obtained at a sinaller outlay, he

would have a greater balance to pay rent from a large cheap crop than from a small dear one. Hence the present system of grain rents is par-

ticularly unfavourable for the landlord when the crop is abundant and cheap, and equally so for

let on a constant money rent, the landlord's only benefit from the inward produce of the country, on account of general improvements in agricul ture, depends on the frequent disproportionate increasein the value of money. When it is let on the present mode of grain rent, an increased produce by such means is rather a loss than a gain to him, by its reducing the price of grain

more than that of other commodities, and, con sequently, it lowers his rental more than it raises

the value of money. I see no reason why the proprietor should not share with his tenant in

the variations of the productiveness of the soil, whether occasioned by the weather or by the ap plication of science, as well as in the variation of the prices. 3. By it landlords would derive

the tenant when scanty and dear. Its only

the additional advantage of choosing skilful

proper and justifiable tendency seems to be, to

tenants, who, by increasing the produce of their

give the proprietor a share in the benefit from a farms, would raise the average produce of the rise in prices, when the rise is not produced by district, and consequently establish the means by a deficiency of crop, and to protect the tenant which their rents would be increased . 4. An against the entire loss from an unlookedfor inestimable benefit would result to the commu reduction of price through an inundation of fo- nity from the adoption of this practice, by giving reign corn ." **

This latter casualty the tenant proprietors a more immediate pecuniaryinterest was guarded against by protective duties ; but in increasing the produce of their estates, and of

now that they are removed , no such guard exists to protect him from any and every casualty that may befall price. The sooner, therefore, that the

the country around them, as also by its thus cre ating a strong inducement for them to reside on their estates. 5. By proportioning their income

mere element of price, in estimating grain rents,

to the state of the country, such a mode of rents

is abandoned, the better for both landlord and

would deprive proprietors of the most plausible

tenant.

argument against granting leases, and would,

5305. The only remedy for this danger, which is now imminent under Free Trade, is to take the acreable average of the county, as well as the are-

rage price of the regulating grains, as the only

therefore, induce the practice, with its numerous good consequences, to be greatly extended . 5308. The only objection against the proposed system is, that by reducing rent as the average

* Journal of Agriculture, January 1846, p. 145.

502

REALISATION.

produce diminishes, a premium on bad farming grain one is by the same rule as that already would be established .

Such would no doubt be

given in (5292.) *

the case were the rent merely to vary with the produce of the farm for which it is paid ; but when it is mainly dependent on the produce over

5312. Not unfrequently one sees in the news papers schemesfor calculating the value of a given

a large district, the objection is not a good one ; for the influence of a scanty crop of one farm in reducing the average of the district would be so

crop per acre by the prices as they fluctuate. When such schemes are intended for England, wheat alone is the grain used as the basis of cal

small, and the loss from it to the farmer so great,

culation. Such schemes usually display little ingenuity. A pivot, as it is called, is fixed upon ,

that the increasing productiveness of his farm

would be as much an object to him as any other system of payment, and it would thus present no temptation to relax his energies.

and it is any sum which the concocter may choose to adopt. As the price of wheat rises or falls one shilling a quarter, the rent for a given number of bushels per acre rises or falls two

5309. After so lengthened an exposition of

shillings, and as the produce increases or dimi

the grain rent, it may be deemed superfluous to adduce any more instances of it ; but the one

nishes by one bushel per acre, the rent rises or falls three shillings per acre . Such is the usual

enunciated by the late Dr Coventry, having found considerable favour amongst agricul-

sliding up and down, backwards and forwards, of all the schemes referred to, which are evidently

turists, it may be proper to mention it. He constructed a formula on the produce of oats — the

based on no principle whatever ; are as imaginary as any scheine can be ; and are inapplicable, as a

species of grain most commonly cultivated in

general rule, even to the circumstances of the

Scotland -and the terms of the formula were : Divide the produce per acre in oats by two, and multiply the product by one- tenth of the produce.

most limited districts.

Thus :

a farm gave one -third to the landlord, one - third to the labourers, and one-third to the farmer ;

Take the produce of oats at 8 quarters per acre.

5313. The old rule of dividing the produce of but it is now well understood that the tenant

Which divide by 2 is Multiply 4 by to of 8,

4 .8

And the amount is,

3.2

does not receive as much of the produce as the landlord does, nor so much as the labourers and other costs demand . While the profit of the tenant has diminished, the rent to the land

lord has increased, and so have the costs of That is 3.2 quarters per acre for rent, which at

16s. per quarter, gives 5ls. 2d. in money per acre for rent.

Carrying out this rule to various

amounts of produce per acre , it appears that land capable of yielding 10 quarters per acre

pays half its produce in rent, while that which only yields 2 quarters per acre pays only onetenth of its produce in rent. The principle upon which this great difference in the proportions of produce is founded is, that the cost of labour in managing land which only grows 2 quarters per acre is fully greater than that of labouring and managing land which yields 10 quarters per

acre, whilst the return is only 1 : 5. Now it seems but fair, that if, with poor land, the tenant has due allowance afforded him, on

account of its inferiority, the same consideration should be awarded to the landlord, on account of the superiority of the land he has to be let.

management. The tenant has been most liberal to the land in bestowing increasing labour and manure upon it, whereby its fertility and pro

ductiveness have been very much promoted, and the landlord has thereby profited largely by a rise of rent. To this liberal spirit of the tenantry is to be ascribed the high state of cultivation which the land in Scotland generally exhibits. 5314. I think that the county average, or Fiars prices of grain, as estimated at present in

Scotland, give only a rude approximation to the real average of the entire sales in the county

for the season , which arises chiefly from the cir cumstance that about one-half of the grain remains unsold at the period, February and March, when the averages are taken. Should any unforeseen change take place thereafter in the prospects of the succeeding crop , it is evident

Were this principle carried to an extent much beyond 10 quarters, too great a proportion of produce would seem to accrue to the landlord

that the latter half of the grain may be sold at a very different price from the previous half.

for rent ; but it might, perhaps, hold good , to

lated by the value of grain , and where conse

the extent of productiveness we are accustomed

quently no desire can exist to depreciate its value, the grain thrashed in spring and summer

to receive in this country.

Even in districts where the rents are not regu

is of better quality than that thrashed in the

5310. One advantage this rule is said to possess is, that should the capability of the land to

early part of the winter, and farmers generally sell their lightest and least valuable grain in the

produce what is estimated be correct, the mode

early part of the season. It is well known that

by which the quantity taken for rent is apportioned, will be found never to charge the land

wheat only becomes fit for grinding by itself after March, and thence realises a higherprice ;

more than it can fairly be conceived to bear.

and although it shrinks much in the stack after

5311. The conversion of a money rent into a

that period, it does not so more than it would have shrunk in the granary , and being sweeter

#

Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol . viii . p. 515.

.

OFFERING FOR A FARM .

and fresher from the stack, it is worth more

money in summer from it than from the granary.

503

that his rental should be as much dimi nished as amounts to the interest of the

5315. Although a more just striking of the money required to put the farm in order. It is true that he has a perfect right to

fiars could be easily devised, it would be unjust

to alter the mode entirely, until all the existing

present his farms to the market in any

agreements, which depend upon the fiars prices,

state he pleases ; and it is also true, that

had come to an end in the course of time.

tenants will be found to take farms in

Until

that period arrived , it would be incumbent to continue the striking of the fiars as at present,

every state of deterioration ; but in such while, at the same time, another strike should circumstances, no lease can present the take place at the end of the season , when it might reasonably be concluded that all the grain of the preceding crop had been disposed of. The average of the two strikes should regu

slightest guarantee for the regular pay ment of rent, or for the respectability of the tenant. It were to be desired that

every proprietor would put his farms into

late the terms of new agreements ; and after it was understood that all the old agreements had terminated, the fiars ought then to

proper order, as regards the buildings and

be struck at such a season as would embrace the

Such a course would redound to his ad

sales of all the corn of the preceding year and crop. Many years ago the fiars were struck both at Candlemas and Lammas. It may be insisted on that the proposed change would

mand a higher proportional rent than an

operate more in favour of the landlord than the

fences, before offering them to be let. vantage ; for a complete farm will com incomplete one, and it will enable the tenant the better to pay the higher rent.

tenant; I would say, be it so, if justice is thereby better dispensed .

ON THE MODE OF OFFERING FOR A FARM .

5318. The conditions may affect many

subjects ; but those which are indispensable are, when the farm -house requires exten sive repairs or additions to render it suitable for the wants of the farm ; when

the steading requires additional accommo candidates of a farm is, to present to the dation in conformity with the size of the landlord or his agent a written offer of the farm ; when thefences require completing, rent willing to be paid by them ; and should or renewing, or extensive repairs; and 5316. The common practice for the

put into the farm be complete in its appointments, when the farm - roads require to be all sub

no conditions are specified ; but should any

a serviceable state.

These are

of them be incomplete, the offer is gene- jects which it is the immediate duty of

rally accompanied with such conditions, the landlord to put to rights. If the offer as shall either cause the landlord to com-

has been estimated irrespective of these

plete them , or shall fix the rent in accor- particulars, it is but right that the tenant dance with the actual state of the farm .

pay the landlord, over and above his offered rent, the legal interest on the sum

5317. That any conditions accompany required to put them right ; but when the an offer arises entirely from the state of rent has been estimated on the condition the farm . Where the buildings and fences of a complete farm , the tenant ought are in good order, no conditions in an offer not to pay any interest on the sum re

are requisite. But as farms are generally quired to put the farm in the completed presented in the market — with the house state. in bad repair, or the steading inadequate 5319. Other conditions may also be re or incommodious, or the fences incompleted or in a state of disrepair - condi- quisite which are not indispensable, such

tions become imperative. Too many pro- as the thorough drainage of the farm ; the prietors seem to think that a farm may formation of a large drain or outlet for the

be sent to market in any state, and yet drainage, where such is necessary ; the expect such a rent as if all its appoint- improvement of waste land ; the substitu ments were in the best order. It is evi- tion of one sort of powerto the thrashing dent, however, that no proprietor has reasonable grounds for expecting a rackrent for a farm in an incomplete state. If he will spare his own pocket in completing

machine for another, as steam or water for horse- power, when suitable buildings are required for the change. These all con stitute permanent improvements in the

the buildings and fences, it is but right farm , and belong rather to the landlord

504

REALISATION .

than for the tenant to undertake ; but the ket. When a farm is ready for a new tenant may be willing to undertake the tenant, the circumstance is advertised in

larger proportion of them, on receiving the newspapers. To this proceeding there the landlord's consent, -and if he can

can be no objection, since no better mode

secure the landlord's assistance also, he exists of giving publicity to the fact. should endeavour to obtain it. When the

In the same advertisement it is announced

tenant bas abundance of capital to stock that offers for the farm will be received the farm desired, and to pay for such im- until a certain day, which is objectionable, provements, it is well for the farm and inasmuch as it puts the farm up to pritate for its proprietor ; but when such operations auction

one

candidate

being pitted

would cripple the means of the tenant to against another in the dark . In a public undertake, the landlord ought not to con- auction, all the competitors hear the bid sent to his accomplishing them alone, to the dings announced asthey are made, and detriment of the otherwise good manage- bid accordingly ; and, at all events, the suc

mentof the farm : he should rather assist cessful competitor only pays for the article him, by advancing or procuring money, competed for a very little above bis rival. and cause him to pay a little more than the bare legal interest for it. Such a course of proceeding would not only secure the improvement ofthe farm by a zealous tenant, but would reserve his capital so as

In the private auction for a farm , no can didate knows the offers made by the others, nor whether any or what conditions are

annexed to them,nor how much the ac cepted offer is above the next highest.

to enable him toput the land in the high- Of the two modes of auction, the private est state of fertility, by the purchase of one is the less satisfactory to the candi lime and extraneous enriching manures. dates, because they are purposely kept in

The draining and the improvement of the the dark and in suspense, and the unsuc cessful ones have generally no intimation waste land would soon repay themselves, while the expense of the erection for the sent them of the issue of the concealed change of power would also be repaid the contest. During the period of conceal tenant, by the saving in the wear and tear ment the most unfair influences may have been exercised in favour of a particular candidate ; and such a one, if possessing

of horses and harness,

5320. Offers are thus received by the proprietor from any number of candidates that may choose to offer for the farm . When all the candidates are on an equal footing, as to the amount of rent offered, and as to respectability of character, the one who specifies the fewest conditions on

capital and skill, may have been induced to raise his offer to the pitch of some ad venturer, who will offer any amount of rent to secure the possession of a farm . In accepting of money offers, proprietors virtually yield the valuing of their pro perties to other parties — implying that

the proprietor to render the farm complete, they are themselves incompetent to value is accepted as tenant. It is not probable their own land : that a stranger from a that all the candidates, or any two of distance, who knows nothing of the soil them , are equal in capital, skill, and re- of the district, of its farming, its peculi

spectability ; but, generally, the one who is arities, is more competent to estimate the willing to take the farm as it stands, and value of his land than himself and his offers the highest, or about the highest friends, who have lived upon it all their rent, is sure of being accepted, and all

days.

It is grievous to see proprietors

conditions are as much avoided as pos- thus acting as if they did not know what sible, as if it is not the business of the pro- to do with their properties ; and such a prietor to put his farm into complete order. predicament doubtlessarises from the evil The accepted offer is intimated to the suc- which I formerly pointed out, of pro cessful candidate by letter from the pro- prietors generally neglecting to make prietor or his agent. themselves acquainted with their profes sion at an early period of life, ( 543.) In

5321. This I think a favourable opportunity for making a few pertinent remarks on the mode usually chosen by proprietors to present their farms to mar-

every other profession, the disposer of goods puts a value upon them , and when be finds he cannot procure a purchaser at the price he had fixed, he lowers it to suit

COVENANTS OF LEASE.

505

the public demand and opinion ; but he landlord . Such a collision might have

never demeans himself by asking his cus- been avoided by previous inquiry into the tomers what they will give for his goods. character of the candidates, or by follow Such a custom the country chapnian only ing the course of letting a farm recom is in the habit of following. mended above in ( 5322,) but not by the strictest conditions, without inquiry , that 5322. By far the most dignified course could be imposed. When such an event for a landed proprietor to pursue, is to happens, the proprietor is more desirous of put a rent on the farm , which he is sure obtaining an inordinate rent than a respect any industrious and skilful tenant could able tenant; and if he thereby finds him pay, and fix such conditions of lease as self in difficulties, he has himself or his will

protect the farm from the effects of agents alone to blame. Honest tenants

avarice, while affording ample liberty to require no conditions ; but, as the world is

the skill and judgment of the tenant, and constituted, it is necessary to insert re then invite farmers to become candidates, strictions in all bargains about farms not as valuers of land, but as capitalists extending over a series of years. Such who can stock the farm , and as farmers conditions as are actually concocted by

who can manage land skilfully ; and, from

legal advisers are minutely harassing to

such who bave offered themselves, select the tenant, simply because they are inap the one who has the most capital, the plicable to the character of the particular best skill, and the greatest respectability. farm ; and wherever a set of conditions

Were such a system generally adopted, are kept stereotyped for the farms of an instead of the prevailing auctioneering entire estate, and have been drawn up by one, I am persuaded that better farming persons unacquainted with farming, they would prevail, a more generally diffused are certain of being inept. Each farm

respectable tenantry established, rents ought to have conditions suited to itself; more easily and surely paid, labourers more and although they may be rather restric

steadily employed, and a better under- tive, a good farmer will not be long in standing and greater cordiality exist be- concluding a bargain, knowing that suit tween landlord and tenant.

ably restrictive conditions, like good penal laws, are only applicable to offenders.

ON NEGOTIATING THE COVENANTS OF THE LEASE.

5325. The conditions of a lease may be soon adjusted, if both parties are desirous of meeting on fair terms, or in terms of

5323. On large properties, the terms of conditions previously understood between lease are usually printed, and a copy is the parties. But in many cases, after the given to every one who chooses to apply for rent has been accepted, on the understand it, when looking at a farm . Should any ing that the conditions exhibited were un

of the terms be deemed objectionable, objectionable, the candidate endeavours to they are commented ou when the offer is negotiate for other conditions, which will given in, and the alterations desired indi- serve, in his estimation, to mitigate the

cated . On small properties, the conditions rent he has offered , and which he feels are obtained verbally or in writing from conscious the farm cannot pay. Allow ances for draining are stipulated for, and the proprietor or his agent. is a proper subject for negotiation at first,

5324. In any printed conditions I have when the farm requires it. The steading requires more extensive repairs than the upop tenants, as much so as if they must outgoing tenant is bound to uphold ; and be rogues. Precautions are no doubt re- even additions and alterations are sug

seen, the covenants are much too strict

quisite between strangers - for candidates gested, such as the removal of the horse for farms will be found as unprincipled as course, and the erection of a boiler -house

to offer any amount of rent, and accept any and chimney -stalk ofa steam - engine forthe conditions of lease, to get possession of a thrashing-mill, or the construction of a farm that is in good order; and, when they dam for a water- wheel . A new set of

have gained possession of such vantage- feeding hammels are required, or the ground, give incessant trouble to their

courts fitted up with turnip -troughs for

506

REALISATION .

young cattle, or rain -spouts put round the crops injured at all seasons by an inordi eaves. Though the outgoing tenant is bound nate quantity of game, protected for po to leave the fences in tenantable repair, a apparent purpose than to afford an un

new fence may be wanted to run across a sportsmanlike battue once or twice in a field to make it smaller,or along the side year. Let the landlord, after all, enjoy sport of a wood, or public road. A farm - road is as he pleases ; but if he delights in breed

required for access to certain fields, which ing large quantities of game, let him con cannot be reached but by trespassing fine them and feed them within his own through other fields. An embankment is domain ; and should any wander beyond required along the side of a rivulet which occasionally overflows its banks, and damages the crops of a haugh, or the lower parts of several fields. Proper watering-pools are required in some of the

it to feed, let him compensate his tenants who maintain them. I have long been of opinion that tenants would make the best protectors of game, were they al lowed to take a shot. The indulgence is

fields. All these are improvements of a not great, as they cannot enjoy it without

permanent character, and ought to be undertaken by the landlord ; but they should have been stipulated for in the offer, and not afterwards. When demanded after-

taking out a license, and keeping a dog and paying duty for it-taxes which many farmers will not pay for the sake of sport; but were the privilege generally granted

wards and acceded to, injustice is done to not as a right, but on the ground of good the other offerers. Had they, when they feeling — the game might devour as much gave in their offer, understood these were corn and turnips as they please, without to be conceded, they would all have been

a complaint being uttered by the tenants,

placed on the same footing ; but it is whether they be sportsmen or not, ( 4703) scarcely fair towards them to make so and (4706.) Tenants who grudged to pay large concessions afterwards to one party, for a game-certificate and the duty on

since theothers might probablyhave offered sporting dogs, would have themselves to more largely, had they had reason to

blame if they were not sportsmen ; but they

believe that propositions, which involved would take good care that no poachers the outlay of so much money, would have

came near them . Within these two years ,

been favourably received by the landlord . hares are placed on the same footing as and may be shot without a license. rabbits,

5326. It is customary, in leases, for the landlord to reserve for himself the right of

5328. The periods at which the rent is

in the lease. opening quarries or mines, of making paid are specifically mentioned for the tenant roads, of entering into woods through fields, and of doing anything on the farm that would benefit theestate, with the proviso of giving damage to the tenant where

his

crop or the land is injured.

5327. Reservation is also made for

The most favourable terms are Candlemas and Lammas — February and August. By Candlemas, the farmer

has had time to dispose of a great part of

his corn ; and by Lammas he has sold off his fat cattle , sheep, and wool. Both these terms being intermediate between

hunting and shooting game for the land- Whitsunday and Martinmas - May and lord and his friends . The question of November — when the half-year's wages game has hitherto caused many heart

of the farm -servants, field -workers, and

burnings between landlord and tenant ; labourers, become due, he escapes too many much of which, I am persuaded, has ori- large demands at any one term . In Eng ginated in the severe restrictions imposed land, rents are paid at Lady -day and on the tenants against killing game on Michaelmas - April and October. their farms, who know that the crops

5329. One of the principal clauses of a they raise feed the game , and yet are debarred from sporting amongst them . I lease is that which relates to the cropping am sure that tenants are desirous to witness of the farm . It is customary to bind the the sports of the field, and gratified in see- tenant to follow a particular rotation of

ing their landlord and his friends partak- cropping . Such a restriction is inimical ing of them in a manly way. But they to the tenant's interests, and may even naturally feel displeased at seeing their prove detrimental to the farm itself.

COVENANTS OF LEASE .

507

For example : should a crop fail, such as ever the tenant chooses to leave more of clover or turnips, in the early part of grass, so much the better for the landlord the season, the tenant would not be at

liberty to plough those fields, and try another kind of crop ; and as the ground that should have been covered by a crop becomes a receptacle for weeds, the interest of the farm suffers by such a restriction, while the farmer cannot avail himself of a better mode of cultivation. Restrictions were necessary at a time when mis-

and the land.

5330. I do not know why it is that leases run for the particular term of 19 years, as that period corresponds with none of the rotations in existence. I think

it desirable for the farm , that the fields be left under the same or similar crops

they were entered to ; and to secure this cropping was the practice of the day, and end, the lease should endure such a num they are still necessary in all cases where

ber of years as would be those of the

farmers are so unreasonable as to take

rotation which best suits the soil, multi

advantage of the land. All restrictions necessarily imply that the farmer cannot manage the land properly, and requires a disciplinarian in the lease to keep him

plied by a given number of rotations. For example : A farm in the neighbour hood of a town where the four -course shift is practised, should have a lease of

right. It is possible, however, to impose 16 or 20 years, the rotation having been sucha single restriction as to preclude the four or fivetimes repeated ; a farm ofmixed possibility of advantage being taken of the husbandry under the five- course shift, one land, while it shall not interfere with the of 20 or 25 years, and under a six- course free agency of the farmer ; and it is this

shift, one of 18 or 24 years ; and for an

—that no two grain crops shall follow each eight-course shift, such as a carse clay other — the land growing grain and green farm , 16 or 24 years. The advantage of

crops alternately. With this restriction, such an arrangement would be, that as it is impossible to injure the land, provided the same fields would be in the same or the fallow -crops are adequately manured ; similar crop at the end of the lease as at the and although it is as easy to neglect man- commencement, an easier comparison could uring those crops under the least as the be made whether or not the farm were in

most severe restriction, the salutary check , better or worse condition at the end of this that green crops will not grow without lease than at that of the former ; a result manure, is always in force against the tenant.

which would enable the landlord to deter

By such a clause, the tenant is mine whether the land would be improved

not bound to follow any system of rota- under a different course of cropping, or tion ; but as he must take a green crop only under more skilful management. In between two corn ones, he cannot possibly the latter case, a better tenant would be follow a severer rotation than have half the an acquisition to the estate, whilst in the land in corn ; and he will soon find that he former, a change of rotation would effect cannot sustain the land in heart with that

the improvement with the same tenant.

proportion of corn, without purchasing extraneous manure, and that if he does

5331. The conditions of lease are gene not keep the land in heart, the means of rally the same for all the arable farms of paying his rent will rapidly decline. To- an estate, except a particular farm should

wards the latter end of the lease, it is contain strong clay soil ; but, to be really probable that the tenant may take advan- beneficial to soils, it is clear that all con tage of the land , by declining to purchase ditions should be made suitable to the extraneous manure, especially if he wishes circumstances of the individual farm . I to quit the farm . To meet such an exi- am convinced that inattention to this mat gency, it becomes necessary to impose ter causes many a farm to be ill-farmed,

severer demands upon him on the subject and disappointment and loss of capital insisting upon any particular rotation, it cannot endure the cropping of a strong

of manuring ; and moreover,still without to many a good farmer. A weak soil

will be sufficient to stipulate that not less one, nor a deaf soil support stock like a than a given proportion of the farm shall sharp one ; each class of soils requires dif be left in grass, laid down with a grain ferent treatment—why, then, should all be crop, after a manured fallow one.

When-

placed under the same conditions ?

Simi

508

REALISATION .

larity of conditions is a simple mode of human food, profitable to the tenant, and placing all the farms of an estate under raised necessarily on manured soil, I do one class; but its adoption displays no

not perceive the justice of this restriction .

judgment, and evinces want of discrimi- The bay crop is inore injurious to land nation on the part of its owner.

No than potatoes, and yet it is usually per

stronger example thanthis can be adduced mitted to be sold. I expect to see theday for the propriety of allowing a good far- when no hay sliall generally be made upon mer to exercise his skill according to the a farm , unless it be from grass in a succu nature of the soil ; and wbere the exer-

lent state, and from permanent meadow ,

cise of judgment is granted, the farm improves, and the tenant prospers. But such a liberty cannot be granted to one tenant without extending it to all, is the narrow view taken of the subject ; so that the skill

and to no greater extent than to supply its wants, which are not great when cooked food is easily made. In the neighbourhood of towns, where mannre

can be obtained at will, the sale of hay of a superior tenant is purposely cramped, and even straw to their inhabitants is for the sake of maintaining a check upon permitted ; but straw is generally prohi an unskilful one . Much better, let it be bited being sold, as also farmyard manure. obviously known, that the skilful tenant

is purposely encouraged, and the slovenly 5334. Penal clauses are inserted into one kept under restrictions, than follow every lease, and seem necessary for the such a depreciatory system. The good protection of the landlord. In cases of

that would arise of discriminating the miscropping, by taking two corn crops in capabilities of farms, and also the pro- succession, a penalty of £5, or £ 10 an priety of choosing the tenant and not the rent, is thus clearly made apparent.

5332. There being no rotation of cropping on a pastoral farm , except on the small portion of ground available to culture, the number of years of the lease may be left indefinite; but should the farm retain its stock, whether of cattle

or sheep, until they are two or three years old, the principle for calculating the duration of the lease might be the multiple of those periods ; but usually

acre, over and above the rent, is threat

ened ; and a large fine is required for this purpose, otherwise the advantage gained by miscropping would be very consider able. An obligation is made imperative upon the tenant to remove from his farm at the time specified in the lease, without the exhibition of the usual legal instru ments of dismissal; otherwise the eject ment of a tenant reluctant to leave his

farm might be attended with much trouble and considerable expense . The subletting of a lease to another party is prevented,

pastoral farms have not so long lease

as well as its assignation to trustees

as arable, there being a mutual desire between landlords and tenants to adjust rents according to the prices of stock and wool every 7 to 14 years.

for behoof of creditors ; and when either is permitted, it is by consent of the land lord -- which are proper restrictions, other wise the farm might be alienated from the proprietor for the whole course of a lease,

5333. Other clauses, in regard to crop- for the benefit of parties with whom he ping, besides those relating to rotations bas no concern. and general management, such as classing 5335. In Ireland, leases are frequently flax among the corn -crops, are sometimes introduced into leases ; as also in regard granted for a long series of years — from 21 to manuring: Half manuring on the to 31 years - accompanied most commonly oat-stubble in autumn, or in the drills with a life-time of some young prince or in spring, will suffice for pease and nobleman, or of three persons mentioned beans; but it is too much exertion for any in succession, as they happen to die. land, even in the highest heart, to produce It is probably owing to this long aliena a crop of oats, then of beans, and then of tion of his property by theproprietor, that wheat, without manure.

Potatoes are

the feeling of proprietorship so strongly

sometimes prohibited being sold off a farin, exists in the minds of the Irish tenants. unless dung be brought in return, as they leave no refuse for manure ; but being

5336. The subletting of farms is gene

COVENANTS OF LEASE.

509

rally permitted in the leases of Ireland ;

more wealthy, more respectable, asa class, and such a permission seems almost neces- under a leasehold tenure, than under that sary when long leases are granted, and of tenancy -at-will ? The question will when it may be inconvenient, in their not be answered by a mere reference to course, for the successors of the deceased the condition of Scotland under the lease.

tenants to retain them with advantage to Scottish agriculture bas prospered under A worse species of subletting than this exists when the proprietor sublets the whole or a part of his rental to a middleman, who, to procure the

themselves.

the lease, probably because the tenants, true to their national character of trusting implicitlyin no one, would not confide in their landlords; and the Scottish land

largest profit to himself, lets small holdings lord has no doubt also acted on the same to poor tenants at exorbitant rents, or lets principle. Where two suspecting parties fields from year to year, atstill higher rents, meet, nothing but a strict agreement will on what is called the con-acre system. answer their purpose. The lease guaran Fortunately for the tenants and the coun- tees possession for a given number ofyears ;

try, themanifold evils of this system have and insures a certain amount of returns, given rise to a desire for its abandon- at least for the capital expended in the skilful and liberal treatment of the soil .

ment.

English agriculture bas, perhaps, not pros

5337. The subdividing of farms was pered so well ; because the English tenant, long permitted in the Irish leases, and its acting in the spirit of the national char

effects were worse even than subletting, acter, has much confidence in the im inasmuch as its tendency is to fill a pro- plied faith of his landlord's family , in perty with poor tepants, possessing as return for which the landlord demands a little skill as capital. To obviate the evil rent in a similar spirit; and the conse consequences of the system , those proprie- quences bave been all in favour of the tors who have to support their tenants on tenant- for, if the land has not been so well

the poor-roll are impelled to eject them farmed, the tenant has been the more in numbers; otherwise, they would retain enriched. Although I am sure that the

possession of the land, and pay no rent. lease is indispensable in Scotland and Ire Time alone will be able to counteract the land, I am not sure that it would produce effects of so objectionable a system as the similar effects in England. However subdivision and the subletting of land .

this may be, let the parties most interested discuss the question between themselves.

5338. In the north of England leases

5339. The lease is not without its alloy. are common, and upon conditions pretty similar to those in Scotland. In the mid- It binds the family of a deceased tenant to land and southern counties leases are the the farm , when it might be for their in

exception, and tenancy -at-will the rule. terest to give it up and divide their patri A strong aversion exists in Scotland mony. It may prove injurious to an un

against tenancy -at-will; but,from themanper in which it has worked in England, it cannot be so unmitigated an evil as represented. Families offarmers have sojourned upon the same farms for generations, and have become in the end independent yeomen .

fortunate tenant, who cannot appoint a trustee over it to wind up his affairs in the most economical way. It renders the position of the tenant unpleasant, when it binds him to a rent fixed in conformity with prices much above what he is likely

Any system that produces such to receive in the future.

It causes a snd

effects cannot be essentially bad ; and den rise of rent at the termination of an bad it has certainly not been for the ten- improvable lease. It tempts an injudi

ant's interests,otherwise they would have cious tenant to expend more ofhis money endeavoured , long ere this, to have got upon the improvement of land, than it rid of it; and I question much that if the affords him time to receive it all back alternative of their present condition, and again. that of a lease were placed before them , the majority of the farmers of Eng5340. Although a tenancy -at -will land would wish for a change. The avoids all these inconveniencies, a lease

question is, would they have been happier, is of benefit to the tenant, by insuring

REALISATION.

510

him a certain home for a given number of proper system of fluctuating rents would years - by affording him , most probably, as practically be asuseful in cases of tenancy much time as to receive back what he at -will as on lease. Such a system seems,

may have expended upon the land-by however, in a theoretical view, to be most securing to him the fruits of his enterprise required on leases; and its establishment

for a given time; but as to the political would therefore, we think, remove the independence said to be afforded by the most plausible argument against that lease, I am doubtful that a tenant in

Scotland is any more of a free agent than a tenant in England.

practice .'

5342. Many trifling conditions still exist in leases, indicative of the spirit of

5341. In reference to the application feudalism - one of which is the payment of the grain rent to a tenancy -at-will, I of kain or cane fowls. If the landlord would again quote from the writer to whose desires to have the fowls for domestic

opinions on this subject I have already use , he will have a much better choice of good poultry, of all ages and kinds, made so many references. wish to point out is,” he observes, “ that amongst those who have poultry for sale, the injustice of fixed rents is most gene- than in kain fowls.

From the general

rally felt in cases of farms let on lease, dislike to deliver kain, the fowls are fre

and this, in our opinion, forms the only quently delivered old and lean, and when fol

strong argument against leases; and there-

objected to, the shame of detection,

fore the establishment of a proper system lowed by worse feelings, is felt by the of fluctuating rents would, besides its tenant ever after. It would be well to other advantages, be the most effectual abolish the paltry impost altogether. way of extending throughout England

5343. Personal services, such as driving this tenure, which , even on a less perfect system , has been of immense advantage to coals for the landlord's use, are still im the agriculture of Scotland. We do not, posed in leases. Such a service is con

however, mean to say that it would be venient for a landlord who has no work useless to adopt such a system in cases of horses of his own, and is regarded as tenancy -at-will. The rents in such a case trivial by the tenants, if demanded at are often allowed to remain , nominally at a time when field -labour is not urgent.

least, unchanged for generations, so that Such a service, nevertheless, ought to be they become as ill suited to the times as convertible into money at the option of those of tenants on lease. The loss, how the tenant, rather than of the landlord.

ever, from fixed money-rents at will is 5344. In Scotland, the public burdens chiefly felt by proprietors when rents are gene on land are paid by the proprietor, and naturally rising; for they, being felt generally as a harsh measure, do not raise the the tenant has nothing to pay but his

rents of respectable tenants, however justly stipulated rent. In England, all the they are entitled to do it. On the other public burdens are paid by the tenants. hand, when rents are naturally falling, Of the two methods, the Scottish is much tenants -at-will get reductions, though the fairest for both parties, it being no their rents may be nominally continued at more than reasonable that the proprietor

the original amount. Tenants -at-will, therefore, need not suffer heavy pecuniary loss from a fixed rent, as they have always the alternative of quitting their bargains

should pay the burdens of his own land ;and it is certainly unreasonable to make the tenant pay those burdens, when he has no voice in the affairs of the county . It is

should there be no reduction .

true that the amount of the burdens is

In such

circumstances, however, tenants are in an taken into account in determining the rent ignominious state of dependence on the at the commencement of the lease ; but generosity of their landlords, and these, as they vary considerably, and are always withholding the customary and necessary on the increase, it is not possible to know reduction, have a ready means of getting what their amount will become by the quit of tenants.

It thus appears that a termination of the lease. * Journal of Agriculture, January 1846, p. 139.

If the burdens

COVENANTS OF LEASE.

511

are paid by the tenant on stipulation, he responsible for the outlay ; and the tenant, does so merely for the convenience of the when he made the request, would no landlord, who deducts the payments from doubt intimate to him that he looked to the rent.

him for repayment.

5345. But some of the public burdens are paid by the tenant as such. He gives the labour of his men and horses, for a given time, upon the statute -labour roads through the property, or commutes it by

the money without asking his landlord's consent, is it reasonable, is it common sense, is it justice, that the landlord shall be obliged to reimburse money in the out lay of which he had no voice ? Would such an obligation not be tantamount to

But if he laid out

payment in money;and he pays his share making the landlord lay out money in of the poor -rates, which is now consider- improving land whether he willed it or able in Scotland, is very onerous in Ire- not, or whether he was able or not , and land , and but little abated in England. to lay it out, too , in a manner not to please himself, but to please another party ? No 5346. Of late years the claim of “ ten- legislature would confer such a " right,” ant right ” has been agitated both in Eng- which would amount to tyranny. When land and Ireland, and should the subject a tenant leaves a farm in better state than

be settled in any form by the legislature, he got it, the landlord will receive a it must enter as an element in thenegotiation of the covenants of a lease. Taking a general view of the subject, according to my notion, in regard to any “right ”

higher rent for it from the new tenant. Whether the outgoing tenant has a claim for compensation , in such a case, depends upon circumstances. If the tenant paid

connected with land, it must be conferred as much rent for the land it was fully by statute, or by special contract betwixt worth at the commencement of his lease, the owner and the cultivator of the soil. and no rise of prices had taken place dur

Until, therefore, an Act be passed confer- ing it, I should say that the landlord is ring it, or an agreement be entered into by obligated to him , and should make him landlord and tenant, no “ right ” can exist some compensation for his liberality to

in my opinion. It will be timeto talk of a “ right” after it has been conferred , but the attempt is made to have the “ right ” conferred. Let us therefore see what the “ right” is which is demanded , and whether or not it be reasonable in itself.

the land ; but if he got the farm at a low rent, according totheterms of an improving lease, and prices had risen in the interval, then I say he has no claim for compensa tion . He has enjoyed the possession of rent less than the rack -rent, and the rise in

price, which would of itself have raised the

5347. I_understand that the right rent during his entire lease. Where the claimed in England for a statute is that, tenant has voluntarily undertaken build whenever the tenant shall have laid out ings, fencing and draining, even by his land money upon his landlord's land, which

lord's consent, that landlord would be un

has obviously improved it, he shall have the “ right ” to make his landlord reimburse him the amount when he leaves the farm . For example, if he shall lay out money in erecting buildings, forming fences, making farm -roads, draining, liming, manuring, and so forth, he shall

reasonable who would refuse him all com pensation. But all these matters oughtto have been settled in the lease, and it isonly within the covenants of that document that the “ right" of the tenant should be found . The claim of “ right ” is specially put forth for the tenant-at-will, in order to

be reimbursed for one and all of these induce him to improve bis farm ; but such

outlays when he leaves the farm , or when · an expedient is but a poor substitute for he dies. The claim does not in its terms the security conferred by a lease. The seem unreasonable, but the obvious ques- struggle, therefore, should be for the lease, tion arises, whence came it that he in- and not for the “ tenant right.” curred these outlays ? Did he lay out all 5348. The “ tenant right" claimed in that sum of money upon another's land,

without bis consent being asked and Ireland is of a different nature, its preten granted ? If the consent were asked and sion being of an extravagant character, granted, then the landlord tacitly became and if granted would virtually render the

REALISATION .

512

tenant the proprietor of the soil. I have tion for the delivery of kain fowls, which are seen the claim put in these terms :- -“ The also called flying customs. In some districts, a by the made remote produce advocates of “ tenant right claim liberty customary lessees of payment fisheries ;in and in theis more

to sell their possession tothe highest bidder. partsof Scotland,it is understood that there still They state that by the er tion of build- exist customary returns in produce of various

other improvements, kinds,which, being regulated bythe usage ofthe

ings, draining, and barony or estate, cannot be district, or of the they have expended their capital on the comprehended by any general rule. When land, which they have a right to be repaid ; treating of rents in question with regular suc or, if they have not done these things cessors, it was recommended that such returns themselves, they have paid to their pre- should be made convertible into money at the decessors in the occupancy of these farms option of the lessor, and the lessee ought to have a sum of money for possession, including the same power." the improvements which the former occu pier may have made : and for this they ON ENTERING TO A FARM .

expect compensation.

They demand, not

only compensation for any improvenients

5351. The usual period of entry to a which they make, but also for those which have been made either by themselves or farm in Scotland is at Whitsunday and

their predecessors, and they require the Martinmas, or at the separation of the legislature, in any act which may be crop from the ground. These terms of passed, to provide security for both . This entry are not equally favourable for the renders the question both difficult and tenant in every species of farming. Entry

complicated, and the difficulty is still to the houses andgrass at Whitsunday is more increased by the fact that, at the convenient for a tenant practising mixed present rent of land, the mere "tenant husbandry, as it enables him to sow tur rig which the parties in possession believe they have acquired, either by the improvements which they have made, or forwhich they have given compensation to their predecessors, would produceno-

pips for his stock in winter, and to fallow land for autumn wheat. Were be to enter wholly at the separation of the crop from the ground, he would have no turnips for his stock but what be purchased, either

thing, and that in many cases the

from the way- going crop on the farm or

posses

sion of the farms would not be accepted elsewhere. Entire entry cannot be given to The relation of any incoming tenant at Whitsunday, as landlord to tenant in Ireland is by no he cannot enter the ground on which the

even as a free gift.”

meansin a satisfactory state, but it is not way-going crop is growing. The second

by such claims as these that it will ever be entry at Martinmas enables the in - comer

amended. In Ireland, the tenant is too apt to plough the stubble land in time for the to get into the notion that he is all but ensuing green crops. proprietor of the ground he occupies, and

5352. Entire entry at the separation of the crop from the ground, is convenient

to act accordingly .

enough for the tenant who breeds no live 5349. “ A minute of lease, like missive letters, be stamped before action willlie, and it is stock,as he can purchase them for winter, must recommended that, beforepossession,' a formal according to the opportunity afforded him

to purchase straw for litter and turnips

lease shall be executed ." *

for food, either from the way -going crop 5350. “ Where the return in kind made by the tenant was meant to be consumed in the house

on the farm or elsewhere.

The carse

hold of the landlord, it consisted not only of farmer, and the one in the neighbourhood grain, but of other produce. This return was of towns, would also find this a convenient

called cana or kain ,which has been deemed to enough term of entry. siguify merely a certain annual presentation. In

more ancient leases, fed cattle were payable.

5353. A dairy farmer finds it most con venient to enter at Whitsunday, having leases, comparatively modern, there is a stipula- the grass in summer, and the power to

Custom wethers and fowls are specified in the

style of the tack given by Dallas.

In some

* Farmers' Lawyer, Appendix, p. 223 to 331 . + Hunter's Law of Landlord and Tenant, p. 634-5 ; and p. 835-9.

ENTERING A FARM .

513

raise turnips for winter; and so does the not containing more than five acres. As pastoral farmer, whether of cattle or sheep. oats and oat-straw are the most conveni ent sort of crop to purchase, the way -going

5354. The most generally convenient times of entry, for all sorts of farmers, is that to the houses and grass at Whitsunday, and to the land at the separation of the crop from the ground.

crop consists as much of that species of grain as practicable. It is obvious that the in-coming tenant has no more chance securing a part or whole of the crop, of th a an ny other person ; and should it fetch

higher prices than he is disposed to give,

5355. In England the times of entry he will rather purchase straw elsewhere ; vary much in the different counties. Per- but, in any case, he is obliged to purchase haps the most common entry is at Old corn he may bave no use for, in order to

Lady-Day tothe houses and grass, and to

secure the straw upon which it grows, and

the land at Michaelmas; but entry is also of which he is at the time much in want.

given as soon as Candlemas in some districts. 5356. In some leases, the out- going tenant at Whitsunday is prohibited grazing the new grass in the spring, which is a good stipulation for the in- comer, as it is quite possible for the out-goer to eat the

The practical effect of this system upon the in -coming tenant is, that he must pos sess capital to purchase as much straw as his stock will require in winter, and as much manure as will do justice to the land in summer ; and its effect upon the farm is, that, should the in - coming

newgrass so bare with his stock, by Whit- tenant not havecapital beyond the stock sunday, as to deprive the in-comer the use ing of the farm , he cannot purchase a suffi of it for several weeks after that term . cient quantity of straw and manure, and both his stock and his land must suffer

5357. The out-going tenant has always privation to that extent. It istrue he can a way -going crop,which he can dispose of bring his own way - goingcrop , if he be leav in two ways- one when he must leave the ing one farm to go to another, to the new straw in steelbow , the other when he can

farm ; but unless the two farms are

dispose of the entire crop as it grows. near, it would be impracticable to carry a

“ By a declaration that the straw and crop, and build it in the stackyard, at a season when everybody is too busy to

manure are steelbow , it is assumed that

they are given by the landlord, and are to render him any assistance. In some cases, be returned to him ; or, what is equiva- the lease provides that the out-going ten lent, deliveredto the in-coming tenant, to ant is obliged to offer half the crop in

whom the landlord has conveyed his right valuation to the in -coming tenant, or the A sufficiency of manure, and landlord — and should either refuse the

to them.

of the materials for its formation, are thus offer, he is at liberty to sell it ; and in permanently retained on the farin .” * other cases, a private agreement is made

for the whole crop between the in-coming 5358. The steelbow is a great boon to the and out-going tenants, irrespective of the

in-coming tenant, it being equivalent to lease. The purchaser bearsthe expense of his possessing as much more capital, at the entry to his farm , as the straw and dung he receivesare worthin money - for, without them, he would have to purchase both

cutting down and carrying in the part of the crop he has purchased. In any case, the in -coming tenant is placed in a worse position by this than by steelbow , which, somewhere. in my opinion, is a principle that ought to be generally adopted in reference to 5359. When the way-going crop is dis- straw and dung, except near towns. posed of by public sale asit grows, the 5360. In regard to the sum obtained sale takes place a few days before the crop should be cut down ; and for the conveniº for a crop as it stands, the value of the ence of purchasers, the fields are divided grain depends on the price likely to be into lots comprehending two or more obtained for it in the market in the ensu

ridges, according to their length, the loting winter. The in -coming tenant who * Hunter's Law of Landlord and Tenant, p. 264. VOL . II .

2 K

614

REALISATION .

enters as a beginner, will consume most of farm entirely by giving up the keys of the the oat crop in supporting his men and corn-barn, and withdrawing his work

horses, and in sowing the oat-break of the succeeding crop. The crops are estimated by the acre, and after deducting theexpense of reaping, carrying, stacking, and thrashing, the value per acre of the

people and horses from the houses and stables. Not unfrequently the in -coming tenant undertakes for the out-going one the thrashing and delivering of the crop to market, on payment for the trouble.

grain is ascertained ; and that of the straw is worth so much per quarter of

5362. There are always questions of

grain per acre. Suppose, for example, minor magnitude, though of importance that the crop of wheatis estimated at 4 between the landlord and out- going tenant,

quarters per acre, and is worth 40s. per the settlement of which are usually made quarter and the straw 10s. per quarter, over to the in - coming tenant, as being the the value per acre will stand thus :party most affected by them . These con 4 qrs. Wheat, at 40s., Straw, 10s. per qr.,

£ 8 00

sist of the state of the fences, of the gates,

2 0 0

of the steading, and of the dwelling

£ 10 00 8 .

houses, all which the out-going tenant is

bound to leave in teuantable repair. The

d.

Deduct reaping per acre, 10 0 6 0 carrying , thrashing , 1s. per qr., 4 0

most pleasant way of ascertaining the fact, 100

whether these are left according to the terms of the lease, is by arbitration, un dertaken by friends mutually chosen by

Value of the crop per acre ,

£9 0 0

the out-going and in -coming tenants, with power to the arbiters to appoint an overs

In like manner with other sorts of grain . man, in case of a difference of opinion aris The value of oat-straw may be taken at ing between them . When the fences and

58. 6d., and of barley -straw 4s. per quarter. buildings are obviously in a tenantable state of repair, the business is soon settled ; but

5361. Whenever the way -going crop is when otherwise,thearbiters appoint trades

sold on its foot, and it has been cut down men , acquainted with the respective sorts of and removed by the purchasers, the in- works, who are paid to inspect the state of coming tenant enters and ploughs the the particulars under arbitration, to calcu stubble land, and the out-going tenåt late the costs of repair, and to report their takes his departure ; but when the straw opinions in writing, or in evidence. The de

is held in steelbow by the farm, the out- creet of the arbiterscontaining their awards, going tenant bas a right to be accommo- results in the out-going tenant paying the

dated in the stackyard and the steading expenses of repair to the in - coming, who until the crop is thrashed and delivered, thus becomes obligated to leave the same

for which purpose he must have the con- articles in a tenantable state for his suc trol of the thrashing-mill, as much of the cessor. These are the ordinary subjects of work-horse stable as will house as many the arbitration ; but any other, such as the

horses as the thrasbing -mill requires — and value of the way-going crop, may also be if it be moved by power, as many as will arbitrated by the same parties.* be required to take the grain to market ;

and as many cottages asshould be occupied by one man and at least three women, to take charge of the crop for thrashing and sending to market. The out- going tenant must not thrash his crop faster than the in -coming one can consume the straw with his stock, to save it from waste ; nor must the in -coming tenant use the straw more slowly than will allow the out-going one to have cleared the stackyard by the

5363. The greatest difficulty which the

young farmer experiences, on assuming the management ofa farm , is in distributing and adjusting labour. To accomplish these correctly, both as regards the work and the labourer, a thorough knowledge is re quisite of the quantity of work that can be performed in a given time by all the means of labour, animate and mechanical, usually employed . It is the duty of the

Whitsunday following, when he leaves the young farmer to have acquired this know * Parker's Notes on the Lau of Arbitration.

ENTERING A FARM.

515

Value of the pro .

ledge with all correctness ; for a skilful distribution of the workers enables the England ,

work to be performed in the most perfect Scotland, Ireland , manner in regard to the soil,—with the smallest exertion as regards physical force, England ,

--and with the greatest celerity in regard Scotland to time ; and a judicious adjustment of Ireland ,

duce of arable acres

Pasture .

to each labourer . £77 14 9 107 3 5 14 0 0

£61 12 3

£ 139

9 0

160 24

Labourers.

Wages .

1,000,000

170,000 2,000,000

52 18 10 0

Total.

70 2 0

2 0

Total value.

£27,508,675 4,213,772

£ 139,350,000 27,218,416

15,000,000

48,000,000

workers to one another, places every one “ The foregoing tables,” observes Mr Burness,

in a position to perform his own share of

“ fully bear out the truth that a similarity of

the work and no more, (60 ) (66 ,) and (69. ) kingdoms, practice hasnotyetbeen established in thethree sufficiently clear to be recognised as 5364. There are few things that strike a prac

a common index to the state of their agricultural

tical man more forcibly, in comparingthe agricul- industry ; that differences exist, not only at ture of England and Scotland , as the distribution

variance with science, but of a character and

of the work-people in the fields. In England, it magnitude affecting the health of the empire is not uncommon to see them employed in several differences, too, notonly between the long de

fields of a farm at the sametime, and the ploughs graded sistercountry and England, butalso be working scattered here and there. Now, the great

tween England and Scotland.

principle kept in view in Scotland, as regards

of Scotland, it will be perceived, returns his

Every labourer

the employment of the work -people of afarm , employer, from the comparatively poor soil ofthe is to concentrate the energies of them all as north , L.20 annually more than do those of much as possible . Many operations require the England from her richer soil ; and were the conjoint labour of theteams and field-workers, fertility ofthe soils equal, the differencewould and when so employed, they are confined within

be still greater. But, even as it is, such a differ

a given space of the same field , that the work

ence for each labourer is obviously a national

may be performed in as short a timeas possible ; shortcoming, which amounts to a sum equivalent and it is not possible to accomplish that end unless the labourers, of whatever kind, are so

distributed and arranged , that one party shall push on another, and should one individual

to little short of Old England's rent-roll. In Ireland, again, were the whole of her produce divided among her agricultural labourers, allow ing nothing for tradesmen's accounts, tithes,

flag, those who follow are prevented proceeding rates, and the interest of capital invested by in their work .

When labourers are scattered

landlord and tenant, it would not advance them

over different fields, doing different sorts of to a level with those of England ." * It would work, as is too much the case in England, no scarcely seem credible , did the foregoing figures testimony to the fact, that one labourer emulation can arise, and no effectual superin not bearacres annual arable land produces

tendence can be exercised ; and the consequence is that less work is done, and not so well done. In Ireland the case is still worse , for there no methodical arrangement of the labourers in the

an of to 159 value of L.107,3s. 5d., while one labourer to every only L.14 produces Ireland, seven arable acres in of yearly value of produce. No wonder that

fields seems to beattempted, or at all understood.

paupers swarm in Ireland !

5365. I have recently seen the following state ments by Mr W. Burness of London , of the pro duction and value of each class of labourers in each of the kingdoms of the empire : Arable acres to each labourer ,

England , Scotland, Ireland ,

17

1938 23

1714

Arable acres to

England,

50 50 26 Arable acres to each common labourer .

England , Scotland ,

Ireland , England ,

Scotland , Ireland ,

Total.

304 371 ) 65

each ploughman .

Scotland , Ireland ,

Pasture .

134

Pasture .

Arable acres to each boy . 84 84 11

its enactment, the cultivators were in a degraded

70 301 17

Pasture .

Total.

193 161

that the cultivators were of that class who were

41

94 67

Pasture .

Total.

109 77 16 Pasture .

27 Total.

each woman ,

351 186 11

But the

terms of that statute prove that, at the date of

10

124

A rable acres to

England , Scotland , Ireland ,

singular successors of the landlord.

state. They are called in the statute ' the puir peopel that labouris the grund ,' which empha tically conveys the idea of the want of capital and skill. Although there are indications, pre vious to this period, that the tenantry were in possession of a certain portion of stocking, and of the implements of tillage, yet it is difficult to ascertain the precise nature of the right in them which they were entitled to claim. There is a

74

40 142

30 159 7

Total.

5366. In regard to the establishment of steel bou , Mr Hunter says that, “ the noted statute 1449, c. 17, laid the foundation of an important change upon the condition of the tenantry of Scotland. By it the tenant was secured in pos session against purchasers, creditors, and all

459 166 16

810 352 27

probability so great as to approach to certainty, afterwards called steelbow tenants, which, if now altogether extinct, was practically alive until late in the 18th century. These tenants received

from the landlords, upon their entry, implements of husbandry, cattle, and grain, and were bound, * Journal of Agriculture, July 1850, p. 450.

REALISATION .

516

upon the expiration of the lease, to return the same number and quantity in equally good con dition. A qualified right of property was thus possessed by them. Cultivation by such means almost always exists in an early age of society, as may be gathered from numerous facts. In Greece, the cultivators were apparently of this class. In Rome, the coloni partiarii must be ranked under it. And on the Continent almost

any other class was unknown, not only during the middle ages , but in some of the most civilised nations down to a very recent period . In many of the provinces of France and Italy they were, under the name of metayers, the sole cultivators, 80 late as the end of the last century ; and the treatises on French law abound with rules for the guidance of the contract. In those Eastern countries where agriculture is considerably advanced, this mode of culture is practised . Traces also exist of its having been known in England , for ancient leases were formerly cited, by which

both live stock and grain were thus conveyed to

5368. December 1849. - Supposing that entry to the fallow - break is at Martinmas, and to the grass land and houses at Whitsunday, with the exception of the barns, stackyard , and two cottages, retained by the out-going tenant, for the convenience of managing the way.going crop , the first expense incurred is the ploughing of the fallow -break , which , if done by hired labour, will cost 89. per acre , but if done by the goodwill of neighbours in a " ploughing.day," which is the custom of the country, and is regarded as the earnest of a hearty welcome to a stranger , the cost will consist of ale and bread to servants, and a dinner to their masters, say 90 persons at 2s. 6d . £ il 5 0 each , 5369. March 1850. — Attendance at hir

ing -markets, for the engagement of farin servants for one year , from May 26 , 1850, with cost of arles,

A harness-horse , 5 or 6 years old,

0 0 0

0

0 0

6 Sets of work -harness, each to contain the following articles : 2 Bridles, 2 collars, 2 cart - saddles and

breeching, 3 back -bands, 2 pairs of long and 1 pair of short -chains, 2 pairs of cart and 2 pairs of trace -chains, 2 cart and 1 trace belly-band, 2 iron back bands, 1 leading -chain and belt, 1 pair of cart -ropes, long and short cart and plough reins, 2 nose -bags, at £8 each

48 0 0

set,

1 Set of gig-harness, riding-saddle and

than might have been expected. This probably

bridle , and stall- collar,

i Corn tun for work -horse stable, : 1 Corn tun for riding-horse stable ,

10 Whole-bodied single-horse carts, at £10, 2 Tilt- carts , at £ 12,

5 0 3 10 1 10 100 24

0 0

0 0 0 0 0

6 Corn -carts, to mount on single-horse

to be furnished to the tenant." *

cart-axles, at £3 , 10s., 2 Cart- frames, at 30s.,

5367. Having valued the farm ; made up your mind as to the rent it is worth ;

6 Stretchers for trace -horses, at 1s., 6 Iron ploughs, at £ 4, 4s., 6 Slides for ploughs, at 2s. each , 2 Iron small ploughs,at 50s. , 1 Iron double mould -board plough, 2 Iron scufflers, at 50s., 6 Pairs of harrows, with master swing -tree,

accepted the rent, andof been of conditions made offer agreed to the a lease ; sub-;

6 Full sets of swing - trees , at 128., and an

ON THE STOCKING OF A FARM .

at 42s .,

1 Carriage for harrows, extra one ,

mitted questions of arbitration between yourself and the outgoing tenant; waited

3 Long swing-trees,for drilling, at2s. 6a.; 6 Feering poles , with iron points, at ls. 3d ., 1 Pair ofbarrows for grass- seeds, .

until the period that entry is given to at least a part of the farm ; the time

has arrived to purchase the requisite To give the most practical stocking. view of stocking a farm , it will be necessary to enumerate the implements of

husbandry requiredto be purchased atsuc cessive periods, until entire entry has been fully obtained, and the live stock and corn

required at starting, to suit a five- course The

prices of implements may differ in different places, according as they are purchased at sales, or from animplement maker and

1 Finlayson's grubber ,

2 Two-horse rollers, ofmetal, at £ 12, 1 Presser roller, 2 -wheeled , 1 Wheelbarrow ,

21 3 0

00 0 0 60

25

40 0

0 12 5 0 3 10 5 0

0 0

12 12 3 0

0 0

4 4 0 7 07 17 7 0

0 6

0

6 0

0 0

24 0 6 10 1 0

0 0

1 Broadcast sowing-machine, with 3 wheels , 1 Turnip double-drill sowing machine, 1 Bone -dust and turnip double - drill sow

12 00 6 10 0

ing machine, 7 Graips for dung, at 38., 4 Spreading graips, at 2s., 7 Lime shovels, at 4s .,

11 10 1 1 08 1 8 09 0 13 0 4 0 2 0 10 04 0 7 0 7

0 0

0 12 0 4 1 1 0 7 0 3

0 6 0

.

2 Ditching shovels, at 4s. 6d . , 3 1 1 7 2 4

Ditching spades, at 4s. 6d ., Hedge spade , Dutch hoe , Stable forks, at Is. 6d. , Long do. at 23. 3d. , Half-long do. , at 1s. 9d .

4 Field and stack forks , at ls . Id . ,

0

0 0

6 6 6 6

0 0

3 Dung-hawks, 1 with 2 prongs, 1 with 3

prongs, and I with 4 prongs for cow . byre , at 4s.,

manufacturer. I have given the prices of new ones in Edinburgh, and it was neces

2 Mud hoes, at 2s. 3d ., 1 Metal trough for pigs , with divisions ,

sary to state a price in order to make the

1 Pruning -knife,

statement intelligible.

330 30 25

odd horse .

at £ 30 a.piece , A brood -mare in foal,

a farm or attached to it - establishes the exis

rotation on a farm of 500 acres.

0

Select 11 work -horses , from 4 to 6 years old,

must be presumed to have induced a similar result. But while the technical term steelbow which signifies in the Teutonic, goods placed on

arose from the fact that, as all the tenants were ranked under this class, the execution of a lease implied that implements, cattle, and seed were

0

shepherd , cattle -man , hedger, 5 ploughmen , and a stout lad to work an

the lessee. In Scotland, a similar state of manners

tence of this species of contract, yet there are, in the earlier records, fewer certain notices of it

1

The men hired should be a steward ,

1 Hedge -knife, large ,

Carry forward,

* Hunter's Law of Landlord and Tenant, p. 40.

£ 741

8 6

STOCKING A FARM. Brought forward,

£ 741 0

1 Axe, 1 Saw,

0 3 0 0 6 0 0 6 0 0 12 0 0 60 0 8 0

5

0

74 qrs. oats each ,

0 3 0

2 Tar-kits , 2 Oil - tins, 7 Cows' bands, 1 Bull's chain ,

1 Imperial bushel and strike, 2 Double- quart, or tenth -bushel measures , 2 Sowing sheets ,

2 Ruskies for carrying seed , at 58., 20 Corn - sacks, at Is. 6d ., 2 Stable -pails,

0 15 0 5 0 5 0 7 0 2 0 18 0 5 0 2 0 10

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 10

0

090 1 10 0

2 Horse-sheets, 1 at 20s.and 1 at 103.,

60 10

75 qrs.,

Year's poor -rute ,

0 10 0

1 Iron lever and wedges,

£ 1975 58

Brought forward , at 168. ,

8 6

1 Breasting -knife, 1 Grindstone ,

1 Sledge -hammer , 2 Hand-picks, 1 Mattock , 1 Iron foot-pick , 2 Small stone-hammers,

517

00 00

5372. June 1850. 1 10 0 12 3 15

3 Scythes for mowing grass, at 10s. each , 8 Hay -rakes, at ls. 6d . each ,

1 Horse hay and stubble rake ,

0 0 0

1 Long ladder, 20 feet long, at 9d . per foot ,

0 15 0

2 Half-long do., 12 feet long , at Is.,

0 18 1 10 0 3 0 10

6 Short do. , at 58. each ,

1 Sheep crook , 1 Bathing-stool ,

2 Tubs for pickling wheat, and for bath for sheep , 2 Pickling baskets , at 3s. each ,

0 15 0 6 6 2 10 0 3 0

2 Pair of wool-shears,

1 Beam , scales, and weights, for wool, 1 Buisting - iron and tar -kettle for sheep , 2 Hangers, and skewers for sheep when slaughtered ,

0 0

6 0 0 0

0 0 0

0 2 0

1 Set of Phlemes, Blood -stick , Clyster - pipe, and Drink -horn ,

I Pump and trough ,

0 5

6 0 00

1 Boring-rod and spirit-level for draining,

1

0

0

£ 757 11 6

5373. July 1850. 2 Potato - graips,

9 Baskets forpotatoes, at 9d ., 10 Turnip -hoes for women , at 1s. 2d. each , 10 Weed -hooks for weeding corn , at 6d . each , 4 Rope -twisters, at 23.,

0 6 0 6 0 11 0 5 0 8

0 9 8

0 0

5370. April 1850. — The tillage land of 500 acres will be apportioned in this manner : 100 acres of new grass. 100 2 - year old grass. 100 oats .

5374. September 1850. 6 Straw -racks for cattle in courts , at 10s ., 1 Turnip -rammer, 14s., and trochar, 3s.

80 acres turnips. 100

100

10 10 50 ..

50

i Turnip -cutter for sheep,

.

potatoes.

1 Do. cattle,

bare - fallow .

6 Turnip -pickers, at 23. each,

barley. winter and spring wheat.

6 Knives for topping and tailing turnips, 3 0 6 0 1 5 7 10 0 2 05 0 3 8 10

2 Hay- racks for sheep, at 30s. each , 20 Sheep -troughs, at 6s. ,

300 Net-stakes, at ld. each , Grass -seeds 7 lb. of red clover, 5 lb. of white clover, it bushel of perennial rye - grass per acre , which, over 100 acres , gives of White clover, 4 cwt. 52 lb., at 52s. per cwt. ,

20 1 1 1

£11 13 0

.

2 Stable lanterns, at 3s. Bd . each , 21

688. per cwt .,

5

0

1 for cattleman , 51

1

0

Hay for horses until they go to grass at the end 32 8

4 Tons 4 cwt seed -potatoes, at £ 2 per ton ,

0

0 0 0 0 6 0 6 0

0 7

0

0 10 0 2 7 0 8 3

6 0

Field workers, from do. to do .,

Blacksınith's work, from do. to do.,

3 Qrs. 5 bush . of seed -wheat, at 458.,

3

0

0

2

0

0

5371. May 1850. Share of the expenses of arbitration on fences

5375. May 1851. 2 Sows, 1 boar, and 4 shotts,

at Is per Ib. , 61 100 00 Cost of 120 lb. Swedish turnip-seed, per lb., . 30 lb. yellow , at 1s.

3

90 lb. globe, at 9d. per lb. ,

12 Tons guano, at £10,

7

6

120 00

200 Buslielsbone-dust ,at 23. 6d. per bushel,

25

00

Poultry, -- geese at 23. Bd ., goslings at 1s ., tur keys at 38 , young turkeys at ls., ducks and hens at ls., and ducklings and chickens, 6d .,

5

filly, forthedraught, 1 2 -yearold colt or do. 11-year old do.

18 12 25 126

do. ,

1 Short-horn bull,

9 Short -liorn cows, at £14 each ,

calves,partunweaned, at £ 2, 20 Short-horn 15s. each ,

0

0

0 0 00 0 0 0 0

10 21

14 Calves for rearing, at 25.,

0

00 00

Oats for 6 pair of horses 1 year, from April last year, at 34qrs. per pair 204 qrs . , riding-horse, 23 qrs ., in all – 227 qrs ., at 16s. ,

.

0

00 8 0

wagesweeks, Men's from atMarch 7 Men 10s., periweday per week , 28, 1850,} 28 o o 7 0 0

181 12

.

Seed -oats ,100 acres, at 5 bush . per acre 623 qrs. at 16s. , Seed -wheat, 40 acres, at 3 bush . per acre -

50

.

15 qrs. at 458.,

0

00

33 15

0

22 10

0

51

0

Seed -barley , 50 acres, at 3 bush . per acre = 18 qrs. 6 bush ., at 24s. per qr . , Clover seeds same as last year , Lime for one year , Tolls ,

1

20 00 5 0 0 20 00 5 0 0 1 0 0

1 Year's poor-rate , 1 Do. road -money, 1 Do. schoolmaster's salary , 1 Do. assessed taxes ,

2 10 0

1 Do. insurance ,

1 10

0

1 Do. mole-catching, at7s.6d. per 100 acres,

1 17

6

1 Do. blacksmith work for 6 pair of horses, at 55

0

0

20 Short-horn 1 -year old steers and heifers, at 120 0 0 £8 each , 120 Leicester ewes and their lambs, at 45s. each , 270 0 0 160 Leicester ewe and wether hoggs, at 32s. each , 256 0 0 10

2 Leicester tups ,

00

Servants'corn paidat May 26, 1850, in advance, 10 Servants at I gr. i bush. barley each , -11 qrs. 2 bush ., at 24s.,

3 bush .peaseeach , = 3 qrs.6 bush., at 26., vard ,

1 Horn for blowing at fodder time, 1 Drill-machine for sowing corn ,

15 00

of May , 5 tons , at £3 per ton , Oats, 40 qrs., at 16s.,

Carry

0

3 Others, 1 for steward, 1 for shepherd, and

Rye-grass, 18 grs.6 Ib ., at 20s., 18 3 0

and buildings,

Sheep -nets, at 7s. 6d . each , Mallet for driving stakes , Driver for stakes , Hay -knife,

1 Chaff -cutter ,

Red clover, 6 cwt. 28 lb., at

0 6 0

090

at ls. 6d . each ,

500

0

0 17 5 0 1 10 0 12

3

6d ., for cattle ,

13 10 4 17

0 6

5

6

£ 1975

60s. per pair, also for riding-horse and other jobs, 60s., Oil, grease, andtar , for one year, Do. of other field - workers in summer ,

21 0 2 10 2 15 74 0 48 0 5 0

Corn for 8 men , ' year ,

24 0 0

Bath for sheep , 440 sheep at if each , Money -wages of 10 men -servants for the lst year ,

Do. of 8 women , £6 each for the lst year ,

0

0 0 0 0

0

Oats for horses from May to harvest, 45 grs., 36

at 16s. ,

Carry forward ,

0

0

£ 2747 13 11

REALISATION .

518 Brought forward ,

£ 2747 13 11

5376. To Harvest 1851.

Thrashing machine, with hummeller and 140

bruiser , 6 -horse water power , If of high pressure steam , If of horse power,

00

120 0 0 0 10 4 10 1 10

7 6

1 Hand hummeller,

60 Corn -sacks, at Is. 6d. each , 1 Sack -barrow , with wheels , 2 Hand - barrows for lifting sacks of corn , at

0

0 0 0 0

0

4 Barn weights for filling corn , at ls.6d.each ,

06 0 0 0 0

1 Gantress for large beer barrel, Joiner and mason's work for 1 year ,

0

0

625 0 0

Reapers' wages upon 200 acres, 5s. per acre ,

50 30

0 0

0

0

4

0 0

4

8

6

6

5 2 3 1

0 0 0

5377. During the expenditure of the above sums , the following products have been sold off the farm :

2 Years clip of wool , 270 fleeces each year,

1 Large barn -sheet ,

0 120

150 Sheep sold at 358. each ,

0 0 0 0

20 Sheep died , sold for 20 Fat cattle , at £ 15 each , Pigs sold ,

Carry forward ,

0 0 0 0

10

the lease ,

Half-year's rent,paid Lammas 1851,

1 Wooden hoe , for corn ,

10 Cwt. of oatmeal at Is. 7d . per bag ,

0 12 0 18 0 3 10 0

Tenant's share of the expense of drawing out

0 0 0

Chaff-sheets , Barn brooms, Corn shovels, at 3s. each , Sack needles , and clew of twine , Furnace pot and grate , Meal ark ,

0

0 18 0

£ 3657 13 11

2 Oat wire -riddles, at 2s. each , 2 Barley do. , at 2s. 4d . each , 2 Wheat do ., at 3s. 3d . each , 2 Sieves do. , at 2s. d . each , 1 Slap-riddle , at 2s., 1 Barn - stool, 2 6 2 6 1 1

9 16

Incidental expenses for 13 year , 1

10s . each ,

£ 2920 6 11

6 Porridge kits for reapers , at 3s. each , 6 Milk tins , 2s. each ,

6 Small-beer barrels , 3s. each ,

£ 210

Dressing -fanners, 1 Barn -steelyard and weights ,

Brought forward , 28 Pairs of reapers' blankets,at78.,

7 3 6 2

0

0 0 0 0

510 at 6 lb. each - 3240 lb. , at ls. per lb.

£ 162 0 262 10 10 0 300 0 20 0

0 0

0 0 0

5 Cwt. cheese, at 50s. per cwt., 12 10 0 767 00

1 50 3 0 0 4 15 10

Making the balance of outlay to amount to

£ 2890 13 11

£ 2920 6 11

5378. The sum actually passed through little leisure for any amusement until the hands of the new tenant in the first

they are finished.

I will suppose, then ,

12 year

after entry to the farm is £7, 6s. you have all these things to do,and in doing 3d. per acre, and that actually laid out by them they must be undertaken in the order him is abont £ 5, 15s. Ed. per acre ; beside I have enumerated them. I say nothing on the sum required to furnish his house. the building of a farm-house, the form and appearance of which being a matter of

taste, with the exception of the working

ON CHOOSING THE SITE, ON BUILDING, part of it — the kitchen, scullery, milk AND ON THE EXPENSES OF ERECTING house, and cheese -room - on which my sentiments have already been expressed in (4192) and (4193.) Let us proceed ,

THE STEADING.

5379. In ordinarycircumstances, after a then, to the erection ofthe steading, which farmer has stocked and fully entered on

of course must be suited to a 500 -acre

his farm , he has little to do but to manage farm of mixed husbandry, the kind of it in the best manner in the mode of farming we proposed to follow ( 52.) farming he has chosen, or been obliged to adopt, (52,) and very few farmers have 5380. It is a necessary condition, to its the opportunity of laying out a farm en- proper use, that every steading be conte

tirely from its commencement; but al- niently placed on the farm .

To be most

though you may not be involved in the conveniently placed, in theory, it should necessity of originating a farm , it is not stand in its centre ; for it can be proved

improbable that the one you have engaged in geometry, that, of any point within may require either a new steading, new the area of a circle, the centre is the enclosures, draining, subsoil and trench

nearest to every point in the circumfer

ploughing, or waste land to improve - in ence . In practice , however, circum which case, you should be able to meet stances greatly modify this theoretical

whichever of those exigencies may occur. principle. For example, if an abundant I had to meet them

all ; for on the supply of water can be easily obtained for

farm of Balmadies, which I occupied in the moving power of the thrashing -ma Forfarshire, I had to build a new house, chine, the steading may be placed, for the new steading, form new fences, con- sake of economising horse labour, in a struct embankments, make new farm more remote and hollow spot than it

roads, trench -plough, and improve waste should be in other circumstances. For land. He who has more than one of the purpose of conveying the manure these operations to undertake, will find downhill to most of the fields, some think

BUILDING THE STEADING .

the highest ground near the centre of the farm as the best site for the steading. Others prefer the lowest point near the centre, because the grain and green crops

519

several apartments containing the live stock should be placed, in respect of dis tance to it, according to the wants of the stock for straw, in order to save

being then carried downhill to the steading, labour in its carriage; for so bulky and the labour would be less than carrying heavy an article as straw should in all them upbill, and they are heavier than cases be moved to short distances, and not the grain crops and manure. In select- at all from any other apartment than the

ing either of these sites, it seems to be forgotten that loads have to be carried both to and from the steading ; so that either position will answer, provided there be no steep ascent to or descent from the steading. The lower situation , however, is more consonant with experience and reason than the higher ; though level ground affords the easiest transit to wheelcarriages. It is desirable for the farm-

straw - barn ; so thatthe thrashing-machine, ( 1738,) which deprives the straw of its grain , should be so placed as at once to deposit the straw into the straw -barn, ( 1690.) The stack -yard, containing the unthrashed straw with its corn, should be contiguous to the thrashing-machine. The passage of straw from the stack -yard to the straw -barn through the thrashing machine being directly progressive, it is a

house to be situated so as to command a material consideration in the saving of view of every or most of the fields on the time to place the stack -yard, thrashing farm , that the farmer may bave constantly machine,and straw - barn in a right line. a bird's eye view of them ; and if circum stances permit, especially a plentiful sup-

5383. Different classes of stock require

ply of good water, the vicinity of the different quantities of straw , to maintain farm - house should be the site for the them in the same degree ofcleanliness and steading ; but if a sacrifice of the position condition, so that those classes which re on the part of either is necessary, the quire the most should be placed nearest the farm - house should give way to the con- siraw -barn. The younger stock, including venience of the steading. those in the hammels N, requiring most straw , receiving it largely for fodder as

5381. On referring to the accommoda- well as litter, the courts which they occupy tion required in the steading for the cattle in (1082 ;) for the horses, in ( 1389 ;) for the pigs, in (1574 ;) for the poultry, in (1598 ;) for the grain, in

should be placed contiguous to the straw barn , one occupying each side of it. The older or fattening cattle requiring the next largest quantity of straw , the ham

( 1678 ;) for young calves, in ( 2271 ;) for mels M which they occupy should be farrowing sows, in ( 2845 ;) and for the placed next to the courts in nearness to wool, in (3940, ) in the respective apart- the straw -barn. Horses and cows requir ments shown in the ground-plan in Plate ing the smallest quantity of straw , the II., I need here only refer to those places stables 0, and byres Q and Y, may be for the mode of fitting up each of these placed next farthest in distance to the apartments, and shall proceed to enunciate hammels from the straw -barn .

the leading principle on which these ar. rangements should be made; and being

5384. The positions of other two apart

simple, it will best be understood when ments are necessarily determined by that of the thrashing -machine, the one being looking at the ground-plan in Plate II. the upper barn , which contains the un

5382. Straw being the bulkiest article thrashed corn from the stackyard, ready on the farm , and in daily use by every to be passed through the mill ; and the kindof live-stock, and, although heavy and other the corn -barn, which receives the unwieldy, having to be carried and distri corn immediately after its separation from

buted in small quantities by bodily labour, the straw by the mill. The granaries it should be centrically placed, in regard to the stock, and at a short distance from their respective apartments. The strarbarn, its receptacle, should thus occupy the central point of the steading. The

should be in direct communication with the corn -barn, to save the labour of carry ing the clean corn to a distance. Fig. 133 shows the relative positions of the corn barn and granaries on a larger scale than

520

REALISATION .

the plate, where x is the corn -barn, m and construction is a secondary consideration, p stairs to the granaries, e e, fig. 130, r the andtheproperaccommodation for live stock window in the corn -barn, t thechaff-house, ought never to be sacrificed to it. For, and & the straw -barn . The granaries suppose that, by inadequate accommoda

should always be elevated above the tion, cattle thrive by 10s. ą -head less in ground, to keep the grain in good condi- the course of a winter, than they would tion, and it enables their floors to form have done in well - constructed courts and

convenient roofs for cattle or cart-sheds. hammels, and suppose that the farmer is The elevation which the granaries give to prevented realising this sum on three lots the building should be taken advantage of twenty cattle each of different ages, of to place them so as to shelter the cattle there is an annual loss to him of L.30 ; courts from the N. wind in winter ; and and had the capital sum, of which the in order to afford the warmth of the sun annual loss of L.30 is the yearly interest, to the cattle, all their courts should be been expended in constructing the stead

open to its light and heat. Thecourts being ing in the best manner, the loss would open to the S., and the granaries forming a not only have been averted , but the cattle

screen from the N., it follows thatthe gra- wouldhave been in much better health and naries should extend E. and W. on the N. condition to slaughter or to fatten on grass. side of the courts ; and as it has been So little is such a result anticipated in con

shown that the cattle-courts should be structing steadings, that in many parts of placed on each side of the straw -barn, the country, the cattle courts are placed

it also follows that the straw -barn, to be within a quadrangle, the southern range of out of the way of screening the sun from which prevents the rays of the sun ever the courts, should stand N. and S., at entering them ; and on account of that right angles to the S. of the granaries. peculiar form the chilly air rushes over the The fixing of the straw -barn to the S. of corners of the roofs into the courts in whirl

the granaries, and of course to that of the winds, which, if accompanied with rain or thrashing -machine, the position of the sleet, is sure to engender in the cattle the stackyard is necessarily fixed to the N. most insidious diseases.

of both, where it is favourably situated for 5387. It is easy to apply the principle spoken of to the construction of steadings 5385. The leading principle involved in suitable to all the other modes of farming

the preservation of the corn in the stacks.

the above arrangeinent is as comprehen- besides the mixed husbandry . For exam sive as simple, and is applicable to every ple, the steading for the arable part of a size and kind of steading. But, obviously pastoral farm , where its extent is consider correct as the principle is, it is seldom able, should be arranged as one for an

adopted in practice ; and I may safely arable farm situate at a distance from a assert that the greater the deviation from town , as in fig. 55. Most of the straw being the principle, the less desirable steadingsbe- required for the stables g and i, the straw come as habitations for live stock in winter. barn e is placed nearer them than to the byre 1,—the young stock of cattle, should 5386. One reason why steadings are cattle be bred on the farm , being accommo

not coustructed on correct principles is, dated in an appropriate steading with any possibly architects who supply plans are number of courts — such as n and m in fig.

unacquainted practically with the use of the respective apartments of steadings ; and they commonly bestow too much attention on their syminetrical proportions, on constructing them at the least possible cost, and within the least space , as if a few square yards of ground were of much value in the country. No doubt economy is enforced on them by reluctant

95—by itself, not far off. 5388. Where the arable part of a pas

toral farm is small, the steading should contain all the stock in aggregate. Fig. 95 represents such a steading, where b is

the straw - barn near the courts m, which contain the cattle that consume the largest proportion of the straw in fodder

proprietors, as well as by poor tenants, and litter. The stables d andf, and byre when either have to construct the stead- h, are situate farther off, as they require ing at their own cost ; but economy of less straw than the courts ; but to reuder

BUILDING THE STEADING .

521

the carrying of the straw to those still as experience and reflection may have sug more convenient than is shown in the plan, gested ; although the plan may have ap the straw - barn b might be made as much peared well enough adapted for the pur longer as to allow a door on each side of pose, but which may have overlooked many it, outside the courts m, to afford access essential particulars of accommodation and to the straw from the more distant of comfort. The contractor cannot complain those courts.

when he is paid for the work he has actually

executed. An ordained surveyor, mutually 5389. On a carse farm the straw is the chosen by both parties, then measures the

chief ingredient at the steading, and the work, calculates its several parts accord principle means of using it are the horses, ing to the prices stipulatedfor with the of which a large number is required on contractor, and draws up a report of the

such a farm . The stable f , fig. 96, is value of each kind of work, the total sum placed near the straw barn d, to which two constituting the cost of the farmstead. doors give access outside the courts l, in whichthe cattle pass the winter, and are also near the straw . The byre i is at no great distance.

Instalments of payment are made to the

contractor at such periods of the work as were agreed upon. This plan may give you no cheaper steading, but a dearer one than the common plan of contracting 5390. The construction of a dairy farm by a slump sum ; but cheapness should not steading is peculiar, as is shown in fig. be the principal object of building a stead

384. The principal part of the steading, ing, that being the convenience ofthe work the byre a, is so situate as to be near the people, and the comfort of the live-stock . cooking house b, and the fodder house e, in which the hay is chopped by means of the 5392. What I mean by essential parti cutter f, and which is necessarily contigu- culars of accommodation and comfort in ous to the moving power at p. The straw a steading are such as these :-In giving being most used by the stables w and y, a foot or two more length to a stable or the straw barn s is placed near them ; and byre, by which each animal may have two it would there be also near any hammels or three inches more room laterally, when that might be erected in the open space it would enjoy more ease and comfort. A

within the ranges of the building, for the window, instead of looking to the cold young queys coming forward to renew the north, may be made with as much ease to stock of cows.

The byre a is situate at look to the warm south.

A sky-light

no great distance from the door of the straw- might be made in the roof, to afford suffi barn s which affords it litter.

cient light to a place that would otherwise be dark ; an additional drain to remove

5391. The best way of building a moisture or effluvia, wbich, if left undis steading is not to contract for it in a turbed, might cause considerable annoy slump sum, because, whatever alterations ance. A door opening one way instead

may be made during the progress of the of the other, may direct the draught of work, the contractor mighttakeadvantage air to a quarter where it can do no harm .

of the change, and charge whatever be A door madeof a whole piece, instead of chooses for them, without your having a being divided into leaves, may make a

check upon his undefined rates; nor, for chamber gloomy; and the leaves of a door the same reasons, should the mason, car-

formed horizontally, instead of vertically,

penter, and slater works be contracted for when left open, may give security to an separately in the slump. The prices per apartment against the intrusion of every rood or per yard , and the quantities ofeach passer -by. These and numerous such kind of work, should be settled beforehand small conveniences may be obtained during

with the contractor. The advantage of the construction of a steading , without this arrangement is, that the work will be which it would want much of its com

finished according to the views and tastes modiousness and comfort — and which it of the party for whose use the farmstead would most likely want, were the farmer has been built, he having used the power bound by a contract to a specified sum. of adopting such slight modifications of the plan, during the progress of the work, 5393. Before the prices of work to be

REALISATION .

522

executed can be fixed on between the em- are reduced to a standard of 12 inches.

ployer and contractor, specifications of Rubble work is always charged by the

every species of work should be drawn up rood of 36 square yards. In measuring by a person competent for the task. Å rubble, allowances for levellings connected vague specification, couched in general with joists, bond timbers, and wall-plates terms, will not answer ; for when work

are now abolished.

As to hewn work ,

comes to be executed under it, too much ribats of doors and windows, sills, lintels,

liberty is given to both parties to interpret the terms according to the interest of each. Hence arise disputes, which may not be easily settled even on reference to the person who drew up the specifications, as he possibly by that time may have either forgotten his own ideas of the matter, or, by intimating his original intentions, may

corners, copes of chimney -stalks, skews, and wall-head copes are measured and priced by the lineal foot. Coursing, chim ney -head ashler, and every other work of similar description, is measured and priced by the superficial foot. In inside work, pavements, flats of stairs, and hearths, are measured and priced by the superficial so affect the interest of both partiesas foot. Steps and jambs are priced by the

rather to widen than repair the breach. Far slump. Stone skirtings are measured and better have every particular embodied in priced by the lineal foot. the specifications, than have explanations and modifications to make afterwards.

5395. The following specifications are applic able to every size and plan of steading ; and as

5394. The principle of the measurement they accord with my own experience, which has been considerable on this subject, I submit them

to be applied to the work is another item

with the greatest confidence. They embrace the

cations. It particulars of mason work, carpenter work , to be embodied in the specifi is too much the practice, in some parts slater work, plumber work , smith work, and of the country, to tolerate a loose mode painter and glazier work, which are not drawn up in the phrases usually employed in specifications,

of measuring work ; such as measuring but are illustrated by examples and by theeluci: voids, as the openings and win-a easily dation beof principles. Proper specifications could dowsare termed, that isof- doors on measuring drawn out from the data furnished wall for the rubble-work, to include all

the openings in it, and then to measure the lintels and ribats and corners.

In like

here. 5396. Mason -work.

The first thing to be

done in mason - work is the digging ofthefounda

chimney -tops are measured all tions of thewalls. When the site of thesteading manner, round as rubble, and then the corners are is not obliged to be chosen on a rock , the depth Now the fair

of the foundations of all the outside walls should never be less than two feet. Judging by usual

plan obviously is to measure every sort of

practice, this may be considered an inordinate

measured over and above.

work by itself: where rubble is,let it be depth , and asincurring much expensein build measured for rubble; and where hewn work ing an unnecessary quantity of foundation walls, is, let it be measured as such .

The hewn

which are immediately after to be buried out of sight. But this depth is necessary on account of

g, rubble and as the drains which should be made around the buildin assist theat rubble stonescostmore than the quarry they outside walls, to keep all the floors dry in winter ;

stones, let a fixed price be settled for them. andit is scarcely possible to keep them dry Thus the work actually done would be paid with drains of less depth than 30 inches, which for ; and more should not be paid, let the afford the water a channel of 6 inches below I

price of the work be what it may.

the bottom of the foundations. The ground floor of dwelling-houses may be kept in a dry

am glad, however, to add that the practice state by elevating it a considerable height above now , in all the towns of Scotland, is to the ground ; but such an expedient is impractic measure all work in nett measure; that able in a steading where most of the apartments,

is to say, in measuring rubble work the being occupied by live stock, must be kept as near as possible on a level with the ground ; and cubical contents of both rubble and hewn

it is not wood - floors alone that must be kept dry,

work are measured, and the daylight of but those of sheds, barns, and byres, whether in the wall presses, fire-places, window- The injurious effects of damp in the floors of all voids deducted . The exceptions are, made of composition, of causeway, or of earth.

bossings, and Alues of chimneys are included stables,byres,and hammels,on the condition of in the measurement.

All walls above 18

the animals inhabiting them in winter, or of

barns on the state of the straw , corn, or hay in

inches thick are reduced to a standard of them , are too much overlooked. Its malign in 2 feet, and all walls below 18 inches thick fluence on the health of animals, or in retarding

SPECIFICATIONS.

523

their thriving, not being apparent to the senses,

course of such foundation, whilst the higher walls

it is apt to be ascribed to constitutional defect in the animals themselves, instead of, perhaps,

should have two such courses.

to the truer cause of the unwholesome state

5398. All the walls, both external and inter

of the apartments which they occupy, ( 5386.)

pal , should be built of the best rubble work, the stones being squared, laid on their natural beds,

The truth is, the floor of every apartment of the

steading, whether accommodating living creatures, or containing inanimate things, cannot be too dry ; and, to render them as much so as is practicable, there seems no way of attaining the end so effectually as by digging the foundations of the walls deep, and surrounding them with still deeper drains. There are many substancesupon which walls are usually founded , which, from their nature, would make walls constantly damp, were expedients not used to counteract their

naturally baleful properties. Amorphous rocks, such as granite, which are impervious to water ;

closely set in good lime mortar, and well headed

and packed. Headers, or band-stones, should go through the thickness of the walls at not more than five feet apart in every third course. The walls should only be built one course in height on one side, before the other side is brought up to the same level, the first of the courses to go through two- thirds of the wall, besides the headers.

5399. The external walls should be 2 feet in thickness, and the internal division walls, as also

trap rocks, which, though frequently containing the walls composing the fronts and subdivisions minute fissures, being deliquescent, become very damp in wet weather ; clay, and tilly clay even more than the unctuous, retains a great deal of water : all these substances form objectionable ground upon which to found any building Stratified rocks, such as sandstone, not retaining the water long, form drier substances for a foundation than any of the amorphous rocks or clays. Pure sand is not always dry, and is apt to form , in some situations, an insecure foundation . Pure gravel is the driest of all foundations, but not the most secure.

From the nature of these

various substances, excepting the gravel, it would appear that no wall founded on them can

of the courts and hammels, 1 foot. In exposed situations, the walls should be 2 feet 3 inches

thick . The low external walls should be raised 9 feet, and the high external walls of the middle range , as well as that of the straw -barn, 15 feet above the ground . All the gables of the external walls, and all the internal division walls, should rise to the pitch of their respec tive roofs, and be filled up to the sarking. The front and side walls of the large courts and bulls' hammels, and the subdivision walls of the courts of the hammels, should be raised 6 feet, and the front walls of the hammels, as also those of the cows' and calves' courts and pig-sties, 5

assuredly be kept dry at all seasons ; and there-

feet above the ground.

fore drains are necessary to render and keep

carry roofs should be beam - filled with rubble

All the walls which

them so. A foundation made in a bank of even the work, as a precaution against the lodgment of driest gravel will prove damp, unless the precaution of deep draining betwixt the foundation and the rise of the bank is resorted to . Rather than

choose a site for your steading which is overhung by a bank , make a deeper foundation on more level ground, and drain it thoroughly,or even build some height of waste wall, and fill up a

vermin, (1681.) 5400. The external fronts of all the outside walls, as well as those of the front walls of the courts and hammels, should be faced with ham

mer- dressed rubble in courses, not exceeding 6 inches in thickness, with the vertical and bori Or

part of the ground that is low around the stead-

zontal joints raised or drawn in hollow.

ing. I have experienced the bad effects of dig-

the rubble work may be neatly snecked , and

ging a foundation for a steading in a rising ground of tolerably dry materials , and also the

carefully drawn in with a quarter inch key, and pointed. The tops of the front and subdivision

good effects of filling up low ground at a part of walls of the courts and hammels should be another steading, and have found the air in the apartments of the latter at all seasons much more agreeable to the feelings than in the former.

finished with a coping of hammer-dressed round headed stones, 12 inches in diameter, firmly set

close together in good lime mortar.

The bad effects of the former I endea

voured to counteract by deep draining, but it

5401. To test if rubble masonry is well built,

I am

step upon a levelled portion of any course , and,

was not so effectual as in the latter case.

therefore warranted in concluding that dry on setting the feet a little asunder, try by a apartments are much more healthy for animals, and better for other things, than are those which feel cold and damp. A circling of substantial drains around the steading, between it and the bank, will render the apartments to the feelings, in a short time, in a comparatively comfortable state.

searching motion of the legs and feet whether any of the stones are loose, and whichever is so rides upon others. Where a stone rides, it has not been properly bedded in mortar. To ascer

tain if any hollows are left, pour a bucketful of water on the wall, and those places which have not been sufficiently packed with small stones, will immediately absorb it.

5397. The outside walls should be founded with stones three feet in length, two in breadth , and

5402. The width of all the doors should be 3

eight or nine inches in thickness, so laid, in refer-

feet 6 inches, and their height 7 feet, with

ence to the line of foundation , as to form a scarcement of six inches on each side of the wall above them. The low walls may stand on one

corn -barn , straw-barn, and saddle - horse stable,

the exception of those of the work -horse stable, which should be 7 feet 6 inches in height. The

524

REALISATION .

should be elliptical, with a rise of 2 feet, with broached soffets on both fronts, an inch -droved margin, and radiated joints. The pillars of the all 7 feet 6 inches in height. cart-shed and calves '-shed should be 2 feet square in the waist, of broached ashler, with inch -droved 5403. The width of all the windows should be 3 margins, and built of stones 12 inches in height.

width of the arches of the cattle-courts should

be 9 feet ; that of those of the hammels, 6 feet; and that of the ports of the cart-shed, 8 feet; and

feet, and their height four feet, with the excep-

Those of the former should have a droved base

tion of those of the granaries, which should be 4 feet in width and 3 feet in height. The windows

course, 12 inches in depth with 14 inch washing, chamfered on the angles.

should have a bay inside of 6 inches on each Slits of 1 foot 3 inches in height and 3

'5409. The tops of the walls of the pig - sties,

inches in width in front, with a bay inside like

calves'-shed, hen -houses, and turnip -stores, should

side .

the windows, should be left in the walls of the have a 6 -inch droved plinth 12 inches in the bed. All the 5410. The fire-places in the boiling-houses and voids should have substantial discharging arches gig -house should have a pair of droved jambs

straw and upper barns for the admission of air to the straw and the corn in the straw.

over the timber-lintels, to be able to support the wall above, even although the timber- lintels

and a lintel, 3 feet 6 inches of height in the open ing, and a droved hearth -stone 5 feet in length

should fail.

and 3 feet in breadth. The boiler should have a hearth-stone 4 feet 6 inches in length , and 2 feet 6 inches in breadth, and it should be built with

5404. All the door - soles should be laid 3 in-

ches above the ground or causeway, and those of fire-brick, and have a cope of 4 inches in thick the stables and byres and calves'-house should be bevelled in front, that the feet of the animals going out and in may not strike against them.

ness of droved ashler. Fig. 114 in (1467 ) repre sents a common mode of finishing the boiler

5405. The corners of the buildings should be

all the fire -places and the boilers should be

of broached ashler, neatly squared, 2 feet in length, 12 inches of breadth in the bed, and 12

have chimney -stalks of broached ashler, 2 feet in

inches in height, having 1 inch chisel draught

height above the ridges of the respective roofs,

on both fronts.

The windows and doors should

2 feet square , and furnished with a droved check

have ashler ribats, the outbands 2 feet in length , and the inbands at least two-thirds of the thickness of the walls, and both 12 inches of breadth in the beds, and 12 inches in height. They should have 1 inch of the front, 5 inches

plinth and block 12 inches in depth. What is better is, to make the flues of fire-clay tubes, 10 inches in diameter inside ; and at this size they can be put in at 10d. per lineal foot.

of ingoings, and 4 inches of checks, clean droved. The tails of the outband ribats should be squared and broached . The doors of the

courts should be hung on the droved ashler cor ners when close to a house, but on droved built

work-horse and saddle -horse stables, upper and corn-barns, hay-house, bulls' hammels, byres, and calves' house, should have droved gibletchecks, to permit them opening outwards. The window sills should be droved , projecting 19 inch, and 6 or 7 inches in thickness. The

without the coping ; but the stone coping makes the strongest finishing. The flues from carried up 12 inches clear in the opening, and

5411. The gates of all the cattle and hammel pillars when in connection with low court-walls. 5412. The riding -horse stable, if laid at all with flags, should have them 4 inches thick , of droved and ribbed pavement behind the travis posts, having a curved water-channel communi The travis-posts

lintels of both the doors and windows should cating with a drain outside. have 1 inch of the front, 5 inches of ingoings

of the work-horse stable should be providedwith

clean droved, and be from 14 to 15 inches in droved stone sockets 12 inches in thickness,and 18 height. 5406. The skews should be broached when such

are used, having 1 inch chisel-draught on both margins of the front, and the inner edge with a 4-inch check-plinth, having an inch of back -rest under it.

inches square, founded on rubble work, and a droved curb -stone should be put betwixt the stone sockets of each pair of head and foot tra vis-posts, provided with a groove on the upper edge to receive the under edge of the lower travis -board. For the better riddance of the urine from the work - horse stable, there should be a droved curved water -channel. 6 inches in

5407. The holes in the byre-wall, through which breadth, wrought in freestone , 18 inches in the turnips are supplied, when such are used, breadth, all the length of the stable, with a fall should be 20 inches square, with ashler ribats, flush sills and lintels, having broached fronts and droved giblet-checks to receive their shutters.

at least of 14 inch to every 10 feet of length. The water- channel in the cow -byres, and in the feeding-houses, when such are used , should be of droved curb-stones 6 inches thick, 12 inches

5408. The side corners of the arched opening deep, and laid in the bottom with 3 -inch thick of of the cattle -courts and hammels, and those of droved pavement, placed 6 inches below the top the ports of the cart -shed, should be regular out and inband, 2 feet in length, 12 inches of breadth

of the curb -stones.

in the bed, and 12 inches in height, and dressed

5413. The water -troughs should not be of less dimensions than 31 feet in length, 2 feet in

in a manner similar to the other corners, but

should be chamfered on the angles. The arches breadth, and 18 iuches in depth over all; and

SPECIFICATIONS.

525

they should be clean droved outside and inside. composed of water-worn fragments of the primi Wood or pavement may be substituted for stone when that cannot be easily obtained.

tive and secondary as well as of trap-rocks ; but round boulders of micaceous sandstone, usually found in gravel pits, are unfit for causeways,

5414. The liquid manure drains should be

being too soft and slaty. A better stone is squared

9 inches in height and 6 inches in width in the

trap, whether of basalt or greenstone, imbedded

clear, with droved curved sills and hammer -dress- in sand, such as are used in the streets of towns. Glazed earthenware tubes with The ready cleavage of trap -rocks into convenient spigot and faucet joints are beginning to be used square blocks render them valuable depots, where for conveying the liquid manure to the tanks. A accessible , of materials for causeways and road stone 2 feet in length, 18 inches in breadth, and metal. The floors of the pig -sties and poultry 8 or 9 inches in thickness, with an opening through yards should be laid with thick , hammer-dressed it, giblet- checked , will contain a grating 15 inches jointed stones imbedded in lime mortar, having in length and 9 inches in breadth, withthe bars broken glass in it, upon a bed of 9 inches thick one inch asunder , at the ends of the liquid-manure of small broken stones, to withstand not only drains in the courts. the digging propensities of the pigs on the sur face, but to prevent vermin gaining access from ed covers .

5415. The bottom of the feeding-troughs in the below through the floor to the poultry. The byres, courts, and hammels, should be of 3-inch

areas of the cattle courts, and floors of the sheds,

thick flag-pavement, jointed and scabbled on

hammels, straw-barn, and cart-shed, will be firm

the face, or of wood.

enough with the earth beaten down.

All the window -sills in the

inside should be finished with 3 - inch droved or

scabbled pavement .

5418. A method of making the floors of out

5416. The walls in the front of the courts are intended to be quite plain ; but should you prefer ornamental structures, their tops may be finished with a 6-inch droved cope, 15 inches in

houses , recommended by Mr Waddell of Ber wickshire, deserves attention. It is this : Let

the whole area of the apartment be laid with small broken stones to the depth of nine inches . Above these let a solid body of masonwork, of stone and lime properly packed, be built to the height of 12 or 14 inches, according to the thick

breadth, with a half-inch washing on both fronts; and with a droved base- course 12 inches in depth, having a washing of 1 inch : the pillars of the ness of the substance which is to form the upper The lime, which is applied next the

gates to the larger courts may be of droved ashler,

floor.

in courses of an octagonal form , of 15 inches in

walls, should be mixed with broken glass. If a composition is to form the floor, it should be laid on 3 inches in thickness above the masonry ; but

thickness, and 2 feet by 2 feet, with 12-inch

base, and a 12-inch checked plinth and block, built at least 18 inches higher than the wall : and if you prefer an outside hanging-stair to the wool - room, the steps should be droved 3 feet 6 inches clear of the wall, with 6 inches of wall.

if asphaltum , 1 inch thick will suffice, the differ ence in the height being made up in the ma

sonry. * This plan of Mr Waddell's seems well adapted for making a solid and secure foundation

hold : and you may substitute droved crow -steps

against vermin, for the paving of the seve

on the gables for the broached skews, with an inch back -rest under them. Crow-steps, in my

ral apartments mentioned above ; but it is not so well adapted for wood- floors, either as a pre

opinion, are no ornaments in anycase, in a stead- servative against damp, or preventive against ing. They are only suited to a lofty castellated sermin, as the plan described in ( 1681.) style of building.

5419. Having seen several sorts of concrete 5417. Floors, and causeways, and roads. The floors of the cow -byres, work-horse stable, stalls of the riding-horse stable, passage of the calves' house, gig-house, implement-house , hay-house, and turnip stores, should be laid in causeway

now of opinion that any such composition is un suited to the purpose , and is far from durable.

with hammer -dressed squared whinstone, upon a solid stratum of sand, on a bed of broken stones, 12 inches thick, under it . The floors of the

ing, I do not recommend them .

used in the floors of barns and cottages, I am

5420. Asphalt floors not being suitable for dwelling-houses, or for any apartment in a stead

boiling-houses should be laid with 3-inch pave5421. Another mode of causewaying is wood ment jointed and scabbled on the face , also parement. Portions of the streets of London were A laid with this kind of pavement, the blocks hav causeway, 13 feet in breadth , should be made in ing been previously subjected to the process of the large court K, Plate II., to the corn - barn Kyanising, and they made smooth, clean, quiet, door, round to the gate at the work -horse stable, causewaying ; but its surface became so slippery for the use of loaded carts from the barn , with a in wet weather, and many accidents happen declivity from the wall to the dung area of 2 ing to horses, it was relinquished for ordinary inches in the 10 feet. Causeways are usually causewaying. It can scarcely be said to have formed in steadings with round hard stones had a fair trial, because, being confined to a small upon 12 inches thick of broken stones.

found on the land, or in the channels of rivers, space at one place, the dirt brought upon it by or on the sea -shore, imbedded in sand.

In those

situations the stones are always hard , being

the wheels of the carriages from the macada mised streets in its vicinity was the real cause

* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. viii. p 373.

REALISATION .

526

of the slipperiness,and not from any substance that

haps in the heat of summer, when they become oppressively hot. I had an opportunity of seeing a part of the road near Haarlem laid with these of a large city, it would be a desirablemethod of clinkers, and observed, as a part of the process, paving the road round the large court K, Plate that, as a certain piece of the causewaying was II ., the straw -barn, work -horse stable, hay-house, finished , bundles of green reeds were laid length cow-byres, passage in the calves’-house, riding- way across the road over the new laid bricks, to horse stable, gig-house, boiling-houses, and tur- temper the pressure ofthe wheels of the carriages nip stores. It would be expedient, when used in upon the bricks on going along the roads, until arose from its own surface. But however unsuc-

cessful it may have been on the thronged streets

a stable or byre, that some other substance than

the bricks should have subsided firmly into the

sand be put between the blocks, as it would ab- stratum of sand. As the clinkers are small, they sorb the urine too readily. Grout formed of thin can be laid in a variety of forms, some as a beau lime and clean small gravel, or asphalt poured tiful kind of Mosaic work. The import duty on in between the blocks, might repel moisture , as Dutch clinkers is 10s. per 1000.+ The price of has been tried according to Mr Simms. Gutta clinkers in London in 1842 was 355. per 1000. percha would be a most effectual binding for No mention has recently been made of their im the wood blocks. Dr Ure says, “ that slipperi- port, in the Parliamentary returns, probably be ness is not a natural defect in wood paving. The cause they are now made in England. accumulations on wood pavement are drawn from the proximate wear of granite and macadam . In granite, the imperfect structure admits of the constant oozing of dust and filth ; in macadam, the surface is always wearing into dust and slop.

5423. Fine smooth durable pavement is made of the beautifully stratified beds of the inferior

grey sandstone,a rock nearly allied to greywacke. It is a rock of fine texture, hard, and impervious

In very hot or cold weather the stone paved streets of London are proverbially as slippery as glass, whilst slipperiness in wood pavement is altogether obviated by cleanliness ; and that inay

to water.

now be insured by the use of Whitworth's clean-

broath patement .

ing machine, which has already been successfully It is im-

of Caithness and Orkney form very durable, though not always even pavement. Like the

possible not to perceive the great amount of suffering and loss that may be saved in horses

ing on the face. The Caithness pavement is, from

tried in some of the principal streets.

by the wood pavement. Cabmen and omnibus drivers assure us that, in the winter season , for a month or two only there is very serious cause of complaint, and then there is as much or more

danger on other pavements ; whereas, during the

It occurs in abundance on Lord Pan

mure's estates at Carmylie, in Forfarshire ; and

it is shipped at Arbroath, from whence in conse quence it has received the appellation of Ar Hard flags from the counties

Arbroath pavement, it requires very little dress its hardness, obliged to be cut on the edge with a

saw ; the Arbroath pavement is dressed with common masons' tools. Pavement is also formed of the stratified portions of the sandstone of the

other pavements is immense. The great mortality

coal-formation. Most of the foot pavement of the streets of Edinburgh is of this kind. Its face requires to be wrought with tools, and its

of horses in the streets of London, from overdriving during the hot weather, is well known ;

texture admits water. Arbroath pavement costs from 2d. to 4d . per square foot at the quarry, ac

so far as wood is concerned , the reduction of effect must necessarily decrease the destruction in a greater ratio than even 5 to 2. The

cording to the thickness. Both it and Caithness pavement cost 1s., and common stone pavement 8d. per foot in Edinburgh.

strength of wood pavement may be estimated by the fact that, in Scotland Yard, in London, no less than 78,000 tons per annum of traffic goes

especially where carting will pass along, should

over the wood pavement there, where it is con-

be properly made of a thick bed , of not less than

summer months, the advantage of wood over all

5424. All the roads around the steading, and

fined to a single carriage line - a test of the most

9 inches, of small broken whinstone metal, care

critical description .” * Wood- paving could be done in the country at a lower rate than any

fully kept dry, with proper outlets for water at the lowest points of the metal bed , and the metal

incurred in towns. To prevent slipping , small

occasionally raked and rolled on the surface un

sharp gravel is occasionally strewed over the sur. face of Regent Street, in London ; and it seems to answer the purpose .

til it becomes solid.

5422. Another method still of causewaying is with Dutch Clinkers, a very hard brick made in Holland , of about the breadth and thickness of a man's hand . They are used in that country in paving roads and streets. They are set length-

5425. Foot-paths of gravel or small broken metal, should be made to the farm -house and ser vant's houses from the steading, where these are not situate along the road-side. Such foot- paths afford much comfort and cleanliness in winter.

5426. Drains.—No steading can be dry and

ways on edge and imbedded in sand , and so laid

comfortable within its walls, unless a well-con

as to form a slight arch across the road . Most

structed drain is made to encircle all the outside

of the great roads in Holland are paved with this brick, and more beautiful and pleasant roads to travel on cannot be found anywhere, except per-

walls. In the ground -plan of the steading, Plate II., the lines of drains, and the directions they should run, are shown by the directions of the

* Ure's Dictionary of the Arts, Supplement--art. Wood -paring. + Clement's Customs Guide, p. 67.

SPECIFICATIONS.

527

arrows. The outlets of these drains should be

in the neighbourhood of Dundee, is a beautiful

as far removed from the urine tank as practic-

and durable building-stone.

able, and fall into a ditch or rivulet at a level be low that of the foundation of the steading. The drains should be dug as far from the walls as to be clear of the large foundation stones, and as

5430. All the sandstones of the coal formation

form excellent materials for building, as is ex emplified in Edinburgh, and many other places.

deep as to be 6 inches below their under face, and as narrow as practicable. If the foundations are 2 feet deep , the drains will thus be 30 inches deep. They should be laid in the bottom

with drain pipe-tiles of the size fitted for main drains, and be filled to the top with broken

stones like road metal : for these drains are not, like field -drains, intended only to receive water after it has filtered through loose soil ; but be sides the water they may receive from the soil below, they must receive all the rain water that may fall in the course of the year from the eaves of the back part of the roof of the steading ; for it

5431. The limestones make fine building-stone —from marble, as at Plymouth, to the carbonifer ous mountain limestone, to be seen in many parts of Ireland ; but, in case of fire, all limestones are apt to be calcined by heat, as was exemplified in the cathedral at Armagh, before it was lately repaired. 5432. Trap- rocks are employed in building houses, where sandstones are scarce. Whinstone

is objectionable, inasmuch as it throws out damp ness in wet weather, and the walls require to be

is not to beexpected that the expense of erecting rones will be incurred for that part of the build-

lathed and plastered on the inside, torender the house even bearable. Frequently where whin

ing, so that these drains must not only take in what water is presented to them below the ground , but also what they may collect from the surface -- and it is on this account that I recommend for their conduit the large main- drain

stone is near at hand , and sandstone can be ob tained at a little distance, the latter is employed as corners, ribats, and lintels, though the con

pipe -tile . Being situate very near and under the protection of the high part of the steading-

the eye. If sandstone, therefore, can be pro

wall, the small stones which cover them will

should give it the preference to whinstone, for

never be disturbed nor rendered impervious to

the sake of comfort to your live-stock in their

trast of colour, when the stone is nearly white, betwixt them is too violent to be pleasant to cured at a reasonable cost of carriage, you

habitations in wet weather. You may, indeed, this point, after experience of the efficacy of such choose to incur the expense of lathing and plas water.

I express myself thus confidently on

tering all the insides of the walls of the stead

drains for several years .

ing ; but a lathed wall in any part of a steading 5427. The kind of stone which should be em- will be apt to be broken by accident, and is, on ployed in the building of a steading must be de- that account, an unsuitable finishing for it. termined by the mineral product of the locality. In all localities where stone is accessible, it 5433. The worst sort of building- stone are should be preferred to every other material; but landfast boulders of the primitive and trap rocks, where its carriage is distant, and of course ex- which, although reduceable by gunpowder, and pensive, other materials, such as brick, must be manageable by cleavage into convenient shaped taken . In large flat tracts of country, stone is generally at too great a distance ; but in those

situations, clay being abundant, brick may be easily made, and it makes an excellent building material for walls — and now that the duty on its manufacture has been entirely removed, it will

stones, incur great labour in their preparation for building ; and even after the stones are pre

pared in the best manner they are capable, their beds are frequently very rough, and jointings coarse, and the variety of texture and colour exhibited by them , render them at the best un

be a cheaper material than it has ever been. Of sightly objects in a building ; but they make a strong wall. When of sandstone, boulders are

stone, any kind may be used that is nearest at

hand, though some rocks are much better adapted for building purposes than others.

apt to become splintery, and are unsuited for associating with lime mortar.

5428. Of the primitive rocks, grey granite

5434. Carpenter work.– Ofthespecifications of

forms a beautiful and durable stone, as is exemplified in the buildings in Aberdeenshire, Cornwall , and Newry in Ireland. Gneiss, mica-slate, and clayslate, do not answer the purpose well.

carpenter work, the first timber that is used in building consists of safe-lintels, which should be 4 inches thick, of such a breadth as to cover the

space they are placed over, and they should have They give a rough edgy fracture, frequently rise a solid bearing at both ends of 12 inches. too thin in the bed, especially in the case of clay-slate ; are not unfrequently curved in the bed, and at the same time difficult to be dressed with the hammer.

5429. Of the transition series, greywacke

5435. The scantlings or couples for the roofs vary in size with the breadth of the building. When the building is 18 feet wide, the scantlings should be 8 inches broad at bottom, 7 inches at top, and 2 , inches thick . Those for 15 feet wide

buildings should be 7 inches broad . All scant lings should be placed 18 inches apart from centre stone, though a good building -stone, has a dis- to centre, upon wall -plates 8 inches wide by 1 ! agreeably sombre aspect, as seen at Arbroath ; inch thick, firmly secured to bond -timber built makes a beautiful building stone, as may be seen

in the houses at Melrose .

The old red sand-

but the inferior grey sandstone, which prevails

into the tops of the walls. These dimensions and

528

REALISATION .

distances of scantlings are suitable for a roof of port the floor of the upper-barn , forming the roof blue slates. For a tile-roof the scantlings are of the corn-barn , should be clean dressed, to pre placed 2 feet apart from centre to centre. For vent the adherence of dust. roofing with grey-slates, which are heavy, the scantlings should be 3 inches thick. With tiles and grey -slates the roofs require a higher pitch

5442. In some parts of the country, and par ticularly in East- Lothian, the floor of the corn

than with blue slates, which is given by making

barn is made of composition ; but in order to leave

the scantlings 1 foot longer.

a part of the floor clean upon which to winnow

the grain, a space 12 feet square is usually left in

5436. The balks of an 18 feet wide building the middle of the floor. This space is laid with should be 74 inches broad by 25 inches thick, sleeper-joisting, 7 inches deep by 24 inches thick , and for the 15 feet one, 7 inches by 2 } inches.

and 18 inches apart from centre to centre, sup

In both cases the balks should be of the length porting a flooring of deal 2 inches thick, grooved of one of the scantlings, which will bring its position so low down on the scantlings as to be only

and tongued . As a precaution against vermin, as well as the enjoyment of cleanliness while

a little more than 3 feet above the wall-heads. winnowing and otherwise handling the grain, I It is generally supposed that one balk is sufficient for the support of the scantlings ; but I

would always prefer two balks to one, asin fig. 129, and the only objection to the two is the expense . When two balks are employed, the lower one will be about 2 feet, and the upper one about 5 feet above the wall- heads. 5437. When the slated roof is adopted, there

would always recommend an entire wooden floor for the corn-barn, to be laid down in the manner described in ( 1681 ,) and represented in fig . 129. 5443. The windows of the stables should be of

the form of fig. 107 ; those of the byre as in fig. 77 ; and those of the granary as in fig . 131 .

The astragals, if not made of wood , may be of cast -iron or zinc. Cast -iron astragals cost ls.,

should be a ridge-tree 10 inches broad by 14 inch thick ; and the tops of the scantlings should be

and zinc 9fd. the square foot.

strongly secured to the ridge-tree by spike nails. When a tile-roof is preferred, it is sufficient that the tops of the scantlings be half checked into

5444. The exterior doors, 74 feet high, should be of 14 inch deal, grooved, and tongued, and beaded, having three back -bars, 7 inches broad by 14 inch thick ; those of the corn -barn , cow byre, and boiling-house should be in two hori

each other. 5438. The whole roof should be covered with

sarking, inch thick , and clean jointed. A tile

zontal leaves, that of the upper-barn in two ver tical ones .

roof requires tile-lath, 14 inch square, and 12 inches apart, excepting at the eaves, which 5445. If desired, small windows of one or two should have a boarding from 15 inches to 18 rows of panes may be placed above all the out inches broad , and inch thick for slates . Tile- side doors ; in which case, the voids of these doors should be made proportionally high, say 8 lath is also employed with grey-slates. feet.

5439. The peands should be 8 inches broad, 5446. The inside doors should be 7 feet high , and ld thick, properly backed to receive the sarking or tile-lath of the respective sorts of of inch deal, with three back- bars 6 inches broad roofs. The flanks should be 11 inches broad, by and 1 inch thick, grooved, and ploughed , 3 inches thick .

and beaded . They should have checks 6 inches broad by 2 inches thick , and keps and facings

5440. The joists of the flooring in the part of 44 inches broad by : inch thick. the buildings that is 18 feet wide, should be 10

5447. The traris boarding of the work -horse

inches deep by 24 inches in thickness, placed 18 inches asunder from centre to centre, and having

stable should be l } inch thick , 9 } feet long, 7

a wall -hold or rest of 12 inches at each end .

feet 6 inches high at the fore and 4 feet 6 inches

Where the bearings of joists exceed 8 feet, it is

high at the heel posts, dowelled in the joints

a more secure and economical plan to have

beams, instead of battens, laid across the build-

with oak pins, and of an ogee form on the top, let into a 2 - inch deep groove in the heel- post,

ing, 13 inches deep, and 64 inches in width , with

and coped with beading. The heel -posts should

a wall-hold of 12 inches at each end. Upon these

be 6 inches square, beaded ; the fore posts, on both sides, 5 inches by 24 inches, and both fixed at the top to runtrees, 6 inches deep by 2 inches broad. The side-walls of the end -stalls should

should rest joists 7 inches deep, and 24 inches in breadth , and not more than 16 inches apart from centre to centre, dove -tailed into the beams with a hold of 9 inches at each end . These joists are best cut out of Memel log of first or second quality, the difference of price between the two qualities being 3d. the cubic foot.

5441. The floors of the upper and corn -barn and granaries should be of 14 inch thick , of red

or white wood battens, grooved and tongued , and well seasoned when wrought and laid . The under side of the floor, and the joists which sup-

be finished in the same manner, and firmly secured to wall-straps and bond -timbers.

5448. The travis-boarding of the riding -horse stable should be of the same strength as just described ; but the heel-posts should be turned 5 feet high above the ground , with moulded caps and balls, and let from 18 inches to 2 feet into the ground , through a stone frame 18 inches square and 12 inches thick, firmly built with

SPECIFICATIONS.

529

stone and mortar. The fore- posts should be 3 5459. The doors of the hen-house should be inches in diameter on both sides to the height of of 14-inch deal, beaded, grooved , and tongued. the travis boarding. Heel-posts, as in fig. 106, are also made of cast- iron, which cost 22s. each .

5460. Wooden ventilators should be placed

upon the roof above every alternate pair of horses 5449. The hay-racks of the work -horse stable should have a hardwood rail, 3 inches deep by 2 inches wide, and the spars of fir, 2 inches broad

by l } inch thick, placed 2 } inches apart. These spars should be put on both front and bottom .

and cattle, on the stables and byres, of the form

and dimensions of fig. 81 ; or they may consist of 4 -inch deal, 6 inches square, in an opening above every alternate stall, and furnished, on the upper part above the roof, with bent tubes of lead, 6 lb. to the square foot, or with zinc ones of

5450. The hay-racks of the riding-horse stable should be of hardwood , and placed high up, with rails, 3 inches deep by 2] inches wide, and turned rollers, 2 inches diameter, set 21 inches apart. Cast-iron racks are frequently used in

granaries, where tile are used for roofing, wool

the corner of the stall, and they cost 15s . each.

room , and hen-house, should be lathed withBaltic

5451. The mangers of the riding-horse stable should be of rounded battens in front, of full breadth of the stalls, placed at a convenient

height above the floor, and bottomed and lined

the same dimensions. The zinc ventilators vary in price, according to size, from 4s. to 78. each . 5461. The ceilings of the stables, boiling-house,

split-lath io of an inch in thickness. “ Laths are sold by the bundle, which is generally called a hundred ; but 7 score, or 140, are computed in the 100 for 3 -feet laths ; 6 score, or 120, in such as are 4 feet ; and for those which are de

Cast-iron mangers cost 15s.

nominated 5 feet, the common 100, or 5 score.' Lath is also made of home wood, usually Scots fir, sawn up into -inch plank, and split irregu

5452. In the work -horse stable, corn -boxes are

larly with the axe, and, when nailed on, the splits being kept open by means of a wedge ; but this species of lath should never be used, as it

with 14 inch deal. each .

placed in the near angle of the hay -racks. 5453. The stalls of the cow or feeding byres should be made of 14 inch deal, beaded, grooved, and tongued. They should be 6 feet long, and 4 feet high, with 1 inch beaded coping, let into

does not stand .

heel-posts, 5 inches to 6 inches diameter, and

and two pins let into rails 6 inches wide, and 1 inch thick , for each horse. The work -horse

held to the wall at the head with a 2-inch fillet, and iron holdfasts on each side. The heels posts should either be taken to the height of the byre-wall, and secured to runtrees, 6 inches deep by 2 inches broad, or fastened into the ground with masonry like those of the riding-horse

5462. The riding-horse stable should have

saddle-brackets of -inch deal, firmly supported, stable should have two similar rails, with large and small pins for each horse. 5463. Every court and hammel should be pro vided with a gate.

stable, ( 5448.) 5454. The doors of the feeding holes of the byres should be of -inch deal, of two thicknesses,

5464. The entrance to the piggeries should be furnished with doors of l -inch deal, of two thick nesses, crossed , as in fig. 125.

crossed.

5465. Since the introduction of railways, a

5455. The stairs from the corn -barn to the

style of roofing, capable of affording a great

granaries, if of wood, should have 11 inches of space in width at the stations, has been adopted tread and 64 inches of height of steps. A stair for many purposes where room is required under or trap of similar dimensions may lead to the one span of roof. This end has been effected by using the truss , upon which the scantlings are wool-room, from the straw -barn L, Plate II . made to bear by means of screws. Fig. 439 5456. The floors of the granaries, upper and Fig. 439. corn barns, and wool-room , should have an angu

lar skirting around them, of 3 inches by 3 inches. 5457. Should the upper barn, or granaries, or ascended by outside stone stairs, they should be furnished with plain -inch iron railing, carried around the outer edge of the steps and platform , with a hardwood hand- rail, or be enclosed with inch deal lining the whole wool-room,

A TRUSSED ROOF OF WOOD .

height above the steps, and properly framed .

represents the section of a trussed roof in wood, where a a are the walls at the required distance ; be should of the hen house 5458. The interior b is a beam of wood stretching across the void, fitted up with rough 4-inch deal shelves and and having a bearing of the breadth of the wall divisions, and roosting -trees 3 inches deep by 2 at each end ; c o are couples held together at the inches broad . upper ends by means of a clamp placed on each * M'Culloch’s Dictionary of Commerce -- art. Lath. VOL. II .

2 L

REALISATION.

530

side, and screwed firm with bolt and nut, and

5468. In measuring carpenter and joiner work,

their other ends are checked into the ends of the

the rafters and sarking are measured and priced

beam , and held down by iron straps. At the by the superficial yard,and allowance ismade of centre of the beam b, two trusses are placed 18 inches by the length on peands and flanks. against each other in a cast-iron socket at one end, and their other ends mortised into the centre of the couples at o c. An iron rod, fur-

Balks are also measured and priced by the super Wall-plates, ridge- rods, valley ficial yard. pieces, peand trees, lead fillets, & c ., are mea

nished with a head , is passed through a hole at end through a hole in the ends of the trusses, and

sured and priced by the lineal foot, in addition to the rafters and sarkings. Bridlings for sky lights, chimney tops, & c., are also taken in addi

the centre ofthe socket at b; and on this rod being

tion to the rafters .

screwed tight by means of a washer and nut, the

priced by the superficial yard — the length taken

the upper end of the couples at e, and its other

Joisting is measured and

from the gables, and the breadth including the wall -holds. The wall-plates of joists are mea sured and priced by the lineal foot. The brid . pressure of the roof. lings at the hearths are slumped. Flooring, deafening boards, and rounds, are measured and 5466. The same end is attained by means of priced by the superficial yard . Bond timber, iron bars, rods, and cast -iron trusses. Fig. 440 wall standards, and latb , are also measured by

beams, couples, trusses, and rod are braced so firmly together that the whole forms a rigid structure capable of resisting the downward

Fig. 440.

the superficial yard. Window sashes and cases are measured and priced by the superficial foot, and an allowance of 8 inches is made to the nett daylight width , and 2 inches to the height.

Window fastenings, as soffets, breasts, elbows, and shutters, are measured and priced by the

superficial foot ; architraves, facings, and copes, by the lineal foot. The ironmongery connected A TRUSSED ROOF OF IRON .

represents the section of a roof constructed with

these materials, where a a are the outside walls, a o are cast-iron flanged bars, serving as couples; malleable iron rods a b, ba, and b c are linked upon an end of the trusses at bb, which press at

their other ends, spread outwards both ways to make a long bearing against the centre of the couples a c ; the ends of the malleable rods pass through a cast- iron flanged bar at c , against which the ends of the couples rest, and are screwed up with a nut upon each-the effect of which is that

with the joiner-work is estimated by the slump, and ought to be charged with the cost of putting on . Doors and theirfinishings are measured and priced in a similar manner to the windows, but no allowance is made in the height and width of doors.

Skirtings are measured and priced

by the lineal foot, and shelvings by the super ficial foot ; and the price should include the supports.

5469. All the varieties of fir timber imported into the country are employed in the building of steadings, and the kinds most used in localities

the rods a b and b b are brought up above the

are obtained from the nearest seaports. Along

level of the tops of the walls, and the couples, rods, and trusses are so braced as to form a rigid

the east coast, Memel logs and Baltic battens are

framing, fit to bear the weight of the roof.

coast no timber is to be seen, in the construction of steadings, but the American .

used for all such purposes ; while on the west

5467. Such a species of roof is well adapted

5470. Norway and St Petersburg battens, being cut to proper lengths and breadths, form of the farm under the view of the dairymaid at cheap and durable timber for all farm purposes. one time, might be so roofed in. A byre truss- The price of the St Petersburg is, forred from 3d. to 3 d ., for white from 2ļd. to 3d. the lineal roofed with wood has been erected at the homefarın of Miss Edmonstoune Cranston, of Core- foot, and the Norway are a shade cheaper. Both house, near Lanark, which contains 48 cows, and red and white wood battens make excellent floors, its ground -plan is given in fig . 93, and again re- and plain deal doors for inside use. Such flooring for certain parts of a steading. On a dairy farm , a large byre, capable of containing all the cows

presented, in connexion with a steading for a dairy farm , in fig. 384. A feeding byre could be

is beautifully dressed by the planing machinery at most of the principal seaports.

constructed on the same plan. The thrashing

mill and straw -barn might be contained under one such roof, affording abundance of room in its

5471. Memel logs are admirably fitted for joisting, windows, outside doors, and all outside

width to the water or steam power , to the cleaning of the corn in the barn, and to the straw chaff cutter, and crushing-rollers, in the straw-barn, A

work, it being composed of strong and durable fibre, imbedded in resinous matter. It sells

roomy and airy granary could be formed under

greatest objection to its use for small purposes is its knottiness, on which account the Norway

such a roof.

Great accommodation could be

from ls. 9d. to 2s. 3d , the cubic foot.

The

afforded by means of such a roof to numbers of battens make handier small scantlings and cattle all winter, and to sheep in the most stormy

cleaner door-work .

period of the winter on pastoral farms; and such an apartment would answer for dipping sheep in summer, and bathing them in autumn.

5472. The American red pine is excellent timber, being clean, reedy, and resinous. Though

SPECIFICATIONS .

longer, it is seldom or never of so large dimensions

531

as Memel log, and fetches from ls. 8d. to 28. the

may be that the white wood battens are derived from that tree ; but the red-wood kind has, pro

cubic foot. It is fitted for beams, joists, scantlings, windows, and outside doors.

bably, the same origin as the red -wood of the north of Scotland, which is a variety of the

Pinus silvestris, the horizontalis of Don.t 5473. American yellow pine is well suited to all inside work, and especially that which re-

quires the highest finish, such as bound -doors, window -fittings, and mantel-pieces. No wood receives paint so well. The logs are generally of immense sizes, affording great economy of timber

in the cutting up. Its price is, for small sizes, 1s. 6d., and for large ls. 10d. the cubic foot. 5474. Swedish 11 -inch plank makes good and useful timber, but its scantlings are not very suitable for farm -buildings. I have seen stout

5479. The red pine of Canada is the Pinus resinosa , and is a durable timber for all out door purposes, and for long logs requiring to span wide spaces. 5480. The yellow pine is the Pinus variabilis or Pinus mitis of Michaux, which towers in lofti

ness above all its compeers. It grows to the gigantic height of 150 feet, and must require great labour to square it to the sizes it is brought to the British market.

joists for granaries made of it, with a f -inch cleft taken off the side sarking. It forms excellent planking for wheeling upon, and for gangways. It sells, the white wood from 5d. to

5481. The larch, Larix Europæa, is a native of the ravines of the Alps of the Tyrol and Switzerland, where it shoots up, as straight as a

6d., and the red from 6d. to 7d . the lineal

rush, to a height exceeding a hundred feet.' The

foot.

larch forests of Athole are extensive, and were calculated by their planter, the late Duke of Athole, to attain to a great size of timber, and return a large revenue after a given number of years. I

5475. In the interior of the country, at a distance from seaports, home timber is much used in farm -buildings. Larch forms excellent beams,

but its scantlings and joists, though durable timber for rough work, are apt to warp. Well

5482. If woody matter be protected against

grown Scots fir of great age, and cut down in

the combined action of air and moisture, it may

the proper season, if not as durable as the larch, be preserved for an indefinite period ; butif ex forms good timber for rough purposes.

posed to them, the case is very different.

By

degrees its hydrogen and oxygen are disengaged, 5476. All the timber I have referred to is

and the carbon predominates more and more.

derived from the trees belonging to the natural

Being formed of one atom of carbon, and one

order of Coniferæ , or cone -bearing trees. The Scots fir, Pinus silvestris, is a well-known tree

atom of water, as soon as woody matter is sub

in the forests of this country, and few new plantations are made without its aid , as a nurse

temperature, without contact with air, it experi ences an internal reaction , which tends to sepa

mitted to the action of a somewhat elevated

In favourable situations it

rate the atom of water from the atom of carbon .

grows to a large size, as is evidenced in the Memel log, which is the produce of the Scots fir from the forests of Lithuania. I have seen Scots

The water vaporises, and the carbon remains in

for hardwood trees.

the form of a black granular residue. The cells of woody matter contain different sorts of sub stances tending to organise, and these are mixed

fir cut down at Ardovie, in Forfarshire, of as strong quality and large size as the best Memel, and modified in many different ways. In the and much less knotty ; and sold from 1s. 6d. to want of ventilation, we thus see that timber 2s. per cubic foot. must have a tendency to decay. 5477. The Swedish plank is of the spruce, Abies excelsa or communisma tree which, as treated

in this country, comes to little value, being rough and full of knots. Inspection of a cargo from Sweden, which arrived at Hull in 1808, convinced the late Mr Pontey that the white deal, which fetched at that time from L.14 to L.15, 10s. the load of 50 cubic feet, was of common spruce,

the planks having been recently sawn, and a sinall branch left attached to one of them.*

5483. Now, if any means could be devised by which the substances in the cells of woody mat ter could be deprived of their tendency to orga nise, when in contact with the air, timber might be rendered permanently durable. The solution of the corrosive sublimate of Mr Kyan, and that of the chloride of zinc of Sir William Burnett, have both a tendency to preserve the natural structure of the wood. The rationale of Mr Kyan's process is this :—The cells of wood, and particularly those of the alburnum, contain the

5478. Whether the Norway pine is the same sap of the tree, which, in its circulation, reaches species as the pine in the forests of the north of the leaves, where its watery particles fly off, and Scotland, I do not know. I observe that some

and the enlarging matter of the tree, called the

writers speak of the Norway batten as of the Norway spruce, called by them Pinus Abies. It

alburnum , remains. Berzelius, as long ago as 1813, found that the addition of corrosive subli

* Pontey's Profitable Planter, p. 41 , 4th edition .

+ Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xi. p. 530; and Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xii. p. 122.

# Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. ix. p. 165.

REALISATION .

532

mate (bichloride of mercury) to an albuminous

less tiles are smooth on the surface, compact

solution produced calomel, (protochloride of and ring freelywhen struck , they are porous, and mercury ) which readily combined with the albumen, and produced an insoluble precipitate. This precipitate fills up all the cellular interstices of the wood, and becomes as hard as its fibres. I have not heard lately of either of those processes of preserving timber, so I suspect they have not fulfilled the expectations formed of them .

5484. It is from the Scots fir, Pinus silvestris,

will imbibe moisture in winter, and decay by the The duty on the manufacture

effects of frost.

of house tiles was removed in 1846 .

5488. Of all these methods of covering a roof,

slating with blue slates has the best appearance , is the most comfortable, most substantial, and even most economical in the long run . Tile roofs, on the contrary , are constantly requiring

and spruce, Abies excelsa , that tar is obtained in repairs, and are most expensive in the long run. thelargest quantities. The tar of the north of Grey slates,being always heavy, incur a great of Europe is of a much superior description to that of the United States, ( 4781. ) It is obtained by a process of distillation, which consists of

sacrifice of timber in the roof.

burning, in a smothering manner, roots and

clay slate, and, when compact, does not absorb

billets of fir timber, in a pitformed for the purpose on rising ground, and covered with turf. There

moisture, but when not so, soon becomes covered with moss and decays. The principal quarries

is not much tar used on a farm ; but as it is em-

be

are in Wales, Lancashire, Westmoreland, Cum berland, Argyle, and Perthshire. The Welsh slate of Caernarvonshire is smooth , and often large ; and when thin, is apt to warp in the changes of temperature . The English slates are not so large as the Welsh, but equally good.

selected of large sizes, well squared, and have

The Argyle Easdale slates are small, heary,

ployed for many purposes, the implement-house should never want a barrel of tar.

Tar is now

imported duty -free. 5485. Slater -work . - Blue

slates

should

5489. Blue slate is derived from the primitive

an overlap of two-thirds, gradually diminishing very hard, waved, containing cubes of iron py to the ridge, and be well bedded and shouldered rites, and their durability is endless ; and the with plaster-lime. The slates are fastened to Ballahulish, though also small, are smoother the sarking with malleable iron nails, weighing 12 lb. per 1000, after being steeped when heated in linseed oil. These nails cost 3s. 4d. per 1000, 1300 being required for a rood of 36 square

and lighter, containing cube pyrites, and equally durable. The Perthshire slates are inferior.

5490. Blue slates are assorted in sizes at the

The sizes at Bangor, in Wales, vary

yards. Cast -iron nails were used until a few

quarry.

years ago, and they were also boiled in oil . The cost of blue slates in towns, including carriage,

from 36 inches in length to 55 inches in breadth.

nails, and putting on, is L.4 per rood .

1000.

5486. Grey slates require lathing like tiles, but not being of a uniform size like tile, they are assorted in sizes in the quarry. The larger

ferior grey sandstone of the old red sandstone series. The finest quarries of them are at Car

and heavier slates are put next the eave, and

mylie, in Forfarshire , belonging to Lord Pan

gradually diminish in size to the ridge, and the

The Arbroath pavement, as it is called , is from the same rock ; and on being set on edge in winter, when taken out of the quarry , the frost causes it to split into slates ; so that

course at the eave is laid double, slate above

slate. Every slate is hung upon the lath by a wooden pin passed through a hole at its upper end , and the slates are overlapped at least onethird. Grey slates should be bedded and shouldered either in plaster-lime or on moss, the latter making the warmer roof. As grey slates are not adapted for pavilion roofs, the peands should be covered with lead or zinc, but the

safest form of grey slating is with upright gables. The ridge is covered with freestone ridging-stone, which cost ls. per lineal foot. In Forfarshire,

grey slates cost L.4 per 1000, 360 being sufficient for a rood of 36 square yards. The putting on, dressing , holing, pins, and nails, cost 15s. ; moss 1s., and lime 39. ; in all, 19s. per rood. 5487. Pan-tiles are laid on lath 14 inch squars, to a gauge of 10 or 11 inches ; and 576 will cover a rood of 36 square yards. The over-

The weight varies from 82 cwt. to 12 cwt. per 5491. Grey slates are derived from the in

mure.

when little frost occurs in winter, the output of slates is limited .

5492. The pitch of a roof varies with the sort of slating. In blue slating the rule is, to have the height of the roof one- third of the breadth of

the building, outside measure ; and when large Welsh slates are employed, the pitch is reduced to one- fourth . Old -fashioned houses have a pitch of the square ; that is, the height is equal to half

the breadth of the building. In grey slating it is fixed at about one foot below the square. In tiling, the pitch may be lower than even in blue slating, and is determined according to circum stances. Taking the rise at 7 feet, on a breadth

of 18 feet inside,the scantlings should be 13 feet long each, and the balk as long, on walls 2 feet

lap should be 3 inches ; bedded and shouldered,

thick . Taking the rise at 9 } feet, the scantlings

and the under joints pointed with plaster

should be 14 feet long.

lime.

There should be 3 or 4 course of slates

along all the eaves, and the flanks, peands, and ridges, are covered with tile. The cost of

putting on, pins, and lime, is 56s. per rood. Un-

5493. Slater- work is measured and priced by the rood of 36 square yards, and tile work in a similar manner . Ridge and peand tiles are

SPECIFICATIONS.

533

measured and priced by the lineal foot. In pointing skews with mastic or Roman cement,

from a sulphuret named blende , and a carbonate named calamine, in the mountain and magnesian

the measurement and price are by the lineal foot. An allowance on slater -work of 9 inches is made at all the eaves, and 18 inches on peands and flanks, and 3 inches at the skews.

limestones .

The most malleable zinc is derived from Upper Silesia, under the name of spelter ;

and is sent to Hamburg and Belgium to be shipped for this country.

The flanks should be

5499. In measuring plumber-work, the lead

covered with sheet lead, 18 inches broad, weighing 7 lb. per square foot, the peands with 6-1b. lead, 15 inches broad. The ridges should be

on roofs is by the superficial foot, and the price is

5494. Plumber-work.

according to the weight per foot. Where a variety of prices occur, they should be slumped in common , and charged per cwt. In ordinary ridge-stones, or with 6 -lb. lead , 15 inches broad , cases, 3s. per cwt. for putting on is a fair price. supported on 21 inches in diameter of ridge- Conductors, and pipes of every description, are rolls of wood. Platforms and gutters should measured by the lineal foot, and priced according have 8-lb. lead per square foot. In cisterns to weight. Zinc on roofs is measured by the covered either with droved angular freestone

lead should be 8 lb. in the bottom, and 7 lb. superficial foot, andpriced according to weight. in the sides and ends, per square foot. Rain water-spouts of 4 inches in breadth, and conductors of 2} or 3 inches in diameter, should be of 6-lb. lead per square foot.

Rones are measured by the lineal foot.

Brass

work is priced by the slump.

5495. Sheet zinc has been substituted of late

5500. Plaster -work. The plaster-work of a steading, not requiring to be ornamental, should be simple . The ceilings of the riding -horse

years for lead, but with no advantage in use or workmanship ; but the cost is about one-third .

stable, boiling-house, wool- room, and hen -house, when tile-roofing is employed , should be finished

The zinc put on flanks should weigh 22 oz., and

with two coats of the best haired plaster, hard

costs 6 d . per square foot. The peands have 15-

inch sheet zinc, weighing 22 oz., and costing 61d.

The walls of the granaries , corn rubbed in . barn , work -horse stable, cow -byre, boiling -house,

per square foot. The zinc covers for peands and

calves’-house, wool-room , gig-house, and hen

ridges are so prepared that they clasp by con-

house, should be finished with one coat, hard rubbed in. The walls of the riding-horse stable should have three coats , hard rubbed in. Plas ter-work is measured by the square yard, and costs for one coat 3d., for two coats from 4d. to 4fd., and for three coats from 5d. to 6d., the square yard. Cornices are measured and priced

traction , and thereby hold on by the wooden

ridge-rolls.

Zinc is not suitable for gutters and

valleys . 5496. Rain -water spouts, or rones as they are

commonly termed , may be made of wood , castiron, lead, or zinc.

Wooden ones may be made

out of the solid, or in slips nailed together. When inade out of the solid, with iron holdfasts,

per lineal foot. Pit sand should be used in mak ing plaster, the alkaline matter of the sea sand injuring the surface of the plaster even after it

they cost ls ; and when pieced together, 6d. the

is dry , unless the sand has been thoroughly

lineal foot. The conductors from both kinds cost 8d. the lineal foot. Wooden spouts should be

washed in fresh water. At the same time, when sea-sand has been thoroughly and carefully washed, it makes the best work. Drift- sand, above sea-water mark, is the best sort of sand,

pitched inside and painted outside. Cast- iron ones are heavy, and they cost ls. 9d. per foot if of

44 inches diameter ; and the conductors, of but must be thoroughly washed in fresh water. from 2 to 4 inches diameter, from 9s. to 178., Lead makes the best

5501. Smith -ucork.- All the outside doors, in

spout, but is expensive, being 1s. 6d. a foot.

cluding those on the feeding -holes at the byre,

Zinc ones, on the other hand, are very light.

should be hung with crooks and bands.

Stout 4-inch zinc spouts cost 7d. the foot ; and

crooks should be fastened into the ingoings of the ribats with melted lead. The larger crooks and bands cost 10s., and the smaller 6s. , per

of 9 feet in length each.

a 2 , pipe, as conductor, 6d . the foot. The lowest part of the pipe -conduit should, in all cases, be

The

made of cast-iron, to ward off accidents. Every pair , according to weight. The inside doors sort of water-spout should be cleaned out at least should be hung with T hinges, 18 inches long, once a - year, and wooden ones should have a

coat of paint annually.

and the opening parts of the windows with 9 -inch T hinges. The former are ls. and the latter 9d.

the ore galena, which is a sulphuret of lead-

a pair. The outside doors should have good 10-inch stock -and -plate locks, which cost 58. each , except where there are more than one out

yielding 87 per cent of lead, and 13 per cent of

side door to the same apartment, in which case

5497. The lead of commerce is derived from

sulphur. Galena is found in the largest quan- all the doors but one can be fastened by bars tities in the transition limestone. The galena from the inside. The inside doors should have lead mines of Derbyshire, Durham, Cumberland, the same sort of locks ; the common stock-locks and Yorkshire , are situate in limestone ; while those at Leadhills, in Scotland, are in greywacke.

Great Britain produces the largest quantity of lead of any country in the world .

are not worth the money.

Thumb - latches

are convenient for opening and keeping shut doors that do not require to be constantly locked, such as of the corn -barn, granary, boiling-house, cow -byre, and hen-house.

These latches cost

5498. Zinc is derived in the largest quantities from 1s. to 1s. 6d. each. A wooden bar of hard

REALISATION .

534

wood, to open and shut from both sides, is a

convenient mode of fastening inside doors. The upper-barn door, of two vertical leaves, requires an iron stay-band to fasten it. The doors of the riding -horse and work -horse stables should be provided with sunk flush ring-handles and thumb-

outside doors and windows, all the gates of the courts and hammels, and the water -troughs in the various courts, if made ofwood ,should receive three coats of good paint. Painting costs 3d . or 4d. the square yard, but three coats can be done for 8d. the square yard. The best standing col

latches, to be out of the way of catching any ours, and they happento be the cheapest too, are part of the harness. The mangers of the riding- grey, stone, or slate-blue : the last seems to be horse stable, and the upper rail of the hay-rack most commonly preferred, though the stone col of the work -horse stable, should be provided our is the most cheerful. Green is dear, and with rings and staples for the stall -collar -shanks soon fades ; and red is distasteful in buildings. to pass through. These cost 3d. each . White-lead and oil are the principle ingredients in paint, and no colouring matter has power to 5502. Various descriptions of nails are used preserve timber from the effects of the weather. for the different parts of work in a steading. The scantlings of the roofs are fastened together 5508. A substance called lithic paint has re with double-doubles, which cost 58. per 1000. cently been found to answer well for country pur. Deals of floors are fastened down with flooring poses. The lithic, which costs 2 £ d. per lb., is nails 16 lb. weight, and 4s. 6d. per 1000. The ground to powder, and mixed in a certain pro bars of the plain -deal doors are put on with 10- portion with cold coal-tar, and the mixture lb. nails, which cost 3s. 6d. per 1000. For finish- is applied with a brush. It deprives the ing, single -flooring nails at 2s. 6d ., and 2-inch coal-tar of its noxious smell, and hardens it sprigs at 2s. to 2s. 3d. per 1000 are used. into a durable paint in a few days. Such a substance may answer for painting articles at

5503. As a security against burglary , iron stauncheons, seven -eighths in diameter, should be

a distance, such as field - gates, sluices, and the like ; but it is not agreeable to use at the

fixed on the outside of the windows of the corn-

steading . The painting of doors and windows,

barn, implement-house, and hen-house. stauncheons cost 3d. per pound.

steading.

and other things, is very much neglected about a

Such

5504. Iron is found , in this country, in the

5509. White -lead of commerce is a carbonate

coal formation. It occurs in alternate beds with

of lead,or ceruse,artificially formed from pure lead. It has long beenmade at Klagenfurth,in Carinthia,

coal and sandstone. It occurs chiefly in two states-that of sulphuret, clay over stone, and

and large quantities are also manufactured in

of carbonate, black -band. Since the discovery of England. Its composition is 1 equivalent of lead, the black -band and the hot-blast, the smelting of

1 of oxygen , and 1 of carbonic acid ; or by

iron has been much facilitated, and its quantity

analysis, of lead 77.6, oxygen 6, and carbonic

in the market greatly increased. Cast-iron usually

acid 16.4.

costs from 8s . to 10s. per cwt.

5510. These specifications are followed by the 5505. Glazier-work.

measurements of the different species of work re

The windows of all the

apartments should be glazed with best second quired to execute such a steading as is repre crown glass, fastened with fine putty. It costs 6d. per superficial foot. The panes in the win-

sented in Plates I. and II. I should mention

that the prices of the respective works are put down at those usually charged in Edinburghfor similar work, and that the carriage of all the

dows of a steading should not be large, both on account of the smaller cost of a small pane,

and of the additional security afforded against materials used is included. intrusion by numerous astragals. So great a

change has taken place in the use of glass since

being now so cheap, the best and strongest should be used for all purposes. Rough plate-glass is so thick and strong that it may be extensively

10

employed in the roof, for affording light to apart-

82

ments, instead of windows. It costs ls. per superficial foot. Russell's patent glass tiles cost 8s. per square yard.

5506. A skylight in blue slating is made of a In tile -roofing , tiles are made on purpose to hold a pane of glass. In grey -slating, a hole is made in the slate to A dead skylight of suit the size of the pane. zinc, to answer every kind of roofing, costs 45. Pan tiles of glass cost about 1s. 6d . each.

3302 1

14

Cubic, of digging at 6d ., £ 82 11 3 Superficial, rubble in founda .

tions, reduced to 2 feet thick ,

43

21

4

Superficial, rubble building in walls, 2 feet thick , at 180s., Superficial, rubble in walls 1 foot thick , at 100s .,

.

100 1068

Lineal, chimneys at 4d .,

2297

Lineal, drains round the build

0 0

217 19 1 13

6 4

Lineal, drains leading to the

80 2 0

manure tank , at Is. 6d .,

911 5

ings , at id., 35

7

743 15

126

at 252s.

23

frame fastened to the sarking.

Painter - work. — The outsides of all the

MASON- WORK .

. Inches

, Feet

. Yards

5511 . . Roods

the removal of the duty in 1846, that the kind best fitted for a steading has, perhaps, not yet been determined ; but this I may say, that, glass

Lineal, pillars for cartshed , 2 10 10

feet by 2 feet, at 6s., 72

Lineal, segmentalring pens for the arches of the cart shed , at

11

Lineal, corner on one end of the cart shed , at 25., .

0

28.,

Carry forward,

1

2

0

£ 1230 15 6

14

Brought forward , £ 1280 15 6 Lineal, pillars for the calves shed , 1 foot 6 inches by I foot 6 inches , at 4s. 6d. ,

535 , Inches

. Feet

. Yards

. Roods

SPECIFICATIONS.

Brought forward ,

£ 1774 19

lintels, hearths, and shelves,

3

3

0

Lineal, corners for gig -house, with giblet checks, at 23. 6d. ,

2

0

0

with furnace doors, branders,

10

Lineal, segmental arches with giblet check , at 2s. 6d . ,

1

50

Buildinginthe two boilery, ai

652

Lineal, ribats for doors and windows, at 2s., Lineal, sills and lintels for

16

510 176 64

doors and windows, at 2s. , Lineal, corners for the open ings to the hammels, at 2s.,

114

Lineal, pillars between the openings, at 23. 6d. , Lineal, segmental arches over

231

the openings, at 2s. , Lineal , corners of the gates in

at 30s.,

36

&c. , at 60s. , 42s.. 65

4

0

28 club skews for gables , at 2s.

51

0

0

17 12

0

28 stones for heel and fore posts in the stables, at 5s. 6d ., 18 stones for heel- posts in the

107 70

112

8 00

20° stones for stakes in the

11 8 0

byres, at 58. 6d . , 32 malleable iron gratings for drains in the courts, at 58.,

0

0

4

4

0

3 100 7 14 0 4 19 0

byres, at 58. 60. ,

5 10 8

0

00

32 stones for the gratings, at 23

20

4 10

6s. 6d . ,

10

5 stone troughs in the courts, at 428., Allow for jobbing, for other

0

Lineal, steps in doors, at18. 6d ., 8 0 6 Lineal , corners of gates in low walls, at 3s. 6d . , Lineal, corners , sills , and lin .

0

6

6d. ,

Lineal, pillars between the gates, at 2s. 6d .,

4 10

2 boilers for boiling houses,

the walls of the hammels, at 2s.

8

3 pairs chimney jambs with

tradesmen , & c. , 12

5

0

327

8

0

10 10

0

10 10

0

32 14

0

Lineal, corners of building , at 25. ,

tels of feeding holes in the 11

byre , at 29.,

4

0

90

Lineal , hammer- dressed ribats,

36

apertures in the barns, at Is. 6d ., 615 0 Lineal , corners of chimney

Amount of mason work ,

£ 1883 8 8

sills , and lintels for narrow

30

Lineal, coping of chimney

316

Lineal , of skews on the gables,

200

Lineal, of coping on walls for

stalks, at ls.,

1 10

14" by 3", at Is. 6d. , sloping roofs, at 23. 3d ., 991 6 Lineal, of semicircular coping

5

5512 .

3 12 0

stalks, at 2s. ,

on the tops of the low walls, at 1s. , Lineal , pillar in pigs' court , i1 foot 6 inches by 1 foot 6 inches, at 4s. 6d . ,

0

55

23 14

0

33

22 10

0

38

49 11

6

2

6

2857

6

144

1

5

28

111 6

13 10

0

riding -horse stable and gig house, grooved , at 10d ., 30 15 5 Lineal, of channel in riding. horse stable , labour only , at 3d. , 0 9 3 Lineal , stone sills for the divi 14 8 0 sions of the byres, at 25.,

Lineal, ofgrupe in the byres at 2s., 11

2

7

Superficial, ties of rafters, 7 inches by 2 inches, and 16

1114

4

Superficial, balks 5 inches by 2

inches centres, at 2s., inches , and 16 inches cen tres , at ls. 6d .,

gangway, reduced to I foot thick , at 3s. 6d ., Lineal, corners for the gang way, at 2s ., .

24

Lineal, ring pens for the arch

3

Superficial, causeway in the

of the gangway , at 2s. , 26

34

50

1 19

180

7

6

83 11

8

30 96 11 16

0

3 12 0

cuttings, at 9d. ,

Lineal, valley pieces for shed roofs, 9 inches by 2 inches at

4 18

0

1 12

0

2

0

8

0 11

6d ., 631

1

0

Superficial, of joisting , 10 inches by 24 inches, and 16 inches centres, for granaries, & c., price to include for

dwangs and wall plates, at 3s. 9d .,

90

6

118

6

8

9

1

4

Superficial, sleeper joisting, 7 inches by 24 inches, and 16 inches centres, price to include for wall plates, at 2s.,

666

3

24

8

Superficial, 14 inch , ploughed and tongued flooring, at3s., Superficial, flooring, for dove

99 19 0 3 14

37 10

16

top of the engine stalk , at 3s. 6d. , 3 10 0 Lineal, droved blocking for

3

2

2

0

361

l, lath on ceilings, Superficia at 6d .,

140

Superficial,

0

Lineal, base for the pedestals of the engine stalk , at 23. 6d. , Lineal, droved plinth on the

Carry forward ,

1 10

apart, at 3d . ,

22

Lineal, stalk of engine -house , tapered, base 6 feet square ,

the engine stalk , at 2s. 6d .,

500

Lineal, ridge and peand bat: tens, at 3d. , Lineal, valley pieces, ii inches

8

20

25

0

by 3 inches, price to include

stores, hay -house, work - liorse stable, passages , &c. , at 54s ., 72 15 6 Lineal, drained gutter stones in work -horse stable, 14 " by 7 " , at 2s , 10 12 0

at 158.,

4 15

944 96

byres, calves'-house , boiling houses, out- houses, turnip 106

0

Lineal, wall plates 6 inches by if inch with billgates, 2 feet

arch for the

16

1 13

2438

0

Superficial, hammer - dressed

28

9

4 2 6

Superficial, roofing and sark ing rafters, 64 inches by 24

1803

Superficial, rubble in the walls of gangway , 2 feet thick , at 180s. , 16 3 4 dations , reduced to 2 feet thick , at 7s .

21 15

price to include fillets, at 3s.

Superficial, rubble on the foun

6

safe lintels over voids , at 9d. , Lineal, dressed breast summers for shed roofs, at Is. 6d ., Lineal, of bridle beams for stairs to granaries , & c. , at le. , Lineal, of strong dressed beams in barn for machinery , at 2s. 6d . ,

Bd .,

360

37

Superficial, of 3-inch thick

inches , and 16 inches centres, 1

Superficial, pavement on floors of engine-house , &c. , at 9d . , 738 6 Superficial, of pavement in

CARPENTER WORK .

581

6

0

£1774 19 8

8

906

of wall straps

secured to bond timbers, at 1s.,

7 0 0

54 8 Superficial, of

windows for stables, glazed , & c., at 29.,

Carry forward ,

5

9

4

£ 1095 5 3

REALISATION . . Inches

536

Brought forward , £ 1095 5 3 273 2 Superficial, of windows for 27 6 0 byres, at 23., 260 Superficial, of windows for

Brought forward , £ 1374 16 0 granaries, corn -barn , & c ., at

1123 6 Superficial, of 11 inch , plain deal doors, grooved, tongued , and beaded , at 6d ., 346 6 Superficial, of 1 inch thick , plain deal doors in barns,

1

9

Superficial, of l1 inch , plain

731

deal doors to gig -house, with framed styles, rails, & c., in 2 leaves, at Is ., Lineal , door standards. 68

440 516

inches by 24 inches , at 5d ., Lineal, door facings, at 3d., Lineal , door keps , at 3d .

4

0

room , 18 feet long, with hand .

15 4 5 10

7 0

5 5 -barred gates, with diagon

rail on one side , at 63s., 6

9

0

214 6 Lineal, lining for ingoes of

48

doors , 12 inches broad , at 5d ., Lineal , corner beads for win dows, & c. , at 3d . ,

4 94 199

10 00 1 10

0

courts , 4 feet wide and 5 feet

0

with padlocks, hinges, & c., 1 corn -conductor to do. , from

3

3

0

deal lining on end walls of

riding- horse stable, on fixtures,

granary above ,

1

0

0

high , at 20s ., 8 strong wooden sliding- bars for part of doors, at 23., I hardwood swivel- bar, with

3 18 0

Superficial, 14 inch,'beaded 2 18

6

5 16 8

boarding in work -horse stable , at 7d . ,

0 17 0

ing on end walls , & c . , on grounds, at 6d .,

6

9

Lineal, 1 inch beaded coping

156

Lineal, beaded heel-posts ofsta bles, 6 inches by 6 inches, at

156

Lineal, beaded fore-posts in 2

on lining , at 3d .,

with padlock , & c ., 3 saddle - brackets with pins, & c., at 7s. 60., 14 small mangers fitted up in work -house stable, at 3s. 6d . , work -horse stable, at 6d ., 24 iron hooks for work -horse

5 18 10

2 turned heel-posts for riding

14 15

6

2 turned half heel-posts in riding-horse stable, next the walls, at 78. 6d .,

2 15

0

18 heel-posts for byres, each 4

horse stable , at 18s. 6d .,

beaded lining on walls on fix 220

1 small corn -bin , fitted up in window of riding-horse stable ,

stable at 6d .,

886 6 Superficial , 4 inch narrow tures, at 4d . ,

feet 6 inches long , at 6s., 0

4 half heel- posts for end walls, same length , at 4s. 6d ., 20 pieces of wood for bending

pieces bolted together, at ls. ,

7 16

0

Lineal , top- rails for steadying lieel-posts, & c. , 6} inches by 23 inches, beaded , & c., at 9d., Lineal , of spars over the top of

top of the stakes to the wall, at ls.,

5

7

3

hay racks for calves' cribs, at

top - rails, at 3d .,

1 16

0

Fitting up the interior of the dovecot, Fittingup theinterior of the

58. ,

0 11

3

1

0

Lineal, rails for pins in work horse stable , at 6d .,

7

576

Superficial, 14 beaded deal di.

153

Lineal, of strong top - rails for divisions, with grooves, at 6d ., Superficial, 14 inch lining on end walls on grounds, at 6d., Lineal, of top - rail for lining at

Fitting up the interior of the hatching-houses,

6

6

0

hinges for the gates of courts,

14

8

0

6 strong fasteners for the gates, at 2s. 6d .,

at 10s .,

visions of byres , at 6d .,

6d.,

200

Lineal, of feeding- troughs for byres , at Is. 6d ., Lineal, of hardwood stakes for

788

Superficial,' of spar divisions

do. , at 6d .,

3 16

6

20 pair crook -and -band hinges

3

4

0

for the gates of the small courts, at 5s.,

0 17

0

6 stock - locks for doors to hatch ing -houses, & c ., at 59.

7

2

6

6 pair crook -and -band hinges for the hatching - houses , at

5

0

0

20 fasteners for thegates, at is.;

2 90 0 15

0

0 12

0

1 17

0

0 15

0

0 18

0

1

0 0

5

0

0

7 10

0

7 10

0

7 10

0

3

0

0

3

0

0

0 15 0 500 0 0

1

1 10

0

090

Is. 6d .,

38 stock and plate locks for all

for calves' cribs, including

the other outer doors, & c., at 5s.

doors and framing , supporting 19 14

them , at 6d .,

910 6 Lineal, skirtingon grounds for Carry forward ,

hen -house ,

2 straw racks in large courts, at 30s., 6 pair strong crook -and -band

Lineal, hay- racks in work . horse stable, price to include the seed - racks at the bottom , at Is. 6d .,

0 6

2

Fitting up 20 small manger and

Lineal, angular pieces for heads of divisions of riding -horse stable , at 3d. ,

1 10 1

5 8 0

11 14

ls. 6d .,

20

30 strong pins for barness in 19

237 9 Superficial, 14 inch beaded lin

95

0

0

on top of lining, at 3d ., Superficial, 14 inch deal travis

34

3

0 10

663

128

3

iron mounting for gig- house, 1 large corn -bin in hay - house ,

tures , at 4d .,

84

and 5 feet high ,

1 16 0

Superficial, 14 inch travis board ing in riding-horse stable ,

Lineal, 1 inch, beaded coping

54

60

0

68

45

6

0

0

at 6d. ,

144

7

20 5 -barred gates to small 8

330 2 Superticial, inch thick , beaded lining on walls on fix

143

1 16 0 7

0 16

dowelled , at 8d. , 117

als, each 9 feet by 5 feet high , for courts , at 40s.,

67 18 0

1 5.barred gate, 8 feet wide,

Superficial, of plain deal doors to feeding holes, in 2 thick . nesses doubled across , at 9d . ,

117

ing bed of rubble, as 28., Lineal, straw -racks in sheds under granaries, at Is., 7 luffer board ventilators on tops of roofs , at 21s., 2 wooden trap -stairs to grana ries, & c., each about 18 feet long, with lining , I wooden trap -stair to wool

3

3

Lineal, of feeding -troughs in courts and hammels . includ

36 28

stables, & c . at 5d ., 64

719

679

26 0 0

granaries, at 28.

22 15

6d. ,

.

£ 1374 16

0

9 10 0

38 thumb latches for these doors , at ls., . Carry forward ,

I 18 0 £ 1590 18 9

THE FARM- HOUSE.

537

5517. Now as steadings are generally executed by tradesmen resident in the country,the differ Brought forward , £ 1590 18 9 46 pair strong crook -and -band hinges for these doors, at 2s. 5 15 0 6d . ,

2 pair strong crook -and -band hinges for gig -house doors , at 10.,

1

0

0

2

2

0

12 pair crook -and -band hinges for the doors of the feeding holes, at 3s. 6d . 12 iron fasteners for these

0 18 0 2

5

0

horse stable , at 15s., . 18 manger rings, at 3d .,

2 0

5 4

0 6

0 1 2 10

6 0

circumstances. The plumberwork is estimated in the best lead ; but zinc is coming into use, and is much cheaper at first, although notnearly so good for any purpose. If zinc be employed, the

00

There should be much more plaster -work in

Amount of carpenter work , £ 1620 19 9

steadings than iscommonly to be found,it being both healthy and cleanly. Taking such of the deductions as can be estimated in money at

the reduction will be, will depend upon various

ing-horse stable, at 3d .,

20 seals for byres , at 2s. 6d., Jobbing for the other trades furnishing masons' men ,

sheds, scaffolding , & c. ,

5513.

difference of the cost will have to be deducted . 15

.

once, the cost will stand thus :

SLATER WORK .

Superficial slating , at 80s.,

19

cent, and that deduction from £4175, 16s. 2d. will amount to £417. Carriages, also, are com monly supplied by the tenant who is to occupy the steading ; and in the above case, at the rates in town, these will amount to about £ 1500. The timber in the above estimates is supposed to con sist of the best foreign ; and should a proprietor supply good home timber instead, the cost will be reduced accordingly : but what the amount of

doors, at 1s. 6d ., 3 cast-iron hay racks for rid ing -horse stable, at 15s., 3 cast - iron mangers for riding

6 rings, heel posts, in the rid

87

ence of wages will have to be deducted from the above sum , which generally amounts to 10 per

£ 350

2

2

The above amount is Deduct country wages town carriages home timber ...

5514 .

PLUMBER WORK .

1795

Superficial, of 6-1b . lead on rid ges, peands, flanks, flashings, and tops of ventilators , at ls. 3d .,

1943

Lineal, of 3 inches, rain pipes of 6 -lb . lead, supported with iron holdfasts, at Is. 6d . , 1 pump well, with pipes, & c., for supplying the different wa ter-troughs, Lineal, supply pipes from the the troughs, at 8d ., pump

to

00

£ 2258 16

2

at 28. 6d . ,

Amount of plumber 5515.

for such a steading with the best foreign timber ;

and finished in every respect in themost com plete manner. 21 12

0

0

0

5

ON THE FARM - HOUSE.

different

7 brass sockets for the troughs,

5518. It is not my intention to say any 0 17 6 thing here on the construction of the farm house, as I have already expressed my £ 297 14 5 12 6 8

opinion of the arrangement wbich the working part of the house should assume,

PLASTER WORK .

to be convenient for the work to be done, and as far separated from the part of

Superficial, of 3 - coat plaster in gig -house , riding -horse stable , boiling-houses , and wool room , at 6d .,

815

1917

Making the cost

145 14 6 .

6

0

£2250 is no inordinate sum for a landlord to pay

lead , supported by iron straps,

534

0

zinc

112 39

rones on eaves of roofs of 7 lb.

370

1500

Lineal, of 5 inches, water 2 feet apart, at 1s . 6d .,

288

£4175 16 2

£417 0 0

13 7 4

3 8 Superficial, of 1 coat on the house, granaries, hay-house, work - horse stable, & c., at 3d., 10 3 10 Amount of plaster work ,

the house occupied by the farmer's family, as to avoid disturbance to them. In fig.

walls of the byres, calves'.

+23 11

2

362 is represented the ground-plan of the back jamb of the house,in which is situate the kitchen a, the scullery d, the kitchen pantry k, and the milk-house m, and a lock

5516.The expense of building a steading of up closet c for containing articles in daily these dimensions and specifications must be considerable anywhere, and particularly so if use in the cookery. By ascending the

the prices of work, materials,and carriage, are stair k in fig. 363, the story above is taken at therate usual in large towns. Itwill reached, in which is the cheese -room h, a amount as follows : Mason work

Carpenter work Slater work Plumber work

Plaster work

store - room d , two bed - closets for servants £ 1883 8

8

1620 19 350 2 297 14 23 11

9 2 5 2

£4175 16 2

a and b, a water - closet i, and a stair to the garret l. 5519. In connection with the

farm

house is the subject of locks. It is very poor economy to use ill-made locks in any

538

REALISATION .

apartment ofa farm -house, and especially farm -servants are more dishonest than in those which contain articles which are other persons of their class, but we all

usually locked up. In all those places — as know that to put temptation in the way of the store-room , linen presses, and all wall- a man who bas hitherto borne a good char presses — the best species of lock should be acter may be the means of corrupting his used, as such locks are not only pleasant honesty ; and besides, when people are

to use, but cannot go wrong, and are im- made aware thatthe more precious things possibleto be opened but with the proper are really secured with superior locks, the key. The outside door of a farm-house is desire to attempt to obtain them, through commonly provided with a very common

spring -lock, which is always ready to be opened but when the key,is turned in it,

the locks, will soon subside.

5520. The properties of a good lock are

leaving thehouse in that quarterconstantly strength of materials, simplicity of con accessible during the day, and part of the struction, durability of action, good work evening. Now such a door should be manship, and perfect security. Without provided with one of Chubb's patentlocks, one and all of these properties, a lock is

which has not only a small key, but is worthless; and Chubb’s locks possess them easily opened as a check -lock; is beyond all in an eminent degree. With such qua the r

powe of any one to pick ; when at- lifications, the price cannot be low , but it tempted to be picked, tells it has been so ; is cheap in the long -run .* I have used cannot go wrong ; lasts a lifetime without one with six tumblers for several years in

repairs, and affords unspeakable security . the outer door as a check -lock , which cost One peculiarity of this lock is, that it has me 15s. with two keys. a number of bolts, every one of which must be lifted before the door will open,

5521. As a good supply of water is an essential

I shall describe the sinking ofto aevery each bolt being a security equalto any comfort well,farmhouse, and the construction ofause

common lock. Another peculiarity is its fulrain -water cistern . Of somuch importance is one good well on a farm , that a considerable open the lock by a false key is imme- expense should be incurred rather than want, at detector, by which any attempt to pick or

diately notified on the next application of any season ,so necessary a beverage as water to the proper key, which will not open the rocks, little watermaybe expectedto be found, lock.

It, however, makes the lock again and the labour of sinking by blasting with gun

serviceable by being turned the wrong powder renders a well sunk in thosesubstances way, which no false key is capable of do- a very expensive undertaking. When there is

ing? The lock has commonly six bolts, probability under trap,ofthefinding latterwater penetratedrocks mayinbe stratified by or tumblers, and a detector; and the ordi- boring with ajumper,withthe view of forming nary chances against any key but its own an Artesian well ; but before such a project is

opening it is 720. But the height of the undertaken, it should be ascertained beforehand that stratified rock or diluvium exists below the shortest step twenty in the key is capable of the be trap,and ing altered times,sothat that the dip of either is towards the site of the well. When insuperable obstacles chances against opening the lock may be exist against finding water on the spot, perhaps

increased to 14,400 : each of the six steps the better plan will be either to go a distance can be as many times altered, so that the to a higherelevation, where a common well may in finding water, and then convey it to chances may be increased to 86,400. The succeed detector can be altered ten times, so the the steading, by means of earthenware, iron or lead pipe ; or to descend to a lower site and chances are increased to 864,000. Fur- throw the water up to the steading by means of ther still, the drill-pins of the locks, and a water ram, ( 111. ) Either of these plans may

pipes of the keys, may be easily made be less expensive, or more practicable, than thethree of different sizes, sothat thenumber boringthrough a hard rock to a greatdepth. be increased to 2,592,000. In still larger locks, the chances may be increased to 7,776,000 . The corn - barn,

of chances may

Thewell Bamborough Northumber upwardsCastle, through land, wasin sunk of 100in feet trapto the sandstone below ; and at Dundee, a bore was made through trap, 300 feet, to the

granaries, meal-chest, hen-house, and im- inferior sandstone below,by means ofitssteam

plement-house, ought allto beprotected engine, to obtain water for a spinning-mill. with such locks. I do not suppose that

5522. In gravel and sand, a well may be

* Chubb On the Construction of Locks, p. 15 .

WELLS.

539

sunk to a considerable depth before finding water, in order to allow the ring to be built ; but Being desirous of a supply of water to

it was unable to reduce the bulk of water, so

three adjoining fields of dry turnip land, resting on a deep bed of pure gravel, and which had no watering pool, I fixed on the most likely spot to

that the ring remains unbuilt to this day. · The water always stands within three feet of the top of the well, and the clay is not much affected by it.

contain water, near the foot of a rising ground of diluvial clay, in which to dig a well, and it hap-

5526. Suppose, then , that the well is to be dug

water.

pened to be a spot common to all the fields. in clay, containing small stones and veins of After persevering to the depth of 22 feet without sand . Let a circle of eight feet in diameter be success, at the imminent hazard of burying the described on the surface of the ground, from men in the gravel, as a despairing effort, at whose area let the surface - soil be removed to night-fall, I caused a foot-pick to be thrust down be used elsewhere as compost. After throwing into the bottom of the pit as far as the handle, out a depth of eight or nine feet with the spade, and on withdrawing the instrument water was

let a winch and rope and bucket be set up to

seen to follow it. Next morning 3 feet more were draw the earth out of the well. While the dig dug ; and , the waterexcavating the gravel around ging is proceeding, let a sufficient quantity of the bottom of the pit , rendering further digging flat stones be laid down near the winch, by a dangerous operation for the men, the ring of which to let them down to build the ring. A the well was built with stones . The water rose depth of sixteen feet will most probably suffice;

no higher in the well than 3 feet, but the supply butif no water is found, let the digging proceed was sufficient for the use of three fields. On finding water in this case, in the midst of rather hopeless symptoms, I would recommend perse-

verance to diggers of wells.

to the requisite depth. A ring of three feet in diameter will be a large enough bore for the well : the rest of the space should be filled up with dry rubble masonry , and drawn in at the top to two feet in diameter .

Whenever the

5523. In very unctuous clay, such as is found building is finished, the water should be removed in carse land, water is difficult to be obtained by digging to ordinary depths ; but as such a country is usually situate near a large river, or on the side of a broad estuary, by digging to the depth of the bed of the river, some sand will most probably be found throughwhich the water will find its way to the well ; and though brackish

from the well with buckets if the quantity is small, and with a pump if it be large, to allow the bottom to be cleared of mud and stones.

A

thick flat stone, reaching from the side of the ring to beyond the centre, should be firmly placed on the ground at the bottom of the well for the wooden pump to stand upon, or for the lead

in the estuary, it will probably come into the

pipe to rest on. If a wooden pump is used, a

well sweet enough for all domestic purposes.

large flat stone, having a hole in it to embrace the pump, should be laid on a level with the ground upon the ring of the well ; but if a lead pipe is

5524. Wells dug in stratified rocks, such as

sandstone, may be supplied with water at the preferred, the flat stone should be entire and cover moderate depth of perhaps six or eight feet ; but the ring, and the clayey earth thrown over it. amongst regular strata as much risk exists of 5527. The cost of digging a well in clay, eight losing water as in obtaining it. To avoid disappointment, it will be necessary to puddle the feet in diameter and sixteen feet deep, and

seams of the rock on that side of the well in building a ring three feet in diameter with which it dips downwards.

dry rubble masonry, is only L.5, exclusive of carriage and the cost of the pumps.

5525. The substance which most certainly

supplies water on being dug into is diluvial

5528. A larch pump of from 15 to 20 feet in

clay, a substance that forms the subsoil of the length costs from L.3 to L 3, 10s., and a lead greatest extent of the arable land of this kingdom. one L.2, 10, with ls. 2d . per lineal foot for pipe This clay is of itself impervious to water, but it is of the depth of the well. The wooden pump always intersected with small veins of sand fre- will last perhaps twenty years, and the lead one quently containing mica, and interspersed with a lifetime, with ordinary care: and the lead at all numerous small stones, on removing which water times is worth something. is found to ooze from their sites, and collect in any pit that is formed in the clay to receive it. 5529. It may happen that a well has to be

The depth to be dug to secureasufficiency of sunk in fine sand or loose gravel, when the ordi water may not be great - perhaps not less than eight feet, or more than sixteen feet ; but when the clay is homogeneous and hard , and there is little appearance of water, digging to upwards of 40 feet in depthwill be required to find water.

I knew a remarkable instance of a well that was dug in such clay in Ireland, in which 40 feet were penetrated before any water was found ;

but immediately beyond that depth, so large a body of pure water was found in a small vein of sand, that the diggers escaped with difficulty out of the well , leaving their tools behind . A force-pump was obtained to clear the well of

nary mode of sinking and of building the ring will not answer . For such a case, Mr James Wilson, Bonhill, Dumbartonshire, has obligingly sent me the specifications and mode of digging and building , which he followed in making a well in sand and gravel . The diameter of the

well to be three feet six inches inside of the

building, and the building, instead of rubble, to be of droved ashler, each stone 8 inches broad

in the bed, 12 inches deep, about 213 inches long, in the chord of the arc of a circle on the one side, and 17 inches long in a straight line, on the other side.

The outside of the stones to

540

REALISATION .

be formed neatly to a circle, and their inside into an octagon . Beds to be square ; ends properly bevelled and wrought correctly to a mould ; each course to contain 8 stones of equal size ; a ring board to be formed of willow , not to taste the water, 84 inches broad, 11 or 2 inches thick, and half an inch larger than the outside circle of the stones. The ring -board could be made stronger

altogether about eleven feet six inches, when the water flowed in so much I could not proceed

further, and it rose to its level of three feet eight inches. The building went down steadily , and did not seem to be an eighth of an inch off the level at which it was first set.

Other four

courses were then built, and the covers put on , and the pump-frame erected several feet from

in two courses of four pices of equal size. In

the side of the well, where an inclined plane and

building upon the ring-board, the first course of

gutter had been formed to carry off the water. The pump I use is a copper chamber, four inches

stones to have the centres of their face raised

perpendicular to the inside of the ring-board. in diameter, with brass boxes, and a two-inch The centres of each stone of the second course

lead pipe attached to the chamber, and laid into

to be placed over the joints of the preceding course, and also perpendicular to the inside of the ring-board. The inside face of each stone being a straight line, the inside diameter of the well being 34 feet, and the ring -board being

the well through the side of the building about two feet below the surface. "

This may be

regarded as an expensive method of forming a well, and it is so ; but it is clear that, unless the ring is made of stones well connected together, correctly made, the inside ends of each stone will thebuilding wouldnot sink without dislocation ; be back 14 inch from the centre of the face of and it is not possible to dig sand out of a well each stone in the course immediately above it, of considerable depth and build its ring, by and so on with every course. A small stick made means less expensive than this. It will be seen as a guage at one end, of lì inch length , will be that the truer the circle and better the workman found handy for setting the stones. The outside ship of the outside of the ring, the building will circle mustbe most carefully made . The upper

course to form a square instead of an octagon for

subside the better without risk of having the stones displaced by rubbing against the sand and

gravel. This method of sinking permits the well carry the water off the top of the well. The being made deeper, if required, at any future covers to be droved, and in three pieces, one of period ; and this method of building renders the which to cover the building on one side and half well accessible at all times for repairs, by afford . the covers to rest on, and to slope to one side, to

of the well,and to be half-checked where the ing steps in the angles of the octagon, for other two stones meet it in the middle, and they plumbers and others, as the means of descending are to be half- checked into it, also half- checked and ascending the well with ease . into each other where they meet in the middle, 5531. Rain -water for domestic purposes is col and to cover the other side of the building. One of the stones covering a portion of the well to lected in cisterns. The form of a rain -water cis have an iron ring in it, by which to lift it tern, represented by fig. 441 , I have found freely out of the checks of the other two stones. useful for allowing the undisturbed deposition The joints of the covers to be filled with putty of impurities, and at the same time the quick

well mixed with white lead, to prevent water flowing off of the purer water, without disturbing from the surface getting into the well.

the deposition. Let a b c b be a cistern of stone or wood, placed at a convenient spot of the stead .

5530. The method of sinking the well is thus ing or farm -house, for the reception ofrain -water. described by Mr Wilson :- “ I had the stones I have found that such a cistern , of the capacity dressed , droved to a mould as specified, and all of 12 cubic feet, holds a sufficient quantity of ready before breaking ground, when I made a rain -water for the domestic purposes of an ordi rod two inches longer than the extreme diameter nary family. A cistern of 2 feet square at the of the ring -board; described the circle on the base, and 3 feet in height, will just contain that surface with it, and gave it to the labourer as a quantity ; but, as the size of an ordinary wash guage, that he might not take out any more tub is 2 feet in diameter, the space between d and sand and gravel than was necessary to let the d must be made 2 feet 6 inches at least, and the ring-board in with ease. I had about five feet height of the cistern b would be 2 feet ; but if of gravel, which I should always like to go more water is required than 12 cubic feet, then through before laying in the ring -board. There the height should be 3 feet, which gives a capa were then two feet of fine sand, when water city to the cistern of 18 cubic feet. Suppose the appeared by taking a shovelful out of the centre.

cistern represented in the figure to contain 18

I then ordered the ring-board to be put in and levelled, and built upon to the top of seven courses, filling up as it was built the back of each course with fine sand, loosely put in with a shovel, to steady the building when sinking. I then commenced taking gravel out of the centre with a short shovel, and a bucket with a rope attached to it to be drawn up with a winch

cubic feet, then the area of a will be 24 feet square, and 6 3 feet in height, supported on two upright stones d d of the breadth of the cistern , and 2 feet high. The cistern may either be made of a block of freestone hewn out to the dimensions, or of flags, of which the sides are let into grooves in the bottom and into each other, and imbedded in white -lead, and fastened to

and handle, In about three hours of an after

gether with iron clamps, having a stone movable cover o.

Or it may be formedof a box of wood , day I commenced taking out a barrowful of securely fastened at the corners to be water sand, and two or three bucketfuls of water alter tight, with a cover of wood, and resting on

noon there was about a foot of water.

Next

nately, till in other three hours I had got down

the stone supports d d.

Stone, being more

541

WATER -CISTERNS.

durable, is of course preferable to wood for pletely out by the washer n. The waste water a cistern that stands out in the open air. Fig . 441.

runs away through the air-trap o, and along the drain p. It is more convenient to have two small than one large cistern , as , while the water

is rising in the one, that in the other gets leave to settle. The cost of such a cistern, with droved stones, and to contain 18 cubic feet, with the proper mountings, may be about L.5. I think it right to say, in commendation of this form of

water- cistern , that in no case have I known the water about the plug to be frozen, in consequence,

perhaps, of the non -conducting power of the mud in thebottom of the cistern . The rod i has some times become fast to the ice on the top of the water at l, but a little boiling water poured down by the

side of the rod through the hole in the cover, by means of a funnel, soon freed it from restraint.

5532. Water for domestic purposes is known as hard or soft. Most water from springs is hard, and that in rivers soft ; because, although most of the water of rivers is derived from springs, it be comes soft by long exposure to the air , when it deposits the materials that make it hard . Water is hard when it holds in solution certain salts,

d

particularlysulphate of lime, (gypsum,) and the carbonate of lime, even in very small quantities. Water can dissolve são part of its weight of gyp sum ; but, according to Dr Dalton , Iooo part is sufficient to render it hard ; and Mr Cavendish

says, that 1200 grains of water containing car p

bonic acid will hold in solution 1 grain of lime

stone. Limestone is insoluble in pure water ; but water containing carbonic acid in solution can dissolve it.

Water is said to be hard when it

will not dissolve but decompose soap . Soft water, A RAIN - WATER CISTERN,

A hollow copper cylinder g is fastened perpendicularly into the bottom a, having its lower end projecting 1 inch below, and its upper 3

inches above, the respective surfaces of the bottom . The upper end of the copper cylinder is formed to receive a ground truncated cone of copper h, called a plug or stopper, which is moved up and down with a lever k, by means of the copper rod i. The plug h must be made

on the other hand, does not decompose, but com bines easily with soap and dissolves it. Hard water is not so fit as soft for many culinary pur poses, such as making tea and boiling vegetables.

through a hole in the cover, to be connected with

It is therefore of importance for you to know when water is in a hard or soft state. By plac ing a few thin slices of white soap in a clean tumbler of the water to be examined, its hard ness will be indicated by white flakes or curdy particles around the soap , the effect of decom position, the acids of the salts in the water com bining with the alkali of the soap and leaving

the lever k , whose support or fulcrum is fixed on

the fatty matter.

water -tight with grease , the rod of which passes

These parts are all made of copper, to withstand rusting from the water, with the exception of the lever, which may be of iron the cover.

painted.

The rain -water is supplied to the cis-

tern by the pipe e, which descends from the rain-

5533. “ To discover whether the hardness be

owing to the presence of limestone or gypsum , the following chemical tests,” says Mr Reid , “ may be applied : A solution of the nitrate of

water conductor,and is let through a hole in the barytes will produce a white precipitate with The water is represented standing as high as l ; but in case it should rise to overflow ,

cover.

water containing either gypsum or lime-stone ; if limestone have been present in the water,

it can pass off by the lead waste -pipe f, which is the precipitate will be dissolved, and the secured and movable at pleasure in a groundwasher n, whose upper end is made fush with the upper surface of the bottom a. After the water has entered the cistern, it gets leave to

liquid rendered clear on adding a few drops of pure nitric acid ; if the presence of gypsum caused the precipitate, this will not be dissolved by the nitric acid. A solution of the sugar of lead

settle its sediment, which it may do to the

may be used in the same way, but the nitrate of

height of the upper end of g. The sediment is barytes is preferred.” * represented by m, and when it accumulates to h, the cover c should be taken off, and the waste-

5534. As to a practical remedy for hard water,

pipe f removed, and the cistern cleaned com-

boiling will remove the lime. The carbonic acid

* Reid's Chemistry of Nature, p. 199.

542

REALISATION .

in excess in the water is converted into the

tracted form precludes easy turning inthe deepest

gaseous form , and the carbonate of lime then becoming insoluble, falls to the bottom of the vessel.

part of the water, none of the rest of the horses

Hence the incrustation of tea-kettles.

If the

can be permitted to drink at the opposite or open end of the pond. A much better form of

hardness is caused by gypsum, a little pearl-ash or soda (carbonate of potash or carbonate of soda) will remove it, and the lime of the water will also be precipitated with the carbonic acid

pond, I conceive, is with an open side, having the opposite side fenced, and the water supplied clean at the upper end, and made to flow imme

of the pearl ash or soda.

number of horses can stand in a row to drink at the same time, and easily pass each other in the

5535. Water as a beverage would be insipid, and even nauseous, without the gaseous and saline

act of washing the legs after drinking. As to

diately away by the lower. At such a pond a

the depth, no horse -pond should ever exceed the

matters usually found in it. They give a natural

height of the horses' knees. The water should

seasoning and a sparkling appearance to it ; thereby rendering it not only agreeable to the taste, but more wholesome to the stomach. Every

on no account reach their bellies ; for although I am quite aware of ploughmen being desirous to wade their horses deep, and of even wishing to

one knows the mawkish taste which boiled water has when drunk alone.

selves some trouble in cleaning, that is no reason

see their sides laved with water, to save them why you should run the risk of endangering th

5536. As I am on the subject of water, a few

words may here be said on the making of horseponds. When a small stream passes the stead ing, it is easy to make a pond serve the purpose of horses drinking and washing in it, and the

health of your horses by making the pond deeper than the knee. ( 1417. ) ON COTTAGES FOR FARM - SERVANTS .

water in such a pond will always be pure and clean. But it may happen, for the sake of con

5537. It is as necessary to obtain good venience, when there is no stream ,thatapond accommodation on the farm for the farm should be dug in clay, in which case the water in it will always be dirty and offensive , unless means are used to bring water by a pipe from a

servants -- the numbers and duties of whom I have already enumerated from ( 55) to

distance. If the subsoil is gravelly, the water (69 ) —as for the farmer himself and his will with difficulty be retained on it, on which account the bottom should be puddled with clay, stock. Until a few years since, however, Puddling is a very simple process, and may be the dwellings of farm -labourers did not performed in this manner. Let a quantity of

receive that attention, from either land tenacious clay be beaten smooth with a wooden lord or tenant, to render them comfort

rammer, mixing with it about one-fourth part of able as they ought to have had ; not, I its bulk ofslaked lime,which hasthe effectof believe, from any disregard towards the deterring worms making holes in it . After the mass has lain for some time souring, let large welfare of that useful and indispensable balls of it be formed and thrown forcibly on class of servants, but chiefly because they the bottom of the pond , made dry for the pur- themselves made no formal complaint of pose , and beaten down with a rammer or men's feet,is until tramped if formeda ,coating or more,6 or in thickness 7 inches with

the state of the accommodation afforded

clean gravel be beaten with the rammer into the

a situation under a good master, and on a

them , and seemed contented with such there is plenty of clay. Then let'a quantity of houses as they got,provided they obtained uppersurfaceof theclay before it has had time good farm . The general character of the to harden . Should the pond be large, and the weather at the time of making it so dry as to hinds' houses some years ago may be harden theclay before its entire bottom can be learned from these remarks by Dr Gilly, covered with it, let the puddling and gravelling Vicar of Norham , in Northumberland : proceed together by degrees. Above the coating “ The general character of the best of the of gravel , let a substantial causeway of stones old -fashioned hinds' cottages the neigh and sand be formed to resist the action of the bourhood at the best. in They is bad have horses' feet, and which, if properly protected at

to bring everything with them — parti pond, will withstand that action for a long tions, window -frames, fixtures of all kinds, time. I have seen a pond recommended to be grates, and a substitute for ceiling ; for

the ends, and finished on the open side of the

made, into whichthe horses enterat one end, they are, as I have already called them , and pass through it by the other. This is a con mere sheds. shape of pond , in as far as it admits of

venient the uninterruptedpassage of thehorses through it. But it is liable to serious objections. Being contracted laterally, the pair of horses which first descend to drinkwill occupy thegreatest

They have no byre for their

cows, no sties for their pigs, no pumps or wells, nothing to promote cleanliness or comfort. The average size of these sheds is about 24 feet by 16. They are dark

proportionthe of its whole breadth in that ng pair, and position, succeedi mustwhile drink the and unwholesome.

muddy water at their heels ; and, as the con-

The windows do not

open, and many of them are not larger

1 1

543

HINDS' HOUSES.

than 20 inches by 16. Into this space servants, is to adopt a uniform plan, upon within the shed are crowded 8, 10, and which all are built. The practice is not even 12 persons . How they lie down to founded on sound principle, nor even on rest, how they sleep, how they can pre- expediency ; because it implies that fami

serve common decency, how unutterable lies consisting of very different numbers

horrors are avoided, is beyond all concep- should, nevertheless, be accommodated tion .

The case is aggravated when there within similar spaces.

Instead, there

is a young woman to be lodged in this fore, of a family accommodating itself to confined space, who is not a member of the family, but is hired to do the fieldwork , for which every hind is bound to provide a female. It shocks every feeling

the size of the cottage, the cottage ought to be adapted to the size of the family ; and there is no wayof fixing the propor tions between the cottages and their in

of propriety to think that, in a room, and mates but by building them with different within such a space as I have been de- extents of accommodation, for families of scribing, civilised beings should be herding different numbers. This is the only ra

together, without a decent separation of tional course to pursue ; and in pursuance So long as the agricultural of it, it is as easy to build a given number

age and sex .

system in this district requires the hind to of cottages on different plans, as on the find room for a fellow -servant of the other same plan. Following out this principle, sex in his cabin, the least that morality I shall give a number of plans, suited to

and decency can demand is, that he should families of different sizes, taken from prac have a second apartment, where the un- tical examples, but modified, in some in married female, and those of a tender age, stances, to suit my own notions of the should sleep apart from him and his wife . conveniences, comforts, and means of

I have seen many houses of this descrip- cleanliness which such dwellings should tion upon farms, but now they are becom- possess.

ing fewer every year. Whenever a lease is renewed, if the cottages are in a bad 5539. Objections have been made to state of repair, they are amended both by accommodating a family in one room ; but repairs on the outside, and better accom- the force of the objections entirely depends modation within ; and when so bad as not upon the number of the family.

In some

fit to be repaired , they are pulled down, and parts of the country the hind's family may others of a greatly amended form and ap- consist of himself and wife only, in which pearance are built instead.

This is now

case a single room and a single bed will

the rule under adoption by landowners suffice for their accommodation. In other generally, and the contrary conduct is parts the hind is obliged to have a female to work in the fields as a field - worker,

happily the exception.

when a bed must be procured for her. In

5538. But in the case of some proprie- this case, at least two beds are required in tors, the desire for building very fine large the house ; and even these may be accom cottages is manifesting itself; and such a modated in one room . Fig. 442 shows Fig. 442. spirit ought to be deprecated as well as

the very opposite extreme which Dr Gilly condemns. A larger house than a hind can well furnish is a burden to him ; and

78

9

whatever part he cannot furnish, becomes a dirty lumber room, or is let to some stranger in the capacity of a boarder — a

very objectionable class of persons on any farm . A house that will just accommo m

date the number of persons of his house hold is what the hind wants ; and the ob ject can only be attained by building

cottages of different sizes.

The usual

practice, when building cottages for farm

PLAN OF A SMALL HIND'S HOUSE OF ONE ROOM,

Gilly's Appeal on Behalf of the Peasantry of the Border, p . 19 and 20.

544

REALISATION .

the manner of accommodating two beds in beds would require wooden partitions to one room : a is the door of entrance ; b the separate m from n ; and i would require one porch ; c thedoor into the room d; eis the along the back next p, and at the end fire-place ; f the window of the room ; g next o. If this cottage were of thesame

the plate-rack for holding the crockery, size as fig. 442, the room d would be

& c.; h the dresser; i and k are the two equally large ; but that the lobby 6 is beds, i entering from the room d, and k taken off it, to make up for which the from the small room n , provided with a size should be 25 feet in length, and 15 in window , which is divided by a partition breadth . between this room and the store - room 1, which is entered from the porch by the 5541. Box -beds are objected to by door m. The apartment n has a door medical men, as they are too confined and

hinged on the corner of the bed k , if a inconvenient in form when any of the box -bed, and on the wall if not so. If family are sick. Modifications in their

the beds are box-beds, which is the most form may be effected chiefly by having common form , the inmates at night will the back and ends to open on binges, and be sufficiently separated, the married couple entering the bed i from the apartment d , and the field -worker k from the small chamber n. Should the beds be of

the top made movable, to promote ven tilation, as well as to allow freer access to the patient. Curtains suspended from movable rods, made to draw forward in

the tent-bed form , with curtains, farther front, instead of sliding panels, have been separation might be effected by a wooden recommended, to screen the person dress partition between the two beds, and at ing and undressing, wben the beds do not

the ends of k next l and d , and at the back occupy separate apartments ; but were the of i next l. Such a cottage measures 22 beds arranged in the manner represented feet in length, and 15 in breadth - giving in figs. 442 and 443, such a contrivance the floor of d a space of 15 feet by 11 , which is enough for three adult persons.

with the curtains would not be required. It is questionable, however, that box -beds

will be voluntarily relinquished by farm

5540. Even three beds might be ac- servants, and certainly not so until every comniodated in one room , as shown in cottage is accommodated with fixed beds; fig. 443, where a is the entrance door ; 6 the and if these have the alcove form , which Fig. 443. most fixed beds have, they are equally inconvenient for a sick patient as the box bed itself. n

9

h

5542. But it must be owned that, where more than one bed is required in a hind's

house, a separate room for it is better than any arrangement that can be made with the beds within one room , and the feeling

of security and separation is more satis factory in thesecond apartment. Fig. 444 Fig. 444. PLAN OF A LARGE HIND'S HOUSE OF ONE ROOM .

porch ; c the door of the apartment d ; e the fire-place ; f the window of the room ; 9the plate -rack ; h the dresser; i m n are three beds, so arranged that m enters from the room d, i from the small closet entered by the door l, and having the window k divided between it and the store -room 0,

which is entered by the passage p, where is a door, and has a bed in it, n . Box-beds would make a complete separation of their occupants by being so arranged. Tent

PLAN OF A HIND'S HOUSE WITH TWO ROOMS,

HINDS' HOUSES.

545

gives the ground -plan of such a cot- having a window, a boiler, and a back tage, wherea is the entrance porch 3 feet 3 inches by 4 feet 9 inches ; 6 the apartment 15 feet by 14, with a window ; c the bedroom 10 feet square, with a window ; d a light pantry , 4 feet 9 inches by 6 feet 6 inches ; e e are fire- places, 4

door. This apartment is useful for wash ing clothes in, and doing such things as to leave the sitting-room c always clean

and comfortable. One large or two small bedrooms are placed over the sitting room c.

feet by 34 feet ; and f a wall-press 3 feet wide. One bed can stand against the

5545. A larger house has an entrance back wall of b for the hind and his wife, and porch e , which is also the staircase for the another if required for two children ; and upper story ; g is the sitting -room enter

one bed might be put into the room c, for ing from the porch, and having two win

the field -worker, and another for two chil- dows, a fireplace, a pantry k , and enter dren if required. Thus three adult persons ing to theback -kitchen h, which has a can well be accommodated in such a window ,boiler, and back -door, and enters house, along with four children if required. to a light closet i. The light closet f enters from the porch e. Two large or

5543. In such a house as fig. 444 tent- three small bedrooms are placed over the beds and curtains would look neat and be apartments 9 and h, and the closets i

appropriate. Iron bedsteads are now quite and k . common, and, for convenience of putting 5546. Hinds' houses are most commonly up, and taking down, and avoiding fracture, they are much better adapted for built in long rows, and when several are

hinds than wooden ones. They also pos- required for a large farm , they frequently sess the advantage of giving no shelter to assume the form of three sides of a square.

bugs. The curtains of beds to be used in When onthouses are afforded, which ought such houses ought to be made of wool to always to be, much inconvenience is ex resist fire, and not of cotton , which would , perienced by the inhabitants living in long in the circumstances, only be a little less rows of houses, in going to and from them . This row - form originated, no doubt, because dangerous than a covering of tinder. of a larger number ofhouses being erected 5544. Instead of having the sleeping at the same expense, than in any other form , apartments upon the ground-floor, they and economy of the ground taken up by may be placed in a story above. Fig. them had also entered into the calculation. 445 shows such an arrangement, in which For comfort and convenience combined, no form is equal tothe double house, having entrancesat different parts, and the fire

Fig. 445.

places in the centre of the building. Fig. 446 represents the elevation of the houses g

Fig. 446 .

PLAN OF HINDS' HOUSES HAVING BED -ROOMS IN A SECOND STOREY .

a is the entrance porch of a small house ; 7 the staircase leading to the upper story ; c the room , entering from the porch a,

ELEVATION OF DOUBLE HINDS' HOUSES.

having a window, a fireplace and wall- whose ground - plans are given in fig. 445, press,VOL. and entering to a back -kitchen d , and although here represented in a more II .

2 M

REALISATION .

546

ornamental style than hinds' houses need The offices to each cottage may cost about be, the construction combines ornament with use ; and now that the duty is taken

£ 15.

5550. Too frequently little attention is paid

the upper off rooms buildingof bricks, the which partly the to the state of thesite inwhich hinds'houses are occupystory, built. They are very commonly built along the public road,open to thegaze of every side of the roof, might be made to bave a light and passenge r, and in the way of accidents to the

elegant appearance, and yet not be ex

pensive, if built with brick. Pairs of children ; and their floors under the level of the of the road. They ought to be away from cottages, of whatever construction , should curve & public road, and their floors ought to be ele not be built so close together as to give vated at least one footabovethe surface of the force to a current of air between them.

ground. Fig. 447 gives a section of the manner Fig. 447.

5547. A second sitting -room in a hind's

in which the foun dation of hinds'

houses ought to be

bouse is an unnecessary appendage to it ;

constructed , where

When in

a is the pavement

the second story it will be converted into a sleeping- room ; and when on the ground floor, into a meal or potato store, beside thebeds that may be putinto it. The fire will never be kindled in it, and it will be come damp and cold. It is only when the resident, is a thefixed labourer directly under landlord, that holding he will

of the floor of the

it will never be used as such .

room resting upon broken

stones

to

keep it dry ; b the broad gravelled footpath along the

SECTION OF THE FOUNDATION front of the wall ; OF A HIND'S HOUSE,

c the surface of the

ground on the road, some inches below the level

footpath ; and d the drain to carry away furnish his second room in the ground- ofthethewaterthatmay chance to fall upon thefoot

floor comfortably, and warm it by occa- path . A border of earth may be made along the front of the house, and a fence of low hedg. ing placed between it and the footpath, which in

sional fires.

5548. Single cottages with a ground- that case would be madewhere the road e is. plan such as figs. 442 and 443 would cost about £53, thus :

5551. Much comfort may be promoted within

151 square feet of hewn stone Roofing and slating

7 11 16 16

0 0

a cottage by a few simple means kept in view at its erection . One of the means is to have the fireplace in the centre of the house , and not in the gable, because the mason -work absorbs much

Joiner-work and furnishings

14 6

0

of the heat from the fire in the latter position ,

0

and dissipates it into the open air. A double cottage secures the advantage of a central heat completely ; but if the fire be at the end of a

£ 14

82 cubic yards ofbuilding

£53

7 0

0

If such cottages are made double, they longroom , even though it should be in the centre might be erected for £100. Such a cot- of the house, the remainder ofthe room will de rive little benefit from it : the fire should there

tageas fig. 444 would cost about £63, fore bein a sidewall. No door opening into a perhaps £120. room should be pear to or on the same side of the and in the double form

445 and 446 are in too ornamental apartmentas the fireplace. On these conditions Figs. a style for farms; but in a plain style and being laid down to architects by landowners, the accommodation afforded by them,

cottages would cease to be theuncomfortable

with they could not be built under a consider dwellings which many are to their occupants.t able sum more than I have mentioned.*

5552. No part of a cottage requires so much attention at its erection as the chimney - for a

5549. I do not approve of ash -pits,

smoky house to a cottager, who has only one

aware,is ed near subject privies, andpig-sties chimney-building,I amam aware,isadiffi subject ofof chimney-building,I highly properthat -houses. It isbeingplac dwelling are made too short and too wide. A chimneys be provided wide ns chimney affords room for both a descend current of air,and a short ing and ascending their dwellings. The trouble of walking chimney weakens the draught materially. A

these accommodatio should for the people, but certainly not close to

a few yards to those places is well com long chimney with a contracted top should there

pensated in avoiding the nuisance that fore be expected to carry off the smokefreely. would be experienced in the vicinage. Tredgold says of the contracting of a chimney * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society,March 1850, p. 275, and Jan. 1848, p. 202. of Journal of Agriculture, July 1847, p. 1.

547

HINDS' HOUSES.

near the bottom , “ it is like contracting the aper- cal, for preventing the down-draught ofthe air ture of a pipe which supplies a jet.” The con- from above ; and o o are the angular edges for traction depends on the size of the grate for the directing the wind upwards according to their fire ; and this being kept in view , Tredgold's rule angle. The top may be made of thin metal of for the contraction at the top is the following :any kind, and painted black . Kites' (of London ) Let 17 times the length of the grate in inches be diamond deflecting chimney -top has been highly divided by the square root of the height of the recommended by those who know it.* chimney in feet, and the quotient is the area for the aperture at the top of the chimney in inches. 5555. The ventilation of cottages I do not

For example, suppose that a grate is 15 inches interfere with, as the door isgenerally left much wide, and the chimney 36 feet high - 17 x 15 = 255 ; and the square root of 36 is 6 ; therefore 255 divided by 6 424 inches is the area of the top, and the diameter of a circle of 42 inches in circumference is 54 inches for the contraction . 5553. The contraction at the top may be made in this manner : Let fig. 448 represent the section of a chimney. Fig. 448. can , the height of which above the stalk is from a to

a

a ; b is the con tracting cone within it made of iron, the lower part of

open in them during the day, and were they furnished with the windows given in figs. 78, 79, and 80, which they ought to be, (1134 ,) the foul air at any time could be easily gotrid of. Back doors are generally objectionable in cottages as causing disagreeable draughts even when they are shut, and violent slamming of the other doors when they happen to be opened in windy weather.

5556. The following are the prices of building materials for cottages in England Mason and plaster work : 18- inch stone wall, properly pointed , £ 7 per rood superficial. Bevel stone paving,

7d per foot.

Bath stone for dressings, delivered

which is rounded

off, as at dd ; the upper part at oo

being made angu :

from the quarry to the builder's 1s. 4d . per cubic foot. yard ,

Best duchess slating, with malleable

} 32s. per square rood.

metal nails,

Lathing with best deal laths, “ ren- } Is. 4d.'per square yard. der, float and set,

lar upwards, with the view of facili tating the passing of the wind over it in an upward direc tion . The chimney-

Render, filo and set, or render,} 1s. per square yard. float, and twice whiten,

top , if constructed

23

5557. Carpenter and Joiner work : Couples,

9 inches by 3f inches.

Purloins, Wall-plates

6 7

4

ofthis form at first, Flooring joists108 Lintels , METHOD OF CONTRACTING

THE TOP OP & CHIMNEY.

might answer as well as any can put up afterwards.

5554. In certain situations, and in certain quarters of the wind, a down -draught of smoke is created in the chimney. Those situations may be in the neighbourhood of tall trees, at the base

of a hill, or in the lee of a large building, against which, if from one direction , and over which, if from another, the wind may be reflected against or bend in a downward direction upon the top of the chimney. The only safeguard against

of sound dry elm at 25. per cubic foot ,

including the saw ing.

Bond timber, 3 Door frames ,

3

of yellow deal at 2s. 8d. per cubic foot, including the saw . ing. of white deal at 2s.

Rafters , 3 Ceiling joists, 4

4d . per cubic foot, including the saw . ing.

The landings and bedroom floors to be laid with inch white deal flooring boards.

The partitionson the landings to be 4 inch white deal, braced.

5558. Plumber and Painter work : The valleys in the roof to be laid with 6 lb lead .

All exter

such a contingency is the placing a top upon the chimney -head, or upon the can represented

nal woodwork, and all internal usually painted ,to be well primed and have three coats drab. The windows to be glazed with leaded lights, in diamonds, and each room

in fig. 448 ; but in the latter case the iron cone

to have a casement to open.

b should not be angled upwards as at c,but made Fig. 449. d

be placed as much

5559. No cottage can be kept dry at the foun dation, even withdrains, if the rain -water is not

lower down the can to allow it to

carried off by spouts. It would be expensive to make, and troublesome to keep in repair , a

level, and it should

as

take in the top. Fig. rain -water cistern at every cottage, and itwould a

TOP OF A CHIMNEY FOR

449 represents such a

require a large one to supply the wants of a

top recommended by

family ; and were more than one claimant allowed to each cistern, it would be a source of end less quarrels. A good pump is all that is necessary to supply water to hinds' houses, and it is a necessary of which they are too often

Tredgold, where a is the part for fixing it

to the canor chimney

PREVENTING THE DOWN- head ; d the cover, made circular or coniDRAUGHT OF SMOKE.

* Journal of Agriculture, July 1849, p. 45-50.

deprived. + Weaver's Designs of Cottages.

548

REALISATION .

ON INSURANCE AGAINST FIRE AND DISEASE.

materials should tend rather to increase

than diminish combustion, since a great 5560. Fire. — It is very short-sighted mass of heat can decompose a thin jet of policy in a farmer to neglect to insure his water, one element of which is actually the stock and crop every year againstdestruc- principle of inflammability, and the other

tion by fire. The premium is only 3s. in Scotland, and 4s. in England, per £ 100 value - farm -stocking being exempt from the duty of 3s. per cent. The premium

the supporter of combustion.

“ The im

mense ratio," saysMr Phillips, the inventor

of a new method of extinguishing fire, “ in which fire is multiplied by time,makes it

used to be only 2s. per cent ; but siuce the an important desideratum to have at hand prevalence of smoking tobacco, and the use the means of extinguishing a fire as soon

of lucifer matches by the country people, as possible after discovery. The rapidity it has been raised. It is not necessary to of its progress over inflammable materials insure the entire crop or stock, inasmuch is such, that a fire extinguishable by one as it is not at all probable that the whole gallon of water will in five minutes require would be destroyed by any one fire. one hundred gallons, and in ten minutes, The houses shouldalso be insured, and the one thousand gallons ;” a supply, it is

landlord ought to pay the insurance, since needless to say, there is generally no they are hisproperty; and theyare as safe means of procuring with the necessary in the possession of a tenant as in his own, promptness. Where Mr Phillips' Fire

since the tenant runs the risk of losing annihilator is at hand, a fire may be his crop and stock before the buildings can extinguished while a man was mounting a

catch fire. Thepremium of insurance for horse, in order to search for afire-engine. farm -buildings is 28. 6d., and for farni- As it is not in my power to describethis houses and hinds' houses, 2s. per £ 100 machine, or give a figure of it, not having value ; and there are, besides, 3s. per cent seen it, I shall relate an experiment that was made with one before a party at the Gas-works, Vauxhall, London . “ Mr Phil

of duty .

5561. Fire-engines. I am surprised lips explained that the agent by which he how fire is extinguished at farm -steadings, which contain so much inflammable materials, since no fire-engineof any description is kept on a farm . The ordinary fireengines are generally at a great distance

soughtto accomplish his objectwas a mix ture of gas and vapour. After several experiments on a smallscale, to show the success he had attained by these means,

the attention of the company was directed to a compartment of a large open build town, and probably not nearer than a ing, quite 20 feet high inside, which was from farms — not nearer than the nearest

large town. This being the case, it is pe- fitted up with partitions and temporary culiarly interesting to farmers to learn joistingof light wood, well soaked with that a quick and efficient means of extin- pitch and turpentine, and overhung besides guishing fire has lately been announced . with rags and shavings soaked in like It has been well said , that “ we are so manner. The torch was applied to this much accustomed to regard water as the erection, and the flames, which ascended only available material which can be em- immediately, at length roared with a vehe ployed in case of conflagration, that the mence which drove the spectators back to scientific man has hitherto been diverted a distance of 40 feet, and was already be

from devising means of applying other yond the power of water. The inventor well-known agents possessing the same then brought forward one of his band power ; and yet water is but a feeble machines, and threw out a volume of

ally, even when it can be had, while the gaseous vapour, which, in balf a minute, having it at command involves such heavy entirely suppressed all flame and combus and costly apparatus, that it can scarcely tion ; and to show that the vapour which be calledavailable, unless in cities. As for now filled the space was quite innoxious,

country houses, villages,or rural property, that may be said to be, by our present arrangements, consigned to almost inevitable destruction in case of fire." A small jet of

Mr Phillips mounted into the loft, and passed and repassed through the midst of it with a lighted candle in hishand. The machine with which this effect was ac

water thrown on a large mass of heated complished was rather larger than a good

549

INSURANCE .

sized coffee-pot, and consisted of three tin of the skin and carcass. He may add to , cases , one within another, and mutually substitute, or exchange his stock under communicating. There was a small quan- certain regulations. The office is in the

tity of water in the bottom ofthe machine, Strand, London, and agents are to be

and in the centre case was a composite found in the country . cake , of the size and colour of peat- con

taining, in the middle of it, a phial of sul5564. Hail- insurance. The farmers' phuric acid and chloride of potassium . In crops, since 1840 , have also been insured

order to put the machine into action, this against the loss incurred by bail-storms, generated so rapidly and in such quantity in the Strand. Sometimes hail does ma that it immediately rushes out from a terial damage in England, especially to lateral spout with great impetuosity. Mr the proprietors of hot -houses ; but in Scot pbial is broken, and a gaseous vapour is by one of the Fire Companies of London

Phillips explained that a machine of any land, such a source of loss is of rare occur size could be made according to the pur- rence. In August 1850, however, a hail pose for which it was intended , and that a storm occurred in a part of Forfarshire, in company was at length formed to carry the neighbourhood of the town of Brechin ,

the invention into effect, their office being wbich did much damage to the crop on the eve of being cut down.

at No. 105 Leadenhall Street . " 5562. There

are five sizes

of this

5565. Cor -clubs.

These clubs are a

machine made, varying in price from £3 sort of insurance against loss ; but I pre to £7 each . Each charge for each size of sume that insurance with cattle insurance machine respectively costs from 4s. to 178. companies are intended to supersede them . They seem suited to all farm buildings.

Cow - clubs were established and are sup

ported by labourers and hindswhopossess 5563. Cattle insurance. — Since the cows, and to whom the loss of their cows

ravages by pleuro-pneumonia amongst the cattle, and the small-pox amongst the sheep becameso prevalent, a CattleInsurance Company was established in 1844 in London, for the protection of individual farmers against the loss of stock by disease.

by calving or disease is a very serious affair. I once knew a bind thrown into & great state ofwretchednessby the loss ofhis cow, upon which his large family depended mainly for support. The following are the rules of the “ Brocklesby and Little

An attempt failed some years ago to establish a company in Scotland having a similar object. By the regulations of the Company, it appears that the stock

Lumber Cow Club ” : The object of the club is to secure each member, by a system of mutualassurance, from sustaining indi vidually the whole loss arising from the death of a cow — the loss being thus di vided amongst all the members. Rules : A treasurer to be appointed, who shall conduct the business of the club, and with whom shall rest the decision as to the ad

desired to be insured are inspected by a

person appointed by the Company, and on their value being thus fixed, the premium is paid. The premium is 44. in the pound, in ordinary cases, of cattle, and

in that of pleuro -pneumonia, it is 6d. in mission of meinbers. Each member to pay the pound .' High-bred stock pays accord- to the treasurer, on the first Saturday in

ing to agreement, andanimals are not in- every calendar mouth, his subscription (in sured under six months old. Sheep pay advance) of 1s. for each cow he may have 1s. in the pound, and upwards. Horses entered. Any member whose cow shall

employed for agricultural purposes pay die, to be entitled to receive from the club 71d. in the pound, and upwards. Hackneys and carriage-horses, 8£d. in the pound ; draught-horses, 9£d. in the pound, and upwards. Entire horses, ls. in the pound, and upwards. Glandered horses by agreement. The owner of the stock, in case of loss, receives three-fourths of the amount on which the premium has

the sum of £ 10. No allowance to be made to any member in respect to any cow above 12 years of age. When a cow dies, the skin to belong to the owner of the cow ; but if the carcass can be sold, the money to be paid to the funds of the club. If a cow dies in calving, the calf to belong to the owner of the cow . Any member

been paid, and one- fourth of the produce neglecting to pay his subscription for three

REALISATION .

550

successive months to be deprived of all

5567. On contemplating the enclosing

benefit from the club, and to forfeit what of a farm , the question naturally arises to he may have previously paid. Any member leaving the district, or ceasing to keep a cow, to be entitled to receive from the treasurer his proportion of the funds then in hand, after deducting therefrom £ 20, which was given by Lord Yarborough to the funds on the establishment of the club. A new member to pay on his admission,

inquire the purpose for which it ought to be enclosed ; and the only consideration that would satisfy the inquirer is, whether or not the farm bas any stock to confine within given bounds ? If there were no stock, it would be difficult to satisfy the mind that any enclosure is required, as is the case with the carse farms,

for each cow he may enter, such a sum as on which they are not wanted ; and

may be the proportion of the general funds to which each cow in the club would be entitled , after deducting therefrom Lord Yarborough's subscription of £ 20. If the funds in the hands of the treasurer shall at any time not be sufficient to pay the allowance for any cows that may die, the members immediately to make up the deficiency. The monthly subscriptions to be discontinued at the discretion of the

even if there were stock, no enclosure within the boundary of the farm seems requisite, if the farm consists entirely of pasture -land. Thus, then, the necessity for enclosure is questionable where there is no pasture ; and where a ring -fence exists around the farm , it is all that is re quisite to keep the stock within its bounds. It does seem reasonable that a ring -fence is requisite, both to pre

treasurer, whenever he shall consider the vent your own stock wandering upon funds in hand sufficient as a guarantee, until reduced by deaths or otherwise. On the first day of January in every year, the treasurer to make out an account, show-

your neighbour's farm , and his trespass ing upon yours. Whenever we asso ciate, however, the co -existence of arable culture and pasture, a subdivision between

ing his receipts and payments during the the one and the other seemsat once neces preceding year, and the balance remaining sary, even if the arable land were kept at in his hands, and cause the same to be one side of the farm , and the pasture on

printed,and a copy supplied to each mem- the other ; but should the two intermingle ber. It will be observed, from the terms throughout the farm , there seenis as much of this club, that these clubs are neces- necessity to subdivide the smaller spaces

sarily confined in the field of their opera- occupied by each, however numerous, from tions.

each other, as were the two formerly sup posed large divisions separated, each of

which occupied half the extent of the ON THE PRINCIPLES OF ENCLOSURE, AND ON SHELTER.

farm .

An enclosure of arable land from

pasture seems as necessary to confine the stock upon the pasture, asto prevent them

5566. The buildings of the farm being trespassing upon the arable. thus provided for, we must look at its sur face, and finding it unprotected from tres5568. The necessity for a ring -enclosure pass from the want of fences, we must now being thus satisfactorily impressed upon turn our attentionto have it enclosed in the mind, the extent of subdivided enclo

the best manner, so as to place the fields in the most convenient relative position to one another for work in regard to the steading, as the central depot forlabour, and to give them that formwhich is found most economical for conducting the labour

sure must depend not only upon the par ticular system of arable culture to be pursued upon the farm , but whether the rearing of stock is to be associated with it. Hence enclosures are of two kinds :

one a ring- enclosure, which constitutes the therein. But before proceeding actually boundary march of a farm , and separates

to lay off and form the different kinds of it from every adjoining farm ; the other fences, it will be useful to consider the individual enclosure, which surrounds

principles upon which fields should be every field separately;and every other sort laid out in aspect and form , and to inquire of enclosure is a modification of these two. into the manner fences operate as shelter to crops and live stock.

5569. Carse farms, and farms in the

PRINCIPLES OF ENCLOSURE .

551

immediate neighbourhood of towns, which 5572. The line of a fence is determined are not devoted to the rearing of live stock by the direction to be given to the ridges. in summer, as well as pastoral farms, The ridges should always, if possible, run which afford a large range of pasturage to N. and S., to allow both their sides to de stock, do not necessarily require to be en- rive equal benefit from the solar rays. On closed in subdivisions. It appears to be flat ground, this direction may easily be sufficient protection for them to be pro- assumed ; but the inclination of the rising

vided only with a ring -fence, and with ground may be E. and W .; and as water fences along the sides of the public roads detained on the surface of the ground, for that may happen to pass through them. however short a time, may domore mis In practice, carse farms are seldom en- chief than the solar raysdo good to both closed, on the idea that the ground is too sides of ridges at the same time, the direc

valuable to be occupied byany sort of tion of the ridges should follow the incli

fence ; but this is short-sighted policy, in nation of the ground, to allow the most as far as public roads are near them , and the walking of travellers across them . To the neglect of enclosure may be ascribed the existence of the numerous foot-paths which cross the fields of England. At most, the subdivision of clay -land farms,

rapid egress to surface -water. Where the ground bas an inclination both N. and S., the meridian line should be preferred. Where the inclination is complicated, as many ridges should take the N. and S. di

rection aspracticable with the other above

and those near towns, need not be carried mentionedmodifications.

farther than dividing them into as many portions as there aremembers of the rota-

5573. The fences should run parallel to

tion of cropping pursued on each : so that the ridges ; for whenever this parallelism

only dairy and mixed -husbandry farms is neglected, wedge-shaped ridges, or butts, require to be subdivided into individual as they are technically termed , are formed fields.

at one or both sides of the fields.

On ac

count of the inequality in the lengths of 5570. The position of a ring-fence is butts, much more time is consuined in

easily determined, which is that of the working them than a square piece of boundary line of the march, whether ground of the same area.

Butts are there

between two farms of the same estate , or fore highly objectionable in fields : but as

between the lands of two conterminous it is scarcely possible to have full-length properties. On adjoining properties, the parallel ridges on every field of a farm ,

ring -fence isusually a mutual one, main- they are unavoidable. Butts should, how tained alike by both proprietors.

ever, be put on the boundaries of the farm .

5571. The individual fences, on the

5574. To preserve neatness and unifor

other hand, are laid off according to several considerations, as, should the farm contain a variety of soils, clayey and sandy, a leading fence should divide them , so as

mity in the ploughing of the fields, the fences should run parallel to one another in straight lines. A straight fence along the crown of a round-backed ridge of

each sort of soil may be enclosed accord- ground , affords excellent shelter toboth ing to the system of husbandry best suit- sides of it, whether it run N. and S. in

ed to it. The clayey land will bear the the direction of the ridges, or E. and W.

best corn -crops, whilst the sandy will yield across their ends. A fence occupying the best green crops and pastures, and elevated ground bestows more shelter to rear the best live stock.

Should the sea-

fields than in any other position ; and such

son prove unfavourable to the one class of a site should always be chosen for the

soil, it may be favourable for the other ; fence, and particularly for a thorn -hedge, and when the markets for corn are de- as it will escape the crushing power of a

pressed, those for live stock may be brisk. A happy juxtaposition of a variety of soils on the same farm serves to maintain its value permanently, amidst circumstances that might much depreciate a farm entirely composed of only one kind of soil.

heavy fall of snow in a bollow . But it often happens that the lower ends of fields cannot be enclosed in straight lines, a rivulet or hollow between two rising

grounds giving their terminations a ser pentine form ; in which case the fence

552

REALISATION .

must follow the waving course of the rivulet or hollow ground, in order to preserve a channel at the lowest part of the ground , for the surface -water coming at times from both slopes.

cannot be large. Taking 250 yards as a long enough furrow for horses on strong clay, the breaks would be squares of 13 acres each ; and as many of such

A serpentine breaks could be placed together, to form

fence in a hollow affords more shelter

a principal division of the farm , as there

than a straight one against the wind, are members in the rotation of cropping, which always comes with force in the line (5080.) But a field of 285 yards square, on of a valley.

A rivulet, or large ditch, necessary for the conveyance of water, should run parallel to the fence, and not across an angle or middle of the field, where it becomes a great hindrance to work, cutting short the ridges on both sides of it into butts.

5575. The shape of fields is greatly

loamy ground, being only about 164 acres, is too small where live stock are reared. A field to contain 25 acres, giving it the shape of a right-angled parallelogram , the direction of the ridges being N. and S., and the length fixed at 285 yards, its breadth should extend to 4244 yards. 5576. A rivulet or hollow between the

determined by unavoidable obstacles, sides of two fields, causing irregular butts, natural and artificial. A winding river or when the fence between them takes the

valley will give an irregular line to the line of the hollow, the parallelism of the fence at that end, and the march -fence ridges and fences of both fields might be may run in a direction to cause butts ; preserved, by running a fence on each side

and another end or side may abut against of the hollow ground, and shutting it out an old ruin , plantation, or precipice. from the fields, and planting it. Where no such obstacles occur , the corners

of all the fields should join at right angles

5577. To show the great waste of time with one another ; because the plough can in ploughing short ridges, I will state the

approach nearer to the square corners of results of some experiments made for me afield, than to two obtuse and two acute to ascertain it byMr Hay of Whiterigg angled corners. It is demonstrable that in Roxburghshire, on land in different states the shape conducive to the greatest econo- of cropping. The results were the follow my in labour is the square, because fre- ing, on ridges of 15 feet in width. quent turnings on shortridges waste much

Ploughing stubblefor barefallow , October 1849 .

time; and inordinate length of ridges fa tigues the horses beyond their strength.

Length of ridge in

The average strength of the horse is,

yards,

length of ridge that secures the greatest direction. It is, I believe, near the mark to say, that horses can draw a plough

through cultivated lea-ground, which is without requiring to take ground already ploughed is of more easy 300 yards in the one draught than lea, ea for 250 yards, the firmest state of the soil,breath . But as

case may be as

sy

work as 250 yards in the other. The average is 275 ; and as

there is 285 moreyards loosemay ground than as leathe to plough, be taken proper length of ridge on light soils. But clay-soils are of heavier draught, so that 275 yards may be taken as the average

Time taken

to plough a ridge.

to plough an

Hours . Min.

Hours , Min ,

acre .

Loss of time per sere compared with the standard .

therefore, the measure of the greatest economy inploughing the field in every

Time taken

319 290 280 139 102 45 37 78 66

2 2

2 1 1 0 0

1 0

40

30 25 15 0 30 25 0

50

8

0

8

204

8 8

21 45 30 45 54

9 10

10 2 12

Hour . Min . Standard , 0 0 0

21 45

1 2

45

4

13

13

Second ploughingfor barefallow , January 1850. 20

2 1

30

100 112

0

55

1

86

0

137

1

182 37

1

5 50 20 48

0

25

280

172

8 8 8 9 9

4 264

Standard .

524

0 1 1

9

23 25

9

345

10

0

18 19 21

1

54

First ploughing after turnips , April 1850. 292 280

203 101

141

2 2 2 1 1

Standard 0 15 1

30 25

8 8

0 5

9

17 21 32

10 10

3

1

18

2

30

length of ridge for all soils. The square shape might be profitably adopted on clay 5578. From these statements it would farm , whose extent being generally small, appear, that the shorter ridges generally

the break of land for each kind of crop take longer time to be ploughed than the

553

PRINCIPLES OF ENCLOSURE.

longer ones, though some anomalies are saving the wear and tear of carts and har observable in all the results. For instance, ness in winter. in the first statement, 78 and 66 yards took longer time to have the acre ploughed 5581. The size of the fields depends in than 45 and 37 yards, by 1 hour 19 minutes a great measure on the nature of the farm ; each, which ought not to have been the case. and yet economy in labour limits both the

In the second statement, 182 yards took longer time to have the acre ploughed than 86 yards by 114 minutes. And in the last statement, 141 yards took longer time to the acre ploughed than 101 yards, by

smallness and largeness of fields.

Even

on the smallest class of farms employing horse -labour, 10 acres seem a small enough

space to labour land to advantage. There are many large farms on which smaller

15 minutes. These anomalies might per- fields than 10 acres may be observed, but a haps be explained by supposing, that the smaller space, fenced around, has a con shorter ridges were in a more favourable fined look, and the grain crops are ovi

position for being ploughed, as regards dently affected in them . On the other inclination or state than the longer, or hand, very large fields, from 50 to 100 that the ploughman bad taken less time to acres each, take too long time to have the

turn the horsesat the landings, than those work finished off, even with a large num at the longer ridges. Be that as it may, ber of draughts.

I should say that a field

it is in the experience of every farmer, from 25 to 35 acres is large enough, accord that short ridges take longer comparative ing to the extent of the farm ; thongh the

time to be ploughed thanlong ones ; and number of draughts being great on alarge therefore, when fields are to be set off for enclosure, the ridges ought not to be shorter, if practicable, thanfrom 280 to 300 yards, according as tho soil is stronger or lighter. _As instances of anomalies in long ridges, I may mention, in experiments made for me by MrM'Lagan,younger, of Pumpherston, Mid -Lothian, that an acre tookonly 7 hours 40 minutes to be ploughed, with ridges as long as 570 yards, while one with 420 yards took 8 hours 24 minutes, and another with 250 yards, 9 hours

farm , the size of the fieldsshould bear some proportion to them. The exact proportion I am not prepared to define, although I think that less than 10 acres make too small a

field for horse-labour to be employed in, and more than 40 acres too large a one for quick despatch of work. The size of farm most in demand, formixed husbandry, is 500 acres, which give 4 fields of 25 acres, equal to 100 acres, for each member of a rotation of 5 crops. Placing the same kind of crop , and especially green crop and grass, in

36 minutes. I have known a large field moderately -sized fields — say of 25 acres

of 60 acres, two ridges of 10 yards in the breadth of which occupied an acre, and was therefore 484 yards long ; but it was inconvenient in many respects to be

each-on different parts of the farm , and most probably in different kinds of soil, a good crop in one of the fields will almost be insured every season ; and the whole

worked, both in time and length, as well as labour of the farm being, for the time, con fined to one moderately - sized field, a good

for the horses and work -people.

season for ploughing the land, and a safe 5579. Should a public road, or canal, or seed -time and harvest for its crop, seem to railway, pass through a farm , the fence be placed within the power of the farmer should be placed on each side of them ; against any great or sudden change of and should an old plantation , quarry, or weather. The same mode of reasoning building, stand in the middle of the land, on the size of fields may be applied to any before it is enclosed , the butts occasioned other sort of farming. by them should be placed next the obstacle.

5582. The position of fields is a matter of someimportance . I have said that the

5580. A public road along enclosures is ridges should run N. and S., (5572, ) and a great convenience to a farm , and it may that about 300 yards are of sufficient save the making of one or more farm- length for the ridges, ( 5575 ;) and as the roads.

Easy access to and from the fields fields in general are of the best size for

to roads is a great means of maintaining economy of labour at 25acres, (5581 ,) and the health and strength of horses, and of with a form as nearly approaching to the

554

REALISATION .

square as is compatible with these premises acres, (the size of the fields,) and which can ( 5575,) it follows that the fields should be not rear much stock - single fields should

placed with their shorter ridges or breadth correspond in number with themembers in N. and S., and with their length E. and the rotation ; and should a smaller quan W. Were they placed thoughtlessly the tity of grass or green crop be at any time opposite way, the ridges to run N. and S. wanted for a particular purpose than a

would eitherbe 425yards long, which would whole field, a temporary fence might be lie E. and W. one side only would have into very small fields. With regard to be too long for the horses; and if made to used in preference to enclosing the farm

the benefit of the sun .

farms of considerable extent on soil of

various textures, quite a different element 5583. Mountain -pastures, exclusively from the preceding case enters into the devoted to the use of live stock, should be consideration that determines the number enclosed in large divisions, because cattle of the fields. On enclosing a farm , where

and sheep are generally reared in large much stock is raised, the mere economy of numbers on pastoral farms.

Mountain labouring each field is not so much an

live stock possess more active habits, and object of solicitude as the welfare of the have a stronger instinct to search for food stock ; and as stock always thrive best on than those of the plain ; and as the herb- fresh pasture, and when only a few of the age of the mountains is rather scanty than same kind are herded together, it follows

otherwise, stock there require ample space that each enclosure should not be of large to roam over in order to satisfy their wants. extent - perhapsnotexceeding25 acres - s0 that 285 yards by 425 yards would em 5584. Although very small enclosures brace an enclosure of convenient size for

under constant cultivation are unwhole- the grazing of cattle during the summer, andthe feeding of sheep on turnips in the

some to grain crops, two or three small en-

closures of from 1 to 5 acres in grass , near

the steading, are almost indispensable on every farm on which live stock is reared. These may be used by tups when out of season, -by calves when weaning from the milk ,-by ewes when lambing, -by mares and foals for a few weeks until the mares

winter. Suppose, then, that the enclosures contain 25 acres each, and that the 5 -course

rotation is followed, a farm with 2 en closures to each member of the rotation would contain 250 acres, which is as small extent of ground as the mixed husbandry can be advantageously practised upon ;

each member of regain their strength, -by a stallion at and with 4 enclosures towould contain 500

grass, —or as hospitals for sick and con- the course, the farm valescent animals. Such small fields are acres, and 6 enclosures would give 750

much more useful and valuable in grass acres — which is as large an arable farm as than under the plough. most farmers have capital to stock. 5585. The number of fields depends 5586. In enclosing any farm intended partly on the size of the farm , andpartly on for the use of live stock, access to good

the rotation of crops carriedon in it (5080.) water should never beoverlooked, though The interior of pure clay -land farms de- it to often is. Should a rivulet not be voted to the raising of corn alone, especi- within reach, spring-water should be ob ally of wheat, should be no more sub- tained either by sinking wells,laying pipes,

divided than to have a fenced division for or making conduits. The best pasture will each course in the rotation of crops made never improve the condition of live stock up of convenient square-shaped fields of without good water ; and without an the extent determined on in (5575.) To abundant supply, graziers will not hire subdivide a clay -land farm , on which no even the best grass for cattle and horses, stock is reared in summer, into small fields, though they may for sheep. would be to devote an unnecessary waste of ground to fences. To save expense in 5587. The evils of enclosing fields very

working, and waste of ground in fences, closely have been urged against enclosures

on smaller farms of loamy soils than 125 altogether; and it is alleged that the crops acres—which are made up of 5 times the are liable to be more injured by being

number of members in a rotation of 25 lodged in confined fields than in open ones .

PRINCIPLES OF ENCLOSURE .

555

The allegation is quite true ; but it ap5590. This view explains the particular mode plies rather to an abuse in practice than of enclosingland, once distinguished by the name

against the principles of enclosing. Close of infield and outfield, which prevailed in this country until a late period , and may yet be seen fields, of whatever size, should always be on the Continent in full practice. The distant kept in grass for stock ; and in order to part, which was solely appropriated to pasturage

avoidgreatly their flies, a shed forattacks. harbouring in portion by the stock,was called the outfield. will prevent their Even of the land, which bore the Thenearer grain and for the cultivators and their families and dependents, and the fodder forthe cattlein as regards corn, a sheltered field ripens vegetables the

crops earlier than an open one, which winter, was called the infield.

Cultivation was

may arise the forcing of stock never ever practised on thetooutfield, were the heat an enclosure withinfrom — ainfluence fact well permitted enter thenor infield. In was line of demarcation strong a verythe waybetwist occupations known to all gardeners who force vege- this drawn of the shepherd

tables and fruits, but which injures the and the husbandman, which is maintained even quality of the grain in comparison with to this day. It was partly on this account, open fields.

perhaps, that the agricultural Egyptians held “ every shepherd an abomination " unto them.

5588. From this known fact it has been 5591. Therearing culture of of stock andthentheestablished, the broad distinction alleged that confined fields produce greater betwixt

evaporation by the confined heat in them, grain, served to conceal from cultivators the and thereby superinduce an unusual de- valuable fact that stock afford great facilities This must be a for pression of temperature. theoretical objection, for it is obvious that

fertilising the soil.

As long as this fact

remained unknown, cultivators did not imagine

the food of stock should be raised on cul evaporation will be much more promoted that tivated land, and muchless that it could be raised

by exposure to the wind than by con-

most enonomically in conjunction with their own Whenever it was perceived that grain was more productively raised by the meliorating

food.

finement within fences. *

5589. As one object of enclosing land is pro- influence of grass on the soil, that grass-land tection to plants, whether trees,grains, vege- supported more stock when occasionally cropped could

tables, or grass, against the depredations of men with corn , and that the exuviæ of stock and animals, or a protection to and place of con manure land better than the art of man, the sys finement for domesticated animals, the use and tem of outfield and infield was broken up. The necessity for enclosures could only have been ancient ring- fence, that only surrounded the cul felt after mankind had made considerable pro

gress in the culture of land, and experienced the consequent depredations committed upon crops. During the pastoral state of society, when men wandered about in communities, and made a fixed abode at one place only as long as pasture could be obtained for their flocks and herds, they tended their stock night and day around their own habitations. Where pasture was plentiful, they pitched upon a convenient spot for themselves, and constructed an enclosure to confine their stock in during the night.

The enclosure

tivated land, was then removed to the boundaries

of the possession, and in its stead were con structed suitable enclosures for the different crops

raised in regular succession. 5592. Enclosures were thus constructed on the

boundaries of possessiors by the most ancient nations. It is probable that the lower part at least of Egypt was never a pastoralcountry ; for the great fertility conferred on its soil by the an

nual rising of the Nile would render agriculture the first object of the people.

Accordingly, we

served thedouble purpose of relieving the night- find it recorded as long since as about 2000 years watches of the shepherds, and of protecting the stock against the attacks of wild animals. The

before Christ, Abram went to sojourn in Egypt, during the famine in his own land, where he had ground nearest their dwellings was first culti- many herds and flocks, and was otherwise wealthy vated for grain . No enclosure was thought of in gold and silver. Extensive canals were

for protecting the grain crops, as long as the

formed, to convey the waters of the Nile to irri

stock were tended by day and folded by night. gatethe parts of thecountry it did not naturally In time, however, as the community increased in

overflow .

The condition of Greece in regard to

numbers, culture encroached upon the range of enclosures was exactly as has been described ; pasture, which, in consequence, became more

and from the laws which governed the limits and

The stock became urgent for food,

landmarks of landed property, it is probable that

whilst the tending of them became more diffi-

fences were only erected on the boundaries of

scanty.

cult asthe shepherds engaged in cultivation. A

properties like a ring-fence.I The Romans never

fence then was requisite around the cultivated ground, to fend off the predacious attempts of the

enclosed their pasture-land to confine their cat tle . They planted fences round gardens, or

stock . Hence the cultivated land .

the confinement of wild animals ; but in other

probable origin of enclosing

chards, and meadows, and also round parks for

+ Genesis, xii., xiii., and xlvi. I Potter's Antiquities of Greece, n. 155, edition of 1697.

* Sinclair's Code of Agriculture, p. 171.

REALISATION .

556

respects their lands were enclosed much in the same manner as by the Greeks, with a ring - fence

a hill.

Whole farms are unaffected by wind

when embayed amidst encircling hills ; and be

round the boundary of the farm ; and they em- the means of shelter great or small, the advan . ployed various kinds of fences for this purpose.* tages derived from them are sensibly felt. As an instance of the benefits of shelter afforded

5593. Most of the modern nations of Europe by even a low wall to a park, from the cutting still enclose their land in the ancient method.

effects of the sea air, fig . 450, on the opposite

Property is so much subdivided in France by the page, shows you one on the estate of Gosford, belonging to the Earl of Wemyss, in East Lothian, extinction of the law of primogeniture, that in better than words can express . The wall, and at least one half of that country, all to the east-

ward, no field enclosures are to be seen - a few march stones, a ditch, a row of trees, or particular single trees here and there, marking the

boundaries of the small estates.t Throughout Germany, Bohemia, Switzerland, and Spain, enclosures are only found near farm -houses and villages, the bulk of the corn being raised on extensive unenclosed grounds. I have seen a tract

the wood immediately behind it, are of the same height ; but in a few yards only inwards, the wood rises to a considerable height, which is effected by a simple contrivance, namely, the pecu liar form of the cope of the wall. It is raised like an isosceles triangle, by which the wind,when it beats against its side, is reflected upwards into the air at the same angle. Had the cope been

the of wheat in Bohemia, as far as the eye could flat, the blast would have cut off the tops of the

reach, without a single fence in sight. In Lombardy the enclosures consist of the ditches which

trees in a horizontal direction . But without wood such a form of coping would afford similar

shelter. Supposing land exposed on the top of a the other hand, the landin Holland and Belgium high coast, where the wind generally sweeps is so much enclosed with trees and hedges, that along the surface of the ground, injuring every

convey the waters of irrigation to the land. On

against, by a momentum acquired in many places the fields seem half choked by plant it blows them . The same remark nearly applies to the in passing over miles of ocean ; were a wall built south of England, where much valuable ground

on the top of the crag, at a proper distance from

is occupied by beautifully luxuriant, but greatly its brow , and of a proper height, having a cope at overgrown hedges.

Mr John Grant of Exeter states, that he has ascertained by measurement that in Devonshire alone the hedges are sufficient

the angle referred to , it would deflect the wind upwards, and cause it to lose most of its momen tum before it again reached the ground. Such a

to encompass the whole of England, being 1651

wall, or such a belt of wood, or such a plantation

miles, subdividing only 36,976 acres.I The high mounds in that county, if extended in line,would reach from London to Edinburgh. The land in

without a wall , if projected on a large scale, and planted near the top of a sloping precipice, or other rising ground, would shelter a large extent

against the prevailing winds; and Ireland, particularly in the province of Ulster, is of country were such barriers placed in lines, in suitable are generally in a state quite unfit to confine situations, across thecountry, not only its local, live -stock . It is only in the north of England but its general climate, would be greatly ame also very much subdivided by turf-dykes, which

and the best cultivated districts of Scotland, that liorated . enclosures, suited to the improved state of agri culture are to be found.

There, farms are not

5595. Instances are not awanting to prove the

only completely enclosed, but the size of the en- advantages derivable to stock and crop from closure is made proportionate to the uses to shelter. The benefits derivable from plantation which the soil is applied. There, growing crops of all kinds find shelter from the vicissitudes of the weather, and protection against animals ; and

are far more extensive and important than those from stone walls, in improving land. « Previous to the division of the common moor of Methven

in 1793,” says Mr Thomas Bishop, the live-stock themselves enjoy peace and plenty, "(inthePerthshire) late venerable Lord Lynedoch and Lord as a recompense for confinement, Methven had each secured their lower slopes of

5594. Another object in enclosing land is to land adjoining the moor with belts of plantation. afford shelter to plants and animals against the

The year following I entered Lord Methven's

changes of weather. That a fence affords shel- service, and in 1798 planted about 60 acres of ter niust be a fact cognisant to every one. Feel the calm under the walls of even a ruin, compared to the howling blast around - observe the forward grass,

the higher moor-ground, valued at 2s. per acre, for shelter to 80 or 90 acres set apart for culti vation, and let in three divisions to six indiri. als. The progress made in improving the land in early spring, on the south side of a hedge com- was very slow for the first 15 years, but there pared to that on its other side--and listen to the after went on rapidly, being aided by the shelter the warmth of a walled garden

subdued tone of the wind under a shed to its boisterous noise in the open air. Sensibly felt as all these instances of shelter are, they are but isolated cases. In more extended spheres, cot-

derived from the growth of the plantations; and the whole has now become fair land, bearing annually crops of oats, barley, pease , potatoes,

and turnips ; and in spring 1838, exactly 40

tages stand in a calm in the midst of a forest, years from the time of putting down the said come the wind from whatever quarter it may. plantation, I sold 4 acresoflarch and fir ( aver Farm-steadings lie snug under the lee-side of a age growth) standing therein for £220, which, * Dickson's Husbandry of the Ancients, vol . ii. p. 330 . + Young's Travels in France, p. 392. I Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. v. p. 424.

557

SHELTER .

with the value of reserved trees, and average mit of Shotley -fell, 16 miles W. of Newcastle.

upon Tyne, Mr Burnet of Shotley- bridge en amount per acre of thinnings sold previously, On the sum- closed 400 acres of moorland with high stone gave a return of £67 per acre Fig. 450.

THE SHELTER AFFORDED BY EVEN A LOW WALL AGAINST A CUTTING BLAST .

walls ; and he cropped the ground in an easy

as well as afford shelter and warmth . Already

manner for the soil. The land was thus kept in

the plantations relieve and delight the eye, and

good heart, but the soil being very poor, stock advanced but little, and consequently the land

spread a beauty and freshness around the scene. Muirton formerly looked a bleak and barren would not have let for above 6d. an acre, even wild, while the opposite highly cultivated estates under the best management, and after all that of Brahan and Coul were the delight of every had been done for it ; but the central part of each passing traveller ; but with these it may now vie field was put within a plantation, and the im- both in riches and beauty. The hill of Muirton provement was then surprising.

The cocks- foot

as a pasturage was not worth 6d per acre,

grass grew three or four feet high, and the young cattle were four times the stent they were before the land was planted .+ Besides affording shelter, plantations beautify the appearance of

whereas, by the expending of a small sum, it may be expected to realise from 15s. to 20s. per acre of yearly rent, from the date of planting, even at the distance of eight miles, as Muirton

the country. “ The plantation of Muirton in Ross-shire," observes Mr Mackenzie, " has already, in 1836, and will yet in a greaterdegree improve the climate of the surrounding district,

is, from the shipping -places of Beauly and Ding wall. Besides the price of the wood, the value

of the enclosure as a wintering for sheep will be considerable.” I

* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xi. p. 327.

+ Ibid ., vol . xii. p. 51 .

# Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. iv. p. 843.

REALISATION .

558

ON THE PLANTING AND REARING OF THORN - HEDGES .

5596. The permanent fences of fields in

this country are constructed of only two materials, thorn hedges and lowdry stone walls. In places, turf walls are formed for

injury. The ground should be bare -fal lowed, cleaned thoroughly of all weeds, limed early, and manured about a month or six weeks before the planting com mences, in the same manner and order as these operations are performed upon bare fallow land, (4164.)

permanent fences; but theyare only nomin

ally permanent, and unless protected them-

5599. On commencing the enclosing of

selves, are easilybreached by every kind of an entire farm , the longest lines of the stock. They will stand some years with fences should be staked off, and en

a plantation one one side, and protected deavours made to fence those fields first by a deep ditch on the other ; but even then which are to be fallowed, so that when

they are only an obstacle, and, at best, a theycome into grass the palings may be pat temporary but not permanent fence. A up for the use of the grass and the fences species of permanent fence has of late years at the same time, and thus save the tem been introduced in the wire-fence, which, porary fencing for the grass alone. In the however, from the nature of the materials, case of one or two fences of a single field

cannot be deemed a permanent fence. There are various temporary fences, as palings, hurdles, nets, dead hedges, and a combination of two ormore of these, which

being only required, the ground should be fallowed,whatever crop the field may be under; but it is evident that, if the ground tobeoccupied bythehedgeis fallowed along

are all useful in their respective places, with the field which is to be fenced, or the but not as forming permanent boundaries one adjoining it, the operation will be exe

to fields, and much less to an estate. I cuted more easily, and atless expense than shall first treat of thorn -hedges ;and as dif- by itself. The longest lines will run E. ferent operations connected with them are and W.,that direction being the lengthofthe done in different seasons, I shall take them fields; and when one long line E. and W., in the order of their seasons. and another at right angles to it, N. and S., near the centre of the farm , are staked 5597. Winter . - Winter is the most off, the others will afterwards be set off

proper season for commencing the planting with comparative ease from both sides

of thorn -hedges, immediately after the fall of these lines. The base line is the one of the leaf in autumn ; and the operation that runs N. and S. as that is the direction may be conducted through the winter even the ridges are considered best to take, and to April, when the weather is favourable was determined in (5572,) and should be —that is, when there is no snow upon or first staked off; and the E. and W. line

frost in the ground, and the soil not wet is set off at right angles to it. with a great fall of rain, so as to poach the ground when it is worked .

Moisture in

5600. The N. and S. base line is best set

the ground is requisite for the proper for- off with a pocket compass, allowing for the mation of the hedge bed and bank, and variation of the needle, which in this coun therefore thorns cannot conveniently be tryat present is about 27° W. The meridian

planted in summer,or in dry weather in line might be marked off by the shadow of spring. But although the season ofplanting a pole at mid-day upon the ground, by the may be extended to so late a period of the watch ; but as no sun may appear when

spring as April, the young hedge will thrive you are desirous to prosecute the enclosing, the better the sooner it is planted in winter. the compass is the surestguide. The lines are set off with feering poles, fig. 18; and the

5598. The ground should be prepared right angles of one lineto anotherbyan opti for the reception of the plants.

The nsual cal square, whichcosts 21s., orby a cross

state of the ground chosen for planting is table,which may be purchased for only 78. on lea, and I believed it the best myself at 6d . The fixed length of the lines are most one time; but experience has since shown easily measured with a good tape-line. me that the grass grows upon the face of the ditch, and even through the inverted turf,

5601. A land -measuring chain will, of

up amongst the young plants, much to their course , answer also for this purpose ,

but it

PLANTING THORN - HEDGES .

559

is not so convenient as a tape line, which and on the point being known whence the is easily rolled up and kept in the pocket. fence is to run E. and W. at right angles Such a lineof 66feet in length costs6s. 6d. to it, the cross -table is placed on it ; and

The best constructed chains I have seen having got the line of poles in the N. and are those made by Mr Thomas Gorrie, S. line of fence through the sights of one wire -work manufacturer in Perth, wbich arm of the table, the sights on the other consist of oval rings, instead of circular, arm will direct the line of fence, which and of three ringsinstead of two between is fixed by setting up other poles. Before the links. Three rings do not catch into taking out the poles from the one line, one another as two do ; and when of drive stakes in the line to preserve its

the oval form, they are not nearly so apt direction; and after the other line has been to stretch as when circular. With brass straightened by the poles, drive stakes in it also for the same purpose .

handles, such a chain costs 14s.

5603. If it be desired to set off a parallel

5602. The compass indicating the meri-

dian line by setting up one pole at oneside line of fence at that time, or at any future of it, and another in the direction of the time before the thorns are planted , let

needle, the line of fence can be drawn three poles c , d, and e, fig. 451, be set straight by means of the feering poles ; up in the line of the fence, and let the cross Fig. 451.

a

d

m

'u

t

THE PLAN OF SETTING OFF PENCES PARALLEL TO EACH OTHER .

tablebe placed near f in the line between prove greateror less than either, some error c and d. Let g, h, and i be poles set and must have been committed, which can only

adjusted to one another by the cross-table be rectified by doing the operation over in the line f k, at right angles to cu, f k again. Thearrows show the directions in being the breadth of the field, which dis- which each lineshould be measured. Great tance is measured by the tape-line or a chain accuracy should be observed in running

so as to contain an even number of ridges of these lines of fences parallel, for if they are given breadth ; because, a fractional part of not so at each successive line of fence, the

a ridge, or a whole ridge left at either side deviation will prove very considerable be of the field, after it has been plougbed will twixt the first and last lines. Three poles prove inconvenient for work. In like man- only are employed to set off the lines f k ner, let the line lp be drawn from the cross- and lp, the ground being supposed to be table placed at l,by setting the poles m, n, nearly level ; but wherever from an in 0, p. Then seta pole at q in a line with equality of ground you lose sight of one of

the polespk, and measure the distance be- the poles, as many more should be em twixt q and u ,along the line r 8 t, with the tape ; which distance, if the two previous operations bave been accurately conducted , should be exactly equal to thedistance betwixt f and k , and I and p ; but should it

ployed as to have three always in view at one time. When a new line of fence is desired to be set off parallel to an old one, the line a b represents the old fence, and the cross -table is placed at about six feet

560

REALISATION .

in the line c u parallel to it, to afford room ground - much better than the square for the observations.

mouthed shovel, fig. 83 ; and yet in some

parts of the country itseemsquite unknown. 6604. Before the line of fence can be be

gunto be planted with the thorns, certain

5605. The plant usually employed in

implements are required for the work : this country, in the construction ofa hedge, A strong garden line at least 70 yards in is the common hawthorn. “On account length, having an iron reel at one end, and a strong iron pin at the other : its use is to show , upon the ground, the exact line of the fence betwixt the stakes. It costs 48. A few pointed wooden pins, with hooked heads to keep the line steady, whether in a straight line or in a curve. A wooden rule, 6 feet in length, divided into feet and inches; having a cross-head of about 2 feet in length, nailed at right angles to it : its use

of the stiffness of its branches,” says Withering, “ the sharpness of its thorns, its roots not spreading wide, and its capa bility of bearing the severest winters without injury, this plant is universally preferred for making hedges, whether to clip or to grow at large." The thorn thus possesses all the characteristics of a plant well suited to make a good fence. Thorns ought never to be planted in a "

*

is to measure off short distances at right hedge till they have been transplanted angles. No. 5 spades, fig. 237. An iron at least 2 years from the seed -bed, when they will have tram - pick, fig. 247. A hand -pick, fig. 452. Fig. 454 . generally ac Fig. 452, quired a girth of stem at the root of 1 inch ;

a length in all of 3 feet, of which the root measures one

foot, as in fig. 454, which is on a scale of

14 inch to 1 foot.

Picked

plants of that age are 12s. 6d. per 1000 ;

or, as they are

A HAND - PICK .

taken out of

Fig. 453. It is 18 inches long in each arm , and 3 feet long in the helve.

the lines, 10s. 6d. As thorns

It costs 59. 6d. or

are always transplanted

6s. A sharp pruning -knife to

too thick in

each man , to prepare the thorn plants with : it costs 28. or 39. A ditcher's shovel, fig.

the

room,

453 : its use is to clean out the bottom and sides of the

A DITCHER'S SHOVEL.

nursery

lines, to save and

draw them up

ditch, and to beat the face of

sooner to tall

the hedge-bank. . Its face is 1 foot broad and 1 foot long, with a tapering point, and its helve is 28 inches in length. It costs, No. 5, 4s. This is a useful shovel on every farm for cleaning up the bottoms of dunghills in soft A GOOD THORN * Withering's Botany, vol. iii. p. 561.

plants, I would advise

being chased

their pur from

the nursery at that age, the year PI.ANT.

before

they are in

561

PLANTING HEDGES.

tended to be planted in the fence, and change of arrangement. laid in lines in garden mould, or deep dry soil. By this process the stems will acquire a cleaner bark and greater strength, and the roots be furnished with a larger number of fine fibres, which will

When fewer

hands are employed, the men must change from one portion of the work to another; and whenmore, one will at times be com paratively idle. The work never goes on so well, or so regularly, as when each

greatly promote the growth of the young takes and keeps by his own particular hedge, and repay the additional trouble bestowed on the plants. But when the plants are not so treated before they are planted, the bundles, containing 200 plants each, should be immediately loosened out on their arrival from the nursery, and the

part of the operation. 5607. There is nothing peculiar in the dress of the hedger, except in his shoes. In winter, he should alwayswearclogs, having soles of wood, with upper-leathers, and

plants sheughed in, -that is, spread out shod with iron on the sides and sole, for an thin and upright in small trenches in a easy tramp upon the spade and foot- pick.

convenient partof the field, and in dry earth Such clogs cost about 5s. per pair. well heaped against them, to protect the roots from the frost, and to keep them

5608. The ground along which the line

fresh until planted. The plants are taken of hedge is proposed to beplanted should be surveyed before a commencement is from the sheughs when wanted. made from the starting point, and if the 5606. With all the materials provided, surface is uniform and level, the work

the workmen must also be engaged. The may proceed at once ; but should heights number of men required to plant a hedge and hollows intervene, preparations must is threemone, the hedger himself, and two first be made to convey away the water assistants, who have each his duty to per- that might stand in the hollows after the form , and should be kept at it without hedge has been planted. Fig. 455 will Fig. 455.

b

ta

PLAN TO PREVENT WATER LODGING IN THE HOLLOWS, BEHIND THE BANK OF A HEDGE.

convey an idea of what I mean, in which is represented the inequalities on the surface of the ground ; and although these seem close together in the figure, they may besupposed in reality to undulate in con-

rise in the ground, the bottom should be made deeper in the rising-ground, to let drain may convey away as much water as as is practicable. The conduits, in all

siderable distances. The parts of the

such cases, should be founded as low as

the water run to the lowest point, that one

figure are these : a a is the line of hedge ; the bottom of the ditch to be taken out, b b the top of the hedge-bank , parallel having a sole, sides, and cover built of to the hedge ; cc the bottom of the ditch, stone ; and the area of the conduits should exposed to view by the removal of this be made to contain the largest quantity of side of the ditch, as also the conduits d d d water that will ever flow through them.

for conveying the water from behind the The ground behind the hedge-bank bb is hedge-bank bb ; e is a covered drain from represented as falling towards the hedge. the bottom of the ditch, at the lowest point To prevent the under-water percolating of the lowest hollow. Where the hollows from this ground to the hedge, a common

in the ditch are only separated by a small drain should be made in the headridye VOL . II .

2 N

REALISATION .

562

about three yards behind the hedge, at will probably lie as straightaspracticable. least 4 feet deep, and filled with drain - tiles, and its outlet made to discharge itself in the hollowest point to reach the drain e, or elsewhere, if more convenient and efficient. A conduit of dry stones, baving an opening of 16 inches in height and 12 inches in

Place a rather heavy stone here and there upon the cord, to preventthe possibility of its being shifted from its position. With the common spade then rut the line of hedge-bed behind the cord, with your face towards the ditch that is to be, tak

breadth, with sole and cover, will cost in ing care to hold the spade with a slope building 1s. 6d. per rood of 6 yards.

corresponding to the side of the proposed

ditcb, and not to press upon, or to be too 5609. If the line of fence is to be far back from , or cut the cord. Then

straight- which should always be the case , take the wooden rule, and placing its if natural obstacles do not interfere to pre- cross- head along the cord, set off the vent it — let the poles be set up in as breadth of the ditch at right angles to the straight a line as possible, from one end of rutted line 44 feet - first, at both ends of the fence to the other. Should the surface the still stretched cord , and then at in be level, this line can be drawn straight tervals ; and mark off those breadths with

with the greatest accuracy ; but should wooden pins, which will serve to check elevations and hollows intervene, however any important deviation from the true line small, great care is requisite to preserve along the length of the cord . Now , take up the straightness of the line, because the and stretch the cord anew along this other

rising parts of the ground are apt to ad- side of the ditch, by the sides of the new vance upon the true line, and the hollows placed pins, in the same manner, and with

recede from

it, especially when the the same precautions as with the hedge

inequalities are abrupt.

Surveyors use

bed ; and rut the line with your face to

the theodolite to avoid this error, but it wards the ditch, sloping the spade to the may be avoided by using plenty of poles inclination of its side. After inarking out the ditch thus, secure the continuation of the In case evil - disposed persons line of the fence by means of the standing should shift the poles in the night, and poles, and then remove them and the pins to be set not far asunder from one an-

other.

thereby alter the line of fence, pins driven along the new length of the cord. The in, at intervals, into the ground, will ditch thus marked out is ready for the preserve the line. Having set plenty formation of the thorn -bed. When about of poles, so as to please the eye, take the forming the thorn-bed, that end of the

reel and cord, and, pushing its pin firmly line should be chosen for commencing the into the ground at the end of the line of work which best suits the hand of the fence where you wish to begin, run the workman who is intrusted to make it. cord out its full length, with the exception of a small piece to twist round the shank

The rule for this is, whichever hand grasps the eye of the spade should be nearest the

of the reel. Be sure to guide the cord thorn-bed, andthe workman should work

exactly along the face of the poles at the backwards. The ordinary practice is to bottom ; and should any obstacle to your take the eye of the spade in the left hand.

doing so lie in the way—such as clods, 5610. In forming the thorn -bed, raise a removed, and the ground smoothed with large, firm , deep spadeful of earth with the spade ; and then, with your face to- the common spade, from the edge of the

stones, or dried weeds - cause them to be

wards the cord, draw it towards you ditch next the line of hedge, and invert it

gradually, with considerable force, until along that line, with its end towards the it has stretched as far as it can , and

ditch.

Having placed a few large spade

then push the shank of the reel firmly fuls in this manner, side by side, beat into the ground. As the least obstruc- down their crowns with the back of the tion on the ground will cause the cord to spade, paring down their faces in a line of deviate from the true line, lift up the

the slope given to the first rut, and then

stretched cord by the middle about 3 feet cut back their crowns with an inclination from the ground, keeping it close to the downwards and away from you, forming faces of the poles, and let it drop suddenly an inclined bed for the thorn - plant to lie to the ground, when, by its elasticity it upon, as shown by the angle subtended

PLANTING HEDGES.

563

by the line c b, fig. 456. In like manner attention to these adaptations of means to Fig. 456. ends is one cause of failure in the rearing of thorn -hedges.

5612. The prepared thorn - plant is re

presented by fig. 457 ; and it is prepared in this way. After removing a number of the small branches with a knife, grasp

thestem of the fullplant, fig. 454, immedi ately above the root, firmly in the left hand, THE THORN - BED ,

and cut it across beyond the hand, with a

place other spadefuls at the end of those sharp knife, with an inclination towards the last laid down, taking care to join all the top of the plant as at a fig. 457 ; and the cut thus made will be about spadefuls so as to make one continued bed, Fig. 457. 6 inches above the root as above described, and to proceed thus and fibres. Cut away along the length of the cord of 70 yards. a

5611. Whilst the hedger is thus mak

the long points of the tap - roots b b b, and

ing the thorn -bed, his two assistants pre pare the thorn -plants for planting. The plants are assorted, according to their sizes, as they are picked out of the bundles madeup as they were taken from

any other straggling and injured roots, and

the transplanted lines, recommended in

Burn the possible. tops thus cut off, or bury them deep in the

(5605,) the advantage of which is, that the plants are thereby snited to the situa tion they occupy . On examining the plants, they will be found to be both stout and weak. The stoutest cannot derive sufficient nourishment in the thinner and poorer class of soils , however well it may have been prepared for their reception ; whilst the weak ones will thrive well in good soil. From this statement, it might be concluded that weak plants are best adapted to all classes of soils. Not so ; for however well weak plants may thrive in good soils, stout plants will grow much better than weak in all soils ; and were the soil all good, the most profitable fence would be obtained from the best and

even injured fibres ; but preserve as many of the fibres entire as

PRE- ground ; as they easily THORN-PLANT, APARED FOR PLANTING . vegetate, and are

quickly blown aboutby the wind, and become a great annoyance to sheep in the wool. Take great care, in frost, to cover up the prepared roots in earth until they are actually planted ,for if the roots are in the least affected by frost they will not vegetate. The safest plan, in frosty wea ther, however gentle, is to take but a few plants at a time out of the lines. In dry weather in spring, put the roots of the prepared plants in a puddle of earth and water, in a shady place, for some hours before laying them in the thorn -bed, and

picked plants. But as every farm pos- their vegetation will thereby be much sesses soils of various degrees of fertility, quickened. although the class of its soils may be the same, and as plants in a stout and weak

5613. When both the thorn -bed and

state are usually mixed together, the most plants are prepared , the assistants lay the

prudent practice is to put the weaker plants in the bed. This is done by press plants in the best soil,andthestouter plants ing each plant firmly into the mould of in the worse kind ofsoil, thus giving achance the bed at c, fig. 456 , with the cut end of

of success to both sorts of plants and soils; the stem projecting notmore than a quar or else reject the weak plants altogether, ter of an inch beyond the front and upper which would enhance the cost of the edge of the thorn - bed, and with the root

plants. One means of rendering the weak end lying away from theditch,at distances planting plants strong ng , is in trans

them in varyi from 9 to 12 inches - the 9 inches

good soil, and allowing them to remain being adapted to inferior land, and the 12 in it until they have acquired sufficient inches to good soil. Whilst the two as strength to be planted out.

Want of sistants are laying the plants, the hedger

564

REALISATION ,

takes up all the finer part of the mould space of time, but the earth may be ren nearest the thorn -bed with the ditcher's dered as hard by frost as to be unfit for shovel, fig. 453, and dexterously inverts it working the next day ; and should the above the laid plants,securing them in their frost prove severe and continuous, and the

places with a few pats of the shovel. The work be altogether suspended, the plants two assistants should not lay more thorns thus left exposed will inevitably perish . than can be entirely covered with soil before In frosty weather the plants should be evening, and, having finished laying them, laid on the thorn- bed only in the forenoon, they follow the hedger, and dig and shovel the afternoon in winter being too short to up with the spade all the black mould in allow time to lay plants, and to cover them

the ditch, throwing it upon the roots and too with a sufficient quantity of earth. stems of the plants, until a sort of level In such weather it is better to leave off bank of earth is formed over them, as at work altogether, for the frosted earth will

d , fig. 456. In doing this, one of the assis- chill the tender fibres. When the weather tants lifts all the soil across the breadth of is fresh, and not too wet, the plants may

the ditch , at a, working backwards; whilst be laid in the afternoon in spring. In wet the other works forwards, face to face, weather the work should also be suspend shovelling up all the black mould he can ed, not only on account of the cloggy state find, whether in a loose or firin state, in of the ground for good work, but the im

the ditch. When the hedger has finished propriety of the men withstanding much covering the plants with mould, and whilst rain in winter. The finishing of the top of the assistants are proceeding to clear all the hedge-bank will be moreuniform , and the mould from the ditch, he steps upon look better, when a considerable length is

the top of the mound which they have finished at the same time, than when join thrown up above the plants, and, with his ings are visible at short intervals; but in face towards the ditch, firmly compresses, frosty or in wet weather, the sooner a piece with his feet, the mould above the plants. is finished, the better for the cleanliness of the labourers and the condition of the

5614. When any manure is proposed to soil.

be given to the thorn -plant at this stage of the operation, the time to apply it is after 5616. The rule observed for the depth the hedger has laid the soil above the of a ditch that stands well is one- balf its plants, and before the larger portion has breadth, and the width of the bottom one been put on by his assistants. The man- sixth of the breadth at the top. In the

ure should be well prepared, and as much case of hedge -planting, the breadth is 4 granulated as possible, to mix intimately feet; the depth is therefore 2 feet 3 inches, with the soil, which should be prevented and the width of bottom 9 inches. The

subsiding, for if it crack by that during hedge -bank is always broader than the winter, the frostmay enter to the injury ditch, being about 5 feet, the soil lying

of the plants . While the hedger is com- loosely upon it ; and the perpendicular pressing the monld, his assistants straw the height of the bank is less than the depth of the ditch, being 2 feet. These are, in manure over the compressed soil. general, convenient dimensions for a hedge

5615. By the time he has finished the ditch and bank, where no constant runof compression, all the mould will have been waterhas to be accommodated in the ditch ; taken out of the ditch by the assistants. but should there be, though in winter When no manure is applied at this time, only, it should be made proportionably

and after the soil has been fallowed and capacious; for, if not, the water will as dunged in the autumn, this is a good time suredly make it so, to the danger of the to apply lime. When the thorns have thorn -bed. Ditches brought to a point at received this quantity of earth above them , the bottom are objectionable for many and the lime covered with a sprinkling of reasons . They do not afford sufficient earth, the plants may be considered in a materials to form a mound for the young

safe state from the frost; but it is not safe, in frosty weather, to leave them even for a night, with less earth upon them — for plants may not only be frosted in that short

thorn - plants; they are easily filled up with the mouldering of earth from the sides, and the decay of vegetables ; and when water gets into them, the bottom

PLANTING HEDGES.

565

either soon gets filled up with mud, or is assistants follow one another, using the deeply guttered.

spade ; and the hedger brings up the rear, using the shovel . Should there be

5617. When the work has proceeded thus far, the other implements come into use . If the subsoil of the ditch is a tenacious ductile clay, the spade alone is the best to remove it, as it is useless picking such a substance, especially if somewhat moist, as no more will riseat a time than the breadth of the face of the pick. But if it consists of hard dry clay, interspersed with veins of sand and gravel - which

more earth at one place of the ditch than another-which will be the case where inequalities abound on the surface — the surplus earth shonld either be thrown to the back of the bank, rather than its top be made higher at one place than another, or wheeled away to a spot where a defi ciency of earth will assuredly happen in a bollow . Besides giving the bank an irregular appearance, it is not desirable to

compose a very common subsoil in this cover the young thorns too heavily with a

so as entirely to country - picking is absolutely necessary, superfluous load ofandearth, moisture from their and the spade can make nothing of it. exclude the air In some parts of the country the handpick roots. is alone used to loosen subsoil, whilst in 5618. If going along the ditch twice others the footpick is employed ; and, from

experience in both, I recommend the latter as being the more efficient implement for such work, and less laborious to the workman. Let one of the assistants loosen the subsoil with the footpick , fig.

finishes the work, the earth must have been in a friable state ; but with a hard subsoil the work is not so easily done. The bandpick is almost always used to raise the last 4 or 5 inches of the bottom

the soil the 247, as deep as he can go for the tramp, of the ditch ; and in removing men is main

working backwards, and using it as directed in (3149.) When the picker has thus proceeded a short way, the other assistant lifts up with his spade what has been loosened, and throws it upon the top

same arrangement of the

tained, only that the handpicker works forward. Whilst the assistants are pick ing and shovelling, the bedger again tramps down the top of the bank, before

of the mould above the thorn, upon d , fig. throwing up the last portion ofisearth. over 456, taking care to place the subsoil so The poorer the covering of clay thrown up continuous with the slope up- the bank, it is the better for the purpose wards given to the face of the bank .

He to resist the vegetation of small seeds.

also throws some on the back of the bank, The beating the face of the bank with to cover the whole of the black mould with the back of the shovel is absolutely neces the subsoil, and endeavours to make the sary to produce a skin to resist the action

shape of the bank uniform . In doing all of the frost, and prevent the mouldering this, he works backward , with his back to of the earth into the ditch. The necessity

the face of the footpicker, and standing for the beating of the face shows the upon the subsoil which has been loosened expediency of projecting the plants but a by the footpick, though his back would be very short way out of the bank, as it

to the back of a handpicker. He paresdown might injure the points of the stems. the side of the ditch nearest his right hand, which, in this case, is the opposite one from the hedge. The hedger follows this last assistant, working towards him face to face, and moving forwards,shovelling up all the loose earth left by the assistants spade with the ditcher's shovel, throwing it upon the top and fully upon the front

They might be almost buried in the bank, andstill the young sprouts will easily re lease themselves by the force of vegetation. Whilst the two assistants are preparing the cord for another stretch of the fence , and and rutting off both sides of the ditch, the hedger pushes back or makes up two or three inches, less or more, of the

of the mound, rejecting all the larger crest of the bank with his shovel, to make

stones, paring down the side of the ditch the finished top parallel with the row of at his right hand, and making the bank thorns ; and after he has gently beaten equal and smooth, by beating the earth down the front of the top into a rounded

upon its face firmly. Should the sub- form , the planting of the thorns is finished. soil require no picking at all, the two Fig. 458 gives an idea in section of the

REALISATION .

566

work when finished . I have introduced into along each line of fence tothe points with this figure the direction the conduit takes in which is to be included the space of Fig. 459.

Fig. 458.

+ c

st

m

k

g

22 o

FINISHED HEDGE - BANK .

d

wben formed below and through the hedge bank into the bottom of the ditch, in con

nection with the subject treated in fig. 455.

Here d f represents the line of the

conduit in section , the outlet of which is seen near the bottom of the ditch at d .

5619. Large boulders will no doubt be

MODES OF DESCRIBING A CURVE IN THE CORNER OF A FIELD.

ground allotted for the planting, as from a to b, to c , to d, and to e. An arc has

found in thesubsoil, when it is of clay, to be described between two of the near est of those points, and there are three

most of which may be removed with the

footpick, with the assistance perhaps of ways of describing them . From b as a an iron lever, named a pinch or crow -bar; centre, with a radius greater than half the but the largest ones may be immovable by distance between the points b and c, sweep

such means, when gunpowder should be an arc at f, and from c as a centre, with used to rend them to pieces.

the same radius sweep another arc inter

secting the first in f ; and then from f as 5620. In ordinary cases, when two lines

a centre, still with the same radius, sweep

of hedges meet, they intersect one another the arc cb. In like manner an arc of the in a point, and at the crossing form a same radius may be swept betwixt c and junction of 4 fields by their corners. d , d and e, and e and b. This rule gives Should the land not be of much value, or

no pre -determined arch, further than its

the particular situation be much exposed radius must be greater than half the dis to the weather, it might be advisable to tance between its extremities, but it is one

make a clump of planting of a stellar form which presents a pleasant curve to the eye. at the junction of the four corners . Be sides the means of shelter, such a round-

5622. Another plan is to fix the height ing off the corners of fields is useful to of the segment of the arc, determined by

their ploughing.

It is however, first a point, beyond which the hedge shall not

necessary to ascertain the quantity of approach towards the centre of the ground ground that can be conveniently spared, a. This restriction may be necessary in although it is not worth while to enclose a some cases . It is doneby at once fixing smaller space than a quarter of an acre, and the point g, which gives three points, d, the largest space need not exceed one y, and c, through wbich the arc must acre in the low country.

pass. Its centre isformed by joining g d , which bisect, and from the point of bisec

5621. Supposing the space is deter- tion raise a perpendicular; also join gc, mined, its enclosure is done in this man-

which bisect, and from the point of bi

ner : Ascertain the point where the two section raise a perpendicular, and from

lines of hedges would intersect, and fix the point as a centre where the two per a pole there as at a , fig. 459 ; and from pendiculars intersect at h, sweep the arc it measure an equal distance with a tape d c, with the radius h g. This rule is

PLANTING HEDGES .

567

founded on a corollary to the 1st Prob- themselves to the inequalities of the ground, lem of the 3d Book of Euclid . *

and form , on the whole, a suitable figure for the purpose they are intended to serve.

5623. A simple rule, which practical gardeners employ in drawing one line at right angles to another, is this : From the given point, measure 6 feet along

Curves in fields should be made conform able to the ploughing of the adjoining land, for, if such adaptation be not attended to, land may be lost to tillage in the acute

the line, and from the same point measure

ness of the curves .

After large pins are

outward 8 feet; from the further end of set to show the general form of a long curve, the 6 feet, measure 10 feet towards the or series of long curves, smaller ones should

end of the 8 feet, and the point where the be employed to fill up the segments be 8 feet and 10 feet meet is perpendicular tween the larger, which the cord stretched to the given point. This rule is directly upon the face of all the pins will show , founded upon the celebrated 47th Proposi- and the beauty of their curves may be tion of the 1st Book of Euclid. preserved by small pins with hooked heads. If a curve on a ditch is required, the rut 5624. The third method is this : Letting of the breadth of the ditch, as also the

l be the point intended to determine the making of the thorn -bed, should follow the

curve between d and e, equidistant from cord in its curved position; but great care each ; then set off the point i also equidistant from d and e, and join il ; from any point on the line il as a centre describe an arc of such radius as shall pass through l, but will fall anywhere within d and e. Draw do at right angles to the fence d, and make

is requisite to preserve the two sides of a curved ditch parallel ; for if the cross headed wooden rule is not held as a tangent

to each particular part of the curve which the ditch is to have, the breadth of the ditch will vary considerably in different

do equal to i l,then find a point p on the places, and its form will be twisted. line d o equidistant from o and i. Join i p. The hedge-bank will then be deprived of

and produce it towards k , and from p as sufficient covering at places where the a centre describe the ark dk, which will

ditch is twisted into broad and narrow

touch the larger circle, of which k m is also portions. There is no error into which

an arc, according to Euclid, 3d Book, 11 labourers are so apt to fall as this : they Prob. In like manner , the arc em can measure, without thinking of the conse be described by first drawiug en, at right quences, at any angle across a curved ditch. angles to the line of fence e, and proceed as before . If the lines of fence run at right 5626. A very common practice - recom re angles to each other, the arcs d k and em

mended by most writers on hedges — is to

will have equal radii. This is too intricate leave a broad scarcement in front of the

a mode of drawing curves for practical thorn-bed, because it is necessary to supply purposes, but it is well that your ingenuity the young thorns with moisture. It is alleged should be exercised in every possible way, that the sloping face of the bank conveys you may never be at a loss to apply away the rain that falls into the ditch from expedients according to circumstances. the plants. And what although it does ? The This method, however, enables you to young thorn does not imbibe moisture by that

form curves of different sizes, in situa- the point of its stem, but by the fibres of its

tions where such may be required on ac- roots, which easily obtain it through the count of obstructions.

mound, the earth of which is loose enough for the transmission of rain .

5625. In setting poles for straight lines, ordinary accuracy of eye will suffice; but in setting them in curves, where geometrical ones cannot be introdnced, considerable taste is required by the planner. Such curves can only be formed by setting up large pins, and by judging of

But inde

pendently of this, a scarcement is evidently so excellent a contrivance for encouraging

the growth of weeds, that it is impossible to clean a hedge well where there is one. Earth from the bottom of the ditch may , no doubt, be occasionally thrown upon the scarcement to smother the weeds ; but its

their beauty by the eye, so that the sweeps accumulation there must be limited to the

may appear naturally to accommodate height of the thorn - bed, and weeds can * Duncan's Elements of Plane Geometry, p. 57.

REALISATION .

568

grow as well upon this eartlı as upon the not look well, trench å stripe ofground with

scarcement. The appearance of fig. 460 is the spade, in the intended line of the hedge, Fig. 460.

at least three feet in breadth , pointing in

dung and raking in lime in adequate quan tities some time before the period of plant

ing. When that time arrives, stretch the cord in the middle of the stripe, guiding

the curves with wooden pins. First, smoothen the surface of the ground with a clap of the spade upon the cord, and then notch deeply with it by the side of the

cord , drawing the earth towards you. Into this furrow carefully place the roots and fibres of the thorn-plants, with their cut

stems, fig. 457, leaning against the cord ; and, supporting the plants in their places with the left hand, fill up the furrow with

earth with a trowel in the right hand. Press the plants firmly against the earth with the BAD EFFECT OF A SCARCEMENT .

outside ofthe foot placed ina line withthe sufficient to condemn the use of the scarce- stems, and fill up and make the surface ment in any hedge-work, where the weeds level with the spade. After the removal b, on the scarcement a, vie in height and of the cord, press the ground with the row of thorns between both your feet, and vigour with the thorn plant c itself. finish off the work with a rake.

In

5627. Where part of a hedge is desired planting ornamental hedges, you should to be carried across a water - course , an

bear in mind that, for whatever pur

arch or large conduit is often made to span posea hedge may be wanted, the thorns it, its sides banked up with sods or earth, should always be planted on the natural

and a quantity of mould wheeled upon it, surface of the ground ; for if set in tra to form the thorn -bed . I have seen such

velled earth, unless it is of considerable

structures, but do not approve ofthem , bulk and depth, they run the risk of being because hedge- banks on stone building do either stunted in growth, or of altogether not retain sufficient moisture in summerto perishing for want ofnourishment. Thorns support even young thorn -plants. If the might be planted in this manner in the

nature of the ground will admit of it, it is fields, and where the soil is deep and dry better to plant the thorns on the surface of the plan is good, and the plants will no

the ground, as near as possible on each side of the water -course , above flood -mark. The water-channel, probably dry in summer, when the fields are only used for

doubt thrive ; but in shallow soils,however dry — and especially where they are damp below - eventhough drained, the plants will most probably not thrive. I observe that

stock, can be fenced with paling ; or, what most of the thorns planted along the sides is a better fence, if stones can be procured of railways, for fences, are planted on the at a reasonable distance, a strong dry -stone surface ; but time is yet wanting to show

whether or not they will thrive in all wall, with large openingsin itto allow the cases .

water to pass through in winter.

The I suspect they will not, for drain openings can be filled up in summer with ing is very imperfectly attended to on

a few thorns, to keep insheep.

railways.

5628. If it is desired to plant a thorn5629. Forest trees ought never to be hedge on the top of a sunk-fence, or along planted in the line of thorns, for it is quite

the edge of a walk by the side of a shrub- impossible, even with the greatest care, to bery, or to enclose a shrubbery or a clump rear thorn - plants, to become a good fence, of trees in pleasure- ground or lawn, the under their drip. Thorns are very im plants should be assorted and prepared as patient of being overshadowed by taller

directed above (5611); but instead of rais- trees ; and trees planted on the top of a ing a mound, which in such situations would mound, betwixt double bedges, not only

569

SWITCHING HEDGES.

rob both of moisture at the roots, but pour can only be undertaken in winter. Now

their drip directly upon branches of the that spring has arrived, when the planting thorns. “ To plant trees in the line of a in all cases should cease , we have to attend hedge,” says Lord Kames,

or within a

to the treatment of hedges of older growth,

few feet of it, ought to be absolutely pro- and the first consideration bestowed on hibited as a pernicious practice. It is them in spring is pruning. The season of

amazing that people should fall into this pruning is limited, for it ought not to be error, when they ought to know that there begun as long as frost is likely to occur ; never was a good thorn -hedge with trees nor continued after the sap has become

in it. And how should it be otherwise ? An oak,a beech , or an elm , grows faster than a thorn . When suffered to grow in the midst of a thorn -hedge, it spreads its

active in the plants in spring. I remem breasted over, in a time of hard black frost, not so much for its own sake, as to

ber of a fine hedge in Berwickshire being

roots everywhere, and robs the thorns of obtain a near supply ofthorns for a dead their nourishment. Nor is this all : the hedge. I remarked to the hedger that the tree, oversbadowing the thorns, keeps the thorns gave a curious metallic ring on be sun and air from them . At the same time, ing struck with the hedge-bill ; but he no tree takes worse with being over- was insensible to the peculiarity of the shadowed than å horn .” * Hedgerow sound where he stood, beside the bedge. trees are strongly recommended, byall the Whether this sound was indicative of

old writers on agriculture, as being the the subsequent phenomenon exhibited best means of growing timber for the navy, and giving shelter to fields; and even a recent writer on timber seems to favour the plan of planting the oak in hedgerow, as if that tree could not sufficiently

by the hedge, I know not ; but the pruned stems put forth

very few buds in the sub

sequent springand summer — not that they seemed to be dead from the appearance of the bark or of the wood, where the latter

gnarled for naval purposes, and rendered was exposed to view by the action of the

thick in thebark for tan, in other exposed hedge-bill.

The hedge continued in a

situations where they could do no injury,

dormant state in the ensuing winter ; but

rather than in thorn-hedges.t

in the following spring, more than twelve months after the pruning, it exhibited

5630. Where thorns are made to fence plantations, they should be planted on the outside of the mound, though facing the N., that the air may have free access to them ; and no large forest-tree should be planted near behind them.

signs of life, and put forth most vigorous shoots in summer, some of them not less than 4 feet in length. Although I cannot explain this phenomenon, there is suffi cient peculiarity in it to justify the advice,

that no hedge should be cut down in win Fig. 461 . ter in frost, but to await 5631. It is not unusual to see beech mixed the return of the sap

with thorn as a hedge ; but beech is no where a terror to live - stock in fields.

in spring.

The

sweet briar (Rosa canina,) too, is frequently mixed with the thorn, and no doubt im parts a delightful perfume to the air after a shower in summer ; but it soon overcomes

the thorns near it. The crab apple ( Pyrus

malus) also displaces thorns in hedges. We have only to view the hedges in the

5633. The pruning of well-grown young

hedges consists of only one operation - switch ing. Switching is the lopping off straggling branches that grow

southern counties of England, to be con vinced of the noxious effects ofintermixing other plants with the thorn .

moreprominentlyfrom

5632. Spring. – Our attention has been

of the other branches are also cut off. This

a hedge than the rest ; and, in doing this , the extreme points of many

occupied with the fencing of a whole farm with thorn bedges ; and such an operation

THE SWITCHING- BILL. operation is performed

* Kames' Gentleman Farmer, p. 283.

+ Matthew On Naral Timber, p. 359.

570

REALISATION .

with the switching -bill, fig. 461. It has a curved blade 9 inches long, and 14 inch broad ; a helve 2 feet 3 inches in length ; and its weight altogether is about 2, lb. It feels light in the band, and is used with an upward stroke, turning backwards over-

clay on a tilly subsoil-in every case let it grow , and let it afterwards be judiciously pruned, and the assurance of experience is, that you will possess an excellent fence, and a beautiful hedge, in a much shorter time than the nsual treatment by hedgers

head.

will ever produce.

5634. Hedgers bave a strong predilec-

tion to use the switching -bill. They will, on

without compuncti , switch a young hedge at the end of its first year's existence. No new planted hedge ought to be touched

5635. I have given, in fig. 462, a repre Fig. 462.

with a knife until it is at least two years

old — the great object being to attain en largement of the roots, that they may

search about freely for support; and the only way a plaut has of acquiring large roots is by means of the growth of its branches and leaves in summer, supporting

their healthy functions. Even beyond the age mentioned above, the pruning -knife should scarcely be used , until the young hedge has acquired the height sufficient for a fence ; and not freely then , but only to check the inordinate growth of some of the

d

branches, and to preserve equality in the size of the plants. There can be no doubtof excessive pruning curbing the growth of the young roots of hedges, when we observe

the very puny stems which much pruned young hedges always present. Both ex perience and observation have satisfied

me, that to theabuse of pruning should be ascribed most of the deaths ofyoung hedgeplants, andthe consequent number of gaps observable in old hedges . No doubt the thorn plant is placed in a wide range of

A CORRECTLY SWITCHED THORN HEDGE .

sentation of the average height which a young hedge should attain, in relation to the height of its hedge -bank and the depth of its ditch , before it is switched up ; and

soil and situation,and it is reasonable to although all the plants will not, in that expect that it will grow better in some time, have individually acquired the situations than others ; but having had strength of that represented in the cut, favourable opportunities of observing the still the form and outline of the hedge, rearing of thorn hedges in a great diversity traced by the letters a b and b c, may be

of soils, from the lightest gravel to the obtained . This form is given to the plant

heaviest clay — and even in peat-moss -- I by switching the face a next the ditch can affirm that rational management will with a slight batter towards the top, b ,

enable them to become a good fence, and which is more perpendicular — more like continue so in any soil, thongh not in any a walled fence than the face behind , from situation, such as amongst under -water. c to b - because the plant in that particular

Let the plant have peace to grow till it part should be encouraged to cover the has acquired a considerable degree of top of the hedge-bank with its lowest

natural strength, taking a longer or branches, for the double purpose of pre shorter time to acquire it,according to the venting trespasses upon it, and of keeping circumstances in which it is placed — ac- down the weeds upon the bank, as also

quiring it in the shortest time in deep of forming a sloping face from the level of sandy loam , the most usefulof all soils, the ground at d, to the top of the plant at and taking the longest time in poor thin b. A bedge of such a shape will not only

BREASTING HEDGES.

571

have a broad enough basis from a to c- ably adapted to afford shelter, and should perhaps 5 feet altogether over the branches therefore be reared against the stormy -to form a close fence, but also a light quarter of the farm ; and, as pruning is

top to encourage the upward growth of attended with trouble and expense where the plant ; while the sloping face on each hedges thrive luxuriantly, they may be

side affords room for the naturally upright, allowed to grow up where they cannot straight, stiff, spiny shoots to grow up- do harm , as upon heights and in hollows. wards. After having attained its natural height which, in the thorn, may be 10 feet

5636. A seasonal accident, however, the plants acquire thickness of stem , may befall a young hedge in winter - it which, if let alone, will continue to in may be smothered with snow ; and on crease for many years. But wbile it be the mass of snow subsiding by consolida- comes thicker, the plant changes its

tion, its great weight may strip off many of the lateral branches, and break down the top shoots. This accident I have seen occur, and there is no evading it ; for the strongest branches of the largest hedge

character, gradually forsaking the form of the hedge -plant, and assuming the more

may be stripped off by the weight of snow.

a natural pruning of the lower ones-

natural form of the tree - enlarging its

head by the lateral expansion of the upper branches, and elevating its stem by

In such a case the young plants must be every year thus rendering itself more pruned in spring by the removal of all the and more unfit for a fence. In observing injured parts, with a pruning -knife, but no this natural tendency in hedges, the more. No matter though this necessary hedger should consider, that the thorn pruning leave the young bedge in an un- plant is not in its natural state when placed equal state - someof the plants being much in line as a fence along the side of a field ; crushed, whilst others have escaped injury and, consequently, if he desires to retain -let it grow ; and although the pruned it as a fence, he must restrain its tendency plants may not overtake the others, these to become a tree.

latter can be afterwards pruned to a proper size one year earlier than they would have been, had no accident befallen the hedge. 5637. There are commonly two forms of hedges found on farms in Scotland. One is the pointed or hog-mane shape, as shown in fig. 462; the other is the more natural form of the plants, assumed by

He has all this in his

power, and may even make an old bedge resume its youthful habits by well -timed

pruning, for such is the accommodating natureof the thorn -plant. 5638. The only sort of pruning suit able for so strong a hedge is cutting it down ; and there are two modes of doing this—one by leaving the stems and some of the branches at a certain height from

having leave to shoot up their tops, whilst the ground, the other by cutting off all the lateral branches are switched off. the branches and the stems to within a Though these two forms are also found in few inches ofthe ground. The former is England, the country of luxuriant hedges, called breasting over, the latter cutting other forms are met with-many pictur- down. esque in the extreme, but otherwise not desirable, inasmuch as hedges with large 5639.

The instrument with which a

expanded tops occupy much valuable hedge is breasted over is called a breast

ground. Were such a broad -topped form ing-knife, and is like a switching -bill, fig. allowed in some parts of Scotland, the first 461; but the blade is somewhat shorter winter's snow would inevitably crush the and stronger, and the implement altogether

hedge down to the ground. Of the two heavier. It is used with a single back forms referred to, either may be adopted banded upward stroke. It costs from 3s. according to circumstances. Along both to 78. 6d. On stating this difference of

sides of a turnpikerode, the low hog-name price, I may remark that it arises solely is most advisable, to allow the free action from the quality of the article. The com of the wind upon the road. A height of mon English hedge-bills, made for sale, from 4} feet to 6 feet will suffice for the cost only 3s. a -piece; but the probability purpose. The natural method is admir- is, that a good day's work cannot be got

572

REALISATION .

out of 1 in 10 of them ; whereas the branches amongst those of the plant be Scotch -made 7s. 6d. bills will last for yond it. On the stem being severed, the

years, give satisfaction all the time, and hedger seizes its lower end with his

prove themselves the cheapest instruments gloved hand, and, with the assistance of in the end. the knife in the other, pulls it asunder from the adjoining plant, and throws it 5640. On determining the age to breast endways either on the headridge beyond over a hedge, its stems should not be the ditch beside him, or upon the head

stronger than a hedgercan cut through with ridge of the field behind the hedge-bank, one hand by two or three strokes of the whichever placemay have been selected for

breasting-knife. The hedger, on com- carrying away the thorns from , to be made mencingthis operation - using the knife into a dead -hedge. Standing up at the in his right hand, and coveringhis left with far side of the sloped cut of the stem , a bedger's leather-glove - stands on the there may be a small splinter of wood hedge-bank, near the hedge, with his face and bark, left by the last stroke of the outwards, and his right hand to the hedge bill, though with a dexterous band this

to be cut down. After cutting a few thorns in any way at the end of the hedge, to make room for himself to stand upon its bank, he commences cutting the principal stem of the plant nearest him, at about the height of his knee above the ground where it is growing. In cutting , he uses the

seldom happens ; yet, to give the cut a finished appearance, the hedger cutsoff the splinter neatly with his bill, held in both bands. All the lateral branches growing from the stem are cut off in the same man ner as far back as the top of the hedge bank, with an inclination corresponding

knife, by first making a firm cut upwards to the slope of its face, so that the back upon the stem, the knife perhaps penetrat- most branch preserves about the same

ing to the heart; and if not much exceeding height above the top of the hedge-bank as 1 inch in diameter, he may cutit through the stem in front does above the hedge-line.

at one stroke; but the generality of the The finished breasting may be seen in fig. stems will require more than one stroke, 463, where the sloping cuts are shown in although I have seen a hedger, of by no means great personal strength , cut through thicker stems at a stroke than his appear

ance would indicate ability to do. But supposing the first stroke to penetrate about an inch, the next one is given in a down ward direction to meet the inner end

Fig. 463.

BALL

of the first stroke, so that a wedge of the stem may be cut out. The wedge flying off, the next stroke is given in the exact line of the first, and it will most probably sever the stem ; but if not, another at the furthest corner of the cut, and one at

the nearest, will send the knife through. All the cuts made with a view to remove

A BREASTED OVER THORN- HEDGE , WITH THE

the wedge -shape pieces are comparatively

HEDGE BANK AND FACE WORN DOWN.

light; but the upward cuts intended to sever the stem are given with force ; and both sorts of strokes follow fast, until the stem is cut through. In renewing renewing each stroke, the hedger's left hand is ready, the

the main stem at c along the other stems from c upwards above the hedge-bank. The hedger proceeds in this manner until the entire hedge is cut down. The cost for breasting over a hedge is about 4d. per

moment the knife is brought in front of rood of 6 yards. If thestems, such as at

his body, to receive its back between the c, are strong and hard, the cutting-bill may fingers and thumb, as a rest and a guide be used for the stems, and the breasting for the next stroke. The cut stem will knife for the branches. A pair of hedger's either drop down on end upon the ground gloves costs 1s. or 1s. 6d. behind the line of the hedge, or will be 5641. Breasting is best suited to a com kept suspended, by the interlacing of its

CUTTING DOWN HEDGES.

573

paratively young hedge, every branch and is cheaper than breasting, thongh in itself harder labour, because only one stem has to

stem of which will soon be covered over

with young twigs, which will ere long be cut through to remove the entire plant. form a close structure of vigorous stems;

but an older hedge, one that has reached 5644. A still older hedge, with its utmost natural height of 10 feet, when stronger stems, requires the hedger's light determined to be cut down should not be small axe, fig. 465, to cut it down. It breasted over, as is too often done, but cut down within a few inches of the ground .

Fig. 465.

weighs 3 lb., and its helve measures 3 feet

This is a very different operation from breasting, inasmuch as it leaves no

in length .

branches, and only a small portion of the

ranging in size from

stem .

No. 1 to No. 4.

It

costs

from 1s. 8d. to 2s.6d., In

using it, the bedger stands in the opposite direction to using the breasting-knife and cutting -bill ; he has

5642. The instrument used for this Fig. 464.

purpose is the cutting bill, fig. 464.

It has

a blade 7 inches long,

the left hand next the

and 24 inches broad ; a helve 2 feet in length ; and the bill al together weighs 6 lb.

hedge, and uses the axe with both bands, and directs its strokes

It is used exactly in

as with the carpenter's

the same manner as the breasting-knife ; but

common THE HEDGER'S AXE .

being so much heavier

axe .

The

twigs are first removed by the breasting-knife.

in itself, and employed The cutting strokes are all made upwards,

on stronger plants, it and the obstructing timber is wedged out reqnires greater labour in pieces. to wield it.

It costs

5645. In all these cases of cutting over highest price of such instru- the stems of the thorn - plants, the incision ments. slopes upwards from the face towards the back of the hedge. The cuts on the 7s.6d., the

THE CUTTING - BILL.

5643. In cutting down an old hedge with this bill, the hedger stands upon the side of the ditch under the line of hedge. From this position the strokes are given upwards, but near the ground at first ; and, to give freedom to the hedger, he first uses the breasting -knife to clear away all the small branches that grow out of and

growing stems are made by the hedger not in the plane of the line of the hedge, but at a considerable angle to it ; so that, when the cuts are viewed in the direction in which the hedger proceeds in cutting, they are not visible, while from the opposite direction they almost face the spectator.

around the stem to be cut through .

5646. Hedges are wofully mismanaged

Without this precaution, the operating in the cutting in many parts of the coun hand of the hedger might be severely la- try,

Without further consideration than

cerated by the straggling branches. The saving the expense of a paling to guard a stem being thick, many strokes will be re- new - cut-down hedge, or in ignorance of

quired to cut it through ; and many of these the method of making a dead -hedge from will have to be given downwards, to cut the remains of an old live one, the stems of away the wood in wedges. The left hand an old hedge are often cut over about 3 } is used to rest and guide the bill, as it did feet high, to remain as the fence. The

in the case of the breasting-knife. When consequence isjust what might have been severed, the stems are laid upon the anticipated from the known habits of the ground, on either or both sides of the thorn — a thick growth of young twigs hedge, as the thorns may afterwards be where the hedge was cut over ; and the required . The cost of cutting down an ultimate effect is, that of a young hedge old hedge is 2 d. per rood of 6yards. It standing at 31 feet above the ground upon

REALISATION .

574

bare stakes.

The only plan, therefore,

.

5648. Hitherto the pruning and cutting

to make an old hedge a valuable fence, is to have proceeded on the supposition that cutit over near the ground, and form a dead- the hedge cut down would make a suffi hedge with the part cut off to protect it. cient fence when it grew up again ; but this will not be the case if many of the 5647. But another mismanagement is stems are as far asunder as to leave gaps in the mode of making the cuts when between them, even after the young twigs hedges are cut down. The bill is too shall have grown up. In such a state the often used to hack down the stems, in- pruned hedge will never constitute an ef stead of to cut off the branches ; and the ficient fence without further assistance; consequence to the stems is the opposite and the mode in which that is rendered is of what is right — the branches, worthless termed plashing, which consists of laying when severed from the hedge, being cut down a strong and healthy stem from off clean ; while the top of the stems, upon the one or the other side across the gap. which depend the future fence, are shat- On cutting down the hedge, where the tered to pieces. This barbarous work hedger meets with a gap which cannot be is occasioned by giving a downward in- filled up by the ordinary growth of the

stead of an upward stroke in cutting off young stems, he leaves a healthy supple the branches from the stems. Fortunately plant standing beside it, on the side of for the owner of the hedge, the natural the gap next him , that, when plashed, they

habit of the plant in part counteracts the may all lie in the same direction. mischievous work of his own hedger ; for, hacked and split as the stems are, they nevertheless push out young twigs, and conceal, though not cure, the injury the they have received. The differencein the

After

the hedge is cut down, the hedger plashes the stems he left standing in the following manner :-Commencing at the end of the

hedge where he began to cut, he first prunes off, with the breasting -knife, all

effects of the strokes in cutting ahedge the branches from the stem , cuts the stem well and ill, isthus truly explained by Mr of the proper length for the gap, and then Francis Blaikie : “ A moment's reflec- makes an upward cut in it near the

tion, ” he says, “ will show that it is im- ground, on the opposite side to the direc possible for an edge -tool to pass through

tion towards which the stem is to be

a piece of timber without causing a severe pressure against one or both sides of the wood, because the tool occupies space. The teeth of a saw drags the chips out of the cut, and give the space requisite for the tool to pass, but an edge-tool can only pass by pressure. In cutting the

plashed, but no deeper than is necessary to bend it to the proper position, which should be as near and parallel to the ground as possible ; for, unless the stems are laid as close to the ground as to fill up the gap from the bottom, there is uo use of plashing. The plashed stem is partly

.

stem of a hedge or young tree which is kept downeither by a snag on the stem growing upright, if the blow is struck down, nearly the whole pressure falls on the stub or growing stem , which is shattered to pieces, while the stem cut off is

on the other side of the gap, or by

wattling it before and behind two or three stems, or by a hooked stick driven into the ground near its point, and partly by a

left sound ; but when the blow is struck wooden wedge, severed in cutting the

up, as it should always be, the effect is hedge, inserted into the cut, which is de reversed, the stub is then left sound and

fended from rain and air by a lump of

smooth, is cut clean, and the stem cut off clay. Plashing is represented in fig. 466, is shattered ." The advantage of the pro- where ed is the first plashed stem , cut

per method is, that “ when this latter practice is adopted, the wet does not penetrate through the stub into the crown of the roots, canker is not encouraged, and the young shoots grow up strong and

nearly through at e, and laid along near the ground , across the gap which extends beyond d ; ba is a stem passing across the large gap bc ; k is the wedge ofwood in serted into the cut of the plashed stem ba

healthy, and able to contend * against the to keep it down. The stem ba extends vicissitudes of the weather.”

beyond the immediate gap from b to c , * Blaikie On Hedges, p. 33.

PLASHING HEDGES.

575

since there is no means of fastening it of the stem a ; but had there been a means down at c, and its end is wattled in front of fastening it at c, it should have been Fig. 466.

f d

THE PLASHING, AND LAYING OF AN OLD HEDGE, AND THE WATER- TABLING OF A DITCH.

cut off there. It will also be observed , continue a fine hedge perhaps for 500 that the stem e d originates at e and not at years . d , though the gap is really beyond d , and not between the stems c and a , because 5650. Immediately connected with the

no offshoot was found on a to leave for a pruning of hedges in spring is the scour plash ; and had there been, the stem e ding of the ditches, which serve to keep would have been cut off altogether, and them dry, and the repairing of the hedge

the plash laid across the gap a d from the banks. A ditch which conveys a pretty off -shoot of a.

constant stream of water may have as much mud deposited in it as to require

5649. Plashing herges is much prac- scouring before the space about the roots tised in England, where it is frequently of the hedge is able to accommodate all the

very neatly executed ; but I cannot help matter that should be scoured out of it. thinking that many a good hedge is there In this case, as much mud should be needlessly cut down for the sake of being placed between the hedge -roots as can plashed. Plashes are there laid at all pos- conveniently lie, which will serve the

sible angles, and twisted into all possible double purpose of easily getting rid of forms, as if to prove that the thorn plant part of the mud, and of doing good to the

can withstand every possible torture. I hedge by thickening the soil around its cordially agree with the following senti- roots; and the remaivder should be placed ments on the practice of plashing, and they on the ditch lip on the beadridge, to be also tell us the history of the origin of removed at leisure for other purposes. most of the gaps to be seen in hedges.

5651. But the more usual practice is, “ Plashing an old hedge,” says Lord Kames, “ an ordinary practice in England, that, when the ditch is to be scoured out makes, indeed, a good interim fence, but in a thorough manner, the hedge is at the

at the long run is destructive to the plants ; and, accordingly, there is scarcely to be met with a complete good hedge where plashing has been long practised.

same time pruned, and the hedge-bank repaired. The propriety of combining these works will be rendered obvious from the following considerations : After the

A cat is said among the vulgar to have process of weeding hedges has been con nine lives. Is it their opinion thata thorn, ducted for some years by removing the like a cat, may be cut and slashed at grass from the side of the ditch, and the without suffering by it ? A thorn is a weeds as they spring up on the face of tree of long life . If, instead of being mas- the hedge -bank, the earth will be found sacred by plashing, it were raised and removed much below its original place in

dressed in the wayhere described , it would all soils.

The incessant action of the

* Kames' Gentleman Farmer, p. 283.

REALISATION .

576

atmosphere, and of rain and snow occasion- length, and lays them aside for the hedger. ally, upon the inclined surface of the The hedger then places these sods with hedge-bank, sensibly co -operate with the the spade upon their edge on the notch, weeding to remove the soil from the roots with the grass side outwards, and beats of a hedge. The combined effects of these them to the bank, making them all of the causes are, that in time the roots are left same width by paring their upper edge,

too bare ; and if the deficiency is not remedied, it will cause the whole hedge to be shaken to the roots by everywind that blows. By looking back to fig. 463, it will be seen that the soil has been removed from the hedge-bank, and the bottom of

and keeping them in a straight line The sods unite to each other the more quickly and firmly when their ends are cutacute angled, instead of square - not only in their thickness, but in their breadth — as is par tially shown atfff,fig. 466,which represent

the ditch filled up to the extent indicated the faces of the sod c, fig. 467, when set. below the dotted line b c a, from the centre The reason for putting the grass side of the of which space the root of the hedge sods outwards is, that the sods may adhere

projects at c. The deficiency of the soil and grow to the bank ; for if they were can be easily supplied, and it is done by put on with the grass side inwards, the frost water -tabling. Water -tabling can only of the ensuing winter would cause them be executed in the best manner after the to slide down ; and there need be no ap hedge has been thoroughly pruned. It is prehension of injury to the hedge from the

begun by making a sharp notch with the growth of the grass from the sod when spade, 3 inches deep, in the side of the it is set at some distance below the ditch, abouta foot below the root of the hedge-roots. This is called the set-sod. thorns, at c, fig. 467. The hedger then pares While the hedger is engaged in setting Fig. 467.

these sods, the assistant raises others 6

inches broad, 4 inches in depth, and of the length of the spade's face. After a few of these smaller sods have been made ready, the hedger lays them, so as to break joint with the set-sods, with the grass side

downwards, upon the upper edge of the set -sods; beating them flush with the face of these, and pushing them under the thorn - roots.

This sod is called the

table, and is seen in section at d , fig. 467,

and in face from h to g, fig . 466. The reason for placing the grass side of the table downwards is to prevent the grass growing immediately among the roots of THE

MODE OF WATER - TABLING A HEDGE- DITCH .

the thorns, whence it could not be removed

away all the earth to that depth from below without frustrating the very purpose for the thorn -roots to the notch, preserving which the water-tabling was performed, the proper inclination of the side of the ditch. If the side of the ditch is found worn away to a greater depth than the required paring, earth should be rather

by taking away the earth from the thorn roots. On the hedger proceeding with the tabling, the assistant throws the parings of the sides and the scouring of the bot

put on than taken away from below the tom of the ditch upon the hedge-bank, root of the hedge, as seen between e, the behind the table-sod, and amongst the dotted line, and the sods c and d . In the thorn - roots, to fill up every vacant space

mean timethe hedger's assistant - forwater- he observes. This filling up is seen from tabling is most expeditiously and better d to a, fig. 467; and in fig. 466, from d , e,

done by two men than one, in proportion c, b, k, to i Water-tabling itself costs to the number, though the hedger might 2d. per rood of 6 yards, and the scouring do all the work himself - the assistant of the ditch additional, according to the

raises sods from the best part of the bot- state it is in at the time, and the difficulty tom of the ditch, 9inches broad, 4 inches of doing it. Cutting, water -tabling, thick and of the depth of the spade in scouring,and repairinghedge -bank, may

WATER - TABLING HEDGES.

be done from 8d. to ls. per rood of 6

577

5655. The laying of young twigs is

yards, according to the tenacity of the managed much in the same way. soil.

The

old soil is removed from the gaps, and is A stout replaced by the compost.

5652. Water- tabling renovates the twig is brought down from the stem of the bank, as no wind can shake them notched, and held down amongst well to their roots, and encourages the spring- rotted dung by a hooked stick, and covered

growth of thorns, re-establishes their hold on each side of the gap, cut short and

ing of shoots around the incised parts of with the compost earth . This process is the stems and branches.

It is not needed

attempted to be represented in fig. 466,

where a hedge has been planted on a scarce- where i is the laid twig from the old stem

ment, because the mouldering of the earth h, held down by a booked stick. After from the plants is prevented by it ; the layer has completely taken root, and but the advantage is more than counter- the young shoot is growing with vigour, its balanced by the encouragement the connection with the old stem should be scarcement affords to the growth of weeds. severed . It is obvious that this plan will (5626.) fill up a gap no larger than can be occupied

by one shoot from each side of it. 5653. It is possible that in the oldest liedges, when cut down, there may be

gaps of such width as cannot be repaired

5656. I observe farmers removing the ordinary hedge-bank behind a thorn

by plashing,so that other expedients must hedge to make compost of; but the prac be adopted to fill them up , and two pre- tice is highly injurious to the hedge,even themselves

sent to notice ; one by laying after it bas grown up, by exposing its young shoots from the old stems into the roots, which grow chiefly in the bank, to

gaps, and the other by filling up the gaps wet and frost. If a hedge is cut down with young thorn -plants. The laying whose bank has been treated in this cannot be done in the same season with

the cutting down of the hedge, nor until

manner, and the roots left unprotected by the removal of the branches above

the young shoots are pretty long; but them , it is possible that a few nights of young quicks may be planted immedi- severe black frost will kill every root

ately after the water-tabling has been

nearest the surface.

finished.

particular plants of old hedges are killed in this manner, without the cause being

I have no doubt that

5654. Where young quicks are to be suspected by the farmer.

Wben the

planted amongst old thorn roots, the hedge-bank has been thus removed, and

scouring from theditch should not be put the hedge cut down, provision should be on those places, but rather the old soil immediately made to protect the roots, removed from them , and spread behind

which may be done by covering them

and between the old roots where are no

with the scouring of the ditch. If the

gaps. New and fresh soil should be pre- ditch, scoured to its usual size, cannot pared for the purpose, by mixing mould, afford sufficient materials to answer the

decayed vegetables, and lime together in purpose , it should be made larger. A a compost ; and, when ready for use, put low turf-wall as a backing, obtained at

into the places formerly occupied by the hand or brought from a distance, makes a old soil. The young thorn plants are pre- neat hedge-bank, and saves a good deal of pared as in fig. 457 ; and on a trench soil. Even a double hedge -bank, or a being formed for them in the newcompost large single one, should be removed earth, in the line of the old hedge, they with caution, as many of the best roots

are laid upon rotted farmyard dung, and will have reached through its extreme the earth brought over the dung and breadth . plants, and beaten down ; and should the weather prove dry, or likely to become so, 5657. The buds of the young hedge that they should be well watered. The young was planted in the early part of win

plants willgrow rapidly ; and to preserve ter will show symptoms of life early in them from allannoyance, prune away any spring, by exhibiting curious blisters of straggling twigs from theold stems. VOL . II .

mould upon the face of the bank. The 20

REALISATION .

578

blisters at length fall off, and expose the bud.

In most cases, assistance should

5660. The hedger meanwhile takes bis station on the line chosen for the dead

be afforded the young buds to break their hedge to occupy, which is either immedi prison bonds, by removing the blisters with ately behind the hedge -bank or one foot the finger or a small piece of stick, after from the lip of the ditch in front of the which they will soon burst into leaf. bedge, according to the side on which it is

intended to fence the hedge just cut down. 5658. When it is determined to cut

If placed behind the hedge, the dead - hedge

down or breast over any hedge, the ope- should not be set upon the topof the bedge ration should not be done at random in

bank, as cattle andhorses would then easily

any season or year. It should not be reach over it, and crop the young shoots as done in the depth of winter, nor when the they grew up, but should occupy its foot. field is in grass or is coming into grass,

but only when going out of grass; for,

5661. A dead -hedge should be con

hedges being specially intended for fences structed so as not to beaffected bythe pre against stock , it would be absurd to re- vailing winds of the locality, otherwise, move them when they would be of use in that respect. Still it will scarcely be possible to avoid giving inconvenience to one field or another, as it rarely bap pens that two adjoining fields are under the same member of the rotation ; and in

it may be torn and even upset by a high

wind, for which reason its head should slope in the direction the dreaded wind blows.

5662. The first thing the hedger does is to lay a spadeful ofearth against the

the case of old grass fields, it is not pos- fence from which the dead -hedge is to sible to avoid it; so that the most that run, and the trench thus made in the can be studied is to avoid cutting down ground should be as large as easily to the hedge as long as the field in which it contain the lower end of a bundle of

grows continues in grass, whatever may thorns, as a, fig. 468. The first mound thus be the state of the field adjoining. The Fig. 468. compromise between two grass fields is this,—that, when the hedge of the one

going out of grass is cut down, thorns are furnished for a dead - hedge to fence the other that is still to be in grass .

5659. Let us now proceed to construct a dead-hedge. A hedger and an assistant are necessary to construct it, which is done in this manner :—The assistant, pro tected by gloves, cuts the severed stems of thorns into pieces of about 3 feet in length

with the cutting-bill or axe, figs. 464 and 465, according to the strength of the stems, OF THORNS ,

THE DEAD HEDGE which, when very thick, had better not be employed for this purpose, the branches laid up forms a lean for the first bundle. they afford being better adapted. He When the hedger is ready with the trench,

lays one cut piece above another, until a his assistant bands him a bundle with :

bundle is formed that he can easily lift fork , which should be long -shafted , to from the ground, taking care to add small enable him to reach over the top of the twigs to itto thicken itssubstance, to com- breasted hedge, when the thorns bave press it with his foot, which should be been laid in front of the hedge ; but if shod with a hedger's clog, to make the they have been laid upon the head-ridge

pieces composing the bundle to adhere to behind the hedge, which they should each other, and to trim it, by notching always be, when to be used there for a

the longer twigs in with the bill to dead -hedge, a short-shafted fork is the improve the appearance of the bundle. most convenient. The hedger receives He thus makes one bundle after another.

the bundle with his gloved hands, and places its but-end into the trench, pushing it

PALING .

579

with his clogged foot, and making its head at c . Any sort of brushwood, provided it slope from him . A tramp of earth is then raised with the spade, and placed against the but-end of the bundle to hold it firm . Thus bundle aft bundle set up firmly by the hedger ; and after a few yards have

reaches from one stake to every alternate one, will answer for stake-and -rice; and, if the brushwood be naturally short, the stakes can be set the closer together.

been thus set up, he cuts in all straggling

5664. Such a species of fence requires

sprays with the breasting -knife, and chops fewer nails, and less good wood, than an the top and outside of the bundles into a ordinary paling, and is therefore cheaper; neat form of dead -hedge, baving perpen- and it will stand an equal length of time, dicular sides and a flattish head . All as the stakes have less strainupon them, the thorns of a strong bedge will not be not having the same weight of materials consumed by a dead-hedge of the same to bear. The branches being warped be length.

A dead - hedge will last as long fore and behind, protect the stakes from

as until the pruned hedge again becomes many accidents to which those of paling a fence, after which it may be used as are liable; such as persons climbing over fuel. The figure does not represent the them , swing-trees catching them , cattle

dead -hedge in so massive a form as it and sheep rubbing against them . Stake really has, but by giving the ground in and-rice forms a much better fence and section it distinctly shows the position of shelter for sheep than a paling, on which one bundle with another.

account it should be placed on the N. and W. sides of fields, whence the strongest and

5663. Another form of dead -hedge is coldest winds prevail.

Its close structure

the stake -and -rice, and it is formed of the renders itat times liable to lodge snow , that branches of forest trees ; and where these would find its way through the rails of a are plentiful and thorns scarce, it is an paling, by the weight of which it is apt economical dead fence .

Its structure is to becrushed down, but not more so than shown in fig. 469, where a a are stakes a dead -hedge of thorns. Fig. 469.

5665. A very common dead -fence for protecting hedges and grass from stock in spring and summer, is the common wood

en paling, fig. 470. If tall grown Scots Fig. 470. THE STAKE-AND- RICE DEAD- FENCE . 2

fashioned from the longer branches of the b

tops of trees; or, should the tops be too

small to afford sufficiently strong stakes, THE COMMON WOODEN PALING. these should be procured from sawn timber, 4} feet in length, and about 4 inches in fir, 8 inches in diameter, can be procured the side, and after being pointed, driven at no great distance, or is grown upon in line into the ground from 4 to 6 feet the property of which the hedges are to

asunder, according to the length and form a fence, more handy materials for tem strength of the tops. The same principle porary fencing ofyoung thorn hedgesneed which determines the inclination of the

not be desired.

bundles of a dead-hedge, in the direction of the heaviest winds, is followed in setting the tree-tops in stake-and -rice. They are set in that direction on their but-endsupon

up into deals, which, besides the outside slabs, will divide up the middle for rails of 34 inches broad and perhaps 24 feet in length. The same trees, quartered, will

Trees of that size will cut

the ground b, at an inclination of about make stakes which , if cutoff at 4£ feet

45°, and each one is wound alternately in length, and pointed, are fit for use. before and behind the stakes as far as it Weedings of plantations, either of Scots reaches. A neat and stout finish is given

fir or larch, are also

very

convenient for

to stake-and-rice, by nailing a single rail cutting up into paling, either entire or of paling along the top of the stakes, as sawn up the middle.

A paling should

580

REALISATION .

be on the same site as a dead -hedge, single rail of paling will be required along behind the hedge-bank or on the ditch Fig. 471 .

lip, ( 5660.) Stakes, as a, should be driven by a mallet, fig. 41 , 12 inches into the ground at 5 or 6 feet asunder, and

where hard, a hole may be made by the foot -pick, 247, or the driver, fig. 42 ; and such stakes will support a paling of 3 feet 3 inches in height . Two rails are sufficient to fence cattle , but three are required for

sheep.

To give additional strength to

the fence, therails should be nailed on the face of the stakes next the field, and made to break -joint, so that the ends of all the

с

three rails shall not be nailed upon the same stake ; nor should the broad ends of the

rails be nailed together, even though

thinned by the adze, but broad and narrow ends together as at b6 b, that the weight and strength of the rails may be equalised.

TURF FENCE TO A THORN HEDGE .

To make thepaling secure, a stake should the top of thewall ; but Leicester sheep be driven as a stay in a sloping direc- will be confined without a rail. tion behind the rails, and nailed to 5667. Lord Kames says, and there are The upper rail every third stake. should be nailed near the top of the stakes, farmers who seem to adopt the opinion , the lowest edge of the lowest one 6 inches that “ the hedge is fenced from cattle on

from the ground, and the upper edge of the one side by the ditch ; but it is neces the middle one 20 inches above the ground. sary that it be fenced on both sides. The The best nails for paling are what are ordinary method of a paling is no suffi

called “Scotch made stout paling nails," cient fence against cattle ; the most gentle from 3 to 34 inches long. Such a paling, where wood is not scarce, costs is. 2d. per rood of 6 yards. A stout one with three rails, where wood is not plentiful, 28. per rood. In the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright wood is so cheap that a paling of 4 rails, with stakes at every 4 feet, can be

make it a rubbing -post, [oot if there be a rubbing -post, which there should always be,] and the vicious break it down wan tonly with their horns. The only effectual remedy is expensive ; but better no fence than one that is imperfect. The remedy is twoditches and two hedges, with a high We

put up for 9d. or 10d. the rood. Charring mound of earth between them .”

the points of the stakes, for paling or are left to infer from this that a paling

stake -and -rice, no doubt incurs some ad- is not sufficient protection to a hedge, but ditional expense, but it renders them much

that two ditches and a mound are.

more durable. Painting them with coal tar, and letting it dry, as far as they are driven into the ground , is perhaps as good a means of preservation. 5666. When turf is plentiful, it may be

fence on both sides of a young hedge, or one new pruned, is absolutely necessary ; and the sort of material it should be con structed of depends on the facility or diffi

A

culty of obtaining it ; but whatever may

be the material, a fence made

it is a

employed to fence one side of a young much better protection to a young hedge hedge. Let a, fig. 471 , be a turf wall 4 than any number of dry ditches. feet high, 18 inches broad at the base, and 5668. Summer . The attention which 12 inches at thetop, coped with large turf ;

and 6 the soil thrown out of the ditch c, in- hedges require in summer is confined to clined upwards towards the top of theturf weeding ; but the operation is a very wall. For confining Cheviot and Black- important one, not only as regards the faced sheep, and cattle, a short stake and hedges themselves, but also thecondition • Kames' Gentleman Farmer, p. 278.

WEEDING HEDGES .

581

of the fields near them. I am ashamed to hedge-bank ; and in order that it may get say that this department of farm -work is between the hedge -roots its face should be much neglected. The hedger himself can narrow . It costs 3d. per inch along the do little to the weeding of an extensive face.

range of fences; and he is, besides, called away , in summer, to many other sorts of work which have no relation to his own

A small useful implement is the hedge weed-book, Fig. 474. fig. 474. It is formed from

a piece of

occupation . The field -workers, who assist him in weeding, are engaged at field

hooked stick, cut

labour ; and it is only at intervals that they can be spared from their necessary

tree; but it may be made of iron . Its

I have found it a good

use is to pull away

plan to employ old men , who are unable

the weeds between

avocations.

from any bush or

THE HEDGE WEED-HOOK. the hedge-roots, in wages, in weeding hedges by the piece; to the ditch, that have come down by the and if they are diligent, it is surprising Dutch hoe from the hedge- bank . the extent of fence they will keep clean to undertake ordinary labour at ordinary

during a summer.

Old women might be

5670. The manner of using these im

employed at the same occupation ; and plements is this : - The hedger steps into

an aged couple might employ a part of the bottom of the hedge -ditch with his face their time every day at this sort ofwork, towards the hedge, and having in his right with advantage to the farm and their own band the cross-head of the hedge-spade, and resting its helve in his left above the pecuniary means. socket, he works the spade in a horizontal 5669. The implements are but few that position, removing all the grassy and

are required for the weeding of hedges. other plants growing on the face of the They consist of a hedge spade, fig. 472, bedge- bank below the line of thorns along the entire side of the ditch, and pushing Fig. 472, THE HEDGE SPADE .

them into the bottom .

If the thorn -bed

was formed of turf, the grass below the line of a young hedge may be expected to be pretty strong ; but if made on failowed

having a thin cutting face, of a rectangular ground, the weeds, if not few, will not be Fig. 473. form , attached to an iron strong. Whatever may be the state of the shank terminating in a weeds, they should be removed from the

socket, into which is in- young hedge, in time to prevent them serted a helve, 2 feet long, scattering their seed ; for which end the with a cross head. This weeding should be undertaken as early in spade is held horizontally the summer as possible, not merely before in both hands, and is used the weeds come into seed, but before they to cut away the grassy arrive at the blooming period. While the

face of the ditch below the line of bedge ; and to prevent the hands coming in contact with the bank, the shank is slightly bent

hedger takes the lead of weeding the face of the hedge-ditch below the hedge, a field worker follows him on the hedge-bank, and removes the weeds with the Dutch hoe along its top and face, stirring the

into a form to preserve a

whole surface, but not deeper than is neces

parallelism between the saryto remove the weeds. Such of the

Îine of the spade and that weeds as fall on the top of the hedge-bank of the helve . The hedger get leave to lie and rot there ; whilst those alone uses this imple- on its face, immediately behind the hedge, It costs 4s. or are drawn throngh between the hedge ment. Another implement 5s. is the common Dutch hoe, THE DUTCH HOE. fig. 473, with a helve 5 feet long, with a cross head . Its use is to re-

stems into the ditch, with the crooked stick, by each of the field -workers who follow the hedger in the ditch , and the field -worker on the top of the hedge-bank. The field

move the weeds from the top and face of the workers take their turn at the Dutch boe,

582

REALISATION .

as it is severer work than using the crooked Torilis anthriscus, fruit densely clothed stick, which merely saves the hands and with incurved bristles ; zig - zag trefoil,

fingers of the workers being scratched by Trifolium medium; tufted vetch, Vicia

the thorns in reaching the weeds between cracca, with fine bluish-purple flowers ; the stems. I could never ascertain the and hedge-vetch, Vicia sepium , with large cost of weeding a young hedge in that way, leafets.

as it depends on the quantity and state of the weeds ; but I remember an old man

5672. Numerously as these crowd to

taking on the job one summer at 1d. per gether to take shelter in hedges, there are rood of 6 yards. He first used the Dutch other intruders which insert themselves

hoe along the bank for one yoking, then between the thorn - plants, and, acquiring

the hedge- spade for another, and completed strength from the protection afforded them , the clearing the space previously gone over at length overcome their protectors. Of of weeds with the crooked stick. Were the hedges constantly weeded every summer, the cost would be very much below this sum. When the hedge has attained 3

these, the most destructive to hedge -plants are the crab-apple, Pyrus malus, which

easily makes room for itself with its stiff elbowing branches; the sloe, Prunus

or 4 years old, it so overshadows the face spinosa ; common dog -rose, Rosa canina, of the hedge -bank behind it, that few if and even the favourite sweet-briar, Rosa any weeds get leave to appear ; so that rubiginosa, placed as it is in a hedge for the hedge -spade in front, with only a the sake of its odour — both these never fail

skimming of the Dutch hoe on the top of to injure thorn -plants, as far as their the hedge-bank, is all the work required. spreading arms can reach ; the broom ,

When the hedge has grown to cover the Cytisus scoparius, and whin, Ulex Euro hedge-bank entirely, the Dutch hoe is dis- pæa - bothdisplace thethorn, and, on them pensed with, and only the hedge-spade is selves dying out by old age or severe frost, used. The same old man undertook thislatter leave unseemly gaps; the common bramble

work at fd. per rood of 6 yards, so that the or blackberry, Rubusfruticosus, and the spade-work is about half the amount of the hazel-leaved bramble,Rubus corylifolius, whole-which, I dare say, may be near being powerful climbers, completely over the cost in hedges not allowed to be over- run thorns in many parts of England. run with weeds ; and where hedges were The common barberry, Berberis oulgaris, originally planted in fallow ground instead is a well-known intruder into the hedges of of on lea, and where they are weeded con- England. stantly every summer, the weeding would cost a great deal less than this sum. 5673. Weeds growing in the bottom and on the sides of ditches cause the water to

5671. The weeds which infest hedges fill up the bottom with sediment, and to are numerous, many of which are common break down the sides. Among these the to them and corn and pasture; but others beautiful yellow corn - flag, Iris pseud

are chiefly found in hedges, such as the acoris, takes up its station on the sides of sticking -grass, Galium aparine ; great bindweed, Concoloulus sepium , a creeper abundant in England ; Bishops' or gout weed, Ægopodium podagraria, which resists eradication ; ground-ivy, Glechoma

ditches, and directs the water to the op posite side ; the water - cress, Nasturtium officinale, grows in the bottom of ditches, and arrests mud in its progress down them,

but will only grow where spring -water

hederacea, a creeper; hog -weed, Hera- flows ; the common butter -bur, Petasites cleum spondylium , a coarse rank plant, oulgaris, with large expanded leaves, growing from 4 to 5 feet in height ; occupies a prominent position on the ditch meadow vetchling, Lathyrus pratensis, a side. Dr Hooker relates, that “the early

strong creeper with yellow flowers ; com- flowering of the plant induces the Swedish mon hedge -mustard, Sisymbrium offici- farmers to plant it near their bee -hives."

nale, flowers very small, pale yellow ; The red canary -grass, Phalaris arun woody nightshade, Solanum dulcamara, in moist situations; hedge-woundwort, Stachys silvatica, flowers purple, whorls of about 6 flowers ; upright hedge-parsley,

dinacea, with its creeping roots, tufting here and there, proves troublesome in un duly hardening the parts of the sides of ditches where itgrows ; the reed meadow

THE HAWTHORN PLANT.

grass, Poa aquatica, acts a similar part to

583

Exogens ; alliance Rosales ; order Pomaceæ ;

the canary - grass ; the floating meadow- genus Cratægus, of Lindley. grass, P. fluitans, floats its long narrow 5677. The common hawthorn is a very vari leaves down the stream of water in the able plant. Mr Loudon enumerates not fewer

ditch, retarding and stagnating it ; the than 30 varieties. Of these, 7 differ from the curl-leaved dock, Rumex crispus, strikes species in thegeneral formand mode ofgrowth ; its roots down the side of the ditch ; wbile 2 in the colour of the flowers ; 4 in the develop ment in structure of the flowers ; 3 in the time

the brooklime, Veronica beccabunga ,is of flowering ; 5 in the colour of the fruit ; 1 in

found in the direct water -course.

The having the fruit woolly ; 5 in the form of the

only mode of destroying weeds in ditches leaves; and 3 in the colour of the leaves. is scouring the bottom , and paring the Of these varieties, the one I would pre edges with the common spade, and ex fer5678. for field -fencing is, I believe, digynous. The tracting the roots of the obnoxious plants colour oftheyoung wood is dark purple; thatof growing in both . the new shoots also dark purple, spotted with minute white specks ; and that of the old wood,

5674. Mr Curtis gives a hint about dark orange-purple. Bark smooth and shining;

destroying some speciesof weeds in hedges, leaves dark-green and shining on the upper face; dark purple, of medium length , fine, and which seems to derive its importance as a spines sharp ; the stems close together in parallel rods,

ineans of depriving the turnip -fly of a bar- stiff, and upright. Flowers rather large, and bour in the early part of the season, before haws, dark-red ; neither plentiful. The plantis the sowing of the turnip crop . “Somebene- hardy, and willgrow in any sort of soil, from

clay to gravel that is not injured by stagnant fit,” he observes, “ might be derived from water. Near stagnant water it becomes covered destroying these cruciferous plants, Ery- with lichensand moss ; willnotthrive under the simum allearia and Condamine pratensis, drip of trees, or in company with other plants.

to which the Alticæ (2390) are so strongly The height varies from 15 to 45 feet. attached , for they grow in abundance in shrub, hawthorn,attains 5679. The situations is a long-lived every hedge andmeadow . They appear and, in some to a considerable long before the turnips come up, and at sized tree. Thus, at Duddingston, in the neigh tract and give support to the parents of bourhoodof Edinburgh , is one which, in 1836, the future swarms that are to sweep away

was 43 feet high, the diameter of its branches

the crops

44 feet ;at a littleabove the roots 104 feet in

of the farmer. As these plants

often flower at the beginning of April, and girth , and at 3 feetfrom the ground,94 feet. In produce their leaves at a much earlier Forfarshire, at Kinnaird Castle,after being 120 years planted, is one 45 feet high, 40 feet in dia

period, it is almost certain that they nurse meter over the branches, and 35 inches across

the fly, and are its great resources for food the trunk. It is growing on a sandy loam or

and nourishment in the earliest days of clay. spring. The hedge -mustard , and other On account of the beauty and fragrance cruciferous plants on banks and road -sides, of 5680. its flowers, the hawthorn has been a favoured are quite under our control ; and it is a plant among all nations. “ It is said ,” remarks

duty which we owe to our neighbour, as Mr Phillips, “ that the hawthorn flowers not only well as to ourselves, to keep our fields and regale the spirits by their odour, but that they

hedges clear of charlock and every other havethe power also of counteracting poison. It has been made the happy emblem of Hope, weed of that family, all of which harbour because the young and beautiful Athenian girls the turnip - fly " brought branches of hawthorn flowers to decorate 5675. The plant commonly used in the hedges

of this country is the common bawthorn, Cratægus oxyacantha, or sharp -thorned cratægus. The generic name is derived from the Greek agatos, meaning strength, in reference to the

theircompanions and friends on their wedding day, whilst they carried large boughs of it to the altar. The altar of Hymen was lighted with torches made of the wood of this tree, and it

formed also the flambeaux which lighted the nuptial chamber. The Romans had also bedecked themselves with branches of hawthorn when they aubépine or aubépin, whitethorn, of the French ; seized the Sabine women. On the first of the hagedorn, orhedgethorn , of the Germans. May, our ancestors never failed decorating with it the Maypole, which was permanently fixed in 5676. It belongs to the natural order Pomaceae or near every town and village in the kingdom ; of Jussieu ; to Rosacea , tribe Romacece, of De and the boldest youth climbed to fix the garland Candolle ; to Icosandria, Di- Pentaginia of Lin- of flowers on the top ; whilst others, les8 cou hardness and strength of the wood .

It is the

næus ; and to the natural system Perigynous rageous, hung festoons and wreaths of flowers * Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. ii. p. 206.

REALISATION

584

through the garland, and twined them round the

in the arts, because it is seldom found of suffi

This rustic amusement was evi.

cient size, and is,besides,apt to warp. It weighs, when green, 68 lb. 12 oz. ; and, when dry, 57 lb. 5 oz. per cubic foot. It contracts, by drying, j of its bulk . It is employed for the handles ofham. mers, the teeth of mill-wheels, for flails and mallets, and, when heated at the fire, for canes

pole.

dently introduced by the Romans, as we see in it the remains of their ancient games, Floralia, that were instituted in Rome as early as the time of Romulus, and which the Phoceans and

Sabines observed in even earlier days.” * The hawthorn is the badge of the clan Ogilvy.

and walking -sticks. The branches are used in England for the heating of ovens — a purpose for

5681. The tradition regarding the famous haw. which they are very proper, as they give out thorn at Glastonbury ( C. precox, a variety ofthe much heat, and possess the property of burning oxyacantha) is thus recorded : “ To the S.W. of as readily when green as in their dry state ."

the town is Weary-all-hill, an eminence ," says

“ The hawthorn is manufactured into clubs for

Mr Nightingale, “ which, as the monkish writers informus, derived its name from St Joseph ( of Arimathea) and his companions resting here when much fatigued in travelling through the country, during their pious mission in England for the purpose of preaching the Christian faith. Here it is recorded that St Joseph fixed his staff

golf-playing.” § Combs were formerly made of the wood, particularly from the root. A decoc tion of the bark yields a yellow dye, and, with copperas, is used to dye black. “ The timber of the hawthorn is often spoiled through inattention after cutting. If it beallowed to lie in the tree it soon heats, and becomes quite frush (brittle )

in the earth, which immediately took root, and ever after put forth its leaves on Christmas day. It had, we are informed, two distinct trunks till the reign of Queen Elizabeth, when one of them wasdestroyed by a Puritan. The other met the same fate during the Great Rebellion. The

and worthless. It therefore ought to be instantly

cut up into planks and laid to dry." || 5684. The ancients were acquainted with the hawthorn as a fence. The Greeks called it pyra cantha, or fire -thorn . With regard to the anti

blossoms of this tree were esteemed such great quity of fencing with thorns in our own country, curiosities as to become an object of gain to the it is probable that fields were fenced with thorns merchants of Bristol, who not only disposed of before Queen Elizabeth's time, and not so late as them to the inhabitants of their own city, but the end of the 17th century ; as appears from a exported them to different parts of Europe. The quotation by Marshall from Fitzherbert, when probable truth with regard to this tree is, that it was brought from Palestine by some of the

pilgrims, there being a species of thorn which

the latter complained, at the beginning of the 16th century, of landlords enclosing, and thereby shutting out their demesnes and meadows from

blooms at Christmas, a native of that country.”+ the use of their tenants. 5682. The haw of the hawthorn is very apt to

heat when put in heaps. It is frequently, notwithstanding, sent in large sugar hogsheads, and so great a proportion becomes heated, that not

According to Dr

Walker, the first hawthorn hedges planted in Scotland were on the road leading to Inchbuck ling Brae in East Lothian, and at Finlarig at the head of the Tay in Perthshire. They were planted at both places by Cromwell's soldiers. **

above 1 in 20 germinates when sown. It ought

to be packed in not larger quantities than bushel-

5685. Other plants than the hawthorn bave

hampers. When sown, it does not germinate beenrecommended to be used for fencing fields. until the second spring, and, on that account,

No doubt others, such as the black -thorn, the

nurserymen are in the habit of decomposing the crab-apple, the beech, the elder, and all the pulp of the haw by mixing them with sandy earth, in flat heaps not exceeding 10 inches in depth, and which are frequently turned, to prevent the haws heating. Game, and many kinds

forest-trees that bear pruning, might form such

of birds, particularly the thrush tribe, are very

efficient fence against the outbreaks of cattle and

a fence as to mark the division of one enclosure from another ; but unless the plant so employed

is furnished with spines, it will prove a very in

fond of the haw ; and, on that account, the haw-

horses, irrespective of the trespasses of evil-dis

thorn forms an excellent low stunted underwood

posed persons. The holly, Ilex aquifolium , is the only other plant that possesses the properties

for the protection of game. It, with holly , Ilex aquifolium , and the dog-rose, Rosa canina, forms

an almost impenetrable barrier against the poacher. Peasants, in many countries, eat the haws ; and in Kamschatka they are fermented into wine.

of a good fencing plant. It is durable, firm , stands pruning, is highly defensive, and verdant alike in all seasons ; but, being very slow of

growth, it would require a long time to attain a sufficient height for a fence , and , in the meau

5683. “ The wood of the hawthorn is very hard and difficult to work. Its colour is white, but with a yellowish tinge ; its grain is fine, and it takes a beautiful polish ; but it is not much used

time , would incur much expense in its protec tion. It will, therefore, never become a substi. tute for the hawthorn for field -fencing, however beautiful a fence it may form near a dwelling

house or shrubbery. The cock's-spur thoru ,

* Phillips' Sylva Floriſera, vol. i . p . 261-4 . + Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xii. part i. p. 504-5. I Loudon's Arboretum et Fruticetum , vol. ii. p . 337. || Sang's Nicol's Planters' Calendar, p. 89.

$ Cruickshank's Practical Planter, p. 394.

9 Marshall's Rural Economy of Yorkshire, vol. i. p. 46.

** Walker's Essays, p . 53.

THE HAWTHORN PLANT.

585

Cratæqus crus galli, and the Virginian thorn, C. stone wall never grows well, and,in consequence, Virginiana, have been proposed ; but neither possesses any properties superior to the common

becomes an eyesore ; and a wall founded on loose earth will remain even but for a very short time,

kind. The juniper, Juniperus communis, and the on account of the unequal subsidence of the earth, whin or furze, Úlex Europæa, have been recom- and the consequent sinking of the stones. A 3 mended. The whin does not stand severe frost . feet stone wall, founded upon the hard ground, In the spring of 1837 almost every whin -hedge behind the hedge -bank, with a single rail of pal in Scotland was destroyed from this cause. The ing raised behind it, until the hedge get up, tala plant, a small thorny shrub, a native of South America, has been recommended as a good field-

fence ; but there is nuch doubt of its thriving in our climate. In Germany the hornbeam ,Carpinus betulus, is used as a field -fence. In Holland, it

would make a better fence for sheep and cattle. Another mode of planting a thorn -hedge is to build a stone wall, in which are left holes, about

two-thirds of its height, through which the thorns grow which hadbeen planted in the bank

seems that nurserymen have ready-made hedges of earth behind it. This is also an objectionable for sale. “ Wehave seen,” says Dr Neill, “ that a Dutch merchant, retiring from business, may purchase fruit-trees which will yield him their produce the very first year ; we found that he

mode, inasmuch as the plants, whose roots are ramifying in the bank, have no support for that portion of the stem which grows horizontally through the holes of the wall ; and the consequent

may also surround his garden and shrubbery leverage of the part of the stem which grows up with ready -formed hedges ! We observed many lines of different evergreen and deciduous shrubs, usually employed for this purpose, trained hedgewise in the nursery ; and these, like the fruittrees, being frequently removed from one spot to

another, may, almost without hazard of failure, be transferred to a considerable distance, and replanted . " * I have seen the common spruce , Abies excelsa , clipt into very neat hedges. Hindoostan possesses a great variety of plants fit for field fences, but whether any one of them would thrive in this country remains to be proved. It

is probable that the temperate region of the Himalaya may afford some useful hedge-plant. 5686. There are various ways of treating the hawthorn as a fence . In Yorkshire double

hedges are not uncommon, the plants being planted in double rows upright in a trench in the soil. Double hedges were not uncommon in Berwickshire and Roxburghshire some years ago, but no new ones have been added to these.

right before the face of the wall shakes the roots. And should the horizontal stem within the hole rest for support upon the wall, its weight and motion soon bring it down, if constructed of dry stones, or shatter it,if built with mortar. Thorns have been recommended to be planted at the bottom of a wall without a bank, but with a ditch before it as a fence to the hedge, with a paling on its lip. If a stone wall is built in such a situ

ation, there seems no use at all for the hedge as a fence ; and if aturf one, surely the thorns will thrive better with a bank of earth behind them than at the bottom of a turf wall.

5687. On considering the state in which the fences are usually kept, it must be admitted that the plan of enclosing the land is generally good ; but the fences are not cared for as they might be. The low country is sufficiently, and, in many places, too densely fenced - too much ground being occupied, to the detriment

of the ditch, and the thorn -plants are set into the

of the crops growing within them . A slight glance at the small enclosures of England will convince any one of this, though the smallest enclosures are perhaps occupied by meadows of

top, among the crude earth taken out of the bot

permanent grass . In the porth of Ireland the

tom of the ditch. As might be expected in such

enclosures are too small, though there the vni versal practice of small holdings better justifies

In Norfolk , a high bank is thrown up, without a wall, from 6 to 7 feet in height from the bottom

a plan, it is not uncommon in that country to see the face of the bank, with the quicks in it, washed

down by beating rains ; and as the roots enlarge and the bank moulders down, the young plants hang their heads downwards upon the face of bank. The reason assigned forthe adoption of this objectionable practice is, that there is no

the prevalence of small enclosures. The upland

districts are very deficient of enclosures through out the kingdom. Most of the hill -farms have even no march -fences, the marches being marked out by natural objects, such as the water-shed

wood in that country to form temporary fences

line of a hill, the course of a rivulet, a ravine, or even cairns of stones. The great desidera

until the thorns grow ; and, being set upon the top of a steep bank, they are out of the reach of cat-

tum, however, in such farms is shelter, which cannot be afforded by any single fence in such

tle from the bottom of the ditch .

Where flat

situations. The shelter of upland districts can

stones are plentiful, a sheltering fence is formed

hardly be accomplished but on a scale that

by enclosing a space of a few feet in breadth between two walls, and, on filling it with earth, an

would render it of national importance; for the

attempt on a comparatively small property would upright hedge is planted in it. Such fences may confer as much benefit on the property on each be seen in Devonshire, where flat stones of the side of it as on itself, and the proprietor of a primitive clay-slate are obtained in abundance. large estate would not incur the great expense

A 2ļ feetwall on the topof the bank behind the of sheltering it entirely. It would be desirable hedge, which had been thrown out of the ditch, with a coping of turf, is recommended. There

were proprietors of upland districts to have a mutual understanding on this subject, and plans

are objections to this plan : a turf coping on a

could then be adopted which would have the

* Neill's Journal of a Horticultural Tour, p. 204.

586

REALISATION .

effect of sheltering a great extent of country at at the roots, when left exposed for want of a comparatively small cost. Were extensive surveys taken of the form of alpine country , by engineers well acquainted with the prevailing winds there, and competent to suggest lines of fences which would be sure tochecktheir course ,

water -tabling, in consequence of the wind acting on them , by the leverage of its high stems, that after it has been out down it dies for want of power to push out new stems. Such is the sort of treatment which thorn-hedges generally re

estimates could be made of the cost ; and no class of engineers seems better suited for the

ceive.

5688. The only accident incident to young purpose than those engaged in the trigonometrical survey of the country. When the thorn- hedges in spring is scorching from the sun . It fences of the country are minutely examined, is occasioned by the sudden evaporation of hoar they will not be found always in a useful state. frost, in a calm atmosphere, from the young leaflets Some are allowed to grow in a rambling state, of the hedge, by a powerful rising sun. The carrying a heavy head and exposing bare stems sudden evaporation causes so intense a cold as near the ground ; others are far advanced in old actually to destroy vitality in the tender shoots age, and about to decay for ever, or covered with of the plant which have just burst into leaf; and lichens and mosses ; full of gaps, filled up with the consequence, in a few days afterwards, is in slabs, paling, or loose stones ; occasionally over the young leaves and tender shoots seeming to flown with water, which gets leave to pass off of have been severely scorched by fire. I have

its own accord, which it can seldom do in winter frequently observed this scorching, to a partial before another flood overtakes it ; completely

extent, on the east sides of hedges that run N. and

overgrown with every weed that gets leave to

S., the side next the rising sun ; but in spring

shed its seeds for miles around ; almost overcome 1841, the affection was so severe and extensive, with wild plants, which have usurped the place

of the thorns ; so hacked and hewed with the hatchet, that the greater part of it is a long time of recovering the butchery, whilst the remainder have died in consequence of the rain descending the split stems and rotting the roots; 80 overlaid with plashing, that the already halfamputated stems die in a short time ; suspended by the principal root, after the earth has been washed away from it into the ditch ; cut over too

that not hedges only suffered, but large beech trees of upwards of 100 years old, that came early into leaf, literally died in the ensuing winter. A hedge so affected will be leafless all summer at the part scorched. It ought not to be switched until it has perfectly recovered its vigour.

5689. The thorn -hedge is subject to the attack

high, where it has put out innumerable twigs,

of many insects, though the effects are different. One of these is the black - veined white, or haw

whilst the stems below are quite bare; so shaken

thorn butterfly, Pieris cratægi, a , fig. 475, an in

Fig. 475.

THK HAWTHORN BUTTERFLY - PIERIS CRATÆGI.

THE HAWTHORN PLANT.

587

sect unknown in Scotland, but frequent in Eng- may then be sown upon a prepared mound, as on land, and at times so numerous on the Continent the prepared level of the ground. The plant that its flight has been mistaken for a shower of grows very rapidly , and soon becomes a fence SNOW .

The caterpillar is seen at b, of a dull from its spiny armament. Itshould be switched

yellow colour at first, but changes with moultings, and is produced from yellow -coloured cylindrical eggs laid on hawthorn shoots, and

into the proper form of a hedge when young, to prevent the straggling form of growth which it is very apt to assume. When allowed to grow

rendered waterproof by a coating of strong varnish. It devours the leaves, and, while so em-

at will, it attains a mature age in a few years,

ployed, lives in society under the protection of a silken web.

Other lepidopterous insects dis-

and then dies out, or it is hastened to its end by the frost. The whin does not like very good soil.

I tried to raise a hedge upon a small

figure our hedges by defoliation, such as the mound of fine black mould, but failed by the figure of 8, or black thorn moth, Episema cæru- young plants dying out. My object was to have locephala , whose caterpillar is 2 inches long, of a a whin hedge for drying clothes upon, as that

yellowish -green colour, with 3 pale stripes. A plantexposes the most convenient and safe sur still greater pest to our hedges is the brown-

face, by its small spines, for receiving clothes up

tailed moth ,Porthesia auriflua,whose caterpillars,

on it. The plant likes to push its roots into a clay

of a dusky colour, with 2 red lines on the back, and a white streak on the sides interrupted at intervals, occur sometimes in such numbers that, in 1782, their webs were gathered in one day by the people of a single parish in the neighbourhood of London , that of Clapham , to the amount

subsoil. The whin forms a cheap fence around a plantation , and it forms a good nurse for young trees not over-thickly planted,and is well adapted as underwood to afford shelter to game. The late Mr Inglis well described the utility of the whin plant in these words : “ In returning to of 80 bushels.* Another species of the same Wexford by another road, I was greatly struck genus Porthesia chrysorrhæa ,yellow -tailed moth, by the gay effect produced by the furze, or, as lives on a great variety of trees and shrubs in its they are called in Scotland , the whin hedges, caterpillar state ; and among these is the haw- which form the only enclosures in this district. thorn, to which it often causes extensive injury. The furze hedges are very general in Ireland, The small and beautiful ermine moths, so readily and are muchpreferred by the people to any known by their pure white colour, generally other, and not without reason. In parts of the spotted with black, often leave the fruit-trees, country where turf is scarce and coal dear, the which are their habitual resort, and attack haw-

furze is a ready and abundant fuel. Nor is this

thorn hedges. The caterpillars live in society,

the only use to which it is put — the tender shoots are mashed, and given as food to the horses, and the refuse is mixed up, and used as manure . There is still another use of a furze hedging : when full grown, it affords, in rainy weather , a shelter to live stock, which neither thorn nor

and form a common tent for themselves by draw-

ing a number of leaves together, which afford them at once food and shelter. Having consumed the foliage of one spot, they move on to

another ; and the devastation is often so complete that the hedges, for miles, present the appearance of wintersprays covered with a cottony web. The two species most to be dreaded

any other hedge affords ; for there are no drop

pings from a furze hedge. This is a fact of which any pedestrian may agreeably convince himself,

are Yponomeuta padella and Y. eronymella. if caught in a shower of rain, in the neigh They are more common in England than in bourhood of a furze enclosure.” + Scotland . 5691. Mr Fortune mentions a curious method

5690. As hedges of whin, Ulex Europæa, are common in the upper and poorer parts of the

which the Chinese have in protecting the young bamboos from the ravages of the wild boar : “ A

piece of bamboo wood about 8 or 10 feet long, them . Whins — or furze, as the plant is named and rather thicker than a man's arm, is split up in England — are very frequently sown upon the the middle to within a fourth of its length. This is top of a turf mound constructed for the purpose , made fast to a tree in the bamboo thicket, and at because the young plant is out of reach of dan- an angle of about 45°, the split part being left

country , it is necessary to say a few words on

ger,and requires no temporary fencing for pro- loose ;a cord, also made of bamboo, is fastened tection, and where, generally, turf is plentiful. The plants grow well in such a situation,striking

to it by one end, and the other is led to some convenientplace out of the thicket, where a man

their roots down through the mound into the

is stationed .

groundbelow , for the sake of meeting with mois-

dead of night to attack the young shoots, the man pulls the rope backwards and forwards, and

ture.

No doubt, the sharp spines of the plant

When the boars come down in the

attract moisture from theatmosphere as well, clank, clank, clank goes the bamboo, producing as the structure of the plant is well adapted for causing the rain to trickle down the branches to

the roots. In raising a whin fence, all that is required to be done is to sow the seed, which

a loud and hollow sound, which on a quiet even ing may be heard at a great distance. The animals are frightened, and make off to their dens in the hills.” I Our crow -mills, or great

costs 1s. per pound, along the line of fence, in

rattles, would probably produce the

small rut made with the corner of the hand -hoe,

effect when sprung in the hands of a stout

fig. 266, and covered over with a rake. The seed

watcher.

Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xiii.p. 155. # Fortune's Wanderings in China, p. 179.

+ Inglis' Ireland, vol. i . p. 50-1 .

same

588

REALISATION ,

every 30 yards of a 5 -quarter dyke will be 1 rood inlength. The usual thickness 5692. The other sort of fence for the of such a dyke is 2 feet at the base, fields, used in this country, is the low dry- and 15 inches under the cover. stone wall . They are named dry-stone dykes in Scotland ; and as the word dyke 5695. A dyke that has two plain faces is short and expressive, I shall use it more is called a double-faced dyke, and a dyke often than wall, with which the idea of a with one face, as one built against a high structure is mostly associated . sunk -fence, is called a single-faced dyke. ON THE BUILDING OF STONE FENCES .

A double - faced 5 - quarter dyke requires

5693. Very many dry - stone dykes in this country are constructed on erroneous principles, the stones being laid promiscuously, and more with a view to give a

1 ton of stones for every square yard of its face, so that 36 tons of stones are

required for every rood of 30 yards long. The expense of quarrying that

smooth face than a substantialhearting to quantity of stones is about 10s.the rood ; the wall. The coping, too, is often dis- the carriage of them at a reasonable dis proportionately large for the body of the tance beyond one mile is also 10s ; and wall, which is not unfrequently too nar- the building is commonly undertaken ,

row for its height. I suspect that many when the stones are good, at 10s. also ;

dry -stone dykes are built by ordinary so that such a dyke costs 30s. the 30 masons, who, being accustomed to the use of lime-mortar, are not acquainted with the bedding of the loose stones of a dry dyke as firmly as they should be, and

yards, or 1s. for every yard in length, or £ 6, 9s. 6d. per cubic rood, or 3s. 7d. per cubic yard. The best way to contract for the erection of stone-dykes is by the

therefore are unfitted to build such a dyke. rood of 36 cubic yards, when every A builder of dry -stone dykes should be temptation on the part of the builder to brought up to the profession ;and when he lessen the breadth , and make the heart has acquired skill he will build a substan- of the dyke hollow , will be removed. tial one, at a moderate cost, which will stand upright for many years. A proper 5696. The tools of a dry -stone dyker sort of stone is a great assistance to the are few and inexpensive, consisting only builder of stone dykes, flat thin ones of a mason's hammer, a frame as a gauge

being the best : but flatness and thinness for the size of the dyke, and cords as

are not the only requisites ; they should guides for the straightness and thickness also have a rough surface by which to of the dyke. A ditcher's shovel, fig. 453, adhere to one another in the wall ; and

is also useful to him in putting the shivers

no material, on this account, is so well of the stones together into heaps, to be the adapted for the purpose as the stones de- more easily removed by carts. rived from sandstone boulders of gravel deposits, when split with the pick into flat pieces of the requisite thickness on

5697. A dyker cannot work in wet or in very cold weather, as handling stones

being taken out of the ground, which, on in a state of wetness is hurtful to the being exposed to the air for a short time, bare hand ; on which accounts, dry -stone become dry and hard. dykes are commonly built in summer. 5694. Dry -stone dykes are measured by quarters — that is, quarters of a yard of 9 inches each. A 5 -quarter dyke is the usual measure of a field -fence, that is 45 inches, or 3 feet 9 inches to the under side of the cover upon which the

5698. The line of fence being deter mined on, it is marked off with a row of stakes driven firmly into the ground . The upper soil, to the depth it has been ploughed, is removed from the line to form the foundation of the dyke ; and it

cope-stones stand — the cover and cope- may be driven away immediately, and stones usually measuring 12 inches, so that not lie in the builder's way, or it should the dyke stands altogether 4 feet 9 inches be formed into a compost with lime, in height. The dyke, when finished , is

near the spot, for top -dressing grass.

measured by the rood of 36 square yards When the surface consists of old firm upon its face under the cover, so that thick sward, the dyke may be founded

STONE -DYKE BUILDING .

589

upon it ; but in forming foundations, it for them out of the building stones. should be borne in mind that dykes are These particulars are worth attending to,

apt to sink in soft earth of every kind, to save unnecessary trouble afterwards to its injury - not merely by curtailing in removing or bringing stones, to the

its height as a fence, but bytwisting its annoyance alike of the dyker and the structure and causing it ultimately to fall. farmer. When the soil consists of vegetable mould , it should therefore be removed altogether,

5700. The simplest mode of conveying

and its intrinsic value in a compost large boulders is upon a sledge, shod will amply repay the trouble of removing with iron, which is better than putting it.

them in and taking them out of a com mon cart, the bottom and sides of which

5699. After the foundation has been are apt to be broken by boulders.

A

formed by the removal of the earth,the pair of horses, yoked as in a plough, stones should be laid down on both sides will draw a very heavy boulder upon asnear the line of foundation as practicable, for it is of considerable importance to the builder that the stones be near at band . When the stones are laid even as far off as two yards, from thefoundation, the builder loses time in throwing them nearer ; but, on the other hand, no stones should be emptied from the cart into the foundation, as they will have to

such a sledge, on the ordinary surface of the ground. When many ordinary stones are driven for buildings, of any kind, the carts should receive an extra bottoming and lining with deals of com mon Scots fir, or of willow, which is better than anyother sort of wood, as being softer and less liable to split.

be removed by the builder before he com-

5701. Every preparation being thus

mences his work . Large boulder -stones made, two builders proceed to the work , form excellent inaterial for the foundation

one opposite the other—the best number

of stone dykes, and should be laid close to make the best work, and they assist each to the foundation before the building stones other with stones which one would not be are brought. In laying down the stones, able to manage. the carters should be instructed to put down 5702. They begin by setting up the 18 tons on each side of 30 yards length

of the foundation ; and whenboulders are frame, fig. 476, at one end of the dyke, also put down, allowance should be made whether it commences against another Fig. 476.

Place THE BUILDING A DRY- STONE DYKE.

590

REALISATION .

fence, or at a gateway into the field which rain which may have found its way down the figure is supposed to represent, in the through the top of the dyke to be thrown

foundation of the proposed line of dyke. off by both sides. The frame is made of the breadth and

5705. The stability of a dyke is much

height of the proposed dyke under the cover; and is set perpendicularly by the plummet attached to it. A corresponding frame should be placed beyond the point which is fixed for one stretch of building,

assisted by having what is called a thorough -band stone, placed across it at about half-way up the building. The cover also acts as a thorough-band at the

or two stakes driven into the ground,

top of the dyke ; but in laying the cover,

having the same inclinatiou as the sides of the levelling of the dyke to form its bed the frame, to answer the purpose of a should not be made of very small and very On undulating ground, thin stones, as is too often the case, as

temporary one.

a space of half a rood, or 15 yards, be- neither have stability, are easily broken, tween the frames, is a sufficient stretch and are constantly in danger of slipping out

of building at one time ; but on level from under the cover and cope. Thorough ground a rood may safely be taken in. band stones are frequently left projecting The cords are then stretched along the from one or both sides of the dyke by space, and fastened to the outside of

some builders, merely to indicate that they each frame, to guide, as lines, the build- are thorough -bands; but the practice is ing of the sideof the dyke straight, and objectionable, inasmuch as any projections to gauge its breadth. The frame is held serve onlyas stepping-stones fortrespassers

upright and steady by a stiff rail, having to climb over the dyke. a nail driven through one of its ends, hooked on to the top-bar of the frame, and 5706. A scuncheon should be formed

the other end witha stone laid upon it, of in -band and out- band stones, hammer dressed , and firmly bedded upon one or pushed into the ground. another .

5703. When the dyke begins with a scuncheon, as in this case, a large boulder

5707. The covers should project an

should be chosen for its foundation stone ; inch or two beyond the face of the dyke, and if there are no boulders, a large stone to protect the top. They should be two should be selected and dressed for the inches thick , and without a flaw through

purpose, as no better protection can be out their length, which should be two feet given to the end of a dyke - and especially at least, that their weight may keep them 80 when the scuncheon forms one side of firm and their size cover a large space of a gateway to a field . Another boulder, or building. large stone, should be placed at a little 5708. In forming the cope, a large distance from the tirst, and smaller stones

used to fill up the space between them, stone should be placed at the end of the until the building is raised to the height scuncheon to keep down the cover, and of the boulders.

act as an abutment for resisting the wedging down of the smaller cope -stones. 5704. Great art is required in laying Another large cope -stone should be set

the small stones, and it is this art in

at a short distance from it upon the join

dyke-building which detects the good from ing of two covers, to keep them secure. the bad builder. In good dry building, the stones are laid with a slight inclination downwards, from the centre of the dyke, towards each face, and to break band with one another ; and to support their inclination, small stones should be wedged firmly under them in the heart of the dyke ;

whereas stones that are laid flat admit of no wedging to heart them , and receive none, to the riskof the dyke bulging out in both faces. The inclination causes the

placed Thinner stones should then between these on edge — and where they meet, a stone should be wedged in by strokes of the hammer ; but the wedging should be delayed until a considerable length of coping is finished, the better to resist their force. The cope -stones should be nearly all of the same height. On finishing the face of a dyke, small stones should be firmly wedged in with the bammer, where room can be found ,

STONE -DYKE BUILDING.

591

between the beds and the ends of the gap is easily fenced with a bunch of thorns larger ones.

or whins .

5709. In building a stretch of dyke, 5713. Such dykes as I have been de such as the rood above referred to , it is scribing, of 5 quarters in height, will fence

customary to carry up the building at both horses and cattle and Leicester sheep, ends, as well as at themiddle of the stretch, but will not confine Black - faced sheep, to the levelling of the top, before the inter- and scarcely Cheviots . For these, higher mediate spaces are built up, because those walls must either be built, or expedients

primary parts, being builtthus independ- used to make ordinary ones confine them. ently, act as pillars in the dyke to support Some of these expedients are shown in the intermediate building plumb ; and they fig. 477, where part of an ordinary dyke are also convenient for pinning the cords

against while the intermediate spaces are

Fig. 477.

being built.

5710. When a few stretches of dyke have thus been finished , the surplusstones,

merad

if any, should be removed, and laid where they are wanted ; and should there be a

deficiency, stones should be immediately

EXPEDIENTS FOR INCREASING THE HEIGHT OF A DRY - STONE DYKE ,

brought, to allow the builders to finish one with its cope is seen ; and they consist of stretch before they proceed to another. occasional cope -stones a b c d and e, set on The debris of stones caused by the hammer edge to a considerable height, say 9 inches or should be taken to the roads. 12 inches, above the ordinary ones. Upon

these are placed either fillets of wood along 5711. These are all the particulars to notches formed on their top, and wedged

be attended to in building dykes for ordi- into them, as ata, b and c, or a strong rope nary fencing ; but modifications are sometimes introduced into their form to serve a convenient purpose. For example, an opening should be left under the cover of a

of straw is laid somewhat loosely over the notches, to dangle in the wind, and to

form a scare tothe sheep, as at c, d and e. Another expedient is, where a single dyke, of a sufficient width and height faced dyke is built against rising ground, to allow sheep to pass from one field into consisting of plantation or of cultivated another, when the passage between land, to sow a few seeds of whin or

the dyke, and them by road may be a considerable dis- broom in the soil behind over the cope Where a passage exists be- the plants in time spread

tance.

tween the fields by nieans of a gate, no stones. Where good stones for covers are

such opening should be made, but only scarce, and turf is tough and heathery, when the two fields are entered by diffi- thick turfs, cut of the breadth of the rent farm - roads. When the opening is top of the dyke — and laid firmly and

not used, it should be stopped up with neatly on with cope -stones upon the turfs, thorns or a wooden board . An opening which afford them a firm bed - will raise of 3} feet wide and 3 feet high will suffice. a dyke a sufficient height. A more per manent expedient than either of these, 5712. Another convenience is to leave where the dyke is built of large strong

a gap at the top of the dyke by lowering stones from a quarry, is to erect a wire its cover, and removing the cope at a fence upon the dyke, by inserting upright place where a passage is occasionally required for foot passengers. By doing this the dyke may be saved from much injury. A gap near the top of the dyke may be useful as a stile in the line of a foot-path, or at the side of a cover, for hounds and huntsmen to pass with ease ; and here the

wrought-iron standards into the covers, and stretching threerows of wire through and across them . Such an addition costs from 8d. to 1s. 4d . per lineal yard. Or stakes might be driven along and close to one face of the dyke, in length to reach above its covers to receive three rows of

whipper-in may stand on the out-look for wires. Where thinnings of plantationsare a burst. When not constantly in use , the abundant, this is the cheapest, though less

a

592

REALISATION .

durable plan than the preceding ones with supply all the fields with water from it by means of a spout into trouglis. This expe

the wires.

dient I have successfully used. 5714. When dykes run at right angles to one another, and are erected simultane5718. Where the ground is firm , and ously, they should be built in connection ; no water but shelter is wanted at that but where a new dyke comes against an- spot, the dyke should be built curved, to en

other, the old one should not be touched, closeaspacebetween them to beplanted with and the new built firmly beside it. trees for ornament and shelter. The land here will not be wasted, even should it be of

5715. Where two dykes cross, and the the finest quality ; because the corners of place is naturally wet, or water may be four adjoining fields always contain ground easily brought to it, a watering-pool there that cannot be reached by the plough, as would serve four fields, and the pools may be seen between i, k, I and m, fig. 480; while the plough should be formed before the dykes are Fig. 480. 2

built. There are two ways of fencing such Fig. 478. a pond : - When theground is firm , and

the

curves

near

as

to

as

&

fence .

In building cur vatures in dykes,

at the centre of

builders charge a

the pond, as in fig. 478, having holes

half rood

in them to allow

the water to pass

through, to form a FOUR WATERING- POOLS PORMED BY TWO DYKES CROSSING.

m

along

such

straight

water

shallow , the two dykes may cross

can pass

more

than

per for

plain work. Such i WIThin ATHE TREES OF curves in dykes CLUMP MEETING OF DYKES .

are made by the

watering- pool in same rules as those furnished for bedges each field, as at a, in (5621.) b, c , and d.

5719. A stone dyke is in the highest

5716. Where a pond already exists, and state of perfection as a fence immediately its water is too deep for dykes to traverse,

from the hands of the builders ; but every the dykes must terminate at its edge, and day thereafter the effect of the atmosphere convert the pond into a watering-pool upon the stones, at all seasons, and the

common to four fields. When thepond c, accidents to which they are liable by fig. 479, is used by only one field at a trespasses of individuals and the strength uphold Fig. 479. M

time, it should be of stock, render it necessary to fenced from the their repairs frequently ; and this con other three fields

sideration should cause the best materials

by means of hur- and workmanship to be selected for their dles, or paling, at original erection. Dykes should be in f, g, and h ; and spected every year, before the stock take

when it happens possession of the pasture fields, and re to be used by paired, ( 3570. ) When the repairs are more

than

one

not extensive, the most convenient mode

field at a time, a of supplying the stones to the dyker is paling should be to loosen a cart -load of them here and ONE WATERING - POOL COMMON TO FOUR FIELDS .

run

across

the there, and provide him with a wheel-bar

pond, besidesthose row, fig. 87, to take the stones from it to

in the fields not occupied by the stock.

the particular spot requiring repairs, as he wants them; and what he does not require

5717. Where the ground is firm , and no prospect of obtaining a watering - pool, the dykes should be made to cross , and a well sunk in a corner of one of the fields,

are left in the cart to be brought away at once . When stones are laid down, it being

impossible to estimate the quantity exactly required, those not required are almost

with a pump in it of such height as to certain to get leave to lie upon the ground

WIRE FENCES.

593

for the greater part of theensuing season, post a at 6 inches from the end c, and has from the reluctance to waste time in doing a notch cut into its upper surface near the

such an insignificant job at a busy season ,

Fig. 481 .

as the removal of a few stones.

5720. Dry -stone dykes are not nearly so picturesque objects in a landscape as thorn hedges, nor do they afford so much

or so comfortable shelter to stock, (1013. ) They are easily and quickly erected, how ever, in a country where the materials suited to their construction are abundant;

and after being completed, they satisfy the mind of the farmer that little trouble will

be experienced from them for a series of years to come.

5721. A sunk fence cannot be said to have been formed until a single -faced stone SOLE AND STAY UNDER dyke is builtagainst the firm ground, after STRAINING -POST, WITH GROUND the earth had been taken away in front of other end to admit the strut d, which is it ; and no better means can be employed

anywhere for supporting a bank of earth than by building to slip downdykeagainst likely single-faced strong it.Sucha a face dyke may be built,includingthe quarrying and carriage of the stoves,for

also notched and nailed intothe post about 4 inches below the surface of the ground.

In setting the post into the ground, the earth is firmly rammed in upon thesole, and about the strut.

9 d. per lineal yard. 5724. Another method of securing a

straining-post underground is shown by fig. 482, where a is the post of the same

ON WIRE FENCES .

Fig. 482,

5722. A good many years since, I first saw a wire fence at the late Sir Alex .

Muir Mackenzie's, at Delvin . The struc ture was neat, but then very costly ; but

now that wire is manufactured on a large scale, on purpose to construct this species of field fence, the price of wire- fencing has been greatly reduced, as is the case with all manufactures for which there arises a large demand . 5723. Wire - fences

consist

of three

parts — the straining-posts, the standards or intermediate posts, and the wires. The straining-posts are made of wood or of

iron ; and in the country, where wood is

+

cheaper than iron, the former will in most

cases be chosen, although it can bear no comparison with iron in durability. A simple form of straining - post is shown in fig. 481, where a is the post 7 feet long, and 6 or 7 inches in diameter at the smallest end, is put into a pit 3 feet deep ;

STRAINING -POST, WITH PLANKS UNDERGROUND.

size as the preceding, at the back of which at the bottom , is fastened a plank b, 2feet long, 10 inches broad, and 2 inches thick ; and another plank c, of the same dimen sions, is fastened in front of the post about

6 is the sole 6feet long, 3 or 4 inches thick 6 inches below the surface of the ground. and 6 inches broad , which takes in the The earth is then firmly rammed in until VOL . II .

2 P

REALISATION .

594

it comes to 12 inches of the surface, when another plank d of similar dimensions is placed opposite to the plank c , firmly into the ground, and then the three pieces of wood e are tightly driven in between the planks. This is considered a very secure mode of fixing a straining -post against the tension of the wires.

made of wrought iron, fig. 484. When wooden straining - posts decay they must be removed, and in doing which the whole fence must be taken down. Iron posts, such as a, obviate this inconvenience by being permanent. They are 1 to 14 inch square, and cost from 2d. to 2 d . per lb. Each weighs from 32 lb. to 40lb., accord ing to the height required. The extreme

5725. A third method still is given in posts require a stay, b, in addition, which

fig. 483, where a similar size of post a, to costs according to itsweight. The cost of Fig. 483,

a straining- post is this 34 lb. at 2d . per lb.

C

£0 5 8

Boring in a stone2holes, 34 inches deep, and 2 inches diameter, a whinstone, 5 lb. lead for batting, at 2d.,

0 0 0

£0

9

0 10

7

3

Boulders answer for blocks, if not under 10 or 12 cwt.; and those which have rounded tops are best, inasmuch as a greater depth of earth covers them, to

the benefit of the grass growing over b

them.

5727.Stirlingshire, Mr Binninguses Munro bowie, only of ironAuchin strain ing-posts and iron standards, and considers the others, is placed in the pit, having a them as cheap as wooden ones, even at piece of wood, b, 2 feet long, 6 inches first. His straining -posts are round, 2 broad, and 2 inches thick, nailed to the inches diameter, with stays, and weigh STRAINING-POST, WITH STANDARD AND STAY ABOVE GROUND.

back part of the bottom ; e is a standard

68 lbs.

The standards are made of i }

driven into the ground, at 4 feet distance, inch by } inch bar iron, with 6 holesfor

and the strut dis nailed at one end into the wires, and weigh 10 lb. each, and they a notch near the top of the post at c, and are not squared at the ends, to admit them

at the other end to the standard e, near the being put into a small hole, as is com ground. Both the posts are fixed in the monly done, and which weakens the iron ground before the strut is nailed to them.

where it should be the strongest, but are

kept broad and flat; and the hole is made

5726. Another sort of straining -post is for them, and not they for the holes. Fig. 484.

The straining -posts have a hold in the stem of 6 inches, the standards 4 inches.

After the posts are put into the holes, these are filled with round gravel and

melted sulphur run amongst them , at 2d. per lb., which is better than lead, because it does not shrink as lead does, and become

a

s

loose.

5728. The intermediate posts should be made of larch, and the thinnings of planta tions are suitable for them. For a fence of

34 feet in height, the posts should be 54 feet

long, with a diameter of 3 inches at the smallest end.

In ordinary fencing, they

may be used with the bark on. They A WROUGHT - IRON STRAINING - POST .

should all be charred, which is done in

WIRE FENCES.

595

this manner :-Lay two trees of little always to be rejected. It easily bends, value parallel, about a foot or fourteen and remains so from want of elasticity ; inches apart, upon the ground. Between and it soon oxidises, even when painted. them collect chips and brushwood, and set fire to them . Lay the posts directly across 5734. The following table exhibits the the flame, at the part where the surface of comparative qualities of these wires, as the ground will touch, and turn them from tested by the number of pounds each kind side to side until they are ready. They sustains before breaking, the length being are then smeared with coal-tar as long as

10 feet :

they are warm, that as much as possible of it may be absorbed .

Common Wire. No. 8 broke with 590 lbs.

5729. Intermediate posts have a sufficient hold of the ground at 21 inches deep, and will support the wire sufficiently when

without perceptibly stretching.

844 1269

No. 6 No. 4

Annealed Wire.

set 7 or 8 feet apart, in a straight line ; but

No. 8 broke with 832 605 lb., stretched 41 inches. 3

in curves they should be set closer, and

No. 4

always within the curve, to meet the strain upon the wires. The staples for supporting

No. 6

...

2

1282

Prepared Wire. No. 8 broke with 955 lb., stretched 1 inch.

the wires are partially driven into the

No. 6

posts before these are set into their pits.

No. 4

1380 2163

Charcoal Wire.

5730. The wires used in wire- fencing No. 8 broke with 1274 lb. stretched the same are of different kinds, and bear different 1762 No. 6 as the prepared wire. 2656 No. 4 names. They are named common , prepared , charcoal, and annealed wires. The 5735. These are the Nos. used in wire common is the ordinary wire ofcommerce, Each bundle of wire is made up fences. been and is the kind which has hitherto

}

mostly employed in wire fences. It is of 63 lb., and each bundle runs thus : No. 4 extends from 140 to 150 yards. its name indicates, bears a corresponding No. 6 180 ... 200

made from the coarser sorts of iron, and , as

relation, both as regards quality and price.

5731. Prepared wire is made from a

No. 8

280 ... 300

5736. The cost of the different kinds of

description of iron, is more carefully wire of the same size,from Nos.1 to No. finer manufactured, comes out in longer lengths, 6, is the same. No. 1 to No. 6 of common is consequently superior in quality, and wire costs from 88. 6d. to 10s. 6d. per bears a higher price in the market.

bundle ; the prepared is 28. more, and the charcoal 2s. more than the prepared.

5732. Charcoal wire is the best and

is drawn from charcoal iron , prepared chiefly by wood - charcoal, which is freer from the impurities known to deteriorate the quality of iron, that exist in a greater or less degree in all the fuels used in the manufacture of the other descriptions of

5737. The number of wires employed in a fence depend on its height, but the ordinary height of 3 feet requires 6 wires to make the fence confine sheep andlambs. Fig. 483 shows a portion of a fence having 6 wires, the two upper ones above d being of No. 4, and the four below it, No.6 wires.

that material.

A not uncommon arrangement of the wires

strongest of any of the qualities made. It

is to make the two uppermost No. 4, the 5733. Annealed wire is the common

two undermost No. 6, and the two inter

wire softened in the furnace, and sent out mediate, No. 8. The upper wire is first in that state. It is purchased at the same strained, and then the lowest one, and the

price as the common, and is in some dis- intermediate ones are taken in succession, tricts used in preference, from its being the tension of the upper one being the softer and more easily handled than the guage to the others. other. It is, however, the very worst 5738. As to the cost of wire- fencing, an that can be put into a fence, and ought

-

REALISATION .

596

instance may be given of a fence con- they will ever supersede thorn hedges structed in front of a plantation, of or stone dykes on farms. They afford curved and irregular form , of wooden no shelter to stock, and, appearing in posts and standards, 3} feet high, having significant to restless cattle in the fields, 6 wires, and extending to 665 yards. have been attempted to be leapt over, The two upper wires were of No. 4, and

and the cattle, not marking the height

the four lower of No. 6. The undermost well, have been caught by the upper one was 6 inches from the ground ; the wire in the groins, to their serious injury. second, 11 ; the third, 161; the fourth, They are well adapted to the fencing 23 ; the fifth, 31 , and the uppermost, 42 of plantations until the trees grow suf ficiently high for pasturage under them. The grazings of pastoral farms might be subdivided by them, much to the advan

inches. The cost may be stated thus : 35 straining-posts and angle -posts, at ls. 1

£3

.

9d. ,

17 staysfor ditto, at 472.,

3

06 4 1 0 14

01

tage of both the stock and pasture. They

55 230 small posts, at 4 d ., 0 1400 staples, at ls. per 1oo, 10 bundles No. 4, prepared wire, and 15 bundles No. 6, at 10s. 6d. per bundle, 13 2 6

would form a cheap mutual march - fence,

8 16

3

.

Wages for fitting up,

Equal to 665 yards at 101d. per yard, £ 30 1 57

5739. Three wires above the height of

even with iron posts, on large bill proper ties. They might be used instead of paling for protecting young thorn hedges, until

they grow up to be a fence. 5743. Wire would make a neat fence grass field in front of a farm -house. Movable hur

a turf or stone dyke cost about 7d. per between the plateau and a small lineal yard .*

dles of iron might be conveniently used to 5740. Mr Binning Munro's account of confine a sheep or two to eat up the grass the cost of erecting a wire- fence with iron of a small plat and save the trouble of cutting it. Top -dressing the grass in this posts, per 100 yards, is this: manner is preferable to cutting it with the 5 6 £1 3 bundles of wire, at 8s. 6d .,

1 2 6 scythe and carrying it away, to the im 00 106 O6 poverishment of the soil.

Iron for posts,

Boring and fitting posts,

Straining-posts bored and fitted , Making holes in stones, Other expenses,

0 .

1

6 0

2 0

ON EMBANKING AGAINST RIVULETS. Equal to 11d. per yard, £ 4 10 8

5744. It is not safe to have no fence

The stones being heavy, and the posts betwixt arable land and a rivulet. How strong, no stays are required, and the iron work is put down at cost price and labour, the entire work having been done by country smiths.t

ever peaceful and beautiful such a stream

5741. The durability of wire fences is greater than might be expected. They stood upon the estate of Torrance, in Strathearn, for twelve years before requiring repairs, and thensome of thestan-

behind piled sheets of broken ice, at the up -breaking of a storm . It may, there fore, be of service to you to be made acquainted with the means, in such cir cumstances, of preventing small streams,

may be in summer, the haugh ground on its margin is subject to be overflowed by sudden floodings in winter, when sur charged with melted snows, or dammed

dards were renewed, while the wire would when flooded,from reaching ploughed land. stand for six years to come. On other Where haughs are kept in permanent

estates they have stood nearly ten years pasture, comparatively little injury is without repair. Were the posts made of sustained from floodings, but rather benefit

iron , they might stand a lease without from the deposition of alluvial matter ; repairs. but to be prevented ploughing land, from the chance of the soil being carried 5742. It is not at all probable, that how- off by water, is an inconvenience which

ever durably wire-fences may be erected, no farmer should endure. In one season , * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, March 1850, p. 244-62. + Journal of Agriculture, July 1850, p. 428.

EMBANKMENTS . two acres of wheat on

597

a fine haugh serious character than if their had been

belonging to myself were completely no embankment at all.

The best policy carried off, soil and crop, by the sudden is to give the river sufficient room to flow,

eruption of the small river Vinny, in and also to remove all sudden turns in its Forfarshire, caused by the damming of course, against which the water may breaking up of a severe storm.

the ice at a turn of the rivulet in the The devastation seemed irreparable ; yet in a short time afterwards, in spring, there

strike with force, or be deflected with violence against the opposite bank. Let all the curves of the embankment, whe ther concave or convex to the river,

being abundant depth of alluvial soil in the haugh, the large holes made, and the banks of soil thrown up by the water, were filled up and levelled, and the soil

present surfaces along which the water will flow in unbroken sweeps, although these may not be in conformity to the natural form of its channel. Beside the

plonghed, manured again, and sown with embankment, the form of the channel turnips, as if no such accident had occurred should be made with easy sweeps, by that season . To prevent the recurrence taking away projections of the bank on of similar catastrophes, I made a small one side, and filling up deep bays on the embankment along the whole line of other.

the stream , at every place where it was possible for it to overflow, and wbich com-

5746. The line of the embankment

defended the soil from similar harm should be marked off with pins, and the pletely in future . turf raised along the breadth of ground to

be occupied by the embankment. In 5745. To determine the dimensions of raising the turf, that intended to cover an embankment adapted to the peculi- the face of the embankment next the arities of the locality, you should before stream should be at least 1 foot square,

hand ascertain, from the best evidence unbroken, and tough ; and if the river you can obtain, the highest pointto which bank does not afford turf of this descrip the water of the rivulet had ever reached ; tion, it must be obtained elsewhere , and

and if yourembankment is made 1 foot brought to the spot. The turf to build higher than that point, your land maybe the face-wall may be of anydescription considered as being placed in safety. The possessing tenacity at all. The turf for next consideration is the distance of the the sloping-bank should be cut with site of the embankment from the margin bevelled edges, so that each turf may of the water. In every place where the overlap two lower turfs with two of its bed of the stream is narrow , and where, of edges the one edge, the lowest, over

course, the flooded current will attain the greatest height,the embankment should not only be higher, but farther removed from the stream . Where the bed of the stream, on the other hand, is broad, and there is ample space for a slow though deep current, the embankment may be safely placed nearer the water's edge. But the

lapping down the slope of the bank, the other with the flow of the river. The proper and relative position of the turfs being settled, the embankment should begin to be constructed at the lowest point of the stream , and carried up its course.

5747. I shall suppose that the turf space for the water, and much loss has wall ab, fig. 485, shall be four feet in

safest plan in all cases isto afford ample

been occasioned by contracting the channel height, next the field ; then a breadth of of a river too much by embankments on 6 feet from b to c being the base of the

opposite sides of it, from a mistaken desire slope of the embankment, may give suffi

to reclaim pieces of land from the river cient stability to the structure, and slope bank ; forgetting that, in proportion as the to the face . The line bc, however, will vary river is increased in depth, by confinement with the nature of the ground on the river between embankments on both sides, bank. In a steep part, less slope may

its power to do mischief is greatly in- suffice; and in a sudden and narrow hollow creased as much as even to overcome it may be necessary to fill it up alto the strength of the embankment, when the gether, to make the bank uniformly even ; injury committed will be of a much more and the slope may bave to be built up

REALISATION .

598

with a gentle acclivity, from the very edge of the water.

5748. The first operation in the actual construction of the embankment is build

Fig. 485.

2

m

AN EMBANKMENT AND FACE DRY-STONE DYKE AGAINST A RIVULET.

ing the turf-wall a b , the sods of which are of the spade. It will be seen , from this

laid with the grassy face downwards, on description, that the building of the turf the same principle as breaking band wall a b should be in advance of the laying in masonry . As the wall proceeds, earth of the turf upon the slope c a. is taken from the field in spadefuls to pack

behind it, and to fill up the contents of

5749. In conjunction with the turf

the embankment included within a bc. This earth should be free of stones, and, if disposed to rise in lumps, should be chopped small with the spade before it is

work, the building of the stone-dyke, 1 m, may proceed and finish the whole em bankment at once. The dyke required here is a single-faced one, with suitable

thrown into the space, and then compressed covers and a strong cope ; and it will serve firmly with a wooden beater. After a greatly to strengthen the embankment sufficient quantity of earth has been placed against the pressure of the water. behind the turf wall, the turfs of the slope ca are begun to be laid at the lowest

5750. The cost of making an embank point c, where the first turf d , with the ment 4 feet high in the wall, 6 feet broad

grass-side upmost, is made to grip under in the base, and casting the turf for it, the and abut against the sward e of the river materials being all at hand, is 1s. 5d. per bank, by a notch cut out of the latter with rood of 6 yards. If the turf has to be

the spade — the object of the notch being to brought from a distance, the trouble of its fix the edge of the turf under the sward, carriage devolves upon yourself. The to prevent the water getting hold of it and cost of building the face -dyke 5 quarters carrying it away. Another turf f is made high is 8s. per rood of 30 lineal yards,

to overlap with its loweredge the upper and the quarrying and carriage of the edge of the turf d , just laid ; and the earth stones will each be as much, or rather is brought behind it with a trowel, or with more - perhaps 98. per rood. the hand, to the inclination of the slope In like manner, the turfs g, h, and

5751. An embankment for this purpose i are laid one after the other, till the should be constructed as early in the sea

са .

top of the turf-wall 6 a, is reached by son as possible, to give the turf time to the top of the slope c a, where a thick grow together before the earliest flood in turf k, with the grass upmost, is made to winter. Should the summer prove very cover the top of the wall and of the slope dry, the turf may become brown, when

at the same time. When the turfs are cut water should occasionally be thrown upon square, and of the same size, which they iť with a scoop from the rivulet ; and in should scrupulously be, they are quickly any sort of season it is possible that a turf and evenly laid. The whole of the turfs here and there will die, when it should be

are then beaten firmly down with the back immediately removed and a fresh one sub

FIELD -GATES.

599

Until the turfing inside slope should be one perpendicular to one

stituted in its place.

becomes converted into a thick and tough

of base : for sea-banks, where the waves do not rise higher than 4 feet, the thickness at the top

sward, it should be frequently inspected, maybe 6 feet, the slope ontheland-side 1 } foot and every gap in it plugged up , whether for every 1 foot in height, and onthe sea-side 4 occasioned by accident, such as the feet of feet to 1 foot in height. The slope on the land must vary with the height of the waves, and cattle trespassing from the opposite side, side should be increased to 2 ] base to 1 foot of per or the burrowing of animals, such as rab pendicular height : the slope on the water -side bits or water -rats. By the succeeding sea- should be still more, in proportion to the rise of son the grass will have grown luxuriantly tide : for every increase of a foot in height the upon the slope, when it may be mown early slope must be greater, so that when the waves to 10 feet in height on the water-side, it in summer, to give it time to grow thicker mount should be 10 feet for every foot in height. When the earth with which the embankments are will have become quite firin, and the em- formed is of a gravelly or loose nature, it is re bankment will require nothing more than quisite to carry up in themiddle a wall of clay,

before winter. After this period the earth a general supervision every year.

or some impervious material ; the system of pud dling is now generally adopted, by which the

of the waters is prevented .” In con 5752. Should the embankment cut off percolation sequence of the unprecedented floods in August

the river as a means of watering the stock 1829, the Isla, in Forfarshire, was embanked out in the fields, a pool should be formed at after a long period of annoyance. the lowest part of each field, the bottom 5754. “ Within walls of embankments, pro of which should be dug below the ordi vision should always be made to let off the land nary level of the water in the river ; and waters. The simplest form is a clap

should the subsoil consist of gravel, the

per or valve, hung at the top, and falling over

water will ooze through it from the river

the opening of the pipe or trunk of discharge,

which is kept closed as the tidal water rises and into the pond ; but should it be of im presses against it. Sluices are at other times pervious clay, a conduit formed by an used, which slide up and down in the frame ;

iron pipe should be laid from the water and the ordinary lock-gate either made to re in the river to the pool. In case the volve on a pivot, or to shut like folding -doors against a fixed frame. The passage through the river overflow to a height above the wall consists of either a mass of masonry or a surface of the field in winter, the end of pipe of cast-iron ; for culverts the latter is gene

the pipe next the pool should be plugged up for the winter, after the stock have retired from the field ; and when the field

rally preferred. *

is not in grass, the plug should remain ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF FIELD - GATES .

undisturbed in the pipe. 5753. The sort of embankment I have been

5755. Immediately in connection with

describing is only applicable to small rivulets

enclosures and fences are field - gates ; and their proper construction is an important

which have little water in them in summer ; but in case of considerable rivers, a much more sub stantial embankment will be required , to parry

off their inundating efforts at times. Such an embankment is described, in general terms, in

element in their agreeable use,and in their durability, irrespective of the material of which they may be constructed.

the following words by a competent writer :

“ When rivers which pass through low grounds are to be embanked or confined, that the floods they bring down may not inundate the adjoining lands, care must be taken to make the banks sufficiently strong, as, the force increasing as the embankment is raised -in consequence of the

5756. A field - gate may be described as a rectangular frame, and a simple rect angular frame is the most liable to change

of any connected structure of framework . On the other hand, the triangle is the stream not being able to expand itself in pro portion to the increase of water , the more it is most immutable of any form , and as long allowed to spread, the less occasion is there for as the materials remain, it will never strong barriers. The slope of such embankments

should not be less than twice their height ; and three times are necessary when the rivers they confine are affected by the tide, or subject to the force of the sea - wave ;

the thickness at top

should not be less than 5 or 6 feet, and the

change. To have the inost immutable field -gate it onght, therefore, to bave the triangular form ; but in practice, a gate

in the form of a triangle would be most unserviceable ; though a combination of

鲁

Cresy's Encyclopædia of Civil Engineering, p. 1558.

REALISATION .

600

triangles will produce the requisite figure various causes to be forced up at the head postbd,however well the diagonal is adap for a serviceable gate. ted to prevent the upper rail from being

5757. If we take the most serviceable form for a gate, the rectangular, and apply a bar to it, in the position of a diagonal of the parallelogram , we immediately convert the original rectangle into two triangles, applied to each other by their hypotheneuse. Such a combination gives

depressed, by any undue weight, exerted upon its end at b. The advantages of a tie are the converse of a strut. If a tie, therefore, is placed from c to the opposite angled, crossing the strut ab in its centre and an iron bar makes a perfect tie , the cohesion of which is such thata very small

con sectional area is sufficient for the pur

us the true elements of a properly structed field - gate, every other part being subordinate, and only adapted to the practical purposes of the gate as a defenceor an ornament. Thus, then, the essentials of a field -gate, whether of wood or of iron, are , a rectangular frame, consisting of the

pose—the two antagonistic forces of the wooden strut and the iron tie, acting each in its own sphere, preserve within the whole structure the most perfect equi librium .

heel and head posts, and a top and bot-

5760. A very common form of field

tom rail; which four parts, properly con- gate to be seen in this country is shown nected at the angles, are rendered of an in fig. 487 ; and, applying the principles to unchangeable figure, by the application Fig. 487. of one or more diagonal bars, which in no

case ought to be applied short of the whole length , between any two of the opposite angles. Fig. 486 represents such a com Fig. 486.

a

4

A COMMON FIELD-GATE.

it which we have been considering, we shall find it defective in several most es a

A RECTANGULAR FRAME WITH DIAGONAL STRUT.

sential particulars. It has a strut ab, but instead of extending across the entire

bination, where a c is the heel post, bd the diagonal to c, it stops short at the centre head -post, and cb and a d the top and of the gate at b. The part of the top, bc, bottom rails of the rectangular frame of a is liable to be brokenoff, by any undne field -gate; and ab is the diagonal, which force being exerted upon it at c, when it converts the rectangle acbd into two tri- is converted into a lever, whose fulcrum angles a c b and b a d . is supported at b by the end of the strut a b. It has also a tie b d ; which is not

5758. In field -gates constituted entirely only made of a wooden rail, but it does of wood, the diagonal should invaria- not extend across the rectangle to e, and bly be applied as a strut, to rise from the in no part does it cross the strut a b, so foot of the heel at a , and terminate at the

as to act with it in maintaining an equili

top of the head post at b. Placed brium of forces. The consequence in prac in this position, the diagonal a b supports the swinging end of the gate bd, by its resistance to compression ; which it is well adapted to perform by the

tice is, that this form of gate is very fre quently fractured at the head-post e d , and falls to the ground at d. The wood of a gate such as this costs, in larch, 9s.

area of its cross section being consider- or 10s., and the crook and band, a and able, and hence capable of resisting laterale, 10s. more. flexure.

5761. The principle of trussing has been

5759. But a field - gate is liable from successfully introduced into the wooden

.

FIELD -GATES .

601

field -gate by Sir John Orde of Kilmory in fitted up with wooden spars,the frame costs Argyleshire. Fig. 488 shows the rect- 13s. 6d ., and the posts suited for it 138. 6d. more - together 27s.

Fig. 488.

5762. But now that iron is forged of sizes suitable for the construction of field

gates, the probability is that, ere long, gates of iron will altogether supersede those of wood. Fig. 489 gives a simple form of Fig. 489. c

a THE KILMORY WOODEN TRUSSED FIELD- GATE,

angalar form trussed , so

as to make a

The heel-post ab, the head -post cd, and the upper and

compact firm structure.

lower rails a c and b d , form the rect

at

d

angular frame. The truss consists of 4 AN IRON FIELD - GATE WITH IRON POSTS AND STAY. bars of wood , a c, b e, ce, and e d , each of which abuts into an angle of the rect- an iron field -gate. It consists of six rails, angle, and all meet at the centre of the so arranged as to keep in lambs in the

gate e ; where , each bar being longer than lower part of it. It is both light and the half of a diagonal of the rectangle ad, strong. The fore-style b g is prevented they become elevated in the form of a dropping by the diagonal bar, a b, which,

pavilion roof. A similar truss is formed on being applied with its flatside, is rivet ted to each of the rails ; and the twisting is at f. Through the points & and f, is counteracted by the top and bottom rails, the apexes of the trusses, passes the iron fb and a g being welded flat-ways to the

for the other face of the gate, whose apex

bolt é f, the head of which holds the bars at fore and hind styles with strong solid

f; and a screw and nut upon a plate hold knees. The upright bars, as cd, retain those ate; and when the screw is tightened , each of the rails in its proper place.

The

the trusses are brought nearer together in gate frame is 9 feet long, and 3 feet 9 the centre, and their ends abut with great inches in height. The gate can be hung force against the angles of therectangular upon wooden posts ; but the iron posts, as frame at ba cand d.To resist this pressure, shown in the figure, correspond better with

it is necessary to connect the posts and rails with an iron clamp at each angle of the frame. I believe that this construction of gate will admit the frame neither to bendnor twist, and it will bear any pressure of stock against its sides ; but its peculiar form is attended, in my opinion, with a practical inconvenience. The trusses rising on each side of the gate 9 inches above the plane of the frame, the projecting parts at e and f present an

the appearance of the gate. They are made of malleable iron,and are fastened into large stones with double bats ; and the hanging -post fa is additionally sup ported by astay e. The cost of this gate is 30s., and the posts 20s. more - together,

50s.-which price completes all theneces sary bolts and nuts for fixing them to the

stone blocks, and hanging the gate on the posts. This form of gate would probably be strengthened by the introduction of a

easy and ready hold for the foot of a colt, tie stretching fromf to g across the centre should be disposed to amuse himself about of the diagonal a b . the gate — a recreation which young horses 5763. The same species of iron gate is are apt to indulge in ; and the same pro-

jection will likely graze against the sides made on the tension principle, as seen in of the cattle,and lay hold of the barness of fig. 490, where the other parts than the the horses when passing through the gate. tension are different from those in fig.

I am therefore doubtful of its utility as 489, in not having diagonals as a b . In a common field -gate. The interior of the fig. 490 strong iron tension wires pass frame can be filled up with any light through the cast-iron blocks a and c ,

material, as wire or sparsof wood. When connected together with an iron collar, in

REALISATION .

602

the centre of the frame. These wires are possesses the stiffness of wood to resist fastened by heads to the upper bar and lateral strains. To render the bracing b

Fig. 490.

d

complete, the antagonist diagonal a d is applied as a tie. The upright bars are all riveted to the horizontal ones, as well as

to the diagonals, so that the frame is rendered unchangeable in figure by any

A

force that might be applied to the bead post c d . Any number of interior bars may be added to suit the objects of the

gate. The figure exhibits the arrange

e

AN IRON FIELD -GATE ON THE TENSION PRINCIPLE .

ment adapted to retain lambs, which are

stiles at b and d , and drawn as tight as the smallest - sized stock confined in fields. required at the lower bar and stiles at

e and f, by means of nut and screw . The cost of this gate, without the posts, is

The cost of this gate, without posts, is 25s. The frame is 9 feet long, and 3 feet 9 inches in height.

25s.

5766. I have seen a gate constructed

5764. It will be observed that the cen- by Mr Charles Miles, architect, London, seemsofboth to me iron well and adapted fields. woodfor tral apparatus of this gate is similar in ap- which It consists . Ithas pearance to that of the Kilmory wooden

gate in fig. 488 ; but their mode ofaction a strong cast- iron heel-post, a, fig. 492, is the opposite, though the effects produced are similar. In fig . 490, the wires from a and c act as ties, drawing the posts and

Fig. 492.

rails towards them from the angles, and thereby giving to the entire framing a rigid

structure. In fig. 488, the wooden struts from e and f, as centres, push the posts and rails outwards at the angles against the clamps, thereby also giving the fram ing a rigid structure. IRON HEEL - POST. 5765. Angle iron, so extensively used MILES' WOODEN FIELD-GATE WITH in boiler-making, ship-building, and other which is round, tapering to the top, and is

purposes, has also been used in the con-

batted into a large stone in the gronnd .

struction of field -gates. Fig. 491 repre- At a is a collar of iron embracing and re volving round upon a projecting bead

Fig. 491 .

encircling the post.

To one side of this

collar is attached a socket of considerable depth, and of a form to receive into it the upperrail of the gate, which, when properly seated, the socket prevents from droop

ing at the head d. The under rail style b

d AN ANGLE IRON FIELD - GATE .

is in every respect fitted up in the same manner as the upper one. The head style d is light, and completes the framing. The fill

sents a gate made of it. The external ing-up of the frame is left to choice,either frame is composed of 4 bars of angle iron ; and, to give security to the joinings at the 4 angles ofthe trusses, the ends of the bars are riveted upon cast-iron corner-plates ; those of the heel-post a b being formed of strong projecting pivots, by which the

in iron or wood. In the figure the filling-up consists of light wooden spars, nailed on al ternately upon both sidesof the upper and lower bars. Were a wooden strut intro duced into the frame from the bottom rail to the opposite angle at d , the gate would gate is hinged. The diagonal b c is con- be much strengthened, though the deep trary to the general rule, for it is appar- hold of the sockets makes the rails much

ently a strut; but being of angle iron, it more rigid than might be expected. The

603

FIELD -GATES.

receiving post is made of wood, fitted into

5770. Field-gates ought to be painted

an iron socket, which is batted into a

before being put to use, and they ought to

stone. The cost of this gate without the receive a new coat every year, as with

receiving -post is £1 , 178. 6d., the cost of out it they will rot in a comparatively that post being 7s. 6d.

short period of time.

Iron gates must

of necessity be painted, to keepthem from 5767. When speaking of the repairs of rusting.

Coal tar does not look well

fences in summer, a substantial method of as a paint, and is apt to blacken the sinking a wooden gate- post is given in fig. hands and clothes after exposure for a time 295 , and (3575.) Another method is in to the air. Many compositions are pre

digging a hole 2 feet square, and of the same depth ; and the post being set into it, the pit is filled with rubble masonry in mortar, packed firmly, and grouted round the post. This is, no doubt, a very effectual

sented to the public notice as suitable for painting outside work, but there is nothing better than good white lead and oil. Field- gates painted white have a lively appearance amongst the dark green

mode of fastening gate-posts - a matter not so well attended to on a farm as it ought to be ; and the lime may tend to preserve the wood under ground a longer time than it would be without it ; but it is expensive, and when the post has to be renewed, the

foliage of thorn hedges. 5771. I consider wire an unsuitable

material for the construction of field gates, being too flimsy to bear the constant use of opening and shutting, and the masonry will have to be removed, as no pressure of animals confined in, or going new post can again be fixed so firmly in out of and into fields. the pit, as when both were put in together.

The tops of the posts should always

5772. Large stones set on end form

be semi-spherical, or pyramidal, to pre- appropriate gate-posts, in connection with vent the lodgment of water upon them. stone dykes ; but built pillars for support The portion of the post under ground ing gates are generally very short- lived should be charred, and afterwards well on a farm . saturated with coal-tar, by a similar pro 5773. In the Isle of Man , although its agricul.

cess to that described in ( 5728.)

turists cannot boast more than ourselves of the

perfection of their gates, nature has supplied

5768. There is no better mode of hang- them with an admirable material for gate-posts.

ing a field-gate than by crook -and-band The transition slate with which the island hinges at the upper rail , and a heel-crook abounds is found in one locality , Spanish -head,

at the bottom of the heel- post. Both the of a nature that serves all the purposes ofbeams of wood ; and of this many, indeed band -hinge and the heel-crook ought tobe and most,planks of the gate-posts are formed. In Scotland

double-tailed, to embrace both sides of the

we have now in abundance a material equally

heel- post and of the upper rail.

suitable for the same purpose, in the Caithness

The

upper-crook keeps the gate close to the pavement,which is now applied for gate-pillars, can surpass it. They

upper part of the hanging-post, while the

and for which no material are built into the ground in the same manner as wooden posts, and look very much like a plank

heel crook, resting on and working in a hole made in a hard stone, supports the of wood, but possessing strength, and especially

entire weight of the gate. A gate -post durability, far beyond wood.

The crook -hinges

are either bolts fixed through into them jumper of whatever kind, which has tosupport them,as a by passing or they -bole,through

the entire weight of a gate, requires to be may be put on in the form of a hoop, and secured very securely fixed into the ground ; but with wedges. when the gate is supported by a heel-crook, the post may be of more slender form . 5774. It would be desirable

to have a sub

stance which would preserve wooden gate -posts as many years as a lease generally runs.

A

5769. The simplest mode of fastening processis recommended by Messrs Hutin and field - gates to the head - posts is to hook on

a small linked chain from the stile

Boutigny asfit for such a purpose.

The pro

cess of the decay of wood is thus stated by

head of thegate to a hook in the receiving them :

Woodsaredestroyedbytheincessant

action of moisture and of the oxygen of the post. No animal is able to unloosen this atmosphere, which principles penetrate to the

simple sort of fastening ; but horses soon core of the wood by absorption and infiltration. learn to unfasten almost every other sort. By their presence in the wood, and their con

REALISATION .

604

tinued action on the elementary fibrine, they give they would be certainly injured, by the rise to a kind of slow spontaneous combustion, roots of the hedges finding their way into

called by Liebig eremacausis. This penetration them, and rendering them useless; and on exclusively by of destructive in the naturalchannel wood , andgoes the ends of theelements of the flow of the sap. Hence, if we prevent the destructive action of these causes upon the wood, preserve it indefinitely ; and bywood, hermetiwecan cally closing the abso we ends of the rbing accomplish the end in view . For a considerable

the other objection is, that long runs of drains are to be avoided in every system of farm drainage. It therefore appears that the safety of the drains demand that the land should first be inclosed, and

time we have thought that woods could be best then the drainage of each field should be conducted by itself, and that as many Thisis certainly the most rational mode fields as the figure of the ground admits of of procedure ; and if complete success has not should be made to discharge their waters

preserved by coatings of oily or resinous matters .

been hitherto attained, this is to be attributed rathe r to the impropermethods of applying into the same outlet. Besides securing

them. Our method consists in drying the ends the general safety of the drains, the drain of the woods ; neutralising their power ofabsorb- age of each field is attended with the ad

ing moisture by slightly charring them ;andher- vantage of laying off and executing the metically sealing them by means of a substance

drains in it, in accordance with the pecu which penetrates between the fibres, the incorporat ing itself with them, and preventing destruc- liar nature of its subsoil and the form of tive action of the element in which they are its surface ; whereas none of these neces

placed. The plan of procedure is simple, expe- sary particulars would be sufficiently at ditious, of smallexpense, and capable of being tended to were a general system of draining practised by any one, requiring no particular apparatus nor workmen .

: It is as follows2

adopted.

Plunge the ends of the wood to be preserved in

any carburet of hydrogen, which rapidly peneSet fire to it, and at the moment when the flame is extinguished, plunge the

trates the fibres.

wood into a warm mixture of black pitch, tar, and gum lac. This cement penetrates some way between the fibres, and forms at each end of the

5777. It is possible that the entire sur face of the farm may not require draining a portion of the soil may rest on gravel or other porous material. Where such a case occurs, the expense will be reduced

wood akind ofhermeticalsealing which remains to that extent; and yet if the open subsoil, unchanged. The wood is afterwards tarred all however dry in summer, becomes damp over in the usual way. " in winter, by water coming then from a distance, it will require to be drained as well as the most impervious, though at less cost.

ON THE DRAINING OF LAND.

5775. The buildings having been pro-

5778. It is no difficult matter to deter

vided for, and the surface of the ground laid out in suitable enclosures, and fenced with thorn hedges and stone dykes, and furnished with gates, our attention should now be turned to the improvement of the soil constituting the surface, by the various

mine whether or not land requires drain ing. By the experier.ced eye, the parti cular parts of a field most affected by superfluous water are easily detected : the peculiar state of the crop the field bears at the time indicates them ; such processes of draining, trench and subsoil as want of vigour in growth, a sickly ploughing, and liming. The primary hue of colour, and none of the parts suffi ciently developed, which are all strong indi process of all these is draining. cations of the presence of water - and these

5776. When draining is about to be are more evidently exhibited by grain and conducted on so large a scale as the drying green crops than by the sown grasses ; of a whole farm , it might be deemed and also by old pasture, which bears

best to drain the ground before enclos- coarse, hard, uninviting herbage.

The

ing it, with the view of conducting the soil that indicates such a condition of vege operation on a corresponding scale to the tation always feels unelastic under the foot. extent of surface to be drained .

Two

well-founded objections can be stated 5779. Moist land may also be easily de against theadoption of so general a plan- tected by the inexperienced eye. In March, one is, that it would impose the necessity after being ploughed, when the air is dry of running hedges across drains, by which and keen,large belts of dark - coloured soil

DRAINING .

be observed near the top of acclivities, whilstthe rest of the fieldseemsdrier, of a light-brown colour; or marked with only small dark spots here and there ;

may

605

useful plants, since the excess is usually indicated by the presence, in number and luxuriance , of sub - aquatic plants, as rushes, Juncus acutiflorus and J. effusus,

or only the flat and hollow parts are which only flourish where water is too

covered with dark soil. All these palpable hints of water lurking below cannot be mistaken ; although they may disappear, or are much contracted, in dry, and much

abundant for other kinds of plants. In what manner the injury arises is not apparent; although observation has shown that stagnant water, whether upon or

extended in rainy weather. When they under the surface, does injure the growth disappear on the approach of summer, it of all useful plants. It perhaps prevents, is erroneously concluded that they can do or at least checks, all useful perspiration circulation, and by affecting the chemi no harm to cultivated plants, andthe land

requires no draining ; whereas it is the water remaining in the soil all winterthat injures the crops in summer. Superficial symptoms of drynessmay not indicate the

cal state of substances which largely supply the food of plants. Be the cause of the injury what it may, experience assures us that draining prevents all its bad effects.

true state of the subsoil, for that water The deficiency of crops frequently attri does lurk in it to a very great extent in buted to unskilful husbandry, on appar this country, and will continue so to do, ently dry land, arises, in my opinion, until vents are made for its egress, is an from the baleful influence of concealed established truth-so much so that even stagnant water ; and want of skill is

naturally dry soil around wet becomes here shown, not so much in the misman injured by imbibing the stagnant water agement of the arable culture, as in the from it. The mere wetness , which dis- neglect to remove the concealed moisture ;

appears partially in spring, and alto- for, let the culture be ever so skilfully gether in summer, would not injure grow- conducted, it will never produce so great ing crops, as it would all be absorbed, and good crops from damp as from natur and more, in the wants of active vegeta- ally dry or thoroughly drained land . A tion ; butwhen it remains stagnant, and conviction has been forced upon me by long occupies the pores of the soil and subsoil and extensive observation of the state of the

all winter, itrenders them so very damp, soil over a great portion of thekingdom , that most of the summer's heat is required that the neglect ofdraining is the true cause to evaporate it.

The heat of the summer of most of the bad farming to be seen ; and

is thus engaged in evaporating the mois- that a single farm does notexist, not already

ture, and thereby producing a coldness in thoroughly drained, which would not be the atmosphere, instead of nourishing the much the better for draining. growth of the crops,which it would other 5781. We cannot inquire too minutely wise certainly do . Even after the soil and

subsoil have been drained, the winter rain into the extensive injury sustained by the passing through them takes some of their soil, and its products, by the stagnation of heat, and conveys it away in the drains; rain water upon an impervious subsoil. but though such an abstraction makes Most of the soil of Scotland consists of loam, them somewhat colder, it cannot render of different consistence, resting upon tena them either wet or sour; and having now cious clay, of unequal depth. Where the

free access to the air, they necessarily assume its temperature. In these altered circumstances, the heat of spring and summer have only to push forward the growth of the crops to fill them fully, to make them of fine quality, and to bring them

soil is shallowest, it is injured by the stag nant water remaining constantly beneath it ; and where deepest, it is injured by chilly exhalations arising from the water below. The direct injury done to soil by stag nant water, may be estimated by these

to maturity.

effects.

Manure, whether putrescent or

caustic, imparts no fertility to it ; the 5780. Where the symptoms of wetness plough, the harrow , and even the roller, are obvious to the senses in summer, there cannot pulverise it into fine mould. The

is no doubt of the land requiring draining. Dew grass contains little nourishment for An obvious excess of water may injure live stock ; and in old, the finer sorts dis

606

REALISATION .

appear, and are succeeded by coarse sub- draining may commence soon in autumn, aquatic plants. The stock never receive the grass should be eaten down by that a hearty meal of grass, hay, or straw ,

time. Whether or not more than one set

being always hungry and dissatisfied, and of men are engaged in cutting the drains,

ofconrse in low coudition. Trees acquire they should all be employed in the same a hard bark and stiffened branches, and field together, as loss of time is incurred become a prey to parasitic plants. The in driving materials to different fields ; roads are constantly soft, and apt to be- whereas, with concentrated work, one

come rutted ; whilst ditches and furrows field after another becomes drained and fit

are either plashy, or, like a wrungsponge, for being ploughed : and such a course feels' damp and chilly, and, from early larly, field by field, as the draining pro autumn to late in spring, the hoar-frost ceeds, so as to sacrifice as little of the grass ready to absorb water. The air always permits the eating down of the grass regu

meets the face like a damp cloth. In as possible. These precautions being winter the slightest frost encrusts every taken, and the materials laid down, the furrow with ice - not strong enough to bear operations may be carried on through the

one's weight, but just weak enough to give winter, and as far into spring as to give way to every step - while snow lies long time to plough the lea for theseed. lurking in shady corners and crevices. In summer, musquitoes, green -flies, midges, 5783. When the grass field is not in gnats, and gadflies torment the cattle and tended to be ploughed up — such as a small the ploughinan and his horses, from morn- field in front of the farm - house, or the ing to night. In autumn, the sheep get lawn around a mansion - house — the turf

scalded heads, and are eaten into by the should be neatly re-laid over the drains, maggots of the green and carrion flies, and somewhat above the level of the during hot blinks of sunshine. These are ground, to allow the earth to subside, and no exaggerated statements, but such as I a heavy roller made to press it down. have observed in numerous situations in The turf should be re-laid and rolled in hill, valley, and plain ; and wherever these fresh weather-or even in damp or wet

phenomena occur, to a sensible degree, it weather, provided the grass is dry when may safely be concluded that stagnant rolled. water lurks beneath the soil.

Entertain

ing this opinion, and knowing these facts,

5784. The divisions to be occupied by

it is not surprising that I urge the practice oats after lea should be drained every of draining with much earnestness.

year, until the whole farm is dried ; but a greater extent of land may be drained in

5782. Having no doubt of the places which require draining, the process should be gone about in a systematic way. In a newly made out farm , the power to commence the draining in any given place

any year, if desired — suchas a portion of the fallow -break if bare- fallowed for wheat, or prepared for turnips. Indeed, some farmers prefer draining in summer to any

other season, as the land can then be carte rests with the farmer ; but on a farm in on with freedom ; the days arelong, and a

an ordinary state, fields can only be good day's work done- whilst every other drained at a certain period of the rotation. The most convenient, cleanly, and easy condition for the land to be in for draining is when it is in grass ; and when it is determined to drain land while in grass, the season for opening the drains is thereby

sort of work is in a state of cessation .

sacrifice the entire pasturage of summer, and no stock should be allowed to roam

are members in the rotation.

These are good reasons for summer drain ing : but unless the entire fallow -break is bare -fallowed, so large an extent of fallow land as of lea cannot be drained ; and if 80 large an extent cannot, the operation determined. It would not be prudent to will necessarily occupy more years than No time

will be found in spring to drain the part in a field while being drained — both on of the fallow -break to be occupied by account of injuring themselves by slipping potatoes, and certainly not the whole of into, and of breaking down the edges, or the part intended for turnips ; and it would

fracturing the tiles of the drains - so the be placing the sowing the wheat seed in grass should be consumed ; but, that the autumn in jeopardy to drain after the

DRAINING .

607

potatoes and turnips have been removed thereby counteracting the effects of cold from the ground, besides the slovenliness and wet. I have myself thus cured of poaching the ground after it had been burning land by draining. dunged and prepared to serve a whole rotation.

No advantage would thus be

5787. Should the farm be pretty level,

derived by draining in spring and autumn it matters not at what side the draining instead of in summer. A few short drains commences ; but when it has a decided

in a particularly wet spot may be executed inclination one way, the lowest part should after the potatoes have been lifted in be first drained, to afford the water from

autumn, and the turnips eaten off in spring, the upper parts at all times an outlet ; and but to no further extent. The lea ground, when the inclination occurs in more than

therefore, presents the largest extent of one direction, each plane of inclination

surface for drainage, with the least inter- should have a system of drains for itself, ference with growing crops and prepared commencing at the lowest point of each. ground ; and the space may be enlarged by draining as much of the fallow -break as is devoted to fallow -wheat.

5788. In level ground it may not be

easy to determine the fall by the eye; and as it is of the utmost importance to have a

5785. The fields should be drained in good outfall for the drained water, the fall succession, and the one to commence with should be ascertained by means of a spirit should occupy the lowest part of the farm. level. A spirit-level of the form of fig.

As drains, however, are most conveniently 493 I have found a very convenient in made when fields are in grass, it may happen that the field which comes next in

Fig. 493.

strument for as

certaining d

the

fall in apparently

succession for drainage is not the lowest one in regard to position. Notwithstand

level pieces of ground,and gene

ing, it should be selected for commencing the drainage ; and care should be taken not to let the water from it make the field

rally for taking the falls in fields.

When in use, it

below it wetter.

is placed in a frame of brass, a

5786. It may seem an indiscriminate

projecting of which

advice to recommend the draining of every

field, as it is possible that a part of some of them may not require it ; but it is

part

ope

rates as a spring e

to adjust the in strument by pres

scarcely probable that no part of any field will not require it. Be this as it may, a system of thorough drainage requires every

sure to the level

field to be examined in regard to its state of wetness throughout the year . Land

position d, on the large- headed

which retains water in winter is in a bad

brass

state, though it should be burnt up in summer ; because the burning in fact re

being turned. A

quires draining to cure it. Lands burn

stud in the under

when naturally light,thin, and on retentive subsoil . Being thin, they are easily satu rated with rainin winter; and being light, the water in them is soon evaporated in summer ; and when drought continues, the

part of the brass framing is pushed firmly into a gimlet-hole in the top of the sharp pointed support

screw

C

perpendicular

THE SPIRIT-LEVEL SET FOR OBSERVATION ,

crop is soon burnt up . Now, draining is the bestpreventive against all these effects, ing rod e, which is inserted into the

because drains serve as reservoirs for mois- ground whence the level is desired to be ture to be taken up to the plants by capil- ascertained. Two eye-sights, a and b, lary attraction through the dry soil in surmount the level, a being a small hole summer, thereby counteracting the effects for the eye to look through, and b a large

of drought ; and they act as ducts for the square opening, furnished with two hair Suc

conveyance of superfluous water in winter, wires crossing at the centre.

h a

608

REALISATION .

spirit -level costs 159., and is made by those sides will show which side is lowest,

Adie & Son, Opticians, in Edinburgh. according to the above rule, and bywhich When notin use, the brass frame is placed the general drainage of thefield will have between the eye-sights over the spirit-tube to be effected. A very little practice with to protect it, and amovable cover of wood, not shownin the figure, is placed over the whole. The instrument is 8 inches in length, is in thickness, and 1 inch in

the instrumentwill show its usein every taining the relative heights of distant points of a field, the height of the instru

case of inequality of ground. In ascer

breadth, and so light that it can easily be mentstanding on the rod above the ground carried in the pocket, whilst the rod may is not taken into account ; but on ascer be used as a walking cane. taining the absolute height of the spot upon which the instrument stands, above or be 5789. When it is desired to ascertain low that of any other spot of the field, the

the fall in a flat piece of ground to be height of the instrument is taken into drained, plant the level on its stick about account. the middle of the piece of ground, and after placing the eye- sights of the level in 5790. There should be a decided fall the direction in which the fall is desired from the outlet of the drain , whether

to be ascertained, adjust the instrument, by turning the screw c, until the airbubble d indicates the level position. An assistant holds up a rod at the end of the

effected by natural or artificial means. Mr Cresy states that, in the case of drains, it should not be less than 8 feet in themile,or 1 foot in 220 yards. In large deep rivers the

ground in that direction, and marks the fall is sufficient at 1 foot in the mile, and in point upon the rod signaled by the person using the spirit-level. He then goes with the rod to the end of the ground in the opposite direction ; and on the level being adjusted and the observation taken, he marks that point also upon the rod. Should

small rivers 2 feet. * The open ditch which receives the outlet water should be kept scoured deep enough for a considerable dis tance ; and it is better to deepen it at the lower end than to increase its width, when the ground is level. A frequent charge of

both marks coincide, the two extremes of neglect against farmers, isallowing open

the piece of ground are on a level ; and ditches alniost to fill up before they are should those points be of the same height scoured out; and the ready excuse for the

from the ground as the eye-sights of the neglect is, that scouring ditches to any ex spirit-level are, the entire piece of tent incurs considerable labour and expense;

ground may be regarded as level. What- and no doubt it does, when they are allowed ever difference may be indicated between the points, the subtraction of the less from the greater height gives the fall towards the point of the greatest height. For example, if at the first station the

to fill up . But were ditches scoured as they require it - and every year, if neces sary for the welfare of stock, fences, and drains little expense would be incurred at one time.

It would be better to incur the

mark on the rod measures 3 feet 9 inches expense of converting an open ditch into above the ground, and at the second 4 feet a covered drain at once, than to neglect 8 inches, the difference - namely, 11 inches the scouring of it when necessary. Should -gives 11 inches as the fall in the ground the fall from the outlet towards a river be

from the first to the second station. Take too small, a covered drain should be car a more difficult case .

Suppose that a ried parallel as far down by the side of the

knoll in the middle of a field renders it river as to secure a sufficient fall. Rather

difficult to see the direction of the general incur the expense of carrying the drain fall of the ground, which is flat. Let a under a mill- course, mill -dam , or rivulet,

point be chosen to place the level, from by means of masonry or a cast-iron pipe, which the field on both sides of the knoll than allow back -water to gorge a drain . may be seen at once, and then observe from

5791. In cold countries in winter, such as Russia, Sweden, and Canada, where the the other and the differences between frost sometimes penetrates into the ground

thispoint one or more parts ofthe ground-

first on one side of the knoll and then on

Cresy's Encyclopædia of Ciril Engineering, p. 1557 .

DRAINING.

609

to the depth of 18 inches , a proper outlet carry away the rain -water in the shortest to protect the water from frost, as it issues time, but to convey it away in sufficient

from the drains, constitutes an essential time not to injure the land, and, at the element in every system of drainage. It is same time, not to wash out byits force any evident that shallow drains of 18 or 20

of the valuable ingredients of the soil or subsoil. Where the inclination of the will not answer in those countries; the ground is steeper than is necessary, the

inches, such as are too common in England,

water would freeze inthem and derange best way to retard the motion of the water

their structure, and tiles would be burst is to give the drain a little more breadth ; into pieces. It is equally evident, that if for, the shallower the water, it acquires the water were frozen as it issued at the the less force and velocity, these being outlets of drains, the ice would cause the regulated by the square root of the depth. water to stand back in them in a stag

nant state ; and although the depth of the 5793. Before proceeding farther, it is drains should have placed the water beyond necessary to ascertain the nature of the the reach of frost, the upper part of the subsoil of the field about to be drained ;

ground would draw up the water from below ,by means of the capillary force, and, there becoming frozen, materially injure the surface soil. The only practicable

and in my opinion, no better mode can be adopted of ascertaining that fact than by making exploratory drains from the bottom to the top of the field . Those way I can therefore see of retaining the drains may be just the ordinary ones cut water in a liquid state in such climates, as here and there. When a field presents a uni it issues from the outlet, is to place the form surface, but inclining, and does not ex

outlet at such a depth as to be beyond the ceed 10 acres, let at least two exploratory reach of frost, and to convey the water in drains be cut from the part at the bottom a deep and long covered drain .

Much

where the main drain should be placed, to

foresight is thus required, and much ex- the top. In larger fields one such explora pense must be incurred in making drains tory drainfor every 5 acres may perhaps in countries where frost penetrates the suffice. Whatever may be the nature of ground to a great depth.

the subsoil, let them be made at once 3 feet deep without hesitation , if the fall at 5792. Besides the fall for the outlet, the the lowest part will allow it ; and as you fall in the field to be drained requires con- proceed np the rise of the ground, let them sideration. In very level groundthe na- be increased to 4 feet ; and let portions of tural fall may not be sufficient to carry each drain be cut from 1 foot to 2 feet

away the water quick enough ;and in such deeper than the above specified depths. a situation no wayexists of increasing the Where small undulations exist, the drains fall but by artificial means — that is, by should pass right through both the flat and

causing a greater fall than on the surface, rising ground. In very flat ground, no by cutting thedrains deeper attheir lower considerable increase of depth is prac ends than at the upper. Whatever depth ticable, farther than to preserve the fall,

of drain , therefore, should be determined The extensive exposure of the substrata on for the whole field, the lower parts of afforded by such exploratory drains, the drains should be cut deeper and the supply satisfactory data for fixing the upper shallower than the determined proper depth of the drains of the field.

depth ; and the fall should be brought up Should the subsoil be pretty similar in to 1 foot in 220 yards, if practicable. In all the experimental drains, it may level ground the force of the water should reasonably be concluded that it is so be increased by keeping it in narrower over the whole field ; but should it prove channels ; and its depth will thereby in- otherwise in different parts,then the nature crease as it flows nearer to the outlet of of thedifference should be strictly observed. its own drain, wherever that is. Level A correct judgment, however, of the true ground will absorb more of the rain than nature of the subsoils, cannot be formed

inclined, along which, part of the rain immediately on the opening of the drains ; always flowsaway above ground, and never for time must be allowed the water from enters the drains. The object in pro- the adjoining ground to find its way into

ducing a fall, however, should not be to them , and several days may elapse 2ere the 0 VOL. II .

610

REALISATION .

water will make its appearance in some of made you acquainted with the nature of them. When it is believed the drains the subsoil, determined the depth of the have received as much water as they can drains, and fixed the distances between in fair weather, the part which supplies the them at the different parts of the field,, you most should be observed , whether the wa- are provided with correct data to make ter comes into the drain from a line nearer a bargain with a contractor to execute the

its top or bottom . Should rain fall during drains. As their cutting should be prose the experiment, let its effects be observed. cuted with industry, it is best and most

It is better that parts of the sides of the satisfactory to contract with an experi drains fall in during the dry or the wet enced spadesman, at so much per rood of weather, as the new fractured ground 6 yards. The rates of cutting drains are

affords indications of the natural struc- generally well understood in every locality. ture of the subsoil better than the newly cut ground by the spade. Whatever may be the facts observed, it should be borne in mind that the durability of the drains will depend upon their standing on impervious matter, as it pre-

In making a contract, only stout, active, and skilful men should be dealt with ; for, though men able to do a hard day's work may be found anywhere, if nevertheless deficient in skill and experience, incon veniences will arise, and dissatisfaction be

vents the escape of the water by any experienced. other channel than the duct ; and such a

Unskilled men willingly

engage at low rates ; but it is wisdom to

subsoil should therefore be sought for in give such rates to skilful men as will en the experiment. To make the drain more able them to earn good wages ; and the

secure still, it should stand upon the advantages of good work, especially in impervious matter below the level of the draining, can never be over-estimated.

stratum or strata which supply the water. Wherever the drains indicate the depth

that draws the most water , it should be adopted for the least depth of the drains to be made on the ground on each side of the particular experimental drain ; and should different experimental drains indicate a difference of depth by the same indication,

5795. Another point, as essential as engaging with a good contractor, is to secure a careful superintendent to mea sure the sizes of thedrains, and to under

take the laying of the tiles. No man's wages are better bestowed for the efficacy of draining than to a skilful superinten

the difference should be adopted for the dent. Under such a person the following depth in that particular part of the field . state of things can never occur. In bad Thus the same field may have drains of weather in winter, great extents of drains different depths, but all its parts will be are cut and left open for an indefinite

drained at depths which have indicated length of time, without les in them, in the greatest effects in each of their loca- theintervals of which rain and snow fall, lities. In no case, however, should the and bring down parts of the sides into drain be made less than 3 feet in depth, unless it be found impossible to do so for want of a level ; and even means of obtaining that depth should not easily be relinquished. That depth I will show afterwards to be necessary to secure the safety of the drain , under a system of deep

the bottom . The spade -work is often roughly and unevenly executed, whereas it should be neatly and correctly done in every size ofdrain. Drains are made to pass round by the side of comparatively small boulder stones, instead of these being removed , and the drains carried forward

ploughing. The experimental drains are in a straight line. The most clayey or converted into drains themselves, in com- sandy part of the earth from the bottom

mon with the other drains near them , of the drain is often placed upon its very though they will require some repairs before being filled with tiles. Thus knowing the depths of the drains and the nature of the subsoil, data are furnished for also determining the distance between the

edge, part of which slips down with rain into the drain. The tiles are frequently laid down in a careless manner, instead of being placed as near as possible to the hand of the person who lays them, on the opposite drains. side of the drain upon which the earth has been thrown. Soles are frequentlynot used. 5794. The exploratory drains having Pipe -tiles are frequently laid in without

DRAINING .

611

regard to their continuous contact or to their own feelings, when on day's

straightness in line. And, to reach the wages, irrespective of the ultimate conse climax of negligence in the whole pro- quences to the work, about which they cess, a long time frequently elapses, in may entertain no apprehensions at all.

the wettest weather, before the earth is They have no desire to do harm ; but as returned again above the tiles.

Every they cannot, and do not think of antici one of these negligent practices should pating the weather beyond the present

be scrupulously avoided ; and as they day, they naturally work to their own entirely originate in neglecting to exer- convenience. It is thus worse than folly, cise a strict superintendence over the on the part of the farmer, to neglect the labourers who have undertaken the work, constant superintendence of so permanent either on day's wages or by the piece, the an operation as draining. The time of a

farmer himself is most blamable for them. grieve or steward is too frequently consi

Negligence of superintendence can be his dered thrown away when superintending blame alone,and no one's else ; for consider what the workmen will naturally do in promoting their own interest in the undertaking. When the same set of men cut the

drainers. The grieve's time may be fully occupied elsewhere, and but little fear need be entertained of men on piece-work working less than will secure them good

drains and lay the tiles, whichis too much wages ; but it is not the apprehensionof a the practice, a damp state of weather is small quantity of work being done any more favourable for cutting the solid ground day that causes uneasiness to the drainer - it is its quality and efficiency - and on cutting drains,day after day, as if they to secure these, superintendence over the had nothing else to do ; thereby exposing workmen is absolutely requisite. Should a large extent of drain to the weather, the grieve have no leisure, another com which, on continuing wet, brings down petent person should be appointed to than laying the tiles, and therefore they go

much of its sides. Should the rain still superintend , and by his laying the tiles continue, the workmen can neither bottom a saving will be effected; whilst, his being

out the drain nor lay the tiles, and the constantly on the spot attending to his matter becomes daily worse. In a season own duties, the workmen will bedirected when rain may be expected to fall, had a by him to cut the drains and return the

superintendent caused the tiles to be earth whenever the state of each is best laid , or had laid them himself, the drain adapted for the work ; and besides, when would have been filled before it would have they are not bound to return the whole become too wet towork in. Then, should earth into the drain , the superintendent a sudden frost follow , it moulders down intimates to the steward in good time to still more of the earth from both sides, send the ploughs to do it. With proper

which, absorbing the rain or snow that superintendence, the work will be con follows, is converted into sludge that can- ducted with regularity, and executed in the not be taken out until it becomes firm . fittest time, and therefore in the most satis On the other hand, fine dry weather oc- factory manner.

curs, and induces the men to lay the tiles ; and they continue laying them, as if cer5796. Matters having thus far been tain the dry weather will continue until properly arranged, the commencement in

they are ready to return the earth into the actual operations is to fix the position of drain. When they want to return the the main drain to convey away the water earth, it is found too wet one day and too brought by the other drains, from the inost hard with frost another, to put into the distant parts of the field. As main drains drain ; and so the laid tiles lie exposed to are only intended to lead away water

whatever change of weather may happen to come.

from other drains, they should occupy

Every one of these bad effects the lowest part ofthe field, whether along

would be avoided, were a strict superin- the bottom , the sides , or the middle. If tendence exercised over the work and the workmen . When left to their own will,

the field is so flat as to have very little fall, the water is directed towards the

they naturally execute the part of the work main drain by making it deeper than the most conducive to their own interest when

general depth of the other drains, and as

working by the piece, and most pleasant deep as the fall of the outlet will allow ,

612

REALISATION .

If the field has a uniform declivity one others— who prefer having the mains and way, one main drain along the bottom small drains on the same level. But the

will take away all the water, provided greater depth of the main drain has the the drains are not too long. If it has an advantage of keeping the outfalls of the

undulated surface, every bollow of any small drains always clear of any sedi extent, and every deep hollow of however ment that might otherwise lodge in them, limited extent, should be furnished with a and of back -water from the main drain main drain. No main drain should be itself. It is not necessary that the water

placed nearer than 5 yards to any tree in from the small drains should fall suddenly the field that may possibly push its roots the six inches into the main, for if the into it. The ditch of a hedge should not material of the subsoil is loose, that fall

be converted into a main drain, though the roots of the hedge should lie in the opposite direction, and the ditch merely receive surface water from the field. The main drain should be cut out of the solid ground, and not be nearer than 3 yards to the ditch lip, or 5 yards to the hedge ; and the ditch, now no longer required to

may endanger the seat of the main tiles. All that is requisite is, that the main should receive the water with an increased velo city by a greater inclination of the last few tiles in the small drains ; and the velocity should be the smaller the looser the mate rials the subsoil is composed of.

collect surface water, should be converted

5798. Should it so happen, from the

into a small drain, and filled up with earth nature of the ground, that the fall in a from the head -ridge. main drain is too rapid for the safetyof thematerials constructing it, it should be

5797. As main drains occupy the lowest divided into lengths, which should each parts of fields, the fall along theın cannot have a proper fall, and join the next by an generally be so great as in other parts of inclined plane. The inclined planes should the field ; and conveying more water, they be furnished with ducts built of brick or

do not require so great a fall as smaller stone, plain, or like steps of stairs. Fig. drains. In the case of a level field, the 494 illustrates this contrivance, where a b

most depend on cutting them is supposed to represent the entire rapid deeper at the outlet than at the farthest fall on a main drain at 1 in 10, which end; but whenever the fall is so small, the is more than it should bave to convey lower part of the drain should rather be a considerable quantity of water. To fall may

deepened than the duct made considerably lessen this fall, let the drain be cut in wider. Should the fall vary in the course the form represented by the devious

of the drain, the least rapid parts should line, c h, which consists of, first, a nearly be made the narrowest. The main drain, level part at the highest end, c d ; then on the same level , should be rather an inclined plane, d e ; again a nearly larger at the lower than at the upper end, level part, e f ; again an inclined plane, f having more water to convey ; but should g ; and lastly, of a less level part, 9 h, to there be naturally a greater fall at the allow the water to flow rapidly away lower end , the drain should still be the outlet. The inclined parts may be larger, to retard the force of the water. filled in in various ways - one wiib tiles, I would recommend an increase of fall

as from k to l, where they must be so

along the last few yards towards the outlet, to expedite the egress of the water, and promote an accelerated speed along the whole length of the drain ,unless the

broken at the end as to fit those on the level at k and l. In using open tiles in such an inclination, it is absolutely neces sary to protect the ground with soles,

which should be prevented from sliding away at the lowest end l by resting against tion is required. With the view of ac- a strong stone imbedded there in the

fall is rapid enough throughout, and then

no increase of acceleration at the termina-

celerating the speed of the water from the ground. The best plan is to line such an

other drains, main drains, on level ground, inclined plane with troughs of hewn stone, where practicable, should be made 6 especially if the subsoil is composed of inches deeper than the small ones which

rather loose materials.

Conduits of dry

This is objected to by stones would be stronger than tiles, and some drainers - Mr Parkes amongst cheaper than hewn stones. Or the incline fall into them.

613

DRAINING

may be protected with brick, built dry, wise on bed, to form one step as at 0 ; one and laid like tile-soles, or in a series of upon each end of these to form the upright steps, by setting two side by side length- sides, as at r ; and one lengthwise, across Fig. 494.

c

d

my

m

n

t

DIFFERENT FORMS OF DUCTS FOR THE INCLINED PLANES OF DRAINS .

upon the two upright ones, for the cover, easy descent towards the main drain into as at p . Tiles upon the level part easily which they discharge theirwaters. They connect themselves with bricks, as at n are usually placed in parallel lines up the and t. The step form is preferable to the inclination of the ground ; not that all in

smooth in breaking the fall and impeding the same field shall be parallel to one the velocity of water, especially towards another, but only those in the same plane, the lower part of a drain, where it might into whatever number ofplanes the surface acquire too much momentum . It would of the field may be subdivided. In a field be imprudent to build these steps with of one plane, whether nearly level or with a lime mortar, which is easily washed away, descent, they should all be parallel to one and wonld cause masonry with stones to another, and terminate in the same main

be less firmly compacted than in dry build- drain. Small drains should run nearly at ing with pinnings of small stones. It is right angles to the main drains. Except

seldom that such structures are required ing in confined hollows, having steep in drains, but they may be so in certain ascents on both sides, the drains should cases.

run parallel with the ridges which corres

pond with the inclination of the ground. 5799. The position of the main drains Drains should be carried continuously

being determined, the next thing is to through each plane of a field, irrespective settle that of the small drains, which of the wet or dry appearances of the sur should be placed and constructed with an face, uniform and complete dryness being

614

REALISATION .

the object aimed at by draining. Portions of land, seemingly dry at one time, may be wet at another; and even when always apparently dry on the surface, may be in a state of injurious wetness below from

ploughing and trenching. If the reten tive subsoil parts with its water uniforınly down its whole depth of 6 feet, then that depth should be adopted ; but when all the water is afforded at 4 feet, it is inex stagnant water. pedient to go deeper, because it will then be out of danger from the work on the 5800. Having had the data furnished surface. If, on the other hand, a retentive

by the experimental drains, let us see how subsoil gives out its water freely, by some these facts should guide us in determining sand-vein, at 3 feet, and continues reten the depth we should make the drains. If tive at a much lower depth, (5 feet,) it it is found that a depth of 3 feet affords as seems inexpedient to go deeper than the much water as 4, or more, it is unneces- 3 feet, except 6 inches more to afford a

sary to incur the expense ofcutting the proper trough for the tile. In such a case,

additional foot, unless it afford some other if very porons materials are found in advantage; and so all the parts of the quantity at the 5 feet, it would be proper, field containing the same kind of subsoil while keeping the drain at 3 feet, to make

should have the drains cut of the same cuts here and there through the bottom of depth. If a porous and tenacious part of each drain into the porousmaterialbelow . the subsoil afford the same results, the

drains should be cut of the same depth in both.

5801. Besides the effects on the interior

On the other hand, if 4 feet evi- of the drains, the changes upon the surface

dently afford more water from the same should be simultaneously observed. If 4 kind of subsoil than 3, a 4 -feet drain should

feet evidently dries a larger surface over

be preferred without hesitation, because the same sort of subsoil than 3 feet, while

we donot know but that the larger quan- the quantity of water in both is equal, the tity of water is required to be extracted from the land to dry it thoroughly, while the extraction of the smaller quantity might effect very little good. On comparing the flow from porous and retentive subsoils, if it is found that 3 feet and less of the porous afford more water than 4 feet of the retentive, whatever less depth

4 - feet depth should be preferred without hesitation. Attention, under this parti cular, should be directed to the places where the drains were cut deepest ; and if

they have produced greater effects upon the surface, while the supply of water is

the same,the greater depth should be pre ferred . We come to the same conclusion we did before, (5793,) that wherever all

than 3 feet the drain in the porous subsoil may be required, the 4 - feet" drain in the varieties of subsoils are found, the drains tenacious one should be made still deeper, should be cut of the depth specified for the until it be seen whether or not the quantity particular variety, even within the same

of the water be increased ; and if not so

field.

by 1 or 2 feet of additional depth, it

is inexpedient to go beyond the 4 feet.

5802. The experimental method just

On comparing porous and retentive sub- expounded is not usually adopted ; the soils, the pointfrom which the water issues common practice being, on knowing the is an important element in determining subsoil of the field to be retentive, to cut the depth of drains. If it is found that the drains of a depth predetermined by the porous subsoil affords all its water at the cost willing to be expended on the not more than 24 feet, where it rests upon operation. Such an empirical mode of

retentive matter, it is unnecessary to take proceeding is too common in all agricul it deeper, as far as the supply of water is tural operations, whereas the considerate concerned, than will just afford a trough plan I have recommended is founded on for the tile in the retentive matter, and principle – on observation of facts — and which, being 6 inches more, makes the incurs no unnecessary expense, inasmuch entire depth 36 inches ; so that, although as the experimental drains afterwards serve the whole water of a drain is supplied at the purpose of small drains; and, although 2 feet, its depth should still be carried to they should cost more than ordinary 3 feet, for the drain to be completely out drains of the same length, the information

of the way of working the land by deep they have afforded much more than com

DRAINING .

615

pensates for the additional expense. It water from a distance through a porous may happen that the experimental results coincide with those of the empirical, still it is more satisfactory to have reason and principle to guide us, than parsimony and

subsoil, need not be placed as close where it comes a short distance through retentive subsoil ; and as subsoils vary in the same field, so drains may be

caprice.

placed at different distances within the same field . It is a common practice to

5803. The adoption of the most proper occupy the open furrow with a drain , per depth of drain is a more important step in haps because its hollow saves a little draining than many farmers, to judge from cutting, though this is a trifle compared

their practice, seem aware of. By grudg- to the advantage of selecting the best ing tocut half a foot, perhaps only 3 inches parts of the ground for drains ; but, more deeper, the largest amount of benefit may probably, it is selected because surface be unattained ; for it is perfectly true water runs most quickly to the open fur what the late Mr Stephens said , -that row. The open furrow , however, has no

“ land may be filled full of small drains, greater claim for a drain than any other

so that the surface will appear to be dry ; part of a ridge — especially as most of the but the land thus attempted to be drained will never produce a crop, either in quality or quantity, equal to land that has been perfectly drained,”" * -a result which can only be attained by sinking the drains to the depths best snited to the nature of the subsoil ; and its nature can only be best ascertained by direct experiment.

water received by the drain is from the subsoil , and not directly from the surface ;

inasmuch as the general surface of a field presents a much greater area than

that part of it above drains. The dis tance at which 4 -feet drains will not dry a retentive subsoil is not left to con

jecture, but has been partially deter mined by experiment. Conceiving that

5804. The experimental investigations a drain in every furrow , in a tilly subsoil, with the drains have brought us to the would be attended with more expense very important inquiry of the most proper than the anticipated return, a farmer in distance to be left between the drains. It East Lothian put a drain in every fourlh

is evident that this fact can only be deter- furrow ; and that they might collect water mined after the depths of the drains have from that distance, he caused them to be

been fixed upon, as drains which collect cut 4 feet deep. Fig. 495 will best illus Fig. 495. 1 1 1

b

d

!

THE BAD EFFECTS OF TOO GRKAT A DISTANCE BETWIXT DRAINS.

trate the results, where the black lines d, being nearest a , should be more dried in

a a are the drains between every fourth the same timethan the two farther off ones, furrow , and the dotted lines the interme-

c and e, and the resultagreed with the ex

diate undrained furrows, by which it is pectation. The two ridges, b and d , nearest

evident that each drain a has to dry two a, produced 9 bushels of corn more per ridges on each side, b and c on the one acre than the two more distant ridges, c hand, and d and é on the other. On and e, which is a great difference of pro

looking atthe arrangement of these ridges, duce from adjoining ridges under the we would expect that the two ridges, b and same treatment and crop ; and yet it does Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. iii ., p. 290.

REALISATION .

616

not show the entire advantage which may ping, Hudlow, in Kent, has dried soil of be obtained by thorough drained over un- various quality, of clay, gravel, and sandy drained land, because possibly the drain, loam, with 4 -feet drains at 66 feet apart. a had also partially drained the distant And even with stone drains, of from only

ridges c and e. And such being possible, 2 to 3feet at30 feet apart, Mr Bartlett, together with the circumstance that none Butleigh, in Somersetshire, has drained

of the ridges having a drain on each side, clay and stiff loamfor the upper soil with and all incumbent on tilly subsoil, they stones in the subsoil.t Mr Mechi renders

could not have been thoroughly drained "; strong clay land dry with drains 5 -feet and the absolute or comparative drying belowrising ground,and averaging nearly power of 4 -feet drains was thus left unas- 4 feet all over the field, at 40 feet distance; certained by this experiment.* It may be while lighter and more porous soils he

conceived, however, that had the draius drains with 6 and 7 -feet deep drains, at been put into every other instead ofevery fourth furrow , the produce of all the ridges would have been alike, inasmuch as every one would have been placed in

intervals varying from 70 to 90 feet.I A farmer in the east of Fife, within the last twenty years, sunk a shaft in one of his

fields with a view to working coal ; but

the same position in regard to a drain ; after descending about 40 feet he was sonable, obliged to relinquish his intention, on ac and the expectation seems so reason

that the practice of many farmers, from count of the shaftbeing overpowered with water. The shaft was filled up, and a But such an expectation does not contem- conduited drain , of about 5 feet deep, plate the greatest benefit possible derivable formed from it to the sea -side, discharges from thorough drainage ; for although the a very large quantity of water to this day. ridges did produce alike with a drain on After filling up the shaft, he intended to one side only, the product would be no have drained the field, which consists of 16 criterion of wbat it might be with a drain acres of porous soil resting on clay and on both sides. This experiment, then, rock , butsoon discovered that the shaft had what I can observe, is founded upon it.

onlya 4 demonstrates that a deepadrain for - foot one cannot be termed shallow one-will collect water in a retentive sub-

effectuallydried the entirethat field.if one It isoutlet quite reasonable to suppose only is made of a sufficient size to run off

soil more certainly across one than two the confined water under the surface, more ridges ; and the value of the demonstra- outlets are unnecessary . A shaft for a

tion consists in cautioning others against coal-pit cannot be called a drain, but it imitating the practice of those who indi- operates as a reservoir for collectingwater, cate their belief that a drain cannot have from which the water may be discharged too much to do, by placing them at very by a small drain. wide intervals.

5805. Still, instances might be adduced from practice, where drains of moderate depth , though placed at considerable distance, havedried land. Ridges vary from

5806. On the other hand, instances may be adduced of drains, placed at wide intervals, and of 4 feet deep at least, having failed to drain strong clays. Mr W. Bullock Webster produces several

12 to 18 feet in breadth ; and asin the case instances, in different parts of England, related above, the distance between the drains might be from 48 to 72 feet, which we are warranted inregarding as too far asunder. Yet MrThomas Hammond, near Penhurst, in Kent, has dried uniform clay land, with drains from 3 to 4 feet

where drains of from 30 to 36 inches deep, and from 18 to 22 feet apart, bave rendered strong clay land dry, when 4 feet drains at 40 feet apart had failed to do so.Ş The late Mr Wilkie of Ormiston Hill, in West-Lothian, put in drains 4

deep, at 40 feet apart ; and clay land con- feet deep,and from 30 to 36 feet asunder, taining some stones, he has dried with which failed to dry a clay subsoil, and 4 - feet drains at 50 feet apart. Mr Kep- which his son, the present proprietor, has * Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. viii. p. 539. + Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. vi. p. 126. I Mechi's Experience in Drainage, p. v . - Preface.

§ Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. ix. p. 237-48.

1

DRAINING .

617

succeeded in drying with 30 -inch deep retained in it by strong affinity, and which drains between the deeper ones. must first be extracted and prevented re maining, before any effect can be obtained 5807. The conclusion to be drawn from from either a deep or a shallow drain. It

all these instances is, not that theexperi- seems probable that the deeper drain affords ment of wide draining in East Lothian the more easy means of removing from

was ill conducted, but that subsoils of clay its natural moisture by offering it a greater depth for simple gravity to depths and at various distances. It is act upon. Water cannot be retained in therefore unwise in a farmer to fix the porous subsoils, because of the free action distance and depth of drains before he of gravity, but in clay a certain depth of

various qualities require drains of various

has ascertained the nature of the subsoil, drain seems requisite to allow gravity to

and he can only ascertain its nature by act sensibly upon the water; and it is direct experiment and observation, some- that power alone which puts it in motion

what in the manner recommended by the through clay towards thedrain : and per test of exploratory drains ( 5793.)

haps a certain depth of drain is also re quisite to cause gravity to act so power

5808. My opinion is, that in a partially fully as to overcome the natural affinity impervious subsoil, such as is most com- of clay for water.

With our present

mon in Scotland, 3 -feet drains cannot be experience, however, I do not see the expected to dry more than 15 or 16 feet utility of cutting drains as deep as 6 or 8 ridges, but that 4 -feet ones will dry as feet, merely to extend the space between

effectually a distance not exceeding 24 the drains, when perhaps the same effect feet. In porous subsoils, 3 - feet drainsmay might be obtained by 3 or even 4 feet drains dry 20 feet spaces with as great if not at narrower intervals, unless very deep greater effect than the above. In deep drains at very wide intervals can be

hazel loam resting on impervious sub- executed with more economy.

Expe

soil-a not uncommon combination of soil rience has yet much to elicit in regard to and subsoil in the turnip districts of Scot- the distances that should be left between land — 4 - feet drains will dry, I have no sub -drains of different depths in different

doubt, a distance of 30 feet. I would feel soils to effect the best results. reluctance to recommend drains at more

than 30 feet distance, unless the arrange-

5809. The cutting of the drains of a

ment of the subsoil was peculiar, such as field commences with that of the principal

a porous substance of considerable depth, main drain, which occupies the lowest side subdivided by beds of clay, throughthe of the field, and the lowest end of the whole of which 4 or 5 feet drains, at main drain constitutes the outlet from

double that distance, might dry the soil which the entire drainage of the field of a large field . It seems to mesomewhat flows, when all the water from it is led inconsistent in those who believe that water ought not to enter by the top of a drain, and that strong clay on being dried becomes fissured, to recommend shallow

off in one direction. The position of the principal main drain, I bave said, is not nearer than 3 yards to the ditch lip, or 5

yards to the fence ( 5796.)

Its breadth

drains of 24 inches in it, since it is evi- is set off with the garden line (5604) by

dent that the greater the depth the clay the first workman, whilst his two assist is dried , the larger, more numerous, and ants dig and shovel out the surface mould more connected will the fissures be in it ; upon the side of the drain nearest the

and the more readily will the water be fence, with the common spade fig. 237 and brought nearer to them by the duct. Per- pointed shovel, fig. 453. haps the plastic clays of England do not fissure, in which case deep drains do not

5810. Whilst the mould is thus thrown

seem to be required in so uniform a texture. out, the carts should lay down the tiles

In draining clay, it is not merely the rain along the open side next the field ; or on that falls upon it that has to be removed, the same place before the drain is begun but the water also which is naturally to be cut, after the line of its direction has * North British Agriculturist, November 14, 1850, p. 725.

618

REALISATION .

been marked off. To be certain that the re-

follows with the pointed shovel, fig. 453,

quisite number oftiles are laiddown, they shovelling out the loose earth and trim should be placed end to end along the whole line ; and in the case of tile and sole, a sole should be placed against the side of every tile nearest the drain : broken

ming the sides of the Fig. 496 .

drain .

It may happen

that the subsoil requires no picking, in which case the spade, fig. 496,

soles will do well enough. These preli minary arrangements should be carefully

and pointed shovel are

attended to, or much inconvenience nay

used at once ; but this

be occasioned in carrying tiles to the person who lays them . The ploughman

rarely is the case with

who carries them in the cart should be

land .

instructed in all these particulars,else some mistake may occur, as few ploughmen long reflect on the consequences of what

likely require another

the subsoils of Scot It will more

picking in the lower spit, when the first man takes either the

they are doing, and only strive to have their own part of a work as soon off their

foot or hand pick, and

hands as possible . If, by his inadvertence,

loosens

more or fewer tiles are laid down than

preparation for the principal man throw

the earth in

required, part of the time of a yoking of a laying THE NARROW DRAIN ing out the loosened lost inyoking been have of will part horsesand pair themofdown, another soil with the same nar SPADE. afterwards lost in leading away the un row spade, fig. 496, used ones to another place ; while the tiles, with which he trims the sides of the drain, on being so often handled, run the risk of and finishes the bottom neatly. being broken .

5813. In very dry weather drains are

5811. Should the drain be very wet, dng with great labour, and prove an un

owing to a great fall of rain, or the cut profitable speculation to the contractors. drawing much water from the porosity of In that state of ground, it would be better the subsoil, it is better to leave off the digging at this stage of the work, and

proceed to set off another length of line at the top ; and should those circumstances continue, it is expedient to remove the mould from the whole length of the main drain in band, to allow the water time to

Fig. 497.

for the drains them selves to defer cut

ting them until a shower falls.

It is

right to cut the drain a little deeper at

every suddenthough

run off, and the ground below to dry. This precaution is more necessary in digging narrow than deep drains, where no room can be found for planks to support the falling sides. When the ground becomes dry and firm , the digging may proceed to

small rise, and a little

the bottom at once.

face .

5812. Afterthe mould hasbeen removed , the subsoil is loosened by one man, either

5814. Should the drain have stood for

shallower

where &

trifling hollow oC

curs, than exactly to follow the slight un dulations of the sur

some days new cut, with the foot-pick , fig. 247, or the hand immediately before pick, fig. 452 ,according asthe ground is the man proceeds to stony or otherwise, the foot- pick being lay the sole-tiles, the best adapted for displacing stones. The wet sludgy matter at pick -loosened earth is removed by a se the bottom should cond man working backwards, with the be removed with the narrow spade, fig. 496, having a mouth 6 draw - earth drain inches wide, following up the picker, and DRAW DRAIN - SCOOP. scoop, fig. 497 ; and putting asidethe earth upon the formerly cast out mould . The principal workman dry earth and small stones with a narrow

DRAINING .

619

draw -hoe, fig. 498, having a 2 -feet helve, suit itself in the drain to the height of the Fig. 498.

others, with cross-heads 9 inches long. One staff is beld per Fig. 500. pendicularly on the ground at the upper end of the drain ,

THE NARROW DRAW - HOE FOR DRAINS,

and another simi

and mouth, 3 inches in width : costing 1s.

larly at the lower end ; and the third , is adjusted, gradually moved

5815. For convenience and clean work ,

the points where the small drains are

from one end of the drain to the

to enter the main drain should be marked

off, that when the cutting proceeds the ends of the small ones may be

other, the superin tendentplacing him

cut at the same time to the depth they are intended to be.

The main drain

self at one end of the drain , and,

should be 6 inches deeper than the small ones, if the fall of the outlet permit ; if not, the 6 inches must be obtained as near

bringing bis eye on

as possible at the ends of the small drains,

per edges of the

where they enter the main drain.

cross -heads of the

a line with the up

two extreme staffs, 5816. When a division of the drain has

been completely cleared out, the superintendent ascertains that the dimensions and

THE LEVELLING STAFF,

observes

whether

FOR TESTING THE UNI- the upper edge of FORM FALL IN DRAINS. the third staff keeps

fall are in terms of the contract, before in the line of the other two. If it does, any tiles are laid on the bottom. Instead then the fall of the bottom of the drain

of taking the dimensions with a tape -line is uniform ; but where it sinks below or foot- rule, which are inconvenientfor the the other two, the bottom has been too

purpose, a rod of the form of fig . 499 will much scooped out, and should be filled Fig. 499.

be found most con-

up with earth ; and where it rises above

venient, most certain, them , the bottom is too high, and must be and most quickly ap- cut down . When the staffs are painted plied . The rod , sub- each of a contrasting colour, such as white, divided into feet and red, blue, they are easily distinguished in inches, is put down use . with the arms extend

5818. The fall of the ground may ing along the drain, to ascertain the depth, be ascertained, by the workmen , by a and then turned gently simple contrivance . Where the bot round while resting on tom of the drain is cleared out, a dam

its end upon the bottom ming of 3 to 4 inches high will intercept of the drain, until and collect the water seeking its way along the points of the arms the bottom , and where the water line cuts

touch the earth on both the ground as far up as it should do, the If the arms specified fall has been preserved. A suc sides. cannot come round cession of such dammings will preserve square to the sides, the drain is narrower the fall all the way up the drain . When THE DRAIN -GAUGE ,

than was intended, which cando no harm ; the drain is dry, a few bucketfuls of water but if they cannot touch both sides, it is thrown inwill detect the fall in the same wider than necessary , and should be manner . It is only, however, on compa objected to, though itcannot be remedied . ratively level ground that such expedients for ascertaining the fall are at all requisite

5817. The uniform fall in a drain in to be used by the workmen . uniform ground is best ascertained by means of three levelling staffs, fig. 500, two

5819. In filling drains, it is a common

being about 2 feet in length, and one to practice with farmers to put in the mate

620

REALISATION .

rials asthe digging of the drain progresses, than a man , but is most dexterous in which I consider an objectionable proceed- handing light materials, such as tiles. ing. I think the whole length of the 5821. The sole should be firmly laid and drain in band should be cleared out to the specified dimensions before the filling com- imbedded a little in the earth . Should it mences ; because the work should be in- ride upon any point, such as a small stone spected in the first place, in accordance or hard lump ofearth ,the obstacle shouldbe with the specifications, and inspection im- removed with a mason's narrow trowel, fig. Fig. 501. plies measurement of the contents in depth and breadth , and ascertainment of the fall of the bottom-whether it be uniform

c

throughout, where the slope of the ground THE TROWEL FOR DRAINS. is so — or sufficient, where the general fall d erve l und all in pres or the of smal gro is places, where the ground happens to be not 501, 7 inches long in the blade a , 5 inches uniform . These are not trifling considera in the handle c,and the crank atbil- inch ; tions, but essential ; as the effi -a very convenientinstrumentfor this pur ciency of a drain as ainasmuch conductor of water pose. In cast-steel it costs 28.; in com entirely depends upon them. An unan mon steel, 1s. 3d. After laying 3 soles in

swerable reason for filling drains from the length, he examines if they are straightin upper to the lower end, in flatground,is the face, and neither rise nor fall more the ease of clearing the bottom down the than the fall of the drain . As a safe guide,

in cases where the fall is not decidedly

naturalso,declivity theseen ground ; and the on cognisable by the sight, a mason's plumb doing it is at ofonce whether

fall has been preserved. In very deep level, such as fig. 502, is a convenient drains, I was once of opinion that they subsequent observation has convinced me

Fig. 502.

should in all cases be filled as cut ; but

that it is better to risk a little of the sides

falling in than to lose the fall on level ground. On acclivities, drains may be filled in from either end with impunity ; but still cut entirely out before being filled .

5820. The drain is now ready for the reception of the tiles. The person in trusted with the laying the tiles in the

drains should be accustomed to the work, and otherwise a good workman, possessing judgment and common sense. If he is not

e

THE DRAINER'S PLUMB- LEVEL .

the superintendent or a hired servant, he instrument. A mark at which the plummet should be paid day's wages, that he may line d f will subtend an angle with the have no temptation to execute the work in a slovenly manner; and to enable him to do it well, let him take even more time at first than is deemed necessary. According

plumb-line de equal to the angle of the fall of the drain, should be made at the top of the opening e, which may be sup posed to be where the plummet f at present

to the circumstances of the case, it will hangs; by which arrangement it is demon soon be ascertained how much work of this kind a man ought to do in a day. This person should remain much at the bottom of the drains; and not having too many particulars to attend to, he is enabled, with

strable that the angle thus set off at ed f must always be equal to the angle bac, which is the angle of the inclination of the fall.

an assistant to band him the materials 5822. After 3 soles are thus placed, 2 from the ground, to do the work with tiles are set npon them , as represented in greaterprecision and expedition ; and the fig. 503—that is, the tiles a and 6 are so best assistant he can have is a field -worker. placed as that their joinings shall meet on

A woman not only receives less wages the intermediate spaces between those of

DRAINING .

621

the soles ccc ; and this is done for the and if the opening on the opposite side is obvious reason that, should any commo- not occupied by small tiles, it is covered Fig. 503.

up with pieces

of broken tiles or stones. A better plan than either is to place the end of the small tile upon the top of the main, when the water will find its way into the latter ; and this plan implies that the main is on a lower level than the small

с

DRAIN - TILES PROPERLY SET UPON TILE - SOLES .

drain .

tion disturb one of the soles, neither of the

tiles, partially standing upon it, shall be 5825. Main-tiles are sometimes made disturbed. The man who places the tiles with an openingin one side for the recep takes care not to displace them in the least tion of the end of the small tile ; and to an after they are set ; and, to secure them in swer this purpose in particular situations, their relative places, he puts earth firmly where the small tiles cannot conveniently between them and the sides of the drain conjoin with the larger main tiles, half and as high as the top of the tiles, the earth

quarter lengths of main and small tiles are

being obtained from the subsoil thrown made, which form a good junction with out. In ordinary cases of water in a one another. Fig. 504 represents this main drain, a tile of 4 inches wide and

Fig. 504.

5 inches high inside is a good size ; and from this size they vary to 5 inches in width to 6 inches in height. . Although

the size of the tile varies, the width of the main -drain sole is always the same- that is, 10 inches . Taking the useful tile of 4 inches in width and 5inches in height, its

thickness being inch, there will be a space left on each side of 24 inches, which is too much .

The width of the drain is

thus regulated by the breadth of the sole,

THE JUNCTION OF A COMMON TILE WITH A MAIN.

which in some cases is too wide.

mode of joining a small with a main tile ; but the small tile b is not actually inserted 5823. It is the practice of some drainers into the opening a of the main tile, the to put a half-sole under every joining of better to show the relative sizes and posi two tiles, leaving the intermediate space tions of both tiles. of the bottom without a sole, imagining

thatthe half-soles give sufficient steadiness

5826. Preparations for the junction of

to tiles on what they call hard clay, whilst the main drain with the small drain tiles it saves half the number of soles. The should be made during the laying of the clay, when in contact with water, too soon main drain ones ; for if the main tiles are

becomes soft . to enable the drainer to disturbed when the small ones are being

adopt this questionable practice ; and laid, they will be displaced, and check the as to the effect of half-soles, I conceive current of water which is to run in them.

that water would act more partially on Whichever plan is adopted for letting in clay under them, and cause greater inequa- the small tiles, the tile -layer should be lities and displacement of tiles, than if no provided with a 6 -feet rod, marked off in soles were used at all.

feet and inches, to measure the distances exactly between the small drains which had

5824. The joining of tiles where drains been marked off (5815.) When the plan meet deserves attention . The usual prac- of laying the small tiles upon the top of

tice is to break a piece off the corner of the main ones is adopted, nopreparation for 1 or 2 main - drain tiles, where those of the the small tiles is required while laying the small drains connect with them . Another main ones, which is one of its advantages. plan is to set 2 main -drain tiles so far asunder as that the inside width of the

5827. The mouth of the main drain at

sinall ones shall just occupy the space ; its outlet, whether in a ditch or river,

622

REALISATION .

should be protected with masonry, and 5831. The small drains may now be dry masonry will do. The last sole, which proceeded with. In a field having a uni

should be of stone, should project as far form surface, there is no difficulty in bring beyond the mouth as to throw the water either directly upon the bottom , or upon masonry built up the side of the ditch. The masonry should be founded below

ing the drains directly down the inclined ground into the main drain. Where hol lows occur, the drainage belonging to each should be distinctly marked off from the

the bottom of the ditch, and built perpen- rest, that no interference may arise in the the slope of the ditch. The sloping face should be tracedalong the water- shed of may be made straight, toallow thewater the ground — the line from which thewater

dicularly in the back, with its face having execution of the work ; and the markings to slip quietly into the ditch , or like the will descend to the sub -main. The mark steps of a stair, over which it will descendings may be made with pins. with broken force.

It is proper to have

an iron gratingon the end of the outlet, 5832. Fig. 505 shows the parallelism to prevent vermin creeping up the drain : of the common drains along a field, where not that they can injure tiles while alive, Fig. 505 . but in creeping far up, and on dying, their a

bodies for a time may cause a stagnation of the water in the drain above them .

5828. If the ground fall uniformly to wards the main drain over the whole

field , the small drains should be proceeded 0

0

o

C

o

with immediately after the main drain is

o

c

C

finished ; but should hollows occur in the field, a sub -main drain should be made

along the lowest part of each, to receive the drainage of the ground around it, and

e

a

transmit it to the main drain. The size 2

of sub-main drains is determined by the extent of drainage they have to effect; and should any one have as much to do as the main , it should have the same capa city. 5829. Sub-main drains are made in all

respects in the same manner as main

drains; but the peculiarity may attend them of having to receive small drains on both sides, when there will be double the d

d

number of joinings. To avoid accumula tion of sediment, the small drains should not enter the sub -main directly opposite to each other, but alternately ; nor should

(l

PARALLEL DRAINS IN THE SAME PLANB OF INCLI NATION OF THE GROUND .

they enterat right angles, but acutely with a a a a are the four fences of it ; b b and the flow of water . d d the headridges ; d d the main drain along the side of the lower headridge ; 5830. A sub -main drain should be as

s its outlet at the lowest point; and coo

much below the level of the small drains the common drains. as is the main itself when it receives the

small drains directly ; and the main should 5833. When the field has an undulated be as much below the level of the sub- surface, the same principle of parallelism

is differently arranged. A sub -main drain The simple way of effecting the latter is carried up the hollowest part, and the purpose is, to make the maindeeper after small ones are brought to it in parallels

main as the latter is below the small ones.

the sub -main has joined it.

down the inclinations.

So favourable an

DRAINING .

arrangement for the speedy riddance of water is not enough attended to. Thus the commonpractice is to run all the small drains, b c d e b, fig. 506, parallel to one Fig. 506.

623

main drain which should occupy the line b c. This circumstantial plan is just as easily executed as the other indiscrimi nate one of treating all forms of ground in a field alike.

5834. In commencing the small drains from the fence at the lowest side of the

field , they may be set off from each other at the distances determined on from the

nature of the subsoil, as ascertained by the exploratory drains, (5793 ;) and should it be determined to have a drain in every

ridge, it is not necessary to make the drain in the open

furrow ; it may be made

in any part of the ridge. 5835. Small drains are made much Fig. 509. narrower than DRAINS IMPROPERLY MADE PARALLEL IRRESPEC TIVE OF THE INCLINATION OF THE GROUND.

another, through the length of a field, even along hollows, such as are represented by the curved line b a b, so that the parallel drains c to e, on both sides of the hollow da , are run along their declivitous faces, in

mains, to save

the expense of digging out an Fig. 508.

unnecessary

quantity

of

earth . To ef

fect this, the

a horizontal instead of a vertical direction .

narrowest

The probable effect of giving such a direc

spade, fig. 508,

to the drains is to miss the drainage of both sides ; for where any vein of sand dips out at the surface of the declivi

appro

is an

priate instru ment.

tous ground, the drain may run parallel with and just below it and miss it,instead of dividing it along the dip, as it should do ; and though it were not entirely missed, but bisected along its length, and across the dip, the sandwould then be brought

It

is

only 4 inches wide

at

the

mouth, and is

provided with a stud in front

to press the heelupon when

down from the upper part of the ground into the drain , enter the duct in quantity, and

render it inoperative. Such bollow ground

the workman the blade into the subsoil. It serves to throw out some of

pushes

should have the drains placed as in fig. Fig. 507. THE NARROW EST DRAIN SPADE .

the earth that had been loos

ened by the

THE PUSHING last

picking,

DRAIN - SCOOP. and to trim the

sides of the drain . But the loose earth at the bottom of a drain is best removed with a scoop : DRAINS MADE PARALLEL IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE INCLINATION OF THE GROUND.

When the earth is dry ,

a pushing -scoop, fig . 509, will answer best; butwhen wet and sludgy, the draw earth drain - scoop, fig. 497, is the best.

507, a ha, to run right up and down the The scoop finishes the bottom of a drain declivitous facesfrom ctoa,towards the sub- neatly.

REALISATION .

624

5836. Small drains are cast out, gauged, (5816) and examined for the fall, (5817 ) before being filled up, and the filling materials should be laid down in the same order as in the case of mains, (5810.)

a small drain should connect the tops of the others at the upper end of the field, as bb, fig. 505, does the drains ccc ; its ob ject being to dry the upper head -ridge, and protect the upper ends of the ridges

from any oozings of water that may come from the ditch or rising ground beyond the smaller than for mains and sub-mains, field . If the ditch convey no water, and 5837. The tiles for small drains are

being from 2 to 3 inches wide, and from 3 to 4 inches high, inside measure, the latter being considered a large tile. A substantial tile will last much longer than a slight one, and the probability is, that the larger is the more substantial; but this may not be the case, so it is proper to

there are no hedges or hedge- row trees, this connecting drain may be made in the ditch itself, as in a, and the ends of the small drains c brought across the head ridge b a into a ; but should water, or hedge, or trees be connected with the ditch, the drain should be kept on the bead

examine them before purchase. Durabi- ridge, not nearer than three yards from its

lity is of more importance than cheapness. lip, and be of the same depth as, though Soles are also required for small drains; not deeper than, the small drains. for give no credence to the absurd assump 5840. When drains are made in very tion, that clay will retain its hardness at

the bottom of a drain, because ithappened long ridges, much exceeding 200 yards, it to be so when first laid open by the spade. is recommended to have a sub-main drain Soles for small drains are of different in an oblique direction across them , as breadths, being 5 inches at some places, represented by ee, fig. 505. It should be and 7 inches at others : the former, 5 cut the samedepth as the drains above it, inches, I should conceive rather narrow for most purposes; for take even the nar-

and those below it should be disjoined by a narrow strip of ground ; but a better

rowest tiles made, 24 inches inside -— these plan is to make the sub-main e e, 7 inches are moulded at 5-8ths inch thick - and, deeperthan the drains, and intercept the allowing them to shrink 1-8th in the kiln, water by it from the drains, which should the thickness of both sides will be 1 inch.

be continued over it. Where the sub

The extreme breadth of thetile beingthus main e e falls into the small drain bd, at 31 inches, leaves only 1 } inch to divide the side of the field at e, the portion of the between both sides of the tiles on a 5-inch sole. But as most soles for small drains are

made of the same breadth, take a 3-inch tile, and it will be found, by the same mode of

latter below eto & should be converted into

a sub-main, and made accordingly. 5841. I believe that a more substan

calculation, that only half-inch on each side tial drain cannot be made than with tile of a 6-inch sole will be left, which is little

and sole, the overlapping of the tile over

enough space to afford perfect steadiness the sole giving them a stability which to the tile ; and less than this should not no other arrangement of tiles is capable be trusted . In all of affording. They were much used Fig. 510. other respects, the when the tiles were first introduced, but laying of the sole their high price rendered draining with and tile in the small

them an expensive process.

In later

drains is conducted years the pipe-tile has superseded the use in same

precisely manner

the of the tile and sole, wherever the clay fit as

for their manufacture can be found, not

in the mains and only on account of their comparative sub -mains, (5821. ) cheapness, but of their quick and easy handling in the manufacture and use . Its 5838. A finished simplest form is the cylindrical, fig. 511, drain

with

tile

Fig. 511 .

and sole is repre THE SMALL TILE AND SOLE - DRAIN .

sented by fig. 510.

5839. In all cases of thorough -draining,

THE CYLINDRICAL FIPE- TILE.

DRAINING .

625

15 inches in length, 2 inches diameter in as much trouble in making and handling the bore, and iths inch thick. To reduce as a pipe itself, and must be nearly as its cost to the lowest degree, it is made costly ; and unless the collars are sunk into

in many parts of England only 12 inches the ground, to allow the entire length of in length,1 inch in the bore, and with a corresponding thinness. A good objection to such pipes is in the attempt to attain a refinement in economy by using them

the pipes to rest with an equal bearing upon the bottom of the drain, the pipes may be fractured between the collars by the weight of the earth above them, or

of so diminutive a size, that they might other casualty. A better plan is to con be choked up with thesmallest quantity nect the pipesby converting their endsinto of matter, when all the water they can lobes, as represented in fig. 513, in which convey must flow with but little force.

Fig. 513,

The cylindrical form is practically objec tionable too, on account of the difficulty

of placing it in continuation in a firm position upon the flat surface of the bottom of the drain, to which it is scarcely pos

CYLINDRICAL PIPE - TILES CONNECTED BY LOBES.

sible to give a rounded form with the tools the waved line shows the method of in use . Of wbat intrinsic value, then, is junction . A machine for cutting these

the cylindrical form ? It is evident that, lobes was invented bythe late Mr Smith were the slightest depression to take place of Deanston , but it has not yet come at either end of a pipe, or were the end into use.

of one pipe to be placed a little aside from that of its neighbour, the continuity of the passage for water would be broken. Small pipes are recommended to be laid in continuity , by means of a rod of iron which goes into the pipe as far as a shoulder permits it ; and its belve, being at right angles, enables the workman to lay the pipe in the drain, while standing

Mr James Wallace, Turriff

tile -works, exhibited at the show of the Highland and Agricultural Society, at Glasgow , in August 1850 , a clever little hand -machine for cutting the ends of the pipe into two or three lobes adapted to each other, and which is a simplifica tion of Mr Smith’s machine.

The

cutting by Mr Wallace's instrument is a second process, after moulding, when

on the ground, and retain it in its place the pipes are partially dry ; and although by the pressure of the shoulder until some it thus increases the expense of the

of the subsoil earth is thrown upon it by manufaoture, the advantage of the lobed another person , after which the instrument mode of joining pipes is so superior to awn. This seems a trifling and that of collars , as to preponderate con is withdr uncertain way of performing so important siderably in favour of Mr Wallace's inven

a work in draining as the laying of the tion. The increased expense, however, is tiles . Inch pipe-tiles are very properly an insuperable objection to using such a contrivance at all , and no necessity exists for it, since pipes of otber forms than the

not in so much favour as they used to be.

5842. Various devices have been con- cylindrical can be formed well and cheap, trived to keepcylindrical pipes in continua- to stand firmly enough in a drain . tion in a drain , without the trouble implied in the above method ; and amongst others 5843. A very common form of pipe is the placing a short collar to act as a made is that of the horse- shoe, fig. 514, in coupling -boxto connect the ends of the Fig. 514.

pipes, as is shown in fig. 512, into which Fig. 512 . HORSE - SHOE PIPE -TILE,

CYLINDRICAL PIPE - TILES CONNECTED BY A COLLAR.

which the sole occupies the space between the heels, which is the narrowest part of

collar thewater is allowed to pass through the shoe, and the upper part is rounded off holes perforated in it. The device doubt- capaciously in the form of the crnst of the less answers the purpose, but a collar gives hoof. The sole is flat enough for the pipe VOL . II.

2R

626

REALISATION .

to stand firmly upon the ground. There be stated bereafter - clearly show that the is no obvious objection to this form , nor to inch -bore pipe is quite sufficient to carry the cylindrical with a flat sole.

away all the water that can enter the soil after the heaviest rain that ever fell in this

5844. But the most perfect form of the country. The experiments of Mr Tweed, orifice for a pipe-tile is,in my opinion, the egg-shaped, the sharp end of the egg making a round and narrow channel for the water to run upon with force, and carry any sediment before it ; while the blunt end provides a larger space for the

near Woolwich, prove besides that water easily permeates through the substance of pipe-tiles. Every one knows that clay dishes would not retain liquids unless they are glazed. It is easier to explain why water gets into clay -pipes, than to devise

water when it may rise to the top after means to keep it out. heavy rains. Fig. 515 represents the 5848. The next procedure is the filling Fig. 515. up of the drains with the earth that was thrown out of them , and this is returned

either with the spade or the plough, or EGG - SHAPED PIPE - TILE ,

with both. Where the earth has been thrown out onboth sides of the drain,a large

egg-shaped pipe-tile, having a flat bottom furrow slice from each side will plough to stand upon. Beyond this form , I con- in a considerable quantity of earth ; but, ceive little improvementcan be effected in as theearth is generally thrown upon only the pipe-tile.

one side, and the plough can then only make it move towards the drain while

5845. A small drain with an egg-shaped going in one direction, a more expeditious Fig. 516 .

tile is repre- mode of levelling the ground — which, in sented by " fig. the amount of labour of returning the earth 516 .

into all the small drains of a field , must be considerable — is to cleave down (767)

5846. Maindrain pipe-tiles are 3] inches in width, and 5

the mound of earth in the first place, and then take in an equal breadth of land on both sides of the drain, and gather it up twice or thrice towards it, which then con

inches high in stitutes a prepared feering ; after which the bore. Small- the harrows make the ground sufficiently

0

drain pipe-tiles level. This laborious plan, however, is are 21 inches only requisite when much earth has been high, and 1 thrown out at a distance from deep drains ;

inch at thewid- but in ordinary thorough -draining, the est part of the plough accomplishes the work withmuch egg -shape in the less trouble ; the first two furrows loosen EGG-SHAPED PIPE - TILE DRAIN. bore. Both are the earth along each side of the mouth of

convenient length at 15 the drain and cause it to fall into it,but in of the most The machine -made ones are doing this the horses are apt to slip a hind inches.

better formed, more firm and solid, and consequently heavier than hand -made ones. A pipe -tile small drain, such as in fig . 515, weighs 4 lb., so that 560 just weigh one ton. Soles and tiles may be used in the main -drains, while pipes might

foot into the drain, and overstrain them selves ; and such an accident, trifling as it may seem , may be attended with serious injury to the animal. The safest mode in in all cases for the drain and the horses, is to put the first portion of the earth into

occupy the common drains.

the drain with the spade ; and this condi

tion should always be made in the agree 5847. An objection at once occurs to ment with the contractor. the mind to pipe- tiles, that they cannot permit the water to enter them so freely 5849. No implement has yet been in as sole and tile. The experiments of Mr vented to turn the earth into drains. One

Parkes, and my own calculations — both to should think that a long mould-board, 3

!

DRAINING .

627

to 4 feet in length to any common plough, insinuate itself into every crevice through which water passes. The tiles in some ploughs it is necessary to give theirsole a drains in Dalmeny Park , belonging to the slight hold of the firm surface, to resist the Earl of Rosebery,were covered with sea oblique pressure on the mouldboard by the sand and gravel; and the sand soon choked earth which is being removed into the drain. up the tiles and had to be removed, and Advantage is to be gained also bygiving the the tiles re - laid in different materials. yoke an attachment to the long mould- Perhaps it would be better to keep the board as well as to the beam of the plough. soluble portion of the soil as far from the ducts ofa drain as possible, and while thus 5850. It is an established principle, rejecting the upper mould for a commence would effect the object. In working such

that all drains should rather receive the

ment to the filling, the subsoil might be

water from below , than on purpose from

returned into the drain in any order or

above through the soil. Were drains entirely filled with loose mould, or other loose materials, it is evident that the rain , in descending directly through them,

state it may happen to be. The earth should not be returned into the drains too soon, but time allowed to the subsoil to crack above the tiles, which it will soon would arrive at the bottom loaded with as do in dry weather, and they will operate many impurities of the soil as it could the sooner as a drain after the earth bas carry along with it in its downward course ; been filled in ; but in wet weather, the

and as it is a primary object with drainers rain will wash down the earth into the to prevent impurities getting into the drains, if they are left long open. So this ducts, where in time theymight accumulate, particular ofpractice must be guided by the only way to prevent such a mischance the state of the weather.

is to return the clayey subsoil into the 5851. A general idea of the arrange drain, where it will again soon consolidate, and retard the directgravity of the rain ; ment of thorough drains may be gainedby

as has been found when mad deposited a ground-plan of a field so drained, repre among the stones of a drain has proved as sented in fig. 517, where a b is the main

impervious to water, and formed as favour- drain formed in the lowest head-ridge ; able a soil for the growtb of sub -aquatic and when the surface is uniform , the drains plants, as a naturally impervious subsoil. run into it parallel to one another from A disposition, however, has been exhibited the top to the bottom of the field, as those

by some drainers to carry the prevention of from a to c , connected as they should be water through the returned earth to the duct at the top withthedrain d e running along

rather too far, by surrounding even pipe- the upper head -ridge. But with inequa tiles with the strongest clay afforded by lities in the ground, an irregular surface the drain, in a puddled state, and tramp- cannot be drained in this manner, and ing it in.

Could this puddled clay be must be provided with sub-main drains,

constantly kept in a moist state, it would such as 9 f and i h, which are each con resist the passage of the water, and pre- nected with a system of drains differing in vent it entering the pipes at all ; and I character; 9 f having a large double set

can conceive a pipe-tile so luted with wet of drains, k and l, connected with it, and clay as to be as hermetically sealed by it i h only one set, m, connected with it. as the porous nature of the tile will admit. The sub-main, 9 f, is supposed to run up But it is not possible to retain the clay the lowest part of a pretty deep hollow in always in

moist state, as the portion

the ground,and the drains, from k and l, on

immediately above the pipe will be drained either sideof it, are made to run down the by it, become cracked, and the cracks will faces of the acclivities, as nearly at right permit the water to enter the tile from angles to the sub -main as the nature of the above. It being thus impossible to pre inclination of the ground will allow, so as

vent water entering a tile at the bottom of always to assist the natural tendency of the waterin finding its way to the hollow. There is also a supposed fall of the ground of earth the drain should be filled . Fine from the height above l towards h , which sand, however, is a very unfit substance causes the drains at m to run down and to cover tiles with, for it will certainly fall into what would be a common drain, a drain , it seems to be a matter of indifference in what state and with what sort

REALISATION .

628

hi, were it not, from this circumstance, has more to do ; but the sub-main, i h, obliged to be converted into a sub -main. should be made as small, and not larger The sub-main, 9 f, should be made larger than a common drain from the top of the than the main drain, a b, above 9, as it field , until it reaches the point ħ, where Fig. 517. d

m

g

GROUND - PLAN OF A THOROUGH - DRAINED FIELD .

the collateral drains begin to join it. The main drain should be made larger below 9 to i, and still larger from i to b, towards its outlet, than any of the sub -main drains, as it has there most to do. It will be observed, that all the common drains from

draining is to be executed ; and the cost per acre depends moreover on the number of drains made in that extent of area. Tiles cost generally about 20s. per thou sand, and soles are always balf the price of the tiles. Pipe-tiles cost from 125. to

a to c, and at l and m, have their ends 228. per thousand, according to their curved, those at k not requiring that form , length and bore -- the length varying from because they enter obliquely into themain, from the slope of the ground. The dotted lines give the breadth of the upper and lower head - ridges, and the position of the open furrows of the ridges of the field ;

12 to 15 inches, and the bore from 1 to 2 inches. Main -drainpipe- tiles vary in the same proportion. The wantof confidence in pipes is wearing away , so that they are now manufactured to the largest extent at and it will be observed that the drains are the tile -works. Pipe -tiles are now always not made in the open furrows — that is, the made with machines, and Ainslie's seem

black lines arenot in conjunction with the to be preferred to any other. I have seen dotted. This is done with the view of not it stated that machines thrust pieces of

confounding the open furrows and drains clay into the pipes in the manufacture, in the figure; but it is a plan which may whereas the pieces found in some and not be practised with propriety, as the absorp- in all of the pipes consist of the pieces tion of the water towards the drains should of clay which were put under their ends by be effected from the subsoil as far as it is the tile- burner, to make them stand in the

porous, and not directly from the open most proper posture in the kiln. These furrows. Such a ground -plan of a drained pieces should be, and are easily, remored

field enables the farmer to go directly to from the pipes before being laid in the the spot in case of a stoppage occurring drain. I think it unnecessary to give the cost per acre for draining, as it depends

in any drain.

entirely upon particulars which are apt to

5852. The cost of draining with tiles Auctuate ; but it is necessary to give the

dependson the price of labour and of tiles cost of certain particulars of expense which in the district of the country where the must be incurred in draining, over and

DRAINING

629

above that of tiles and the cutting These long, and so stiff as not to be easily lodged particulars are furnished by Mr George with wind or rain . The grain is plump,

Bell, Woodhouselee, Dumfriesshire, who large, bright-coloured, and thin-skinned. drained his entire farm from 1837 to 1847, and they are as follows: Carriage of 38,000 common tiles, at 38. 4d . per 1000 , Carriage of 1,557 main tiles, at 58. per 1000 ,

£6 6 8 0

7 10

31 days' work of man and horse laying down 8 10 6 tiles, at 5s. 6d. per day, Work of women loadingand unloading the carts, 2 3 0 2 50 , tiles and soles laying man a of work 30 days' 30 days' work of a woman assisting him , at 8d . 1 0 0 perday ,

3 days' ofplough -work, at 8s. per day, Cost for 13 acres ,

1

4

The crop ripens uniformly, is bulky and prolific, more quickly won for stacking in harvest, more easily thrashed , winnowed, and cleaned , and produces fewer small and light grains. The straw also makes better fodder for live stock. Clover grows rank, long, and juicy, and the flowers large and of bright colour. The hay wons easily, and weighs heavy for its bulk . Pasture

0

grass stools out in every direction ,covering

.

€21 17 0

1 acre of drains 15 feet apart, £ 1 13 7**

the ground with a thick sward, and pro duces flesh and milk of the finest quality.

So that £ 1 , 138.74d. per acre should be Turnips become large, plump, as if fully grown, juicy, and with a smooth and oily

added to the cost of pipe-tile drains at 15 feet apart. The cost of loading and unloading, laying down and laying in pipe -tiles, is only half of that for tiles and

skin. Potatoes push out long and strong stems, with enlarged tubers, having skins easily peeled off,and their substance mealy

soles ; but how much less the entire par- when boiled. Live stock of every kind

ticulars should cost I cannot distinctly specify, but should think that £l per acre would be a fair allowance when using pipe-tiles. Mr Mechi gives this statement of the expense draining costs him : “ My

thrive, evince good temper, are easily fattened, and of fine quality. Land is less occupied with weeds, the increased luxuriance of all the crops checking their growth. Summer fallow is more easily

present cost of effectively draining an acre cleaned, and much less work is required of strong clay land is as follows,—depth, to put the land in proper order for the 5 feet in the rising ground, averaging manure and seed ; and all sorts of manures

nearly 4 feet all over the field ; distance, incorporate more quickly and thoroughly 40 feet between each drain 64 rods of draining, at 6d . per rod of 54 yards, 1100 inch pipes, 12 inches long, including 44 for breakage, at 12s. per 1000 , :

Cartage of pipes from kiln , 4 miles,

with the soil. Thorough -drained land is £1 12 0 easily worked with all the common im

plements. Being all alike dry, its texture becomes equal, and, in consequence, the £ 2 9 6 plough passes through it with uniform 0 14 0 3

6 0

freedom ; and even where pretty large

The cost may vary a few shillings per stones interpose , the plough easily dis acre, according to the price of labour and pipes.” + With the exception of thecartage of the tiles,this cost does not include all the particulars enumerated in Mr Bell's

lodges them ; and moving in freer soil, it is able to raise a deeper furrow -slice, which on its part, though heavy, crumbles down and yields to the pressure and friction of

case, which should be included ; still, if the mould -board , into a friable, mellow,

we add 178. per acre for these, £3, 6s. 6d. rich-lookingmould. The harrows, instead

is a small cost for draining an acre of land, of being held back at times, and starting if the drainage is really effectual.

forward, and oscillating sideways, swim along, raking the soil into a smooth sur

5853. The physical benefits derivable face ,and entirely obliterating the horses' from draining are numerous and impor- foot-marks. The roller compresses and tant. The existence of moisture in the renders the surface of the soil even, but

soil being easily detected by its injurious effects on the crops, the advantages derived from draining are also best indicated by its good effects upon them. On drained land, the straw of white crops shoots up

leaves the part below in a mellow state for the roots of plants to expand in . All the implements are much easier drawn and held ; and hence, all the operations are executed with less labour, and of course

steadily from a vigorous braird, strong, more economically and satisfactorily. All * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiii. p . 510. + Mechi's Erperience in Drainage, p. iv. - Preface.

REALISATION .

630

these effects of draining I have observed surface.t Conceiving these views to be in my own experience.

Draining con- not quite correct, and as considerable

verts bad land — which is land resting in a reliance may be placed on them in practice,

natural state on a subsoil retaining sur- they are worthy of inquiry . It is found face -water until it stagnates -- into good land—which is land resting in a natural state on a subsoil pervious to surfacewater. Draining, in thus curtailing the

that the height attained by fluids in tubes increases inversely as the diameters of the tubes, so that with a smaller diameter the greater height will be reached by any

limits of bad , necessarily extends those of fluid in any tube. This being the case, good soil ; and it makes rain our friend capillarity bears no evident ratio to the instead of our enemy – taking all its density or specific gravity of the fluid. benefit, and avoiding all its injury.

But

But as no tubes are found in the soil, we

draining is found to be beneficial not only must regard the fissures caused by drainage to the soil itself — to the processes of as spaces between two surfaces; and in labouring it to the climate in reference his case, the utmost elevation attained by to the crops — and to the growth of trees, the fluid is one-half of that which would but also to the health of the labouring have taken place in tubes having their population. Another physical benefit diameters equal to the distance between

derived from draining, is the retaining of the surfaces, and this is always inversely moisture at the bottom of the drains for as the distances. It is thus equally evi the use of plants in very dry weather. dent that, between surfaces of fissures,

Water is so retained, not in a stagnant capillarity bears no ratio to specific state, for the surplus will pass off by the gravity. The capillary force may seem ducts of the drains, but in a fresh state, stronger at the surface than lower down, sufficient to moisten the subsoil and no

because there the soil is driest by evapo

more ; which moisture is ready to be carried ration, and receives the moisture most off by the ducts when fresh rain falls, and readily ; but inasmuch as the fissures are to be elevated tothe surface in dry weather largest at the surface, therealso the mois

by the capillary force. Whenever drought ture will be less' minutely diffused through the soil by the capillary attraction than quently forms innumerable fissures in it, lower down. Hence the capillary force

desiccates the surface soil, and conse-

the prominent points of soil readily absorb cannot bedestroyed by drainage;on the the dew and moisture from the air, while contrary, its sphere of action will be much

the capillary force brings the water from extended by it, on account of the increase and even creation of fissures with surfaces. below to occupy the fissures. 5854. I have seen it stated by some

5855. A still more important physical

writers that moisture rises through soils, benefit to be derived from draining, is not by capillarity but in vapour. But as the equable supply of water for vege

it is commonly supposed that the diurnal tationand thepurposes of machinery. In depth of 3 feet, I cannot conceive how stantly in it as in a filled sponge ; and a

variations of temperature disappear at the undrained soil, the water remains con vapour can arise from water of the mean fresh supply of rain, finding no room , runs temperature of 44° Fahrenheit at the bot- off at the surface to the nearest streanı, so tom of a drain with such a force as to

that heavy falls of rain are succeeded by

pass through several feet of soil.* Water large inundations of turbid water. By is easily converted into vapour for some drained soil, on the other hand, the rain is inches under the surface in summer — but at absorbed as it falls; and the deeper the the depth of 3 feet and beyond, vaporisa- drains are made, the larger the mass of tion must act with much diminished force. earth is ready to absorb it. The water is Mr Mechi seems to think that “ the capil- thus retained in the ground for a time after

lary attraction is stronger than the force it has fallen, in ordinary cases of rain

of gravity," and that the capillary powers perhaps 48 hours, and in heavy rains for of the soil are strongest at and near the 24 hours, before it passes off bythe drains. * Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,vol. xvi. p. 197. + Mechi’s Experience in Drainage, p. 9, 13. # Bird's Elements of Natural Philosophy, p. 17, 18.

DRAINING .

631

So that heavy rains are longer of appearing furnace, and connected with main drains, from drained than undrained land, and the 36 inches deep, furnished with tiles and drains continue longer to run . In beavy soles. Mr James Howden, Wintonhill, rains some of the water runs even off the

near Tranent, in East Lothian, found from

drained surface in a turbid state, though experience, that although drains should in ordinary rains it leaves the ground in a cost as much as £ 7 per acre, on damp

clear state, having been filtered through heavy land, thorough- draining will repay the soil.

from 15 to 20 per cent on the outlay.* These instances will suffice for Scotland.

5856. The pecuniary profits derived from draining are not less remarkable than its physical benefits. The most palpable advantage is the profit it returns to the farmer. “ I am clearly of opinion ,” says Mr North Dalrymple of Cleland, Lanarkshire, “ that well-authenticated facts on economical draining, accompanied with details of the expenses, value of succeedingcrops, and ofthe land before and after

For England, on the estate of Teddisley Hay in Staffordshire, 467acres, 9 poles, were drained at a cost of £ 1508, 178. 4d. —that is, £ 3,78. 7d. per acre. The for mer rent was £ 254, 10s. 9d., and after

the drainage it rose to £ 689, 3s. 1d., giv ing an increase of 28} per cent on the outlay.t And for Ireland, on the estate of Castle Shane, county Monaghan, be longing to Edward Lucas, Esq.,57 acres,

draining, will be the means of stimulating 2 roods, 13 poles, were thorough-drained both landlords and tenants to pursue the for £ 269, 11s. 4d . - yielding an increased most important, judicious, and remune-

rating of all land improvements.

value of the land of 30 per cent.I

The

statements below will prove the advan-

5857. When drains are executed on

tages of furrow -draining; and as to the profits to be derived from it, they are great, and a farmer has only to drain a 5 -acre field to have ocular proof upon the

stubble or lea ground, the first corn crop after draining is not sensibly increased in produce ; but after the ground has been ploughed, properly wrought and manured,

Without entering into all the a very sensible increase of crop instantly details of the statements given by Mr takes place . Thus, in oneinstance ad Dalrymple, it will suffice here to exhibit duced by Mr Bell, Woodhouselee, in point.”

a few general results :-One field containing 54 Scotch acres, cost £303, 75. to drain, or £5, 12s. per acre. The wbeat off a part of it was sold for £ 11 , and the

1839, the increase on oats was only 5 bushels on 2 acres, on the drained over the undrained land ; and in the same year, 9

acres drained produced 258 bushels, and turnips off the remainder for £ 25, 13s. 4d. 68 acres undrained 192 bushels of good per acre . The soil was a stiff chattery oats, being the same amount of produce clay, and let in grass for 20s. per acre ; from the undrained and the drained land. but in 1836, after having been drained, it Those products are very much less than kept 5 Cheviot ewes, with their lambs, from drained land that has been effectually upon an acre.

Another field of 18 acres

laboured.

cost £ 5, 9s. per acre to drain. The wheat 5858. But although the most remark off one part of it realised £ 13, the potatoes off another £ 15, 15s., and the turnips off able instances of increase and profit are the remainder £ 21 per acre.

The land

received from drained land, after it has

was formerly occupied with whins and been well wrought, it must not be imagined rushes, and let for 12s. per acre ; but that the largest ratio of increase will be when let for pasture, after being drained, continued. Effectual draining makes the

Mr Dalrymple expected to get 50s. an greatest impression at first on soils most acre for it. It may be mentioned, that injured by water, whether naturally good the drains made by Mr Dalrymple were or bad ; but, naturally, good land possesses narrow ones, 30 inches in depth, filled 18 more stamina than bad , and will maintain inches high with stones or scoriæ from a its superiority over bad, even though the * Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. viii. p . 319-21 . + Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. ii. p. 279.

I Transactions of the Agricultural Improvement Society ofIreland, 1843, p . 39 and 44. § Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiii. p 510-11 .

632

REALISATION .

latter should exert itself more for a few that the produce declined from both in the years after being drained. In corrobora- second rotation, and less from the good

tion of the renarks just expressed, I give than the inferior soil; but still the inferior a table constructed by Mr Thomson, soil gave a return of more than 25 per cent Hangingside, Linlithgowshire, which pre- fromthe corn, and 70 per cent from the grass ; and such percentages from inferior of inferior and good land, before and after soil ought to be regarded as highly re

sents the produce from an imperial acre

being thorough - drained ; and the result is, munerative : From inferior land .

After being drained .

Kinds of Crops. Before being drained.

35 L.

Grass by the acre,

o

drained . In the 1st rotation .

In the 2d rotation .

In the 1st rotation .

. Bush

.

After being drained . Before being

Pks. Bush , Pks. Bush . Pks. Bush. 27 11 29 1 3

Bush . 23

Barley, .

Oats,

From good land .

27 47 S.

D.

13 9

2 | 44

L.

S.

D.

11

6

L.

S.

1 19

1}

38

D.

L.

8

In the 2d rotation .

Pks. Bush . Pks. Bush . Pks 2 36 0 3

0 6.

D.

11 83

L.

0

50

52 S.

3 19

D.

3

L.

S.

3 11

D.

4

It would be of essential service to future be carefully taken up from the bottom , drainers were those of the present day to and every vestige of the plant removed.

ascertain thecomparative amount of pro- Some tile-drains made byMr MʻLagan, duce received from thorough -drained good younger of Pumpherston, Mid -Lothian, in

and bad land, for a series of rotations of October 1847, were choked up with some crops, that it may be accurately ascertained substance in March 1848 , and in tracing whether the smallest profit derived from its origin , it was only found in those drains thorough - draining bad land would repay which had received leakage from dunghills

the cost.

I have no doubt it would.

collected on a certain part of the field.

The substance was gelatinous when wet,

5859. Drains are liable to obstructions by variousgrowths and depositswhich enter them . I have frequently met with the roots of the mare’s-tail, Equisetumpalustre, on cutting drains when they poured out a full

and like dried skin, and tough, when dry. It was pronounced an alga by Dr Greville, the Conferoa bombycina, whose almost colourless or slightly greenish fila ments pass rapidly into putrescence. The

run of water for some time ; but on being conclusion to be drawn from this case is,

emptied, and no longer receiving a supply that the waste of liquid manures from the of moisture, withered away . In a case field dunghills should be prevented as mentioned by Sir Joseph Banks, the roots completely as possible, not only because of

sent shoots upwards, " along the open- the direct saving of valuable materials ings left for the passage of water," + which which would hereby be effected, but be

provesthat as much moisture had beenleft cause of the outlaywhich willbe prevented in the bog as supported the plant in life , in remedying evils to which the matter in short,that the bog had been insuffi- that escapes may directly give rise.I ciently drained ; otherwise, on the priva 5860. Mr Henry Dixon , Witham , says, tion of moisture, the vitality of the roots would have been destroyed. When the “ I have a curious evidence of the facility amphibious persicaria, Polygonum am- with which the roots of trees will destroy phibium , finds its way into a drain, it drains, if carelessly placed. The mass of chokes it up ;

and being a perennial, there fibres are the roots of a willow -tree, grow

is no chance of its dying out. Where this ing about 5 or 6 feet from the drain, which weed is suspected to exist, the drain should had been put down only twelve months, * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society,vol. xiii. p . 297–298. + Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 349. # Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1848, p. 296.

633

DRAINING .

and the pipe from which I took itwas a

5865. Draining being undertaken in a

The ash and

season when the workmen can scarcely

horse-chestnut send strong fibred roots into drains; a remarkable instance of which I saw at New Hailes, near Edinburgh, in 1846, where a built conduit, of apparently

keep themselves clean, and certainly not dry , any means to render their work more comfortable to them is deserving of atten tion. The Marquis of Westminster supplies

4- inch socketed one ." *

15 inches square, was in several parts com- his drainers with a dress, which it seems

pletely choked up with the fibrous roots of they readily take to. His words are, “ We those trees. It was with the view of avoid- supply our labourers with a sort of leathern

ing such accidents that I have so frequently trousers, which protect the hips and legs recommended every sort of drain to be from coming in contact with the wet clay. nlaced at a distance from trees and hedges. These leggings are used only by the man who digs the last narrow spit, and scoops 5861. Besides trees, other substances out the lowest soil from the trench before obstruct the passage of water in drains. fixing the pipes. In bending forwards, Incrustations of lime stop drains, and are his shoulders also are brought into con

not unfrequent in limestone and chalk tact with the upper sides of the wet trench, countries, where they are deposited some to guard them from which a pair of leathern

inches in thickness, and become quite armlets are most useful. These armlets, difficult

bard . Common limestone is

very

of solution in pure water, but when the water contains free carbonic acid, it is dissolved and converted into the bi-carbonate of limestone, which readily dissolves in water ; but when , from any cause, the carbonic acid is again disengaged, the car-

bonate is immediately thrown down in thick incrustations.

5862. Depositions of oxide of iron also

as well as the leggings, are taken off and

put on with perfect facility, are so far pliable as to create no impediments to the action of the labourers, fit sufficiently close not to rub against the sides of the trench, or make it crumble, and effectually keep out the wet for the entire day. They are easily rolled up and carried to and from the place of work .” The leggings cost 20s., and the armlets 10s. the pair.I Wooden clogs are moreover a comfortable

stop drains. Ochrey water is often seen wear for men who have to work in any issuing from drains in bogs. The water wet trench , (5607.)

holds the protoxide of iron in solution, which when it meets the air freely is con

6866. I have confined my observations entirely

verted into the peroxide, which, being to tile draining, as it is the principal method insoluble in water, is immediately thrown now practised, to the exclusion even of stone down in an ochreydeposit, that soon forms draining, and still more so of the Elkington Still, cases may occur where large an obstructionto the water, as it is always springs andcollections ofwatermayhave tobe associated with much vegetable matter.

conveyed away under ground in built conduits,

and no method known is so well adapted for

5863. Fine sand occurring in quantity that purposeas the Elkington method ; and is apt to choke the ducts of drains. If it small stones, such as the debrisof rocks, maybe so plentiful in some localities distant from tiles

is permitted to accumulate above the out lets of main drains, in level bogs, it will

that stone drains might still be constructed there at less cost than with tiles.

It seems therefore

unless the main -drains are lowest.

expedient to relate the peculiarities of both methods of draining.

5864. Moles cause obstructionsin drains by theirworkings in search of their natural food, the earth -worm . A remarkable instanceof this was experienced by Mr Hay of Whiterigg, Roxburghshire, where

ful plants, andthe mostpermanent initseffects, is water from true springs, whichcontinueto Aow and retain their place in all seasons; and wherethese most effectual of removing are themcopious,the is by the Elkington methodway of

dam back the water in all the drains

5867. The coldest, the most injurious to use

draining. To take away such springs, and cause

he had used soles placed a few inches plants to derive their water from rain by means apart. +

of furrow -drains, is therefore an excellent means * Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. v. p. 603. + Journal of Agriculture, March 1848, p. 373.

I Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. x. p. 51.

634

REALISATION .

of promoting the health of plants. Ponds and lakes of water cannot be drained by means of small furrow - drains, not only on account of their

Fig. 518 .

incapacity to carry away a large body of water, but also of the depth to which the drains suited for those purposes are required to be made so

much beyond that of ordinary drains. The drainage of lakes, or any collection of water, is best effected by means of the Elkington system . We must, therefore, pay some attention to this method .

5868. The drain required to convey away the contents of a copious and deep spring, and of the waters of a lake, may have to be dug to the depth of from 6 to 10 or 15 feet, according to the lowest depth of the seat of the water to be removed. It is unnecessary to give directions for

the digging of a deep drain, as it is conducted in

the same manner asthe drains we have already been considering, (5809.) But however deep the drain may be required, it is loss of time and money making it much wider than necessary for the work to be done in it. A simple calculation will at once show the difference of work to be

done in digging anarrow anda wide drain. Sup pose the drain is 6 feet deep, 24 feet wide at the top, and 14 foot at the bottom - these dimensions give an area of vertical section of 12 square feet, and in a rood of 6 yards in length a capacity of 216 cubic feet. If by inadvertence the workmen make it 3 feet wide at top, and 2 feet at bottom, the vertical section would be increased to 15

THE POSITIONS OF PLANKS AND WEDGES TO PRE VENT THE SIDES OF DRAINS FALLING IN.

square feet, and the capacity to 270 cubic feet

in every rood of 6 yards long, creating 54 more

5870. All large deep drains should be fur.

cubic feet in the rood, and giving either unneces-

nished with built conduits, to let the considerable

sary labour to the workmen, or additional trouble

body of water have a free passage in all circum

to the employerto fill up such a chasm. How- stances. The building of the conduit should be ever deep the drain should be, its width at the contracted for as a separate operation from the bottom should not exceed beyond giving room to the men to work.

cutting of the drains. If both are undertaken by thesame party, the two sorts of work will be so carried on together to suit the convenience of

5869. Should the drain prove very wet, and the contractor, as to deceive the inspector by danger be apprehended of the sides falling in , the work ; whereas, if one sort of work is in the whole division engaged in for the time should spected and approved before another is allowed be taken out to the bottom without stopping, in to be commenced, both will be executed in a order to let the conduit be built into the drain satisfactory manner . The building of the con as quickly as possible. Should the earth have a duit will cost from 1d. to 2d. per rood, according

tendencyto fallin before the bottom is reached, to the adaptation of the stones for the purpose. short thick planks should be provided, and placed Flat handy stones can be built firmly and quickly, against the loose parts of both sides of the drain in a perpendicular or horizontal position, accord-

ing to the form of the loose earth , and there kept firm by short stobs, acting as props between the

whereas round-shaped ones will require dressing with the hammer to bring them into proper shape, and much pinning to give them stability. The stones are furnished to the builder, and a

planks on both sides of the drain, as in fig. 518, labourer is usually provided to supply the stones placed perpendicularly against them, and kept in their places by the short prop c ; or where itis necessary to have the planks placed horizontally, f and its opposite neighbour is so placed, and kept in their position by the props e e. When

as required. But circumstances may occur in which it will be more convenient to oblige the builderto quarry the stones, and supply himself with a labourer, the carriage of the stones only being furnished by the employer. A builder of dry -stone walls is better at building conduits for

there is no tendency of the earth to fall in, the

drains than a common mason , as he does not

drain may be dug at once to half its depth. It is convenient to take off the upper half of a new

depend upon mortar, but upon pinnings of small stones to steady the building, (5704. )

where a a are the sides of the drain , d d planks

division of the drain before digging to the bot

tom the division preceding it, in order to leave a stage upon which to hand down the stones for

5871. Should the ground be firm , the drain cut in summer, the length of the drain not very

building the conduit in the preceding division great, and the weather propitious,the conduit is which had been dug to the bottom.

most uniformly constructed after the drain has

DRAINING.

635

been entirely cut out;and it is then most substan- duit is formed of good and selected stones; and tially and satisfactorily built from the top to the

should be protected from vermin by close iron gratings. After the entire length of the con

bottom of the drain, the uniform fall of the ground being then best adjusted . But in ground liable to fall in in winter, or when the weather cannot be depended upon for some

duit is built, it is covered with flat stones ; but before laying down which, the sole of the con

days, or when the drain extends to a great length, the safest plan is to build the conduit iminediately after the earth has been taken out

with a narrow hand draw - hoe, fig. 498. Im mediately after this the builder lays the flat covers, 2 or 3 inches in thickness, receiving them

to the bottom . The fall in flat ground is best

from the labourer, from the adjoining half-cast

duit is cleared of all loose earth and stones,

preserved by building from the upper to the out division of the drain, and, working back lower end of the division of the drain ; and, wards, and giving them a hold of at least 3 where the fall is decided, it may be built in con- inches upon each wall of the conduit. The open tinuation from the preceding division. spaces between the meetings of the covers, which will probably not be square in the ends, should

5872. , A convenient article in the building of be covered with flat stones, and the space be the conduit is a plank of 6 inches in breadth , and

tween the ends of the covers and the sides of the

from 6 to 9 feet in length , to place in the middle of the bottom of the drain , for a dry and firm

drain should be neatly packed with small stones to secure the covers in their places. To keep the

footing to the builder. The plank is easily drawn on from length to length by a short rope-end or chain attached to each end by an iron staple. 5873. Even on ordinary subsoils of clay, the conduit should not be built without a stone sole, as water might carry away the material by degrees, and the flat stones thus laid form a permanent foundation for building the walls of the conduit upon . In every case where a run of water is expected in a drain , the bottom ought first to be laid with flat stones before the conduit is built.

finished conduit clear of all impediments, the

builder shuts up its end with a firm wisp of straw , which, while permitting water to pass, seethes it of its earthy impurities. 5875. After the conduit has thus been built, the earth should be returned into the drain soon, in case rain fall and wash down its sides. The filling in of the first part of the earth of a deep drain is usually included in the contract made with the drainer, and is executed with the spade, as it is not safe for a horse to walk upon the edge of any drain until the earth is filled in nearly to the

5874. Supposing the plank set down in the level of the ground. The whole of the earth builder from the surface, and it is most economical to employ a woman to do so. The conduit

may either be put in with the spade, or the re mainder with the plough ; but in any case a little mound of earth should be left immediately over the drain , to allow for subsidence to the origi

is from 9 to 12 inches in width, and from 15 to 18

nal level of the ground.

inches in depth, according to the circumstances ; and after the building is finished to the length of the plank, the plank is pulled by the ropes for another of its length, and length after length, until the entire drain , or the next division , as the

earth left over the filling of a drain than would be imagined from seeing the quantity thrown out,

middle of the lower end of the cut, and there is plenty of fall, the stones are handed down to the

There will be much less

and the space occupied by the stones ; and in

every case the mound soon subsides.

case may be, is reached . The mouth of the con5876. But where it has been ascertained that Fig. 519.

e

THE INSTRUMENTS FOR BORING THE SUBSTRATA OF DEEP DRAINS .

636

REALISATION .

the strata under a collection of water is gravelly, and for the men standing on when performing and the water is retained in its place by an impervious stratum of clay over the gravel, the water will find a vent if a hole be formed through

the operation ." *

the clay into the gravel, which is most easily

seems little attended to .

5878. The proper drainage of public cemeteries It is well known that

effected by means of boring-rods. The boring- animal flesh decays more rapidly in dry gravel irons are made to open a passage through

than in wet clay soils. Cemeteries ought, there

various sorts of materials, such as impervious

fore, to be formed in dry soil ; but where that is

clay, thin rock and hard rock ; and one or all of not accessible in localities, the ground ought to these substances may have to be penetrated ere be thoroughly drained before the ground is made an adequate passage be formed for the detained use of; and as graves are generally made not less water to escape. Fig. 519 shows the various

than 6 or 8 feet deep, it is requisite that the

instruments used in boring, where the auger, a, drains ought to be below that depth. In most is from 24 to 34 inches in diameter, and about 16 clay subsoils, veins of sand will be found travers inches in length in the shell , the sides of which ing them before reaching that depth, so that the

are brought pretty close together. It is used for drains willnot require to be very near one another drilling a hole in the ground, and bringing up to render the subsoil sufficiently dry. Such deep the drilled earth . When harder substances than

drains will require main - drain pipe -tiles to fill them ; and where water seems copious, two should thin soft rock, a pyramidal punch, b , is used, to be placed side by side, as in fig. 526. In some penetrate into and make an opening for the cases conduits of stone may require to be built auger. When rock intervenes, then the chisel in some of the drains to carry off springs, as in or jumper, c, is used to cut it through; the face of the Elkington method (5870.) which should be of greater breadth than the diameter of the auger used afterwards. There 5879. Small drains to be filled with stones are rods of iron, d, each three feet long, and I are cut in the same manner as for tiles (5831 ,) earth are met with, such as compact gravel or

inch square, unless at the joints, which are 1 }

only that stones are allowed more room in the

inch in diameter, with a male screw at one end, and a female at the other, for screwing into any of the above instruments, or into one another, to make them as long as to allow the descent of any

bottom of the drain than tiles are . To give the larger room , the common spade is more used than

of the instruments into their working place. The short iron key, e, is used for screwing and un-

or the quarry, it is obviously an absurd practice

screwing the rods from the instruments and from

can never assort ; and it is positively injurious to

the narrow -pointed ones of tile drains. Whether stones are obtained from the surface of the land to mix stones of different sizes in a drain , as they

one another. A cross-handle of wood, f, having the functions of a drain nearly to fill up the a piece of rod attached to it, with a screw to

fasten it to the top of the uppermost rod, is used

bottom of it with a large stone, where it is sure to intercept water and make a dam. Large land

for the purpose ofwrenching round the rods and

stones should therefore be broken into small

auger, and for lifting up and letting fall the rods and jumper, when these are used respectively. The long iron key, g, is used to support the rods

pieces. Stones broken in the quarry are always angular, and in so far are objectionable in shape, because on fitting together, face to face, they be

and instruments as they are let down and taken up , while the rods are screwed on or off with the short key, e.

come a more compact body than round stones

5877. Three men are as many as can con-

veniently work at the operation of boring a drain , and they use the instruments in this manner :-

possibly can. No doubt, the ordinary pressure of a body of earth from 2 to 3 feet deep cannot squeeze small broken stones together so as en

tirely to compress the spaces between them ; but gravity, continually acting on loose stones, will in time press them nearer ; and heavy work

“ Two men ,” says Mr Johnstone, “ stand above, upon the surface,and the subsidence of water one on each side of the drain , who turn the auger round by means of the wooden handle ; and when the auger is full of earth they draw it out, and the man in the bottom of the drain clears out the

earth, assists in pulling it out, and directing it into the hole. The workmen should be cautious, in boring, not to go deeper at a time, without drawing, than the exact depth that will fill the

through the earth, assist by their action to produce a similar result ; and we all know that macadamisation makes a much more com pact road than did the old -fashioned round stones.

5880. Stones should never be broken at the

side of the drain.

I agree with the late Mr

shell of the auger ; otherwise the earth, through Stirling when he says that_ “ I prefer breaking which it is boring, after the shell is full, makes it

more difficult to pull out. For this purpose,the exact length of the auger should be regularly marked on the rods from the bottom upward.

stones in a bin. It is more easy to check the size, and it is done cheaper, as otherwise each

over the drain, in time of boring, are very useful

heap has to be begun on the sward , and many of the stones are forced into the ground, which adds to the difficulty of lifting them. There will be a saving in carting the stones large, but it will be fully balanced by this disadvantage . I would

for directing the rods and going down perpen-

deprecate of all practices that of breaking the

Two flat boards, with a hole cut into the side of one of them , and laid alongside of one another

dicularly, for keeping them steady in boring, stones in the field, and filling by the chain. * Johnstone's Elkington's Mode of Draining, p. 111, 870 edition.

637

DRAINING .

This may be contracted for at a low rate, but it has bestowed so much pains on the breaking, is easy to guess how the contractor makes preparing, and putting stones into drains as Mr wages.

5881. I am acquainted with no drainer who

Roberton , Ladyrigg, Roxburghshire. I shall describe his implements and method of pre paring quarried stones. A portable screen or

Fig . 520.

9

k THE DRAIN STONE -HARP OR SCREEN .

harp for riddling and depositing the stones, is

them over the screen with force, as they will not

seen in fig. 520, and it consists of a wheelbarrow

pended a screen b, the lower end of which rests

alight sooner than half-way down the wires, where their efficient screening will be impaired. The proper method is to rest the shovel upon the top of the screen, which

upon the side of the barrow.

part should be protected with

a , on each side of which are raised two up right posts, c c, to the height of 3 feet above the barrow .

Upon two of these posts is sus The screen is fur

nished with stout wires 14 apart.

Fig. 521.

To the

plate-iron, and merely give its

lower end of the screen is affixed a spout d , and at about 10 inches from the lower ex

handle a slight turn , when the stones will be released ; the larger ones, rolling down, strike

tremity of the spout is attached a board e, by means of two broad arms f. Another screen g, of one-half the length , and having the

wires about half an inch apart, is hung parallel to, and about 10 inches below the larger one, b, by means of a small iron bar h, from both sides

of the upper end of the larger screen ; and its lower end rests upon the side of the barrow at i, sloping outwardsfrom the opposite side to that of thespout d. 5882. The stones are put into the drain in this manner. All the earth should at first have been put on one side of the drain. The barrow -screen,

fig. 520, is placed on the other side, so that the board e, attached to the lower end of the spout

d, shall just reach the opposite side of the drain k.

The cart, with a load of broken stones from

against the board e , and drop into the middle of the drain , with out disturbing the earth on either The smaller stones, at the side. same time, pass through the upper screen b, and falling upon the lower one g, roll into the bar row at i ; whilst the rubbish in passing through the lower screen 9 , falls upon the ground on the outside of the barrow . 5883. One man takes charge of the filling of the drain. His duties are to move the barrow screen , fig. 520, forward along its side as the larger stones are

the bin, is brought a little in advance of the

filled to the required height ; to

barrow , and the carter, on removing the tail boardbelonging to the cart, shovels the stones

level them with the iron rake, fig . 521 ; to take the smaller stones from the barrow with the frying

out of it with a frying- pan shovel, fig . 233, and throws each shovelfulover the top of the screen

b ; but in doing this, he takes care not to throw

THE DRAIN pan shovel, fig. 233, spread them STONE -RAKE. regularly over the top of the

* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xii. p. 10.

638

REALISATION .

larger, and ram them down with the beater, and two screens were employed, and the con fig. 522, so as to form a close and

Fig. 522.

level surface through which no earth may pass. When the stones are broken in the quarry , to pass through a ring , 4 inches in diameter,

one-fourth will be as small as to pass through the wires of the upper screen b, fig. 520, and which is sufficient to give the top of the drain a covering of 2 or 3 inches deep, on being beaten closely

tractors had some stones ready, and part of the drains were halfexecuted by the 1st July. When the filling commenced, 66 roods were finished every day, comprising a length of drain of nearly 400 yards ; and as the weather proved un favourable for the work, only 3300 roods, instead

of 4000, were executed under the contract, in doing which about 2000 cubic yards of stones

were buried.* A drain of the dimensions repre sented in fig. 523 will require a longer time to fill. 5886. I think a duct at the bottom , to convey the water the more quickly away, is desirable in every stone drain, although it should cause some trouble and expense . Where flat stones cannot be obtained, a sufficient duct may be made by placing a round shaped stone on each side of

the drain, with a similar one upon them to act as a cover ; but where flat stones are available, a

down, in lieu of duct of the form represented in fig. 524 should straw or turf. 5884. A

Fig. 524. drain

completed in this THE DRAIN STONE - BEATER . manner with stones may be seen in fig. 523, which represents one 36

d

partial to the breadth

ished by 12 inches

width of the bottom of a drain to be filled

covered with small

because

it

affords abundance of

and the drain is fin

of broken stones, b, stones, C, and the earth, d, returned THE TRIANGULAR COUPLED above them . The tri STONE DUCT . angle encourages a

stony filter, which 7 inches can scarcely

deposition of sediment upon its flat sole, but

accommodate , and

any dangerous extent. Having a flat bottom ,

much less 5 inches, are

this drain might easily be cast out with a width at top of only 15 inches.

broken to 4 inches in diameter .

5887. A more perfect form of duct is seen in

when WITH BROKEN STONES.

sloping stones of the

of the common spade as a gauge for the

room for a durable

FILLED

two

duct are held in their position by stones placed as between wedges them and the earth,

entirely with loose

DRAIN

and

others set up as a triangle upon it. The

the top of the stones, and the stones 18 inches deep. These dimensions give 231 cubic feet per rood of 6 yards. I am

stones,

A SMALL

made of three stones -one laid flat on the

ground,

inches deep, 9 inches wide at bottom , 12 inches at Fig. 523.

be made, where a, a triangular duct, 6 inches in the side, is

stones

prevents the descent of water under the sole to

Fig. 525.

5885. Mr Roberton's experience as to the time required for putting the stones into the drains is, that, in drains 33 inches deep, 7 inches wide at bottom, 15 inches filled with stones, and 9 inches wide at the top of the stones — the contents being

15 cubic feet per rood of 6 yards —supposi that a set of carts, driven by boys or women ,are able to keep one man employed in unloading them , and another man in taking charge of the screen -barrow, from 60 to 70 roods may be filled in a summer day of 10 hours ; which amount of

fig . 525, where a is a tile duct, either tile

and sole or pipe -tile, the latter being the cheaper. In using tiles of any kind for

ducts, in a

stone

drain, it is necessary to fill in the stones

These data are derived from large pieces of

by hand with caution a little way above the tiles ; and the remainder b might be put in with the

work, such as Mr Roberton contracted for in

barrow -screen , fig.

1840, for the execution of 4,000 roods, the filling was having commenced on the 1st July,setsand of carts

520, and covered on the top with small

work gives from 35 to 31 % cubic yards per hour.

completed on the 12th August. Two

THE TILE AND STONE DRAIN. stones c beaten down .

* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv. p. 37.

DRAINING .

639

5889. The cost of thorough - draining with stones, incurred by Mr Roberton, is as follows. The drains were placed from 30 to 36 feet apart,

I consider this a perfect form of drain , inasmuch as its durability is secured by the well

laid - in stones , its efficiency made certain by the superior tile-duct, while the area of the

as the nature of the subsoil was favourable to

average distances give 70 stony portion affords the permeable materials drainage ; and those of drains to the imperial acre . +

of the subsoil to part with their water with

roods, of 6 yards,

much freedom . Few farmers, however, will adopt

Opening drains 33 inches deep and 7 inches

this form of drain on account of its comparatively great expense . The Draining Commis sioners have refused to sanction this form of drain .

wide at bottom , at 5 d. per rood of 6 yards, for 70 roods ,

.

Preparing stones 4 inches diameter, at 4d. per ditto ,

£1 12 1

3

1 4

Carriage of stones, at4jd. per ditto, : Unloading

1 6 34 carts and moving screen - barrow , at 1d . per rood of 6 yards, Filling in earth , at d . per ditto, 0 1 55 0 10 0 Extra expense in the main drains, Per acre of 70 roods, £ 4 17 69

5888. For a main drain, the expense might be incurred to secure a free conveyance of water from a large surface of stone drainage ; and if

one duct is deemed insufficient for the quantity

Or per rood of 6 yards, .

of water to be conveyed, two tiles might be

0 1

4*

placed together abreast as a and b are shown Instead of placing two tiles abreast, it has been Fig. 526. recommended to place one of them

5890. An important method of draining is that of bogs, which is executed in a different manner fromtile or stone draining. I have seen exten sive and successful cases of drying bogs in Ire

upon its back on the ground, and to set

land, by ordinary drains, especially of Carrick Bog, in the county of Meath,by MrFeatherstone

the other upon it,

of Castle Rattan; and as I consider his plan an

edge upon edge. Un

excellent one, I shall describe it. The plan con

less the tiles are provided with broad

sists of dividing the bog into divisions of 60 yards in breadth, by open ditches of 4 feet in

placed in fig. 526.

flanges, or a tile-sole

depth and 4 feet wide at top, allowance being

be inserted between them , so as it shall

thus made for the sliding in of the sides and subsidence of the moss by drying, which cause

lie upon the edges

considerable diminution in the dimensions of the drains. The open ditches are connected by form the sole for the parallel drains at right angles, 3 feet 3 inches in upper one, it is evi- depth and 18 inches in width. Fig. 527 is a dent that the upper plan of these drains, where a are the large

of the under tile, and

one will always run the risk of slipping

TILE DOUBLE DUCT FOR A MAIN STONE DRAIN.

ditches and b the small drains. The ditch a at the bottom , next the dry land, takes away the down into the under water to a river. The fall in the ditches and one . drains is obtained from the natural upheaving of Fig. 527.

6

a -

A PLAN FOR DRAINING BOGS AS PRACTISED IN IRELAND .

the moss at its centre above the level of the

conveniently situated for its improvement after

draining in the vicinity of extensive knolls of limestone gravel. This gravel seems to be a This bog constitutes a part of the peculiar feature in the geology of Ireland,and

adjacent ground, and this peculiarity causes all

the drainage water of such bogs to flow towards the land.

great Bog of Allen, which covers many thouThe moss is of great depth, and very wet and soft, and most probably floats upon the surface of a large lake.

sands of acres.

5891. Besides the inclination of its surface

appears as a gift of nature inthose parts where bogs abound, as if to provide a ready means of converting their driedvegetable surface into use ful earthy mould. When spread in a compara tively thin layer upon the drained moss, it soon converts it into an arable soil fit to carry in

which much facilitates its drainage — this bog is abundance every species of produce. * Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv. p. 43.

REALISATION .

640

5892. The small drains 6 are made in this cutting the under part of the upper turf, this Fig. 528.

manner.

A garden line is stretched at right

instrument is really useful ; but in deep bogs, in the drains of which no man can be supported,

angles from one open

such a spade is of no use in cutting out the

ditch a , to another a , 60 yards. The upper rough turf is cut in a perpendicular direction,

second and lowest turfs, which are too much below the hand of a man standing upon the surface. The three- pronged graip is the only tool he can most conveniently use in such a case.

along the line with the edging-iron, fig. 528.

5895. In the course of the four months, the

The line is then shifted

moss subsides about 1 foot, and the turfs and

18 inches, the width of the top of the drain , where a similar cut is made by the edging - iron.

peats become firm . After the two spits of the shovel have been thrown out, the edging-iron is again employed by one man to cut down both sides of the drain to the depth of about 1 foot,

While one man is em-

leaving a shoulder 5 inches broad on each side.

ployed at this, another cuts a moderately thick turf across the drain with a broad -mouthed shovel, fig. 83. The drain is then left two months to allow the water to run off, the moss to subside, and the turf THE EDGING - IRON .

The pushing-scoop, fig. 509, is then employed by another man to cut the moss below and across this last narrow spit, whilst a third man takes out the cut pieces with the small graip. The scoop is employed to polish the narrow bottom of the drain with a few shoves of its back , making a duct 1 foot deep below the shoulders. The filling of the drain is commenced after this last spit has been removed, and is conducted in this to dry. manner. The large turf b, fig. 530 , taken out by the second spit, Fig. 530. 5893. At the end of being now dry, that time the edging

is lifted by the hand, and placed upon the

iron , fig. 528, is employed by one man cutting down the sides of the drain in a perpendicular di

rection 2 feet 3 inches deep ; while another man uses the square-mouthed shovel, fig. 83, to cut the moss into large square peats w; hich being wet, and situate much below the hand, cannot be thrown out with the shovel, but are taken hold of by a third man, with the small three -pronged graip, fig. 218, and thrown upon the surface, where their square form is regained by a few

shoulders e e. If this turf is re placed too tight in the drain , the moss will have a tendency to collapse from

both sides, and choke up or di minish the open duct d . The large turf, a,

strokes with the back of the shovel, and then

left to dry and harden . The work is again left for two months more, for the water to drain off, and the moss to subside still further.

first taken out , is

5894. A new spade, which I have named here

as the “ horizontal spade," fig. 529, because it

then lifted by the hand, and put

Fig. 5-29.

into the middle

of the drain , as in the figure, with the grass face undermost, and the long nar row stripes of THE SHOULDERED BOG - DRAIN .

turf, cc, sepa

THE HORIZONTAL SPADE .

rated by the scoop from the bottom spit, along with any other broken pieces, are firmly packed , by means of the small graip , fig. 218, along both sides and top of the drain, so that the entire num ber of turfs just fill up the subsided drain to the top. It is not an uncommon practice to put the turf first taken out, upon the shoulders of the drain with the grass face undermost ; but as the grass is soon converted into mould, and will

works in a horizontal direction , has lately been fall into the duct, it is better to place the second introduced in bog -draining, to cut the under turfupon the shoulders, being composed entirely parts of the peats and turfs in making these of fibrous moss, unconvertible there into mould. drains, and assist in casting them out, instead of the small three -pronged graip , fig. 218. In bogs, 5896. When confidence is not placed in drain

where footing is found for the workmen, or foring bogs by their own materials, and when larch

DRAINING .

wood is plentiful, a species of tile may be made from it to answer the purpose of a rigid duct. Mr Scot of Craigmuie, in the Stewartry of Kirk cudbright, has used tubes of larch as ducts in

641

from 2000 to 3000 such tiles every day, which, after being thoroughly dried by the weather, are fit for use.

Fig. 533.

In

clayey subsoil they

bog -draining, andfound them to succeed. The larch-tube finished, represented in fig. 531 , pre

should be set in the drain as shown in the figure ; but

Fig. 531 .

they may also be

used singly in drain ing moss, by being set upon a plank of larchas a sole, as b

o

THE LARCH DRAIN-TUBE .

sents a square of 4 inches outside, with a clear

and soles, of 15 inches in length, at 30s. per

rests upon a.t 5899. In compa rison to the expense of execution, perhaps no sort of draining has done so much good as

water-way of 2 inches. The cost of these tubes, however, exceeds that of clay tiles and soles, and more so of pipe-tiles. Taking the cost of tiles

a

THE PEAT- TILE FOR DRAINS .

1000, exclusive of carriage , their worth is 14

sheep -drains on hill pasture, which have dried

farthing the lineal foot. A lineal foot of larch tube contains 1 superficial foot of timber at 1

its surface, and made it sound for stock ,

times dearer than tiles. And even with the cost

ous transverse open drains across the face of the

where formerly disease prevailed to an alarming inch thick, which costs, forcarriage and sawing, extent. 1 farthing ; the fitting, boring, and pins, other2 farthings ; the timber, at 60. the cubic foot, in5900. The wet surface of pastoral hills com creases the cost 2 farthings more - altogether 5 posed of impervious clay may be dried on the farthings, making the tube more than three principle of surface -draining, by cutting numer

of the timber thrown into the bargain, the tubes hills, and receiving the water from them in open would still be double the price of tiles, including, ditches. Covered drains, however, when properly in addition, carriage at 6s. 8d. per 1000 ; and,as

a consequence, the price of larch -tubes will be more than double that of pipe-tiles.* Such Fig. 532

tubes, therefore , would only be used in bogdraining, where the moss is too soft for tiles.

formed , are best adapted even for sheep pasture, as being not only secure from external damage,

but permanent in their structure ; and no sort of drain is better adapted for the pipe-tile. Such drains keep the surface unbroken ; no manure from the pasture can be washed into them ; the ground is rendered permanently dry ; and I think they are much cheaper made than any

5897. Tiles made of form of drain at present known. Although I dried peats have been recommended for the

drainage of land where

recommend covered drains in hill pasture, yet, as open ones are most frequently in use, it is necessary to describe the best forms of these .

peats are near, and tiles

case of such a locality

5901. Open surface - drains in permanent pas ture appear in plan as represented in fig. 534,

requiring draining, a peat-tile may be made

Fig. 534.

and stones distant.

In

by a spade contrived by Mr Hugh Calder

wood, bricklayer, Ayr shire . It consists of an

iron cutting part, fig. 532, of a semi-cylin drical form , furnished

with a flange on each edge, and a cutting tongue at the extremity of one of the flanges. It is provided with a helve, cross -headed which is inserted into a

THE CALDERWOOD PEAT- socket attached to the TILE SPADE - TOOL . cutting part. 5898. The tile cut out of the peat by this

A PLAN OF SHEEP - DRAINS ON A HILL OP IMPERVIOUS SUBSOIL .

spade has the appearance represented in fig. 533, where two separate tiles, a and b, are placed where the leader e f is cut the more nearly one above the other, leaving a circular opening down the face of the hill the less steep the in the centre between them . One man can cut acclivity is, and the feeders are cut across the

* Prize Essays of the Highland and AgriculturalSociety, vol. xiv. p. 99. + Quarterly Journal ofAgriculture, vol. vii. p . 247. VOL . II .

28

642

REALISATION .

face nearly in parallel lines, into the leader. In

5904. The drain , in fig. 536, is a covered sheep

this way, the water is entirely intercepted by drain. Acut is first made 6 inches wide at the feeders in its passage down the hill. Where

bottom , 16 inches deep, and 18 inches wide at

one leader enters another, the line of junction should never be at right angles, but at an acute angle with the line of the flow of water, as e f enters d b ; and where small drains enter a large,

Fig. 536 .

from opposite sides, they should do so at alter

nate points, as shown bythe threedrains abovef, and not as the three pairs of drains above these

towards e . The large main drain cbd, or the sub -main g a ,, may be left open or covered . Should thesub form the line ofseparation between arable ground and permanent pasture, it may be

6

left open , and serve as an assistant to the fence

of the hill pasture; but, if the entire hill be under pasture, it may still be left open , as a catch water drain . The ends of the drains at h show how they lie in reference to the drains from e tof.

A COVERED SHEEP- DRAIN IN GRASS.

top. The upper turf a is taken out whole across

5902. There are various ways of making drains the cut, as deep and large as the spade can in grass. One is to turn a furrow -slice down the

make it. Two men will take out such a turf

better than one, with the assistance of the hori zontal spade, fig. 529. It is laid for a time on its grassy face upon the higher side of the drain , nomical mode of making an open sheep -drain. and the earth pared from the other side with Every line should be previouslymarked off with the spade, leaving the turf of a trapezoidal shape. poles when the plough is to be used . Such a While one man is doing this, the other is casting hill with the plough, and trim the furrow afterwards with the spade. Where the grass is smooth and the soil pretty deep, this is an eco-

drain would not cost a halfpenny per rood of 6 out with a narrow spade the bottom 6 of the yards. But where the grass is roughand strong, drain ; and the earth and shovellings are spread and swampy places intervene, the plough is apt to choke, and come out of the ground , by the

over the ground.

The large turf a is then

replaced in its natural position, and tramped

long grass accumulating between the coulter and down, leaving the open space 6 below it for the beam , and make coarse work; while the horses are apt to strain themselves in the swampy ground, so that the risk would be considerable.

water to pass along. This is not so permanent a form of sheep -drain as the last, nor can it be so easily kept clear ; and it is unsuited to pas ture for cattle, as they would inevitably tramp

5903. A better, though more expensive mode, the turf to the bottom of the drain, though it is to form them altogether with the spade. Let

would be stronger were the turf a to rest on

a, fig. 535, be a cut thrown out by the spade, 9 two shoulders as b does once in fig. 530. As space for moles Fig. 535.

made thus, it also affords an open

to run along ; and when any obstruction by them or other burrowing animals occurs, the part ob 6

AN OPEN SHEEP - DRAIN IN GRASS .

inches wide at bottom , 16 inches of a slope in the high side, and 10 on the low, with a width

structed cannot be detected untilthe water is seen to overflow the lower side of the drain , where the turfs must be raised, and the obstruction re

moved. It forms, however, a neat drain , pos sessing the advantage of retaining the surface whole where sheep alone are grazed ; but it could not be formed for less than fourpence per rood of 6 yards ; and when it is determined to expend so much inmaking sheep -drains, it would be better to employ pipe -tiles at once , which would require a comparatively narrow cut. The pipe-drains could be made for little more than the original cost of the pipes, with carriage.

of 20 inches at top along the slope of the ground.

5905. It is surprising how little desire seems to be evinced by landed proprietors, to prepare

A large thick turf b is removed by the spade,

the ground by draining for the reception of

and laid with its grassy side down the slope, plantations. The fencing of young plantations while the shovellings are thrown upon its top is scrupulously attended to, and very properly, to finish the bank neatly. Such a drain catches all the water desoending the surface between it main or and the drain above, and leads it to a may be sub-main drain . Such an open drain

because young trees cannot defend themselves against the depredations of man and beast ; but to the planter, it is strange that it never occursable to defend that young trees are as little

formed for about twopence per rood of 6 yards, themselvesagainst the chilling and suffocating provided many obstructions, such as brushwood and rank heather, do not encumber the surface.

influence of water about their roots, as their stems and tops can withstand the gnawings and

DRAINING .

643

croppings of animals. The deleterious effects of confined, to contain all the water that will ever water in the case of every large plantation that

flow in them .

does not form an important portion of a domain

may be explained-in the freezing of the ground

5908. The small drains should not be made

in winter in one mass around the roots of the

along the fall of the ground, as in the case of

trees, as long as they are young ; inobstructing covered drains in ordinary arable land drainage, the sun's heat entering the soil, and finding its way to the roots, in the early part of every year; in preventing the passage of the air to the roots

because the large body of water which they at times will at once collect from the surface would then be apt to run holes into their sides and bot

of the trees, the presence of air being essential toms. They should, therefore, be placed with a to their good health ; and the particular effects slope across the inclination of the ground towards produced by all these causes may be witnessed in every tree becoming the victim of lichens and

the main drains, at such an angle as just to pre serve a brisk enough trot in the water to carry

mosses, or other parasitic plants, or of being off sediment and leaves, but not to injure the evidently stinted in its growth, or diseased in sides and bottom. In clay soil, the slope may be the interior of the trunk . The consequences are , the trees are a very long time of reaching to a state of usefulness as timber or shelter, and can

made more inclined than in light soil . The inches in depth in clay soil, with a width , of

never realise the price of those grown on dry

course, of 30 inches, and with 9 inches at the

small drains should not be made less than 20

soils. It is not enough to place young trees in bottom , making the entire width at the top 39 ground that does not become a plashy swamp in the worst winter weather, because rough ground will retain as much moisture, in its vegetable covering and spongy mould, as will injure the roots of the young plants constantly remaining

inches. And on light soils they should not be made less than 14 inches in depth, and 21 inches in width , with 9 inches at bottom , making the entire width 30 inches .

in it. No alternative is therefore left, but to

5909. Where slight hollows occur across the surface of a field of small drains, a sub-main drain should be inserted therein, having a com

drain the ground before it is converted into a plantation, if the planter desires his trees to

attain maturity and usefulness ; and the system

munication with a main drain. These sub -main

of drainage suited for such ground is neither intricate nor expensive.

drains should be of less dimensions than main

drains, but larger than the small drains, and of

the same proportions as the other two kinds. 5906. Ground appropriated to the use of trees, should be drained by open drains upon the surface only, and not with covered drains of any

5910. The cost of the 14 inches in depth drain in light soil, requiring a little picking at the bot

kind ; for the roots of the trees will direct their

tom , will be about 1 farthing per running yard ;

first efforts towards the conduits of covered

and that of the 20 inches deep drain in clay soil, with extra picking, will be 2 farthings per run

drains, in search of moisture in the summer

season, and their fibres will soon choke up the ning yard. The cost of making the main and orifice of the conduits. Now , open drains upon the surface will be quite sufficient to remove all the water that would remain in a stagnant state

sub-main drains will be in proportion to the above prices, according to the quantity of picking earth thrown out andrequired in the respective

in winter, and prove injurious to the roots ; kinds of soils mentioned. The cost of draining whilst they allow as much moisture to remain under the roots of the trees as proves beneficial to them in summer ; and they are not required to be made so large or so deep as to be objected to on the score of expense .

per acre will depend on the number of the drains, and the number is determined by the distances fixed on between the drains ; and the distances between the drains depend on the quantity and frequency of the rain that falls in the particular locality. Perhaps I may state, as a guide be

5907. On laying out the drains on such ground , tween two extremes, that the drains need not be it is requisite to observe the form of the surface; nearer in any place than 5 yards, nor be distant and wherever a hollow trough occurs, with rising more than 40 yards; the distance being closer in ground on both sides, there cut a main drain clay than in light soils. along the bottom of the hollow.

This drain

should at least be 3 feet in depth, and have a flat 5911. Quicksands are troublesome to dry , bottom of 1 foot in breadth, to allow the spade when met with in drains. Here is a narrative of to pass easily along it in scouring out at any a successful method of draining them with tiles,

time the earthy and vegetable matter that may

by Mr William Linton, Sheriff Hutton, York :

have fallen into it ; and its width should be 13 foot for every foot in depth - allowing the bottom

“ When the first man has got a few feet from the end of the drain, the second commences taking

to be 1 foot in width . Thus, for example, a main

out the bottom of it ;and as soon as he has made

drain 3 feet in depth would be 44 feet in width ; way for the laying of stones or clay tiles, they but having 1 foot width in the bottom , it should are immediately laid by the tile-layer - first lay

be 54 feet wide. The size of the main drain is ing the bottoms quite close to each other, and of course regulated by the probable quantity of upon them the tiles, leaving as little crevice as water it will have to convey away from the possible, and immediately covering them with small drains which lead into it ; and besides,

main drains, and all other sorts, should be so formed as to be rather too capacious than too

about 4 inches of the most tenacious soil that can be procured. Clay would be used, but on ac count of its being in large hard lumps, it cannot

REALISATION .

644

be madeto bed sufficiently close to keep out the

5913. As the clay which retains the water that

sand . Here I must notice that it is essentially does the mischief cannot be removed, the only necessary that the drains be cut 3 or 4 inches expedient left is to remove the water, by convey wider at the bottom than the width of the tile, so ing it away in channels, insteadof allowing it to as to admit this strong soil down the sides to the take its own course amongst the interstices of very bottom . Much mischief is done by the sand

the clayey strata ; and these channe

may con

getting in at the bottom part of the joinings of sist either of open conduits or covered drains. the tiles.

Other materials have been used for

keeping out the sand, but with bad effect. I prefer clay to anything else, when it can be got sufficiently loose and malleable, so as to bed quite close and firm , and leave no crevice.

.

After the clay or strong soil is well trodden in, and thrust down the sides of the tiles

5914. One method in which these channels are usually employed , in draining the face of railway cuttings, isto place them in a slanting direction down the face of the cutting, in numerous paral

lel lines, and, when they slant from opposite directions, are sometimes made to empty them

with a common spade, the sand thrown out in the

selves in a common channel. Where the entire

making of the drain is then filled in , and is firmly beat down by treading, and sometimes by running a broad -wheeled cart upon it, in which is put a sufficient weight, in order that the cover-

face of the cutting is a uniform mass of tenacious boulder-clay, and the open channels are made as deep as to be imbedded in it through the mould returned upon the surface of the cutting, this

ing of the drain may becomeas firm as any other method may answer the purpose. In all such part of the field . This is done to prevent the

cases the channels, to be efficient, should be of

water from descending, or finding a channel to

large dimensions, and cut deep into the clay one being cut near the top of the cutting, and sloped to the right and left from its highest

the tile in that direction, or it would be almost impossible to keep out the sand.

The pipe-tile having been of late introduced into point ; and only another, perhaps, cut about this neighbourhood, I have commenced using

midway across the face of the cutting, of the

them. The drains are cut, and every other part of

same form and size. The water would find its

the work performed, in the same way as when the common tiles are used. But on account of the land being but recently drained by them ,my observations are notsufficiently matured to justify me in saying that they are in all respects equally good with the common tiles. I find it

way from the surface into these channels more quickly, were the surface raised into the form of ridges ; and as thereis always a built drain at the bottom of the cutting, the ridges should be continued below the lowest channel to that

drain . But such channels are usually made in

sometimes difficult to get them to fit close enough

the face of the cuttings, whether the clay is of

to each other, the ends not being quite straight, and some of them curved in the middle ; there-

uniform texture or otherwise; and the conse quence is, that the water, in oozing through the

fore it is necessary to apply clay to most of the sand-veins, in time carries down both clay and joinings. Of these running sands I have drained about 500 acres ; and when the plan which has been stated here at large was adopted , which has

channels in land -slips as it did before .

generally been the case, the average cost per acre was about £5, 58. ; that is to say, 1500 tiles at 26s. per thousand ; 3000 bottoms at 11s. per

consists in making covered drains of tiles,branch ing in different directions, in the places where the water is found to burst out to the day ; and the success of this plan is as uncertain as the

thousand ; cutting, £ 1, 108.; and incidental expenses, 38 ; total, £5, 5s. ” *

5912. Every one travelling by railroad may have observed, in many of the deeper cuttings, that the earth had slipt in large masses down the

face towards the bottom ; and, on examining the cause of these slips, it will invariably be found to arise from the action of water upon the subsoil.

5915. Another method of draining the cuttings

other, because the remedy, in both cases, is ap plied to remove the effect, not the cause of the evil.

5916. A recent attempt, I observe, has been made to drain the face ofthese cuttings by means of patented cast -iron pipes, which are so laid

The subsoil so affected is clay, and it is so

down as to convey all the water to the drain at the bottom of the cutting ; but this plan seems

affected whether it be of a uniform texture or

to me to be founded on no better principle than

interstratified with veins of sand. If there were no clay, there would be no excess or retention of water, and of course no lan ps. Cuttings of

that of the open channels or covered drains men tioned above, inasmuch as it temporises with the

railways may be regarded, therefore, as drains

cause of the evil.

effect only, and does not grapple with the true

intersecting the substrata to the extent of their depth, andexposing to view the sections of the 5917. The draining of such cuttings, I think, impervious matter upon which the water natu- ought to be conducted in a different manner from rally travels towards the cutting, in precisely the any of these. In fig. 537, let a b be the face of same manner, but on a much larger scale, as the a deep railway cutting, from 20 to 40 feet in water is seen to issue from the intersected strata depth, rising, as such cuttings usually do, I foot of the exploratory drains recommended to be in l foot. The ground at the top of all cuttings, made in every field before being drained, b, will be found to exist in one of three states, (5793.) namely, sloping upwards from b to o ; or on a * Journal of the Agricultural Society of England , vol. vii . p. 117-18.

DRAINING .

645

level from b to d ; or sloping downwards, from b b to c, and the subsoil is of uniform clay, the to k.

water on the surface will run from c to b , and thence down the face of the cutting all the way,

5918. When the ground slopes upwards from

from b to a, washing away some of the soil in

Fig. 537.

4

DRAINING THE FACE OF RAILWAY CUTTINGS.

its progress, leaving parallel ruts. But were an the ordinary mode of draining the face of railway open channel formed in the face a little below cuttings is erroneous in principle, and therefore

b, and another about half-way down at h, and proves ineffectual in practice. It may be that the face b a formed into upright ridges, it is

evident that the open channels at b and h would intercept the water and carry it away, while the

ridges would convey it faster into them than could the plain surface.

the sites of the drains at g, o, and k may be be yond the 100 yards reserved for the use of rail way operations; but, to meet such cases, power ought to be taken in every bill to allow the drainage of cuttings to be effected. It may also be that some of the drains, as from g to i, and

5919. When the subsoil is not uniform , but

from i to k, may be required of inordinate depth, veined as from f to g, it is probable that part of 8 or 10 feet, the cost of which should rather be

the water will be absorbed by the ground at 9, incurred, and accomplish the drainage effectu and find its way out at the face at f; in which

ally, than waste time and labour in petty abortive

case , a covered conduited drain a little way above

superficial attempts.

b , as deep as to intersect the dotted line 9 f, would prevent the burst of water at f more effectually than any number of open channels or

5923. The railway is at n, and m is one of the

conduited drains always constructed along the

covered drains on the face at f could possibly do. sides of a railway, and becomes the great means If more than one stratum exists, as represented by f g and hi, a drain at g, deep enough to reach i , would prevent the lower burst at h , as well as

of keeping the railroad dry.

the upper one at f.

ways are seldom drained before being filled up with the embankment, the weight of which

5924. I also observe that the hollows of rail.

5920. Where the ground is level from b to d , pressing upon the wet soft ground causes it to the water will not run off, but be absorbed, and find its way towards the cutting either by the

slide aside, and the embankment to subside, when more earth must be brought to make up for

Instead of using expedients to

the subsidence . Such hollows should always be

remove the burst of water at h, as is commonly done, a drain at i would prevent the burst at h; and if it were as deep as to reach the porous stratum a o , it would prevent the bursts both

drained with a main drain in the hollowest part, and small drains running into it from both sides, and filled with stones ortiles. Asthe embanking proceeds, its weight will squeeze the wet out into

at h and a. When a burst is only seen at a , & drain at o will remove it. When the ground is of uniform clay, an open ditch above b, parallel to the cutting, will prevent any water running

the drains, and no extraordinary subsidence will thereafter take place.

down the face b a.

draining likely to occur.

vein i h or o a.

5921. On the ground sloping downwards, from b to k, no burst of water will appear on the face from b to h ; and if the ground sloped as far as e, none could appear in the face of the deepest cutting. But as the ground commonly stretches

5925. These are all the cases of substantial

Other minor modes,

such as sod and wedge draining, are only mo difications of covered sheep drains. (5904.) There are also plug and mole draining in strong tough clay subsoils ; but tiles will supersede all these.

from k to 1, any fall of water from b to k upon a 5926. It is improbable that drain -ploughs will veined subsoil, would inevitably appear at a ; ever come into competition with the hand, fur and the only sure way of removing it is to make nished with appropriate tools. I may mention a drain at k, in impervious matter.

that Messrs William Cadell , Sons, & Co., Cra

mond, exhibited excellent specimens of every

5922. It is clear, from these illustrations, that tool for cutting field drains, as well as in hill

REALISATION .

646

pastures, at the showof the Highland and Agri- two portions of a field supposed to have the same cultural Society at Glasgow in August 1850 .

acclivity, and laid off in 6 equal ridges, a , b, c , and d , e, f, down the slope, three of which , a , b, c .

5927. There are a few considerations connected having the drains oblique, and three, d, e, f, with draining which yet require our attention, as

being necessary to the right understanding of the

down the slope, the drains being equidistant. Now , when rain falls on , and is absorbed by the

subject. Most drainers now believethat drains

ridges, a, b, c, d, e, f, it naturally makes it way

formed in the line of the inclination of the ground will drain the land more effectually than by drains traversing the face of the inclined ground, but some may still be found to question it as a fact. Without assuming more than one law of hydraulics, that water seeks the lowest level in all directions, I shall prove the accuracy of the

to the lowest level ; and as the ground has the same declivity, it will reach the bottom of the drains sooner or later, as the circumstances pre sented by the two systems of drains accele rate or retard its motion. Let us see how these circumstances should operate :-On the ridges d, e, f, the water will at first take the course on

opinion by referring to fig .538, which represents each towards the open furrows, as indicated by the deflected arrows at k ; and as ground has seldom only one plane of declination, but more commonly one to the right hand, and another to the left, froma toſ or from f to a, it follows that the lower side of a ridge thus situated will be sooner drained than the upper. But both sides

Fig. 538.

will soon be drained, as may be seen by reference to fig. 539, where a and b are verticalsections of drains, and c 1 foot of mould, in which the rain is absorbed as fast as it falls upon the ridge, 15 feet broad, betwixt a and b. What is absorbed, on seeking the lowest level by gravity , will hasten at first perpendicularly towards the line de ; and, in doing so , the portions nearest the

m

k

te per

drains will find it easier to move towards the open ducts d and e than the close ground at k . In thus moving, the water will always remain at a higher level at h than at d or e, and, by its

accumulation there, cause a constant lateral THE COMPARATIVE EFFICACY OF DRAINS ACROSS AND ALONG RIDGES ON A DECLIVITY .

pressure towards d and e, and this the more powerfully the greater the supply of water from above. It is believed by some that water finds

Fig . 539.

11:21 THE DESCENT OF WATER ON A RIDGE INTO A DRAIN ON EACH SIDE .

its way from the surface of a ridge to the drain ficial view , and suppose that d, e, f, and a , l, g, on either side along the imaginary inclined planes od and o e ; but no force exists at c to cause it

are open furrows, the water will only have to move 7 £ feet, as indicated by the arrows at k, to to take so decidedly a diagonal course, in coun- reach the open furrows d, e, and f ; whereas on teraction to the force of gravity which carries it the ridges a c , 1 m, and gi, it will have to move directly from o towards h. The fissures in drained across the entire breadth of 15 feet, just double retentive subsoil, having a perpendicular direc- the distance of the other, before it can reach the tion, conduct the water downwards with in- open furrows, a, l, g. creased velocity to the assistance of gravity ; and the assistance which the water finds in its way 5929. Trace the passage of the water under laterally into the drains d and e, from the centre the surface, through the substrata. Mr Thom force at h, is afforded by the fractures formed son, Hangingside, Linlithgowshire, drained 150 by shrinkage in the columnar masses of thesubsoil. acres of land having an inclination varying from 1 in 10 to 1 in 30.

Portions of 3 fields had

5928. On the ridges a b c, fig. 538, on the other

drains cut in them in 1828, 1829, and 1830, in hand, the water will have to traverse,in the the oblique direction, and, finding them less direction ofthe arrows b and h, the entire distance successful than the rest of the fields, heput them across the drains a and l orland g , instead of half in the direction of the slope. “ In order," says the distance on d , e, f ; for both sets of drains are he, “ to ascertain the cause of these failures, a supposed to be equidistant. So that the water cut was made in the field first referred to, enter.

should take double the time to reach the drains

ing at a given point, and carrying forward a

at a, l, and 9, than at d, e , and f. Take the super-

level to a considerable depth, when it was clearly

DRAINING .

647

seen that the substrata, instead of taking in any

upon soles. To meet this objection, collars and

degree the inclination of the surface, lay horizontally, as represented in fig. 540. It is there-

lobes have been contrived to connect them, all which are attended with trouble and expense .

Fig. 540.

derangement taking place in a drain with tiles of any kind, from whatever cause, the pipe -tile is a safer means of continuing the flow ofthe water than a tile without a sole; for an arched tile is not a duct, but only a cover to a duct, whether

There can be no doubt that in the case of

hia

WXTK

UMTIMINI RODITETA URRIT 777wurde die

THE ORDINARY POSITION OF SUBSTRATA IN REFER

a tile sole or the surface of the ground , when

ENCE TO THE SURFACE SOIL.

fore obvious, " he justly concludes, “ that, in making drains across a sloping surface, unless

no soles are used — and whenever the ground or sole is deranged, so must the duct be. But a pipe-tile, however deranged, remains still a duct

they are put in at the precise point where the

for the water ; and although one pipe may be

substrata crop out (and these are exceedingly

completely choked up with mud and rendered useless, the one before and behind will still ope

irregular in point of thickness,) they may in a great measure prove nugatory ; because, although one drain is near another, from the rise of the

rate as well as ever : no stoppage of water can

take place beyond the undisturbed pipe on each ground , none of them may reach the out- crop ; side of the derangement. A figure will best whereas, in carrying a drain right up the direc- illustrate this argument. It is obvious that no tion of a slope, it is impossible to miss the known species of force can act upon the tiles out-crop of every substratum passed through ." from below, to push them upwards; nor is it pro bable that any force can act upon them from 5930. And although drains in the oblique above. The only way that we can imagine a direction should cut through a vein of sand as derangement to take place is by the subsidence from f to g, fig. 539, and thereby carry off the of the ground below them , or by an inordinate water it contains, the drains along the inclina- quantity of water. Now suppose that the pipe tion would also cut through the same vein and tiles b c, d e, fig. 541, are displaced by the sink carry off the water as well. So that oblique drains present no advantage over those on the

Fig. 541.

inclination, while they are attended with many disadvantages. This experiment of Mr Thom son's strongly supports my recommendation of making exploratory cuts before determining the depth and distance of drains, (5793. ) 5931. The minimum depth which drains ought to have is easily ascertained by attending to the particulars of ordinary culture. A plough takes

DISPLACEMENT OF PIPE - TILES IN A DRAIN .

a depth of furrow of 7 or 8 inches ; subsoiling ing of the ground below them , andthat the earth and subsoil-trenching go 8 inches below that; a above them g has fallen down. The water will main -drain pipe-tile stands 6 inches high , and continue to run from the pipe f as usual, and less than 3 inches ought not to be left between will occupy theinterior of the pipes o and d , and the top of the tile and the bottom line of the partially that of b and e ; and although the earth subsoil plough. Thus 25 inches are the least may have fallen in between their ends, the water depth any drain ought to have, to preserve intact the materials with which it is filled .

will still find its way through e and b. The water will saturate the earth in g as high as until

it reaches the level of the pipes a and f, which,

5932. Although pipe -tiles are coming more into

remaining in their proper position, a will take it

use every year, many farmers still prefer the common tile, and some yet believe that a sole

away, and it can rise no higher. It matters

is not requisite on hard clays. It is marvellous how such an opinion should be held by those having daily opportunities of observing the effects of the elementsfor every farmer knows

not whether pipes are upset or not as o is seen to be - it continues a duct as good as ever . In stead of pipes, had there been tiles without soles,

they would instantly have been embedded in the soft earth , and rendered useless as covers to ducts;

that clay is softened by rain at the surface of and even had soles been furnished, the dis the ground; and when drains are formed in clay placement of them would have rendered them for no other purpose than to conduct water along their bottom , why should they doubt that

equally useless as ducts.

water will soften clay as easily at the bottom as

5934. It is not an uncommon impression that pipes, being close along their sides, cannot take

at the top of a drain 1 The question of economy interferes; for it is, I suspect, cheaper to use a tile alone than a tile and sole. But a pipe -tile is as cheap as a tile without a sole, so that the plea of

in the water from the drain so quickly as a tile and sole . Whether they can do so as fast is of

no consequence if it can be proved that ordinary

economy can now urge no objection against them . pipe-tilesare sufficient to take away the largest 5933. Objections are made to pipe -tiles, that on being laid in the drains, they are not connected together like tiles that are laid to break band

quantity of rain that will probably ever fall in this country. I can prove this in a simple man ner. Suppose that egg -shaped tiles of 2 inches wide and 24 inches in the bore are used, their oir

648

REALISATION .

cumference is 10 inches. These tiles cannot be

afford openings for water to enter them of ex-

exchequer will allow ; the farm will be gone over in as short a time, and much more profitably ." The reason Mr Stirling gives for holding this opinion is as practical as it is true ; because “ a tid-proper condition of the ground for harrow ing - cannot be taken advantage of on the drained furrow until the other is dry , and the benefit of an extended period for performing the various

actly 600 square inches, equal to 4 square feet and 24 square inches. Does any one doubt that an opening of 4 square feet and upwards would easily contain all the water that could possibly come out of one drain of 200 yards long in the

operations of the farm is thus lost.” I Every farmer who has studied the influence of soil is ready to allow thatwet soil does more injury to the dry in its neighbourhood , than the dry does good to the wet. I would, therefore, under

greatest rain that was ever remembered to have

every circumstance of season and soil, prefer

placed closer to each other by the ends than an

eighth of an inch apart, so the area comprised be. tween two tiles is 14 square inch . Suppose that the drain is 200 yards in length, to furnish which 480 pipesof 15 inches in length are required. Now the joints between this number of pipe-tiles

fallen in this country ? It may be very true having the half of my farm thoroughly, to the from this, that inch -bore pipe -tiles are sufficiently large for drainage, as the practice of some Eng lish drainers demonstrates; but I do not see the utility and safety of using the smallest boreof applying the homeopathic principle to drain-

whole of it only half drained. On visiting a friend in Dumfriesshire, when he was draining his land in halves, I recommended the full

drainage at once.

After a sufficient trial he

followed my advice, and thanked me for it .

ing - when a much larger bore can be afforded

for a comparatively less sum of money.

5937. A pipe-tile of an arch upon a flat sole,

fig. 542, was introduced some years ago by Lord 5935. The bulk of earth relieved of its sur

Fig. 542

plus water is an effect I suspect but little re garded when the depths of drains are determined ; and yet I conceive this to be the true expression of the work done, as a mere statement of the cost

of drainage per acre of surface conveys but an im perfect idea of the substantial benefit conferred upon the land. Thus, taking the cost of 2 feet drains, in stiff clays, 24 feet apart, at £ 3, 4s. 3d.

per acre ; of 3 feet drains, in porous soils, 331 feet asunder, at £2, 58. 2d. '; and of 4 feet drains, in soils of varied texture, 50 feet apart, at £ 2, 5s., the following results in cubic yards as to the depth, and in square yards as to the surface,

drained for one penny, at the above mentioned prices, depths, and distances, will be obtained :

A CONCRETE PIPE - TILE,

James Hay, of Seaton , Aberdeenshire . It was formed of concrete, composed of good lime, sharp sand and gravel, mixed in the proportion of 1

bushel of lime-shells to 24 bushels of sand and 4 bushels of gravel, which, in swelling, gave 8 bushels of concrete that made 120 tiles.

The

concrete was run into moulds, in which it soon set firm enough to be placed on boards, and the

tiles became in a short time, according to the

Mass of soil Surface ofsoil drained for drained for ld . per cubic ld . in square yards . yard . 4.1 6.27 8.93 8.93 8.96 12.00

state of the air, in a sufficiently indurated state to be used . One man , aided by perhaps 4 others to supply the materials, could make 5000 tiles a -day. When the quantity of boarding is taken into consideration, I have great doubts of this

The results are, generally, that double the depth of drain has effect on about three times the cubical contents of the earth , and about half more in extent of surface ; and, particularly, that 3 and 4 feet drains in depth dry about the same extent of surface, though the 4 feet drain dries one- half more of the ground in cubical contents . *

can only be made in those localities where sharp sand and gravel are found in abundance - sub stances which cannot be carried to a distance but at great expense .

Depth of the

Distance be tween the

Mass of soil drained per

drains in feet .

drains in teet.

acre in cubic

yards.

2 3

24

32265

333

4

50

4840 6153

process affording a cheap tile ; at all events, it

5938. Drainage has an unexpected effect upon the organic as well as the mineral matter of

peat. The proportion of humic, ulmic, and other

5936. The late Mr Smith recommended that, soluble acids taken up by alkali, and of resin complete the drainage at once, each alternate

extracted by alcohol from drained and undrained peat, dried at 212° Fahrenheit, were as fol

drain may be executed in the first instance, and

lows :

“in cases where time or capital are awanting to the remainder can be done the next time the

field is to be broken up."t I would meet this Wax and resin ,

recommendation in the words of the late Mr

Humicandulmic acids,

Stirling of Glenbervie, that “ I think it a great

Humic , and insoluble undecayed

error to make at first the half the number of drains required , with the intention of putting one between each at a future period. Let what

Earthy matter , or ash ,

vegetable matter ,

Drained . 1.75 6.56

Ondrained . 1.63 14.62

78.18 13.51

47.15 36.60

100.00

100.00

is drained be done as thoroughly as the farmer's

* Journal of the Agricultural Society of England , vol. v. p. 154-6. + Smith's Remarks on Thorough- Draining, p. 17 , 4th edition.

# Prize Essays of the Ilighland and Agricultural Society, vol. xii. p. 102.

DRAINING .

“ The difference which the above numbers show

649

to take away a very small quantity of alkaline

to exist between these two peats is sufficiently salts. Even in the case referred to above, where striking ," observes Professor Johnston ; " and it the solid matter amounted to 12 per cent, the would be both theoretically and practically inte- surface-water contained 2 per centofpotashand resting, were we certain that it prevailed generally between drained and undrained peats, and wasnot owing merely to specific or local causes. In the undrained peat there are 144 per cent of

soda, while the drainage-water only indicated a tracing - showing that the subsoil had either been clayey, or that drainage -water does not take

away the soluble ingredients of the soil in so large a quantity as might be apprehended . formed naturally by decaying vegetable matter Were drains perfectly made, so as the water — which dissolves in causticpotash and soda, should go through them in a slow manner, the and in the carbonate of these alkalis. But as the spoils it would be able to carry away from the acid matter - of those black acids which are

peat contains 363 per cent of mineral matter, the organic part contains 14.62 parts in 631, or

soil would be of very small amount.t

33 per cent. In other words, one-third of the vegetable matter of the undrained peat is in a

the quantity, as well as the quality, of the water

state of humic and ulmic acids. The drained,

discharged by drains at any given time.

again , contain 6.56 parts of these acids in 100 of

Milne, of Milne-Graden in Berwickshire, has con

5940. It would be as desirable to ascertain Mr

the natural peat, or in 86.49 parts of its purely trived a machine by which the discharge may be vegetable portion.

This is equivalent to 7.5

measured accurately enough for all practical

parts in 100 of the organic matter; or, instead purposes, of which fig. 543 is a view in section, of ļ , the acid substances in the drained peat form only i'pth of its organic portion. Supposing such

Fig. 543.

a difference to be general, it indicates that the

effect of removing the water by means of drains, and admitting the air, is to render the organic part of the peat insoluble, or to change the humic and ulmic acids into insoluble matter devoid of acid properties. This change is by no means an improbable one, and is consistent with the pre

C

vious observations of Sprengel as to the alteration which the acids of peat undergo by exposure to the air. It is this acid matter in peat which preserves wood , the bodies of animals, and other substances embedded in it, from decay, and which proves noxious to the roots of plants. One of the immediate benefits resulting from the action of lime, when applied to peaty soils, is

6

g

owing to its combining with these acids, and A DRAIN-WATER METER . thus depriving them of their injurious action up on the crop sown or planted on peaty soils. If it where a is the drain -mouth which supplies the be made clearly out, by further researches, that water ; b the vessel which receives the water ; o the usual effect of draining upon such soils is to

an upright spindle , which carries a rack that

change this acid matter, to deprive it of its acidity, and thus render it insoluble and unhurtful to plants, a very considerable light will be thrown upon this important point of the manage

sets in motion a series of graduated wheels and racks which markthe tenths, hundredths, and thousandths of gallons discharged in a specified time. When the vessel b becomes full of water,

ment and amelioration of our wet and boggy it descends towards the bottom of the box in land of every kind." *

which it is placed, by turning upon the axle d , in doing which it moves the ratchet-wheeleon

5939. A drawback against the advantages of the spindle c by means of a short lever, and dis

drainingmay be founded on the quantity ofmat- chargesits water by the opening at g. When one ter, whether chemically dissolved or mechanicit in its passage through the soil by the drains. After a large fall of rain, recent experiments have detected as much as 12 per centofsolid ally suspended, which the water takes out with

half ofthe vessel b descends and emptiesits water, from the drain -mouth a , and,after being filled, descends again to its own side of the box, and empties its water by another opening g.

the other half, f, ascends to receive the water

matter that had been carried off by drainage

water , while spring -water contains about 8, and

5941. Mr Milne placed a meter at the mouth

filtered water only 4 , per cent. It is very pro

of a main drain in connection with a system of

bable that,through loosesubsoil, a largefall of drainsof different depths, draining each 6 acres rain may carry with it a considerable proportion of ground ; and after the meters had remained of earthy matter held in suspension, and a small proportion of saline matters ; but in clay soils we have reason to believe, from the experiments

of Professor Way, (5116 ,) thatrain -water is able

from June 1848 to April 1849, the following re sults were obtained : Gallons per acre .

At 3 feet deep and 15 feet distance, 30 3

* Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, March 1848, p. 237. + Scottish Farmer, 1850.

35,711 46,510

REALISATION .

650

It appears that rather more water had been dis .

15 per cent. The tenant, therefore, should re

charged from the 31 feet deep than the 3 feet deepceive at least 18 per cent for his disbursements, drains, though the latter were as the foriner.

twice as numerous

while the landlord should be satisfied with at

In the parts of the field drained

most 8 per cent for his. For, as regards the tenant, the 19 years is the longest period he can

by the 3 feet drains, more water was left in the land, or went off by evaporation , and there was

calculate upon to receive back his money, and

also less depth of soil to the drains. There was

his case is not made better though the lease

more straw grown on the land drained with the

should be renewed, as new conditions will be

3 feet drains, and most grain on that drained by the 31 feet drains. The grain grown on the latter was probably produced with greater dryness and warmth, as the larger quantity of rainthey carried off would impart to the soil a greater amount

lay. But when a landlord effects improvements,

of heat.

common rate of interest he would receive were

The subsoil was pretty uniformly re-

tentive throughout the field, and the upper soil was not perceptibly more open in one part than

in another. So far, therefore, as these experiments had proceeded, they showed that, if drains

made as if he were a stranger — which are good reasons for his receiving 18 per cent on his out he derives benefit from them for an indefinite

period ; and all he can expect in return is the he to invest his money in any ordinary security, and which seldom exceeds 5 per cent. So that to induce him to undertake any trouble greater than receiving an annual payment of interest, some greater temptation than the ordinary rate

were made 3 feet deep, only half the number will produce the same, and even a still better of interest should be proffered to him ; and effect, than 3 feet drains. The expense of mak- although the farm to be drained is his own pro ing the 34 feet deep drains, at 30 feet distance, perty , he cannot be expected to give himself the was £4 , 6s. 4d. per acre, and of the 3 feet deep trouble to borrow money and pay the ordinary ones, at 15 feet apart, £8, 12s. 4 d . per acre . 5942. From the careful experiments conducted

interest for it, or lay out his own money and receive in return no more than common interest. The interest of money fluctuating from 33 to 5 per

by Mr Dickenson, the eminent paper-maker, at cent, there is therefore nothing unreasonable in Abbot's Hall, near King's Langley, Hertfordshire, the average quantity of rain which falls there

his receiving a greater rate than the ordinary one for the time being.

annually is 26.6 inches, more than the average fall on the east coast of Scotland, and 42 per

cent of it is filtered through the soil, amounting to 11.17 of the 26.6 inches.

5946. Now, what is the conclusion that should be drawn from these premises ? Clearly that the landlord should undertake the entire expense of draining upon himself ; because his interest in

the improvement is permanent — he has the strongest motives for executing it — his demands upon the land are moderate, amounting only to when draining was executed at their mutual the usual rate of interest—and in disbursing a expense. On cogitating on the subject, I came portion of his capital, a smaller portion of the to the following conclusions :-Suppose a land capital of the country is placed in jeopardy than lord determines on thorough -draining a farm , when the tenant undertakes to disburse the

5943. At one time it was a rather difficult matter to settle the proportion of the cost which the landlord and the tenant should each pay

takes it into his own hands, and disburses every

cost attending the operation . When his pur pose has been attained, it is no more than reasonable in him to desire to receive back his disbursements, principal and interest, during the 19 years he is about to dispose of his farm to a tenant ; for if the farm will not repay the ex-

pense of its improvement in the reasonable period

whole expense.

5947. In the preceding suppositions, either the landlord or the tenant is supposed to undertake the entire drainage ; but when a mutual under standing exists betwixt them , its conditions should be based onthe principle, that both parties should receive their respective rates of interest,

of 19 years, little advantage will be derived namely, the landlord his 8 and the tenant his 18 from it. Now, a landlord will receive back all his disbursements, principal and interest, in a 19 years' lease, at 8 per cent on the money ex-

per cent; nor should the tenant grudge his land

pended .

with ordinary skill, 18 per cent ; and although both these rates are charged upon the land, they will not amount to a large annual exaction upon

lord his . 8 per cent, or the landlord exact a greater rent than will enable the farm to repay the tenant,

5944. Suppose, again , a tenant disbursed all the expense, he would be equally reasonable in it. For example, suppose four- fifths, or £80 out

expecting 8 per cent on his outlay during the of every £ 100,are expended by the landlord — and lease .

some landlords have willingly expended this pro portion - he should receive £6, 8s. a -year as his

5945. But the positions of landlord and tenant, 8 per cent ; and the tenant, to receive 18 per cent on expending the same sum in draining a farm , on his fifth, or £20, should have £3, 12s. a -year, are widely different. The tenant is not only both sums together making 10 per cent on the entitled to receive the 8 per cent — that is, get whole outlay ; which, if exacted as an annual back all his outlay — but he is also entitled to a tribute from the land, would only amount to 4s. profit for his personal trouble in undertaking the an acre on land worth 40s.-a sum , it is obvious, draining ; which profit should be the same as which its thorough-drainage would easily repay. commercial people generally expect on their out ys, which is now 10 per cent, and used to be

5948. This question be een landlord and

IMPROVING WASTE LAND .

651

tenant has been much simplified by the terms of cuted, but much time lost in remedying the Drainage Act, which empowers_ parties desirous of draining land to apply to the Treasury for a grant of money adequate to do the work, for which 61 per cent interest is payable for 22

failures.

5951. Independently of tree- roots and

numerous stones, the roots of brushwood practice has settled down to the landlord giving such as of hazel, alder, birch , broom, and the Treasury the security on his land for the whin - render ploughing difficult and little repayment of the loan, while the tenant pays the satisfactory I have tried the plough years, when the entire debt is liquidated. The

to pay the per refuse it farmers Few 64 per cent. conceive is too much ing of whinny ground, intermixed with others though centage, for a tenant to pay. If he pays the 6 per bushes of birch, with a four-borse plough, cent for 19 years, the term of his lease, the and been glad to relinquish the work , on

farm been thorough-drained when he took it, he seeing the horses stopped every few would have had to pay morerent for it than the minutes with sudden jerks, while the 64 per cent would be ; but if he bebound to ground was deeply turned over in many

pay the whole amount of the percentage of the places, whilst inothers it was only scratch 22 years in 19 years — which some landlords exact ed with the points of the coulter and sock.

-then he is in a hardship;for whenthe lease Employed in such work, the wind of two for other 19 years at the advanced rent of valuable borses of my own was completely thorough-drained land, while he has only to pay destroyed. the 64 per cent for three years .

5952. When the ground is compara tively free of roots of all kinds, and of ON IMPROVING WASTE LAND .

stones in the subsoil, it may be turned over with the plough in all places where

5949. Where the surface of the ground it is practicable, and in the other parts, require to be brought into cultivation by ployed to trench the ground, which will other means thanthe plough. When the therewith be turned over at a compara that has been drained is waste, it may however isolated, the spade should be em

ground consists of thesite of an old plan- tively small cost. tation, it is impossible to bring it under 5953. Very rough grassy ground that the plough but by trenching it with the spade. The smallest root forms an inextri- has been drained froma swamp, contain cable obstacle to the plough ; and the ing the roots of sub - aquatic plants, as destruction in implements, injury to horses, rushes and others, should be ploughed and the time spent in removing the ob- with the four-horse plough-the only ob to occur being the choking of structions, cause more waste of money and stacle likely the beam in front of the coulter with tufts time than trenching with the spade. of the grass, which shonld either be re

5950. In like manner, when it has been ascertained, by the sinking of pits, that the subsoil contains a large quantity of stones, of whatever size, though the ground has not been the site of a plantation, it should be trenched in preference to being plouglied. In ploughing stony ground, though free of other obstructions, the plough meets such opposition from large stones as constantly to stop its progress; and the shock not only endangers the im-

moved with the plough -staff, fig. 5, by a person walking beside the plough; or, wbat is better, the grass should have been mown with the scythe before the ploughing com menced. The furrow of the four -horse plough will be both deep and broad , and will become much mellowed by exposure to the frost of the ensuing winter. It should not be turned over too early in summer or autumn, to afford time to the grass to con nect the edges of furrow - slices together.

plement, but injures the shoulders of the

horses so much as, when frequently so 5954. Smooth grassy land that has lain stopped, they become timid whenever put comparatively in a waste state in conse to similar work ; and even where the nume- quence of inundations of water in winter, rous stones are small, the plough cannot but is now protected by an embankment,

maintain its hold of the ground, and is (5744,) should be ploughed at once ; and easily and frequently thrown out, so that an ebb and broad furrow -slice should be the ploughing is not only imperfectly exe- well laid over to assist in rotting the grass.

REALISATION .

652

5955. Deep moss that has recently been overplus, “ consumption dykes," as they are drained cannot at first be ploughed, and called, several feet in height and breadth, must therefore be dug with the spade. The

are erected in lieu of fences.

As many

surface of such ground is often very rough ; as 800 tons have been trenched out of and the turf, when ied , becomes very an acre in that county. In the southern tough and difficult to reduce into mould. parts of the county of Antrim , in Ireland, Deep digging is absolutely necessary where I have seen large quantities of small trap the surface turf is very rough, in order to boulders trenched out of the subsoil. bury it for decomposition. 5958. On improving waste land that

5956. In trenching the site of an old had been the siteof a plantation, or very plantation, the ground should be marked stony ground, it should be trenched before out in divisions of 30 feet in breadth ; being drained, because the cost ofdraining, and 3 men working together will do in such cases, would be very much increased more and better work than when working were it done before the obstructions from alone, as the one assists the others when roots and stones were removed. Where the extracting the roots of the trees. No im- stones are numerous enough to drain the

plement is so efficient in cutting the land, it will be cheaper to break and use ramified roots of a tree than the common them for that purpose, thanto take them mattock, fig. 544, which on one arm has away and purchase tiles in their stead. Fig. 544.

a horizontal cutting face, and on the other

5959. The ordinary trenching of ground

a vertical one. It is with the spade has been described in

used like a band- (3148) to (3150.) Fork -trenching, which pick, fig. 452 ; and is always accompanied with spade- trench one or both cutting ing, has also been fully described from faces are required (3151 ) to (3155.) alternately to cut through а strong

5960. The expense of trenching rough

An axe would ground 16 inches deep - and it should soon be blunted by never be shallower to insure a good plough root.

A MATTOCK .

the earth necessarily furrow ever afterwards — is from 10d. to adhering to the 1s. per pole, according to the roughness of

sinaller roots, though a large thick root the ground. I have had very rough is easier cut through with an axe than a ground, consisting of the large roots

mattock - care being first taken to wipe of a scattered wood, with brushwood of off the earth from the part of the root to birch, alder, wbin, and broom, and con be operated upon by the axe. All the taining as many stones as would have

roots, great and small, should be laid upon half-drained the ground, trenched 16 the surface of the trenched ground be- inches deep for £ 6, 138. 3d. per acre, hind the workmen, and the hollows left which is practically 10d. per pole for the by them in the ground filled up, and the spade work alone - a large sum , undoubt surface levelled . edly, independent of draining, clearing away rubbish , and incurring other horse

5957. In trenching very stony ground, and manual labour. But when the ground the foot-pick, fig. 247, is the most efficient was rendered at once from a state of wil implement for loosening them out of the derness to be fit for the manure being subsoil, (3149.) The iron lever will be applied and covered in with an ordinary required to raise what cannot be effected plough -furrow of mould, the expense was

by the foot-pick ; and the largest boulders of all will require to be blown to pieces by gunpowder, with more shots perhaps than one. The stones should be laid upon the trenched ground. In many parts of Kin-

not inordinate. Though trenching may not be the cheapest mode, in a pecuniary point of view, of rendering landavailable to the plough, it is, at all events, the most pleasant and satisfactory one for every

cardineshire, the stones are so numerous subsequent operation. in the subsoil as not only to afford as many 5961. Trenching may be executed at as to drain the land, but, to get quit of the

IMPROVING WASTE LAND.

any season ; but to allow time for subsequent operations, it is best and most pleasantly done in the long dry warm days of summer, and should be finished by early autumn. The contractorshould be bound to spend as much of his time

653

the late Mr James Carmichael, Raploch farm , near Stirling : “ In winter, plough ing the land intended to be levelled and

straightened in the succeeding summer, the plough was entered in the side of the ridge, exactly in the middle between the

amongst the workmen as possible, taking crown and the open-furrow; and thus one

perhaps a lot to himself if he find leisure; and the farmer should have a person to superintend the work in the progress of execution, as some of the men will endea-

fourth of the ridge was gathered up (749) from the open - furrow on each side of the ridge, while the open -furrow was left as open and deep as possible. The remaining vour to make the trenched ground seem half of the ridge was then cloden down, as high as it ought to be, although the without gore-furrows ( 767 ) the crown solid ground may not bave been dug to being laid completely bare, so that every the depth it should have been. It will be ridge was divided into two. The work the farmer's own fault in superintendence thus remained high and dry during the if the work be ill executed. winter. In May or June following, the plough gathered up about two feet oneach 5962. If turf is desired for any purpose, side of the crown of the ridge of the

waste land, when about to be improved, exposed subsoil, which was about 5 feet in affords a favourable opportunity for supplying it. Good tough turf is not easy to be obtained, and is at all times an expensive article. A man will cast from 4 to 6 cart- loads of one ton eachper day, according to the smoothness and softness of the

breadth. After this it was ploughed into drills, and removed, either by shovels or with a 2 - horse levelling- box, into the deep open furrows. The plough was again employed to make drills in the crown, and thesubsoil removed into the open -furrows;

ground. The usual thickness of turf is and the same operation was repeated until about 3 inches, when one square yard will the open -furrows were raised apparentlyg

weigh 54 lbs., one ton willcover 414 square yards, or 14 roods of 6 yards, with turfs of 12 by 18 inches. In the country the carriage is the heaviest charge against

above the level of the crowns. This bein done, part of the formerly accumulated soil on the sides of the ridges was cloven down by the plough upon the recently

turf ; and in towns it cost from 8s. to 20s.

removed subsoil in the open - furrows, on the one hand, and upon the bared crowns

per ton, according to quality.

on the other hand. The land was then

5963. In the improvement of waste cross-harrowed, and twice cross- ploughed land, it is desirable to have its surface as and harrowed alternately as deep as pos

even as practicable, by the removal of sible, and every inequality removed before sudden hollows and heights. No hollow the ridges were re-formed straight. The

should be filled up without a drain being whole process is exceedingly simple, and previously made in it, to take away the its advantages are perfectly obvious ;for water that will naturally tend towards it ; while every particle of the originalsurface and no height should be lowered without is thus carefully preserved, the subsoil is first having the upper soil removed and so sparingly andequally incorporatedwith

then replaced upon the lowered ground. it, that not a doubt can remain of the Taking off and putting back the ordinary beneficial resultof the operation. Where soil of a field costs 4d. per cubic yard the ridges have been very broad and high, for each operation. it will be found necessary to remove part of the subsoil from the sides of the ridges

5964. In levelling high gathered -up also after the crown has been refilled, crooked ridges in clay soil, much precau- particularly wheu the subsoil is tilly ; but

tion is requisite, because the soil, exposed this is easily performed by 2 or 3 women after the lowering of the ridges, will take or boys going after the plough, and throw a considerable time to be brought into a ing the remains of till turned up into the state of fertility. A mode, however.of level- furrows; or, should the ridges be too ling such ridges in drained land, to avoid broad for this, the levelling -box will effect this inconvenience, was thus described by the purpose .”

654

REALISATION .

5965. The labour attending this operation will depend on circumstances, such as the breadth and crookedness of the ridges, and the strength of the clay soil.

surface, minor ones require emendation, the neglect of which renders the surface of improved_arable land unpleasant to the sight. The inequalities I allude to In dry weather, the operation will be more are slight hollows, low heights running expeditiously and better done than in wet, across several ridges, making one side or

the soil being rendered light by the heat part of a ridge higher than the other, or of the sun ; and in changeable weather no part of the headridge higher than the more subsoil should be ploughed than can ridges, and such like blemishes. The

be removed during the course of the day .* best and most economical method of getting quit of them is by the employment

5966. Besides larger inequalities of of the levelling -box, fig. 545, which, Fig. 545.

THE LEVELLING- BOX, OR SCOOP.

according to the nature of the soil to be for being held in the hands of the con removed, and the distance to be carried , ductor.

The draught-chains, with their

may be worked by one or two borses. stretcher d , are attached to an eye-bolt or The figure represents one of the latter a staple on either side of the scoop. The

kind, furnished with fixed handles and levelling-scoop is frequently fitted up in draught-chains. The two sides b a , b a, a manner somewhat different in the mode

having the same depth where they join of attaching the handles. A strong gudgeon the back, are curved off to nothing at the is fixed in each side at the placeof attach

front. It is requisite for strength that it ment of the chains ; and the terminations be made of hard wood ; but the common of the chains being an eye-bolt or link, it

willow, from its toughness and lightness, is passed upon the gudgeon . Thehandles, is perhaps better adapted than any other in place of being fixed to the sides, have wood for this purpose. The soleof the aneye formed in theirend and strengthened scoop is armed with a strong shoeing of with iron, wbich passes also upon the iron, terminating in a sharp cutting edge. gudgeon, and are held there by a washer

Two skeds or bolsters, are fixed on the and cotrel. A second pair of gudgeons lower side of the sole, thinned off forward are strongly fixed , one upon each corner

to give facility of entrance in the soil to of the box at the back, in a position that the cutting -edge of the scoop, and upon will pass through the handles when they

which it runs like a sledge when filled. are at a proper height. The bandles are All the corners are strongly bound with here also pierced and defended with iron, iron plates, and the skeds upon which it 80 as to slide freely off and on upon these runs are coveredwith strong sheet or hoop second gudgeons, and their extremities

iron. The handles,b c,6 c, are bolted to broughtas before to a convenient width . the sides, and so fitted as to bring the extremities, cc, to a convenient distance

5967. The method of using the level

* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. ix. p. 37-9.

IMPROVING WASTE LAND .

655

ling -box or scoop is - after the plough is of the horses for this purpose necessarily first made to turn over the soil lightly on loses much time. An active stout man is the height to be removed, the levelling- required to work either form of levelling box, worked by a pair of horses, then box as it ought to be done. follows, and takes up, from one end of the ploughed ground, as much soil as it can

5968. Land so drained and trenched

contain , the conductor holding by the stilts and which operations may be continued

or handles. The box is filled by the con- during the winter and early spring - should ductor allowing the handles to rise asmuch as that the edge a a of the sole shall bite the ground ; and on these being drawn forward by the horses, the box is filled to

bear, for its first crop, potatoes or turnips ; and of these I would prefer the turnips, because they, being eaten off by sheep, will atonce put the drained land into a

any extent, when by the handles being state of comparative fertility. Oats are a pressed down the front edge is relieved favourite crop, for the first one, with im from the ground, and the machine travels provers of soil, because it assists in rotting upon its skeds.

On arriving at the hollow turf quicker than green crops ; and where

grass has been ploughed, it is the best first crop that can be taken. It is out of the question to attempt winter wheat upon newly brought in soil, in a loosened state, earth smooth by passing the box over it. at so late a period of the year, even though

place to be filled up, the box is made by the conductor to capsize by raising up the handles, which gets quitof the load of earth ; and whenever it is emptied, he levels the

Of the two sorts of levelling-boxes, the a sufficient quantity of manure should be one in fig . 545 is, in my opinion, the most at hand. The soil cannot be sufficiently handy. It is easily filled by raising the pulverisedby spring to insure success in handles a little, and giving the scoop barley. Oats do not succeed well on a catch of the mould . It is as easily trenched ground, their pabulum , the turf, transported to its destined spot, by lean- being buried in the trench. Let it be de

ing on the handles, which causes the box cided, then, that turnips are the most to travel on its keel. It is as easily upset, advisable crop under the circumstances.

when arrived at its destined place, by Should the draininghavebeen accomplished raising the handles a little, when the at a previous period, or early in winter, ground catches the sbarp edge and over- to preserve the surface of the land dry,

turns the box, the handles striking against the ground should be feered and gathered and resting upon the stretcher d. The box up from the flat, (749,) with a very light

is returned to its working position upon furrow , the hint-end furrows neatly cleared its bottom immediately, or it may move out, and gawcuts made in all thehollows, along npon its mouth, smoothing the sur- and across the lower head - ridge into the

face till it reaches the ploughed soil, when, adjoining open ditch ; in which state the by a sudden pull of a ropeattached to one land will remain safe all winter until of the handles, it regains its working posi- spring arrive, when it should receive a tion . In all these movements the horses harrowing, after which it will be ready to are not stopped , but proceed from one be formed into drills, dunged, and sown with place to another as directed, while the box turnip seed, as fully described for turnip is filling and emptying in constant succes- husbandry, in (3204.) It has been observed sion.

The box having the movable that,wherewhinshad grown,the turnips are

handles, is worked rather differently. better than after any other natural shrub. When the bandles are let free of the gud geons by the conductor, the box easily

5969. It is imagined by some that, where

capsizes; but unless the horses are stopped, land is thorough -drained, it is unnecessary there is difficulty in shipping the handles again quickly upon the gudgeons — which, if not quickly done, when the box regains its working position, by itself, the edge again bites the ground, and capsizes the empty box again ; which will thus continue

and even injurious to put it into ridges, but rather to have it in a continuous flatwithout an open furrow . The object of keeping land in the flat state is to allow the rain to percolate through it alike everywhere into the drains. What

to be overturned until the handles are particular advantage the soil can derive fastened on the gudgeons. The stopping by the upiform percolation of the rain 1

REALISATION .

656

through its surface I cannot well con- the piece of work appropriated to him over ceive, since the water must leave the

twoor four ridges that the work appears

soil soonest where the drains are nearest, distinctive, and each man’s distinctive and therefore no form of surface can pos- style of work is not obliterated by any sibly cause all the water to leave the soil

at thesame time.

one following him.

But the common

The division of the sur- plough cannot plough the surface without

face into ridges marks it usefully for leaving open furrows, and were the attempt

the distribution of seed and labour ; and made, one open furrow at least must be when labour of whatever kind is bestowed

left either on each side or in the centre of

on ridges, appropriated to different the field ; and in either case, the ploughs labourers, each responsible for the work must have lostmuch time in going idly from he does, the work of each is distin- one side of the field to the other . But

guishable from the rest ; whereas, were the although the common plough could lay the ground not laid out into ridges, the ploughs land flat without an open furrow, strong must either follow one another round the land should never be laid flat on any circumference, or one plough be left to account. do all the work of each field. Where

5970. The only implement which can ploughs follow one another, the work is invariably ill done, one furrow being turn over the ſurrows in one direction is the broader or deeper than another - it being turn -wrist plough : the one invented by the well known that no two ploughmen turulate Mr Wilkie, Uddingston ,is represented over the ground exactly in the same in perspective in fig. 546. It has twomould manner .

It is because each man executes

boardsdd, whose inside faces are attached

Fig. 546.

d

WILKIE'S TURN- WRIST PLOUGH,

together by means of two iron bars b by so as over to the right hand ; and on coming to when one mould -board is in operation the the land's end, the other mould -board is

other is elevated in the air. These bars are brought down on the left hand side of the attached at rightangles to an iron spindle a, plough, and by it the furrow -slice is turned which at one end c is seated in a plummer over to the left hand—which is still placed block , and furnished with a crank-handle, in the same direction as when the plough

and at the other terminates in the coulter- ing was turning over the furrow - slice to box e. To the crank - handle c is attached the right hand, in moving in the opposite

a spring which falls into a notch on each direction. The ploughman requires some side of a semi-circle, as the spindle a is turned round to place either mould -board in its position for ploughing ; and while doing this it also acts upon the head of the coulter so as to cause its point to stand over the point of the sock which in this imple-

practice to become acquainted with the working of this plough, as he does not at first feel at home when the furrow -slice is turning over to the left hand.

5971. It is known that, in ploughing ment is attached to the mould -board in- steep land with the common plough, the

stead of the head. This plough acts in soil has always a tendency to come down the same manner as the common plough, the incline. The turn -wrist plough, laying when the mould -board is set as seen in

all the furrows in the same direction,

the figure, the furrow -slice being turned might be usefully employed in turning the

SUBSOILING.

furrow -slice up the inclination, which, on repetition, would have the effect of retain-

657

5975. The composition of the tussac grass is as follows :

ing the soil upon it. 5972. Peaty soil on the sea-shore has been re commended to be planted with the tussac grass, Dactylis cæspitosa . “ This remarkable grass is perennial, and forms, with its densely-matted

Protein compounds, Sugar, gum , and extracting

3.32

3.64

1.30

3.07

5.68

11.86

40.88

47.94

1.14 86.09

1.37 75.27

8.23

5,12

matter , extracted by water, Other

nutritious

insoluble in water , but ex-

little album

23.88

8.93

substances

tracted by potash , roots, crowded but isolated billocks,or tumuli, Woody fibre,(encellulose with a to 6 feet in height, and 3 or 4 feet in diameter,

3 from which the leaves and stems spring. Roots fibrous, the fibres very tortuous ; stems or culms numerous, rising from the hillocks erect, branch ed, 3 or 4 feet long, smooth, compressed, leafy ,

RECENT STATE DRIED AT 230º. Lower Upper Lower Upper part . part . pari . part. 4.79 17.81 19.38 2.47

,

Saline matter, (ash ) Water,

"}

9.20 18.63

100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

and pale yellow, abounding in saccharine matter, and, when young, esculenteven for men ." It was

observed in 1842 by Dr J. D. Hooker growing luxuriantly on peaty seaward exposures, and to whom the merit is due of its introduction into Europe . It abounds on the shores of the Falk land Islands, and is much relished by cattle and horses. *

5976. Its ash affords these proportions of in

gredients : From Lews .

Chloride of sodium , Chloride of potassium , Sulphate of potash ,

Carbonate of potash ,

5973. Its cultivation has been attempted in the Island of Lews by Mr Matheson, and by Mr

Traill at Woodwick, Island of Ronsay, Orkney. At Lewis it succeeded only at Holm, in 1844, in deep brown moss of medium dryness, close to the sea, and on being delved over was cut in small pieces with the spade, and the seeds of the

tussac grass were then sprinkled in and roughly covered with a rake, and trampled in with the foot. Its stools in the second year were almost as strong as those in its third, and it shed its

seed in both years. In the spring of 1847, three acres of the same moss, which had been drained with three feet deep drains at twenty feet apart,

with shoulder and wedge drains, were dug, 12 inches deep ; and after it was broken with a hoe,

Carbonate of lime, Carbonate of magnesia ,

Phosphate of magnesia , and a little phos. phate of lime, Phosphate of iron , Silica ,

Percentage of ash ,

12.21 36.01 14.34 14.16 4.42 0.41

From Mr Lawson's Nursery . 2.62 17.29 12.09 17.98 14.37

5.84

14.74

12.96

1.64 3.09

4.15 11.84

101.02

99.74

6.29

7.79

The proportions of alkaline salts in both is very large ; in this they agree with the turnip. The proportion of phosphates is small compared with grass ; in this they resemble turnips and fruits. The quantity of silica is small for a grass. The differences of the two specimens are consider

able; the Lews gives more alkalis and chlorides,

and less lime and silica , than Mr Lawson's, which

and a sprinkling of guano appiied, single plants might havebeen expected from the difference of of the tussac grass were dibbled in at 3 feet 4 inches apart. The plant was succulent, with broad green leaves, and three feet long, the second as well as the third year, and many of the

locality.t

stools when planted out were found to have 500

ON TRENCE AND SUBSOIL PLOUGHING.

plants. The moss should be dug in January, and the plants set in February, March, and April , with a slight spreading of moss thrown over them to prevent the sun drying the moss too

the soil received the assent of the agricul

5977. Since the general draining of

much, and May and June are too late for their tural community, deep ploughing has pre sented itself to the attention of the farmer

transplantation . Sea-ware spread on the surface keeps the leaf greener, and the peat safer ; and

the plants must not be more than a quarter of a mile from the sea , to receive its spray.

in a favourable light. It was at once imagined, that, if the soil were stirred to a greater depth than the common plough

5974. The nutritive matter contained in tussac reached, the drains would operate to dry the land sooner and more effectually. In Analysed Analysed by Dr Voelcker, Sept. this opinion , I conceive, is involved an 1847. by Dr Fromberg , erroneous view of the effects of deep Lower Upper Whole

grass is as follows :

Sept. 1846 . part .

100 parts of the grass. 45.50 Water, Watery extract, 9.40

part.

plant.

86.09 4.34

75.27 3.64

80.68 3.99

31.17

14.72

22.94

100 parts dried at 212°. Watery extract,

17.24

ploughing. Stirring the ground to a greater depth would make the rain that fell on its surface to descend more quickly

to that depth ; but the accumulation of

Lawson On the Cultivated Grasses, p. 18. + Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, March 1848, p. 247-50. VOL . II .

2 T

658

REALISATION .

water there would not cause the drains to

more or less of the subsoil with the active

dry the land the sooner, unless theplough- soil of the surface . inghad been as deep as the depth of the drains, which is impracticable: they would 5980. The subsoil-plough, which was therefore only carry off the water that first tried as a modern invention , was the came to them , and no more would reach

one produced by the late Mr Smith of

them in the course of the year than the Deanston in 1829. It was an implement ordinary proportion of the rain that of the great weight of 5 cwt. Recent

annually falls, which is just the same improvements upon it, and particularly after the land had been deep -ploughed as those effected by Mr Slight of Edinburgh,

it was before. Deep-ploughing, therefore, reduced its weight to from 2 to 3 cwt. has another and higher object than to As other subsoil-ploughs of recent intro duction have superseded it, it is unneces sary to do more than give its form in fig.

convey water more quickly to drains.

5978. The great object of deep-plough- 547, drawn by four borses. ing ought to be to increase the depth and 5981. The effect of subsoil- ploughing

pulverise the soil to a finer state, in order

to give the plants cultivated a larger range with Smith's plough, being merely to stir for their roots to search for natural, in the subsoil without affecting its relative addition to the artificial food supplied position with the upper soil, the best way

them ; and, in my opinion, the pulverisa- of performing the operation is, as I con tion will be better and easier effected by ceive, in the following manner ; and it the deep -plonghing, after the drains bave' may be executed either in winter or in rendered the land as dry as they can, than summer,according as it is made to form a

before that event has taken place. So part of the spring or summer's operations. far,therefore, ought deep - ploughing to be made an auxiliary to drains. As a duct for the conveyance of water, it ought to be deferred until the drains have performed their legitimate office of drying the land, when deep -plonghing will come in with

It is best executed across the ridges : let, therefore, a feering of 30 yards in width be opened across them with the common plough along the upper fence of the field -and parallel and close to it, if it be straight - and another at 30 paces distant,

powerful effect to deepen and pulverise the subsoil-plough following in both the it into a state in which it will continue for a considerable time thereafter. To attempt to pulverise soil, before it has been thoroughly dried by draining, is to begin at the wrong end of the process.

open feerings, with 4 horses — one man holding it while the horses are driven by another. The common plough then closes the feerings, and ploughs from one feering to another until the open furrow is formed

in the middle of the feering, followed im 5979. Various forms of implements have plicitly all the time by the subsoil-plough. been devised to descend as far into the Feering after feering is thus made and

soil as to stir the subsoil effectually, and ploughed with the common plongh, fol

they have obtained the name of subsoil lowed by the subsoil, until the whole and trench ploughs, according as they field is gone over, with the exception affect the subsoil. The subsoil-ploughs of rather more than the breadth of a stir the subsoil lying under the active soil, ridge at each side of the field, upon without affecting their relative positions, which the horses had turned. Fig. 547 whereas the trench - ploughs commingle gives a representation of this inode of Fig. 547.

THE MODE OF ORDINARY SUBSOIL - PLOUGHING .

SUBSOILING .

659

subsoil-ploughing, where the ploughs and action in the subsoil uncertain, it is more

borses appear in black, and where the than probable that the surface which it common plough with 2 horses precedes leaves upon the plane on which its sole the subsoil one with 4. The depth taken moves is uneven, both in the direction of by the common plough is the usual one of the length of the furrow , and in the rela 8 inches in stubble, which is seen as the tion which the sole of one furrow bears to

upper furrow , succeeded by the subsoil- that of another. It is evident that, if its plough, which takes usually8 inches more, furrow - sole in its length is undulating, and and whose furrow is seen in section below that one furrow -sole, in its breadth, is

that of the other plough , making both higher and lower than the contiguous ones, furrows 16 inches deep . Care should be the plane of the furrow -sole across the taken not to bring the subsoil- plough with- ridges will be so irregular that the water,

in 3 inches of the covering of any drain, descending the inclination of the ground, will be interrupted in its progress to the injured. The drains in the figure are sup- drains. To give the plane of the sole a posed to be 36 inches deep, filled 12 inches uniform depth, it is only necessary to in with duct and small stones, and placed in troduce wheels upon the beam , wbich will every open furrow at 15 feet — the breadth cause the sole- furrow to preserve a paral otherwise the materials of the drain will be

of the ridges. This figure is not meant to

lelism with the furrow -sole left by the

give the exactly relative proportions of preceding common plough. This obvious the different objects composing it.

means ofsteadying the action of the sub

soil-plough was introdncedinto a subsoil 5982. The unsteady action of the Dean- plough invented by Mr Read, which is

ston subsoil -plough rendering it difficult represented in fig. 548 as improved by Mr to hold, and the same cause rendering its Slight, and where the alteration will be Fig. 548.

b

READ'S SUBSOIL - PLOUGH ,

observed to have converted the plough into

in pairs on axles, are attached to shanks

the form of a grubber. The implement consists of a malleable iron beam ,bf, to which, at one end, f, are attached twohandles, a, in the same manner as those of the Deanston subsoil-plough, in fig. 547. To the other end is welded an iron slot, b, placed

which pass through boxes in the beam , the same as the coulter-head in the com mon plough. The shank of the double feathered share e is affixed in the same manner as the wheels to the beam .

The

dotted line below c d shows the line of the

perpendicularly, and punched with holes, furrow -sole made by the plough which

into any one of which thebridle g may be preceded this implement in the work of fastened by means of a bolt and cotrel. subsoiling ; and it should never be less The bridleg is winged to the land -side, in than 8 or 9 inches below the surface of order that the two or four horses which the ground. The dotted line behind the are employed to draw the plough may sharee shows its line of motion, and the

walk upon the hard ground ; and to sus- distance between these lines is regulated tain their lateral draught, one end of a by the depth given to the axles of

chain is affixedto the extremity of the wing of the bridle carrying the draughthook, and the other is attached to the beam at h. The wheels d and c, coupled

the wheels c and d below the beambf, which may vary from 6 to 9 inches. The beam resting on the two pairs of wheels c and d , and the ploughman in the bottom

REALISATION .

660

of the furrow made by the preceding Read's subsoil- plough, that, while its use plough, with a hold of the handles d, ful form was retained, its action was

afford so steady a motion to the share e altered from a simple subsoiler, which that it may be regarded as uniform , and merely stirs the subsoil, and leaves it its work will be much better performed where it found it, to a trenching-subsoiler, than that by the Deanston subsoil-plough. which effects a mixture of the subsoil with the surface soil. The implement is repre 5983. In 1849, the MarquisofTweeddale sented by fig. 549, by which it will be

effected an important improvement on seen that the frame of the implement is Fig. 549.

d

THE TWEEDDALE SUBSOIL TRENCH- PLOUGH .

preserved exactly to Read's form , as im- of dimensions, that render the plough

proved by Mr Slight, and the important capable of taking a furrow -slice 12 inches alteration is exhibited in the share and wide and 13 inches deep in the most its appendages. These consist of the share effective manner. This plough, named b c attached to a shank a b, and produced the Tweeddale Plough, leaves a clean hindwards into the tail - board or elevator and flat -soled furrow ; but the furrow d . The shank is a bar of the best scrap- slice taken by it, in place of being turned iron, and at bottom is forged with a club- over in an entire form , in the manner end, fitted to receive the attachment of effected by our fine-working ploughs, is the body of the share by welding or by only so far turned, and at the same time rivetting ; and to the hind part of the broken up, as serves to present the soil in

latter the tail-board is strongly fixed by the best possiblestate to the ameliorating effects ofatmospheric influences. In this respect the plough seems to stand unri

bolts.

5984. The Tweeddale subsoil trench-

valled ; and since the extinction of the old

plough having a share 14 inches in width, Scottish wooden plough, no implement has a common plough is inadequate to go be- approached the point to which this has fore it, to opena sufficient furrrow for its attained, for enlarging the extent of sur

passage. Lord Tweeddale supplied the face exposed to the atmosphere. wantby the true philosophical mode of in 5985. A sectional elevation of both duction, with numerous and untiring experiments on a large scale. By these he con- ploughs, as they appear in actual opera structed a plough having its mould-board tion , isrepresented in fig. 550, where the formed upon a new system of lines and ' Tweeddale plough b is taking its furrow Fig. 550. 6

THE TWEEDDALE SUBSOIL TRENCH-PLOUGH AND THE TWEEDDALE PLOUGH IN OPERATION .

of 13 inches in depth, followed by the trenching subsoil -plough a going 6 inches deeper, making the trench -subsoiling 19 inches deep. The wheels of the trenching

plough, while the tail- board appears do ing its office of elevating the slice of sub soil, forming a continuous succession of the void space c under its extremity. This

plough areseen resting upon the soleofthe void is with equal continuity filled in, furrow just taken out by the Tweeddale partly with portions of the upper soil,

SUBSOILING .

661

which fall down between the edges of the trench - subsoiling, it is at once mixed tail-board and the sides of the open fur- with the upper soil, and operates with it as row, the remainder being filled up by the so much fresh soil. The terror expressed return of part of the elevated subsoil, bro- by many farmers of bringing up the subsoil ken and pulverised by falling over the near the surface I deem wholly chimerical,

end of the tail-board, as theimplement for although injury may have been sus passes fromunder the subsoil, while other tained , in some instances, by bringing up portions of the elevated matter renain the subsoil at an improper period of the intermixed with the upper soil. The rotation—when a white crop, for instance,

trenching and subsoiling effected by these two ploughs is much more complete than that done by the spade, and also by the fork, since the usual trenching effected by

was to be taken, or before the land had

been thorough -drained - no instance, that I am aware of, can be adduced of injury having been sustained after thorough

these leaves the relative positions of the soil drainage, by any green crop, which ought and subsoil the same as they found them , always to be taken after trenching and

though each may be respectively broken subsoiling. and pulverised. In this double process with the ploughs, the subsoil is not elevated 5989. One great advantage attending entirely to the surface, but to within 4 or 5 this mode of trenching and subsoiling inches of it, and, in its elevation by the is, that in treating the soil so in autumn,

trenching -plough, becomes very intimately mixed with a portion of the surface-soil turned over by the preceding Tweeddale plough ; and so intimate is the commingling of the soil and subsoil, that, in digging

the soil requires very little working in spring to prepare it for a green crop ; and

should circumstances prevent the working of the land for turnips, such a trenching may be given within three weeks of the

to the bottom of the ploughed groundwith time for sowing turnips, with marked suc aspade, they can scarcely be distinguished. cess. When a facility such as this is The distinction, in fact, can only be ob- put into the power of the farmer, to work served when the subsoil happens to be of his land in a short time, and in the most an uncommonly darkred orbright yellow efficient manner, two good results must

colour ; and when of blue, green , black , ensue—the whole of the fallow -break may or grey, the mixture is not discernible.

be devoted to a green crop, and a smaller strength of horses will do all the work 5986. One point of excellence attend- that is at present done.

ing this operation is the leaving the fur row -sole quite flat and even , as has been

5990. I have had repeated opportuni

demonstrated by the removal of the loose ties of observing the progress of improve soil to the bottom of the furrow , whereas

ments effected by these valuable imple

ordinary subsoil-ploughs leave it ribbed.

ments on the farms in the Marquis of Tweeddale's own hands, of Yester Mains

5987. The breadth of the share of the

and Broadwoodside.

The latter farm has

subsoil-trencher being 14 inches in width, been managed for the last six years under

and that of theTweeddale plough only 12 the system of deep ploughing ; and it is inches, it follows that an inch of each consistent with my own knowledge that, side of the furrow -sole is twice ploughed, at the commencement of a six years' course and consequently that no ribs are left of improvement, the land on that farm in the subsoil on either side of the

was not worth more than 78. or 89. per

furrow -sole, which will thus be made acre . The present value may safely be quite smooth and flat - an immense ad- taken at £ 2 per acre. The rationale of vantage over every other form of subsoil- this enhancement of value is to be ploughing. found in a perfect system ofdrainage, fol lowed some years afterwards by the deep 5988. Ordinary subsoiling is recom- ploughing. The manuring application has mended because the air is admitted to the not been more expensive than is commonly subsoil wbich is kept below and only followed by every judicious farmer. The brought up, if ever, after it is supposed to general results may challenge comparison have become ameliorated ; wbereas, in with those of the best land in the country.

662

REALISATION .

5995. It was stated on the occasion of the In 1849 the turnips were superior to the general crop, and in 1850 they aresuperb, show of the Highland and Agricultural Society Glasgow in 1844, when fork -trenching was while the wheat crop was both bulky and at exhibited under the direction of Mr Houston, of

abundant.*

Johnstone Castle, Renfrewshire, that men under took to trench the ground with the fork for

5991. Upon every farm commanding that £ 2, 8s. per acre — whichwould be verycheap for efficient bringing

the services of 4 pairs of horses, this pro

cess might be conducted on the same scale of depth as the Marquis of Tweeddale pursues ; but where there are only 3 pairs, the Tweeddale plough that precedes the subsoil-trenching one being drawn by one pair, the trenching would be executed to the

mode of in rough ground. But in one instance tried in 1847 , by Mr Milne

of Milne-Graden, Berwickshire, the cost of fork

trenching 20 inches in depth was £6, 148. 5d. per acre — which is a nearer approximation to the truth, I suspect, than the other sum. 5996. It would appear, from the large results obtained at Yester, after the application of the

depth of 15 inches. The subsoil-plough ordinary quantity of manure, that it is to the

should always be drawn by two pairs of deepeningand pulverisation, and perhaps also in horses, to do justiceto its searching and part to the freshening ofthesoil,by the mixture effective powers. The twoploughs easily return is to be ascribed ; and if so,(and noother turn over an acre a - day, either in autumn reason seems at hand to account for the enlarged or spring, the horses are notoppressed, and increase,) it should be thefarmer's endeavour to the men are quite able for the work. keep the soil in a constant state of pulverisation and deepness, by a repetition of the same process that attained those process ends at first. It maypro be continue

will to 5992. A great element of fertility has questioned thatthe lately been put into the Marquis of Tweed- duce as good results for an indefinite length of dale's possession , in the vegetable matter time. Jethro Tull, we know, believed that pul

obtained by draining the loch at Danskin . verisation and exposure to the air was all that soil required to opinion produce did crops long his asown he It can be put into carts out ofthe basin pleased not asoutlive ;but his

of the loch by steam power for 2d. per 1 } experience :and had itbeen otherwise, we can. cubic yard, and it is applied to the land at not doubt but that it would have been adopted not less than 100 cart - loads to the acre .

by some practical man, and put to the test of

When spread, it is reduced small by the experience, long ere thisperiod. Even if expe rience went a long way to establish the efficacy

action of the Norwegian harrow , fig. 246, and then ploughed in with a deep furrow

of pulverisation of the soil, it would be unwise

to neglect the assistance of good manure ; and

by three horses abreast. Hitherto the the very utmost we can endeavour, to become effects of that quantity, in both the field and independent of manure, is to prove that the farm every year produce indefiniteperiod thegarden, have been equal to the ordinary can fertility for an a sufficiency to maintain its own .Ifthe

quantity of farmyard dung. 5993. So very diversified is the opinion of

air, as an element, supplies every year as much of the produce as to compensate for what is dis

ing, that I suspect some error is committed by one or other party in conducting the process.

posed off the farm , the support of the farm is as much as we can expect from the soil by any method of culture. At Yester, the source of perpetual fertility to the soil is available at a

One likely error in the performance of the pro-

cheap rate , in the possession of the vegetable

farmers on the effects of ordinary subsoil-plough-

cess is in being too soon after the draining.

mould at Danskin and elsewhere ; and the best

The late Mr Smith recommended one year to

way of using it seems to me to put a large doze

elapse between the draining and the subsoiling I should say one rotation ought to intervene. Be that as it may, the diversity of effects experi

of it in the subsoil by the subsoiling process, while the surface -soil is sustained by the ordinary manure .

enced by it warns me not to adduce any instance

of failure or success, in case they might mislead parties into error.

5997. I have heard it alleged that there is something particularly good in the subsoil at

5994. Trenching with the fork is more efficient than ordinary subsoil-ploughing as regards the stirring of the soil and subsoil ; and it is a more

Yester, which causes it to produce the effects it does. My opinion of that subsoil is, that it is about the worst I ever saw .

It consists of clay,

depth, and frees it of every stone that, from its

and sand, and stones; the earthy matter being of different colours, the blue and the red perhaps prevailing ; while patches of yellow , black, and grey are occasionally turned up. Why such a

size , would injure the implements in any future

subsoil should be particularly good, it is difficult

operation of culture.

to believe. Had subsoils and surface-soils always

perfect operation, inasmuch as it exposes the subsoil to view, breaks every portion of it to a greater

* Journal of Agriculture, January 1850, p. 265.

SUBSOILING .

663

been commixed, as is done by the Yester process,

substance was examined ; but when the matter is

the apprehension about the bringing up of the

applied as taken from its site the proportion

subsoil would have subsided. I express myself must be so much the less. Little doubt, how thus, because, having used the trench -plough ever, can exist of the importance of the matter drawn by four horses very much in the ploughing when added to a poor soil, supplying as it does

of my own land, and having brought up in that by no means an inconsiderable amount ofnitrogen. process much of very ill- looking subsoil, and

experiencing no harm , but a great deal of good, from it, I feel no apprehension in the result from

This vegetable matter, when fresh cut by the spade, is of a brown colour, but changes to an intense black on exposure to the air .

any subsoil. The only precaution I ever saw necessary was to mix the soils only when a green crop was about to be taken, and never when a white one.

5998. The subsoil of three of the fields at

6000. Lord James Hay of Seaton, Aberdeen shire, has lately invented a subsoil-plough, the working part of which consists only of a coulter or shank brought forward to a point, and fur nished with a slightly raised feather on each

Broadwoodside was analysed by Dr Ander- side. It is fastened into a box in the beam, like son, at the Highland and Agricultural Society's the coulter of the common plough. The beam laboratory in Edinburgh. The specimen No. I. consists of a bar of malleable iron, resting on the

was taken from land not good , especially for fore part upon an axle, connecting two some wheat ; No. II. from poor soil and stiff to work ;

what high wheels, and furnished at the end with

and No. III, from land best adapted for wheat, the stiffest of the three, and consequently not adapted for turnips. The last specimen had a

a slot, to which the bridle is attached by a bolt. A pair of handles run up from the hinder part of the beam. To allow of the coulter being sent

light colour, while the other two were red . No. II . 1.82

No, I. 1.52

deeper into the soil, the beam can be attached

No. III.

1.04 1.25 2.11 ) 3.36

Water , Peroxide of iron , 5.49 8.36 2.87 S Alumina , 86.39 Insoluble matter ,

6.36 2.23 ) 8.59 80.66

91.94

96.27

91.07

96.34

The remaining constituents, organic matter, lime, magnesia, alkali and iron , were not determinedtheobjectbeing to ascertain the nature of the clay. No. III . contains a much larger amount of sandy matter, and smaller quantity of clay, than the other two. The sum of the peroxide of iron and alumina, which are specified above, may be taken as the measure of the clay, which amounts to above 8 per cent in No. I. and II ., and only a

little above 3 per cent in No. III., which lies under the heaviest soil. The advantage of mix. ing the subsoil and surface soil is here obvious. All the soils are poor, and on Nos. I. and II. turnips might be grown , but not wheat ; and

to the under side of the axle.

The action of this

implement must be confined to the making of a single rut in the subsoil when following a com mom plough in the bottom of its furrow , and one such rut in the bottom of any furrow must, I conceive, leave a series of ridglets in the bottom of the subsoiled furrow — a state exactly the opposite left by the subsoil-trencher of the Marquis of Tweeddale, which we have been con sidering 6001. Trenching is practised in Flanders, as

we do subsoiling, in the ordinary course of cropping. “ This remarkable practice ,” says Dr Radcliff, “ is confined to the lighter soils, and is unused where the strong clay prevails. In the districts in which it is adopted, the depth of the operation varies with that of the soil ; but till this shall have arrived at nearly 2 feet of mellow surface, a little is added

to it each trenching, by bringing to the top

wheat but not turnips in No. III., which was too

a certain proportion of the under stratum,

stiff.

soil has taken place, all the three fields are

which, being exposed to the action of the atmo sphere, and minutely mixed with a soil already

rendered capable of growing both wheat and

fertilised, gradually augments the staple till the

Now that the commixture of subsoil and

turnips. Such an investigation of the subsoil of sought-for depth be acquired . In the Pays de otherlocalities might produce equally good results. Waes there seems to be little necessity for any farther deepening ; but the repetition of the prac 5999. The vegetable mould from the bottom of the drained loch at Danskin , has also been

tice itself is as periodical as the recommencement of the rotation . It is performed with a spade, analysed by Dr Anderson , with the view of the iron of which is 15 inches, and the handle 2

ascertaining the quantity of nitrogen and humine feet in length. The labourer standing the No. I. was taken from the sur- last formed trench, with his left hand on at the face,and No. II. from the bottom of the deposit, bottom of the handle,and his right near the top,

contained in it.

which is there about 8 feet in thickness. It is by the weight of his body, and without the necessarily wet when first spaded ; but that sub- assistance of his foot, sinks the spade about 18 jected to analysis was rendered, what in common language may be termed dry, but nevertheless it

contained a large proportion of water, thus :Water ,

Nitrogen , Humine ,

No. I. 31.78 0.89 6.00

No. II . 49.49

0.85 16.82

The nitrogen present is to be considered as decidedly large, amounting to 1.5 per cent as the

inches, and, standing sideways, throws off the soil with a peculiar sleight and turn of the wrist, so as to lodge it in an oblique position in the

trench , and against the preceding line of work, retiring as he casts it from the spade, and there by effecting some little mixture of the two strata, though the upper surface is, at the same time, placed below the other. The object of this

practice is not only to let a surface rest that has

664

REALISATION .

been 7 or 8 years employed in the production of

6003. Subsoil.ploughs, and indeed all ploughs,

various crops, but to bring another into action, which has not merely had the advantage of repose, but the enrichment of a considerable por tion of manure, which, in a porous soil, cannot have failed to find its way to the lower stratuin . To the universality of the habit for ages back, much of the fertility of the Pays de Waes is to

should always be provided with a useful append age, an iron hammer, fig. 551. The head and handle are Fig 551 . forged in one piece of mal leable iron , the

latter

be attributed. It is particularly observable, that in any district where trenching takes place, the

part

being

quantum of manure is diminished , and the num ber of ploughings are less, so that, eventually, it is not so expensive a process as at first view it

a

may appear: nevertheless, a fair proportion of manure is considered essential in the first season ; for though the under stratum has not only had a long exemption from duty, as well as the annual acquisition of such parts of the manure as may

have been drained through the upper soil , yet it possesses a coldness which requires a stimulant to bring it into action. The soil which has undergone this operation is easily worked, and the

trenching seems to go forward expeditiously ; indeed, in any of the light and deep soils, the labour is not severe. In the Pays de Waes it is performed by the piece , to the depth of 16 inches, for about L.1 , 12s. the English acre. The cheapness of the execution is a great encouragement

formed

into

nut-key.

With

this

simple

but

useful

tool

THE IRON HAMMER NUT - KEY.

the plough man has always at hand the means by which he can, without loss of time, alter and adjust the position of his plough-irons,—the coulter and share,-and perform other little operations, which

circumstances or accident may require,-for the performance of which most ploughmen are under the necessity of taking advantage of the first stone they can find, merely from the want of this simple instrument . The hammer is slung in a

staple fixed in the side of the beam in any convenient position. This little appendage is

confidently recommended to all ploughmen, as an essential part of the furniture of the

to the practice ; but this turns upon the price of labour, which , in this district, is 15d. a -day, and

plough.

chiefly upon the facility of a loose and pulverised soil. Some have sought to economise , by the use

another, or along a hard road to a field , instead

of two ploughs, the second working to a considerable depth ; but the objection made to this

of sliding them upon their sole-shoe, which is diffi cult to do when they have no hold of the ground, or upon the edge of the feather of the sock and

by skilful farmers in the vicinity of St Nicolas

6004. In removing ploughs from one field to

was, that sufficient depth was not thereby at-

the side of the mould -board - which is a more

tained, nor were the two strata by this operation

easy mode for the ploughman than the former, and is consequently more commonly taken every ploughman should be provided with a plough-slide , a simple and not costly implement, as represented in fig. 552. It consists of a piece

sufficiently blended ; for though, by the spade, they are made to change places, yet by the oblique manner in which the mould is placed in the trench, a certain degree of mixture of the upper and under soil is effected, which is con sidered of importance.” *

of hard wood board 3 feet 4

Fig. 552. a

6002. Digging soil with the spade will cost from 14d . to 2d . per perch, or from 20s. to 26s. 8d .

per acre ; digging lea at 2 d. per perch, or 33s. 4d. per acre ; and trenching lea, 12 inches deep, 5d. per perch, or 66s. 8d. per acre ; at all which rates the men will earn each from 1s. 6d .

to 28. a-day. In digging light soil, or any soil in a friable state, the spade should be driven to the head into the ground by one pressure of the foot, and thus 20 cuts may be made in one minute. In Ireland a perch of soil is dug nine inches deep, at the same cost that half a perch

of drain, 24 feet deep, is cast out ; butmore wages

inches long, 8 inches broad, and 2 inches thick, in which a long THE PLOUGH - SLIDE , staple, a, is driven to take in the point of the sock ; and at b are

fastened two small bars of wood, longways , and at such distance from one another as to

take between them the heel of the sole-shoe of the plough. On the under side of the board is nailed two pieces of flat bar iron, to act as skeds to the slide. Upon this implement the plough

may be conveyed with comparative ease along any road or headridge.

should be obtained for casting drains than

digging soil, to provide against the extra tear and wear of shoes and clothes, and the risk of injuring health by cold and wet. The most economical way of digging a large piece of land is to set from 20 to 30 diggers at work together,

6005. In like manner, a slide or carriage

should also be provided for removing harrows from one field to another. The usual practice is to put them as they are coupled together upon a cart one above another, and the proba

at so much per acre, and place a confidential

bility will be that one or more of the tines are

man over them to see that every spadeful is properly formed and turned over.t

lost in the conveyance . A much safer and more convenient mode of carrying them is on

* Radcliff's Agriculture of Flanders,p. 166-9.

+ Yule On Spade Husbandry, p. 86, 2d edition.

LIMING.

665

a carriage such as is represented in fig. 553, spring sends up its water into the subsoil. The which consists of a frame of wood sparred, in

length to take on a pair of harrows coupled with Fig. 553.

slow access of air from above, or it may be the escape of air from the water itself, causes a more or less ochrey deposit, which adheres to and gradually cements the stones or earthy particles

among which the water is lodged. If the water contains sulphate of iron, the air from above will impart to its iron an additional quantity of

oxygen , and cause a portion of it to fall in a state of peroxide. If the iron and lime be pre THE CARRIAGE POR CONVEYING HARROWS, & c. their master swing -tree, and in breadth perhaps 34 feet. The hind part of the frame rests on

sent in a state of bi-carbonate, the escape of carbonic acid from the water will cause a deposit of carbonate of iron or of lime. Any of these deposits will cement the earthy or clay particles

Iron, however, is often held in solu crutches supportedupon the axle of two wheels, together. organic crenic acid ) which the upper part of the rim of which is below the

level of the top part of the frame ; and the fore part rests upon a castor which allows the carriage to be turned when desired . A horse is yoked to two eyes in the fore - bar of the frame by the hooks of the plough-chains, to draw the

carriage by.

The harrows are piled one above

acid (the tion by an becomes insoluble, and falls along with the iron when the latter has absorbed more oxygen from

the atmosphere . Hence the large quantity of organic matter which bog iron ores , moorband pans, and deposits from springs and drains, so often contain . Thus a layer of solid stone is gradually

the other upon the framing. Such a carriage

formed -- the moorband pan of many districts

may convey other articles to and from the fields.

which will allow neither the roots of plants to descend, nor the surface water to escape. Hope

6006. The Tweeddale subsoil -trench -plough is well adapted for the breaking up of moorband

less barrenness, therefore, slowly ensues.

Coarse

grasses , mosses, and heath grow and accumulate

upon soils not originally inclined to nourish pan in the subsoil. I have not had much experi- them previ.

ence of the obduracy of this substance, as in any case within my experience it did not exceed 2

, and by which a better herbage had

ously been long sustained.” +

or 3 inches in thickness, which were easily ripped up with the 4 -horse plough, and as easily moul dered down to dust on exposure to the winter's frost ; yet there are places in Aberdeenshire and

ON THE LIMING OF LAND .

Morayshire where it is so thick and hard that extraordinary means are required to break it up. A remarkable and extensive band of this sub

6008. Lime has been directly applied stance was encountered by Mr Roderick Gray, to the land in the agriculture of this Peterhead , when improving part of the waste land of the property of the Governors of the

country for a very long period of years.

Merchant Maidens' Hospital of Edinburgh in

The object of applying it has always been the same-to increase the crops by stimu

that neighbourhood. The moory surface was ploughed with 4 horses. " At first the plough

lating the action of the soil . It was sup

ran upon the pan, which it seemed impossible to posed to act in two ways - directly upon penetrate ; various trials were made, and the the vegetable matter in the soil, and di plan which ultimately succeeded was to have 4 men employed at the plough, and these were engaged as follows :-One with a pick and spade

rectly upon the soil itself, by altering its

texture.

When wanted to act upon vege

made a hole where necessary, until it reached table matter, it was applied to boggy soil below the pan , and entered the plough at this after it had been drained, or to deaf soil hole ; another held the plough ; the third held that had long been under an exhausting course of husbandry, and which had never this way the upper stratum and pan werebroken, been limed, for it is known that soil down the beam , and kept the plough below the pan ; and the fourth took care of the horses. In

and afterwards they were brought into a sort of

never becomes deaf that had been occa When the texture was desired to be altered from a stiff to a

mould by the grubber and harrows."* However sionally limed. obdurate this substance may be to break up, it will yield to the air, and moulder down into an innocuous powder of sand and gravel. 6007. Professor Johnston thus explains the formation of moorband pan. “ It is to the

friable state, or from a very loose to a firmer state, lime was applied. Stiff clay soils were those which were rendered pul verable by lime, and loose gravelly soils

lingering of unwholesome waters beneath , that the origin of many of our moorlands , especially

were rendered firmer by its action . The

on higher grounds, is in a great measure to be attributed. A calcareous or a ferruginous

most convenient period for applying lime to the land was when the soil had been

* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. viii. p. 169. + Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2dedition, p. 556.

REALISATION .

666

bare -fallowed ; and as that process was be absorbed by the lime, which neverthe extensively practised, the limewas always less continues quite dry, thereby indicating laid on in summer .

It was the most that it has been taken up in chemical

favourite practice with farmers to apply union with the lime, which then becomes lime in a caustic state, because, being then

in the state of a hydrate. A great beat

in a state of finest powder, it mixed best is evolved during the time the lime takes with every sort of soil.

to fall to powder; and when it attains that state, the heaps will have swelled to more 6009. Experience having confirmed all than three times their former bulk. The

these practices in regard to theapplication lime is then said to be slaked, and is in of lime, it is doubtfulthat many farmers of its most caustic state. the present day know more about the nature of lime and its action than what is implied

6012. While the slaking is proceeding,

in the above statement, and consequently the land that was manured in drills (4172) the practice now is what it was then .

is cross- harrowed a double tine, to make it flat ; after which the ridges are feered ;

6010. When lime is obtained direct and the lime is then spread along the from the kiln, or from shipboard , it feered ridges. is in lumps, called shells, and light 6013. The lime is spread in this man in weight. Limeshells are differently treated by different farmers in their ner :-Frying -pan shovels, fig. 233, are preparation of it for the soil. Some lay the best implements for fillingcarts with, down the shells in small heaps upon and spreading lime upon land. A calm the feered ridges, while others lay them day should be chosen for the purpose, in large heaps upon the upper head -ridge. but should there be the least wind, the It is clear that the mode of laying shells single-horse carts should be so placed at at once upon the land cannot be adopted the heaps as that the lime-powder which

blown away had previously been suffi- rises into the air should bePowdered lime all that can lie upon a shovel pies a considerable time to be done in is heavy ; but a proper manner, it is also clear that no is so light in weight that each ploughman until the land ciently fallowed ; and as fallowing occu- from the horses and men.

considerable quantity of lime can be driven, after the fallow is ready, unless the kilns happen to be near ; and, at all events, it is unnecessary to lay the lime upon the fallowed land until only a short

takes a heap, and with one of his horses in a cart, for a yoking at a time, fills his own

cart, and spreads the lime from it upon the ridges allotted to him. The direction in limingshonld have the wind a little ahead ;

period before the wheat is sown. Besides, and when a number of men take from diffe

when shells are placed in heaps on the rent heaps, they should so arrange them ridges, they must remain a considerable selves along the ridges as that the cart time there to be reduced to powder by the farthest down the wind take the lead in air, when the lime will have lost a consi- spreading. In spreading lime, the man

derable portion of its causticity by union walks along the middle of the feered ridge, with the carbonic acid of the air, unless a and casts the shovelfuls right and left from

good deal of rain shall have fallen to basten its slaking. To preserve the shells intact, till needed, they should be put in large heaps, the outer surface of which

the middle towards the feered furrows, which will become, by ploughing, the crowns of the future ridges. The man who can cast the shovelfuls with either

may become neutralised by the action of hand will spread lime better than one who

the air, but the interior of which will not is right or left handed only. The lime be so affected. While the heaps are thus should be spread evenly over the surface ;

occupying a head-ridge, the land may be butit may be spreadthicker on one part worked as opportunity offers.

of the field than another, according to the wants of the soil. On light knolls it may 6011. A week or so before the lime is be spread thinner than in hollows, where

applied, water should be poured on the the soil is either deeper or stronger. large heaps of shells to reduce them to a Whenever rain falls, the liming should be state of fine powder. The water will all discontinued.

LIMING .

667

6020. Lime weighs from 75 lb. to 6014. It is proper to put a cloth over the horse's back and the harness ; and the nearly 1 cwt. per bushel, which indicates men should cover their face with crape, that it ought not to be laid on by the

to save it from the cauterising effects of measure alone, but by measure and weight the quicklime. The horses , whenever combined, giving the preference to the loosened from work, should be thoroughly lightest weight. wisped down and brushed, to free the bair 6021. Lime is applied at different of any lime that may have found its way

into it ; and, should the men feel a smart- periods of the year, according to the state ing in their eyes or nose, sweet thick of the land. On summer -fallow it is cream is the best emollient. applied immediately before the wheat is sown in autumn . It is also used for wheat

6015. Progressively as the lime is spread, immediately after taking up the potato

ridge after ridge, it is barrowed in a double crop in autumn. It is applied to the land tine, and mixed with the soil ; and imme- cleared of turnips by sheep, just before diately on the entire field being limed, the the sowing of the barley-seed in spring.

ridges are ploughed with a light furrow , It is also applied before the turnip -seed is to bury the lime as little as possible, and sown in the beginning of summer. It constitutes the seed - furrow of the may be applied to lea immediately before which future crop . being ploughed for oats in early spring. I do not say it is immaterial to the proper

6016. The quantity of lime that should

nse of lime to choose the season in which

be applied depends on the nature of the soil, the lighter soils requiring the less, and the stronger the greater quantity. On light turnip soils, some think 120 bushels peracre sufficient, whilst Ihave used 150

it is applied, convenience often determin ing the point as much as propriety ; but experience has decided that it is used to the best advantage on summer-fallow , and after turnips have been eaten off by sheep.

bushels with benefit.

I have seen

as

much as 510 bushels applied to the acre

6022. The effects of lime are manifested

of wheat land, with manifest advantage. in a rather remarkable manner.

When

But perhaps from 150 to 240 bushels may ploughed down with an ordinary furrow be considered average quantities, from the by itself, no effect is observed on the first lightest to the heaviest soils. On weak crop ; and when ploughed in deep, a rota

moory soils, 75 bushels are enough with tion may pass before itshows any effect. which to commence its improvement.

When harrowed in, and the land ribbed for barley after turnips eaten off by sheep, 6017. The sort of lime should deter- it has effect at once. When ploughed

mine the quantity applied, the stronger with a light furrow above the dung in being used in less quantity than the weak. summer-fallow, even after the lapse of a The English lime is much more caustic few weeks it has a sensible effect on the

than the Scotch. Lime with any magnesia first crop. It has the best effect on the in it is unfit for the land.

grass ofany

crop in the rotation, and most

upon the clover. It has an injurious effect

6018. It is notcustomary to apply lime on the potato crop. It loses its effect on often to land, it being inexpedient to the same land after several repetitions. apply it oftener than once in a lease of It has little effect on soils in the neigh 19 years, on account of its expense.

bourbood of large towns. It has always a good effect on fresh soil, as also onmoss

6019. Its common price is 3s. per boll that has been thoroughly drained. It has of 6 bushels, consequently its entire cost, a good effect on all drained soils, and is at the above quantities, will be from wasted on undrained ones. £3, 15s. to £6 per acre for the best sea borne English lime, exclusive of carriage ;

6023. Lime is usually procured in sum the Scotch sells for 10s. per cart-load of mer and autumn, as the kilns are only

4 bolls of 6 busbels each , including car- kept in activity in those seasons ; so when riage for 10 miles, which makes the cost it is intended to apply it in spring, it is from £3, 2s. 6d. to £ 5 per acre.

necessary to procure it in autumn, and

668

REALISATION .

keep itall winter. And to preserve it in a the potato land after the crop has been

desirable state in winter, the heaps of liſted, it follows the large manuring the shells should be covered with a thick coat- potatoes had received late in spring. The ing of earth, and every crevice that appears liming land after turnips in spring follows in it should be immediately filled up . the large manuring which the turnips re ceived in the early part of the preceding 6024. I am aware of the opinion of summer. When put upon land that has some farmers, that lime is equally effica- been manured by sheep eating off turnips, cious in the soil in the effete as in the it is placed still nearer the manure. Lim caustic state, and Lord Kames was of that ing land in preparation of the turnip crop opinion ; and, therefore, precautions to in the early part of summer, places it as preserve it in a caustic state in winter near the manure. Lime cannot be applied may, by them, be deemed unnecessary ; but to any of the cereal crops when they are as the general opinion is in favour of quick- growing, and it cannot be put on grass lime, and which I support, I have treated land that is to be sown or pastured in the the subject accordingly, until experience same season . Thus, neither in spring, shall instruct us better. There is the summer, nor autumn, can lime be applied

advantage, however, in using quick-lime, to the soil without coming into near con that it is much more easily spread upon, tact with manure ; and as to applying it

ploughed into, and mixed with thesoil in winter, it is out of the question whena than effete lime; and if pulverisation be of large quantity is to be used. Then rain any use to it at all, it should mix with and snow and frostmay prevent its being the soil, and act with it more quickly than harrowed in after being spread, and bad in an effete state . weather may prevent the liming proceed ing at all after a portion of the field bad

6025. To the ordinary use of lime, as I been limed. After all, as lime is applied have described it, chemistry might object to its application so close to farmyard manure as it is in summer-fallow . It is entirely right avoiding to apply it with or near guano, as it will entirely deprive it of its ammoniacal ingredients. But it is not easy to avoid its proximity to mannre,

only once in a lease, it matters little that it be put upon the land near a manuring ; the important point is to apply it at the best and most convenient time, which is on the fallow ; and experience has obtained the best return from its use thus, both in grain and straw.

when it is considered that it cannot be

applied at any time in the course of a

6027. A top -dressing of chalk is one rotation, and that a considerable time is method adopted in several districts of

required to collect as much of it as will England — in Essex,Hampshire, Wiltshire, spread over a large space of ground ; and Lincolnshire, Yorkshire, for affording cal It has a strik is applied, time will not be afforded the ing effect at first, particularly upon fresh tenant to lime all his farm , and derive all new broken up land ; but at length it

that if a large space is not limed when it careous matter to the soil.

the advantages from it, in the course seems to lose its efficacy. It is applied of a 19 years' lease. Suppose that he again whenever its effect becomes inert. limes the entire fallow -break every year, 6028. The solid chalk of the lower he cannot go over his farm in lesstime than four or five years, and this space is stratum is preferred to the more porous as much as he can lime in the course of

substance near the surface.

It is taken

a year and carry on the culture of the out of pits in lumps, which are put upon farm at the same time. the ground to be limed ; and, the lumps being wet, the frost in winter causes them 6026. If we take the time the farmer to fall down into a powder, wbich is then

has to apply lime, we shall see that he can spread over the surface of the ground. Dry

scarcely avoid applying it near a recent chalk will not fall down, and is therefore period of manuring. When it is applied on useless for the purpose. Chalk is used in bare-fallow , it must be immediately above Hampshire to render the soil more loose, the manure ; when placed below it, the and in the wolds of Yorkshire more firm . lime sinks out of reach. When applied to I would conclude from this that the Hamp

LIMING .

669

shire soil is clayey, and that of the wolds yardif not driven farther than a furlong, and beyond that distance one penny per furlong is paid. Its action produces better 6029. The quantities applied vary in quality of grain and regularity of crop .

of Yorkshire silicious.

different districts. In Essex, in the clay. The excess of organic matter in a new soil land district, about 15 cart-loads, of loosens it, which themarling corrects ; the 40 bushels each, are considered a full

dry and loose texture of sand is rendered

dressing per acre, at 6s. per load, and more adhesive and retentive of moisture ; 3s. 6d . for carting one mile ; but here and peat is benefited by consolidation and

the expense does not bear carriage farther the supply of inorganic matter.t than four to six miles, beyond which lime is preferred . In Lincolnshire 80 cubic

6032. The following analysis may give

yards of chalk are applied to the acre, at a a fair idea of the composition of a clay

cost of 66s. In Hampshire it is dug out of marl. This specimen was found in Ayr pits as deep as 20 feet, and 2000 bushels shire : are wheeled on the land in barrows at a

Carbonate of lime,

cost of about 458. per acre. In the district of Windsor, where it has to be carted ten

Oxide of iron and alumina , Organic matter ,

miles, it costs about £8 per acre . *

Clay and silicious matter, Water,

8.4 2.2 2.8 84.9 1.4

99.7

6030. I have already referred to shell marl as a manure, in (4999.) The com

position of peat shell-marl of Logie, in Forfarshire - a county which at one time

6033. The lime used in the agriculture of this country is chiefly derived from the mountain

as also series, of the carboniferousThe limestone afforded and used a large quantity of this that of the coal formation . rock forms

substance in its agriculture, to a degree to

a broad belt across the centre of Scotland, along

be positively detrimental to the soil, some the centre of England , and in the whole of the of which has not recovered its effects to

this day — is as follows : From the From the top of the bottom of

Carbonate of lime,

Oxide of iron and alumina, Organic matter,

Insoluble,chiefly siliciousmatter,

centre of Ireland. Lime in Scotland is mostly derived from the coal formation , where it is asso

ciated with shales, sandstones, and ironstones.

6034. In Ireland large beds and knolls of

bed .

the bed .

77.6

81.7

limestone nodules, in the form of gravel, are

1.8

0.6

found in many districts. The gravel,when laid

14.6 6.0

14.6 3.1

100.0

100.0

upon the land ,acts as lime in the course of time ;

and it affords a very ready means of reclaiming drained bogs, and ofreducing their vegetable into earthy matter, (5891.)

Bog -marl retards the ripening of the grain 6035. The composition of some good limestones crops, while lime hastens their maturity. for agricultural purposes is here given : 6031. The process of marling as prac

Carbonate of lime,

Carluke . Cockermouth . Kiln head . Relig . 95.89 93.91 94.86 93.97

tised in England is very similar to that of

Sulphate of lime,'.

0.85

gaulting or claying, already described in (2119. ) The marl is a clay containing

Phosphate of lime, Carbonate of mag nesia , Alumina and oxide

1.14

particles of chalk, which are quite visible in the mass of clay. The marl is applied both to heavy and light land . On heavy land it is used on new broken up pasture

}

of iron , Silica .

0.23

0.32

2-06

1.26

0.54

1.32

1.63

0.73

1.20

1.57

0.41

2.92

2.05

3.14

100.00

100.00

100.00

100.00

and mixed with farmyard manure in 6036. Limestone, on being broken into handy compost. On light soils it is more exten- lumps, is packed in alternate layers with coal in sively employed , and its benefits are chiefly kilnsand burned,when a very material effectis

derived from an improved texture of the produced upon its appearance and character. From beinga close -grained , hard, heavy stone,

soil. From 40 to 50 cubic yards are it is reduced to a porous, light, splintery cinder.

applied per acre, at a cost of 7d. per cubic One ton oflimestone, whenthus burned, yields * Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. iii. p. 183, and vol. v. p. 34. † Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol.viii. p. 312. I Johnston On the Use of Limein Agriculture, p. 11 .

REALISATION .

670

11 cwt. of the cinder. The cinder is called lime- thebetter for agricultural purposes : it is then shells. The burning has the effect of driving off water and carbonic acid from the limestone ; of forming gypsum with the sulphur of the coal, and with the pyrites of the limestone ; and silicate of lime with the silicious matter present in the limestone and the coal.

said to be in the fattest and strongest state. of the limes whose analysis appear above, it would seem to me that the Kilnhead is the best for applying to the land. Plasterers like fat lime, as it runs best and makes the strongest putty. When a considerable pro portion of sand occurs it is the better adapted for

6037. Limeshells have a strong affinity for water : they will extract it from the atmosphere

common building purposes, as it then requires less sand to convert it into good mortar, and the

and become in time slaked, which is the end

natural union of silicious matter is much better than any artificial method of adding it can be devised. Of these the Cockermouth is the best

aimed at in putting limeshells on the land in small heaps along the ridges ; but they are more commonly slaked by water being poured upon them. The pouring water too quickly upon the shells causes the lime to be gritty, and to contain many

for buildings. Much magnesia in line is hurtful to vegetation, and is therefore unsuited for the

small lumps which refuse to be slaked. The spontaneous slaking is attended with the least trouble as usually practised, but in effect it

land ; but it is a useful ingredient in lime in tended for buildings under water, such as piers and docks, where it becomes very hard , and on that account is called hydraulic lime. Of

chills the surface and produces much gritty lime ;

these limes the Carluke would seem best

and it gives sufficient time for much of the suited for building piers; but the proportion of powdered lime to absorb carbonic acid from the magnesia in it is but small compared to many air, and go back to the state of carbonate and

of the magnesian limes of England, as at

To succeed well with the

Hartlepool, where it contains about 45 per cent of the carbonate of magnesia, a ton of which

become effete .

spontaneous mode of slaking the heaps should be covered with sods, which is a trouble which no

farmer will undertake with heaps lying on the

affording no less a quantity of the calcined magnesia of the shops than 9fcwts.

field . Farmers will willingly cover large heaps of limeshells that are to remain over

6041. The practice hitherto has been to

winter, to be spread upon the land in spring, by

apply a large dose of lime at once, and not to

which time most of the lime will be found slaked

repeat it during the lease. The motive for this

in an excellent state for mixing with the soil.

practice I would look for more to the circum stances in which the farmer is placed in regard to the tenure of his farm , than to any reasonable

6038. In slaking limeshells, an intense heat is produced, a large quantity of water is absorbed, much increase of bulk ensues, and a fine powder is obtained, which is called quick-lime, caustic-

expectation entertained by him of the action of lime upon the soil in large quantity. It is felt with the application of lime as with the draining

lime, hot-lime. The heat in some cases might ignite gunpowder ; the lime absorbs about one

of the farm - the sooner it is done, and the seldomer done, the greater profit to him who does it. The opinion is gaining ground, however, that it is

fourth of its weight of water ; it increases from 24 to 3 } times its bulk ; and the powder has strong caustic and alkaline properties. The ultimate

better for the tenant's interest to lime in less

quantity at a time, and more frequently.

It

results are, that the slaked lime consists partly of would appear, taking the average of the quan caustic lime, partly of carbonate of lime, and partly of hydrate of lime, somewhat in these proportions in the ton : Per cent. Cwt. Carbonate of lime , Hydrate of lime,

57.4

1:2 } 42.6

lime, 32.4 water , 10.2

100.0

> or

115 83

tities of lime applied in different districts of the country, that about 8 or 10 bushels per acre

per annum are applied to supply the supposed requirements of the land. It might, therefore, be better for the crops, and more prudent for the purse of the tenant, to apply 8 or 10 bushels per

20 *

acre on the fallow every year during the lease, than 160 to 200 bushels per acre at one time at its commencement.

6039. The composition of the limes obtained from the limestones mentioned above, (6035,)

6042. There is no doubt that lime is an ex

with the exception of that of Relig, is as

hausting substance for the land. Long ago it was quite common in Scotland for tenants, who grudged to purchase manure, to procure lime and apply it as manure, just as the bog -marl was used, until the land was rendered almost incap able of growing any crop , when it was laid

follows : .

Lanarkshire, Cumberland , Dumfriessh , Carluke , Cockermouth , Kiln head , Lime ,

89.78

Sulphate of lime,(gypsum ,) 1.45 Phosphate of lime, Magnesia ,

1.93 1.69

Alumina and oxide of iron, 2.76

89.77 0.38

1.02 1.23

88.64 0.51

0.43 1.98 3.39 5.05

down to grass to rest for a number of years.

The various substances of the soil, organic and inorganic, are more rapidly set free after lime has been applied than before; and, on being set free, 100.00 100.00+ 100.00 the roots of plants obtain them the more readily and in greater abundance; and then, as the plants 6040. The purer lime is it is considered themselves grow more rapidly and to a larger Johnston On the Use of Lime in Agriculture, p. 44. + Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1848, p. 299.

Silica in the state of silicate, 0.70 Carbonic acid and moisture, 1.69

4.92 2.68

671

WATER -MEADOWS.

size, andperfect all their parts more completely, would be purchased at a cost beyond their they will carry off a larger quantity of matter from the soil, which, if not replaced in some way,

intrinsic worth. A third consideration, of

become the more severe .

of a rivulet, which may form the boundary of the estate in which your farm is situate, as your water-meadow will require ? You

soil must become exhausted. If more lime an important nature too, is, whether you istheapplied to correct the evil,the exhaustion will have a right to take as much of the water

6043. Over - liming was an evil which the land suffered in a former generation more than in this ; and when it occurred was confined to poor weak soil, that was soon rendered too loose by the use

can use the water of a brook which wholly passes through your farm as you please, of the plough . It is therefore quite correct what provided it be not injured in its quality,

Professor Johnston says, that “ the evil called

nor directed out of its natural channel

overliming is a mechanical, not a chemical one.

when it enters the property below ; but

The extreme openness of the soil has been brought

on by prolonged ploughing, and too frequent you cannot appropriate to your particular use more than half the water of a march

cropping of corn . An opposite procedure must

therefore be adopted, and mechanical means burn . If half the water afforded by it is employed, by which a gradual solidification may not sufficient for the purpose of irrigation, be among which none is more effective thaneffected,” the eating off turnips by sheep on the land . you should either abandon the idea

ofform

ing a water-meadow - for a dry watermea 6044. A compost of lime and earth is a better dow is a vexation in fact, as much as a

top-dressing for grass land than either separately. contradiction in terms - or negotiate with Such a compost is usually made too weak of your neighbour for the use of the whole ;

lime:the proportion should beone cubic yardof for it would be a pity to render all the lime to three cubic yards of earth . The mixing of such a compost costs 1d. per cubic yard of the

water useless, because either party can

mixture.

legally use only one half of it.

6045. The appearance of the white clover, 6047. Allowing the quantity of water Trifolium repens, on top -dressing healthy soil with lime, is a well-known and remarkable pheno to be ample for your extent of irrigation, menon .

Lime extirpates the corn marigold , it is better to take it direct from the brook

Chrysanthemum segetum , but it encouragesthered than to erect a dam across it, to collect the poppy,Papaver Rheas; and on sinking into strong water, even though you should possess the clay soil it favours the growth ofcolt's-foot,Tussi power to do so ; because, the nearer the lago farfara. bottom of the brook the water is obtained

from , the better it is for the purpose of irrigation, on account of the sedimentary ON FORMING WATER-MEADOWS.

matter which it contains ; and the more of

clay and vegetable matter the sediment

6046. Several considerations should be consists of, the more richly it will manure

carefully attended to ere the formation of irrigated plants.

It may cost more to

a water -meadow is determined on, the make a channel for the water obtained

principal of which is, whether there be a direct from the brook, than to construct a sufficient supply of water in a dry season dam across the same brook, though that is to irrigate the meadow thoroughly ; and if even improbable ; for unless a dam is very

there be not, the desire for possessing a substantially made, so as to resist the force water-meadow should be abandoned, or its of the brook under every state of food, it extent confined to suit the water at com- will cost much for repairs, besides exciting

maud. Another important consideration the constant apprehension of blowing from is, whether the water can be spared for below , or bursting out at the sides. irrigation, without depriving other as im 6048. Sluices should be formed to pre portant purposes of itsuse, as thethrashing of grain and the watering of live stock in vent the water reaching the meadows when

grass-fields. If the water can be used in not wanted, and also to allow one portion irrigation before it is wanted for, or after of the meadows to be watered at a time, it has been used by, the thrashing machine, while the other parts are kept dry. All when the water can be conveniently em- sluices should be substantially and amply

ployed for the thrashing power, then it may builtwith stone and lime, of which the profitably be employed for irrigation ; but foundations should be sunk to a depth be

otherwise, the advantages of irrigation low that which the water has anychance

.

672

REALISATION .

of reaching. The masonry in direct con- 3 feet deep. The drains should be placed tact with the operating sluice-boards should apart at distances corresponding to the be formed of droved ashlar. No doubt, breadth proposed to be given to the bed sluices of this construction are expensive ; work of the meadow , that every bed may but unless the entire appointments in con- have the same advantage in regard to

nection with water are constructed in a drainage. In practice, it will be found substantial manner at the commencement, that but a very small proportion of the and on correct principles, their repair will water finds its way into the drains ; never theless, it is necessary to have a sufficient be incessant, and useunsatisfactory. number of drains to carry off all the water 6049. The land to be converted into that may find its way into them from any water-meadowshould be thorough -drained , quarter; and, toinsure this result, a drain unless the subsoil consists naturally of should be accessible from every bed. gravel, which is rarely the case ; because, 6050. These preliminaries being deter if irrigating water finds its way through the soil to a retentive subsoil, it will re- mined, the next business is giving proper main there in a stagnant state ,where no form to the water-meadow . Taking, in drains are at hand to carry it off ; and the the first instance, the simplest case of consequence will be, the sward of the water-meadow , having a very gentle slope meadow will in a short time be composed from one side to theother ofthe field, and

of coarse subaquatic plants, instead of fine also from one end of it to the other, the meadow -grasses. The best sort of materials first business is to make the ditch, wbich for filling the drains of water-meadows are is to conduct the water from the brook, to

pipe -tiles; and in case the meadow should the highest corner of the field . Where afterwards be converted into arable bus- this water- course or lead enters the field ,

bandry, the drains should be made at least a sluice a, fig. 554, should be put across it, Fig. 554 .

g

i

1

m 0

THE BED- WORK WATER- MEADOW.

to prevent the water flowing when it is alike, it should be made narrower towards not wanted. The first operation within b, that, on the water going into the lateral the field is to form the main conductor of feeders in succe ccession, no more may find its the water a b along the upper side, not on way to b, at the termination, tban is a dead level, but with a very gentle required to irrigate the ground from that descent. It should be made capacious point; and the water onght to flow along

enough to pass as much water as will the whole of a b, as always to have the cover, at one time, the entire surface of the water at the same height in it. The field with running water ; and in order to bottom and edges of the conductor should give it the power to overflow at all points be made with a uniform smoothness and

WATER -MEADOWS.

673

inclination. The earth which comes out other, and of uniform inclination from of the conductor is wheeled away to other end to end, the drains m, n, o,p , q, r , s, t, parts of the field, to fill up hollows. are uniformly 1 foot below the level of the feeders e , f, g, h, i, k , l. The soil be 6051. The next channel made is the

tween them is worked smooth and even

main -drain c d , whose province is to with the spade, hollows being filled up,

carry the water out of the field, after it and heights removed to a uniform inclina

has served its purpose in irrigation , and,

tion .

on that account, its dimensions should be exactly equal to that of the main -conduc-

6053. The ground is now ready to be tor, but its position and form the opposite sown with the seeds of the natural grasses, at the lowest side of the field . It should also have the same uniform inclination

and smoothness down to its largest outlet at d .

which should always be without a corn

crop, to secure a fine and early sward.

The following is a good proportion of such seeds, per acre, for water-meadows, for the different conditions of light, medium ,

ing to the state of the ground. If the field has been under culture, the ground should be ploughed and barrowed, and the weeds hand- picked, as in summer-fallow , (4165 ,) and the plough used to gather it into

from each other, the breadth of two ordi

nary ridges of 15 feet. One gathering may probably not suffice, as the crowns should be 1 foot higher than the open furrows. This is all the assistance the plough

can give in the making of water-meadows, and the rest should be done with the spade and wheelbarrow ; and by their means the

On

Medium

Heavy

Soils .

Soils ,

Lb.

Lb.

Lb.

23

23

11

14

1

2

3

24 18

2

2

Agrostis stolonifera . Marsh creeping bent -grass or fiorin , 24 Alopecurus pratensis. Meadow fox - tail grass , 14 Festuca loliacea. Darnel - spiked fescue -grass, Festuca pratensis . Meadow fescue -grass, Festuca elatior. Tall fescue- grass, Glyceria fluitans. Floating sweet-grass,

On

21

ridges, ( 749.)The crowns of these ridges aremarked by the lines e , f, g, h, i, k, l, and they may be at a distance of 30 feet

On soils ,

21

the preparation for them is made accord-

Without a Corn Crop . Light

24

6052. Whilst these two principal chan- and heavy soils : nels are forming with the greatest care and exactness, the intermediate ground of Botanical and English Names . the field should be preparing to be occu pied with another species ofchannels, and

24

29

6

6

6

7

7

7

Lolium Italicum.

Italian rye - grass , Lolium perenne. Perennial ryegrass , Phalaris arundinacea . Reed canary -grass , Phleum pratense.

Timothy, or cat's-tail,

1

14

14

2

3

3}

Poa trivialis.

Rough - stalked meadow -grass ,

Lotusmajor . Greater bird's - foot trefoil,

29

3

31

2

2

2

314

38

35

channels e , f, g, h, i, k, l, are made with a

uniform inclination from the main -conduc- To protect the young plants, 1 bushel per tor a b to their respective terminations.

acre of rye may be sown along with the

These channels are called feeders, and seeds, if sown in autumn, and i bushel of they occupy the crowns of the ridges, barley, if sown in spring. The entire cost now named beds, having a width of 20 of these seeds is 27s. 9d . on light, 32s. 3d. inches at their junction with, and at on medium , and 36s. on heavy soils. right angles from , the main-conductor ab, “ When desirable," says Mr Lawson, “ the

should they extend as far as 200 yards original expense of the above mixture may in length, and a width of 12 inches at be decreased from 4s. to 5s. per acre, by

their termination. Of similar dimensions excluding the Alopecurus pratensis, which are the channels m , n, o, p, q, r , s, t, called is only recommended in consideration of drains, formed in the hollows of the open its earliness, and half of the Lotus major ; furrows ; because their province is to carry under most circumstances, however, it will

off the water from the feeders, for which be advisable to retain the full quantity purpose they should be formed in the oppo- of the latter, not only from its being the

site direction, having their widest end best adapted of the clover tribe for with at their junction with the main-drain c d . standing excess of moisture, but also from These channels being parallel to each its attaining to full maturity at a late VOL. II .

20

674

REALISATION .

period of the season, when the growth beds — their crowns - should be formed of the grasses generally becomes less vigor- where the feeders are made,wherever that ous. "

*

may be. Should the ground fall suddenly from a to c, the water will run too fast

6054. When the field to be converted into down the feeders, as made in fig. 554, water-meadow has been in permanent pas- to avoid which inconvenience, they

ture, the turf should all be carefully taken should go off at such an acute angle from off,in ahandy, well-prepared form,(5746,) the main -conductor a b as that the water and laid aside for use. The bared surface shall flow in them as slowly and uniformly should then be ploughed and wrought with as in the more level case of the ground; the spade in the manner similar to thatde- and this angle can only be determined by scribed above ( 6052) ; and when the ground the spirit-level, fig. 493, to which angle

has been properly prepared, instead of be- the beds should be ridged up, and the ing sown, the turf is replaced, and beaten drains m, n , o, p, q, r , s, t, made to occupy smooth with the back of the spade. This the parallel and intermediate spaces at the proceeding makes by far the best finish for proportionate lower level (6052.) a water-meadow , and is, in the end, most economical, inasmuch as the expense of

6056. Another form of water -meadow

the grass-seeds is saved, and the meadow is what is technically termed catch-work, is ready for taking on water at once, and from the circumstance of a lower set of will yield a good crop of meadow -grass feeders catching the water in its rapid the ensuing season ; whereas a meadow sown with grass -seeds cannot be watered with impunity for two years — and even longer, if the grass-seeds had been sown down with a corn -crop. When the turfing of the meadow is finished, the water

descent down steep ground,from a higher, thus causing the same channels to act the part of feeders and drains at one and the same time. This is necessarily an imper fect mode of irrigation, and should never be resorted to but from necessity arising

should be let into themain -conductor,and thence into each of the feeders and drains into the main-drain, and discharged off the field for a shorter or longer time, according as the soil is dry or otherwise,

from an irreparably irregular form of the ground ; so that “ to give exact directions forthe formation of catch -work," as is well remarked by the late Mr Stephens, “ is beyond the ingenuity of man ; for no

in order to consolidate the soil and the two pieces of land are precisely alike,

turfing, that any inequality thereby indi- which renders it impossible for the irri cated on the surface may be rectified gator to follow the same plan in one field before grown together the turfs have

.

that he has done in another.

Each mea

dow, therefore, requires a different design, 6055. This is the simplest as well as and the construction to be varied accord

the most perfect form of water-meadow ; ing to the nature of the ground and the but examples of ground of so much unifor- quality and quantity of the water.” mity of surface as now supposed is of so pressed with the difficulty of conveying rare occurrence, that modifications must be useful information on this sort of water

made in the position of the feeders and meadows, I shall only give one supposable drains, to suit the form of the ground. case as an illustration of the irregulari For example, if the ground falls more ties that may be found on some grounds ; suddenly from a to b, fig. 554, than from but the expediency of attempting the

a to c, the feeders e, f, g , h, i, k, and l, formation of water-meadows, where the instead of being made on the middle of ground is so irregular as to seem unsuited the beds, should be placed a little towards for them, is doubtful. I conceive that the a , the higher part of the ground, making original trouble and expense of making

the lower side of the beds broader than them, and the consequent risk of injuring the higher, as gravity will easily carry the ground by an injudicious distribution the water down the broader sides into the of the water, would more than counter

drains m, n, o, p, q, r, s, and t. Still, in balance all the advantages likely to be such a case, the most elevated line of the derived from so imperfect a structure. If Lawson On the Cultivated Grasses, p. 41 , 3d edition , 1850.

WATER -MEADOWS.

675

the opinion of Mr Stephens, that “ the not wonder it has so often proved unsuc benefit of irrigation depends so much upon cessful," is applicable to bed -work, how the good management and patient perse- much more so to catch -work irrigation ! verance of those who have the superin tendence of a water-meadow , that I do

6057. A main-conductor, a b, fig. 555,

Fig . 555. a

d

7

10

r

h i

k

n

.

P 2

A CATCH -WORK WATER -MEADOW .

is as necessary in catch-work, to convey

6058. It is obvious that the water in

the water to the different parts of the cd will impart most of its sedimentary field, as in the most perfect bed - work ;

constituents to the ground between it and

and as it should have the same gradual fe, and by the time the water has reached

fall in its course as in that case, it may k, very little foreign matter will be left in have to be carried along numerous curves.

it, so that the grass in this upper part of

On the water reaching its extremity at b, the meadow will be better nourished than necessarily the highest part of the ground, that in the lower ; but, the sub-conductor it sbould flow , on the one hand, along the op. carrying the water from the main feeder b c, and, on the other, along the conductor a b directly to all the feeders feeder 6 d, both being true feeders, and in connection with the main -drain from not drains. In theiroverflow the water 1 to u, the water will bestow equal advan

finds its way to the drain e f, which col- tage to every portion of that part of the

lects all that comes from c to d ; but it meadow . In catch -work, as in bed -work , is, at the same time, a feeder, and dis- each feeder may supply water for 30 feet poses of its surplus water down the of ground in breadth , if the descent is descent to g h, which in its turn sends it gradual; but if more sudden, the breadth to i, and i sends it to k, which lastly sends may be increased to 40 feet. it to the main-drain u m. Part of the 6059. Where water flows unequally, water finds its way to the drain n, which conveys it into the main -drain at m.

whether in conductors or feeders, stops

Also, the water issues out of the main-

are placed in them to retard the velocity of the water. The stops are made of vari ous materials — of pieces of the natural soil left untouched ,of pins of wood driven into the middle of the channels, of sods pinned down, of one stone or of stones piled in

conductor a b into the sub-conductor o p, from which it flows to the right down the

ſeeders q, r, s, t; and on the left down those of v, w, x, y, and z, to both of which classes of feeders l u acts as a main-drain.

676

REALISATION .

heap, and of short boards thrust into the instanced in one case belonging to the late edges of the channels at an angle. In all Sir Charles Stuart Menteath of Closeburn , cases of regular bed -work, fig. 554, the in 1826 ; whereas, in a case of Mr Lawson surface being uniform in its descent, no of Cairnmuir, in Peeblesshire, the cost stops are necessary , nor are they required was £ 12 per acre.

In one case it cost

even in catch -work, where the water flows direct to an overflow , as in b c and 6 d, fig. 555 ; but where water is supplied down the steep sub -conductor o p, they are requisite to guide it equally into the entrance of each of the feeders q, r, s, t, and 0, W , X , y , z, But all the kinds of stops just enumerated are objectionable, because pins collect straws and sticks brought by

Mr Simpson of Glenythan, Aberdeenshire, about £ 7, and in another case only 36s. 9d. per acre. From £7 to £ 9 per acre may be taken as a fair average. Unless the advantage to be derived were considerable, such an expense would not be justifiable ; but in all cases where meadows have been well managed, the yield has at least doubled ; and the land that was not worth

the water ; stones and turfs cause holes to

more of rent than from 5s. to 158. an acre ,

be formed in the channels by the water increased in value to nearer £3 per acre.

falling over them ; and notch-boards injure the edges of the feeders, besides causing deep holes by the fall of the water over them. The best form of stops consists of a piece of wood forming two wedges with their bases united ; because, when placed firmly to the bottom between

From the nature of the work connected with their formation, it cannotbe otherwise than expensive, as Mr Stephens justly remarks: “ However simple the construc tion of a water-meadow may appear in a superficial view , those who enterminutely into the detail will find it much more

the edges of a conductor or feeder, the difficult than is commonly imagined. It water flows over them in an unbroken mass, is not an easy task to give an irregular

with a retarded velocity. A number of surface the equal slope requisite for the such stops of unequal breadth fit any size overflowing of water. It is very neces of channel. sary for the irrigator to have just ideas of

levels ; a knowledge of superficial forms 6060. Where the natural fall of the will not be sufficient. Few people unac ground admits of the arrangement, it is quainted with the art of irrigation, and quite possible to convey the water in a the regularity of form which the adjust lead from the lowest main -drain of one ment of water requires, have any idea of

water-meadow to the main -conductor of the expense of modelling the surface of a another at a lower level ; but, as the

water would then be almost deprived of its manuring properties, where there is a

field .” 6062. Great as are the benefits derivable from water-meadows in the low country, such mea

large supply of water, it would be better dows would prove ofincalculably moreadvantage to convey it at once to the lower meadow ; to our Highland districts,where hay is the most and where thereis no surplus water, liquid- valuable food forstock in winterthat can be

manure should be put into the lead, and raised at such altitudes. That the formation of the water, as it left the one meadow , could

water-meadows is quite practicablethese in allsenti our

Highland glens is apparent from

carry it by the main -conductor to the ments of Mr Stephens, with which I cordially other. In my opinion, liquid -manure acquiesce, and earnestly press upon the consider would be much more profitably applied in ation of such of you as may betake yourselves to

this way than by direct sprinkling on the hill-farming., “ Fallaws-meadow , on Sir George Montgomery's large sheep-farm , containing 15 soil, as the extraordinary effects produced acres,was enclosedfrom moorland in 1816, and, by the foul-water irrigation in the neigh- by collecting the water from the surrounding bourhood of Edinburgh fully demonstrate. sheep-drains,5 acres are partially irrigated, and the remaining 10 are top -dressed with the 6061. The expense of

converting land

into water-meadow varies according to

manure made from part of the produce, which is consumed in winter by the sheep of the farm in a wooden shed near the meadow . By this simple

circumstances, and is often very great. method of improvement, 15 acres of common Where the ground is nearly level, and the sheep-pastureland gave the proprietor from 3500 4000 stones of hay per annum, averaging 6d . surface covered with turf, the turf may be to per stone. In that wassoldfrom year of drought, 1826, the ground properly shaped , and hay of thismeadow 18. to ls. the 3d.

taken up ,

the turf replaced for L3 per acre, as was per stone. What an immense advantage to e

IRRIGATION .

sheep -farmer ! By this simple process of enclos- · in all the feeders is adjusted. ing and cutting a few small feeders and drains,

677

Let the

beds of a water-meadow be ever so well

the owner is enabled to provide food forhis flock; formed, yet, bysome places sinking more when his less fortunate neighbours' sheep must either starve or be supplied from the farmyard ; than others, or by the ice raising the sur but I am afraid thereare few sheep -farmers whó face of the ground, although the water are so fortunate as to have any hay over and along the banks of the feeders has been above what is requisite for stock at home. Sir

ever so nicely adjusted, it often happens

George fed the same number of sheep on the farm as hedid before themeadow wascut offand that there may be some places between enclosed, and I am fullypersuadedthat the the feeders and drainswithtoo little water, same improvement

might be made on almost when it will be advisable for the manager are situations where 5, 10, or ties of the surface so as to give every spot

every sheep-farm in Tweeddale ; for, in almost to make a third round, redressing inequali all of them, there

15 acres might be enclosed and partially irri gated , as in every pastoral district there are

1 inch deep of water. Every part of the numerous rills which might be easily collected, works being regulated, the water should and used to the greatest advantage, at a very be allowed to run through the whole of

trifing expense; so that,instead ofbeingobliged, October, November,December, and Janu climate of the southern partsof Dumfriesshire, ary, from 15 to 20 days ata time without where the owners areobliged to be at the mercy intermission. At the expiration of each of their southern neighbours - not to mention the of these periods, the ground should be very serious injury the flocks receive by so long made completely dry for 5 or 6 days, to

and fatiguing ajourney - by adopting the above give it air ; forthere are few species of system of improvement, a considerable portion of the losses generally sustained would be pre

the grasses which form the most nutritive

part of the herbage of water-meadows,

vented,” * ( 1027 ) and ( 1041. )

that will long exist under an entire immer sion of water. Moreover, if the frost ON IRRIGATION.

should be severe and the water begin to freeze, the watering must be discontinued,

6063. “ At the beginning of the month otherwise the whole surface will become of October," says Mr Stephens, each

one sheet of ice ; and whenever the ice

feeder and drain should be cleansed, and takes hold of the grass, it will undoubt the banks of the feeders repaired where edly draw it into heaps, which is very they bave received damage by the tread- injurious to meadows. The object of this

ing of cattle. ” A thorough repair of this early watering of the meadows is to take sort every year will cost about 9s. per advantage of the autumnal floods, which

bring along with them a variety of putres cent matter, which is found very enriching 6064. “ Thewhole worksbeing repaired, to land. It is the chief object of the

acre .

and there being generally water enough irrigator, in those months, to collect as at this season either for the whole or for much of this manure as possible, and at

same time to shelter the land from the part, the sluice should be drawn, when, the in the course of half-an -hour, the conduc- severity of frosty nights. It is therefore tor and the upper part of the feeders will be nearly filled. The first operation of the irrigator is to adjust the water in the conductor; or, if the meadow is in more parts than one, the water in each conductor

requisite to use as much water as the land will carry without guttering. I believe it would be difficult to give land, with a dry subsoil and considerable descent, too much water before the weather begins to

must be first regulated. Then he com- get warın. It isnecessary, in those months, miences anew, by regulating the stops in that the meadows be inspected at least the first feeder ; but should there not be once in 3 or 4 days, to see that the equal sufficient water in the feeder, a little more distribution of the water is not obstructed inust be let in, by making the aperture by the accumulation of weeds,” &c. wider or deeper, till the water flows regu

6065. Simple as these directions are, larly over the sides from one end to the other. From the first he proceeds to the the actual management of the water of second feeder, and so on, until the water meadows is not unattended with difficulty, Stephens' Practical Irrigator, p. 82.

678

REALISATION .

and requires the exercise of considerable another too little ; for on the alteration of judgment and great attention . “ The ad- the apertures, and adjustment of the water, justment of water flowing over the surface greatly depends not only the quality but of land ,” observes Mr Stephens, " for the the quantity of the crop." purpose of improving the herbage, is a very

nice operation ; it requires a perfect knowledge oflevels and the vegetation of grasses, and ought never to be intrusted to an unskilful manayer . When the supply of water is, in any state of the stream that

6066. There are many ways of mis

managing water-meadows, such as retain ing a moist subsoil, or allowing the grass to stand too long before cutting ; but there is an error committed at this period of the

supplies it, sufficient for the whole or one- year, to which I wish to direct your atten

balf of the meadow at once, the manage- tion, and which is thus characterised by ment becomes pretty easy ; for after the Mr Stephens. “ Another great error works are cleaned, and the water regulated generally committed is, allowing the water in the autumn, the sluices should be fixed to run too long at a time, without properly at such a height as to let in the exact drying the ground.

I know some in

quantity of water required, when it is stances where the ground is not attempted allowed to run , according to the state of to be dried from the time the water isput the weather and the season of the year,

on the meadows in autumn till 8 or 10

for 2, 6, 10, or 15 days, without any days before the cutting of the hay ; the

alteration ; and it will be found ( unless consequence is, that the grass is of the the water has carried along with it weeds, coarsest quality, and the ground becomes sticks, or wrack of any kind ) to run

so very boggy that the whole crop of grass

during that whole period nearly as equally is obliged tobe carried by people to some over the surface as wben first put on. But other place, to be made into hay. . . All when the stream is small, and rising and dry soils require more attention than moist falling with every shower of rain, the

ones ; for, if the water in moist soils should

not be so nicely regulated as on sandy or difficult, that it will require every possible dry land, the crop of grass will not be so attention of the irrigator to watch and defective as on porous soils, where the change the water from one part of the management has been neglected. I pre management becomes so much the more

meadow to another, or from one bed to sume that all dry land that has been con another, according to its abundance or verted into water-meadows, in countries

deficiency. Such meadows are indeed ill where the art of irrigation is not well

managed, although half -an -hour's work known, and the supplyof water not abun in a day would put every thing to rights. dant or regular, is liable to more injury, from imperfect treatment, than land of a be ever so perfect, and the supply of water moist nature; for plants must have their Indeed, let the formation of the meadow

constant and uniform , yet it is necessary food at stated times as well as animals, that the manager should survey the whole

but this cannot be the case when the water

every 3 or 4 days, to remedy any defect is irregularly applied .” * occasioned by the accumulation of weeds,

6067. It is the practice of some, that or by a stop being washed away, and thereby cause some places to have too when a deficiency of plants is observed, much water, and others too little ; so that, in a meadow that had been made from old in the former case, the grasses might pasture, to allow the grass to shed its seed either be killed or very much injured by in the ensuing season in order to thicken the generation of scum , or, in the latter the sward . This should never be done, case, there would be little or no product because very many of those plants which of grass . Small streams are certainly have shed their seed will die out. An much more at command than large ; but idea much prevails, that, because pastures if the manager, as is too often the case with are permanent, the lives of the grasses

a young practitioner, vainly endeavours which compose it are permanent also ; to water too much ground at a time, he

but the fact is otherwise.

Most of the

may give one part too much water, and grasses are perennial, but not permanent ; Stephens' Practical Irrigator, p. 20-7.

IRRIGATION .

679

and we do not know the longevity of the water was let upon each for a few days decidual plants of grass which constitute at a time. a permanent pasture, though observation would instruct us, that on permanent pas6070. The produce in the two seasons ture the older plants die out and young was as follows from the same piece of ones take their place. For aught we ground : 1844 . 1845 . know , then, in regard to the age of any Cart - loads. Cart - loads. portion of a permanent pasture, that the 12 13 June, Cut in

one we have selected for shedding its seed, for the purpose of filling up gaps,

...

July, August,

September, October,

may be the very one which contains the

32 34 30

36 43 42

Il

8

119

142

oldest plants, which will die out after having shed their seed. The sure course for the owner of a water -meadow to

Each

of grass weighed 6 cwt., pursue, when he desires to fill up the and thecart-load load that was made into hay in spots bare the sow is to it, in of grass gaps 1844, by way of experiment, yielded 2 of earth with new seed, which will assist cwt. 104 lbs.; so that the 4 acres, 1 rood,

thegrass to cover the ground entirely, 38 poles of meadow would have yielded instead of imposing upon the existing 2788 stones of hay of 14 lb. to the stone, the gaps for

plants the exaction to fill up

or 652 stones per acre, which in 1845 was

him.

increased to 778 stones= 495 stones of 22

stone, the ordinary method of 6068. The returns from irrigation are lbs. to the the of hay in Scotland. Estimating theweight surprising , even from unpropitious circum- estimating 495stones of hay at 6d. stances. Mr Simpson of Glenythan in each , the value amounts to £ 12, 7s. 6d. Aberdeenshire tells us, in regard to the per acre, or £52, 17s.6d. over the whole state of the ground which he converted ground, being £21 , 9s. 3d. more than into water-meadow, that,“ previous to the the ground cost to convert into a water ground being operated upon for the pur poses of irrigation, the burn ran through the den in a winding course. The ground,

meadow . *

6071. As it is impracticable to

irrigate

at the top of the den , consisted of a few meadows in winter in highland districts, that mossy hillocks; and the other part of the process should be delayed till every chance of has subsided-until May, after which there ground was pretty level, of a dry nature, frost will still be sufficient time for a crop of natural

and covered with a short grass.

The

hay to grow , be cut down, and won, before the

ground was never cropped with grass, and

departure of summer. Such a meadow is useful in a backward spring for the support of ewes and

the grass was not in use to be cut. The

; and the sheep belonging to Sir George cattle were occasionally turned out npon lambs Montgomery would have inevitably perished in the cold and backward spring of 1826, water been for the grassafforded by a had it not

it, when pasture was scarce in the other parts of the farm . The soil, generally, except the mossy part, is alluvial in some

meadow from the middle of April to the begin

places, and at others gravelly." There ning of May ; after which latter period the was irrigated, and produced nearly 300 are many such places as this in Scotland, meadow stones per acre. The attention of hill-farmers thatmightbeconverted into water -nieadows where there is a command of water.

6069. After irrigation from November

cannot, therefore, be too strongly drawn to the subject of water-meadows. Any attempt to irri gate meadows in such situations in winter, and to pasture them in early spring, would but injure the meadow by means of frost, and, at the same

1843 to the beginning of May 1844, this time, rot the sheep ; but sheep may be pastured, if necessary, in perfect safety on dry meadows 14th of June following, and was continued land in spring, andthe meadow, on being after

meadow was cut for the first time on the

to be cut until the October of the same wards irrigated, might yield a good crop of hay.t year. In November 1844, irrigation was 6072. The mode in which water acts, in pro continued until again commenced, after the ducing the effects witnessed in water-meadows, 1845. In bothandsummers, April has not yet been satisfactorily ascertained. It meadow had been cut in portions, the is not the sediment in the water that alone pro * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1847, p. 44-8. + Stephens' Practical Irrigator, p. 82.

680

REALISATION .

duces the effect, for clear water produces similar effects ; though, no doubt, enriching ingredients carried by the water encourage the growth of plants more rapidly than clear water. Professor Low has these observations on the theory of the

used in spreading dung upon the soil. The fact seems to be, that whenever the water of irriga tion , or the substances contained in it, act chemi cally upon the grass or soil, while subjected to the process, that instant irrigation proves injuri process . “ The theory of the process of irriga- ous to the plants ; and the injury is evinced by tion has not been satisfactorily explained. That the existence of a white scum floating upon the the effect is not produced by the mere supply of water, which is generated when the water has deficient water, appears not only from the period been too long retained upon the grass in a state at which the water is admitted , and when in our of the atmosphere tending to too high a temper climate the soil is always saturated with the

ature for the season .

fluid , but from the circumstance, that the effect is not produced when the water is allowed to stagnate, 6075. I proposed, some years ago, a conjunc and sink down in the soil , but when it is kept in tion of the two theories, mechanical and excre a current over it. When the water is suffered to tory ; and the compound theory seems to explain stagnate, the soil tends to produce carices, junci, these four great points in irrigation , namely, and other sub-aquatic plants ; but when it is that it supplies moisture to the soil in dry seasons kept in motion, and drained off at intervals, the and in tropical climates ; it affords protection to finest grasses peculiar to the soil and climate are

plants against the extremes of heat and cold ; it

produced. Neither does the fact of the deposi-

disseminates manure in the most minute manner

tion of mud, or other fertilising sediment, explain

to plants ; and it washes away injurious matter

the phenomenon ; for however such depositions

from the roots of plants. The benefits derived from irrigation I therefore maintained , are purely mechanical. I stated the case in these terms ;

may increase the effect, it is likewise found that

water, without the least perceptible sediment,

may be employed with success. It has been sup- “ The operation of water bringing matter into posed that the water acts beneficially, by main . minute subdivision ; the sedimentwhich it con taining the soil at a higher temperature. Water, tains when used in irrigation being minutely dis at a temperature of 40 ° is of greater specific tributed around the stems of the plants ; water gravity than at a lower temperature ; and hence, protecting plants in irrigation against the ex as the water tends to the freezing point, the tremes of heat and cold, by completely covering warmer portion of it is next the ground. Much , and embracing every stem and leaf ; and the therefore, cannot be ascribed to this cause , in a supplying of moisture to the soil and washing current so shallow and constant as that which excrementitious matter out of it, are all purely passes over the watered meadow. It is proba- mechanical operations." So that, “ could the hand ble, therefore, that the main effect is produced by a mechanical action of the water, acting upon

of man distribute the manure around the roots

and stems of grass as minutely and as incessantly

and bringing* nourishment to the fibrous roots of as turbid water ; could it place a covering of the plants."

woollen texture upon each blade and around each

stem of grass, to keep it warm , as completely 6073. The late Professor Rennie, of King's as water embraces each plant ; could it water

College, London, explained the phenomena of the grass as quietly and constantly as the slow irrigation by reference to the excretion of plants. current of irrigation ; and could it wash away He supposed it to be probable that every species hurtful matter from the soil as delicately from of grass is not alike affected by its own or the the fibres of the roots of grass as irrigating excretory matters from other grasses, and there- water, there would be no need of irrigation ; the fore some species withstood the poison better husbandman could then command verdant pas than others ; but that the water of irrigation, in turage for his flocks and herds throughout the its descent through the soil , washed and carried year, and in the driest season ; his mechani.

away this matter, and on thereby cleansing the soil they grow the more freely by it. Hence the perennial verdure of irrigated meadows (5107. ) +

cal agency would be as effective as irrigation : but, as the relation stands at present between

man and the action of physical laws, he em. and induces nature to assist him in maintaining “ in the artificial watering of meadows, the bene- his live- stock by her peculiar mode of acting, ficial effects depend upon many different causes, in which she undoubtedly displays in this parti some chemical, some mechanical.” I Now, chemi- cular, as in every other thing, her superiority ploys irrigation as an instrument of his will,

6074. Sir Humphry Davy's opinion was, that

cal action only commences after the act of irrigation has ceased. No doubt, the effects of the

substances, whatever they may be, which are de posited by the water of irrigation ,may be chemi cal, as well as those are of manure applied to grass by the hand of man. But the act of the water, in depositing fertilised materials, can no more be chemical than that of the instruments

over him, both in perseveranceand dexterity.” ON THE TREATMENT OF DRAUGHT STALLIONS.

6076. We have now considered every

* Low's Elements of Practical Agriculture, p . 470, 4th edition. + Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. v. p. 24. # Davy's Agricultural Chemistry, p. 305.

§ Encyclopædia Britannica, 7th edition - art. Irrigation,

STALLIONS.

681

subject connected with the culture of the winter it should have a loose-box to it soil. It now remains to attend to some self, as u in the work - horse stable 0, Plate

particulars relating to the treatment II., or a loose-house, and supported on the of live -stock, which only present them- best food, prepared for it according to selves to notice occasionally, but which the directions given in ( 1431.) Next

nevertheless are as incumbent on you to spring it should be broke in by an experi become acquainted with as with the more enced horse -breaker, and taught to work ; common proceedingsof the farm . One of the and although its work should never ex subjects to which I allude is the treatment ceed its ability, in case its shape should of stallions.

For all the foals that any be injured, a little of it, even at an early

farmer requires to rear in any year, in age, encourages the growth of bone and order to fill up the blanks that may be muscle, and renders a colt more easily occasioned by death amongst bis draught handled and commanded. In spring, when horses, he would never require to keep a in hands, it may be exhibited at a show stallion for the use of his own mares alone ;

but whenever a superior colt foal is dropped by a mare of superior quality, he may be induced to rear it as a stallion, notwithstanding the trouble which it may impose

as an entire 2 year- old colt, to assist in making it known, if its figure be good ; if not, it had better be castrated at once . A run at good grass, for a couple of months, after this discipline, in a securely fenced

upon him, the danger involved in keeping field , in company with colts, is of great it about the steading, and the expense service ; but if the fences are not trust

incurred in maintaining it in the condi- worthy, it should be supplied with cut tion it ought to be. Taking Taking all these grass in one of the hammels or courts .

points into consideration , very few farmers When thus confined, everything loose rearstallions ; they prefer engaging the ser-

should be removed from the court or ham

vices of one which travels the country,with me , that it maynot blemish its legs by an owner who makes it his business either

an accidental stroke upon them . In the fol

to breed them , or to purchase an entire lowing winter it should be supported colt likely to turn out a good stallion . on thebestfood, in a loose-box ( 1557;) and towards spring be well kept, groomed, 6077. But supposing you wish to rear a and clothed, to keep it clean from dust; stallion, it is necessary that the colt should and regularly exercised, to put it in possess such properties as to render it high order and condition by April, in time probable that it will become a good horse . to be exhibited for a prize. When at this À foal does not present many of the points age, not exceeding 3 years, it may ap found in a good horse; but as it is kept pear leggy, and want middle in compari until a year old before being castrated, son with older horses, and may therefore time is allowed to show whether or not it be defeated in competition ; but if it have is likely to possess the requisite points. a good shape and well-balanced quarters, it may get a few mares to serve ; and

6078. However many goodpoints a colt should it obtain a district by a premium , may possess, if one or more ofthe follow- it should not serve beyond the allotted

ing diseases be indicated it shonld be number of mares. Many farmers object to a rejected as a stallion - namely, contracted 3 - year-old stallion serving at all ; and, in feet, founder, sand-cracks, ringbone, bone- ordinary circumstances, it is better to re

spavin, curb, bog-spavin, diseases of the frain from service until next year, when eye, broken wind, roaring, wind-sucking.

as a 4-year-old it will be in great vigour, and display great increase of substance .

6079. When a colt with promising 6080. When a stallion undertakes to appearances is determined to be kept as a stallion, it should be placed under the travel a district asa premium horse, oron care of a man who will work and attend its own account, it should be provided

upon it at all times. While the stallion is with a sheet and roller, with a light wallet

young, say 1 year old, it should be bridled strapped across its back containing corn in spring, and taught to be handled and and beans, a few cleansing instruments, led, and in summer get a run on good such as curry -comb and brush, water grass, in company with colts. The next brush and foot- pick, mane-comb and

682

sponge, tigs. 116 and 310.

REALISATION .

Besides a and sponge; and should they feel hot and

bridle with a curb -bar, to keep it in bard when travelling in dry weather ou check, it should be provided with a stall- dusty roads, a stuffing of cow -dung and

collar and water-chain, to fasten it at clay forms a nice cooling poultice. A be had . Its shoes should be light, and, once a-week, on Saturday night, with 1 oz.

night in a stall when a loose-box cannot bran -mash at night, twice, or at least

to be durable, they should be steeled in the of nitre, proves an excellent alterative.

Its litter should be ample to encourage it to lie down and rest at night. It should always be borne in mind to give its food at stated hours every day, along in case of excited action, are apt to cause with the conviction , that it is its food alone which enables the horse to maintain tramping , ( 1546 ) to ( 1556. ) its condition, and consequent spirit, on its 6081. It is too much fatigue for a man very exhausting travels . A stallion that to walk with a stallion in all his journeys loses condition and spirit to a considerable

fore- bits and beels—the former being only a thickening, and the latter a little turning up of the outsides. The shoes usually worn by stallions are very clumsy, and,

during a season , the only remedy for which degree on its travels — one, in short, that is a pony gelding to ride npon ; butshould wants botton — is unworthy of serving

the possession of a pony induce him at draught mares, for its progeny will as any time totrot the stallion along the hard suredly prove as soft as itself. road, to make up for time spent in his own indulgence, or to overwalk it in too 6083. The number of mares limited to a long journeys, the man who so far forgets horse which obtains a prize is commonly his duty should either be dismissed or 60, at 1 guinea a mare ; but the number is caused to walk, and be forbid to mount seldom adhered to, because many farmers, the horse's back. If the leader has a insteadof paying the guinea, make a bar

proper idea of his work, he will divide the gain , offering less money, or only agreeing district so as to go over it all in regular to pay even the lesser sum , should the

order in the timeamare would come again mare prove in foal ; and to secure a good into heat should she prove not in foal. season, the leader of the horse agrees to He should keep a bookand enter the ser- the terms, and makes up the gross sum he

vices of the borse day by day, not merely is entitled by the rules of competition to as a memorandum , but as a detailed docu- receive, by either taking more mares than ment, by which to make up his accounts the stipulated number, or by travelling correctly, and, in case of dispute arising beyond the district, or by doing both ; and from alleged negligence of service, to prove he is blameless under the temptation. the regularity of his attendance. I have In this, as in many similar matters, far witnessed disagreeable disputes arise from mers are shortsighted, in attempting to the leader neglecting to keep an account save a few shillings, they run the risk of of the services of the horse.

losing a foal, by making their agreements

on such conditions as compel thehorse to be 6082. It is customary, when the farmer overworked . The owners of horses which

affords a night's quarters, to do so gratui- fail of obtaining a prize choose districts for tously, and even supply the corn ; but un- themselves, and bargain for any amount of less otherwise arranged ,the understanding fee ; and it is their conduct which some is that the man supplies the corn and farmers use as a means to beat down the beans from his own store. A stallion in fee of the prize-horse.

its travels requires at least 5 feeds or 1 stone of corn a -day, with a proportionate

6084. The mode of putting a horse to

quantity of beans, at 5 separate times. It the mare will be found in (3676 ) (3677,) should always rest at noon . It should be and (3678.) supplied frequently with water during the day. Whenever it halts, its skin should 6085. When the horse's season has ter be wisped and brushed, and its tail and minated, from the beginning of April to mane combed . Every night it should the end of June, it will be found to have have its feet searched with the foot-pick, lost much condition, and no small share

and washed clean with the water -brush of spirits. It should be immediately put

BREAKING IN .

683

in fresh though not in high condition, and insensible to the rein all the time they an excellentmeans of doing so exists at are apparently tractable ; they seize the

that season on the cutting grass, which is bit with their teeth, and press upon it, with their head hanging down, their neck arched, and their eyes set back, as if bus 6086. Some owners object to working picious of an advantage being about to be

daily in hands, (3869.)

stallions out of the season, and when they have been ill broken -in , and not handled when young, and are therefore easily excited and put out of temper, it is proper to refrain from working them ; and some horses have naturally an ungovernable temper,

taken of them. In this position, in every yoking they are worked they look liker

that are not safe to put into the yoke;but whenevera stallion is quiet andobedient, work is of use to itself, in giving it exercise and food regularly, and inducing it to rest at night. According as the animal

the end, the dull sulky-looking colt is

objects of oppression and pity, than of exultation to the farmer,while witnessing the young noble steed be bas bred and

reared undertaking its first work.

In

confirmed in bis natural doggedness, and the timid one rendered more afraid . No

doubt, time brings about a change ; but why should the change be allowed to be effected

works best by itself, or in company by lapse of time, to the discomfort and

with another horse, it should be treated. annoyance of the animal, when it might Perhaps single-borse carting is the work do his work with comparative ease by most compatible with its temper and being broke in ? strength to be put to most coustantly, though its loads ought to be compara6088. The easiest plan to make a tively light to its strength and willing- draught-colt soon work well is to employ ness .

At whatever work it is employed, a good horse- breaker to bridle, and handle,

much of the quietness and good temper of and lunge him - as long as is requisite to the horse depends on the temper and make its mouth yield to the bit - and then judgment of the person who leads it. it will obey both voice and rein ; and while employing the rein, the horse breaker should be instructed to use the

ON THE BREAKING-IN OF YOUNG DRAUGHT language that will be spoken to it while HORSES .

at work , ( 687 ) to (694. ) The harness

required for this purpose is a breaking 6087. Young draught horses are never bridle, a cavesson, and pad for the back, broke in. They are most frequently yoked all which the horse -breaker brings with with an old steady horse at once into the him. Most of the bits I have seen used in harrows, accompanied with a few re- breaking- bridles seem to me inefficient for strainers of reins and ropes, or an addi- the purpose. They are thick at the

tional band or two to assist the ploughman guard, round, and jointed in the middle to prevent any attempt at a run away ; a construction which gives the horse an

and no doubt, when colts have been hal- opportunity of seizing them with its teeth, tered and led about from the time they when folded back against the sides of the were weaned, by a steady quiet-tempered mouth, by the force of the reins acting on man, they will soon submit to work, and become quite tractable in the course of a few short yokings. But,

Fig. 556 .

notwithstanding their quietness, they cannot be said to be broke in , in the

proper sense of the term—that is, they do not yield to the guidance of the ploughman because they know or understand what he means, but

simply because they feel they are obliged to move along with an older anda stronger horse, to which they are attached, as it may choose to lead them.

Their mouth is quite

ke THE BREAKING -BRIDLE BIT .

REALISATION .

684

the rings.

A much better bit, in my s0 ; while the bunch k lies too far for

opinion, is represented in fig . 556, which ward upon the tongue to be agreeable. I haveseen used many years agoin Ber- After this discipline in the stable for two or wickshire, by the late ThomasMiddlemiss of Norham , who was reckoned in his day one of the best horse-breakers and grooms that had practised his useful art in that

three days, with occasional walks out of the stable, according as it is seen that the colt yields tothe bit, it is led out to walk two or three hours at a time by the nose

part of the country. It consists of two rein of the cavesson, to learn to step out, bits, one twisted and the other square, and to acquire a good pace ; and walking is both 81 inches in length. The square bit the most useful pace for a draught-horse. c d is half an inch square, and so is the A short lunge backwards and forwards diameter of the twisted one a b, and they both have a play of half an inch between the shoulders of the guards a c and b d. The guards ef, and gh, are 7 inches in length. The ring ou each side is 24 inches in diameter over all, and at k is a bunch of links to lie upon the tongue, and make the horse move its jaws.

round a circle, on red land, will be useful, not to teach him to trot ; but the trotting action makes him more active, and sooner gives the use of his legs in cases of difficulty. It should then be backed, and, while guided by the reins, should be spoken to in the language it will be ad

The straps con- dressed in the yoke. After that, it should

nected with the bit are the head -stool ; the be guided along a road with long double

hand -reins, 4, feet in length ; the cheek- reins, while carrying the plough liarness, reins to keep the horse's head in line to accustom it to the noise and to feel

when strapped to the pad, and which pass below the neck -strap of the martingale. These three straps are buckled by their ends to the rings i i. A martingale is necessary to prevent the head being thrown

forcibly up.

the motions of the plough chains. Now all this discipline may be gone through in the course of a week, or 8 or 10 days, ac cording to the disposition of the animal, the handling he may have received since

The breadth of the straps is he was a weaned foal, and the skill of the

1 inch ; that of the counter-strap of the horse-breaker. The degree of exercise martingale 11 inch. The bit can be given should be with a discrimination

buckled on in the reverse order shown in suited to the condition and physical the cut, having the square bit c d upper- strength of the animal. The horse -breaker most, and the bunch k is then screwed to should groom the colt immediately after the twisted bit a b. The cavesson is well exercise, that the animal may become

known, its figure and appointments being familiarised with the usages of the stable. uniformly the same.

The colt's food , too, should be so adminis

tered as to harden his condition for labour,

6089. It is unnecessary to go through with the understanding however, that, all the discipline of breaking in a draught after the busy season of work is finished colt, as is required in the case of a saddleThe playing of the mouth with the bit for 2 or 3 hours in the stable, twice or thrice a-day, the colt standing in the reversed position in the stall, has the horse.

in the early part of summer, the young tyro shall be allowed to have a run at grass for a few weeks, and then fall in to take its own share of the regular work.

double advantage of making the mouth yield to the bit and of keeping up the 6090. After such treatment and dis horse's head. The bit is buckled on slack cipline from the horse- breaker, the colt

for this purpose, so as to lie upon the will be easily made to understand work. bare

spaces of the gums of the lower jaws The sort of harness in which it is first between the front and back teeth, where invested is that of the plough, (676 ) to

the square or twisted parts of the bit rub (685.) It is quite possible that the break sharply; while the bunch of links k makes ing received from the horse-breaker will the lips and tongue play as if desirous make the colt suffer at once to be yoked of getting quit of the whole constraint with an old horse to the plough ; but in When the head is pressed forward to get case of accidents, and to err on the safe

hold of the bit with the back teeth, the side, it is best to use precaution, and the

straps, being too long, prevent them doing principal precaution is to attach it to a

BREAKING IN .

685

strong steady horse, that will neither bite 6091. The colt should be broke in to nor kick it, and yet be able to withstand the cart as well as the plough. It is

the plunges the colt may choose to make. yoked into a single-horse cart, but great The attachment is made by a cart-rope care should beused on the first yoking that being first fastened round the girth of the it gets no fright, by any strap rubbing old horse, and then passed round that of the colt, leaving as little space between their bodies as is required for ploughing ; and to afford no liberty to advance or retire beyond a step or two before or

against it, or the shafts falling upon it when raised up to allow of its being backed below them ; for if frightened at the first yoking to a cart, a long time will elapse

behind the old horse .

The horse -breaker should stand in the cart

Beside the usual

ere it will submit to any yoking quietly.

rein employed by the ploughman, the using double reins ; and a rein should be horse- breaker should have another in his

held by a man walking first on each side

hand fromthe colt's head. Thus equipped of its head, and then at a little distance in plough -harness, the first yoking of the on the side of the road. The chief danger colt should be to an old cart-wheel, placed is kicking, and thereby injuring the hocks on its dished face on ploughed land, fur- against the front-bar of the cart, to pre nished with a swing -tree , with which it vent which a rope should be placed across should be made to draw it, while the the top of the colt's rump, and fastened to

horse walks beside him ; and on drawing the harness there, and on each side to this, the reins should be used, and the the shaft of the cart.

There is little

appropriate language spoken, that he may danger of its running away while all

associate the changesof his motions, which the harness and reins are good.

It

are indicated by the reins while guiding will take to the traces of the cart more him, with the accompanying sounds readily at first than with the trams, as Should the colt offer to turn round, the they are similar to the harness it had

gentlest means should be used in putting worn at the plough, and it is conscious of it again in its proper position, as the having its companion behind it. start may have been made from fear, or from the tickling of a part of the harness. 6092. A young horse may be broke in

When a bind-leg gets over a trace chain, for work any time in the course of the the chain should be unhooked from the spring, from the beginning of working the swing -tree, and hooked on again after the turnip -land to its completion. I can affirm colt has been put in its right position, and the efficiency of the plan I have recom

experience, and it is one which lifted over the mended byunattended the leg not attempted to beoffer with the slightest rear or has been to Should it kick, from a disposition to break away, accident in its practice.

trace chain.

the old horse should be urged in his walk, 6093. On the first use of harness by a and made to pull it along , whilst a smart tip of the whip will take the courage out young borse, the shoulders and back are of it. According as it evinces a dis- liable to become inflamed , and even the position to go on quietly in the work , is skin to be broken by the collar and saddle. determined the length of time it should It should first be ascertained whether the work at the wbeel. When obedient at collar it is to work in fits it properly ;

this, it should be yoked to the plough, and if not, it should be made to do so andthere his sympathy for his companion before being used ,as the first day's use may will soon be called forth ; so that after a injure its skin as much to give it pain

few landings he will work with energy for weeks thereafter. The usual affections and good -will, and should then be kindly are heated swellings in the line of the

spoken to, encouraged ,and even fondled. collar and seat of the saddle. A good The probability is,that its desire for the lotion for those parts whenever thecolt draught may be evinced too keenly, in comes out of yoke is a solution of common which case the pace of the old horse salt in warm water, when it becomes cold, should be subdued and the keenness miti- and applied as a fomentation with a sponge. gated by shortening the rein by which The water not only cools the skin, and it is fastened to the rope round the girth keeps down the inflammation, but the salt of the old horse.

hardens it for use ; and in the course of a

REALISATION .

686

short time, particularly if the weather be mer, when a long tail is of service in dry, the skin will become inured to the whisking off flies, the vertebræ ought to be kept entire ; but no greater absurdity accompanies the docking off a tail than in

pressure of the harness.

6094. It is the usual practice to shoe the paring of the crust of the hoofs, and

and dock the young horse before putting driving iron nails into them ; and yet, it to the yoke. I think he should first without iron shoes to protect the horny be broke in, and then he will suffer him- feet of the horse, they would be beaten to

self to be shod the more quietly. At the pieces upon hard roads, even at a walking first shoeing it will be useful, in making pace . No necessary cruelty attends the

it stand quietly, and in diverting its act of docking, an operation of the simplest attention, to take the old horse it has been form when properly done in a joint where working with to the smithy. By nailing the wound easily heals. a mat against the wall, and making it stand alongside the mat, it will save its

skin being ruffled should it rub against

ON BREAKING IN YOUNG SADDLE - HORSES .

the wall, whilst the wall will form a firm

barrier against its retreating farther from

6096. As you may breed saddle -horses

as well as draught ones, a few words on feet of one side have been shod, that side the breaking in of them after their should be turned next to the wall to get treatment as young horses in the its other feet shod. Gentle and coaxing bammels, ( 1430) and (1431 ,) may prove means should be used, though a twitch on useful. the nose has a powerful command over the blacksmith .

After the fore and hind

6097. The age of 3 years seems a good The first shoes of a young horse should be light , with no heels, and one for breaking in a saddle -horse. The

any horse.

the hoofs should not be pared down much Rather renew the shoes, and pare the hoofs down again in a short time, than encumber a colt at first with heavy

at first.

colt should be sent to grass at the end of May, and taken in to break by August at latest, by which time the grass will bave operated beneficially upon him as medicine ;

shoes and heels, at the risk of trampling and there will be sufficient time to teach

himself, to cure the effects of which may it its paces and put it in a working cost much more than the price of several condition before the fall of the year, when sets of new shoes. A severe paring down horses are apt to become soft, and catch of the hoof, too, at once, and at first, is colds.

But were it kept longer at grass,

apt to superinduce tenderness in the feet, its condition might become so fat as to en and may even bring out corns. danger its constitution, were the fatness suddenly reduced in the breaking in to 6095. As to docking a draught- horse, I working order. think it a necessary operation, because a

long rump is very apt to be injured when the horse is yoked in the trams, by coming against the body of the cart ; and in coupcarts especially it can scarcely escape being nipped by the body of the cart,

6098. The first thing, in bringing a horse

into the stable, to which it should have been accustomed from his foalhood, is to give a gentle dose of medicine to clear the bowels of grass. A second dose may be

when brought down upon the front-bar. repeated in a week. A little new -made Besides, a draught-horse with a long tail hay with oats is the best food as a transi soon gets himself much dirtied in winter, tion from grass to hard food. The first both on the land and the road . A neat

treatment with the cavesson and bridle are

swish is all that is requisite at any time, the same as for the draught horse ( 6088.) and in winter even that is apt to become Much lunging in a circle is not advisable loaded with mud on dirty roads. Some at any time, and not at all at first for a

writers affect to believe it presumptuons young riding-horse, though horse-breakers in man to deprive any animal of six of the are very fond of giving it this sort of joints of the vertebral column which exercise, because it saves themselves much

nature has given it; and no doubt were travelling, while the horse may have as our horses always idle, especially in sum-

much exercise as the breaker chooses.

687

BREAKING IN.

The evil of much lunging is, that the con- pail in the stable, and at the trough of a pump- taking up with a dog in the a young horse to contract a longstep and a stable or on the road - bearing, without short. The circle is most useful in training a startle, the fall of the pail-handle, the to canter, when a leading foot is requisite broom , or anything else—lifting the feet stant motion round the circle is apt to cause

in that sort of action. The first tuition at the pail to be washed – bearing the should be a straightforward pace , on a lea- curry- comb on the legs — being led by the

field, and the only pace a walk, which forelockto the door, the pump, or any should be tanght to be free with an easy where. These, and many other things, the head, as well as a short one with a tight colt should be taught to know in and out rein . During the period of the walking -tui- of the stable before he is mounted at all. tion , a great many useful lessons should be taught the colt, which circumstances may 6100. Thus familiarised, it will allow suggest, such as turning from you and to itself to be

mounted

without

much

you — backing, whether quickly or slowly trouble ; and the assistance of boys with -being led, whether by the side of the whips, and of men to hold down the op

with the band on the bridle - bit, or in positestirrup, recommended by Mr Youatt, front with a slack rein - standing still, dispensed with .* Thomas Middlemiss of whether for a short or long time— suffer- Norbam in Northumberland, the horse

ing to be tied to any object, such as agate breaker and groom before alluded too, or tree - passingobjects of terror, or of un- never required any assistance to mount certainty, causing the animal to become a young horse, although he was a stout

acquainted with everything it does not man,

seem to recognise - becoming accustomed him

nor

mount

did one

any person for the

ever

first

see

time.

with the crack of the long, and the slight No fuss should be made about the colt touch of the short whip - yielding the fore at any time, whether in mounting or and hind legs when lifted — and suffering anything else ; nor a number of persons the groom to go about it and arrange, be collected about it when anything

however minutely, the breaking -harness. is done, else it will become apprehen With all these matters the young colt will sive. It will soon confide in one per become much sooner familiarised, by the son, the breaker who is constantly about

breaker going constantly about with it it, but it will not trust a number of on footas a companion on the road and the persons at the same time ; nor will it field , than when mounted on its back ; but trust even the breaker, when others are

the usual custom is for the breaker to engaged along with bim ; and hence no mount— that is, to place a burden upon considerate horse-breaker will permit the back of a raw , timid, young colt, any one to be near him , to distract the and to rein it and to irritate it with

attention of the colt, while he is sub

the spur, which is ever ready, long be- jecting it to tuition of any kind. When fore the awkward creature knows how to mounted, the colt should bear its riderstand

set down one foot before the other in the ing still for some time before it is urged artificial system in which it is about to to walk , as that will habituate it to stand be trained .

The man, however, must

at all times when mounted until its rider

be mounted, which is enough for him , is ready to move. Every one must have whether or not the colt be fit to be felt the annoyance of mounting a horse mounted.

that will not stand to be mounted, or after

being mounted .

Its first pace should

6099. In the stable, too, the same sys- again be a walk, which having accom tem oftuition should be followed out, such plished well with a rider, the trot should

as suffering a person to go up on either be taught. It is said that trotting is pot side, and in any way - suffering to be a natural pace for a horse, that it either groomed , and rather liking it than oppos- walks or starts off at a canter. However ing it, as is too often the case - goingover this may be, trotting is an indispensable to one or other side of the stall,when the pace on our roads. On teaching trotting, bed is being shaken up - drinking out of a horse-breakers are very apt to degenerate * Youаtt On the Horse, p. 321-4.

688

REALISATION .

the pace into a jog, the most dangerous of all paces for a young horse in causing it

ON TRAINING AND WORKING THE SHEP

HERD'S DOG.

to trip, and the most difficult to break a horse from , when contracted. . A short

6102. The natural temper of the shep hitching walk, ready to break into the jog, herd may be learned from the way in is as bad as the jog itself, and is a favourite which he works his dog among sheep. pace with horse-breakers in showing off When you observe an aged dog making their pupils as fast walkers ; but the pace a great noise, bustling about in an im is not the proper walkingone, and in such patient manner, running fiercely at a a pace a young horse is almost sure to dig sheep and turning it quickly, biting at a toe into the ground, and if a stumble is its ears and legs, you may conclude, not the consequence, it is not the man's without hesitation, that the shepherd who fault. Let the walk be a sound walk, owns it is a man of hasty temper. Most and a trot a fair trot, and let no bastard young dogs exhibit these characteristics

pace be permitted to spoil both. It is not naturally, and they generally overdo their work ; and if you observe a shepherd a trot in a straight line, as it is more apt to allowing a young dog to take its own

easy to teach a young horse to canter from

start off to the gallop. A few lessons in way , you may conclude that he also is a the circle is the surest way of giving it man who loses his temper with his flock .

an idea of a canter, and teaching it to If you observe another shepherd allowing point the leading foot. There is risk at his dog, whether old or young, to take a first in making a young horse convert rangeround the fences of a field, driving

quickly a canter into a trot; the actions the sheep within sight as if to gather being so very different it seems at a loss them , you may be surehe is a lazy fellow , what to do, and would rather halt. A more ready to make his dog bring the sudden halt should be avoided at first with sheep to him than he to walk his rounds a young horse, as it may throw it upon amongst them. Great harm may accrue

its haunches, and irrecoverably bring it to sheep by working dogs in these ways.

over upon its back ; and such an accident Wheneversheep hear a dog bark that is as this the colt will never forget, and, in accustomed to " hound them every day, fear of its recurrence, may become restive they will instantly start from their grazing, whenever pulled up suddenly at any time gather together, and run to the farthest thereafter. Every untoward maneuvre fence, and a good while will elapse ere with a young horse -- and no one knows they will settle again. And even when

what it will do — that may occasion any sheep are gathered, a dog of high travel, sort of accident to it, should be carefully

that is allowed to run out, will drive

avoided by the rider, and counteracted with them bither and thither, without an ap firmness when originating with the colt. parent object. This is a trick practised by lazy herds every morning when they

6101. Thus day by day the young horse first see their flock, and every evening will acquire experience in the management before they take up their lair for the night, of itself on the road,or in the field ; but in order to count them the more easily. a series of experiences, such as these, is a When a dog is allowed to run far out, it

work of much time to both man and horse gets beyond the control of the shepherd ; -of much patience and perseverance to and such a style of working among wether the man - of much endurance and annoy- sheep puts them past their feeding for a ance to the horse. Above all, much of time : with ewes it is very apt to cause the benefit derived from even a good abortion ; and with lambs, after they are

horse-breaker will be lost, if the future weaned, it is apt to overheat them, and a rider of the horse does not guide it in a considerable time will elapse before they similar manner, and with equal care , for recover their natural breathing. When some time to come. If considerations ever a sorting takes place among the such as these do not induce the owners of sheep, with such a dog they will be moved horses to employ only men of skill and about far more than is necessary ; and

character in breaking them in, I do not intimidated sheep, when worn into & know a stronger motive that can be placed corner, are far more liable to break off before them to do it. than those treated in a gentle manner.

TRAINING .

689

6103. A judicious herd works his dog strange persons and animals at a consider in quite a different manner. He never able distance at night, and announce their

disturbs his sheep when he takes his approach by unequivocal signs of dis rounds amongst them at morning, noon , and night — his dog following at his feet as if he had nothing to do, but ready to fulfil itsduty, should any untoward circumstance require its services, such as breaking out of one field into another. When he gathers sheep for the purpose of sorting, or of catching particular ones, the gathering is made at a corner, and to gain which he will give the sheep the least trouble , making the dog wear to the right and left, todirect the sheep to march quietly towards the spot ; and after they are gathered, he

pleasure, short of grumbling and barking , as if aware hat those noisy signs would betray its own presence. A shepherd's dog is so incorruptible that it cannot be bribed, and will not permit even a known friend to touch it when intrusted with any act of duty. 6104. As far as my observation extends, I think there are two varieties of the shepherd's dog, one smooth , short -haired , generally black -coloured on the back , white on the belly, breast, feet, and tip of

makes the dog to understand that it is its the tail, with tan-coloured spots on the chief duty to be on the watch , and, with an occasional bark , prevent any of the sheep breaking away . When a sheep does break away, and must be turned , he does not allow

face and legs ; the other is a larger and

the dog to bite it, nor even to bark , but to

Fig. 557.

longer -bodied animal , baving long hair of different colours, and long flowing tail. Fig. 557 is a portrait of one of the latter

give a bound at its head, and thus turn it. In attempting toturn a Black -faced wether in this way, the dog runs the risk of receiv ing injury from its horns ; to avoid which I have seen one seize the coarse wool

of the buttock , and hang by it like a drag,

until the sheep was turned round in the opposite direction, when it is let go . In

short, a well-tempered herd only lets his dog work when its services areactually re quired, he fulfilling his own duties faith

fully, and only demanding assistance from his dog when the business cannot be so

well done by himself ; and at no time will he allow his dog to go beyond the reach of his immediate control. Dogs, when

thus gently and cautiously trained, become verysagacious, and will visit every part

THE SHEPHERD'S DOG.

of a field where sheep are most apt tostray, class in the act of watching. In their re

and where danger is most to be appre- spective characters I conceive them to be hended to befal them — such as a weak part of a fence, deep ditches, or deep furrows into which sheep may possibly fall and lie avalt or awkward ( that is, lie on the broad of their back, unable to get up)—and they will assist to raise them up by seizing the wool at one side and pulling the sheep over upon its feet. Experienced dogs will not meddle with ewes having lambs at foot, nor with tups, being quite aware of their disposition to offer resistance. They also know full well when foxes are on the move, and give evident symptoms of un-

very like the pointer and the setter. The small smooth kind, like the pointer, is very sagacious, slow, easily broke and trained, and admirably suited to work in an en closed and low country ; the other, like the setter,is more swift, bold , ill to break , and requiring coercion, and fitter for work on thehills. The former answers the habits of Leicester sheep, the latter those of the Cheviot and Black -faced. The latter, re quiring a great rangeto workin, on account of the nature of thesheep and of the ground which they frequent, are bold and rough in

easiness on their approach to the lambing action ; still they should be trained to work ground.

They also hear footsteps of with caution, and not with recklessness.

VOL . II .

2 x

690

REALISATION .

6105. Most shepherds profess to be able consider,” says Buffon, “ that this animal, not many display much ignorance ofthe is superior in instinct to all others ; that hehas a

to train young shepherds dogs, wherein withstanding his ugliness and melancholy look , decided character, in which

has com nature of the breed, and of the aptitude paratively littleshare ; thateducation he is the only of the particular animal for its peculiar animal born perfectly trained for the service of

work ; and hence many dogs are ren-

1

others ; that, guided by natural powers alone, he

dered unfit for service. Every shepherd's applies himselftothe care of our flocks- a duty pup has a natural instinct for working ance, and fidelity;that he conducts them with among sheep, nevertheless they should an admirable intelligence, which is a part and always be trained with an old dog. Their portion of himself ; that his sagacity astonishes ardent temperament requires subduing, at the same time that it givesrepose to his and there is no more effectual means of master, while it requires great time and trouble instruct other dogs for the purposes to which

to doing so than keeping it in company with, they are destined :if we reflect on these facts,

and making it imitate the actions of, an A long string experienced quiet dog. attached to the pup's neck, in the hands of the shepherd, will be found necessary to

we shall be confirmed in the opinion that the

shepherd's dog is the true dog of nature ,the stock andmodelof his species.” “ The shepherd's dog," remarks Professor Graguier,the“ dog the ,lives least natural typeof removedfromthe

make it acquainted with the language and maintains its proper characteristics,while employed to direct the various evolutions other races often degenerate. Everywhere it

ofthe experienced dog while at work. preserves its proper distinguishingtype. It is With this contrivance it may be taught to

the servant of man, while other breeds vary with a thousand circumstances.

It has one appro “ hold away out by,” to “come in ,” to priate mission, and that it discharges in the

come in behind," to “ lie down," to “be most admirable way ; there is evidently a kind

quiet,” to “bark,” to “ get over the dyke and wise design in this.” Mr Hogg, the Ettrick or fence,” to

wear,” that is, to stand as

Shepherd , truly says that" a single shepherd and

dog will accomplish more, in gathering a a barrier ; to “heel,” that is, to drive on, his ofsheep from a Highland farm , then seventy to “ kep,” that is,to intercept. It will flock shepherds could without dogs;

do

in fact, that,

learn all these evolutions, and many others, without this docile animal, the pastoral life would in a short time, in imitation of its older be a blank. It would require more hands to man companion and guide. It is supposed that age a flock of sheep,gather them from the hills, them into houses and folds, and drive them thebitch is more acute thanthe dog, force than the profits of thewhole flock to markets,

though the dog will bear the greater would be capable of maintaining. Well may fatigue. Of the two, I believe that the the shepherd feel an interest in his dog : he it quietly disposed shepherd prefers the bitch, is indeed that earns the family bread, of which is himself, with the smallest morsel, always and is careful in working her as little as he grateful and always ready to exert his utmost

he can when in pup:

abilities in his master's interests.

Neither

hunger, fatigue, nor the worst of treatment will

6106. The shepherd's dog on a farm drive him from his side, and he will follow him or

claims exemption from taxation ; and I through every hardship without murmur believe that a well - trained one costs at least £3.

repining." *

6107. volume would not contain what might with truth be said of the sagacity and faithful

ON SLAUGHTERING OXEN, SHEEP, AND PIGS.

ness of the shepherd's dog. Suffice it for me to give a few general observations, which I know

6108. That man cannot be accounted a

“ If he be butwith hismaster,” proficient shepherd, if he cannot slaughter observes the late Mr Youatt, " he lies content, oxen, sheep, pigs, and calves, as well as a to be correct.

indifferent to any surrounding object,seemingly professed butcher. This qualification is half asleep and half awake, rarely mingling with hiskind ,rarely courting,and generally shrinking

necessary, not only on account of slaughter from the notice ofa stranger. But the momenting the animals used at the farmer's table,

duty calls, his sleepy listless eye becomes bright- but in case of casualties overtaking the ened, he eagerly gazes on his master, inquires stock , which, if not slaughtered instantly, and comprehends all he isto do, and, springing and dressed, would become a source of up,gives himself to the discharge of hisduty much loss to the farmer were they to with a sagacity and fidelity and devotion too rarely equalled even by man himself.”

“ If we

die in their blood ; and it would never

" Youatt On the Dog, p. 59-64.

1

SLAUGHTERING .

691

answer to have to send to a town for with sticks, or are in any degree infuri the assistance of a butcher.

For his con- ated - or raised, as it is termed - should

venience, a slaughter-house ought to be not be immediately slaughtered, but al

fitted up, of which he is the acknowledged lowed to stand on dry food, such as hay, custodier, and which it is his duty to until the symptoms bave entirely disap keep clean and wholesome; but its key peared. The reason for the fasting before should be kept in the farm -house. slaughtering is to give time for the paunch andintestines to empty themselves entirely

6109. It is necessary for you to know of food, as it hasbeen found, when an animal the methods in which the different animals is killed with a full stomach, the meat is more liable to putrefy, and is not so well whether or not the shepherd does justice flavoured ; and as ruminants always retain

are slaughtered, that you may judge

to this part of his duty; and you should a large quantity of food in their intestines, alsobe acquainted with the appearance of it is reasonable they should fast somewhat good meat, and of the method of managing longer to getquit of it than animals with it, in order to be able to bargain well with single stomachs. the butcherwhen you may have slaughtered carcasses to dispose of to him.

6112. Cattle are slaughtered in a dif ferent mode in different countries.

In

6110. The slaughter-house should not be in the steading , both on account of the inconvenience of bringing an animal into it, and of the impossibility of keeping the

the great abattoirs at Montmartre, at Paris, they are killed by breaking the spinal chord of the cervical vertebræ , which is accomplished by driving a sharp- pointed

house so free of effluvia as not to be re-

chisel between the second and third ver

cognised as the place of slaughter. In tebræ with a smart stroke of a mallet, fitting it up, the floor should be laid with while the animal is standing, when it clean -droved pavement, andhave a decided drops down on the floor, and death or

slope to the side at which the drain is insensibility immediately ensues, and the made to take away the dirty water occa- blood is let out by opening the blood sioned by cleansing. The walls should vessels of the neck. This is also the mode also be plastered, and a ventilator, fig. 81 , of slaughtering in Germany. In this placed on the roof, to maintain a draught country the plan is first to bring the ox of air.

The site chosen should be in a

down on his knees, and place his under

cool shady place, and at the same time jaw upon the floor by means of ropes easily accessible to animals, and even to a fastened to his head, and passed through cart, should it bring a dead one to be an iron ring in the floor . He is then

dressed. A locked closet is useful to hold stunned by blows from the sharp -pointed the knives, steel, and stretchers, and the back of an iron axe, made for the purpose, outer-door should be provided with a good on the forehead, the bone of which is

thumb-latch, lock, and key. A block and tackle should be suspended from a beam extending across the apartment from wall to wall, to hoist up the heavy carcasses

usually driven into the brain . The ani mal falls on one side, and the blood is let out by the neck . Of the two modes, the French is apparently less cruel, for

by.

some oxen require many blows to make

Water should be close at hand to

wash out the house clean every time it is them fall: I once witnessed an ox receive used .

nine blows before it fell.

I have heard

it alleged by butchers of this country, 6111. O.xen . - Oxen are made to fast that the separation of the spinal chord, before being slaughtered. The time they producing a general nervous convulsion should stand depends on the state of the throughout the body, prevents the blood

animal on its arrival at the shambles. If fowing so rapidly and entirely out of it as when the ox is stunned by a blow on in a proper manner, the bowels will be in the forehead. The skin is then taken off it has been driven a considerable distance

a tolerably empty state, so that 12 hours to the knees,wherethe legs are disjointed, may suffice; but if full, and just off its and also off the head. The carcass is then food, 24 hours will be required. Those bung up by the tendons of the hough, on .that bave been overdriven, or much struck a stretcher, by the block and tacklo

692

REALISATION .

worked most easily with a small winch, market value of the carcass, bone and which keeps good what rope it winds meat, to the farmer, reserving the offal to up by a wheel and rachet . The loose himself for bis profit and risk . tallow is rolled up by itself. The heart, head, and feet are sold separately to fami6115. A figure of the Scotch and Eng

lies and hotel keepers. The paunch is lish modes of cutting up a carcass of beef

cleaned and sold to the tripe-cooks. The willat once show you their difference ; and lights — that is, the lungs and liver - are on being informed where the valuable pieces lie, you will be enabled to judge whether the oxen you are breeding or 6113. After the carcass has hung 24 feeding possess the properties that will

used for dogs -meat.

hours, it should be cut down by the back- enable you to demand the highest price bone, or chine, into two sides. This is for them . The Scotch mode of cutting up done either with the saw or chopper — the a carcass of beef is represented in fig. 558, saw making the neatest job in the hands Fig. 558.

of an inexperienced butcher , though the most laborious ; and it is the quickest with k

the chopper, but by no means the neatest plan, especially in the hands of a careless fellow . In London the chine is equally divided between both sides, while in Scot

2

land one side of a carcass of beef has a

P

ſ

great deal more bone than the other, all the spinous processes of the vertebra being

left on it. The bony is called the lying side of meat.

In London the divided

processes in the fore quarter are broken in the middle when warm , and chopped back with the flat side of the chopper,

THE SCOTCH MODE OF CUTTING UP A CARCASS OP BEEF

which has the effect of thickening the fore and the different pieces of meat receive and middle ribs considerably when cut up. these names : The London butcher also cuts the joint

In the hind quarter.

In the fore quarter .

above the hind knee, and, by making a,b, The sirloin, or back sey. 1 ,, The spare rib, or ſore sey . Funner;, }large & small. .. runner buttock , some incisions with a sharp knife, cuts c , large the sump n , .. nineholes, round , the tendons there, and drops the flesh of di thick flank . 0 , .. brisket . thin flank . P, .. shoulder- Iyar. the hind quarter on the flanks and loins, s9, .. small round. .. nap or sliin , 9 neck. 1, hough . causing them to cut up thicker than in h, tail. s, .. sticking piece. the Scotch mode. In opening up the i, hindquarter, he also cuts the aitch-bone athesirloinisthe principal roasting piece,

or pelvis through the centre, which makes making a very handsome dish, and is a the rump look better. Some butchers in universal favourite. It consists of two the north country score the fat of the portions, the Scotch and English sides ; closing of the hind quarter, which has the the former is the one above the lumbar effect of making that part of both the bones, and is somewhat hard in ill -fed heifer and the ox look like the udder of an

oxen ; the latter consists of the muscles

old cow. Scoring is too much practised under those bones, and are generally in Scotland, and ought to be abandoned. covered with fine fat, which are exceedingly 6114. The carcass consists of the entire

tender ; the better the beast is fed, the larger is the under muscle, better covered

useable meat of the body, which, when sawn down the middle of the back -bone, is divided into two sides, which,when again divided by the 5th rib, make them consist of 4 quarters. The remainder of the animal consists of offal- namely, of fat, entrails, bead, and skin. In purchasing fat livestock, the butcher is supposed to pay the

with fat, and more tender to eat : 6 the hook-bone, and c the buttock, are cut up for steaks, beef -steak pie, or minced col lops — and both these, along with the sirloin, fetch the highest price : d is the large round, and e the small round, both well known as excellent pieces for salting and boiling, and are eaten cold with great

SLAUGHTERING .

relish : h, the hough, is peculiarly suited for

693

6117. In some of the largest towns in

boiling down for soup, having alarge pro- Scotland, a difference of id. per lb. is portion ofgelatine. Brown soup is the made between the roasting and boiling principal dish made of the hough, but its pieces; butin mosttowns, and the country decoction forms an excellent stock for villages, all the pieces realise the same

various dishes, and will keep in a state of prices, and even the houghs and shins jelly for a considerable time. The syno-

fetch 3d. per lb.

vial fat, skimmed off in boiling this piece, 6118. In the English mode, the pieces

and poured upon oatmeal, seasoned with

pepper and salt, constitutes the famous fat are cut upsomewhat differently , especially brose for which Scotland has long been in the fore- quarter. Fig. 559 shows this celebrated ; and it was of this piece that the old favourite soup of Scotland, named

Fig. 559.

skink, was made: e the thick and f the thin flank , both excellent pieces for salt ing and boiling : i is the tail, and, insig

2

772

nificant as it may seem , it makes soup of the finest flavour ; but botel-keepers have

a trick of seasoning brown soup, or rather beef-tea, with a few joints of the tail, and serving it up for genuine ox-tail coup.

o

9

P

e

These pieces of the hind quarter are valu

able for roasting and boiling, not containing a single coarse piece.

THE ENGLISH MODE OF CUTTING UP A CARCASS OF BEEF .

6116. In the fore quarter is k, the spare mode, and it consists of the following rib or fore sey, the six ribs of the back end pieces : of which make an excellent roast, and when taken from the side opposite to the

lying one, being free of thebones of the spine, makes a large one ; and it also makes excellent steaks and beef - steak

pie : I and m the two runners, with n the

In the hind - quarter. a , The loin . rump. b, aitch -bone . buttock . hock .

C,

d, e,

thick flank. 9, thin flank . h, shin . ..tail, ..

In the fore -quarter.

k , The fore -rib . 1, m,

middle rib . chuck rib .

o, P,

brisket. leg - of -mutton piece.

clod , and sticking , and neck .

shin .

nine-holes, make good salting and boiling 1, pieces; and of these the nine -holes is much

a the loin is the principal roasting- piece ;

the best, as it consists of layers of fat and b, the rump, is the favourite steak - piece ; lean without any bone, whereas the fore- c, the aitch -bone, the favourite stew ; d parts of the runners have a piece of the the buttock, f the thick flank, and g the

shoulder-blade in them, and every piece thin flank, are all excellent boiling -pieces connected with that bone is more or less when corned ; e the hock, and h the shin, coarse-grained : 0 the brisketbetween the make soup, and afford stock for various fore-legs eats very well boiled fresh in purposes in the culinary art ; and i is the

broth, and may also be corned : p the shoulder-lyar is a coarse piece, and fit only for boiling fresh to make into broth or beef-tea : 9 the nap or shin is analogous

tail for ox-tail soup - a favourite English damages against the Bank of England for removing the famous Cock eating- house

luncheon. In the curious case of assessing

to the hough of the hind-leg, but not so in Threadneedle Street, it was produced in rich and fine, there being much less gela- evidence, that, in the 3 years 1837-8-9,

tine in it : r the neck makes good broth ; there had been 13,359 ox -tails used for and the sticking-piece s is a great favourite soup ; and as 36 tails make 10 gallons of with some epicures, on account of the soup, there had been served up 59,360 pieces of rich fat in it, which makes an basins, at 11d. the basin, making the large excellent stew.

These consist chiefly of amount of £ 2720, 138. 4d. for this article

boiling -pieces, the roasting -piece being alone.* These pieces are valuable of their confined to the six ribs of the spare -rib k.

respective kinds.

* John Bull, 16th January 1841 .

REALISATION .

691

6119. In the fore -quarter, k the fore- ket. The Short-horns afford excellent rib, 1 middle rib, and m chuck -rib , are all steaks, being thick of flesh, and the slice 1

roasting -pieces, not alike good ; but in deep, large, and juicy, and their corned

removing the part of the shoulder-blade flanks and nineholes are always thick, in the middle rib, the spare ribs below make a good broil or roast : n the neck makes soup, being used fresh ; the back end of the brisket o is boiled, corned, or stewed ; p, the log-of-mutton piece, is

juicy, and well mixed. The Herefords are somewhat similar to the Short- horns, and perhaps rather finer ; and the Devons may be classed amongst the Galloways and Angus, whilst the Welsh cannot be

coarse, but is as frequently stewed as compared to the West Highland. So that,

boiled'; q the shin is put to the same uses takingthe breeds of Scotland as suppliers as tho shin and the hock of the hind- of good beef, they seem to be more valu able for the table than those of England.

quarter.

Any beef that I have seen of Irish beasts 6120. On comparing the two modes of is inferior, but the cattle derived from cutting up, the English affords more roast-

Britain, fed on the pastures of Ireland,

ing-pieces than the Scotch, a large pro- afford excellent meat. Shetland beef is portion of the fore - quarter being used in the finest grained of all, but the pieces are that way.

The plan, too, of cutting the very small.

line between b and c, the rump and aitch bone in the hind -quarter, diagonally, lays

6124. Sheep . — Sheep are also made to open the steak-pieces to better advantage fast before being slaughtered, and the than does the Scotch buttock c, fig. 558. period is seldom less than 24 hours, unless under extraordinary circumstances. Sheep

6121. Extending the comparison from

are easily slaughtered ,and the operation is

one part of the carcass to the other, in not attended with thesame apparentcruelty both methods, it will be seen that the most as with cattle. In the first 24 hours after

valuable pieces (the roasting) occupy its upper, and the less valuable (the boiling) its lower part. Every ox, therefore, that lays on beef more upon the upper parts of its body, is more valuable than one that

fasting, sheep lose 84 lbs. out of 1184 of their weight. They are placed on their side on a stool, called a killing stool — the bathing-stool, fig. 427, answers the purpose very well — to be slaughtered, and, requir

lays the same quantity of flesh on its ing no fastening with cords, are deprived lower parts.

of life by a thrust ofa straight knife through the neck, between the cervical vertebræ

6122. The relative values of the pieces and the windpipe, severing the carotid differ much more in London than in Scot- artery and jugular vein of both sides, from

land. The rump, loin, and fore - ribs fetch which the blood flows freely out, and the the highest price ; then come the thick flank, buttock, and middle-rib ; then the aitch-bone, thin flank , chuck-rib, brisket, and leg -of-mutton piece ; then the clod,

animal soou dies. The skin, as far as it is covered with wool, is taken off, leaving that on thelegsand head, which are cover ed with hair, the legs being disjointed by

sticking, and neck ; and, last of all, the the knee. The entrails are removed by an

legs and shins. In actual pecuniary value, incision along the belly, after the carcass the last may bear a proportion of only has been hung up on a hangrel by the one- fourth to the highest priced. tendons of the houghs. The net fat is care fully separated from the viscera, and rolled

6123. Of the qualities of beef obtained up by itself; but the kidney fat is not from different breeds of cattle, I believe then extracted. The intestines areplaced the best meat is obtained from the West

on the inner side of the skin until divided

Highland breed for fineness of grain, and into the pluck, containing the heart, lungs, cutting up into convenient pieces for family and liver; the bag, containing the stomach ; use .

After it has been fed in Norfolk for and the puddings, consisting of the viscera

twelve months, it cannot be excelled even

or guts . The bag and guts are usually

in London. The Galloways and Angus, thrown away - that is, buried in the dung when fattened on the English pastures, are hill - unless when the bag is retained and also great favourites in the London mar- cleaned for a haggis. The skin is hung

!

SLAUGHTERING .

695

6127. In almost every town there is a skin -side uppermost, to dry in an airy different way of cutting up a carcass of place. mutton ; and it being here impossible to

over a rope or pole under cover, with the

advert to them all, I shall select those of

6125. Butchers have various ways of Edinburgh and London, and distinguish

displaying a carcass of mutton. Some them as the Scotch and English modes. fold back the flaps of the flanks, and secure Although the English mode is upon the them with wooden skewers, and fully ex- whole preferable , having evidently been pose the interior of the carcass to view ; adopted to suit the tastes of a people long

others merely distend them with a long acquainted with domestic economy, yet stretcher of wood ; whilst some, folding meat is cut up in Scotland in a cleanly them back, distend them with the stretcher and workman -like style ; but it cannot be

placed across the back. Some distend the denied that the beauiy and cleanliness of breast with a stretcher; others pin the tail meat, as exhibited in London, call forth down to the rump with a skewer ; whilst the admiration of every connoisseur. The many cut a cross with the knife upon the Scotch mode is represented in fig. 560, skin of the shoulder, which, contracting, shows the fat underneath ; and, to make the whiteness of the fat appear more con

Fig. 560.

spicuous, the skin is first reddened with a lock of wool dipped in blood. Figures are even carved onthe neck andother parts of the carcass . All these expedients are use

in

d

The

the breast.

jigotis

of the haunch b

perhaps, of distending the flaps of the allow the air to dry the inside of the car

flank a little with a short stretcher, to

or rump, and the fore- quarter right through the

shoulder

into two pieces.

The membranous covering of the

outside of the carcass has different colours,

fore

cut with a part

bave been removed — with the exception,

cass.

the

quarter, c the back -ribs, and

less in themselves, and injurious to the meat, inasmuch as they distort the shape of the pieces when cut out, and should

therefore be abandoned, and the carcass allowed to hang intact after the entrails

where, in the hind -quarter, a is the jigot and 6 the loin , and,

The jigot, a, is с

that of the shoulderand flanks being red,

the handsomest and most valu

and white along the back . The redness is brighter coloured in Black - faced sheep than in any other breed I have observed, and gives the meat a tempting appearance.

able part of the carcass, and on that

account

fetches

the

THE SCOTCH MODE OF CUTTING highest price. 6126. The carcass should hang 24 hours

UP A CARCASS OF MUTTON .

It is either a

in a clean, cool, airy, dry apartment, before roasting or a boiling piece. Of Black it is cut down - cool, for if warm the faced mutton it makes a fine roast, and

meat will never become firm ; and dry, the piece of fat in it called the Pope's-eye for if damp a clamminess will cover it, is considered a delicious morceau by

which will never become dry, nor bave a epicures. A jigot of Leicester, Cheviot, fresh clean appearance . The carcass is

or Southdown mutton makes a beauti

divided in two by beingsawn right down the back - bone. The kidney fat is then taken out, being only attached to the peritoneum by the cellular membrane, and the kidney is extracted from the suet — the name given to sheep tallow in an inde-

ful “ boiled leg of mutton,” which is prized the fatter it is, as this part of the carcass is never overloaded with fat. The loin b is almost always roasted, and is a juicy piece, the flap of the flank being skewered up. Many consider this piece

pendent state. The fat of a sheep weighs about one -sixth of the weight of the carcass . When the sides are divided by the 5th rib, they constitute the four quarters.

of Leicester mutton roasted too rich, and

when warm it is probably the case ;

but

à

cold roast loin is an excellent summer

dish. For a small family, the Black -faced

696

REALISATION .

mutton is preferable; for a large, the

6129. The shoulder a , separated before

Southdown and Cheviot. The back -ribs c being dressed, makes an excellent roastfor are divided in two, and used for very family use , and may be eaten warm or different purposes. The fore - part, the neck, cold, or corned and dressed as the breast

is boiled, and makes the sweetest barley- mentioned above. The shoulder is best broth of any part of the mutton ; and the from a large carcass of Southdown or meat, when well boiled, eats tenderly. The Cheviot, or Leicester, the Black -faced back-ribs make an excellent roast, there being too thin forthepurpose ; and it was

not being a sweeter or more varied one in probably because English mutton is usually the carcass, having both ribs and shoulder. large that the practice of removing it The shoulder -blade eats best cold, and the originated. The neck -piece bb is partly

ribs warm . The ribs also make excellent laid bare by the removal of the shoulder, cbops. The Leicester and Southdowns the fore-part being fitted for boiling and afford the best mutton -chops. The breast making into broth, and the best end for

dis mostly a roasting piece, consisting of roasting or broiling into chops. On this rib and shoulder, and is particularly good account this is a good familypiece, and in when cold. When the piece is large, as of such request among the tradesmen of Lon Southdown or Cheviot, the gristly part of don that they prefer it to any part of the

the ribs may be divided from the true ribs, hind -quarter. Heavy mutton, such as the and helpedseparately. The breast is an Leicester, Southdown, and Cheviot, supply

excellent piece in Black -faced mutton,and the most thriſty neck -piece. The breaste suitable to small families, the shoulder is much the same sort of piece as in the being eaten cold , while the ribs and brisket Scotch method, but the ribs are bere left are sweet and juicy when warm . This exposed at the part from wbich the shoul piece also boils well ; or, when corned for der had been removed, and constitute what

8 days, and served with onion sauce, with are called the spare ribs, which may be

mashed turnip in it, few dishes are more roasted, or broiled, or corned . The back savonry at the farmer's table.

end of the breast makes a good roastfor

ordinary use. The flap of the loin left

6128. The English mode of cutting up attached to this piece may be used in а Fig. 561.

carcass of making broth. The loin d is a favourite roast in a family ; and when cut double,

mutton is re-

presented in forming the chine or saddle, itmaygrace fig.561,where- the head of the table of any publicdinner.

in the fore- Any of the kinds of muttonis large enough

)

quarter a is for a saddle ; but the thicker the meat, of

the shoulder ; course the larger the slice. The leg e is b b the neck ; cut short and roasted. When cut long,

to a c the breast taking in the book -bone, it is similar accord extending be- haunch of venison, and roasted the ingly. A fat Black -faced wether, such as

neath

shoulder ; and d

are bred and fed by Lord Panmure, at

in the hind- Panmure, Forfarshire, yields a splendid quarter dis haunch . the loin, and 6130. The different sorts of mutton in e the leg. The leg is cut short common usediffer as well in quality as in

like a ham , quantity. The flesh of the Leicester is without

any large, though not coarse- grained, of a

of the haunch; lively red colour, and the cellalar tissue and the shoul- between the fibres contains a considerable

der, compre- quantity of fat. When cooked it is tender hending the and juicy, yielding a red gravy, and hav scapular re- ing a sweetrich taste; but thefat is rather THE ENGLISH MODE OP CUTTING gion , is re- too much and too rich for some people's UP A CARCASS OP MUTTON.

moved entire. tastes, and may be put aside ; while it must be allowed that the lean of fat meat

SLAUGHTERING .

697

is much better in flavour and quality than in Scotland, the joints being of nice size lean meat without fat. Leicester sheep for family use, and well shaped.

generally attain to heavy weights, hoggs reaching 18 lb. or 20 lb. , and dinmonts 30

6134. Welsh is the smallest and the

lb. per quarter ; but i dinmonts which I very highest flavoured of all mutton raised remember seeing, belonging to the late Mr in Britain ; but the moment the sheep aro Edward South , Marldown, Northumber- fed in the low country, inuch of the wild

land, weighed 55 lb. a quarter overhead, Aavour, which is its chief recommendation, when killed at Newcastle in November, a

is lost.

few weeks after they were exhibitedat the show at Coldstream of the Border Union

6135. Tup-mutton of any breed is always

Society. These were the sheep I referred hard ,of disagreeable flavour, and in autumnis

to which the four shepherds were unable

not eatable .

to turn in, (3584. )

dry, hard, and tasteless, but of young well enough favoured , but still rather dry.

The mutton of old ewes

6131. Cheviot mutton is smaller in the Hogg -mutton is sweet, juicy, and tender, grain, not so bright of colour, with less butflavourless. Wether -mutton is the fat, less juice, not so tender and sweet, meat in perfection, according to its kind. but the flavour is higher and the fat not so luscious. The weight attained by a hogg 6136. The average quantity of fat may be taken at 14 lb. or 15 lb., and by afforded by each sheep of every class, sold a wether at 22 lb.; but Mr Fairbairn in any given marketin Scotland, is per

mentions having fattened 5 wethers in haps not great. In Glasgow , for example, 1818 which averaged 30 lb. a quarter.* where heavy animals of all sorts are gene Much of the prejudice existing in London rally sold, the fat afforded by all the sheep

against Scotch mutton arises from the

consisting chiefly,I presume, of Cheviot

basty manner in which the carcasses are and Black - faced exclusive of lambs, packed, and the consequent bruises ob- amounting to 57,520 head, sold in 1822, served on the meat.

was only , on the average, 4 lb. 13 oz. per

head. From 8 lb. to 12 lb. is the ordi nary quantity obtained from Leicester in the grain, of a darker colour, with still sheep slaughtered on farms of good land ; less fat, but more tender than the Cheviot, and in Edinburgh, I find that 7 lb. is con 6132. Black - faced mutton is still smaller

and having the highest flavour of all. The sidered an average from Black -faced and ordinary weight of a fat wether is about Cheviot sheep, which shows that the 18 lb. or 20 lb. a quarter ; but I remember quality of mutton sold there is better than

seeing a lot of 5 -year-old Black -faced that in Glasgow. The quantity, I have no wethers, at a Show of the Highland and doubt, is on the increase. Agricultural Society at Perth, belonging

to Lord Panmure, that averaged 40 lb. a

6137. Pigs.- Pigs, when about to be

quarter. The 4 -year-old wethers at Pan- killed, should be made to fast for nearly mure commonly weigh 30 lb. per quar- a day, to clear their bowels. The season ter.

best adapted to the purpose is in the cool months of the year ; the flesh in the warm 6133. The mutton of Southdowns is of months notbecoming sufficiently firm ,and

medium fineness in grain, colour pleasant is then liable to be Ay -blown before it is red, fat well mixed with the meat, jui

cured .

For fresh

ork, the season of

tenderer than the Cheviot, and of pleasant killing does not signify. When you wish though not of so high a flavour as the

to make hams for your own use, Christmas

Black -faced . The ordinary weight may is a good timefor slaughtering pigs ; and,

be from 16 lb. to 22 lb. a quarter ; but 3 in doing it, great care should betaken that wethers exhibited by Mr Grantham at the the animals receive no injury by bruises Sbow of the Sunithfield Club in 1835, before being killed, as the flesh, where

weighed, on the average, 41 } lb. a quarter . bruised, will become blood -burned,marked Southdown mutton fast gaining ground with bruises, and will not take with the * Fairbairn's Lammermuir Farmer, p. 123.

of Youаtt On Sheep, p. 236.

# Cleland's Account of the Highland and Agricultural Society's Show at Glasgow in 1828, p. 40.

698

salt.

REALISATION .

Butchers are often reckless in singeing which scalding cannot afford ; it

slaughtering pigs for this purpose ; some renders the skin dirty by the smoke

stunning them with blows on the head necessarily arising from the flame and before using the knife, which should never combustion of the bristles. The net fat

be allowed, as the blows render the head and entrails are separated, and the carcass almost useless for curing ; others, plunging is dressed in the most simple manner, with

the knife into the breast, and allowingthe only a single stretcher to keep apart the pigs to run about until they fall down flaps of thebelly. The entrails arewashed, exhausted by loss of blood , which is a and preserved for sausages and puddings. barbarous practice. Butchers are apt to

adopt practices, which serve their own 6138. The carcass hangs in the slaugh purposes, when killing animals, and which ter -house until next day ,when it is sawn up the back-bone in may not affect the appearance of meat for Fig. 562. the short time they have it in their pos session ; but such hasty and thoughtless

to two sides.

If it is

intended for pickled pork , the sides are cut up in Scotland in the

practices will not dowith animals that are intended to be cured and kept for a con siderable time, for the use of a family. I

same way

as the Scotch mode of cut

knew of a pig that was to be slain for ham being taken by the hind-leg by the butcher,

ting up mutton, fig . 560, and is repre sented in fig. 562,

who, in his recklessness, drove its nose against a wall, and the pig was killed on the spot ; and, although bled immediately,

where a is the leg ,

the Aesh never became firm , or assumed

and b the loin, in the

its proper colour.

When the time for

hind-quarter; c the

slaughtering arrives, the animals should be taken out of their sties gently one by

ribs, and d the breast, in the fore - quarter. The leg a makes ex

one, and placed on their back upon a considerable quantity of straw , and held in that position by assistants, while a long sharp -pointed knife is introduced with a firm hand through the counter

cellentpickled pork, and the loinb a juicy

d

fresh roast. The back C

near the bottom of the neck , in the open ing between the ribs at the sternum into the heart, care being taken that the

ribs of c make a fine

roasting -piece, and al so pork chops, a most

T

delicate dish. The fore - end of C , and the whole of the breast d ,

point of the knife does not miss the open ing, and go between the shoulder-blade and the ribs. This error is frequently

THE SCOTCH MODE OF are fit for pickling.

committed in slaughtering pigs; it is called shouldering, and has the effect of collect

CUTTINGOF UP A CARCASS The bead, split in two, PORK. is also pickled, and

ing a mass of blood under the shoulder- considered a delicacy, as the fat upon the blade, where it coagulates, and prevents cheeks is gristly. the whole shonlder from being cured.

Before the slaughtering commences, a large

6139. The English mode of cutting up

quantity of boiling water should be pro- pork is different from what has just been vided, with which to scald off the hair. described, and, upon the whole, perhaps This is effected either by putting the car- better adapted for family use. Fig. 563 cass into a large tub of water, or, should gives a representation of it, where, in the there not be a tub of sufficient size, the bot fore-quarter, a is the spare-rib, so called water can be poured on the carcass on the because the flesh and fat are taken off the straw, and the hair scraped clean from ribs for salting ; and the ribs are then

every part of the body with a knife. The hoofs are taken off at this time. Another plan is to singe the bristles off by fire in a state of flame ; and this practice is much

roasted , and make a savoury dish ; 6, the hand or shoulder, fit for pickling ; C, the belly or spring, also fit for pickling, or for rolling up , when well seasoned

in use in some parts of England, but not with stuffing , for brawn. In the hind at all in Scotland. I see no advantage in quarter are d the fore and e the hind

SLAUGHTERING.

699

loin, both best when roasted , the fore through the skin and flesh the whole

one d also making excellent chops ; and length of the blade, and if the resistance Fig. 563.

f is the leg, which is cut short forpickling. The neck is called a crop of pork, and, when divided into its vertebræ , is cut for

to it be firm and uniform , the flesh is good ; and if irregular and loose and pulpy, the pork has not been well fed. The smell retained by the knife will show whether the flesh be wholesome or tainted .

6141. Caldes. - Calves are slaughtered chops, and calledgriskins. The head, when by inserting a sharp-pointed knife through divided in two, is the neck, severing the blood -vessels, as in again divided at the the case of sheep , or the throat is simply jaw into an upper cut through to the cervical vertebræ . Ilie partcalled the face or skin is taken off to the knees, which are

d

cheek, and the lower part named the chap. Sometimes the two chaps are not separated . Pork for roasting is best when about

disjointed, and to the head, which is taken off. The carcass is dressed simply, and kept open with a stretcher, though many butchers in Scotland are fond of showing their skill, as they imagine, in dressing a calf, by leaving the lungs, heart, and liver

six months old ; and attached, half-splitting down the back a leg of pork ought bone, spreading the carcass flat with not to exceed lb., stretchers across the back , spreading the nor less than 6 lb., in net fat in front over the offal, and leaving weight. the skin adhering to the back and sides. The enumeration of these particulars shows 6140. Of judging the absurdity of dressing up a carcass in

THE ENGLISH MODE op of pork, “the meat CUTTINGOP UP ACARCASS of pigs cut or spayed PORK, when young is the best. That of a boar, though young, or of

this manner. The hair is scalded off the bead with hot water, and dressed into mock -turtle soup, or a dish, calf's head. The feet are also scalded ofthe hair with

one of full growth, the flesh will be hot water, and made into jelly. The hard, tough, reddish, and of a rank smell ; sweetbread or pancreas makes a delicate

the fat skinny and hard ; the skin very dish when stewed. It is very seldom that will immediately fall again. If it be thick and tough, and, beingpinched up, it a calf is slaughtered on a farm . young, in pinching the lean between the

6142. The carcass, after banging 24

fingers, it will break ; and, if you nip the hours, is divided into either oftwo modes,

skin with your nails, it will be dented . the Scotch and the English. The Scotch But if the fat be soft and pulpy, like lard, mode of cuttingup gives in the fore quar if the lean be tough, and the fat flabbyter the back -ribs, which, being divided and the skin be so hard that into two joints, give the fore part for you cannot nip it with your nails, it is boiling, and the hind part for roasting ;

and spongy,

old. If there are little kernels in the fat,

like hail-shot, the pork is measly and unwholesome, and butchers are punishable forselling it. The freshness of pork may be known by putting the finger under the bone, and smelling it. Theflesh of stale pork, also, is sweaty and clammy ; that of

the breast, which is also divided into the fore part, which is made into soup, and the

hind, which is roasted ; and the sbauk, which made into soup. The bind quar ter affords the knuckle, which is made

into soup, the fillet, which is roasted, and the loin, which is also roasted .

fresh killed, cool and smooth. Pork fed at

distilleries is not good for curing, the fat be-

6143. The English mode of cutting up

ing spongy. Dairy -fed pork is the best.” * gives, in the fore quarter, the shoulder, A good way of ascertaining the quality of which is roasted, the neck, which is made a carcass of pork, is to insert a penknife into soup, and the breast, which is roasted. * The Experienced Butcher, p.

155 .

700

REALISATION .

In the hind quarter are the knuckle, wbich pare with the grass-fed, but its appearance, is made into soup, the fillet,which is roasted, atseasons when the meat cannot be obtained and the loin, which is divided into the direct from the fields, enhances its value,

chump-end and the loin, which are both which, in its turn, induces the farmer to roasted. The English mode is the better rear it. The most thrifty lamb for the of the two, inasmuch as the pieces are farmer is from a cross between the Black

each more equal in the flesh , and hand- faced ewe and Leicester tup. somer in shape for the table. The English fillet is so cut as to avoid the bone of the 6147. Beef. — The proportion of tallow to beef

rump, which is thrown into the chump-end generally obtained from cattle sold in the Glas gow market, as stated by the late Dr Cleland , is

of the loin .

as 1 to 8, 14,566 head being sold in 1822, averag . 44 stones, of 14 lb. to the stone, of 6144. The best veal in Scotland is ing beef,exactly and yielding 5 $ stones of tallow. The reared in the clay farms of Strathaven in experiments recorded in ( 1325) gave the pro

Lanarkshire, ( 2293.) The cruel mode of portion between 1 to 7 , and í to 8 ; that in

strapping on the live calves upon the tops (1332 )rather more than 1 to 7. A short-horn of thecarrier-carts,on their longjourney after she had been fed for six months after hav. from Strathaven toEdinburgh, it is hoped, is now discontinued, in consequence of the convenience of carriage afforded by railways. The best veal, in the spring, is to be found in the west of England,

ing gonedry, Isold to the late Mr Robert Small, flesher in Dundee, and the tallow obtained fromher was 27 stonesto 724 stones ofbeef, or as 1 to 22; while the very ox exhibited by Highland thelateLordKintore at thelarge and Agri cultural Society's show at Aberdeen in 1834,only

but the constant supply to London is from yielded 16 ,) stones of tallow to 173 stones 4 lb.of

the counties of Surrey and Essex, ( 2294.) beef, being exactly 1 to 10$. The offals realise money, in proportion to their quality, than the flesh But the veal of England will not compare more ,(3623.) with that of Pontoise, a village within 6 miles of Paris, for flavour, succulence, and 6148. Sufficient data, perhaps, do not exist for whiteness, (2295.) determining the true proportion of offals of all kinds to the beef of any given fat ox ; but ap

6145. Lambs. - Lambs are slaughtered proximationshavebeen made which mayserve the purpose until the matter is investigated by

in the same manner as sheep, by insert

direct experiment, under various circumstances.

ing the knife through the throat. The skin is taken off to the knees, which are disjointed, and it is taken off the head. The carcass is too often made a display of in the dressing, in the manner described in

The dead weightbears to the live weighta ratio varying between .55 and .605 to 1, (3624 ;) and on applying one or other of these multiples to to the higher weight, ofaccording the lowerlivecondition the animal,you will findanda

pretty correct approximation. The weight of

the calf. The head and pluck go together, the tallow, as shown above, is between one

and make two nice dishes — one, lamb’s seventh and one-eighth of that ofthe beef. It fol But when the bag is retained hide is .05 of the live weight ; and the other fried .

thatthe tallowis from .125 to .143of the head, and the other in the liver and lungs lows dead weight, and .08 of the live weight ; the

and cleaned, it is made the receptacle of offals are from .33 to .25 of the live weight. one of the finest dishes that Scotland can Thus, then, when the tallow is 13 per cent of the dead weight, it is 8 per cent of the live boast of — a lamb's haggis. weight.

6149. Beef is the staple animal food of this 6146. Lamb is cut upintoquarters,which are larger or smaller according to its age. country, and it is used in various states, -fresh, From 5 lb. to 8 lb. is the usual weightof salted, smoked,roasted, and boiled. When in be eaten fresh , " keep the ribs will6 keep daysthe in 5 or best,andto withcarewill a quarter of lamb, and when it exceedsthe tended

latter weight the meat becomes coarse. summer, and in winter 10 days. The middle of

Lamb is a frequent dish at the farmer's the loin is the next best, and the rump the next. table, and it is in the highest perfection The round will not keep long, unless salted.

when the ewe is fed on grass, any artificial The brisket is theworst, and will notkeep longer food diminishing its quality very rapidly. than 3 days in summer, and a week in winter." * House lamb is reared in England all the 6150. In cooking, a piece of beef, consisting year round . In flavour it will not com of four of the longest ribs, and weighing 11 lb. I

* The Experienced Butcher, p. 171 .

SLAUGHTERING .

701

oz., was subjected to roasting by Mr Donovan,

injures it,particularly in byre-fed animals ; and

and it lost during the process 2 lb. 6 oz., ofwhich 10 oz. were fat, and 1 lb. 12 oz. water dissipated by evaporation. On dissection, the bone weighed

anything that punctures a hide, such as warbles, ( 3803,) is also injurious. The best hides are ob tained from the West Highland breed of cattle.

16 oz., so that the weight of meat fit for the table was only 7 lb. 11 oz. out of 11 lb. 1 oz. It

The Short-horns produce the thinnest hides, the Aberdeenshire the next, and then the Angus. Of the same breed, the ox affords the strongest

appears that when the butchers' price of sirloins

is 8 d . per lb., the meat cost when roasted ls. hide ; but as hides are applied to various uses, 11d. per lb., at a loss of 19 % per cent.*

the cow's hide, provided it be large, may be as valuable as an ox's. The bull's hide is the least

6151. The usual mode of preserving beef is by salting ; and when intended to keep a long time, as for the use of the shipping, it is always

valuable.

salted with brine ; but for family use it should

quantities that were imported are as follows, in

be salted dry with good Liverpool salt, without

6156. Hides are now imported free.

saltpetre ; as brine dispels the juice of the

1847 . Cwt.

1848 .

172,296 429,085

132,395 414,886

143,490 535,295

601,381

547,281

678,7856

meat, and saltpetre only serves to make the Dry , Wet ,

meat dry, and give it a disagreeably unnatural red colour.

The

Cwt.

1849. Cwt .

6152. Salted beef cured with wood smoke is converted into ham , and is highly relished . The

cured beef of Glasgow , and the hung beef of 6157. Hides, when deprived of their hair, are converted into leather by infusion of the astrin Hamburg, are both relished. gent property of bark. The old plan of tanning 6153. Beef, whether fresh or salted, is now used to occupy a long time ; but such was the admitted into this country from abroad duty value of the process, that the old tanners used free. Beef salted, or fresh, or corned , imported, to pride themselves in producing a substantial amounted in 1847 .

1848 .

Cwt .

Cwt .

1849 . Cwt.

112,386 5,011

114,387

144,638

7,623

5,279

Meat, salteddescrib orcrised.not } 3,114 ed ,

4,436

120,511

126,446

Salted not corned ,

Fresh , or slightly salted ,

149,9171

article . More recent discoveries have prompted tanners to hasten the process, much to the injury of the article produced. Strong infusions of bark make leather brittle ; 100 lb. of skin, quickly tanned in a strong infusion, produce 137 lb. of leather ; while a weak infusion produces

only 117 } lb., the additional 194 lb. serving only to deteriorate the leather, and cause it to contain much less textile animal solid. Leather thus

6154. The tierce of salted beef for the navy highly charged with tannin is so spongy as to contains 300 lbs., consisting of 38 pieces of about

allow moisture to pass readily through its pores,

8 lb. each.

to the great discomfort and danger of persons who wear shoes made of it. The proper mode

6155. Cattle are useful to man in various other ways than affording food from their flesh , extensive articles of commerce. Of the hide,the characteristics of a good one, for strong purposes, is strength in its middle or butt, as it is called, and light on the edges or offal. A bad hide is the opposite of this,thick in the edges and thin

of tanning lasts a year, or a year and a half, ac cording to the quality of the leather wanted,and the nature of the hides. A perfect leather is recognised by its section , which should have a glistening marbled appearance, without any white streaks in the middle . Leather is applied to many important purposes, being made into harness for agricultural and other uses. It is

in the middle. A good hide has a firm texture,

used to line the powder magazines of ships of

their offals of tallow, hides, and horns, forming

a bad one loose and soft. A hide improves as war ; to make carding machines for cotton and the summer advances, and it continues to im- other mills ; belts to drive machinery ; to make prove after the new coat of hair in autumn, until

November or December, when the coat gets rough from the coldness of the season, and the

soles of shoes ; and , when japanned , to cover car

riages. Calves' leather is used in bookbinding.

hide is then in its best state. It is surprising

The hair taken off hides in tanning is employed to mix with plaster, and is surreptitiously put

how a hide improves in thickness after the cold

into hair mattresses.

weather has set in .

The sort of food does not

seem to affect the quality of the hide ; but the better it is, and the better cattle have been fed, and the longer they have been well fed, even from a calf, the better the hide. From what has

6158. Tanned hides are admitted free of

duty. The quantity imported was as follows, in 1847 . Lb,

1848 , Lb.

1849, Lb.

upon thehide, Tannede.tex.ed, cured, } 1,430,950 1,248,647 1,809,7551 been said of theeffect of weather that ahide is better it seems a natural conclusion from an ox that has been fed in the open air than

Leather manufactured in any way pays a duty,

from one fed in a byre. Dirt adhering to a hide on importation, of L.10 per L.100 value. * Donovan's Domestic Economy, vol. ii. 274. + Parliamentary Return, Feb. 12, 1850. # Ibid . § Ure's Dictionary of the Arts - arts. Leather and Tanning. | Parl. Ret. Feb. 12, 1850.

REALISATION . ·

702

6159. " The principal substances of which glue is made," says Dr Ure," are the paring of ox

pieces rendered flat by a peculiar process , as a substitute for glass. For this purpose, the horns

and other thick hides, which form the strongest article ; the refuse of the leather-dresser : both afford from 45 to 55 per cent of glue. The

of goats and sheep are preferred, being whiter

tendons, and many other offals of slaughterhouses also afford materials, though of an inferior quality, for the purpose. The refuse of tanneries— such as the ears of oxen , calves,

and more transparent than those of any other animal. Imitation of tortoise -shell can be given to horn by the use of various metallic solutions. Horn , also, when softened, can be imprinted with any pattern by means of dies. Horn is now admitted duty free.

sheep, & c. — are better articles ; but parings of parchment, old gloves, and in fact animal skins

6162. Mutton . - Of the relative weights of

in any form , uncombined with tanning, may be

offal and meat afforded by sheep, instances are

made into glue." * Glue, and the clippings of

recorded, and of a fat Southdown wether they

which it is made, are now imported free.

were these , the live weight being 13 stone, 10 lb. MEAT.

6160. Ox -tallow is of great importance in the arts. Candles and soap are made of it, and it

enters largely into the dressing of leather and the use of machinery. It consists of 76 parts of stearin and 24 parts of elein.

The duty on

Ib . os . 200 23 12 33 8 32 0

Fore quarter, Ditto ,

Hind quarter, Ditto ,

1234

importation is now reduced to 1s. 6d. percentfrom foreign countries and Id. per cent from the British

colonies. The quantity imported was as follows

OFFAL .

in ,

Ib .

1847 . Cwt .

Tallow ,

1,099,275

1848 . Cwt.

1,498,359

1849 . Owt .

1,468,7197

Blood and entrails,

6161. The horns of oxen and sheep are used for many purposes. “ The horn consists of two parts : an outward horny case , and an inward conical-shaped substance, somewhat intermediate

between indurated hair and bone,” called the flint of the horn. « These two parts are separated by means of a blow on a block of wood.

os .

13 0 21 4 8 12 15 12

Caul and loose fat, Head and pluck , Pelt ,

58 12

6163. The comparative weights of different breeds of the same class and age are follows : Weight per

29

Wool ,

Breed .

Age.

Lb.

Lb.

Long wools, Leicesters, Southdowns,

Months . 16 16 16

52 46 36

14 11 8

made into combs. The middle of the horn, after

Long-wools ,

40

being flattened by heat and its transparency improved by oil , is split into thin layers, and

Southdowns,

72 56 46

15 11 8

The horny exterior is then cut into three por tions by means of a frame- saw .

The lowest of

these, next the root of the horn , after undergoing several processes by which it is rendered flat, is

forms a substitute for glass in lanterns of the commonest kind . The tip of the horn is used by the makers of knife - handles and of the tops

of whips, and for other similar purposes. The interior, or core of the horn , is boiled down in water. A large quantity of fat rises to the surface ; this is put aside, and sold to the makers of yellow soap. The liquid itself is used as a

Leicesters ,

quarter ,

6164. There is little doubt that, in the Lei cester breed, the meat bears a higher proportion to the offal than in any other. In the case of a

Southdown in ( 5939,) the meat is about į and the offal $ of the whole weight,or, more nearly, the meat is as 1231 : 182, and the offal as 581 : 182. And in the same breed it has been said that the proportion of bone is as low as I oz. to 1 lb.

kind of glue, and is purchased by the cloth -dresser for stiffening. The bony substance which

flesh ; but I much doubt this, because Mr Dono

remains behind is then sent to the mill, and, being ground down, is sold to the farmers for manure . Besides these various purposes to which the different parts of the horn are applied,

Aleshy part of the carcass in proportion to the bone in it, weighing 94 lb., 16 oz. of bone ; another

the clippings which arise in comb-making are sold to the farmers at about 1s. per bushel. The shavings which form the refuse of the

oz . of bone.

lantern -makers are also sold as manure."I A

few of them are cut into various figures, and painted and used as toys, which cast up when placed in the palm of a warm hand. Horn, as is well known, is easily rendered soft and pliant

van found in a leg of mutton, which is the most of 9 lb. 6 oz., 15 oz. of bone ; and a leg of small Scotch mutton of only 6 lb, weight, afforded 105

6165. A rule is mentioned by Mr Ellman of Glynde, in Sussex, by which the age of mutton may be ascertained by certain marks on the

carcass, and it is an infallible one. He says , “ Observe the colour of the breast -bone when & in warm'water ; and by this, and the property sheep is dressed – that is, where the breast-bone of adhesion like glue, large plates of horncan be is separated - which, in a lamb, or before it is 1 made by cementing together the edges of small year old , will be quite red ; from 1 to 2 years * Ure's Dictionary of the Arts -- art. Glue. + Parliamentary Return, February 12, 1850. # Ure's Dictionary of the Arts - art. Horn.

SLAUGHTERING .

old, the upper and lower bone will be changing to white, and a small circle of white will appear round the edges of the other bones, and the middle part of the breast-bone will yet continue

red ; at 3 years old , a very small streak of red will be seen in the middle of the 4 middle bones, and the others will be white ; and at 4 years ,

all the breast-bone will be of a white or gristly colour ." *

703

6169. Mutton suet consists of about 77 parts of stearin and 23 of elein ---the former being

solid, the latter fluid. The specific gravity of suet is 0.936. When a piece of solid suet is broken , innumerable minute granules separate from the mass ; and these, when examined by

the microscope, exhibit definite forms, being polyhedral, bounded within the limits of asphere, or oblong, of very firm consistence , and when measured, give dimensions varying in length from

6166. The average loss on boiling legs of do to do, and in breadth from oto to sto part mutton is 10 per cent ; so that, if the butchers' of an inch . The constituent parts of suet, ac

price were 6d. per lb., the boiled mutton would cording to Chevreul, are carbon, 78.996, hydro cost 6ļd. The average loss of roasting legs of gen, 11.700, and oxygen, 9.304.9 mutton is 270 per cent ; so that, at the butcher's price of 6d. per Ib., the roasted mut-

6170. Mutton suet is used in the manufacture

These results

ofcommon candles, witha proportion ofox tallow .

differ considerably from those obtained by

Minced suet, subjected to the action of high

ton would cost 7d. per lb.

Professor Wallace, who, in the case of boiling pressure steam in a digester at 250° or 260° 100 lb. of mutton, detected a loss of 21 % per Fahr., becomes so hard as to be sonorous when cent, instead of 10 per cent ; and in that of roast-

struck, whiter, and capable, when made into

ing 100 lb. the loss was 313 instead of 28 per cent. These discrepancies might perhaps be easily explained, were we acquainted with every

candles, of giving very superior light. Stearic candles, the invention of the celebrated Guy Lussac, are manufactured solely from mutton

particular connected with both sets of experi-

suet.

ments, such as the state of the fatness of the

meat before being cooked, for fat meat will lose more weight than lean in the dressing. of

his experiments, Mr Donovan says, “ I used

6171. But the products of sheep are not merely useful to man , they also afford him luxuries. The skin of sheep is made into leather, and, when

meat of sufficient, but not unprofitable fatness, so manufactured with the fleece on, makes com such as is preferred by families ; the meat was in all cases a little rare at its centre, and the results were determined with the utmost care .” +

fortable mats for the doors of our rooms, and rugs for our carriages. For this purpose the best skins are selected, and such as are covered with the longest and most beautiful fleece. Tanned

6167. Good ham may be made of any part of sheep-skin is used in coarse bookbinding. White a carcass of mutton, though the leg is preferred, sheep -skin, which is not tanned, but somanufac and for this purpose it is cut in the English tured by a peculiar process, is used as aprons by fashion, fig. 561.

Wether mutton is used for

many classes of artisans, and in agriculture, as

hams, because it is fat ; but tup mutton makes

gloves in harvest ; and when cut into strips, as

the largest and highest flavoured ham, provided it be cured in spring, when it is only in season .

twine for sewing together the leathern coverings and stuffings of horse -collars. Morocco leather

is made of sheep -skins as well as of goats', and 6168. Where Leicester sheep are bred, and the bright red colour given to it is by cochineal. the farmer kills his own mutton, suet will Russia leather is also made of sheep - skins, the accumulate beyond what can be used for domestic peculiar odour of which repels insects from its purposes. As long as it is fresh it should be vicinity, and resists the mould arising from

rynded or rendered, because the fibrous and damp, the odour being imparted to it in curry fleshy matter mixed with it soon promotes putre. faction .

To do this it should be cut in small

ing, by the empyreumatic oil of the bark of the birch tree. Besides soft leather, sheep-skins are

pieces, removing only fleshy matter. It is then made into a fine, flexible, thin substance, known put in an earthen jar, which is placed within a pot containing warm water, at the side of the fire

to simmer, and not to boil . As every portion put in is melted, another succeeds, until the whole is melted ; and the melted mass should be very frequently stirred . Suet melts at from 98° to being fused a considerable time, the membranous matter comes to the top, and is taken off ; and when obtained in quantity 104 ° Fahr.

Aft

by the name of parchment ; and though the skins of all animals might be converted into writing materials, only those of the sheep and she-goat are used for parchment. The finer quality of the substance called vellum is made of the skins of kids and dead - born lambs, and for manufacture the town of Strasburg has long been celebrated.

and squeezed, it constitutes the cracklings

6172. It would appear that there are circum stances which naturally limit the power of re The purified suet may then be poured through a . action and absorption in the skin of the sheep.

which are sometimes used for feeding dogs.

cullender, into a dish containing a little cold water, upon which it consolidates into a cake ; and the cakes are either sold to the candle-

makers, or candles taken in exchange.

* British Husbandry, vol. ii. p. 486. # Raspail's Organic Chemistry, p. 238.

It is surrounded by a peculiar secretion, adhe sive and impenetrable to moisture - the yolk

destined chiefly to preserve the wool in a soft, pliable, and healthy state. On this account there

+ Donovan's Domestic Economy, vol. ii. 289. § Liebig's Animal Chemistry, p. 300.

704

REALISATION .

can be little perspiration going forward from the skin, and hence few diseases are referable to change in that reaction . Also there is little

bone weighed 9 oz.; the meat was 3 lb. 1 oz .

radiation of animal heat, both on account of the

with the bone 9d. perlb. The loss in boiling salt

interposition of the yolk , and of the non-conducting power of the wool. The caloric disengaged

pork is consequently 13 per cent.

If the first cost of the meat was 74 per 1b., the meat alone, when duly boiled , cost 101d ., and

from a sheep is only one -seventh of that from

6176. Pickled pork derives its name from the

man , though its weight is one -third of that of his, consequently only half the animal heat radiates from a sheep, from a given sur.

mode in which pork is cured in a strong brine or

face, that does from man.

This it is which enables the ewe and the lamb to endure the

pickle of salt and water. Immense quantities of pork are pickled, for home and foreign consump tion. The navy tierce of pork consists of 80 pieces of 4 lb. each .

colds of spring without detriment ; and also, when sheep are crowded together in an open

6177. Pork ham being a standing dish at the

fold, no unnatural or dangerous state of heat is

farmer's table, a number of fat pigs are slaugh tered and cured into ham every year, according

thereby produced.

to the size of the farmer's household, ( 2866.) 6173. In the manufacture of some sorts of cords from the intestines of sheep, the outer peritoneal coat is taken off and manufactured into a thread to sew intestines, and make the cords of rackets and battledores. Future washings cleanse the guts, which are then twisted into different -sized cords for various purposes. Some

hams and cure them by themselves, and then to take out the ribs, which are roasted as spare

ness and strength to those of Italy ; and the

bare.

reason assigned is, that the sheep of Italy are

coloured, and rank -flavoured, when shut up in boxes, or kept in damp places, wanting circula tion of the air. They should be hung up like hams in a cool dry apartment, where the air is amply circulated .

6178. A common practice is to cut out the

ribs, and the flesh and fat cured as a gammon or flitch ,—an old English favourite. Ancient custom makes many reconciled to this practice, of the best known of those purposes are whip. and in the case of people preparing bacon for cords, hatters' cords for bowstrings, clockmakers' sale, it may be profitably followed; but for family cord, bands for sheaves, and fiddle and harp use ,when the customs of markets are not studied, strings. Of this last class of cords—the source hams are better kept in whole sides until used, of one of our highest pleasures — it has long been and, when used, cut out in pieces of the sizes re subject of regret that musical strings manufac- quired. The flitches will certainly keep safer tured in England should be so inferior in good- with the ribs attached to them than when left both smaller and leaner than those of this coun-

try. The difficulty lies, it seems, in making the treble stringsfrom the fine peritoneal coat, their chief fault being weakness, whence the smaller ones are hardly able to bear the stretch required

Flitches are apt to become reasty , yellow.

for the higher notes in concert-pitch ; maintain-

6179. Pork hams are often smoked . The pro

ing, at the same time, in their form and construction that tenuity or smallness of diameter which is required to produce a brilliant and clear tone .* However insignificant this subject may appear in the estimation of some, it is worth attending to by those interested in enhancing the profits of our native products, especially when it is considered that harp -strings sell as high as

cess of smoking, however, is troublesome to the

from 6d. to 25. apiece.

6174. Pork. - Much less difference exists be tween the live and dead weight of pigs than any other species of stock, because no skin is taken off, and the head is always left with the carcass,

and only the fat and entrails removed. The difference of live and dead weights are given below , on a few out of a large number of pigs slaughtered by Mr M. Sandford, St Martin's Farm in 1849, in single and combined carcasses :

Live welghts . cwt . Ib . 1 99 1 91 1 99

Dead weights. Ib . ewt . 1 39 31 1 35 1

Lire weighte. cwt.

Ib .

2

38 30 36

2 2

Dend weights. ewt .

5

Ib .

23

6175. Mr Donovan found a hand of salt pork,

weighing 4 lb. 5 oz., to lose in boiling 11 oz. The

farmer, who has not premises suitable for con ducting it. The same end will be served by steeping the bacon a few hours in wood -vinegar -the pyroligneous acid .

6180. From experiment, it was ascertained by Mr Donovan, that, if the first cost of ham be 104d. per lb., the meat, duly boiled, skinned, and browned, will cost ls. 13d. per lb. ; the loss

thereby being consequently 12% per cent. + 6181. Hog's lard is rendered in exactly the same manner as mutton suet (6168 ;) but as lard is liable to become rancid, yellow-coloured, and acquire a strong smell when exposed to the air, it is usually tied up in bladders. For this purpose it is allowed to cool a while, after it is melted, and the bladder, a pig's or calf's, being made ready by being thoroughly cleaned and turned outside in, is filled with the lard by a funnel, and tied up. Lard “ melts completely at

99° Fahr., and then has the appearance of a transparent and nearly colourless fixed oil. A thermometer placed in it sinks gradually to 80°. The lard then begins to congeal, and the thermo meter remains at 80º all the time of congealing, which occupies several minutes. It is clear from

* Ure’s Dictionary of the Arts--arts. Fat - Leather — Parchment - Catgut. + Donovan's Domestic Economy, vol. ii. p. 279 and 287.

705

SLAUGHTERING .

Stenhouse of Glasgow recommends this one : Its specific gravity at 102° is 0.9028 ; at 60 °, it " I placed a small plate containing a little creosote is 0.9302. It consists of elein 62 immediately under each piece of meat as it hung When suspended in the larder, and covered both over parts, and of stearin 38 parts. subjected to pressure between folds of blotting with a cloth. The creosote soon gave off vapours this, that 80° is the melting point of hog's lard.

paper, the elein is absorbed, while the stearin remains.” * For domestic purposes, good hog's

which formed an antiseptic atmosphere around the meat, and kept it quite fresh three or four

lard is better than bad butter for frying fish ;

days longer than it would otherwise have been.

but quite unfit for pastry, and is improperly used

If the plate is gently heated before the creosote

is put into it, the vapours rise more quickly, and if the additional precaution is also taken of sus 6182. Hog's skin is usually thick , and, when pending the meat in a wooden box or earthen tanned, its great toughness renders it valuable jar which can be closed with a lid, the beneficial in that way on the score of economy.

for the seats of riding saddles, and for powder

effect is still more discernible. I have tried this

flasks.

process during the greater part of a summer

6183. Hog's bristles are formed into brushes for painters and artists, and into brooms for domestic use. The finest and longest bristles are imported from Finland, where the pigs are

r

with invariable success, and a butcher, who also tried it on a larger scale in his stall, was equally

convinced of its efficacy. The meat, when cooked , has not the slightest smell or taste of creosote. There is also another advantage attending the

always lean, their loins being tucked up like those

use of creosote. Its smell is so disagreeable to

of the greyhound.

flies that it effectually frees a larder from the presence of these noxious insects. The same quantity of creosote may be used for several

6184. The pork imported into this country was as follows, in Pork salted , 9.

fresh ,

1847 . Cwt.

1849 . Cwt .

1819.

235,798

254,070

347,352

101

61

924

235,899

254,131

348,276

.

Cwt .

weeks, but on being long exposed to the air it loses most of its smell, and is partly changed into a species of resin ."

6189. On considering the facility with which the use of chloroform induces insensibility in the human frame, it has occurred to me that it

might be usefully applied in rendering animals

6185. The hams imported were, in 1847 . Cwt.

1849. Cwt.

Cwt.

17,203

7,717

12,282

1819 .

insensible before slaughtering them ; and the only doubt that arose in my mind regarding its use in

6186. Pork is admitted free ; and hams pay a duty of 7s. per cent from foreign countries, and

this way was of its imparting any flavour to the flesh, or ofaccelerating its decay, or of being too expensive for ordinary use. On inquiring of Pro fessor Simpson of Edinburgh, the discoverer of

2s. per cent from the British possessions.

this extraordinary substance, he informs me that

Hams,

.

6187. Fat is very generally distributed in the

it imparts no flavour to the flesh , either of sheep, pigs, or fowls; and so far from accelerating its

animal frame. It is abundant under the skin, decay, it rather preserves it a considerable time. in the cellular membrane, round the kidneys, in the folds of the omentum, at the base of the

heart, in the mediastinum , the mesenteric web,

pig for ls, each. It may be administered by

as well as upon the surface of the intestines, and among many of the muscles. It varies in consistence, colour, and smell, according to

means of a cloth applied to the nostrils and mouth. Although chloroform would thus be too

the animal from which it is obtained. Thus, it is generally fluid in the cetaceous tribes, soft and rank - flavoured in the carnivorous, solid and nearly scentless in the ruminants ; usually white and copious in well -fed young animals, yellowish and more scanty in the old. Its con-

-

The expense is not great : an ordinary ox may be rendered insensible for 2s., and a sheep and a

expensive for the general slaughtering of ani mals, it might be used by farmers to place beyond the feeling of pain all the animals they require to slaughter, and, by thus rendering them entirely passive, the operation of slaughter. ing could be performed without the risk of injuring the flesh by bruises of the slightest description.

sistence varies also according to the organ of its

ta

production, being firmer under the skin and in the neighbourhood of the kidneys than among the movable viscera . Fat forms šo of the weight of a healthy animal ; but as taken out by the butcher it is not pure, for, being of a vesicular

6190. The flesh of the domesticated animals

becomes poisonous under certain states. “ There

is no doubt ,” observes Dr Taylor , " that partial decay may render unwholesome and injurious the flesh of the most healthy animals ; and it is

structure , it is always enclosed in membranes, by no means improbable that, among the poor of

mixed with blood , blood vessels, lymphatics , &c.

6188. In close warm weather meat often be-

comes tainted . Any plan that can save this loss in domestic economy is entitled to a trial. Dr

large cities , the secret sale of decomposed and unwholesome meat is a very frequent cause of disease and death ." I 6191. The flesh or muscle of animals consists

Sot

* Thomson's Animal Chemistry, p. 134.

+ Parliamentary Return, 12th February 1850. VOL II .

# Taylor On Poisons, p. 561 . 2 Y

REALISATION .

706

chiefly of two component parts , the fibrin and breeding live stock, which is, to produce the the albumen. When thefibrin predominates, most perfect animal that will yield the hasnot been fattened atall,the meat is tough largest profit. Itis easy to possess a flock and hard . When the albumen bears a consider- or a herd which will propagate its kind, as is which it does when the flesh is very lean, and

ableproportion of the flesh between the threads evinced in the actual condition of many of of fibrin, which it always does when the animal the flocks and berds abounding in the

conditionand has been fattened , the country. It is easier to do this than to isfleshin isfair tender and juicy. cultivate arable land for the purpose of

6192. Recent experiments of Liebig have raising grain, for this requires pretty con brought to light some very curious differences stant attention at the seasons of seed-time existing between the contents of flesh and of the and harvest ; whereas a flock or herd of traverse latter may be blood, althoughofthethe give neglected animalswill keep themselves in shalltobest former. I said everyportion

you an idea of those facts,in the wordsof Pro- life, if food be within their reach, and will even propagate their kind if the sexes are notice of the English reader. There is a “ great not kept asunder.

fessor Gregory, who first introduced them to the

preponderance," he observes, “ of phosphate of potash and chloride of potassium in the juice of flesh , while in the blood and lymph which circu late through the muscles, it is phosphate of soda

6195. I suspect that the principles by

which the highest aim alluded to is to be and chloride of sodium which prevail. The attained is not thoroughly understood by juice of flesh is always stronglyacid, while the breeders; for I imagine that our best stock blood and lymph are decidedly alkaline. There has been brought to its present state of is an abundant supply acid in the urine. juice perfection by the exercise of individual of flesh,whileit cannotofbelactic detected in the

taste and judgment— by gratifying the eye and satisfying the mind, rather than by ingredient of flesh, is of kreatinine, a powerful the unerring guidance of any fixed prin base in the juice of the flesh,andof bothin ciple on the subject. However this may But perhaps the most interesting observation,

next to the discovery of kreatine as a constant urine, which is a demonstration complete, as it ap

pears tome,of the true function of thephosphate be, observation of the operations ofnature

of soda in the blood. This function , that of absorbing carbonic acid and giving it out in the lungs, is here shown to depend entirely on the minute chemicalcharacter of the salt in question ;

is sufficient to acquaint us that the pleasing symmetry in the body of an animal, its aptitude to grow and fatten, are depen dent on fixed laws which regulate the

andwe now see howithappens that phosphate animalfunctions ;and could we but become of soda is essential to the blood, and cannot be

replaced by phosphate of potash or salt,which, acquaintedwith these, we might pursue the although in many points analogous, differs en- breeding of our stock with the utmost cer tirely from phosphate of soda in its tendency to acquire an acid instead of an alkaline reaction, and in its relation to carbonic acid . The same remark applies to the action of common salt in

tainty of success.

6196. From what I have stated, you

will not expect from me so particular an for the presence ofphosphate of sodain the blood explanation of the principles of breeding of phosphate of soda, which satisfactorily accounts

animals whose food contain only phosphate of

as I have given of the methods of conduct potash , but whicheither find common salt in ingtheoperations of the field. Suffice it their food, or obtain it as an addition . ” *

togive you a few of the ordinary rules indicates the causes ofthe motion in the juices of his stock, with a view to attaining the 6193. Another recent discovery of Liebig's which guide the breeder in the treatment

of the animal body, which he partly ascribes to high aims referred to ; and for the better understanding of which, I have selected

the action of the atmospheric pressure.t

groups of animals as examples, in whose points you should have confidence, because ON

THE

POINTS

TO

BE

AIMED

AT IN they have been faithfully selected and

BREEDING THE MOST PERFECT FORMS

taken from life, from individuals deemed

IN LIVE STOCK .

excellent by competent judges.

6194. We have now arrived at the most 6197. The great aim of breeders is, difficult branch of farming, and the highest that their stock shall exhibit beautiful

aim which the farmer wishes to attain in symmetry - possess robust constitution * Liebig's Chemistry of Food, Preface, p. viii. + Liebig On the Motion of the Juices of the Animal Body, Preface, p. ix.

POINTS.

707

and acquire a disposition to attain early rectangular square to the fore part of the

maturity, without which properties good sameox ; andalthough the frame is not health, fine quality of flesh , and suffici- so fully filled up in this view as in the two

ency of fat,cannot be insured . Let us con- former, it is clear that the general contour sider what each of those properties means, of the animal in this view also is very

and then attend to the points in animals, similar to both the preceding. The width wbich always accoinpany those properties. between the shoulders of an ox from a to a always a little less than between the

6198. Symmetry . — The figure desider- hooks a to a in fig. 297 ; although the ribs ated in the matured and fatted animal is are always as full in a well -formed animal. the geometric solid named the parallelopi 6201. The parallelopiped has an ped, because it not only affords a figure

that may be proportionally beautiful,but upper surfaceand a base, as well as sides it contains a large capacity of contents and ends. Fig. 299 shows the rect within small dimensions. Of course it is angular frame of fig. 296, applied to not to be supposed that the outline of any the back of the ox, which fills it as fully as

animal frame should present the sharp might be expected — the only spaces left edges and projecting angles of a geometric vacant being at the angles. figure, but it is quite possible to identify 6202. So far, then, the contour of the the similarity of the animal body to the mathematical solid. In the attainment frame of a matured ox tallies very nearly

of this similarity, it is fortunate for the with the lines of a regular mathematical breeder of stock that his taste and interest solid .

It will be observed that the form

coincide ; for, if his eye is not pleased of the wooden frame, in figs. 296 and 299, with the form of the animal he has bred , is a rectangle, and that of figs. 297 and certain it is that the animal will not 298 is a square, and the proportion which become a valuable one to him .

they bear to one another is that the

6199. In order to satisfy one's mind on the identity of shape of the animal frame and the geometric solid named, we have only to compare the figures of the animals

so that the conclusions we should draw in

rectangle comprehends two of the squares ; reference to the figure of the ox is, that the length of the body to the shoulder point is twice its breadth, and twice its

usually reared for disposal from the farm depth. The lineswhich fill up the contour with the said solid. Fig. 296 represents of theox are explained in ( 3616 )to ( 3621.) an ox fit to be disposed of at market as a The height of the shoulder top is about matured animal. The wooden rectangular one inch more than the rump. " The void

frame, whichis placed against its side, and space below the belly fills up 3, and the which is similar to the side of a parallelo- body y, of the area included between the piped of the same dimensions as the ox, line of back and the ground. circumscribes in almost every point the outline of the animal ; and that outline is

6203. The rectangular wooden frame

no more redundant in one place, and defi- applied to the side, before, behind, and cient in another, than might be expected upon the back of a matured fat sheep, will

on comparing the form of a living creature bring out very similar results to the ox. with amathematical figure.

Plate IX. contains the portraits ofthree wethers which were brought to the Edin

6200. But a parallelopiped has not burgh market forsale, of the Leicester, sides alone, it has also ends. Let us see Cheviot, and Black -faced breeds ; and it whether the figure of the same ox also an- will be observed that one and all of them swers to these, when viewed from behind have bodies of the same form as the ox.

and before. Fig. 297 shows the application The clipped tup, fig. 330, illustrates clearly of the end of the geometric solid, in the form the same rule. of a rectangular square, against the hind part of the ox ; and a single glance makes it 6204.The draught gelding, figured in evident that the same remarks apply to this Plate XII., maintains a similar form to

view of the figure as to that of the side. the ox in the body, and fully corroborates Still further, fig. 298 applies the same

the remarks I have made above.

The

708

REALISATION .

length of the body is twice its depth. invariably accompanied with dulness of The void space below the belly to the spirit and want of action. A thin -skinned ground is equal to the depth of the body. and thick - boned animal is ill to maintain The length of the neck to the withers is in condition. A fit of indigestion fre equal to the depth of the body from the quently overtakes thin - skinned animals, withers.

The distance from the elbow to

and their condition in consequence varies.

the fetlock joint is equal to that of the Thick-boned animals never seem to relish withers. their food, are indifferent to everything that concerns them , and are dull feeders.

6205. The same test applied to pigs A flat-ribbed thin -bodied animal is more may be seen in fig. 438, where the rect- delicate than a round-ribbed one.

angular frame is about filled up except at two angles, which are more vacant than

with the ox, the sheep, or the horse ; but the lines of the rump of a pig are always more abrupt than those of any other of the domesticated animals, ( 5136.)

6208. Disposition to attain early matu rity . — The most prominent indication of this disposition is a loose, thick, mellow skin, as

if Roating upon a stratum of fat below ; and such a skin is invariably covered with long, soft, mossy -feeling hair, bearing a

6206. Robustness of constitution . — The decided colour.

A firmness of texture

indications of good health and strength of over the whole body is essential to a dis constitution are — strong, broad, flat bones position to fatten ; no fat encumbers the

in the legs, with the sinews thick and bones of the legs and of the head. All round, and distinctly developed, the whole the extremities, thelimbs, head, and tail being closely covered with skin. This condition of the legs is what is terined clean. The eye is full and clear. The skin of the nose, in the case of cattle,

are small, fine, and tapering from the body. The eye is prominently set in the head, and with a placid expression. The forehead is broad . The ears are sensible

sheep, and pigs, is bedewed with moisture. to every new sound. The muzzle is The skin is covered closely with long fine sharp, the nostrils distended, the jaws dis hair.

The surface of the horn on the feet

tinct and clean . The muscles are broad and

and head oily and shining, and the junc- flat. The blood vessels large and full. tion of the hair and horn growthy. The The chest is broad, and the tail flat at hair of the tail of the ox and of the horse the top, and broad and tapering to the

long, shining, with a tendency to curl. tuft of hair. The line of the back is The wool of sheep wavy, greasy, inter- straight and level, and the ribs round. laced, and of fine quality. The animal A back high above the level is narrow, spirits lively, the senses acute , and the and is accompanied with flat ribs and

instinct sagacious. The appetite ready, long narrow face, which are both indica digestion good. The body enduring of tive of a want of disposition to fatten . fatigue, and little susceptible of the When the back is below the level, the fat changes of the weather. These condi- and flesh are mostly put upon the under

tions are maintained by kind treatment, part of thecarcass, and thetallow increases comfortable lodging, and abundance of in the interior. The Aanks and cod are food.

then thick and fat. In such a configuration

the fore quarters are larger than the hind. 6207. A delicate constitution is indi. Such an animal evinces a disposition to cated by the opposite properties.

The fatten, but lays on coarse pieces. When

skin is thin , and covered with scanty the curved lines abound over the body hair or open wool. With such a covering and play into one another, giving a the animal is affected by the least change brilliancy to the surface, while the sweep of weather, overcome with the heat of ing lines of the contour, with the tapering summer, feels uneasy in the cold of winter, fineness of the extremities, the pleasing

and is chilled by every shower that falls. countenance, and the joyous spirit, a sym A very small bone, bowever clean, is metry, state of health , and disposition to always accompanied with a reduced size improve are conjoined, that afford the of carcass . Thick and round bone gives highest satisfaction and profit to the a clumsiness to the limbs and head, and is breeder.

709

POINTS OF SHORT -HORNS. DESCRIPTION

OF

THE

ANIMALS

WHOSE

shoulder at f 7 feet 3 inches.

His mea

PORTRAITS ARE GIVEN IN THE PLATES.

surement for beef was 4 feet 6 inches in

6209. Let us apply these points to the aniinals whose portraits occupy the plates given in this work — and first let us take the examples of the Short- horn cattle ;

length, by 7 feet 3 inches in girth, fig. 300, equal to 56 stones ; so I should say, from these proportions, that this ox was rather too short for a perfectly sym metrical figure, and was rather heavier in

and of these we shall first take the ox as

the hind than in the fore quarter.

the type of the class, being the most com 6210. In Plate XI. is the portrait of a mon state we find the feeding cattle on a farm. Fig. 564 is a representation of the red and white Short -horn bull. The red

was remarkably rich in colour, and the

Fig. 564. a

C

white was confined to the girth on the

near side, the under part of the brisket, and of the belly, and on the scrotum . He was bred by the late Mr George Brown at Whitsome Hill, in Berwickshire. He was

got by a red and white bull belonging to Mr Robertson of Ladykirk in thatcounty,

named Valentine.* At that period, Mr Robertson's stock of Short -horns was in

its glory. The dain of this bull was got

by a red bull, never named, bred by the late Mr Thomas Smith when at Grindon,

in Northumberland, and was a son of his portrait of the ox given in Plate X. This old roan bull Duke; and at that period is a well-bred Short-horn ox, bred and fed few farmers possessed so high a bred stock by Mr Wilson of Cumledge, near Dunse as Mr Smith ; his steers being then unri THE SHORT- HORN OX .

in Berwickshire, who has long been a suc- valled for beauty and weight. The grand cessful breeder of Short-born steers,(1153.) dam was one of twin quey -calves produced Ilis stock comes to maturity, and is fat- by a quey , purchased in calf by Mr Brown tened off at two years old, when many ont

from the late Mr Mason of Chilton .

One

of 50 in number attain the weight of 70 of the twin -calves, when a 2 -year old

stones. This particular ox was only 1 quey, Mr Brown sold to the late Duke of year 11 months old when his portrait was

Buccleuch for 50 guineas, and the other

taken ; and he was afterwards exhibited he retained for himself. I purchased this

at the Highlandand Agricultural Society's bull when one year old from Mr Brown show at Berwick -upon - Tweed, in October 1841. He was roan in colour, with a good deal of white on the head, gullet, breast, under part of the belly, round the girth, and upon the rump and buttock. His head was remarkably fine, broad above the eyes, having a pleasant countenance, full eyes, and small slouching sharp -pointed

for 20 guineas, and kept him at Balmadies, in Forfarshire, for 8 years, during which time he proved himself a sure and excel lent calf-getter, and evinced a gentleness of disposition to every person who ap proached him , in a degree remarkable for a bull. He had manygood points - small head, full lively eye, small, fine, white

brown horns. Besides a fine head, he had horn. He was completely filled

ир be

a straight back, round rib , deep flank , and hind the shoulder, at f, fig. 565, a point in

full neck-vein. His limbs were remark- which many otherwise fine bulls are defi

ably clean. He was in high health. His cient. He had a long quarter across 9, a principal measurementswere from the head e to the shoulder top a 27 inches, from the shoulder a to a line across the hooks b, 32 inches, from the hooks b to the tail-

difficult point to attain ina bull, carrying the flesh to the hocks d ; a very thick flank i; the ribs very round, which ,with the upfilling behind the shoulder at f, made

head c, 213 inches, in all 6 feet 9 inches ; the line straight from the shoulder point

and the girth of the body behind the e along the rib at ſ, and the buttock g to * Coates' Herd Book, vol .

p. 141 ( 661 ) – Valentine.

710

REALISATION .

the hock d.

His fore-arm was very fare of any of bis own kind of stock that

strong ; neck -vein e full ; and the brisket were in the same field with bim. At

h not too deep, as is often the case with length he was fed on turnips from Novem ber to April, when he was killed fat, and the butcher, Mr Johnston of Arbroath, in

Fig. 565.

formed me he weighed 139 stones, sinking the offals. I saw his flesh, which was

really fine -- much liker ox than bull beef. 3

6211. In fig. 566, I give an outline Fig. 566.

THE SHORT-HORN BULL.

bulls.

The crest of his neck a was fine,

and not lumpy, as is often seen on bulls. His hooks and back were remarkably

RE

straight and broad , measuring across the hook - bones at 6 36 inches ; the rump be tween b and c was full and round, and the

Pastuce

tail- head c was particularly level and fine, showing no undue development of muscle

MR HOPPER'S SHORT -HORN BULL, BELVILLE.

on either side of the tail, as is often the portrait of a Short-horn bull that has case here - a deformity too generally ad- obtainedamost remarkable celebrity. It is mired, and in so far shows a prevalence that of Beloille, a short -horn bull bred by

His neck and shoulders John Mason Hopper, Esq., of Newham were thickly sprinkled with curled locks Grange, near Stockton-upon - Tees, York of long hair , the entire body being covered shire . This remarkable bull carried the of bad taste.

with fine soft hair. The face was singularly ornamented with curled hair : it was shedded from a line down the front of the face, seeming as if it had been combed towards each eye ; and the hair above the eyes seemed also combed up to meet the

firstprize of his class atthe Show of the Agricultural Society of England at Wake field, at that of the Agricultural Improve ment Society of Ireland at Limerick, and at that of the Highland and Agricultural Society at Inverness, all in the year 1846,

combed locks from the face. The roots when five years old.

And again , as a

of the horns were hidden with long locks bull of any age, he gained a sweepstakes of of combed hair reaching to the forehead. £70 of silver plate, at the Show of the

His hide was loose,thick, and soft, and Highland and Agricultural Society at the touch mellow. He had a most robust Glasgow in 1850, against twenty compe

constitution, never having had a single hour's illness in his life of 9 years. Unfortunately I had no measurement taken of his proportions, which I considered the most perfect of any bull I ever saw . He

titors. He has, therefore, proved himself to be the best bull of his day. Beloille was got by Newton, his dam by Gany

mede, by Uptaker, grand -dam Garland by Matchem . His head is remarkably fine

was kept generally in ordinary condition , for a bull, his neck small, and his ex getting in winter only a few turnips tó tremities clean. His skin and handling serve for water, and principally supported are perfect, and so is the laying on of the In summer, his tendance on filesh along all the upper part of his body, the cows was so constant, that he was with no disposition anywhere to lay on

on straw .

very seldom seen grazing, although he lumpy fat.

His back is uncommonly

never annoyed them even when in season. straight and broad from the hooks forward, It was often amusing to observe the trouble and his chest remarkably wide and full, he gave himself in looking after the wel- as may be observed in fig. 567, which

POINTS OF SHORT -HORNS.

711

gives a fore-shortened view of his body. was got by Matchem , dam by a son of Mr His quarter was long, and the space Colling's George, grand -dam by Winyard. behind the shoulder wel filled up.

If any It will be observed that the grand -dam of

Fig. 567.

Fig. 568. C

THE SHORT - HORN COW.

Mr Hopper's bull Belville, fig. 566, was also got by Matchem. Kilmeny was a cow of remarkably fine quality of skin , and her broad face indicated a good disposition to fatten. Her principal dimensions were from top of shoulder a to hook 1, 3 feet ; from hook b to tail-head c ,

VIEW OF THE BACK AND CHEST OP BELVILLE. . point is exceeded, it is, I think, in the depth of the brisket, as may be observed in both figures. The pieceof plate constituting the sweepstakes was a flagon, the lid of

14 foot; extreme length from head to tail, 7 feet 3 inches ; girth, 6 feet 5 inches ; depth from hook b to flank f, 2 feet; breadth over the hooks b, 3 feet; from the ground to the fore-elbow , 2 feet 6 inches ;

which was appropriately ornamented and from that elbow to the top of shoulder a, surmounted by a model in silver of Mr 2 feet; breadth across the shoulders at a, Hopper's bull Belville, which had distin- 2 feet 6 inches ; the shoulders beautifully guished himself so conspicuously in beating in competition every bull brought against him at the national show held in each division of the kingdom . It was a happy coincidence, besides the elegant compliment, that the plate so ornamented should have fallen into Mr Hopper's own hands.

sloped from d to g ; from nose to eye, 1 foot; length of ears, 74 inches ; breadth of pelvis, 10 inches ; the ribs e beautifully rounded ; and the udder h finely formed and quartered. It will be seen from these numbers that she was long-bodied, from 9 , 5 feet 6 inches, in comparison to the depth, hf, 2 feet; and that she was

6212. Plate VI. contains the portraits broad behind, at the hooksb, 3 feet, in com of three Short-born cows, belonging to his parison to the breadth across the shoulders Grace the Duke of Buccleuch, at Dalkeith a, 2 feet 6 inches - the shoulders being, no

Park, Mid-Lothian. The one on the left doubt, thus sharpened by the great inclina hand was roan in colour, the centre one tion of the scapula from d to g . The un entirely red, and the right hand one common half - slouching, half- projecting entirely white, which are the three arrange- position of her horns, and a sort of stare of

ments ofcolour presented by all Short- her full eyes, gave her countenance a some horns. The red and white are distinct colours in themselves, and the roan con sists of a mixture of red and white hairs,

what anstere aspect uncommon in cows. 6213. As the colour of Short-horn cattle

being lighter and darker according as the is a prominent characteristic of them , I white or red predominates. The principal cow in this group was the left-hand roan one, fig. 568, which was descended from the late Mr Robertson's, of Ladykirk, celebrated stock, and which was distri-

may mention that roan is a handsome colour, and is, I believe, the general favourite now — the fancy for colour having gone from the red to the white, and is now settled on the roan. Dark red usually

buted over the country after the late indicates hardiness of constitution ,richness Mr John Rennie of Phantassie got posses- of nilk, and disposition to fatten ; light

sion of it. Her name was Kilmeny : she red indicates a large quantity of thin milk ,

712

REALISATION .

and little disposition to fatten ; but the

gradually from the body, and are broad

red in either case is seldom entire, being and flat, indicating strength ; the knee k

generally relieved with wbite on some is straight, broad , and strong, and the part of the sides and belly. White was fore - arm į broad and flat - all excellent considered indicative of delicacy of con-

points in the leg of a draught-horse, giving

stitution ; and to get quit of it, and at the it strength and action. The back of the

same time avoid the dulness of red, the fore-leg, from the fetlock joint I to the roan was encouraged, and now prevails. body o, is straight, indicating no weakness The white shows the symptoms sooner

in the limb -- a failing here causing the than any of the other colours of breeding knees to knuckle, and rendering the horse in-and-in .

A single black hair on the unsafe in going down-hill . The hind -legs

body, and particularly on the nose ; or them, as well as the fore ones k and l, stand

slightest black or blue spot upon the flesh- directly under the body,forming firm sup coloured skin upon the nose, oraround the ports under it. The body is beautifully eyes ; or the least streak of black on the symmetrical. The shoulder slopes back tips of the horns, at once proclaims that a wards from h to b, the withers at 6 being

Short-horn sporting either one or more of high and thin . The sloped position of the these impurities is of mixed blood-not- shoulder affords a proper seat for the collar, withstanding all attestation to the contrary. and provides the muscles of the shoulder blade 9

with a long lever to enable

6214. Applying the same points to them to throw the fore-legs easily forward ; horses, we shall take the gelding as the and with such a shoulder a horse cannot standard of comparison. Fig. 569 repre- stumble. The back, from b to c , is short, Fig. 569.

no longer than to give room for the saddle. The chest, from 5 to o, is deep, giving

capacity for the lungs to play in, and room for the muscles required in draught. The top of the quarter from c to d is rounded, the flank, from c to n, deep , and the hind

quarter, from f to e, long. On looking on the entire side profile of the animal , the body seems made up of two large quarters, m

joined together by a short thick middle, suggesting the idea of strength and action ; and the limbs, neck, and head, are so

THE DRAUGHT - HORSE.

attached to the body as to appear light and graceful. In a well-formed horse, I

sents the grey gelding whose portrait is may remark , that the line from the fetlock

found in Plate XII. He was bred by the joint lto the elbow joint o, is equal to that late Mr Curry when at Brandon, Nor- from the joint o to the top of the withers thumberland, and was the property of b. In a low -shouldered leggy-horse, the

Messrs. Howey and Co., the great carriers line lo is much longer than the line o b ; from Edinburgh into England. He was but in the case of this horse, the body bo not a thorough -bred Clydesdale, having a is rather deeper than the leg lo is long,

dash of coaching blood in him, a species of realising thedesideratum in a farm -horse farm - borse very much in use on the of a thick middle and short legs. The

Borders, and admired for their action and spirit. This gelding exhibits such a form as to constitute, in my estimation, the very perfection of what a farm -horse should be. His head a is small, bone clean, eyes

line across the ribs from g to f is, like the back, short, and the ribs are round. He was 16 hands high, or 64 inches ; measured from a to 6 35 inches, from b to c 33 inchies, from c to d 19 inches, being in extreme

prominent, muzzle fine, and ears set upon length 7 feet 3 inches. Length of the face the crown of the head . His neck rises with a fine crest from the trunk b h to a,

25 inches, breadth of face across the eyes

10 inches, length of ears 64 inches, breadth and tapers to the head, which is beauti- across the hook-bones 22 inches, girth

fully set on the neck, and seems to be behind the shoulder 80 inches, girth of borne by it with ease . His limbs taper fore -arm 23 inches, girth of bone below 1

POINTS OF DRAUGHT HORSES.

713

the fore-knee 94 inches-the girth of this reducing the size of the muscles of the bone shows the comparative strength of neck of geldings. The shoulder slopes the fore-ley of every horse - girth of neck well back from e to b, giving freedom of

at the onset of the head 32 inches, girth action to the fore-legs,while the muscle at m, being fully developed, assists in inches, and height of top of quarter c from imparting strength to that action. The of inuzzle 21 inches, width of counter 19

the ground 63 inches. In a draught-horse hind- quarter, from g to h, is long and the use of the collar causes the muscles deep. The fore -leg is straight, and short upon the shoulder to enlarge, and the neck from knee to fetlock, p to n, the bone to become thin.

This horse's name was

under the knee strong, and the fore-arm

Farmer, his walk was stately, and he could l flat and broad. On comparison, the fore draw 3 tons on level ground, including the legs of the gelding are fullymore handsome. weight of the waggon. He was a well- The hind -legs o are remarkably so.

The

known horse on the streets of Edinburgh sweep of line from the crownof the head for some years, and was generally admired. a along the back to the tail-head d is

He was 11 years old when this portrait truly elegant, giving a very fine top to the quarter. The fulness of the hair in the tail dk indicates great strength of back. His eye was good , though somewhat 6215. Fig. 570, and Plate IV ., is the small, and the ratch of white down his face marred the beauty of his countenance ; Fig. 570.

was taken, 1838 ; but whether he is now alive in 1850, I do not know.

ut

and both the bind legs being white was also 3 d

against bis general appearance. His dis position was remarkably docile, and his whole demeanour harmless.

His consti

tution was good, and he was an excellent traveller. These are a few of his dimen sions :—from the crown of the head a to

THE DRAUGHT- STALLION .

portrait of the black draught-stallion, Champion, bred by Mr James Steedman, Boghall, Mid - Lothian. He is of the true Clydesdale breed. He gained the first prize at the Highland and Agricultural

the top of shoulder b 51 inches, from the top of the shoulder b to the top of the rumpc 30 inches, from the top of the rump c to the tail -head d 22 inches; in all, 8 feet 7 inches. Length of face 265

inches, breadth of face across the eyes 11 inches, length of ears 6 inches, breadth across the hook -bones 30 inches, girth

behind the shoulder 90 inches, girth of fore arm l 28 inches, girth of bone below the

Society's Show at Glasgow in October fore-knee 12 inches, height ofthe top of the 1837, and obtained premiums elsewhere. He wasa sure foal-getter. He was fully 17 hands high, 68 inches ;and though otherwise a large animal, being 8 feet 7 inches in length, his action was high and uncommonly light.

quarter c from the ground 67 inches, girth of neckat the onset of the head 39 inches, girth of muzzle 24 inches, and width of counter 22 inches. He was a gay, lively, beautiful horse when run out, and his

On comparing him action was apparently very easy to him

generally with the gelding just described, self. though his body is longer, both hind and

fore quarters are long and deep, exhibit6216. Fig. 571 , and Plate VIII. is the ing alarge display ofmuscle. His middle portrait of a brown Clydesdale draught is somewhat small, as is almost always mare, belonging to the late Mr George the case with stallions which have served Bagrie, Monkton near Dalkeith, Mid

many mares, the frequent action of the Lothian. She gained the first premium muscles of the abdomen causing its at every show of stock she was ever contraction. Like all stallions, his neck exbibited. The white ratch down her

rises beautifully from his body b e, in a face, and so much white on her legs, full crest from b to a, evincing that cas detract from the beauty of her appearance ;

tration and work have a powerful effect in but notwithstanding these drawbacks, she

REALISATION .

714

is an exceedingly handsome and beautiful those of horses of other colours ; and also

mare. You have only to look at the plate to that the white feet of horses of other observe the easy flowing lines of her whole colours are more tender than dark - coloured Fig. 571 .

feet ; but on what grounds I cannot say. 6218. In Plate IX. is a representation of a dinmont Leicester sheep . The per fect form of the breed would have been

best shown in a wether, but a Leicester

wether is now -a -days so very seldom to be found that I could not obtain one for a portrait to be taken . Nor will the din mont in the plate be of much use as a

‫کے‬

reference, since its posture in reposing on THE DRAUGHT- MARE.

the ground is unfavourable to affording a proper view of its form . The head and a

contour, and also the great substance of both fore and hind quarter. The rise and crest of her neck from 6 to a , and from e to a , are remarkably fine. The back from

leg, however, indicate that the sheep was well bred, and the texture of the wool is well preserved. Like the ox and the gelding, in cattle and horses, the wether

b to c is somewhathollow, and there is a cor- best exhibits the points of a particular responding depression of the belly at i, both breed, which the breeder should cultivate

being the effects of foal-bearing; as there with a view to profit, and free from those is, besides, a slackness of the flank in front

sexual characteristics which the stallion

of g, a usual deficiency in brood-mares. and the mare, the bull and the cow , and The top of the rump from c to d is very the tup and the ewe, must always possess. fine. The shoulder slopes well from e to 6219. Plate XIII. contains the portrait b, indicating good action ; the muscles are well developed on the fore- quarter from e of a Leicester tup which belonged to the to f, indicating power in draught; the Duke of Buccleuch ; as also another with ribs are round, and the barrel long from fout the fleece in fig. 330. The tup in the

to g , a favourable configuration in a brood- plate exhibits the peculiar properties of mare for giving room for the growth of the breed to which he belongs ; the prin

thefætus.The hind-quarter fromg to h cipal of which are, face and legs covered is long. The legs are placed directly with white hair, a hornless head,and body under the body, the fore-knee l being well enveloped in long wool. The indi broad and strong, the back of the fore -leg vidual characteristics of this tup are, rect

from the fetlock m to the body straight, angular carcase, round rib, small bone, and the fore-arm k broad and fat. I have fine head, small muzzle, large full eye, no measurement of the dimensions of this and expressive countenance, and his ears mare, for a comparison with those of the much shorter than usual. The head of

gelding and stallion. Beside roundness the tup is broader across the eyes than

and length of rib, a brood -mare should be that of the ewe or wether, and the skin wide across the hook-bones and the pelvis, to afford room for the growth and subsequent egress of the foal . This mare gave up foal-bearing at an early age.

becomes a little wrinkled upon the nose when he gets aged. The wool is thick

set, long ,of good quality, and the fleece -a mark of sound constitution, and a 6217. I have chosen a black stallion, great means of preserving the animal from envelops the entire body above and below ,

brown mare, and grey gelding, to illustrate the bad effects of the weather above, and the three colours most commonly seen of the dampness of the ground below. A amongst farm -horses. A black stallion level broad back from neck to rump, and seems the favourite colour, and a brown across the ribs, is characteristic of the

mare is not uncommon, but a grey draught Leicester; and on being turned up, a broad horse is much more uncommon now than

chest with fulness of flesh in the arm -pits

it was 20 years ago. It is said that the and the inside of the hams. The touch feet of grey horses are more tender than should be equally mellow along the back,

POINTS OF PIGS.

715

a bardness in any partindicating a defect. which keeps the throat warm ; the belly Inordinary condition, the flesh above the is well covered with wool at b, as also the tail-head is nicked, which may be easily felt with the points of the fingers; but when in high condition, which they should be at the tupping-time in autumn, (4721,)

flank at c ; the rump d is level with the back , and carries the levelness to the tail head, from which the tail drops perpendi cularly, and there is abundance of wool to

the nicking should extend all the way protect the analand vaginal passages from from the shoulder- top to the tail. The the cold. Some ewes are high in the rump, rib should also be well covered with flesh while others are rounded down to the tail

and fat. The bones of the legs should be head, somewhat in the form of the pig. strong, broad and flat, and the limbs Gimmers generally carry a large proportion placed immediately under the carcass to of wool upon the rump, which afterwards support it. The physical strength of a bares down to the level of the back wool.

Leicester tup isgreat;having largemuscles It is quite a common occurrence in a flock concentrated within small bounds, he can

of Leicester ewes to bear a large propor

exert a strength forward which no man's strength is able to counteract, as long as the tup's feet remain upon the ground; and consequently the only, and at the

tion of twin lambs, and even towean them to the extent of 50 per cent beyond their own number. Many ewes bear twins every year, whilst others have only single lambs.

same time the most ready means, within the reach of a shepherd, to prevent bim

6221. In Plate V. is the portrait of a going away, is to seize one of the hind sow which belonged to the Duke of Blic

legs from behind, when locomotion is cleuch, at Dalkeith Park, Mid -Lothian, instantly arrested. and fig. 573 represents the same animal.

6220. Plate VII. contains a portrait of a Leicester ewe and its lambs, and fig. 572

Fig. 573.

Fig. 572.

THE BROOD SOW .

Here the same rule applies as to symme THE LEICESTER EWE AND LAMB.

is a representation of them. She also belonged to the Duke of Buccleuch, at Dalkeith Park, Mid -Lothian. The points of the Leicester ewe are, head generally long, narrow , and clean, with fine muzzle, pro-

minent eyes, and long, broad , thin ears. The bone of the leg is small, fine, broad and flat. In this particular instance, the body is well-woolled and rectangularly formed . The counterg is full; the shoulder well filled up bebind at a ; the rib at f round and full ; and the loin at e filled up, not hollow, as is sometimes the case,

try and disposition to fatten as in the cases of the ox and the sheep. The bead a is small, the face tapering to the snout

,, which is short and fine ; the ears are set on the crown of the head, being broad, thin,

long, and so mobile as to indicate qnick ness of perception. The value of the head, as an article of food, is indicated by the

enlargementof the muscle upon the cheek h. The neck from a to b is full ; the back from b to c, broad; the rump from c to d full and round, and the roundness descends to the hams; the ribs f are round ; the space behind the shoulder at g filled up ; and so is the flank e ; the shanks k are

particularly after ewes have bornea num- small and short, and finely tapered. A ber of lambs. The wool comes forward pig with these properties is always in a full behind the ears on the top of the neck condition for use, from the state of a pig

at i, thus keeping these organs protected ; sucking milk , through itsprogressofpork it is also full towards the cheeks at h, ling and shott, till it attain the full size for

716

REALISATION .

bacon and hams. Such a breed never re- burgs should never be lost sight of, they quires feeding, and as it is always in con- being now entirely inured to this climate;

dition, it requires only time to grow to and they are generally very healthy and the sizewanted, when a little firming of the good layers, their flesh possessing, if not

flesh by corn soon prepares it for slaughter. great delicacy of whiteness, a good The shott should have been instanced as flavour. I think it would be worth while,

the state of the pig class, which shows the as a matter of profit, for farmers to make points of most value for profit ; but the and rear capons for the market, being

difference in the points of the sow and soon fit for the table: the process of shott are so little defined, that the repre- caponing might be easily learnt. There

sentation of the one serves well enough has not yet been introduced any bird of for that of the other.

the goose tribe better than the old grey goose and white gander. I have tried a

6222. When a boar attains the age of cross with the Chinese gander and the com several years, the tusks are seen to project mon goose, as also one with the common a considerable way beyond the lip ; and gander and the Chinese goose ; but though

if he is at all cross in temper, and is the progeny was larger than either, and be permitted to go about the courts of the steadiny in which the cattle are confined, and to make his litter in them , he has been known to injure the cattle - which

came rather handsome birds, the flesh was coarse and the flavour spoiled. Aylesbury ducks are certainly superior to the common ducks both in size and flesh ; and they are

may have trampled upon bim accidentally not only large layers, but lay all winter. in the litter - so very seriously with the tusks, as to occasion even death . He strikes upwards with the tusks ; and should

6224. Fig. 574 is an outline portrait of Fig. 574.

the stroke be directed to the belly of the ox, the skin and the peritoneum will be instantly torn, and the bowels laid bare, the strength of the neck of a large boar being almost incredible. I have observed ,

however , that the boar is more friendly with cattle than with horses, and especi ally young ones, which often delight in giv ing him a bite or a kick in passing. With large tusks, it is safest either to break offtheir points, or prevent boars making their litter amongst cattle and horses. 6223. Plate XIV. gives portraits of the different kinds of poultry reared on a farm , without regard to fancy breeds.

The black Norfolk breed of tur

ES THE COMMON FOWL.

keys I have beard recommended as being the common hen in the plate. The flesh both strong and large ; and I have seen a of a fowl is chiefly found on the sternum

pure white variety ; butI should not desire or breast-bone, which, when not full, the a better breed than the light grey, what- fowl is considered lean . The develop

ever their name or origin may be. The ment of the muscle there is dependent on young cocks attained, with me, every the state of the extremities. When thehead year at least 15 lb. each by Christmas. and limbs are large and coarse, the skele The old cocks never became troublesome. ton of the body, including the breast

which I have seen the black variety do ; bone, are long and narrow, and then the and the hens are most careful mothers muscle is thin and sinewy; but when

and great layers. The Dorking is decidedly they are small and fine, the horn of the an excellent fowl, and I perceive that the

bill firm, the scales of the legs thin and

grey variety is preferred to the white — at close set, and the eye large and clear, the least they are much more frequently to be bodyassumes a roundness of form , becom seen . Nevertheless the common Ham- ing deeper and approaching to the oval,

717

POINTS OF HEREFORDS .

When of this form , the muscles become presents theheadof a Long-horn bull, which thicker, larger, and tenderer. Fat does belonged to Mr R. Horton, Sherborne, in

not seem deposited in the muscle of the Warwickshire, and was exhibited, and fowl, but the cellular tissue between the obtained the first prize of his class, at the fibres of the muscles become enlarged . Show of the Royal Agricultural Society

The fat is mostly seen on the rump and the of England at Oxford , in July 1839, when sides ; it increases in the inside ; it lines he was 4 years 2 months old.

It will be

the body under the skin, through which it observed that the face is short and broad, is easily seen . It is a characteristic of all muzzle small, the eye large and expres the domesticated fowls to have a round sive, the horns fine, tapering, and sharp

plump form of body in connection withfine pointed, and the countenance agreeable. extremities; and these points are certainly His colour was light brown, brindled with black stripes. The skin was thin and indicative of a disposition to fatten . mellow , and the hair mossy. The skin of the nose and around the eyes dark flesh ACCOUNT OF SOME OTHER BREEDS OF colour. The slouching position of the CATTLE AND SHEEP . horns is very common in the Long-horn breed ; they are brown, with a few reddish 6225. Long - Horns. - The_Long -horns streaks, and tipped with brownish black. are a breed not confined to England, be- His dam and grand-dam were also bred ing also found in Ireland ; but there are by Mr Horton, and his sire was bred none, to my knowledge, in Scotland. This by Mr Court, near Warwick. He was

breedwas brought to great perfection by regardedas a very superior animal of his the celebrated Bakewell, in Leicestershire, kind. His weight was estimated at 100 and on that account were first called Lei- stones. I give a few of his principal cesters .

After the success attending the dimensions. From crown of the head to

breeding of the Short-horns — so named the top of the shoulder, 36 inches; from their horns being short — by the brothers Collings, the Long-horns lost part of their reputation ; and the merit of the Collings as breeders was the more remarkable, in that they had to cope with so formidable a rival and celebrated a

from

top of shoulder to a line with the hooks, 36 inches; from line of hooks to tail-head, 22 inches ; total length, 94 inches ; length of face, 21 inches; from eye to nose, 13 inches ; length of ear, 6 inches ; breadth of face at the eyes, 10 inches; girth of

breeder as Robert Bakewell ; but fortu- neck at the onset to the head, 46 inches ;

vately for them , and for the country also, girth of muzzle, 22 inches ; girth behind they had a better subject to begin with. the shoulder, 96 inches; breadth across After the establishment of the Short-horns, the hooks, 24 inches ; breadth across the the Leicesters were called Long-horns, shoulders, 24 inches ; height from ground their horns being frequently very long ; as to fore elbow, 27 inches ; height from

also to distinguish their name from Bake- elbow to top of shoulder, 27 inches - to well's improved breed of sheep, which gether, 544 inches ; height from ground were often named Leicesters, from the to top of hooks, 56 inches, so he stood 1 } county where they originated, at Dishley, higher before than behind ; depth from the residence of Mr Bakewell. Fig. 575 re- hook to bottom of Aank, 27 inches ; from Fig. 575.

the ground to the hind hock, 20 inches ;

breadth of brisket, 6 inches ; length of horn, 27 inches ; girth, 9 inches. 6226. Herefords. - The Herefords take the name from the county in which they originated. They are a fine race of cattle for steers, and in symmetry the steers are very similar to those of the Short-borns. At one time much rivalry existed between

those breeds as feeders, and profitable for beef, and at first it was rather in favour of THE HEAD OF A LONG - HORN BULL .

the Herefords, as mentioned by Mr Knight;

REALISATION .

718

but according to the later statements of eyes, 10 inches ; length of ear, 6 inches, the Rev. Mr Berry, the Short-horns bad smooth outside, hairy inside ; length of established their superiority as feeders. There never was a doubt of the Shorthorn cow being a much better and a much longer milker than the Hereford cow.

horn, 24 inches ; girth, 104 inches ; girth of muzzle, 19 inches ; girth behind the shoulder, 100 inches ; breadth across the hook lines, 29 inches ; breadth across the

Formy part, I never had the good fortune shoulders, 28 inches ; height from the to see either a Hereford bull or a Hereford heiſer as handsome as many Shorthorn bulls and heifers I have seen. Fig. 576 represents the head of a Hereford ox Fig. 576.

ground to the fore elbow, 30] inches ; from the elbow to the top of shoulder, 27 inches — together, 574 inches ; from the ground to back at thehooks, 57 inches, so that he stood level ; from hooks to bottom of the flank , 28 inches ; from the ground to the hind hock, 21 inches ; breadth of

brisket, 144 inches. It weighed 76 stones. 6227. West- Highlanders, or Kyloes.

– The West- Highland oxen have long been famed in Scotland as superior to any

for yielding prime beef. They have all the fine points of the Short-horns in the

body, which is covered with an abundance of shaggy soft hair, that bids defiance to the keenest blasts and the most drenching rains. Fig. 577 gives an idea of the head Fig. 577. THE HEAD OF A HEREFORD OX .

which belonged to Mr S. Druce, Engham , near Oxford , and was exhibited at the Show of the Agricultural Society of Eng

land, in July 1839, where it gained the first prize of its class, when it was 4 years 4 months old. It will at once be observed

that the muzzle is fine, the eye large, full,

and lively, and the horns small, tapering, and sharp -pointed. A bright-white face is very common in the Hereford breed , which gives them a clean appearance , with white horns having brownish - red points. The body is either dark or light- red and white, a common colour, or a dark rich

chestnut -brown, which is becoming fashion able. The handling was firm and mellow. Hide not thin . Hair soft and pleasant to the feel. The skin on the nose and around

THE HEAD OF A WEST - HIGHLAND OX.

the eyes was fine flesh -colour. The counte- of an ox which belonged to the late Mr nance not very placid. The walk stately. Campbell of Jura,and was shown with an

It was bred by Mr Arthur Thomas other as good as itself, as a pair, at the James, Mornington , near Hereford. The Highland and Agricultural Society's Show dimensions of its principal points were at Inverness, in October 1839, when they

these : From crown of head to top of gained the first prize of their class. It shoulder, 29 inches ; from top of shoulder will be observed that the muzzle is fine, to the line of hooks, 37 inches ; from line eye large and full, and the horns long,

of hooks to tail-head, 19 inches; total small, tapering, very sharp-pointed, white, length, 85 inches ; length of face, 23 and tipped with black . The colour of the inches ; from the eye to the point of the body is usually black, sometimes red, and nose, 12 inches ; breadth of face across the not unfrequently dun. The black coloured ,

POINTS OF AYRSHIRES.

719

I understand, makes the most profitable characteristic of the breed, and earns animal to the feeder. The skin on the for it the appellation of the doddies, or nose, and around the eyes, is always black . hornless cattle ; and, for the loss of this Fig. 578. The ears are very distinctly set on the head, and are well protected with long hair, and these, with the large tufts of long bair over the roots of the horns, give

a very picturesque effect to the head,quite suited to the taste of the artist.

The walk

of the Kyloe is steady and determined . His countenance firm , and not over placid.

The cows, when suckling their young, are very jealous of any one approaching them. The bull is generally long-bodied and short legged . 6228. Angus. — The black duddies of Angus obtain their name from the coun ty they inbabit. They have earned fame in theLondon market as samples of good

beef. To Mr Hugh Watson of Keillor, in that county , this breed is most cer

tainly indebted for the firm establishment of the largest share of that fame; for I am persuaded that, had it not been for Mr

Stull THE HEAD OF AN ANGUS OX.

Watson's great exertions in improving weapon of defence, it is furnished with a their points, by which the degree of per- bard enlargement of bone upon the crown

fection the breed is capable of arriving at of the head, which is alwayssurmounted has been shown, their fame would not with a tuft of long hair. Its counten have been so great, nor would an im- ance was placid. The skin was not too

provedrace have been so generally distri- thin, the handling mellow, and the hair buted throughout the country. The fame thick set in and soft, though not long.

of the breed, however, in Mr Watson's It had the characteristic of the purity hands, is only a repetition in Scotland of of its breed, not a hair to be found what had been done in England for the upon it but what was black. It was Short- horns and Leicester sheep by Col- the most perfect ox of its kind I ever lings and Bakewell. His merit is equal saw ; I could not find a fault in it, though

to theirs, though following at a later I have tried to do it. On this account, I

period of time, inasmuch as he was the am proud in having in my possession a first person in Scotland who raised any faithful portrait of it in oil, taken from of its domesticated breeds from a low to the life at Keillor, shortly after it was a very high position. Fig. 578 represents exhibited at Dundee, by Mr Gourlay Steell

his the head of an Angus ox, 4 years old, of Edinburgh. A rather remarkable It wa

s bred by Mr Watson , and exhibited by him, tory attaches itself to this ox . with another as a pair, at the Showof the purchased from Mr Watson for His Royal

Higbland and Agricultural Society at Highness Prince Albert, who exhibited Dundee in 1843 ; and it obtained the it at the Smithfield Club Show in 1843, first prize of its class at the Show of the and from thence it returned to Windsor

Agricultural Improvement Society of Ire- Park, Her Majesty not permitting it land in that year.

It obtained no pre-

to be sold to the butcher .

It is still

mium at Dundee, in consequence of its there ; and, in order that it may enjoy companion not being equal to itself, a long life, which good health alone can

Lord Panmure exhibiting a more equal insure, it is gently worked for exercise

pair. It will be observed that its muzzle every day in a large roller upon grass. is fine; eye prominent and lively ; ears 6229. Ayrshires . - The Ayrshire breed broad, thin , and well fringed with hair. Its head is destitute of horns, which is originated in the county from which they

REALISATION .

720

" take their name. It is chiefly for their William Brodie, Lochwinnoch, Ayrshire, milking properties that this breed has been so sedulously cultivated ; and it is in such high repute on that account, that most ofthe dairies of the nobility throughout

and was exhibited and gained the first prize of his class at the Show of the High land and Agricultural Society at Glasgow in August 1844, when 4 years old, byMr

the kingdom are furnished with Ayrshire cows. I have myself sent heifers even to America for that purpose. In this respect the breed presents a remarkable contrast to the Herefords, which are chiefly brought up as steers ; whereas the bull

Robert Paton, Cloverhill, Dumbarton shire, from whom I purchased him for the late Mr Cranston of Corebouse near Lanark. This bull was a remarkably fine handler, had a fine head and very clean limbs. His back was a little hollow . In

calves of the Ayrshires are generally fed all other respects he agreed much with

as veal, and only some heifers brought up the description given above of the breed to renew the stock of cows. The most common colour of the Ayrshire cattle is red and white : sometimes an entire red one is to be seen , but never a white one, the two colours being dispersed in patches. Sometimes a yellow colour makes its ap-

generally . The cows are best liked for a very sharp shoulder, and wide hooks and pelvis, in which conformation the ribs are always flat and the belly large. The udder is desired to be hemispherical, situate forward, and provided with loose soft skin

pearance, and even a dun, which may give behind. All these points of the bull and rise to suspicions as to purity of blood ; the cow are aimed at by breeders, on the but such colours are known to be borne by supposition that they tend to promote the

stocks of the purest and oldest blood. The greater secretion of milk ; but such a view points considered good in an Ayrshire bull, by the breeders of that species of stock , are a broad short head, the horns spreading from the side a little in front,

is based on doubtful grounds. The pre sent tendency of the breeders of Ayrshire cattle, in Ayrshire, is even to go beyond the points enumerated above, and to add light

and turning upwards. The top of the weight to them - a delicate appearance shoulder sharp, back rather narrow , and and a well-set milk vessel being the points rounded over the ribs, ribs rather flat, most aimed at. Attempts have been made hooks confined , hams thin, tail -head some-

for some years past to cross the Alderney

what drooping, belly enlarged, and legs with the Ayrshire, in both ways, put

very short. These areall pointsopposed to ting the Alderney bull to the Ayrshire those of a good Short-horn ; and the points cow, and the Ayrshire bull to the Alderney in which they agree are a straight back , cow; but the endeavours to imitate the loose mellow skin , large eye, sharp muzzle, form of the Alderney cow have not suc and small horn. Fig. 579 represents an ceeded, and the result bas rather tended Fig. 579.

to produce in both progenies the inferior points of both breeds, as might have been expected ; for the Alderney bull has not so good a frame as the Ayrshire cow, nor

basthe Alderney cow so good a constitu tion as the Ayrshire bull. The light weights have been attained by the repre

hensible practice in all breeding - by stary

ing the young heifers, with the avowed object of making them good milkers, whereas its direct tendency is to injure the constitution of the milking stock . On the contrary, were the heifers bred and reared so as to attain heavier weights and greater substance, they would notonly prove bet

4850

ter milkers, but afterwards feed to greater

weights. The paramount object of the Ayrshire breeders, for profit, ought obvi outline portrait of the best Ayrshire ously to be to obtain the largest quantity of Bull I ever saw . He was bred by Mr milk, with the greatest disposition to fatten THE AYRSHIRE BULL.

POINTS OF THE BLACK -FACED .

721

when put up to be fed ; and assuredly hardy race, and well suited, on that neither of these ends will be attained account, for the middle green pastures of by light weights and delicacy of appear- the mountainous parts of our country. In ance.

Plate IX. is a portrait of a Cheviot wether, in which the lightness of the fore-quarter

6230. Cheviot.-- Fig. 580 represents is well shown, as well as the sharp look of Fig. 580.

the eye which the breed exhibits, and which gives a somewhat wild aspect to the The back is straight, and countenance .

the figure pretty rectangular. The letter P on the near rump, buisted on with tar, (4018 ,) is the initial of the name of the farm where it was bred, or that of the farmer who bred it.

6231. Black - faced . - Fig. 581 repre Fig. 581 .

THE HEAD OP A CHEVIOT TUP.

the head of a Cheviot tup which gained

the first prize of his class atthe Highland and Agricultural Society's Show at Aber deen in 1840, and was exhibited by Messrs Craig, Bighouse, Sutherlandshire. It will

be observed that the face is longer than that of the Leicester, muzzle not so fine,

eye not so full, ears not set so high and

handsomely upon the top of the head, and there is a rugosity of the skin across the bridge of the nose. In the white face, and want of horns, the Cheviot resembles the Leicester. The wool is short, thick

set, and of fine quality, fit for the sorts of manufacture as that of the Southdowns.

The carcass is usually unequal, the fore

THE HEAD OF A BLACK- FACED RAM,

quarter being lighter than the hind - nar

row in the chest, with the fore-knees set sents the bead of a Black -faced tup which The flesh is fine - grained , often well was exhibited by Mr Robert M‘Turk

intermixed with fat, and is generally of Hasting's Hall, Dumfriesshire, at the esteemed for the table. The disposition Highlandand Agricultural Society's Show of the Cheviot is somewhat suspicious, with an inclination to rove ; which renders the breed rather unsteady and unkindly to feed, at least at an early age. The Cheviot, as their name implies, had their origin in the Cheviot Hills, in Northumberland. They occupy almost all the pas-

at Berwick -upon -Tweed in 1841, where it obtained the first prize of its class. As indicative of the judgment and care with which the breed has been cultivated, we

lave only to look at the tapering face, small muzzle, and full eye. The Black faced ram has always an arched nose, ex

toral bills of the south of Scotland, espe- pressive of boldness and courage. The cially from the centre of the country to face and legs are covered with black bair, the eastward.

They are localised in some or mottled with white, mostly the latter.

of the best parts of the Grampian moun- The head is horned ; and the horns, being tains, and are to be found as far north as large and curved in the aged tup, are con

the hills of Caithness and Sutherland. sidered themostpicturesquo objects of their They may, therefore, be regarded as a kind exhibited by any animal of this VOL . II .

2 z

REALISATION .

722

country. The wool is somewhat long and strong, and set directly below the body. coarse, which render it of comparatively The back is straight, and the form of the small value as an article of manufacture, side is rectangular. The great defect of and, being rather thin - set, exposes the the Black - faced breed is the narrowness of

body to the inclemency of the weather. To back,which much reduces the weight of the carcass. Could its back be made a little the fleece is subjected to the filthy opera- broader, the chest would become wider,

assist the animal to withstand the weather,

tion of smearing, which deteriorates its and then the animal would feed easier value considerably. The carcass is well and quicker, and afford greater profit. formed , carrying its depth forward to the

brisket better than the Cheviot ; but still 6232. Scottish Original. - More as a the entire body is narrow, owing to the flat- curiosity than a matter of interest, I give

ness of theribs, which renders it light - or in fig. 583 a representation of the head of in want of substance, as it is commonly

Fig. 583.

called . The flesh is fine-grained, high

flavoured, greatly esteemed, and can be fed sufficiently fat on the turnips and pas tures of the low country. The breed is

very hardy, frequenting the highest parts of our heath-clad inountains, and in sum

mer require little care from the shepherd. Fig. 582 represents the head of a young Fig. 582.

THE HEAD OF A TUP OF THE ORIGINAL BREED OP SCOTLAND .

a tup of the original breed of sheep of Scotland. Very few of these now remain. THE HEAD OF A BLACK- FACED EWE.

A small lot was exhibited at the Show of

the Highland and Agricultural Society at Black -faced ewe, whose muzzle and face Inverness in 1839, where I saw them.

are small, with a full, prominent, bright They were small, keen, active-looking eye. The horn is short, because the ewe

creatures .

The face was tawny, the

is still young, but it is handsomely set eye lively , and not unpleasant in aspect.

upon the head. The hair of the face is The horn yellowish brown, and curved in somewhat mottled, which is the more com- the form of the Black - faced. The muzzle

mon colour in the ewe than the pure black. small. The wool was not unlike that of The colour of the lamb’s face, however, is the Black - faced , but rather more bairy.

most frequently entirely black, and be- The legs are of the colour of the face, comes mottled as it advances in age. The whether white or tawny. The head, face, wool comes well round the face, and theear and horns of the breed have a strong re

is protected with thick -set hairs. In Plate semblance to those of the Black -faced

IX . is a portrait of a Black -faced wether, breed, and may have been the foundation which gives a good representation of that upon which it was reared ; but with what age and condition of this valuable breed of cross the face became black does notappear, sheep. The eyeis prominent and bright. although a late writer remarks that a black The muzzle small. The wool plenty, and faced sort from England was said to bave well brought about the face.

The legs are originated that of Scotland .*

Quarterly Reriew , March 1849, p. 406.

POINTS OF SWINE .

723

6233. Southdowns. — Only a few years Jonas Webb, Brabaham , Cambridgeshire, since, the Southdown sheep were little and was exhibited by him at the Show of

known in Scotland ; but what was then the Highland and Agricultural Society known was favourable to their character, at Dundee in 1843, where he obtained

and they now are deservedly becoming more the first prize of his class. From this and more a favourite. Like the Cheviot, figure it appears that the face ofthe South they are covered with short, thick-set, down tup is short and broad, the eye large fine wool, but it is of a dusky brown and lively, the muzzle somewhat thick ,

colour, which is also the colour ofthe hair and the nose slightly arched ; the ears are that covers the face and legs. They are widely set on the head, and are rather hornless. In symmetry of body they are thick and short. The wool in this par much superior to the Cheriot, having their ticular sheep does not come on to the

quarters, like the Leicester,about equal. crown of the head , but I have seen South Their flesh is fine-grained , and, as high- downs with a tuft of wool upon it.

I

flavoured mutton , is preferred to that of should say, from its general appearance

the Cheviot in the London market. They and thick -set wool, that this breed bas a have also a gentler disposition, and are in strong and hardy constitution. consequence better feeders. The only doubt with the Southdowns, on their in-

6235. Swine . — The breeds of pigs are

troduction into Scotland , was their ability generally divided into the small and the

to withstand the damp climate of our subalpine pastures. The experience of several years has proved that they are capable of enduring any climate with the Cheviot ;

large, though they are not sufficiently marked in character to exhibit the specific differences between them in their purity . In breeding either of those breeds of

which being the case , with their other pigs, it is of essential importance to superior qualities, they bid fair to rival , keep them pure, for otherwise they and perhaps ultimately to displace, that will degenerate into coarseness, the one

breed . Mr Hugh Watson has had them losing its earliness of maturity for making at Keillor, in Forfarshire, for more than the best pork, and the other its valu 20 years , and they have thriven with him able qualities for curing into bam and upon the pastures of the Sidlaw Hills . Aitches of bacon . For the use of the farm The Duke of Richmond also has them in the large breeds are best adapted for the Morayshire. Other flocks are now scattered market, if intended for curing , and the small for porklings, or for the ordinary through the country. consumption of the house - which should

6234. Fig. 584 represents the head of a always be highbred, as they will then be Fig. 584.

in such condition as to be ready for use at all times. Perhaps the best pig for the

poor labouring man is a cross between the large and smallbreeds, and to carry it no farther. The breeding of pigs deserves great care, much more so tban is generally bestowed upon it; and in them it is diffi cult to attain the right standard of merit ; but in the attainment of that point, the pig assumes a corresponding value in the mar ket and at home.

I had a small breed of

pigs of the greatest value. I received a young boar and sow as a present from Lord Panmure, of a breed called the Western, because it was reared by the late Lord Western , in Essex, with great success.

They were brownish black and white, something like the colour of the wild boar. THE HEAD OP A SOUTHDOWN TUP.

Their head was short and broad, snout short and fine, eye small and lively,ears

Southdown tup, which belonged to Mr prick -shaped, set upon the crown of the

REALISATION .

724

head. The cheeks large and full. Legs a boar of the large breed which belonged short and small boned. The body full and to the Duke of Buccleuch, at Dalkeith

The skin smooth, without a Park, Mid -Lothian. To judge by the wrinkle, tbin, and pretty well covered with sleeping head, the boar, though evidently

round .

hairs and long bristles. They were al- full -grown and large, bears the same cha

ways in condition, though they got leave racters of pricked ear, tapering face, short to go about in search for the greatest nose, and full cheeks, with the full flesh of part of their food in the green fields and the neck of the small breed. These pigs courts. As long as the sows and young bave strong constitutions, and are covered pigs were confined, they were well attended with plenty of white hair and valuable to with litter, water, and food . When bristle. Their temper is generally docile,

kept on,they would attain a great weight, and they seldom wander far from the but I never kept them beyond 20 stones, steading ,or engage in mischievous pur and only those which were intended for suits. The position of the tusk is marked

curing into hams for the house. They were by the opening in the upper lip. the most docile creatures imaginable, Horns. - Much may be observed in the hardly They moving of healthy your way on the the set6238. road. wereoutvery , and and form ofthe horns asindicative of the character of their bearers. Small, short, slouch

young ones when cut soon recovered. ing horns on a two or three-year-oldox givea Tbeir Aesh was well mixed with fat, and grave and contented cast to the countenance, as the fat was more like tender gristle than may be observed in the portrait ofthe Short- horn

in Plate X.Long slouchinghorns, as on many soft lard. I have not met with a superior ox of the Long -horn oxen, seemto oppress the head breed anywhere.

with a constant depression. Horns springing out

ward from the sides of the head, then rising up,

6236. The slouch -eared breed that pre- and bending backwards, neverfail to imprese vailed in the country is fast being sup one with the conviction that their bearer is quick planted by the pricked -eared breeds, be- tempered,readyto use them offensively onmost occasions ; and they are set so as to toss up any oftenbe exemplified in ease, with object asmay found, canse, wherever the slouch -eared is it is universally accompanied with length the West-Highland cow . Horns curving laterally horizontally forward give a finished appear of leg, length of nose, narrowness of back, and ance to the top of the head, when viewed in the I believe in feeding. dilatoriness and prick -ears, short snouts, and full cheeks, front, as exemplified in the figureof thecentre Short-horn cow in Plate VI. Long horns rising

may be traced to an improvement derived outward, forward, and having points looking from the Chinese breed, which possess those outwards, impart a very majestic air to the head pointseven to deformity. Their crosses of the ox, as shown in fig. 577 of the West with the old bony breeds have been the means of disseminating through the country several races of beautiful, profitable, deli-

Highland ox. Horns rising outward, and then approaching behind thespringing head, give an idea of malformation outwards . Horns , and then coming straightforward in the points,seem

cate - fleshed pigs.

formidable . Horns springing outwards, andthen approaching forwards, with the points a little

6237. Fig. 585 represents the head of elevated and separated, as inornament the Herefordhead, ox , Fig. 585.

the when seen in front, seem to but at the same time to oppress it with weight.

A horn thick at the root for its length looks clumsy, and so does one blunted at the point ; and both are associated with dull feeders. When

springing outwards much, and then turning downwards, as in the left-hand Short-horn cow in Plate VI. , they seem ungraceful. A good horn, however set, is small where it emerges from the head, and tapers gradually to a fine point. A white horn looks cleaner than a dark-coloured

one, and a tip of brown or black , according to the breed, gives a pretty finish — though most Short-horns have theirs entirely white, and, being short and curving inwards, serve more for orna ment than defence. Oxen with spreading horns

THE HEAD OF A BOAR .

are better feeders than those which contract suddenly towards the front. Horns indicate the age ofcattle. At three years of age, the horn is uniformly smooth from the root to the tip.

725

TEETH .

Every year after three, it is protruded from the part of the body indicating the presence of internal headwith a notch on it ; so that, by counting the disease more quickly than they do. Although in number of notches, and adding three to this pushing directly forward with them in the fight number, the age of the animal may be ascer- horns will bear a great force , yet a single stroke tained. Tricks are practised by fraudulent upon them with a cudgel is severely felt by the

dealers, in filing down some of the oldest notches, animal, and a single such stroke has been known to make the animal appear younger than it is, to cause them to slip off their flint, which is a vascular bone, full of blood-vessels, so that in

and the unwary are thereby deceived ; but a slight inspection of the horn will easily detect the

flammation of the brain or lock - jaw may ensue. The horn indicates the internal state of the ani

fraud. The period of calving, whether late or early, naturally affects the notches of the horn,

mal, because its root is very thin, and, being close

and may give an older or younger appearance to the animal than itstrue age. A hornless ox seems

upon so vascular a part as the flint, the state of the blood is more easily ascertained than at

as if it had been deprived of the means of any other part. When the horn feels cold, defence ; the size of the head in the bull making death-like cold, we may suspect congestion of up for the loss to him ; but a hornless heifer

assumes the gentle appearance of her sex.

the blood in the smaller blood-vessels some where, in consequence of inflammation.

cate the age of the animal. In fig. 581 , the age

6241. Teeth . — The teeth are more important organs to the domesticated animals than the

of the Black -faced tup is distinctly marked , the

horns.

1st year's growth being evidently the space from the point of the horn to the letter a, when the horn is small ; the 2d year is from a to the notch

defence and of attack ; and the nurtured state

in which the animals are usually placed renders their use unnecessary ; but the teeth are the

at b, the growth of the horn of the dinmont being stronger and longer than that of the hogg ; the

instruments by means of which they break and masticate their food in winter, and crop and

6239. As with cattle, the horns of sheep indi-

The horns are the mere instruments of

3d year's growth is marked from b to the notch

masticate the grass in summer ; which being

at c, which is still longer and thicker in growth ;

the case, the condition of the animal mainly de

the 4th year, from c to the notch at d , shows

pends upon the state of soundness in which their teeth may be preserved. One common property

the vigorous state and great length which the horn of the animal had attained at that age ;

exists between the horns and teeth of animals

and this is no doubt the most vigorous period of both furnish data by which their age may be

the life of a sheep ; and the 5th year's growth ascertained. You have already seen how the is shown from d to the root e. The age of the ewe, fig. 582, is young, not exceeding two years.

horns are indicative of the age, both of cattle and sheep, and we shall now advert to the man

That of the wether in Plate IX. is greater, not

ner in which the teeth may be examined for the

less probably than four years , though the marks

same purpose.

are not specified with the distinctness necessary to decide the age with certainty.

6240. Horns are very sensitive organs, no

6242. Fig. 586 represents the left half of the head of an adult horse, viewed internally, and so

figured as to show the origin of the 5th pair of

Fig. 586.

THE VERTICAL SECTION OF THE HEAD OF THE ADULT HORSE , SHOWING THE TEETH AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN CONNECTION WITH THEM .

nerves, and the nervous branches which go to the teeth ; on which account the figure may be consulted with equal advantage for a knowledge of the distribution of the nervous system and of the teeth . The milk -teeth of the horse consist of 12

incisors, 6 in each side of the head ; and of molars 16 in number, 8 on either side of the head - in all 28 teeth . The teeth of the second dentition are 40 in number, of which 28 have replaced the milk -teeth. Those between the

726

REALISATION .

incisors and molars, called the canine or tusks, month; and the lateral incisor, or corner-tooth, do not appear along with the teeth at an early from the 14th to the 20th month. Once these age. Others complete the arch by occupying the

teeth cease to have mark , they bear upon their sur

room made by the growth of the jaws ;these are

face a smooth trace, brown and indelible , which

new molars which come out of both jaws. The full set consists of 12 incisors, 4 canines, and 24

diminishes the more the teeth approach their fall. The first permanent molar replaces the 1st

molars — in all 40 in number. In fig. 586, a are and 2d milk -molar from 2 years to 21 years. the incisors, b the canine or tusks, and c the The central incisor appears upon the edge of the molars. “ This is the order of coming out of the socket after the coming out of the 5th permanent second or permanent dentition of the horse," observes M. Rousseau. “ The first permanent molar, which is situated behind the last milkmolar, presents itself before any of the milk-teeth

have fallen, and makes its appearance upon the maxillary arch from the 11th to the 13th month after birth ; it will be, by numerical number, the 4th persistent molar, when all the milk -molars have fallen. The 5th permanent molar, which is situate behind the preceding tooth, breaks the

molar, from 24 to 3 years. The 2d permanent molar replaces the 3d milk -molar a little after the same term , or one or two months of diffe rence. The 3d permanent molar replaces the 4th decaying molar at three years ; at this time also appears the 6th and last molar. The lesser incisor from 3 to 4 years. The canine or tusks appear from 4 to 44 years. At last, the second dentition is ordinarily terminated by the lateral incisor or corner-tooth. It must not be thought,

edge of the socket from the 14th to the 20th however, that the coming out, as I have endea month . During this time the decaying teeth die from their roots, and wear down their crowns to

voured to indicate as the most ordinary, is with out variation ; this would be to give to nature

such a degree, that the hollow which charac. too regular a progress. All teeth in general are terises the surface of the incisors at certain

the more developed that they belong to a large

periods cannot be observed, so that the veteri- and robust subject.” narians call them lost-mark. The central incisor or pincer is ordinarily of the 9th or 11th month ; 6243. Fig. 587 gives a similar representation the lesser incisor from the 11th to the 13th

of the dental system of the adult ox, and of the

Fig. 587.

M THE VERTICAL SECTION OF THE HEAD OF THE ADULT ox , SHOWING THE TEETH AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN CONNECTION WITH THEM,

nervous system connected with it, that the preceding figure gives of those of the horse. The milk -teeth of the ox are, 8 incisors on the lower

The 5th, or penult 15th to the 22d month . molar, from the 18th to the 22d month . The 2d replacing molar, as also the 2d incisor of this

jaw, and none on the upper, and 12 molars, 3 on each jaw. In the adult ox are 8 incisors on the lower jaw, and none on the upper ; and there

come out very near at the same time, that is,

are 24 molars, 6 on each jaw . In the figure, a are the incisors, and b the molars, and the same

from the 38th to the 48th month . The 6th , or last molar, from the 44th to the 52d month. At

configuration exists in the sheep.

order, appear from the 28th to the 32d month . The 3d replacing molar, as also the 3d incisor,

“ In the length the 4th permanent incisor tooth terminates

second dentition, these teeth show themselves

the second dentition, which is ordinarily com

upon the edge of the socket in the following pleted when the animal has not yet attained its order,” says M. Rousseau. “ The 4th permanent molar comes out from the 4th to the 6th month after birth , and commences the second dentition.

The 1st or central replacing incisor, from the

5th year. ”

6244. Fig. 588 gives a section of the head of a wild boar, in which the dental and nervous sys

MALFORMATION .

tems are distinctly delineated : a are the superior incisors ; b the superior lateral incisor ; c the inferior incisors ; d the upper canine or defence

727

tusk ; e the inferior canine or defence tusk , the origin and form of which may be easily traced ; and f are the molars. I have selected the head

Fig. 588.

THE VERTICAL SECTION OF THE HEAD OF THE WILD BOAR , SHOWING THE TEETH AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN CONNECTION WITH THEM .

of the wild boar for illustration , because the fed on straw and turnips, or on boiled food , and character of all the teeth, and particularly that

it is only applicable to them ; for as to steers,

of the tusks, is more strongly developed than in

their age, being very limited, cannot be mistaken

the domesticated boar.

from the growth and condition of the body. The teeth of cows also stand wider as they advance

The tusks of the sow

are comparatively short and weak. The milkteeth of the ordinary pig are 32 in number,

in years.

namely, 12 incisors, 4 canines or tusks, and 16 molars, half of which numbers are on each side

6246. A horse's mouth is easily opened for the

of the head. The second dentition is only completed as soon as all the milk-teeth have fallen ;

purpose of examination, by introducing a finger by the side of the mouth into the space between

and these are not only replaced, but 3 other

the incisor and molar teeth, where the bit of

molars on each jaw rise up , one after the other, until the whole dental arch is completed , when the entire complement is 44 teeth , of which 22

are on the upper, and 22 on the lower jaws, and they are divided thus, -12 incisors, 4 tusks, and 28 molars.

These teeth are composed of two

the bridle lies upon the tongue, when the horse will play his mouth, to get quit of the finger, and show as much of the lower teeth as to ascertain what you want. Some sulky horses require to

have their lips held asunder ; and vicious ones will even strike out with the fore -feet when their

substances, the one bony, the other enamelled. mouthis meddled with. I had a work -mare which, “ The tusks are each enclosed in a socket, filled the moment her mouth was attempted to be held with a substance analogous to the marrow of the for examination, would wheel quickly round, long bones ; it is most remarkable, and most and kick with the hind feet at the person at abundant in the inferior tusks. These teeth are tempting it. A cow's mouth cannot be examined, only provided with enamel upon the external without first holding her nose, elevating her face of the permanent tusks. " * mouth, and drawing down her under lip. Some cows will not allow themselves to be taken

6245. In regard to the indications of age by by the nose , and the thing can only be done, in such a case, by stratagem . Some, again, have such a power in their nose in curling up the are almost always obliterated, or at least cannot nostrils when held, that its pressure against the

means of the teeth , in the horse the marks on

the crowns of the front teeth on the lower jaw

be depended on,after 9 years ofage. After that holder's fingers renders them soon powerless ; period, the only means of judging is by the but a steady pinch of the thumb-nail against the quantity of matter ground off the top of the septum of the nose will make any cow give way, teeth, and by the distance between the teeth provided the person has strength to hold her themselves ; the older the horse gets, the wider firmly at her first attempt to break away. the space between them becomes. In regard to

6247. Malformation. — Any malformation in

the grinding down of the teeth, however, you should know that pasturage on sharp land, and

the reproductive organs of breeding animals may

support on hard food, such as unbruised corn

incur a serious loss to breeders.

and beans, will wear down teeth much faster

lion , which gained the first prize of his class at a Show oftheEastern Forfarshire Agricultural Asso

than pasturage on soft land and prepared food .

A draught stal.

The same remark applies to cows which have

ciation,leftno produce in the district he had served

been pastured on sbarp or soft land, and been

for the premium . It was afterwards discovered

* Rousseau's Anatomie Comparée du Systême Dentaire, p. 205-30.

REALISATION .

728

that one of his testes had never descended into all the kinds of the domesticated animals,

the scrotum . A very fine Short-horn bull,which is, that “ like produces like ; ” and this

gained the premium atthe Showof the Border law of resemblance is so universally appli Union Agricultural Society at Coldstream , could not get one of the cows he had served in calf. cable to all sorts of breeding, that, were It was ascertained that the testes had never the proper means always taken to produce descended freely into the scrotum. A Leicester it, the result would never end in failure.

dinmont tup, that Iknew had been engaged for Nodoubt, means have always been sup the lamb seasonfrom by a abreeder, not get a single in similardid malformation. Inewe all posed to have been taken to attain that

these cases, the loss and disappointment to a largenumber of breeders was of the most serious description, being deprived of the increase ofa large proportion of their year's stock. Of other

end, and many breeders have actually used them for that purpose ; and the results they have produced bave been excellent, and have in fact been the

kinds of malformation, I have seen an ox have an orifice, a sort of vaginal opening, between his but

source from which has been derived all

tocks, by which he emitted urine instead of by the the improved breeds of our domesticated ordinary urethra . He seemed to feel no inconvenience, and throve and fattened well enough.

animals.

Still it must be owned that the

procedure has been founded on no higher

6248. The origin of the domesticated animals a principle than that, because a dam or a has given rise to much difference of opinion sire was seen to possess one or more among writers, one classaverring that they desired points, it was proper to employ must have been produced by the care of man her or him , or both, for the attainment of

from thewild races nearest akin to them ,whilst those points in their progeny. The points for man's use. Those who believe that they have desired might be attained, or they inight been derived from the wild races, argue that not ; for all breeders proceeding in this man’s condition was originally savage; whilst way must acknowledge having been thosewhobelieve that they were created forman's disappointed beyond their expectations, use, also believe thatman wasoriginally created whilst others have obtained success beyond a civilised being.

well dis cussed by the lateThis Mr question Stark ofwas Edinburgh, the means used would warrant. In either who adduced abundance of proof that, if man

case the procedure was empirical, and

faith could only be placed in the means tinued a savage to thisday ;andthat notype of employed, in proportion as a similar result the domesticated animals are to be seen in a wild state, except those whose history are had been produced in the experience of the had been created a savage, he would have con-

known. The semi-wild horses and cattle met with on the steppes of Tartary have increased in numbers, from a few domesticated ones which

breeder himself.

6250. Now , it would be extremely

had gone from man's control ; and it is well desirable could less be left to chance, and known that the horse and the ox were unknown

America until after its discovery by Europeans. more to certainty in breeding – that is, Ain decided proof that the semi-wildraces ofhorses, less to empiricism and more to principle, oxen, and dogs were once domesticated is to be

than has hitherto been the case, even

deduced from thefact that, when captured, they at although success has hitherto attended the once submit to man's control, whereas no really wild race of any animals has yetdone so; and many attempts made in the dark ; so that consequently man bas domesticated none. The he who could point out a more certain same sort of evidence Mr Stark adduces in regard way upon principle, would not only lessen

to the cereal grains which support the human the toil and enhance the profit of the species, none of which have ever been found farmer, but also earn the gratitude of the country. I think sucha person is found that the original state of our present domesti- in Mr Alexander Walker, an eminent cated animals was domestication . Such a view physiologist in London, who has explained consonant with what is stated in the his views on this subject in distinct lan issacred also most volume.* guage, in a work wbich he published. Mr growing in a wild state. entirelyand agree with Mr Stark's viewson these Isubjects, believe

Walker takes man in illustration of his ON THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING.

views, because he is the most perfect being in existence ; and he divides the several organs and functions of his struc

6249. The great principle upon which tural system into three great classes — the the breeders of stock proceed, in breeding locomotide, the vital, and the mental. * Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. av. p. 177-210.

729

BREEDING . 6251. The locomotive organs consist of the organs of support, as the bones ; the organs of

of action with those communicated by the other parent, and to difference of sex.

connection, as the ligaments ; and the organs of motion, as the muscles. That those organs may

6255. The one parent communicates the

perform their functions, it is necessary that they anterior part of the head , the upper middle be connected with the motor nerves, which arise part, the osseous or bony part of the face, the from the cerebel - the portion of the brain situate

forms of the organs of sense, (the ear, upper

in the back part of the head ; and they are also connected with the movable part of the face,

lip, lowest part ofthe nose,) and the whole of the nutritive system, (the contents of the trunk, or

the under lip, and the jaw.

the thoracic and abdominal viscera, and conse quently the form of the trunk itself, in so far as it depends upon its contents.) The resemblance

The shape, the

limbs, the skin belong to this class.

6252. The vital organs consist of the organs to that parent is consequently found in the fore of absorption, as the lymphatics; the organs of head and the bony parts of the face, as the circulation, as the arteries, veins; and the organs orbits, cheek -bones, jaws, chin and teeth, as well of secretion, as the glands . That those organs as the shape of the organs of sense, and the tone may perform their functions, they are connected with the sympathetic nerves , which arise from

of the voice.

These constitute the vital system .

6256. The other parent communicates the

the cerebrum , the portion of the brain occupying the fore part of the head ; and they are also connected with the immovable parts of the face,

posterior part of the head, the lower middle part, the cerebel situate within the skull immediately

as the forehead, and above the lowest part of

above its junction with the back of the neck, and the whole of the locomotive system, (the bones,

the nose. The digestive, respiratory, and repro-

and muscles, or fleshy parts.) The ductive organs, together with fat,milk, and other ligaments, resemblance to that parent is consequently

animal products, belong to this class.

The

beautiful flow of the lines of the body, the manner, the action, the health, the constitution are dependent on these organs and their functions.

6253. The mental organs consist of the organs of sense, as the eye, ear ; ception , as the cerebrum ; volition , as the cerebel. the organs of sense are to

the organs of perand the organs of

found in the backhead , a few more movable parts of the face, as the ear, the under lip, eyebrows, and the external form of the body, in so far as they depend on the muscles, as well as the form of the limbs, even to the Several circum fingers, toes, nails, &c. stances indicate that with this series of organs

The functions of go the skin and its appendages, which have receive impressions

from external bodies by means of the eye, ear, smell, and touch ; the functions of the cerebrum are to perceive, compare, reflect ; and those of the cerebel to will, and consequently to throw the muscles into action to fulfil its purpose. The cerebrum is in connection with the organs of sense which receive the impressions by the senses, convey them to those of perception—the cerebrum which in its turn acts upon the organs of volition or

much affinity with the osseous system.

Not

only does the skin become horny from pressure, but hair, wool, bristles, spines, scales, nails, bones are its productions, (the bony and skinny often uniting in horns;) and in many inferior animals, as the crustaceæ , it becomes shelly, and serves the purpose of bones. These constitute the loco motive system .

6257. As regards the human race , Mr Walker

will, which sets the locomotive organs in motion.

observes that the male or the female parent may give either series of organs ; that is, either forehead

6254. A mere knowledge of those organs and

and organs of sense, with the vital and nutritive organs, or the backhead, with the locomotivo

their functions would avail nothing, were it not in our power to distinguish whether or not one

organs .

parent, or both indiscriminately, impart their organisation to their offspring. It is the want of

this distinction which has caused the breeding of the domesticated animals to be conducted in the uncertain manner I have alluded to .

Mr

Walker clearly expounds that one class of

6258. Amongst the domesticated animals, the effects of those laws have been observed to have taken place, but the laws themselves on which those effects depend have in no case been defined before Mr Walker did so. Observation has proved

organs are propagated by one of the parents, that the male animal hasa stronger influence and the other class by the other parent, and that

over the organisation of the progeny than the

either parent does not propagate either class in- female, and that he communicates the locomotive discriminately; and moreover that, in the propa- organs to the progeny, and consequently that the gation of organs from parents to progeny, organi- female communicates the nutritive organs. Keep sation is nearly indestructible, for it may often be seen that neither nourishment entirely derived from the mother, nor climate, nor education, diminishes an original likeness of the father ; and , without this effect, it would not be possible for like to produce like. Each parent, therefore, communicates a distinct series of organs ; and the only modifications which the organs communicated by either parent undergo, are chiefly, if

ing this distinction in view , it is evident that any changes desired in any particular organ of the domesticated animals will be more easily and certainly effected than those in the human organ isation. The late Mr Knight, the eminent phy siologist, had observed that among domesticated animals he had never witnessed any difference in the influence of the male or the female parent upon

the forms of the heads of the offspring. The

not altogether, such as are necessary to harmony obvious reason given by Mr Walker for this is

REALISATION .

730

that in cattle,horses,and sheep, the form of the whether stallions, bulls, or tups ; and it is back-head and cerebel is hid by the great trans for the more rapidextension of verse ridge of the occipitalbone, to which the fortunate the improvement of stock, that the in large muscleswhich raise the head are attached ;

as also by those muscles themselves, and by the fluence of the male thus bears sway in the elastic ligament, which, without voluntary effort, propagation of his kind, as by the per assists them in maintaining the position of the mission of polygamy one male may serve

neck. In man,on the contrary, owing to his up- many females, and thereby extend his right position, the head is greatly supported by influence in the exact proportion to the resting on the vertebral column ; large ligaments and muscles are not required, and the projection number of the latter ; whereas a female

caused by the back-head and cerebelis perfectly produces usually one in the course of a obvious. Horses, cattle, and sheep, therefore, year. A stallion serves from 60 to 80 mares, a bull 60 cows, and a tup 60 ewes

show only the forehead and face ;undivided, and their whole head consequently seemstogo, along

with the vital organs in the trunk of the body. in a season — not once or twice only, but as Concealed, however, though the back -head is in

often until the female prove with young.

these animals, we have proof of its various deve- Generally the female conceives at the first lopments in the various developments of the mus

service of the male, and at all events at cular system ,with which the former must always thesecond ; but should her desire continue

correspond, and which at all events show what each parent communicates.

beyond that time, she is withdrawn from breeding, to avoid the risk of a late pro

6259. With regard to the mental organs, it is geny, or none at all ; for a late calf, lamb, evident that in all voluntary acts in which two sexes are engaged , two thinking systems are in

or foal loses one year of its progress, con

volved ; and asthe first portionofthethinking pared with its earlier born companions.

system , sensation and observation, is passive or

dependent on impression, and the last portion,

6261. Few farmers commit the mistake

dependent on passion and volition, isactive and of not selecting the best male that can be the produced ; butmany commit the inconsis that,sexin will , it is evident to locomotion excitingreproduction the other , oneor actof

always be relatively passive, and the other relatively active. Hence the progeny will receive from the one parent the organisation in which, in the thinking system, sensation andobservation de

tent mistake of employing interior females. In horses, for example, the prize horse of the to serve district will generally be selected the mares, but it is rare to find the best

pend, and from the other that in which passion and volition spring ; for the very term reproduc

mare in the farm bearing foals. The brood

tion implies the communication of similar organs mare, or there may be more than one, is

and functions,and therefore of the most energetic generally one which is too old to keep up and characteristic ones. Thus the communication in the work with the rest of the horses, and of mind, and of itsmost distinguishing orpeculiar although herback be swung with work, her characteristics ,to progeny,evidently dependsupon wind broken, and she have a bad leg, she mind, and the relative predominance of its two greatdivisions in the parents; and on each of these is considered quite suitable for bearing again depend the locomotive system and the vital foals. The very opposite system ought to respectively.

The entire law may thus be briefly be followed : the best mare should carry stated in regard tothe breeding of the domesti- the foals bred on the farm ; and a strong

animals :-The thinking organs are, in cated anddistinct equal portions, derived from both fresh mare with a good constitution will

parents ; while the dam gives thewhole of the be quite able to takeber share of the work ,

nutritive, and the sire the whole of the locomotive and bring up a foal besides. Let mares not be under5 years of age wben the horse is first put to them ; for they will not bave

organs . *

acquired their full stature until that age ; and from that period let them bear a foal BREEDING. every year until they attain 12 or 13 years, when they should cease to breed ; 6260. Since males communicate their as old mares, any more than old females ON THE SELECTION OF PARENTS IN

organisation with the most obvious effect, of other classes of animals, cannot produce they are in most request amongst breeders a vigorous progeny .

Thus, for 7 years,

for the improvement of their stocks. High may fresh young mares, stinted to the

prices have been given, and high premiums best stallions that can be secured, pro are annually offered, for superior males, duce, and bring up, foals every year. * Walker On Intermarriag:, p. 147 to 173.

SELECTION OF PARENTS.

Such foals will be strong in bone and con-

731

6265. Following out Mr Walker's law of the

which each parent perforins in the produc stitution, and be always in bigh condition, part tion of the progeny in its application to the because they are the offspring of young selection of parents, we can at once see that, if

mares themselves high in condition, and we want any organisation belonging to the loco overflowing with milk ; and, having been motive system, we shall look in vain for it to the brought up together, will work better to- female ; and , on the other hand, if we want any

gether. I recommend this plan with con

organisation connected with the nutritive system , we shall seek for it as much in vain in the male.

fidence, because I have myself followed it Every amendment, therefore, desired in any of with success for years.

I do not re-

the kinds of our stock, we must first ascertain to

member selling a young horse, warranted which of the systems of organs it belongs, and to work well on a farm , under £35, when employ a male or female to amend it, as the case the digestive or Thus diseases befarmore horses were low in price; and I had three respiratory organ s in a femaleof would excellent mares when I employed four fatal to thewelfare of the progeny than if the pairs of horses, and two out of the three same complaint were observable in the male, and

bare foals every year .

the female were entirely free from them ; but

then it should never be lost sight of that both the should have all their natural and respec 6262. In regard to cows the practice is parents tive powers inabsolute perfection, otherwisewe

better than that with mares, although it is run the risk of inviting the propagation of disease. not so good as it should be, many heifers We may also expect that whatever increases the

being transferred to the cow-stock that ardour of passion invigorates the progeny. It is observed, habitsthey andemploy. pursuits Thus, long followed develop thethatorgans ought never to have become the inmate moreover

of a cow-byre. Another mistake is, that when a cow happens to be a good milker, she is kept forbreeding long after her constitution has become weakened by age,

a draught stallion and mare will produce foals

whose muscular system is as well suited for labour in the plough as the cart. A racing stallion and mare will likewise produce foals well adapted

speed. produce A cow, whose to fatten is calvesdisposition and the demand is kept up upon her sys- for great,will with thattendency;

tem in bringing up a calf every year, and and a bull, which displays much spirit and reso of supplying milk after the calf has been lution, will likely produce calves of similar

weaned . A young healthy cow will be teracting tendency,function if thereexercised be in all these cases no coun by the other parent.

much more profitable than

any old worn

We may say, then, that the hereditary powers

out favourite.

will generally be found best calculated to do that which the parents through successive gene

6263. Ewes are also better selected for

rations have done. Mr Knight remarked that,

breeding from than mares, though too

when the male and female parents are of the same variety, each parent has an equal influence on the offspring as to temper, sagacity, &c., and

many are kept in the flock because they

may have happened to cast an extraordi- in giving hereditary propensities ; that is, both nary fleece of wool, or two lambs every parents equally originate the mental organisation. year, or have always brought up their 6266. In breeding horses subject to the laws lambs well. The same rule, however, enunciated , it is necessary that the organisation applies to them as to cows - old age brings of the animalsselectedshould be of themost per along with it many infirmities in them. fect kind --a certain age, and the exercise and And it ought never to be forgotten that perfection of every function, are essential. A

such infirmities, although not originally horseshould be perfectly mature before covering. existing inthe females,and onlybrought A mare may breed atfour year old; at anearlier

on by hard labour, orbylong use,will period breeding will interferewith the develop ment of her structure and strength.

A stallion

yet be communicated to the progeny as constantly exercised has superior progeny to one certainly as if they had originally existed kept in a state of inactivity. A horse or mare in the parents.

incapable of work , or which has suffered from hard and continual labour, is certainly injurious

to its progeny. Constitutional infirmity is fatal. 6264. I think I may safely say, that if A mare that has slinked her foal is always you select stallions and mares, bulls and liable to the same conduct.* cows, tupsand ewes, boarsand sows, of such 會

6267. The practical properties of a good draught animals as their portraits in the plates to stallion these :-Sound constitution, straight good this work indicate them to have been, you temper, are back, easyaction, short legs, will not commit a great mistake. round rib, strong over the loins, deep chest, good

* Walker On Intermarriage, p. 173 and 330.

732

REALISATION .

ends, lengthy quarter, and plenty of bone and ness, and in much flesh , to suit the altered taste muscle. Such properties in a horse cannot fail of the market. The taste now for more filesh to improve his kind.

than fat is favourable for the development of the

6268. The properties of a good draught mare are these :- Mares, too, instead of possessing

milking property ;and as both fattening and the production of milk appear to require a good vita or nutritive system , which transmits and

imperfections, hereditary diseases, and bad forms, and being either worn out or too young, ought to have short legs, broad deep chest, back rather

transmutes the animal liquids, both properties may be possessed by the same animal with un

long than too short, a broad well- lifted and round loin, quarters long and rounded on the top,

will produce the more milk, as long as the cow is giving milk, when the period arrives

doubted compatibility ; for while the fleshy state

haunches wider than the hips, fine animated that she should no longer do so, she can be head, pleasing countenance, density and firmness easily fattened for the market : but cows, as of muscle, sinew , and structure, clean muscular well as women, wanting that system in a good and sinewy leg, large knee, broad wide hock, state will be destitute of both fat and milk . the shank and sinews in both fore and hind legs Large udders are not necessarily indicative of well developed, and straight dropped below the great milking powers, for much fatty substance hock -joint. Such a mare cannot fail to throw & good foal when served with such a horse as has just been described ; and when both sire and

dam are well assorted, their progeny will most probably possess their distinctive characters . 6269. Under the same laws Mr Walker thus

describes the characteristics of the best cattle :-

Face rather short, the muzzle small, the horns

may be interposed between the glandular masses

which secrete the milk ; and a comparatively smaller udder, wholly composed of palpable glandular masses, will give much more milk than a larger one which is chiefly made up of fat. Climate would seem to have an effect on both

the fattening and milking properties of animals. Cold diminishes sensibility, and it is by the interposition of fat between the skin and the

fine,the neck light, particularly where it joins central parts of the body by which the sensibility the head, the chest wide, deep, and capacious, is lowered. Hence, in the north, animals easily the tail broad and fat towards the top, but thin

assume the fattened condition, Heat, on the other

towards the lower part,which it will always be when the animal is small-boned , the lower part of the thigh small, the legs short, straight, clean, and fine-boned, though not so fine as to indicate delicacy of constitution, the flesh richand mellow

hard, excites sensibility, and it is found that cows afford more milk in the warmer than the colder counties ; and it is there, also, that they are always thinner in condition. Hence, fromthese principles, one animal fattening in the north

to the feel, the skin of a rich and silky appearance, the countenance calm and placid , denoting the evenness of temper essential to quiet feeding and a disposition to get fat. If to these we add a straight back, round rib, and deep flank , the

would become a better milker in the south , where more genial temperature would render fat less necessary, would increase sensibility, and cherish the secretion of milk, so intimately connected with that excitement of the reproductive func tions which warmer climates produce.

description is what we would give of a good ox, which is the standard of acquired excellences. Any addition necessary to the above would arise

from sexual differences merely , such as a deep brisket and erect neck to the bull, and wide and capacious pelvis to the cow . Other properties conformable to the same law are, that the tending

6271. It is with sheep as with cattle in this system, that the fattening property is connected with the vital or nutritive functions ; but the wool

belonging to the osseous is rather in connection with the locomotive system . In the selection of

to fatten is indicated chiefly by the capacity of sheep, therefore, we should look to the tup for the wool, and to the ewe for the disposition to operate generally very powerfully. It is the fatten. A tup, therefore, that has a good fleece,

the chest, though the habits of ancestry will

width and depth of frame which confer weight, and a ewe that is broad -chested, and a good and not the mere circumstance of height. While handler, should beput together, provided always equally great, if not greater, weights can be

that both possess their respective functions in a

obtained with shorter-legged animals, they are, healthy state. Large heads, long necks and legs, independently of other recommendations, generally found to possess a better constitution, and a greater propensity to fatten.

are inconsistent with excellence in those systems. Climate has a material effect upon the wool. In very warm countries wool is not only converted

6270. Some years ago the desire of breeders

on the other hand, renders wool finer and thicker

into hair, but scantily covers the body. Cold , was to produce a disposition to fatten at earlier

on the body, and crisp . While in a temperate

ages than had been the custom for many years before ; and in pursuing this object others were

region, on the plains, and in a humid atmosphere , the wool is long, not coarse, and very heavy.

partially lost sight of, even the size and shape, and the milking property almost entirely so. It

These different effects of climate may be easily explained. A thin covering is required in a

was perhaps well, however, for the present race

warm country to allow freedom to a copious

of cattle that the effort to fatten early was made, perspiration to keep the body cool. In a cold for while that disposition is now settled by hereditary descent, it is in the power of the breeder to

country, where sheep have to wander far and near on the mountains for food , fat is prevented

fatten to any degree he chooses, while he can dispose of his cattle in a state of moderate fat-

from being deposited, as it would be the case were

itnotfor the opposing cause ; and the skin, thereby

733

BREEDING IN -AND - IN .

becoming more sensitive, requires a closer and warmer covering to protect it. In the plains the rich food causes a luxuriant growth of the wool, while the rain is best thrown off by a long staple.

ON BREEDING IN- AND- IN .

6273. No wonder, when high-breeding

It is the nature of the climate, and thequality produces such an improvement in stock as of the food, that renders our country the proper to reuder the head small, fine, and beau sphere for the production of long wools ; and tiful, the extremities elegant, the form having natural overin other coun handsome, and the disposition so accomo tries , wethisneed fearnoadvantage carelessness ourfarmers

causing deterioration in the fleece of ourLei- dating as that the animals grow and fatten The co- without feeling disturbed at what passes existence of fat and wool in the same animal is around - in short, become so prepossess

cester and other long-woolled sheep.

quite compatible,since they originate in different ing as to make their owners nuistrust systems, and are produced by a differentparent. thoseof others — that they are employed to The finer the long wool any sheep produces, the more easily fattened will it be.

Wool is as

increase their own numbers.

It was this

capable of being improved by proper selection in feeling which actuated Bakewell to breed breeding as any other property.

Sheep require only from his own stock, after he had

to be mature, of fullstature, in good health, brought the Leicester sheep and Long have perfectorgans, and be in entire possession horn cattleto perfection. For a time the of all their faculties, when the male is put to the female for breeding, (4715.)*

late Mr Mason of Chilton pursued the same course ; and there are breeders in England

6272. Liebig has explained in an apparently at the present time whomaintain that it is satisfactory manner the very remarkable connec the best system , and will follow no other. tion that exists between the formation of fat and

therespiratory process,which physiologicallyex. Perhaps a stock brought to the bighest pressed requires the broad chestof the animal. state of perfection, and at the same time

There is but one way in which the formation of possessed of sound constitution, may be

fat in the animal body is possible, and thisis ab- supported free of deterioration for many plants takes place: it is a separation ofoxygen years by the peculiar skillof its owner ;

solutely the same in which its formation in

from the elements of the food. The carbon and I can conceive it possible for a high which we find deposited in the seeds and fruits bred stock, such as Bakewell's was during

of vegetables, in the form of oil and fat, was pre- bis whole lifetime, to be increased and viously a constituent of the atmosphere, and was

maintained in its purity by the assistance conversion into fatwas accomplished under the of kinship. One valid reason must have influence of light, by the vital force of the vege induced Mr Bakewell to employ only his

absorbed by the plant as carbonic acid. Its

table ; and the greater part of the oxygen of carbonic acid was returned to the atmosphere as

own stock — that no other so good as his own existed to select from ; and it

oxygen gas. In contradistinction to the pheno- would haveseemed extraordinary in him, mena of vitality in plants, we know that the animal system absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere, and

as a professed improver, to have employed that the oxygen is againgiven out in combina- any animal of acknowledged inferiority to tion with carbon or hydrogen ; we know, that in his own ; but I suspect the liberty he took

the formation of carbonic acid and water, the in this respect, with impunity, could have ture of the body is produced , and that a process only been takenwith a high- bred stock of of oxidation is the only source of animal heat. recent origin as his was, as many instances Every pound of carbon which obtains the oxygen have since occurred in which a fine stock necessary to convert itinto carbonic acid from have been ruined in character, and have

substances which thereby pass into fat, must entailed irreparable loss on their owners, disengage as much heat as would raise the tem

perature of 200 lbs. ofwater by 70°—that is,from simply from being bred in-and-in. 32° to 102°. Whether fat be formed by the de composition of fibrin and albumen, the chief

6274. The immediate effects of breeding

constituents of blood,or by that of starch,sugar, in-and -in, or employing parents nearly or gum,this decomposition must be accompanied allied by bloodto propagate their kind, are by the separation of oxygen from the elements of

these compounds. But this oxygen is not given remarkable. The bone becomes very small, out ina free state, because itmeets in the organ- ofcondensed texture, and fine quality. The ism with substances possessing the property of skin is so thin as to receive the appellation

enteringinto combination with it. In fact, it is ofpapery, and so open of texture as to be absorbed from the atmosphere by the skin and sensible to the least change of temperature; the lungs.”+

* Walker On Intermarriage, p. 307 to 353.

and hence animals bred in-and-in are very + Liebig's Animal Chemistry, p. 87.

734

REALISATION .

susceptible of catarrhal affections, and on together to propagate, and their offspring which account they are liable to consump- will exhibit no symptoms of in -and -in tion and clyers, (3816. )

The carcass is breeding.

Such a result would seem to

much reduced in size, and the disposition indicate that change of soil and situation to fatten increases to such a degree that renovates the animal constitution. the animal may be said to be always in a 6275. The idea of breeding in-and-in enter condition to be slaughtered ; and it was perhaps this tendency to fatten which tained by farmers, is confined to breedingby the meinbers of the same family, let its branches be proved, several years ago more than now, situate where they may. This is not the nar the great inducement with many breeders rowest view to be taken of the subject, which to tolerate the in-and-in system. The Mr Walker assumes, and illustrates by examples. hair is short, smooth , and thin - set, and In considering in -and -in breeding, in its intimate

the wool short, thin -set, and watery; and nature, it is evident, he says,that , if close and method of difference

strict, it abandons that both hide and fleece lose a large proportion between the two conjoined beings which he had

of weight. The body assumes a change of shown to be necessary to excitement and repro

( notof the method, ductivepower, rounded, , the barrel form seems to be essential he had shown that adopts - for and the similarity were, within asitbeautifully stuffed,being but to the production of every breed ) but as it were, skin. The extremities are very fine, the of identity. To explain this, let us take one of head and hoofs small, the ears thin and

the strictest examples. Let it be that in which,

broad, and the head of the sheep is almost of the animals subjected to in -and-in breeding,

bare of hair, of a blue colour, very liable the father breeds with the daughter, and to be scalded by the heat of the sun, and again with the grand-daughter. Now, it is

attacked by the fly. The neck of both certain that the father gives half his organisation to the daughter, (suppose the anterior or vital

cattle and sheep are thin, and droop with series of organs,)and so far they are identical; but, a downward curve betweenthe head to in breeding with that daughter, he may give the the top of the shoulder. The eyes are other half of his organisation to the grand often affected with wateriness. Lameness daughter, (namely, the posterior or locomotive of organs ;) and as the grand -daughter will frequently ensues in one of the limbs. The series then bear both his series of organs— the former

constitution is evidently much weakened. from the mother and the latter from himself — it The points just enumerated show the un- is evident that there exists between the male profitable state into which a stock may be and his grand-daughter, as it were, an identity.

brought by being bred in-and-in. Mr Theidentity here is so perfect as entirelyto destroy all the differences

which are essential to Mason's fine Short-horn stock latterly excitement andreproductive power, the lossof

showed symptoms of the bad effects of this which thus characterises in -and-in breeding . system ; and Mr Robertson's stock at The case of brother and sister breeding together Ladykirk, which contained at one time by isnothing to this, and this is about the nearest of kin has ever the attempted breeders themother, ; for, if the far the finest Short- horns in Scotland, suf- brother anteriorbyorgansof fered after his demise from the same cause,

and the posterior of the father, while the sister

as was apparent on the animals presented has the anterior organs of the father, and the at the sale which dispersed them . Only posterior organs of the mother, or contrariwise,

cattle and sheep have been subjected by andif,on the contrary,bothhave the sameseries farmers to this unfair system, for draught oforgans from the sameparents, then are they mares are usually covered by stallions ob- merely similar, and neither,as in thecase of father tained from a distance ; and of cattle and and grand-daughter, as it were identical. In

sheep, the system has been most practised the former case, no organ has been communi cated from the one to the other ; in the latter organ has been so communicated on Short-horn cattle and Leicestersheep; case,every .

The its injurious effects also. Now that high6276. In breeding in -and -in, in even the ordi bred stocks exist in every district of the pary method, when the male is enfeebled he no

kingdom, there is no excuse for pursuing longer gives character tothe progeny; andhe is the in-and-in system of breeding ; and the always enfeebled bybreeding in-and-in,andeven loses reproductive power. Close breeding im attempt is the more inexcusable from the pairs the constitution of both sexes, but the

remarkable fact, brought to light only since generative power fails first, and chiefly on the

the distribution of high -bred stock increas- part of the male. Although the voluntary and

ed so much over the country, that the locomotive power of the fernale is never so as that of the male, it is more frequently injured progeny, after being distributed intense and repeatedly in action. In the male, the for a tine, their progeny may be brought reproductive impulse is that of a moment, and

CROSSING .

735

exhaustion follows it ; in the female it can at short-sighted step cannot be taken by a anytime be repeated . Thevitaland reproduc- breeder , as from such a male no assur tive systems are in fact the largest and most essential portion of her organisation ; but by no means of his .

ance can be obtained of the state of the

It is evident, therefore, why, progeny, which may be much worse than

when voluntary power is lessened in the male, it

either sire or dam.

may be exceeded by that of the female ; so that

the failure in fact is chiefly on his part. Hence

6279. There are situations in which

the Walker law of breeding in-and-in, enunciated by high -bred stock cannot be maintainedas Mr is, that where bothasparents are not ouly of the same variety, but of the same family a breeding stock, and in which nothing

in the narrowest sense, thefemale gives always but crossing can be practised when im the backhead and locomotive organs, the male provement is desired ; but the desire for the reverse ofwhat takes place in ordinary breed improvement has been carried bysome breeders beyond the bounds of prudence :

ing .

they have crossed the Black -faced ewe with Leicester tups, in situations where ON CROSSING .

the enlarged lamb has been unable to sub sist in winter, on which account the policy 6277. The union of different breeds of of changing the Black -faced breed of

the same sort of animal is a favourite sheep in high localities seems doubtful, scheme with many breeders, and, under This cross in the low country affords an certain conditions, produces good results. excellent lamb for the table, the Leicester

Those conditions are, that the male em- blood givingthe dispositionto fatten. In ployed in the crossing shall have the lower situations, the Cheviot ewe, which superior breeding of thetwo parents, and inhabits the middle range of green pas that the situation in which the cross- pro- ture, may be crossed with the Leicester

geny is brought up is suitable to it. The tup with advantage. Where the Cheviots first condition is usually complied with, butthesecond is as commonly disregarded ; and the consequence is, that crosses, attempted to be brought up in situations unsuited to their nature, have proved

have been enlarged by size, it is alleged by the party possessing the pure breed, that the enlarged size has been gained by crossing with the Leicester, while the ownersmaintain that it has been done by

themselves failures.

good feeding alone.

Every crossing,

however, should be prosecuted with can 6278. In the crosses commonly at- tion, because the result may overstep the

tempted in this country, among cattle the intentions of the breeder. It is clear that Short-born bull, and among sheep the if the crossed stock is retained as females, Leicester tup, have been employed to cross which, in their turn, are served by high with the ordinary breeds of cattle and bred males, the time will arrive when the sheep. The results have proved satisfac- character of the original stock will be

tory; for although the progeny could not entirely changed, andbecome unsuitedto be expected to be equal to the sire, they have in all cases been superior to the dam. The effects of the cross are, an enlargement of the carcass, a finer skin, longer hair and wool, cleaner bone, finer bead, and the disposition to fatten greatly accelerated. In comparing crosses, it has been found that the higher bred the male the finer the cross —that is, the nearer it approaches his pro-

their native climate and pasture, and will, in fact, have become the same breed as their high -bred sires. In this way it is quite possible to originate a race of Short horns and Leicester sheep anywhere suited to their nature, by constantly em ploying a high-bred bull and tup to serve cross-bred heifers and gimmers, generation

after generation. The pure Short- horns

perties ; and even an over -bred male, that were thus once crossed with a Galloway

is, one showing symptoms of having been heifer, whose blood was soon lost amongst bred in-and-in, may be used with advan- that of the Short-horn. Were thepractice

tage in crossing. Where a superior cross- generally adopted, the time would arrive inale happens thus to be produced, a strong desire is evinced by breeders to use him as a sire, instead of expending money in the purchase of a high-bred male. A more

when the original breeds that were crossed would disappear altogether. Such a result would prove injurious to the breeder himself, inasmuch as the pasture would be

736

REALISATION .

unsuited for the stock he had caused to be cross produced very fine animals for the produced ; so that his best plan is to pre- butcher, with more disposition to fatten serve the original females pure in the than Angus cattle possess. A notion exists,

higher parts of the country, and take the

that, if a large bull is put to a small cow ,

crosses from them to the low country to the calf will be so large as that the cow will be fed off. There is no other way of be unable to calve it. The notion can bave maintaining a cross, for were the cross no foundation in fact, since the fætus is itself used as a breeding stock , a few gene- always in proportion to the matrix which rations would either revert them back to contains it. It is true, however, that their original breeds, deteriorated, or such a cross will cause severer labour to

create a mongrel, the properties of which the cow in calving, in consequence of the

could not be preserved beyond the exist- increased size ofthe brain of the im ing generation. The temptation of larger proved calf. The large Short -horn bull

profits has alreadycaused the Cheviot to referred to above, was put to many very drive the Black-faced breed from the small Angus cows, and in no case occurred lower to the highest mountain pastures ; any danger in calving. The small cows

whilst the cross-bred Cheviot, with the produced small calves, but, having the Leicester, have descended, on the other disposition to grow and fatten from the bull, hand, to the low country, and have there they throve apace, after birth ; and it was These re on account of this property in his progeny sults have done good, inasmuch as they that the bull was so sought after for their

met the true-bred Leicester.

have increased the quantity of mutton in cows by the poor tenants of various the market ; and the skilful manage- estates. A cross was tried between the ment which the pasturage on the hills Southdown ewe and Leicester tup, with the

has received since a regular system view to adding some length to the South of breeding has been introduced, has down wool, and the effect became per caused it to yield a larger quantity manent and proved itself a great improve of finer grasses. The crossing of the ment.

When a Cheviot or Black - faced

Black -faced sleep has undergone a change ; tup has been put to a well- bred Leicester the Leicester tup is too heavy to serve ewe, the cross has possessed a worse and Black - faced ewes on the hills, and to uncertain organisation than either of the bring those ewes to the tup in the low parents. It is a wholesome species of

country is attended with trouble and crossing to take the males or females of a expense. Instead, therefore, of the Leicester tup being so employed, the Cheviot tup has been substituted ; and although the cross is inferior --for nothing can exceed

breed from one part of the country, to the malesor femalesof the same breed in another part of the country. Although both stocks should have had the same origin, the

the beauty of the lamb produced between change of climate, soil, and quality of food the Black -faced ewe and Leicester tup- effect as great a change in the constitution it is a good one, and has enlarged the of the parents as if they were different races . The cross with a high -bred stallion the cross between the Southdown tup and and any lower bred mare is always good.

Black -faced mutton. I am of opinion that the Black - faced ewe, would be a better one

I have had some excellent harness horses

than with the Cheviot tup. I don't know out of draught mares, both by racing and that this cross has yet been tried, but the coaching stallions. The cross received

superior mutton of the Southdown would the figure and skin from the horse, and amalgamate better with that of the Black- the action and constitution from the mare. faced than with the Cheviot, and the wool is superior to the Cheviot. So

6280. The law of crossing, according to Mr

long as crossing is conducted with the Walker, is, that when each parent is of a different breed, and when both are of equal age and breeds in their natural state, it will go on vigour, the male gives the backhead and without confusion ; but the moment cross- locomotive organs, the female gives the face and

bred tups are employed as improvers, their nutritive organs. This law, in its effects as interference will produce confusion on the regards the domesticated animals, is very similar

of the law of selection ;but in cross crosses and throw discredit on crossing toingthose the parents always maintain this relative altogether. I have crossed Angus cows position , while in ordinary breeding the parents with the Short - horn bull, fig. 565, and the change positions in proportion to the comparative

HIRING . greater vigour of the characteristics of each, and when one imprints the prevailing characteristics the other stamps the opposite. The

similar effects ; so similar conditions in crossing

cause that, in crosses, the male gives the cerebel

one cross or ten crosses be made. While great

and locomotive system, is both striking and

difference was sought for in the cross, similarity is sought for in the progeny it produces, for

beautiful.

If no being can desire that of which

occurred.

737

As similar causes always produce

will always produce similar progeny, whether

it is already in possession - if, on the contrary, without that there could be no homogeneity it must desire most what it most wants, ( if not in-

or conformity of breed - it would seem to want

compatible) it cannot be wondered that, in crosses, permanence ; nor can any cross ever be estab when the desired difference is greatest, the male, lished without this similarity being obtained in whose desire is most ardent, should stamp the system by which he exercises his desire, the voluntary locomotive, upon the progeny. In regard to the

its produce.”

importance of this law as regards the breeding of animals, the slightestconsideration will show ,

6282. These laws, enunciated by Mr Walker, may thus be recapitulated in brief terms : The law of Selection operates where both parents

continues Mr Walker, that if, of the two great

are of the same variety, when either gives the

series of organs described , each belongs entirely to a distinct parent, we consequently can neither derive in the progeny both series from one parent, nor portions of both from each parent ; and every attempt to do so must be a failure, and consequently lead to mere loss of time and money. It, at the same time, indicates the natural mode of procedure. It moreover shows that, in a feeble or imperfect cross, bad as well as good

organs of sense , forehead, and vital system , and the other the cerebel and locomotive system :

the law of Crossing operates where each parent is of a different variety, when the male gives the back -head and locomotive system, and the female the forehead, organs of sense, and vital system : the law of In -and -in breeding

operates where both parents are of the same family, when the female gives the back-head and

combinations may be produced ; but that such a the locomotive system, and the male the fore progeny as presents the precise qualities desired head, organs of sense , and vital system. But no must alone be employed in further breeding, while inferior progeny must be cast aside. The intermediate character of the qualities

law is thought of in the common practice of breeding. Thus then we have, we will not say life, for that is merely a general term , but the

produced in crossing is owing , not to each

two series of organs on which both life and loco

parent imperfectly giving its share in the progeny's organisation, but to circumstances that, in their new combination, each series

motion respectively depend, in two opposite successions and combinations-variably in beings of the same variety, and invariably in those of

of organs acts with, and therefore modifies, the different varieties, (crosses,) as also when other.

closely and long restricted to one family, (in and -in .)

6281. On the difficulty of maintaining a cross his views : “Seeing that the operations of nature

in a permanent form , Mr Walker thus explains

are simple, and never capricious, why does it frequently or generally produce a tolerable animal ?

ON THE HIRING OF FARM - SERVANTS.

Because if the cross is a feeble or im

perfect one, the male, dependent only on relative

6283. Every operation has now been

energy, may give either the locomotive or the vital described and discussed in regard to the raising 'of crops and the rearing of live may the female. In the one case, therefore, the stock . It is now necessary to attend to a

system, and not the precise one desired ; and so

cross will be a tolerable one ; and, in the other, it will be an intolerable one.

few matters which affect the relation sub

But the breeder

having no notion that these two systems never sisting between thefarmer and his servants; go together fromone parent, and having no idea and the first of these in their order must

between be the biring of them into his service. which subsists of theentiredifferencedistinguishing them. And

them , is incapable

why is it a breed that cannot be continued ? Because, precisely as I have described above,

6284. Married

farm -servants

are

the breeder next puts together two productsof usually engaged for the year, and the the first cross, without their due distinctions; period at wbich they are engaged is about

andtheconsequence is that, precisely also as I the beginning of March. This season of breeds. But the fact is that able breedershave, engagement is in every respect favourable either by accident or by keener observation, to the servants, though not for the masters. often accomplished all that they desire in this way. It certainly seems surprising that breeders having in any case

seen

a

The servants are thus secured in their new

service long before the term of departure

cross perfectly from the old ; and the engagement being

successful and eminently beneficial, should not made early in spring enables them to put

have been led to inquire more closely and care fully into the circumstances under which it the summer crops into their new gardens,

* Walker On Intermarriage, p. 201 to 242. VOL. II .

3A

738

REALISATION .

possession ofwhich is given them immedi- present. Both parties should consider that ately after their engagement.

The dis- theirnew movemay placethem in a worse

advantages attending so early an engage- position than before.

ment to the masters are, that, having se-

Nevertheless, it

must be owned that a servant of slow

cured another service, indifferent servants habits, however honest he may be, is a

have a temptation to do their work for the great bar to the work of a farm that is future in a slovenly manner, and malicious carried on in a spirited way ; and it is ones a long time to wreak vengeance a constant source of irritation to retain a

against their masters by the ill-treatment servant whose daily conduct excites sus of their horses — both, in the mean time, picions of his integrity. being regardless of remonstrance, or even

sharp rebukes. Good and conscientious 6287. Unmarried farm - servants, who servants will be guilty of no dereliction of live in bothies, are usually engaged or re

duty, even with the prospect of leaving a engaged on the term -day ; but those who desirable situation ; but then such servants live in their masters' house are usually are seldom parted with, and only from spoken to, to remain in their service, 40 necessity occasioned by circumstances, not days before the term . Domestic female from choice. servants, and those engaged by married ploughmen to do farm -work, commonly

6285. Various are the circumstances called bondagers or field -workers, are which cause a separation between master placed on the same footing. All single and servant. The servant may become servants are unable for the work he has long performed ; only.

engaged for half- a- year

his wife may be a troublesome person which, in fact, is not an unfrequent cause of

6288. Farm -servants are usually en

a man being obliged to leave a good place ; his family may be guilty of many peccadilloes, in despite of their parents' injunctions ; the man himselfmay have a peevish temper, and the master a hasty one, and the one may give the other up in a moment

gaged in the hiring -market of the neigh bouring town or village, and they seldom exhibit written characters from the masters whom they are serving, referring only to them by name: and should these be found in the market, inquiry is made ; but if not,

of temporaryirritation. I knew an excel- an engagement is made from appearance lent servant who gave up his place in a and conversation . This is doubtless an huff. He had time to think of his resolve unsatisfactory mode of hiring, and, to

before the hiring day, and when it arrived he set off early to the market-town, and watching his master's entrance into it, went up to him with an earnest entreaty for a re-engagement, which was instantly

obviate it, it has been proposed to open registers, in which the names of farm -ser vants of established character, and of places may be entered, on payment of a small fee by those who may desire to in

made. As regards the farmer, an unplea- spect them. The plan of sucha registry sant son may have succeeded a judicious was established at Forres in Morayshire, father ; he may be unreasonable, and fre- in 1838, by Mr Robert Mitchell, and it is quently find fault without much cause an said to have hitherto worked well. At injustice which a well-disposed servant will the end of the first year, on 31st July 1839, not long endure.

the number of names entered on the list was 267; at the end of the second year, in 1840,

6286. As no perfection can be found in either master or servant, it is obviously the interest of both to exercise mutual forbearance. The master should overlook many faults, provided he sees that the ser-

it increased to 636 ; and at the end of the third year, in 1841 , it had risen to 1110. Both masters and servants seem to approve of the plan ; and I have no doubt that similar good effects would follow the esta

vant performs his duties from principle; blishment of a similar registry in every and the servant should endeavour to please hiring market. “ Such a registry would his master cheerfully, even in what he have, in the first place, the effect of pro

may consider his whims. If these rules curing agreeable situations for servants of were mutually observed, there would be excellent character; and it would proba

fewer fittings at terms than is the case at bly, in time, have the moral effect of show

HIRING .

739

ing the careless servant that the indus- same time in need of extraordinary assist trious, obedient, and skilful will always ance . be preferred ; and this lesson, it is hoped , may have the effect of making the indo6290. It may be useful to give a succinct view lent and vicious amend the error of their

of the law of contract of hire between master and

ways ."*

servant, to show the relative obligations which subsist betwixt those parties in Scotland.

6291. Hiring. It is not necessary to give 6289. On hiring every sort of farmarles to servants when hiring them ; and even derstanding to be had with them ; and the after receiving them , servants may resile

servants, I would recommend a clear un-

the bargain , if it is the custom of the district, simplest plan of avoiding misconceptions from (Ersk. III. 3, 14.) Farm -servants are

of the duties to be performed by servants presumed to be hired by the year, if no period be is, to hire them to do whatsoever they are agreed on, (Finlayson, 1829.) In this same case, desired . It is necessary to make this sti- ( June 6, 1829, 7 S. D. 717,) a grieve or farm pulation, for some servants are so fastidi- steward is held to be engaged for a year. If a servant is engaged a shorter than ous as to the nature of their duties, that half-a-year year,period , or longerforthana a written they will refuse to perform any other than agreement should be made out and agreed to by what they were specially hired to do. both parties, otherwise, on the servant denying

For example, if a man has been hired to

the period , he may, in the first case, be found en

to full half-a - year's wages. engagement driveapair of horses, he will cheerfully titled may referthe to theEither oath ofparty the

do whatever is done with the labour of the other, ( Tait,Just.Peace,450.) Should the ser horses, but may demur to do any other vant be brought from a distance, it has been work when his horses are not employed ; found that the hirer is liable in the of and yet very urgent work may have to be bringing him ,but not in the expense expense of his re done at a time when horses cannot be em

turn, unless otherwise agreed on, ( Baird, 1799,

5 B. S. 514.) By 4th Geo. IV., c. 34, persons

ployed, such as lettingoff water from land, contractingto serve, and deserting their service and many others. In like manner, a dairy- after entering on it, are liable to imprisonment. maid may refuse to feed pigs or poultry ; 6292. Master's obligations.— The master is and domestic servants may refuse to work bound to receive the domestic servant to his situ out of the house ; and it is no uncommon ation, and give bed and board , should no agree .

case to hear shepherds and gardeners re- ment be made to the contrary, for the term of fuse to do anything, however needful and service, ( Bell's Prin. sec. 184 ;) and he cannot conducive to their master's interest, but compel a domestic servant to live out of his house, what is directly connected with their re (Graham, Feb. 12, 1822, F. C.)

spective specific charges. It may be found 6293. Responsibility of masters for serrants. expedient at a time for the shepherd to The master is responsible for injury done to bind or fork corn at harvest, and for the third parties through the fault, negligence, or gardener to cut grass for the work -horses; carelessness of his servants, while doing their

but these necessary operations may be master's business,but not for their criminalacts, refused to be performed by either, un

(M.Laren , 1827. ) The master is not liable for the expense of a medical adviser, called in by the

less both have been engaged to do what servant, different from the family one ;norwill brought on by hisown imprudence ; but when best for labour to have it performed by the illness is brought on from causes arising in those best acquainted with it; which be the course of the servant's duties, the master is they are desired . Of course, it is always he be liable should the illness of the servant be

ing the case, it will be the interest ofthe liable in expenses,(Cooper, 1831, Car. and Pay. master himself to use a wise discretion

Reps. ;) and the master, in this case, has no right

in putting the stipulation into practice. to deduct the expenses from the servant's wages, But circumstances may arise when a

(Lellan, 1829, Car. and Pay. Reps. )

particular department of labour may re 6294. Serrant's obligations. — Servants are quire extraordinary assistance, and it bound to serve theirmaster in everything relat would be a hardship on the master to be ing to the situation they have engaged them

deprived of any of the means of labourselves for. Theymust be respectful to their mas and his family, and in their general conduct within his power, to promote that one de ter avoid actions scandalous or of bad example. partment, merely because the other depart- They haveno right to absent themselves without

ments of labour were not also at the leave, (Crawford, 1822.) They are responsible Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xii. p. 298.

REALISATION .

740

for everything committed to their charge in the routine of their duty, but not for accidents, (Camp-

not bound to give a servant a character, either

They must accompany their em-

oral or written, or to assign a reason for with holding it, ( Carrol, 1800, 3 Esp. 201.) He will

ployer in change of residence, aslong as he does not leave the kingdom , ( Tait, 462.) They have

be liable in damages, when asked the character of a servant, in giving an untrue one, (Bell's

no right to draw nice distinctions between what comes under their duty and what does not ; they cannot be employed on any duty different from the customary duties of the service they have undertaken, and this renders a specific agree ment, to do what they are desired, necessary . Enlistment in Her Majesty's service frees a

Prin .) He will be justified in giving one preju dicial to the servant, if true, (Christian, July 6,

bell, 1734.)

1818 ; 1 Mur. 427 ;) but he has no right to give

out such a character publicly, without sufficient cause .

6298. Hiring workmen . — Workmen, like

servant from his obligations by the Mutiny

domestic servants, may be hired by the year, or

Act.

for a shorter time, butwriting is necessary for a longer period, (Paterson, June 17, 1830, 6 S. D.

6295. Wages. - Should no wages be bargained for, none are due, (Salton , Brown, Sup. 3, 337. )

931.)

The servant has a right to leave his master, and claim wages and board -wages, should his wages

not be paid at the terms agreed upon. Though a servant is engaged by the year, his wages are payable half -yearly, (Tait, 465.) A servant, through sickness, disabled from doing his duty, has still a right to his wages, should no servant

They are bound, besides the principal en

gagement, to keep to certain regular hours, and observe the same respect and decency as domes tic servants. They may be compelled by impri sonment to fulfil their contract, (Clerk, Jan. 19, 1799, F. C.) * 6299. Of late years a movement has been made in the north -eastern counties of Scotland

be got to supply his place, (White, 1794.) Should

to abolish hiring markets, and the abandonment the servant die between terms, wages to the of the lodging and boarding of a number of un time of his death will be due to his representa- married farm -servants in a single room , named a tives. When the master dies, wages and board- bothy. wages to the next term are due, should there be 6300. As to the abolition of hiring-markets, no agreement for any space of time. When the servant is engaged for any specified time, wages the attempt on the part of the farmers to do it and board -wages are due tothe full time. The will, in my opinion, prove futile, for two suffi master's bankruptcy gives the servants the same cient reasons. One reason is, that it has always claim . But in both these last cases, on the ser- been found a very difficult matter to change even vant's being supplied with another place, wages the site or the day of any sort of market. What

only for past services are due, ( Tait, 465.) The the public seems to have a general interest in, master can , at any time, turn off his servant, on they will never agree to relinquish. The abo giving him full wages and board -wages, ( Cooper, lition could, no doubt, be done by act of parlia

1825.) A female servant marrying and leaving

ment, but not otherwise ; by no local arrange

her master, loses all claim for wages, and her husband is liable in damages.

ment can the end be attained. If such difficulty attends the alteration of any market, there would be greater still in its abolition . The other reason is, that if hiring -markets were maintained in any part of the country, it would be found impracticable to abolish them entirely in any other part of the country. Now, hiring

6296. Grounds for dismissing a seroant. — A servant may be dismissed for immoral conduct, disobedience, or habitual neglect of duty, (Callo, 1831 ;) for absence on Sunday when ordered to the contrary , ( Hamilton, 1824.) Absence for markets are not attended with inconvenience four days without leave was held a sufficient everywhere. I have attended many of them in cause of dismissal ; and legal dismission forfeits the southern counties of Scotland, and never saw the servant's wages, (Silvie, 1830.) When either anything reprehensible in them . The men and a master wishes to part with a servant, or the women mustered in the market -town in the early servant wishes to leave his situation, warning part of the day, transacted their business, and must be given 40 days before the term, otherwise went home in the afternoon, and if any remained the engagement is held to be renewed, (MʻLean, in the town until the evening, it was chiefly to 1813 ;) unless the local custom is to give no visit friends; and if a few cases of intemperance

warning, then none is necessary, ( Morrison, occurred, it was long after market hours. It is, 1823.) After a servant has received his wages

therefore, not fair to stamp the character of

and left his situation, he cannot say he got no

any meeting by the exceptional cases, nor is it fair to characterise all hiring -markets by the acts done at a few of them. I regard them as very convenient meetings, where the hirer and

warning, ( Baird, 1779.) It will be observed that much of what has been said applies almost

exclusively to domestic servants, whether on a

farm or not ; the relations of out-door farm -ser-

the hired have the best opportunity of learning

vants with their masters are so clear that few

the rate of wages, and where an abundant choice

questions arise between them, either at parting is presented to both parties of what they both came to seek .

or during the course of service .

6297. Character to servants.— The master is

6301. Nor can register offices ever supersede

* Farmer's Lawyer, p. 160-5.

WAGES.

741

hiring -markets. The mere registry of the name the districts in which complaints are rife against is not sufficient for the seeker in quest of character, as no one will dare to register publicly a bad character against a bad servant ; and if the

the bothy system , as I did in Forfarshire, and the system will be abolished for ever.

The

expense of maintaining the men in their own

truth cannot be so told, there is no use of the houses may be a little more than in the bothy, for good servants, as their characters will obtain fort purchased by it, both for master and ser registry at all—and there is no need of a registry but it will be trifling in comparison of the com them situations anywhere, without the assistance of either hiring-markets or registers. A registry

vant.

might be made a record of the names of good servants who are to be out of service at the en-

ON THE WAGES OF FARM - SERVANTS.

suing term, and the hiring-market might serve as a good place for the parties to meet in, who

may have to come from opposite quarters and

6303. I enumerated the different classes

of labourers employed on a farm from ( 57)

from considerable distances .

to ( 67 ;) and I must here state that the wages of all of them may be classed under much need of emendation, and, in my opinion, three heads : -Those consisting chiefly of the only one it is capable of is its entire aboli tion ; which it is quite in the power of any pro kind—that is, of the produce of the farm , 6302. The bothy system , as it is termed, has

prietor, along with his tenants and servants, to

and but a small sum in cash ; those con

accomplish on any estate. The congregating of sisting of a large proportion of cash and a young unmarried men in one room, which is pc- small amount of kind ; and those which cupied both asa sleeping and cooking apart- consist entirely of cash. The recipients of ment, and the sleeping of two men together in one bed, are acts obnoxious to decency . Being the first and third classes may be engaged uuder no control, one or other of the men wanders

on the same farm , and the third class may

abroad during the night, and are of courseunfit be found exclusively on a farm , but the for their work during the day. They visit one first and second classes are never found another at theirrespectivebothies, especially in together ; and as all three modes of pay takes place without the accompaniment of in- ing wages co-exist in the kingdom , though temperance. The inmates of bothies seldom re- in different parts of it, they afford a main long in the same service, it being almost criterion for judging which is the best impossible to find a number of men, associating mode for all parties, for master and daily and nightly so intimately as they are

obliged to do, entertain the same sentiments on

servant ; which the most convenient for

any one subject ; and the consequence is disagree

the master, which the most conducive to

ments, which can only be put an end to by sepa

the servants' comfort and moral habits.

ration at the ensuing term . The bothy system is Ploughmen or hinds, constituting the recommended to be amended by hiring the men

for shorter periods than six months, or even

principal or staple class of labourers on a

during pleasure,that their master may have the farm , like the battalion men of a regiment, greater control over them ; and it is stated that the amount of their wages is taken as a

farmers of high standing, who have tried this standard by which to compare that of the expedient, find their men more diligent and careful, and remain longer in their service than when hired by the half-year.* This plan is but an expedient at best, and will result in palliation

other classes of labourers. 6304. Winter is the season in which

wages in kind are paid to farm-servants ; system entirely; and the only way of doing it is and the period of that season chosen for by the erection of cottages by proprietors, for the purpose is about the end of the year. householders harvest entirely married alone.

An effectual method is to eradicate the

men, or for

,whetherthey It isrequisite that

shall be

vice such as has been longpractised with the finished, and every arrangement connected utmost success in Berwickshire. Nor is this a with the accommodation of stock, on tur

mere supposition . I had the experience of the nips or in the steading,-made before the bothysystem in full vigourin Forfarshire,and thrashing of the stacks in regular succez had frequent opportunities of witnessing its bale preparatory ful effects; I built cottages for the accommoda sion commences. After these tion of married men, and ever after nothing but operations, and before much of the new

quiet and contentment, and the desire to remain, crop has been disposed of at market, prevailed in every case at every term . Two of the further than to ascertain its general qual

bothy men themselvestook wives, and received ity and price, the first leisure time froni ploughmen, who remained with me as long as I field work by stress of weather is taken farmed . Let every proprietor and farmer do, in advantage of for paying the farm - servants * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1849, p. 14.

742

REALISATION .

their yearly wages of corn ; and as the quantity distributed is considerable on a large farm , and as all the servants should

6308. Northumberland . 6 bolls 4 2

place. The servants receiving a variety

pease, at 3s. 6d ., wheat, at 5s. rye , at 38. ,

potatoes , at ls.,

40

£3 12 0 3 6 0 2 2 0 0 15 0 090 2 0 0 1 4 0 9 00 2 0 0 3 0 0 4 0 0

barley , at 25. 9d ., 12 3 3

receive their wages at the same time, to avoid envy, there will be a considerable quantity of thrashed grain in the barn before its distribution in wages takes

36 bushels oats, at 2s. per bushel,

24 lb. of wool , at ls.

A cow's keep for the year, Carriage of coals ,

Cottage and garden , Cash ,

of corn, that variety should be first dis £31 8 0

Equal to 123. per week ,

tributed which is found most conveni

ent for the farmer to thrash ; and one variety should be delivered, and the barn The allowance of turnips in winter is 10 cleaned out, before another is taken in cart - loads of white, or 5 of white and 3 of hand . swedes ; or, in lieu, 100 stones of 22 lb.

6305. Ploughmen's wages.— These are paid in all the three modes enumerated above ( 6303,) the first mode being in general adoption in the Border counties of

equal to one ton of hay. The rent of cottage and garden is £3, but for this the ploughman receives for food and wages 2s.6d. per day for 30 days in harvest. The grainis paid in advance once a

England and Scotland ; the second being quarter. The ploughman has liberty to

practised in the midland and northern keep a pig, but no poultry. He disposes counties of Scotland ; and the third being of the calf and spare butter from the in general use in the midland and southern

COW.

counties of England. 6309. East Lothian .

6306. Wages composed of kind and money differ, in their constituent items, in

different counties, but only in a slight degree ; the aggregate items affording suffi-

12 bolls - 72 bushels oats, at 2g. per bushel , 18 3 .. barley , 2s. 93., 8 beans, 3s. 6d .,

or 1600 yards potatoes, 3s. 100 yards, Food for hind for 30 days in harvest, at 9d. 6

-}

per day ,

ciency of food to support a ploughman and an ordinary family, and nothing to spare. The particulars enumerated received by

2

9

6

1 2

8 8

0 0

1

2

6

500 2 0 0 1 10 0

A cow's grass ,

Carriage of coals, Cottage and garden ( free ),

Equal to 8s. 10 d . per week , £ 23 2 0 the ploughmen are cashed according to the prices in 1850 : One half of the oats to be made good up to the first fiars of the Haddington market, 6307. Berwickshire. and a price fixed for the potatoes in case 10 bolls = 60 bushels oats , ai 2s. per bushel, £6 0 0 3 1

= 18 6

barley , at 2s. 9d ., pease , at 3s. 60., = 1200 yards potatoes , at 4s., A cow's keep for the year , Cottage and garden , Carriage of coals, Cash ,

12

Equal to 10s. 44d. per week ,

2 1 2 8 1 2

96 1

0

8 0 2 0

0 0 6 0

of failure.

The cow receives from the

farmer nothing but straw in winter. When

the hind keeps no cow,£ 5 a -year are

allowed him in cash . The cottage and 4 Ö Ö garden are really free, the hind not being £ 27 10 obliged to provide a reaper in harvest,

whose maintenance is usually retained in The turnips in winter for the cow amount other parts of the country as rent for the to 3 double loads of swedes and 3 of house. These items vary in the county. white, or, in lieu, 60 stones of 22 lb. each of hay ; and grass in summer. Tbe rent

6310. Fifeshire.

WAGES OF MARRIED FOREMEN . of the cottage and garden is equal to one £12 00 person's food in harvest that is, 30 days at Money, (14 lb. ) of oatmeal, at 18. 2 d.per st ., 3 18 61 9d. per day, £1 , 2s. 6d. The grain is next 65stones 1200 yard in the drill of potatoes, at 38. per

per} 12 1610 00

to the seed-corn in quality, and it is paid in slump or advance at the iniddle of the

House and garden , Cow's keep ,

year's engagement. The ploughman has

Allowance of bread and beer in hay -time and

liberty to keep pigs, but no poultry. He disposes of both the calf and most of the butter from the cow.

100 yards,

900

0 10

0

harvest,

£ 29 14 65

Equal to 1ls. 5d. per week .

WAGES.

in kind is considered invariable, being no

WAGES OF MARRIED PLOUGHMEX .

£ 10 10 0

65 stonesof oatmeal,at 1s. 24d. per stone, 182 gallons of new milk , at tid . per gallon , 1200 yards in the drill of potatoes , at 3s. per 100 yards, House and garden , Allowance in hay - time and barvest,

743

more food than a stout man can consume ;

3 18 4 11

6 0

but some cannot consume it all, and save

1 16

0

a part of the meal , which they dispose of.

2 10 0 10

0 0

£ 23 15 63

In strict fairness, the meal should be

given to the men every week ; but, to save trouble, it is dealt out once a month or

fortnight. Besides the oatmeal and milk , bothy men always have a room 6311. Wages, more in cash than in in common, a bedstead and bed-clothes, kind, are more extensively given in Scot- fuel partly brushwood and partly land than the plan which I have just coals, one ton each - cooking utensils, and described. Those who receive this species salt. They provide the dishes out of of wages are chiefly single men, living which they take their meals, consisting either in the farmer's house, or in a house usually of a wooden bowl and horn -spoon. Equal to 9s. 31d. per week .

-

by themselves called a bothy. The practice of allowing farm -servants to take their meals in the farmer's bouse is falling fast into desuetude. Married men are

According to the previous rates of prices,

with £ 12 a-year of cash , and estimating their lodging, wear of bed-clothes, and fuel at 25s. a-year each, the wages amount in

also supported in this form of wages, but money to 8s. 8d. per week . It must be their condition is not so good as that of held in remeinbrance, in regard to every

the ploughmen on the preceding plan, case of the wagesofa plonghman, that his although it is certainly preferable to that wages go on whether he be working or not ; in thebothy system .

so he has one advantage at least over the daily labourer, who may be thrown idle at 6312. The portion of wages received in every recurrence of bad weather. kind consists of oatmeal and milk. The

meal amounts to 2 pecks perweek for each man — that is, 1 stone of 172 lb., which makes 6 bolls per annum , or 65} stones of 14 lb., at 1s. 2£d. per stone, gives a money -value of £3, 195. a-year. The milk is supplied either fresh from thecow

6313. The ploughmen who receive cash for wages, are in the same condition as day - labourers, who receive their earnings once a -week, and purchase their subsistence from retail dealers in country towns and villages. This, I believe, is the condition of

most of the ploughmen in the southern according to agreement. In the sweet counties of England. It is obvious that, state it is given to the amount of i Scotch unless money -wages adapt themselves pint or 2 quarts a -day ; and when skim- nicely to the fluctuating prices of the com

or after the cream bas been skimmed off,

med, 3 quarts in summer, and 2 in winter

modities upon which farm

-servants subsist,

per day. The milk is usually estimated the men must suffer much privation on a at £ 4 a - year. · In some cases a cow or rise in the price of provisions; and, when cows are supplied to the men, who milk these fall, they receive bigher wages than them , and are exchanged for others when they are entitled to. They are thus sub they go dry ; but supplying milk is the jected to constant vicissitudes in their con least troublesome plan for the master ; dition, from which the two former classes because as long as the cows give as much of ploughmen are entirely exempt. It

milk as the men are entitled to receive, signifies nothing to reducethe wages paid they make no complaint although the cows in kind to the latter into the money -value

should give a great deal more than the of the day, for, in fact, the ploughmen stated quantity ; but the moment the never receive their wages in that form ,

supply falls below the stipulated quan- and are quite independent of fluctuations tity, loud complaints are instantly heard. in price. The farmer has thus no tempta These items of kind , with from £ 10 to £14 tion to dismiss men from bis service when a- year of cash , and even £ 18 in the time

of railway high wages, constitute the earnings of a ploughman on this system .

wages rise or prices fall in the market. 6314. The wages of stewards are in all

It is only in the amount of cash that these respects similar to those of the ploughmen

wages vary at any time, for what is given of whom they have the charge - the only

REALISATION .

744

difference being in the amount of cash received, which is always greater than that given to the ploughmen. Instead of £ 4 with kind,they receive from £ 12 to £ 15; and instead of £ 12 or £ 14 with oatmeal, they receive from £ 20 to £ 25 ; and the best house is appropriated to them . In most cases the steward is exempt from attendance on the farm on Sundays, whilst in others he takes his turn along with the

a labourer, receives some of his wages in kind and the rest in cash, and is seldom indulged with a cow. Being generally a person somewhat advanced in life, the rate of his wages is not high - perhaps 9s. a -week in money ; and it is well when this post is held by an old and faithful plough man or shepherd, whose growing infirmi. ties disable him from undertaking full active duties.

other men — the latter being the better plan for the master, as the steward has then a

6318. The field -worker issimply a day

personal opportunity of knowing how the labourer, and receives 10d. a -day in sum

men have fulfilled their duties on that day. mer, and in some cases only 8d. a-day in winter, without any wages in kind. This 6315. The shepherd receives the same person is usually a woman. The married

amount of kind and money and accommodation as the ploughmen ; but as he is accounted a skilful servant, and his hours of attendance extend every day from sunrise to sunset, he has leave to keep a small

ploughmen in the south of Scotland are each bound to supply a field -worker to work on the farm during the year, they receiving the wages earned by the workers. They hire the women in the public mar

flock of sheep of his own, which is main- kets, and support them in their houses tained by his master, and the produce of with bed, board, and wages. Should the which he is entitled to dispose of every field -worker obtain constant employment year. His flock consists of half-a - score of on the farm, the ploughman mayprofit by Leicester ewes, one -fifth of which are dis- the arrangement; and on large farms field posed of every year, and for which he is workers are almost constantly employed .

entitled to retain as many ewe-lambs of This obligation on the ploughman had, no his flock as will maintain the full number doubt, arisen at a time when few women

of his breeding ewes. The dog is his own could be persuaded to work in the fields;

property, often purchased at a high rate, and because he is obliged to hire them, and trained with much trouble and solici- they are designated by the odious name of

tude. In the pastoral districts, the shep- bondagers. The obligation has been found herd receives as wages 45 Black -faced fault with, and even represented as a sheep, wbich may be valued at 7s. each, species of slavery ; but the fact is, there is 6 bolls of meal, a cow's keep, a cottage and no more slavery about the matter than in

garden, with potatoes. When the charge the case of the ploughman himself, who

is extensive, two or three cows are allowed, is bound by agreement to work for a year. and wages in meal and sheep besides given The epithet is a nickname, although it is to the assistants. * not used as such, but simply to contra distinguish the female who is so hired 6316. The hedger, being considered a from one bired to do service in the farm day-labourer, gets a smaller proportion of house, and even the latter in many kind than married ploughmen, and more instances works also in the fields.

money, and generally no cow's keep ; and where bothy men are no hedger is hired by the year, but is a day-labourer, and paid in money. Being a skilful man, the hedger never receives less than £40 a-year in value, and more frequently £ 1 a-week .

The

practice is good, because it not only enables the farmer to command a cer tain number of bands at all times , but provides a number of accomplished field workers in every district where it is prac tised : and the consequence has long

He can sow corn , build stacks, and do any- been observed and known , that no such thing that the steward can, and sometimes expert field -workers are to be found any all that the shepherd does besides.

where as in Berwickshire .

No proper

substitutes are found in the women to be

6317. The cattle -man , being viewed as hired out of villages, for, independent of * New Statistical Account of Scotland -- Peeblesshire, T'xceedsmuir, p. 67.

WAGES.

745

many large farmsbeing situate at a dis- self; and hence in those parts field -labour, tance from any village, a village does not being performed by casual field -workers

necessarily supply good field-workers, as I instead of by those steadily trained up to have myself experienced to my vexation ; it from early youth, is necessarily executed and whenever trade is brisk, manufac- in a much inferior manner to that of the

turers not only pick up all the hands Border counties. they can procure in the villages, but the work being done by the piece, at which

6319. On taking a review of the actual con

greater wages can be earned in long dition of all the labourers of the farm , as I have hours than at field -work, a temptation endeavoured to represent it, and comparing the

is presented to the women to desert the bothy men, the question thatoccursto the mind Many manufacturers will not

fields.

is— Which is in the best condition ? My convic

A

tion is, that the ploughmen on the Borders are in

resource of labour like the Border system

the superior position. Let us look into one of their

allow them to assist even at harvest.

many of evening, inferioras ofan avowedly cottagescottages should, therefore, not be yielded by the their are, and you will farmer until a better one has been estab

Its hardships, however, are not felt by the workers themselves, but by the ploughmen , who must engage them; but any hardship can only press on the lished.

probably “seeassembled ,” to use the the family words group of Mr round Grey, Dilston, a cheerful coal-fire - which, by the way, is an inestimable blessing to all classes, but chiefly

to the poor of this country — females knitting or

— the father, perhaps, mending his shoes hind when he has no family and the spinning allacquire)—and one of theyoung (an art almost

work is very limited, and the support of a ones reading for the amusement of the whole field -worker does then press hard upon circle ." “ Contrast this ,” continues Mr Grey, his wages. But where the farm is large, “ with the condition of many young men

the work in consequence constant,and employed as farm -servants in the southern counties, who, being paid board -wages, club the ploughman has daughters, the sys- together to have their comfortless meal in a

tem is a continuous source of income neighbouring cottage, with no house to call

to him, in doing the work in harvest, their home, left to sleep in an outhouse or

paying the rent of thehouse, and receiving hay-loft ,subject to the contamination of idle with no parent's eye to watch their

everything companions, payment for their labour actions, and no parent's voice to warn them of thereby contributing to the common fund their errors ; and say, which situation is best -

of thefamily. The system can have no calculated to promote domestic comfort, family bad effect on the field -workers them-

selves, they being cheerful and happy at work, and well clad on Sundays. Nor

affection, and moral rectitude ? ” Contrast this with a bothy in the winter evenings, when it is the scene of lewd mirth-excited probably by the company of females who have come perhaps

are they ever required to do work beyond from a distance to visit their acquaintances, and

their strength ; for althongh the “ unfemi- who are treated most probably with stolen

nine practice of females driving dung viands, entertained with profanejests and songs, " * has been stated as an objection darkness and afterwards convoyed homewards amidst carts's and wet. against the system , field -workers would drive carts when necessary whether they

6320. “ One very obvious benefit,” observes

were engaged in that mode or in any MrGrey , as regards the married ploughınen, arising to the hind from this mode of paying in other; and, besides, the driving of carts kind besidesat thatcommand, having awhich store ofhaswholesome is no more unfeminine than helping food -always not been to fill them with dung, or turning dung- taxed with theprofits of intermediateagents—is hills. But the fact is, women do not drite

the absence of all temptation which the receipt

carts, in the usual sense of the term ; they of weekly wages, and the necessity of resorting a village or town to buy provisions, hold out only lead the horse, while his driver is at to of spending some part of the money in the ale

more laborious work, to and from the house,which ought to provide for the wants of dunghill to the ridge which is being dunged. thefamily ;and to this circumstance, and to the In the northern counties of Scotland, no domestic employment which their gardens afford

such obligation as the engagement of intheir leisure hours, we are probably much in debted for the remarkable sobriety and exem field-workers exists on the ploughmen, plarymoralconductof the peasantry of the

nor can it coexist with the bothy system, north ; it gives him a personal interest in the

where the ploughman has no house for him- produce of his master's farm, and a desire to * Report of the Cottage Improoement Society of North Northumberland for 1842, p. 51 .

REALISATION .

746

secure it in good condition; it produces a set of the saddler, his work requiring to be local attachments, which often lead to a connec done at long intervals, he can be accom tion between master and servant, of long con modated in the steading — the corn - barn or tinuance." granary being a convenient place. 6321. Beneficially as this system of paying farm -servants in kind has long operated, both for

6323. Smith - work .

-

The degree of

master and servant,it has been stigmatised by wearing to which the iron of the imple form of the truck system ,which has, as is well ments is subjected depends, in a great known, acted so prejudicially against the interests measure, on the nature of the soil of which

of the operatives ofEngland. Before meeting this the farm is composed. When the soil is objection, let us inquire what is the truck sharp and gravelly, it wears down iron

system

of the trucksystem, Mr Macculloch much faster than when it is clay or soft

says that it is " a name given to a practice

mould .

The iron that wears most in

that has prevailed , particularly in the mining

and manufacturing districts, of paying the work is that belonging to the movable wages of workmen in goods instead of money. parts of the plough, such as the coulter The plan has been for the master to esta and share ; and the shoes of the borses.

blish warehouses or shops ; and the workmen

in their employment have either got their wages accounted for to them by supplies of goods from

To protect those parts from wear as much

as possible, it is usual to point and edge such depots, without receiving any money ; or the coulter and share, and to tip the they have got the money, with a tacit or express horses' shoes with steel, which, although

understanding that they were to resort to the incurring greater expense at first, is an warehouses or shops of their masters for such articles as they were furnished with . ” + If this economical expedient in clay and soft be anything like a correct account of the pro soils, inasmuch as the plough -irons nsed perly reprobated truck system , it is clear that it in that class of soils only require repair has no affinity whatever to the payment of wages every few days. But in sharp and gravelly in kind , inasmuch as this has no reference to the soils, steel is a useless expense, for it is money -talue of any article which the hinds receive -and they always receiving the same amount of kind, of course receive the same rate of wages ; whereas the truck system has

found to wear down almost as fast as iron ; and it is therefore more economical

to sharpen the plough -irons every day,

undoubted reference to the money-value of the

than to lay them with steel.

articles dealt out to the operatives ; and that money-value is fixed by the master, whose interest it is either to keep it at as high a rate as practicable, or else to give out articles

other implements, as the harrows, grub bers, &c., the same remark applies ; and

To some

as to those which are seldom used, the

of inferior quality above their worth ; and

difference of expense attending their re

hence the artisan does not always receive the same amount of goods, and is therefore not in

pairs with iron or with steel is immaterial.

the condition of the hind.

ON

THE

FARM SMITH, JOINER , AND SADDLER.

6324. In horses' shoes, it is their fore bit which first wears down ; and, as long as the horses are confined to the farm, there is no harm in their shoes becoming

thin, provided the crust of the hoof is 6322. Iron , wood, and leather com- protected from injury by the ground. In pose the materials of which the imple- some parts of the country, the shoes of ments of the farm are made ; and these farm -horses are made in a preposterous being in constant use, are always in a fashion . They are thick and heavy, being

state of gradual decay, and require al- provided with high caulkers and broad most daily repair. To effect the repairs, and thick fore-bits, elevating the horse a

it may be impracticable to send the considerable height above the ground, and implements to the nearest town, or even endangering his tramping himself in the village. Where either exceeds one mile turnings at the landings, or in backing from the farm , much time is lost in taking and turning in the cart. All that is

everything thither, and bringing it back required is a slight turning up or thicken again ; so that it becomes incumbent on ing of the heels, and particularly of the the farmer to provide for his use a smithy, outer heels, and a little thickening of the and a joiner's shop near at hand. As to fore -bit of the shoe, ( 1546) to ( 1556. ) * Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, vol. ii. p. 186-8. + M Culloch's Commercial Dictionary - art. Truck System .

1

THE JOINER .

747

On disusing thehigh shoes myself, against every implement in use in working order the practice of the country where I farmed, throughout the year. It is not incumbent the smith assured me tbat lameness from on bim to renew any article, but only to straining would soon overtake the horses ; mend it when broken, and repair it when but, notwithstanding his forebodings, not worn . Every new article is paid for in a single case of tramping or lameness ever full. In some parts of the country, smiths occurred afterwards. Tramps are danger- will not enter into contracts for upholding

ous, besides causing blemishes on the foot; iron-work, as was the case in Forfarsbire for, when serious, they may cause quittor,

when I farmed there ; and it is no want

which may terminate in ring-bone, and in of charity to ascribe the unwillingness to consequence chronic lameness. a consciousness of being able to make more money by job -work .

6325. The horses should not be neglected 6327. Few farms are so large as to in their shoeing. It is not an unfrequent neglect to allow the shoes to remain on afford full employment to a smith ; and it till they become loose, or the crust of the is not the smith alone that must be con

hoof grows beyond them ; in either case stantly employed, but his apprentice also , the horses run the risk of being lamed , whom it isnecessary for him to engage, to

and, if not moving upon soft earth, they enable himto get through the heavy parts would inevitably acquire thrushes and of his work that require the use of the corns. The shoes should not be allowed sledge -hammer, which the forging of shoes to be worn so thin as to endanger their does. If the smith's forge is so conve breaking, nor to remain so long on as to piently situate as that the horses from

geta seatinto the hoof. When the shoeing three or four farms can easily attend it, is taken by the smith by contract, he is the smith may execute all the work in bis apt to persuade the men to let the shoes own smithy ; but when a farm is too far hang on as long as they can ; but the off, a smithy must be erected for him on steward should see to the state of the the farm , where he does up all his work horses' feet, and order them to the smithy for the time. In this case, it is not un whenever he concejves it necessary , I usual for the farmer to supply the iron, am aware that shoeing often interferes coals, and tools, and the smith to contract with the time for field -work ; but, in the for the labour only. Under any species busy season, the horses should be sent to of agreement, the farmer should insist on the smithy in the evening, with a bundle the smith having a large assortment of of grass ; and when the smith has shoes shoes ready forged, of sizes to suit the feet

ready forged, which he should always of the different horses, that no unnecessary have, not much time need be lost.

delay be occasioned in the smithy when a

pair require a new set of shoes. This 6326. There are two ways of having condition is the more necessary , that smith-work executed on a farm , one by smiths do not care how long they detain the job, the other by contract. The mode horses, provided they can secure the assis

by day's-work is expensive: the jobs being tance of the ploughman at the sledge multitudinous in the course of a year, no hammer, and thereby save the expense of

efficient check can be placed against fraud. keepinga stout apprentice. The most satisfactory way isto have the business done by contract throughout the 6328. Joiner -work . — The wear of the year ; and the simplest mode of contract wooden part of implements is not sensibly is to take, as a standard of expense, the affected by the nature of the soil. If a

upholding of the most active portions of wooden plough is put to unusually rough the iron -work of a farm - namely, the plough - irons and horses' shoes. Taking these as a criterion , it has been ascertained from experience that £3 a -year for every pair of horses is a fair estimate of smithwork on a farm . For this sum the smith binds himself to uphold plough -irons, horses' shoes, and all the malleable iron of

work , such as trench -ploughing or tearing up old rough natural lea, its parts may become strained , and even broken , and

require renewal; but ploughs are now generally made of iron, and are placed

wholly under the charge of the smith . Carts, however, suffer much- when stones

are driven for buildings and dykes , and

.

748

REALISATION .

tiles or stones for drains. In such a case, and immediately after the throng time in if old carts have not been purchased for spring. He is either paid day's wages,

the occasion, it is prudent in the contract- and provides himself with leather and ing joiner to line the bodies of the carts every other material, or these are supplied with slabs of common fir or willow, to him ; or be undertakes to support the

protect the proper lining from injury. I harness in working order by contract. I purchased a couple of old carts for 50s. have been accustomed to see saddlery a-piece, and also old seasoned horses to repairs paid in day's wages ; but when a work in them , when there was much build- contract is made, it costs 30s. a -year for

ing and draining to be executed on the farm ; every pair of horses. The parts of the and they withstood the rough work for harness that require most repair are the three years, when they were disposed of. collars and saddles, where these are in constant contact with the horse's skin, and

6329. The contract with the joiner is the paddings of which should be restuffed

also £3 a-year for every pair of horses, every half-year,and the cloth renewed, if for which sum he binds himself to mend

threadbare or in the least rotten, which

every article broken in the work, such as it soon becomes, by the sweat of the

wheels, bodies, and shafts of carts, handles horses. The clippings of sheep, accumu of the minor implements, and the wood - lated during the season , when washed and work connected with the other imple- properly dried, coming from the coarsest ments, and also to paint them . For a new part of the wool, make good and cheap

article, such as a cart, wheels, or har- stuffing for collars and saddles, (3939.) rows, he is paid its price ; nor does he up hold the field -gates, nor any of the gates 6332. Care should be taken to mend every broken part of the leather, in order about the steading . to prevent rain in winter and drought in 6330. The accounts of the smith and summer penetrating into the interior of

joiner should be settled half-yearly, at the the harness, and rotting or hardening take this opportunity of impressing upon used, as being the mostthrifty in the end,

terms of Whitsunday and Martinmas. I it. The best leather ought always to be

you earnestly the great injustice done to a and it consists of well-tanned ox-hide,

tradesman, by disappointing him of the ( 1836.) Untanned sheepskin is employed

settlement of his accounts when they be- to sew on the capes of the collars, (6171. ) come due. He has made his arrangements Saddlersare not bound to uphold the iron

with those who supply him with materials, work of harness, such as plough-chains. and he cannot keep his promise with them as long as his accounts remain un-

6333. Opportunity of a stormy day,

settled ; and, in consequence , his credit when the horses cannot work, should be suffers and bis profits are diminished. You taken to clean the harness. Work in ought to be made acquainted that, in gene- summer and autumn not only dirties, but

ral, tradesmen in the country will suffer renders the leather of harness very dry ; considerable privation ere they will complain to their employers, in the fear of losing their custom. Credit is the source of much mischief to small tradesmen in the country . It is no doubt a good thing

and if allowed to be long in that state, it cracks. The barness should first be washed clean with a sponge and warm water, and hung up for that day to dry. The next day it should be rubbed over with a bit of

in the town, where a bank is ready to fannel steeped in sweet linseed -oil, parti assist the industrious tradesinan for a short cularly on the outside; for the side con

time, but the business of agriculture ought stantly next the horse's skin may not on all occasions to be conducted in ready require oiling at all, though it will require

money. This is the understanding of every washing to remove incrusted perspiration person who attends a fair in the country, and hair. If blacking is used at all, it should not be put on until the day after the oil has been absorbed by the leather ; 6331. Saddlery . — The saddler usually but I see no use of blacking at all, save

and a market in the market-town .

comes twice a -year and repairs the har- only to make the harness look better. The ness -- at the end of the work in autumn, blacking, when used, should be of the best

CARE OF IMPLEMENTS.

749

shoe-blacking, which costs 1s. per quart construction ; and are therefore less affected bottle ; and if judiciously put on with a by changes of the weather, as well as soft brush in small quantity, and brushed less costly when renewed, than those of firmly with a hard one, it will go over a more complicated construction, which are largequantity of harness. The lamp-black used for ashort time at certain seasons. commonly used for the purpose is filthy, 6336. The implement most frequently coming off and staining everything in the first rain ; and the common train -oil,usually in use is the plough, and, being the chief employed to soften the leather, is still one for operating upon the soil,is con

more filthy, being not unfrequently daubed stantly exposed in the field.

When it

on with a wisp of straw upon encrusted was commonly made of wood, exposure dirt, (676) to (686 ), and ( 1832) to ( 1840.) caused its decay much sooner than now, when it is wholly constructed of iron. Of

6334. It is the interest of the contrac- so much use is the plough, that, were one tors to make efficient repairs in all those to be seen stowed away in theimplement materials, and not to allow the wear of house, the conclusion would instantly be

the implements to proceed so far as to drawn that it was an old and worn-out one, cause repairs nearly as extensive as a re- or so ill-constructed and useless that it

newal ; and, on the other band, when had to be set aside. Fig. 552. repairs are paid in day's wages, it is as much the tradesman's interest that the 6337. Harrows being the implement

same implement shall require frequent most commonly in use next to theplough, repairs. So well practised is this maneuvre in some places where jobs are paid by day's wages, that ploughmen are bribed by the smith to bring their ploughirons, and even their horses, in turns to the smithy every night, whether repairs

are much in the field, and exposed to the weather ; and, though made entirely of wood, last a long time. Not being re

quired in winter, they are then removed from the field ,and placed in the implement house. The tines are usually laid and made

are required or not; and they are also sharp once a -year, and winter is the most bribed by thejoiner to break the helves proper time,justbefore the commencement of the minor implements whenever they of the oat-seed in spring. Harrows and

come much into use. Such a species of ploughs are seldom painted after being roguery, it is hoped, is rare ; and I do not made ; but the harrows should be cleaned

speak of it from my own experience, and painted when set past. Fig. 553. but from that of others, although I am not

unwilling to believe it. The steward ought 6338. The roller being only occasionally to take a strict cognisance of all repairs, in use, in pulverising the soil, and rolling and detect every attempt at roguery. theyounggrass and spring crops in spring, and in pulverising the soil in summer ON THE CARE DUE TO THE IMPLEMENTS.

fallow , it is replaced in its shed whenever its services are no longer wanted. It

should always be set past in a state of

6335. The farmer is often charged with complete repair, that disappointment may neglecting his implements, by unnecessary not ensue at the moment it is desired to

exposure to the weather ; and the charge employ it ; and the wood- work should be is partially well-founded, although those painted occasionally. who make

do not understand

cause

of the apparent neglect. Implements are used both within and without doors ; and those used without doors may be divided into such as are in use every season , and only occasionally. It is scarcely to be expected that implements very frequently

6339. The small ploughs, such as the

ribbing and double mould -board plough, being used chiefly in summer, are allowed to lie too long in the fields after their employment bas ceased ; and, if removed before winter sets in, are placed in the im

used in operating upon the soil,can beother- plement-house dirty and worn. When no wise than constantly exposed to the wea- longer required, theyought tobescraped ther. Fortunately, on the score of economy, clean of earth, and the irons laid, before the implements thus employed are of simple being put aside in the implement-shed.

750

REALISATION .

6340. There are few implements which neglected of grease ; and as to their bodies receive less regard, when not in use, than and wheels being washed, nota mop is used the whole class of scufflers and grubbers, or a drop of water ever thrown upon them which get leave to remain at the sides of —and they only receive ablution from a head-ridges, and corners of turnip and shower of rain , or an occasional passage potato fields, perhaps the whole winter. across the ford of a river. A hole in the

Many of them being made entirely of iron, bottom or sides gets leave to enlarge, and a do not suffer much,it is true, of deteriora- wheel-ring is allowed to become loose, till

tion from weather ; but, being composed some day it flies off altogether, to the risk of wedges, and screw -bolts — these suffer mishap occurs from home, it tells strongly from exposure, and execute their work against the steward's attention to his

of many small parts — of tines, coulters, breaking down the felloes. When such a

indifferently on becoming worn. Instead, duties, and places bim in an awkward therefore, of being permitted to lie disre- position with his master. garded inthe fields,their worn parts should be immediately repaired, and themselves 6344. All the in-door implements, as the thrashing-machine, should be cleaned placed in the implement-shed. out thoroughly every time a different kind

6341. All the classes of the more deli- of corn is to be thrashed, otherwise the cately constructed machines, as the grass- samples of grain will be rendered impure.

seed, drill -sowing, and turnip - sowing The gudgeons are usually oiled every time longer in the field than when in use ; but, thrashing machinerequiresrepair it should

machines, are seldom allowed to remain the mill is in use, ( 1746.) Wherever a

though removed from the field , they are receive it immediately, otherwise a serious

too frequently allowed to remain unheeded and expensive fracture may ensue. in the neighbourhood of the steading for a considerable time. Some, having no better

6345. Holes in sacks and in barn and

place to put them, take them to the stack- chaff -sheets should be instantly repaired, yard and cover them with straw. Instead by patching and darning; nor should a of this treatment, they should be imme- broken mesh in a riddle be overlooked, so

diately repaired, taken to pieces and as to render the trouble of clean-winnowing cleaned, the journals greased , and the grain unavailing. separate partsstowed away in the imple ment-house.

6346. The fitting up of the implement house, for the accommodation of the liner

6342. The class of small manual imple- and smaller implements, should be so done ments, as turnip-hoes, spreading-graips, as to keep the floor nearly unencumbered,

dung-hawks, hay -knives, scythes, if not placed in the implement-house whenever not in use, many of them will be lost. When scythes and hoes get worn, they

and give free access to every particular implement required at a time. Wheels, loose shafts, and angular pieces of iron, are best suspended against a wall from

should be thrown into the old -iron store,

iron bolts. Articles of length, such as sowing-boxes, are best supported against a wall upon brackets. Small articles of

and their belves furnished with new ones.

6343. Of all implements, carts, per- iron and of other materials, are best kept haps, receive the worst treatment. Though upon shelves. Hand-hoes, weed -hooks, much in use in the fields, they are never and suchlike, are best placed in framed

left there, it is true, and are brought to the stands. Scythes are best suspended from steading, but too seldom are put under the balks,and where are no balks from nails cover, and are exposed to every species in the wall. The bodies of small ploughs, of weather - whether to the shrinking grubbers, scufflers, should be placed along

power of the sun's rays in summer, or the the foot of the walls, and kept in their posi rotting effects of the damps and rains tion with cords fastened to staples driven of winter ; and, considering that carts are into the walls. If every implement were

constructed of many parts, the wonder is put into its own place at the end of its

they last so long with the treatment they season, confusion would be avoided, and receive.

Their axles are not

quently many more articles find accommodation in

EXPERIMENTS .

751

the implement-house, than when everything to make an alteration in his machinery ,or is put down anywhere, without regard to in the pattern , fabric, or colour of his order. To maintain order in the arrange- manufacture, he may go on producing the ment of the implements in the implement- same results for an indefinite length of time.

house requires firmness on the part of the The farmer, on the other hand, cannot pro steward ; but the enforcement of order duce any determinate result ; -he is more carries this conviction with it, that it is likely either to fall short of, or to over easier to put a thing in its own place than shoot, his mark ; and it is to the inter

anywhere else, inasmuch as the place mediate result, between the two extremes which the farmer experiences, thatthe idea

allotted for it contains and retains it in the

best state and position. The cart-shed V, of an average crop is attached. Unless a Plate II., forms a good store for all the correct idea of such an average has been

larger implements against the back wall; formed , the comparative yield of a farm and were cross-beams put upon the wall cannot be estimated from the crop of any heads, they would contain many others. one year. Whatever, then , a farmer does

The smaller 'implements would be well on his farm , may be regarded in the light stowed as directed above in the large out- of an experiment. house g', which might also answer for other purposes.

6349. Yet although his ordinary opera tions are attended with uncertainty in

their results, they are not regarded or con ON MAKING EXPERIMENTS ON THE FARM .

ducted by him as experiments, their un

certainty being anticipated. His true 6347. It now only remains for me to experiments, like those of other persons,

notice a few subjects which personally are made to discover unknown effects, or to

affect the farmer himself ; and the first of confirm dubious ones. Such experiments these is, when he makes experiments in are constantly undertaken by farmers, not the field , the plan he should follow in as a class, but individually ; and they are conducting them. conducted on a small scale, quietly, inde

pendently, unnoticed. The knowledge 6348. The farmer may be regarded as a gained by such experiments renders him

great and constant practical experimenter; wiser, and their beneficial effects are for although all his operations are sup- evidenced in his improved practice. posed to produce known results, yet the actual results obtained are often not as

6350. The present period, with farmers,

anticipated. When he works his land for is pre-eminently one of experiment. It is wheat or for turnips, the operations being generally understood that experiments in directed to a special end, he is certain farming are being made over the whole of reaping a crop of wheat or of turnips, kingdom, and that they are now conducted

and thus far he does not run the frequent by farmers as a class. The reason that ex risk of an experimenter — a total failure ; periments are more universally undertaken but the amount of crop obtained may now than heretofore is, that they have not

be very different from what he expected originated so much with farmers them -it may be better, or it may be worse. selves, as at the suggestion of others. He may work his land in the most favour- Many substances have been recommended able circumstances, and after all reap but to their notice as valuable manures, (4974, )

a scanty and ill-conditioned crop ; or his of whose properties they were entirely operations may have been frequently in- unacquainted, and with whose ultimate terrupted by the weather, yet he may results they are still unsatisfied . be rewarded at the end of the season with

a bountiful return . Uncertainty of result attends not one, but all his crops; and it is not confined to the operations connected with one, but extends to those of every season. In this view , no profession depends so much on future contingencies as

6351. The farmers' position as regards their own operations, in as far as experi ments extend, is uncommon and even anomalous. Experiment has placed all their operations in a state of transition ; for, let its results be what they may,

farming. Unless the manufacturer wishes there is no doubt they will exert a power

REALISATION .

752

ful influence over the practice of the no elements of comparison exist between future, but whether it will be for the wheat and oats. The ground should also better or the worse remains to be seen. be ploughed in the same manner, which is

This state of uncertainty suggests to my mind a doubt of the results being so favourable to farming as are expected by the suggesters of the experiments. I am sure thatthe experimentswill be conducted in sincerity, and the facts observed with

care, though, perhaps, not at the time, and with the kind of observation they require ; for, the experiments having been suggested by others, with substances with the nature of which the experimenters are unacquainted, the conclusionsmay not be legitimately drawn from

a point of greater importance than may be imagined. I have known, in a field of lea, of strong soil, the ridges gathered up yield a better crop of oats than those cast together; and I have also seen gathered up ridges free from grub, whilst cast ones were affected by that complaint. Mr Stevenson, Redside,EastLothian, obtained a difference in the crop, on different ridges, whose furrow -slices lay in opposite direc tions. No reason could be assigned for either of those differences ; but they were sufficiently observable to show, that one

the facts ; and conclusions arrived at mode of ploughing land, and one aspect of

by other persons will carry no convic- the furrow -slices, affect the crop in a differ tion to the minds of the experimenters ent manner from another mode of plough themselves, inasmuch as the connection be- . ing and another aspect. I have frequently tween the premises and such conclusions heard it stated, that the crop on the fur may not be obvious to them . The true rows lying to the W. or to the S. is better

way for the farmer to feel a personal than on those lying to the N. or the E. interest in experiments is to obtain Some difference of effectmust be produced

some knowledge of chemistry ; and the by the aspect of ridges, for it is clear that only way for the scientific man to know

a S. aspect will bear a better crop than a

what experiments to suggest, and what N. one, otherthings being equal. But conclusions to draw, is to acquire some even if the grain of the experiment and of

knowledge of agriculture. efforts of both

The united the crop were the same, if the experiment

parties, thus qualified, were made in a different field, at a diffe

might then produce results which singly rent period of the rotation, on a different

may prove nugatory, (210.) As you will, kind of soil, in a different situation, and at no doubt, be desirous of trying experiments, a different season of the year, it is obvious and may perhaps be placed in the position that no common grounds of comparison

I have described of conducting experiments would exist between the two cases, and the suggested by others, it may assist you in particulars of the one would be no guide for obtaining the results more satisfactorily directing those of the other. Every parti to be made acquainted with a few practical cular in the cases must therefore be alike. rules by which all field experiments should be conducted .

6353. Another important object should be to include as much land in each experi 6352. The primary object in every ex- ment as will allow it to be properly

periment should be tomake it comparative ploughed and treated. Land is usually in its circumstances as regards the field, soil, situation, time, and labour, with a crop raised in the ordinary way. Withoutmaking such an extensive comparison, no satis-

ploughed in 2 or 4 ridges. If gathered up, ( 749,) cast, (755 ,) and ploughed crown-and -furrow , 2 ridges will suffice; but if ploughed 2-out and 2-in, ( 760,) or

factory conclusion will be arrived at, since no common ground would exist by which to measure the gain or loss obtained by the experiment. The experiment should

even 4 -out and 4-in, then 4 or 8 ridges should be appropriated to each experiment, otherwise the results will not be compara tide. And in all cases the ridges should

also be made on the same kind of crop as

run in the same direction. Instead, there

the one with which it is compared. For example : If the field is in lea, which it is intended to plough up for oats, then the proposed experiment should be made on oats, not on wheat, upon the lea ; for

fore, of previously fixing the quantity of land to be apportioned to each experi ment, the number of ridges should be ap propriated to each experiment accordingto the mode in which the land had pre

EXPERIMENTS.

753

viously been ploughed ; and the quantity Were each experiment confined to the part of land occupied by those ridges depends ofthe field in which it happened to be made upon their length ,so that the quantity may in a patch, the comparison would be worth be ), d, , or 1 acre or more of land, as less, for both soil and aspect might differ

the case may be. Minuter fractions of in opposite sides of a field and at opposite land, such as of an acre along part of ends of a ridge. Every experiment should, one ridge, will not do, because we have therefore, be repeated at least twice in the seen that two ridges must always be same field ; and the more often the better. ploughed together, and their furrowslices must always be in opposite directions ;

6357. This injunction naturally leads to

and we have also seen that ordinarycrops another, which recommends the experi vary on furrow -slices, having different ments to be made with a very limited directions and aspects. As short ridges number of materials. Better make experi are never well ploughed, an eighth of an ments in double and treble repetitions with acre gives only 50 yards along two ridges, three or four materials across a whole field, which is too short adistance to be ploughed than one experiment only with twelve or as it ought to be ; while, of course, a fifteen materials. There evidently exists a

quarter of an acre would give 100 yards strong desire in experimenters to try a of ridges, which is short enough for good

large number of ingredients, and their mix

ploughing - and if longer, so much the tures, at one and the same time in the same better. I would say, then, that a quarter field, thereby greatly increasing the trouble

of an acre, along at most two ridges, is attendant in observing the minutiæ of each the least space of ground that shouldbe experiment,enhancing the risk oferror, and taken to conduct any experiment upon. confusing the elements of true comparison . The reason for employing so manymaterials

6354. For these reasons, the experimen- at a time is evident andnatural ; it is, that

talportions ofground should occupy ridges, the larger number of materials may exhibit and not rectangular patches staked out their results in the shortest time- but those

Patches results are of no practical use if not pro may be differently affected by the weather duced as comparisons with ordinary prac -whether by rain, or sunshine, or wind tice; and results cannot be compared when - from the common ridges which stretch one ingredient is used in one patch of a from one side of a field to the other. field , and the ordinary crop is spread They may present different aspects at over it from side to side, and from end to

across the middle of the field .

different parts of the field. The soil may end. differ in them . But entire ridges are more likely to bave similar soil, similar aspect, 6358. Another very important consider

and certainly similar treatment, in the ation is the quantity of the ingredients same part of the field , than patches are used in the experiments. Some experi likely to receive. menters only apply as much per acre as amounts to a certain determinate cost ;

6355. In fixing the portions of a field for experiment, part of the ground shonld intervene in its ordinary state between each experiment; for the comparison will not be so fair over the entire field if the

because, if the increased result derived from the ingredient does not amount to that sum, they are considered unprofitable. I consider such a principle based on error, because the market value of any ingredient

experiment beconfined to a particular part is no test of its intrinsic worth ;for we of it, though it should extend across its know that the guano which is sold for £10

whole length.

When experimental por- per ton is worth three times, in its results,

tions are thus separated from one another, to that sold for £ 7. If, therefore, 2cwt.of the ground of demarcation between each one ingredient give the same result, at the experiment will be so distinctly marked out same cost, as 1 cwt. of another ingredient,

that no risk of confounding the experi- it does not follow that the former is just mental plots can arise.

as much worth as the latter ; for, had it

been lessened by chance to il cwt., the

6356. The same experiment should be result might have been nugatory, and even repeated on different ridges of the field. injurious; whereas. if the 1 cwt. bad been VOL. II .

3 B

754

REALISATION .

increased to 1ļ cwt., the result might have pared with ordinarypractice, no practical been double to that obtained from the 2

cwt. The price of an article is, therefore, no rule to judge by of a manure, for that

use will come out of the experiment. 6360. Manures of whatever kind shonld

is dependent on the scarcity or abundance be applied to the soil by thesame means. of the article, or the difficulty attending Oneought not to be applied by hand, and its manufacture. What I considerthe most another by machinery ; one in a dry state, satisfactory mode of applying all ingre- another in a state of solution, if it be de

dients, whose action is unknown, is to find sired to make the experiment compara out the largest quantity of each which tive. The states of the manures may be will produce such an excess of crop as to varied, but then they should be applied in do sensible harm , and also the smallest the different states in the same circum

quantity of each that will produce a stances as in ordinary practice, to render sensible effect. Having these two ex- the comparison of any value. tremes, we have data by which to judge whether the price will permit you to pur6361. Every article applied to the soil

chase as much as will yield an increased in experimentshould be weighed. There and profitable crop. I see no other way is no difficulty in weighing specific man of really getting at the true value of any ures which are of little bulk, but ordinary unknown ingredient of manure.

manures cannot be weighed in a field

without the assistance of a steelyard. 1 6359. When a comparative experiment have often experienced this inconvenience is to betriedwith differentkinds ofmanure, in the field ; but now the convenient

the land should be manured when in the machines manufactured by Messrs Craig period of the day, and on the crop orcrops Smith and Co., Paisley, afford every faci

same state, on the same day, at the same and Co., Liverpool, ( 3639,) and Messrs

for weighing any article of manure, on at the same age; for I have obtained very lity the spot of the experiment, with the ut applied in the forenoon and afternoon of the most accuracy and ease. The only prac

different results from the same manure

same day on the potato, and on the turnip crop. It is the same with specific or a mixture of specific manures. For example, it will not do to try different specific manures upon grass which has been laid down after

ticable way of ascertaining the quantity of farmyard manure to be applied, where no steelyard is in the field, isto fill the cart with an ordinary load, and let special notice be taken how far the body of the

potatoes, against that laid down after tur- cart is filled, in the loose state, before it is

nips ; nor upon a grain crop after turnips sent to the steading to be weighed on the

which had been eaten off with sheep, steelyard — for I take it for granted that a against the same kind of crop upon land large stationary steelyard is put up as a from which the turnips had been carried necessary machine at every steading; and off altogether. Comparative experiments if all the subsequent loads are filled to the could, no doubt, be made on these differ- same degree, by the same people, and with

ent conditions of grass, and of crop after the same sort of manure, the weight of employed ; but different specific manures terially. If notice of the bulk of the turnips, were the same specific manure one cart from another will not differ ma

will not give comparative results in different circumstances. In like manner, it will not do to apply different specific manures to different sorts of wheat, bar-

cart-load had not been taken before it was sent off to the steading to be weighed, the compressed state of the load, occasioned by travelling on the road to and from the

ley, or oats, as each variety of grain may possess such an idiocrasy as to be very differently affectedin similarcircumstances, and the results obtained from such circum-

steading, will give a wrong idea of the weight of the future loads. Every dif ferent cart employed should have the weight of its first load ascertained, as well

stances would not be comparative. Experiments may be made on different varieties of crop in different circumstances, without reference to comparison at all ; but unless the results of experiments are com-

weight. Such apparently own weight. as its own trifling matters are too apt to be over looked, and yet it is they alone which give the power of conviction to any experiment.

EXPERIMENTS.

755

6362. On collecting the produce of ex- that is applied in small quantities. The periments, every article should be carefully surprising effects of small quantities of weighed or measured. Corn should be bone- dust and guano have tended much

stooked in the same manner, allowed to of late years to remove that prejudice from But, after all, they may stacked, should be put in the same size of commit such inadvertent errors, at the

remain in the field the same time, and, if their minds.

stack, built in the samemanner. I attach very consummation of the experiment, as more importance to this last remark on to render its results entirely nugatory ;

stacking than it may seem to possess, be- and such errors are the more likely to

cause I knew a stacker, the corn from the be committed if any operation has to be stacks built by whom always came out in performed in a different manner from raw condition ; and the reason was that what they have been accustomed to do

he did not heart his stacks sufficiently, them . Many experimenters have, doubt

( 4623.) I observe that experimenters less, experienced great disappointment generally thrash and weigh the crop ob- from even one inadvertent mistake com

tained by experiment immediately after it mitted by the thoughtlessness or stupidity has been collected, instead of stacking it. The grain thus new thrashed from the ground is not in the same state as it usually is from the farm , where it is invariably stacked for a timebefore being brought to

of a moment. Delay the application of a single specific manure, or the sowing of a variety of seed , till the next morning, when it ought to bave been done the even ing before - mix a single sheaf from the

the market : it will be in a raw condition, produce of one portion of ground with that and neither it nor the straw will indicate of another - weigh a single article wrong, their true weights. The crop should

whether of manure or of crop - set down

therefore be stacked for a time, to equalise both the grain and straw in colour, weight, and condition. On taking up experimental turnips, the whole break should be

the number of one article for that of another, and the entire experiment is ren dered utterly worthless as to the propor tions and comparison of results, and even

taken up and weighed at the same time, as the absolute results cannot be depended on. considerable risk of error will be incurred Incessant superintendence, therefore, on by taking up and weighing only a portion, the part of the farmer himself, is the only and then measuring the entire ground at chance of preventing the occurrence of one once. In removing the experimental crop, serious mistake. of whatever kind, an equal extent of the ordinary crop should be removed at the 6364. Not to encumber the subject of same time, and not a fractional part experiment with a multiplicity of objects, merely ; and all calculations should be I have purposely only referred to experi made from the entire extent of each por- ments to be made in the field, to the ex tion of ground subjected to experiment, clusion of those which ought also to be and not from a fraction. Attention to all made with live stock. With these the

such particulars involves much time and difficulty is at least equally great, if not trouble, and creates no little anxiety of greater, which I believe it to be, than with

mind ; but the time must be spent, the plants ; for although all animals of the attention bestowed, and the anxiety en- same kind and of the same age seem as dured, if we wish to arrive at the truth. much alike as are the same classes of soils, and the same food seems as much alike as

6363. In conducting experiments, the farmer has practical difficulties to contend with. He cannot manipulate himself - he must depend for assistance on his people ; and though he must regard them as assistants, they are so entirely ignorant of the nature of the ingredients employed as to require not only to be taught how to conduct the experiment, but to appreciate its means : they being disposed to regard with contempt any substances as a manure

the same sorts of special manures, yet the constitution of one animal is more varied from that of another than the functions of one plant are from those of another. It is therefore almost impossible to ascertain the comparative value of different kinds of food, when given to differentanimals of even the same age and condition . And even

the same food administered to the same animal will produce different results at different times, in consequence of the

REALISATION .

756

different state of the health of the animal ; pleaded for the experimenter being so highly qualified as the suggester, it is clear that he who and at a different season of the year. is to conduct the experiment ought to know as 6365. Noting the progress of experiments in the

much about it as he who only suggested it. When the suggester is an eminent chemist, and

field is attendedwith immense difficulties. The the experimenter a practical farmer,the latter is soil is so varied in its component parts, the best not expected to be so highly qualified inchemistry manures are so varied in their composition, the as theformer. But what Iwould desire to see constituents of plants are so numerous and

is, a series of experiments conducted in the fields

various, and the vital force exerts so inexplicable an influence upon plants in relation to the soil, manure, and season, that to anticipate any result simply by a process of ratiocination is impossible.

by a thoroughly practicalfarmer who is also an eminent chemist. The results obtained under the observations and conclusions of such a man could not fail to carry conviction to the mind of

No mind can possibly trace the progress of action every farmer and of every chemist. And, failing which is constantly going on in the soil and in such a union of qualifications in the same per

the air, in reference to the growth and maturity son , the next best arrangement to afford satis When we, therefore , use a faction would be to see experiments conducted large number of means to produce a desired end, in the fields by a really intelligent practical we only multiply the elements

of a single plant.

from which we

farmer, and superintended by an eminent chemist.

have to draw deductions, and thereby the more increase the difficulty.

6369. In regard to the use of special manures,

6366. We may obtain some definite notions of

such a difficulty by considering the qualifications which a suggester of field experiments should

it is necessary to make use of only such sub stances as are more or less directly soluble in

water, ” observes Professor Johnston. “ And when mixtures of substances are employed, they

possess, and they will be found to be neither few ought to be in such a state of chemical combina nor unimportant. He should know the substances of which the plant to be experimented on con-

tion as not to act upon and render one another insoluble. Where these two rules are neglected,

sists—the functions performed in plants by their the immediate action of the single substance, or organic and inorganic or mineral constituents .

of the mixture employed, is not to be depended

the functions of the several parts of plants — the upon, and may not becomesensible within a given habits and analogies of the species of plants on

time. It is scarcely possible to judge of the

which experiments are to be made, and of their effect of an application which is not in a condi several varieties of what the soil consists — the differences of soils arising from their geological

tion to act immediately and to expend itsaction within a known period ; to compare it with the

origin - the effects of local geologyand physical action of other substances; or to say how far it geography - the general habitsand , principal varieone, and ought to be re ties, constitutionaltendencies, especially the may peatedbe ora profitable discontinued. Patents have been structure of the digestive organs of the domes-

taken out in this country for patent manures, the

ticated animals on which the experiments in peculiarity of which was, that such of their con feeding are to be made — the exact state of our stituents as were readily soluble in water should theoretical knowledge upon points akin to those not be rendered very sparingly soluble, and thus on which the proposed experiments are intended be liberated slowly in the soil,and slowly worked to throw light - the clear and definite end, prac-

up by the plant. But the principle was a bad

tical or theoretical, for which the experiments one, and hence the want of success which has are recommended to be undertaken. He must

attended both the manufacture, and the numerous

know what compounds of each of the substances which are present in the soil and in the plant are soluble-to what extent they are solubleand in what way they affect the solubility of each

trials from time to time made with those manures.

other when mixed together in the soil, or in an

6370. Another consideration in the employ ment of saline ingredients, in experiment, as

artificial manure . Then he will know how to

manures , is that the different substances should

feed his plants ; when , and with what they have be used in quantities corresponding totheir been fed "; and how to judge of an experimental trial - how far it has succeeded, or what may be the cause of its failure.

6367. “ In the maker of the experiments, all this knowledge isnot required. He cannot possess too much of it -- for none of it would be

chemical equivalents. The following is a list of equivalents amongst the salts mentioned : 69.2 Carbonate of potash ( pearl-ash ,) Carbonate of soda (soda-ash ,) Nitrate of potash , Nitrate of soda, Sal-ammoniac ,

superfluous or without its use ; but scrupulous

Sulphate of potash,

fidelity and accuracy in all his proceedings, a

Sulphate of soda (dry ,)

careful observation and detail of appearances ,

Sulphate of ammonia ,

and a conscientious record of results, are the most essential qualifications on his part." 6368. Notwithstanding the non -necessity here

Sulphate of magnesia (crystallised ,) Sulphate of lime (gypsum ,)

53.4 101.3 85.4 53.5

87.2 71.6 80.3 123.8

86.6

For example, if an experiment is to be made with the nitrate of potash against the nitrate of

* Johnston's Experimental Agriculture, p. 6 to 37.

CORN MARKETS.

757

soda, 101.3 lb. of the nitrate of soda ought not granaries there. When the market-town to be taken, because 101.3 lb. of the nitrate of is situate in the interior of the country, potash had been taken, but only 85.4 lb. of the

nitrate ofsoda — which isitsequivalentquantity the merchants and brewersattendthe to the preceding number of the other salt.

market there from the nearest sea -port. In a corn district, from which most of the

6371. As a further incentive to those desirous produce is carried away to large towns or conducting of give experiments, it may on prore useful manufacturing districts, it ismost con to a few generalobservations the action

of manureswhich have now beenestablished venient for the shipment of grain that by pretty extensiveexperience. Farmyarddung corn -merchants reside in sea-port towns. is the paramount meansof fertility on the farm, The purchase of grain is chiefly carried it is the farmer's sheet-anchor, and everyother on inwinter, when the farmer has his crop

manuremust be regarded only asauxiliaries. to dispose of. Brewers anddistillerschiefly

It is indispensableina dry season, and superior buy barley for malting ,millers and bakers

to all manures then.

6372. Saline manures , as top -dressings, are

better for the cereal crops than the phosphates.

6373. Phosphates are better for turnips, and yield more grain, than saline manures.

chiefly wheat and oats, and merchants every species of grain . The market for barley commences the season , wheat and

oats being then disposed of according to the demand for them ; but after March

the demand for wheat and oats increases, 6374. Nitrogenous substances have a good to supply the consumption until next effect on the weight of grain. 6375. Sulphated bones are not a good top dressing for oats ; they are better ploughed into

harvest, and that for barley decreases. 6383. Corn -markets are of two kinds,

the soil than as a top-dressing to any crop. stock and sample markets. A sample They induce a large yield of the grain of wheat. market is that in which farmers bring a 6376. Guano is invaluable to turnips, but is handful of each kind of grain they wish to

not a good top-dressing to any ofthe cerealcrops. disposeof, exhibit them to the purchasers, It is assisted bycommon salt in dry weather, and deliver the grain at an appointed time and by sulphate of soda in damp.

6377. Common salt acts best in dry weather and on dry soils.

and place.

6384. A stock -market is where farmers bring in the grain they have to sell in

6378. Sulphate of soda acts best in damp bags upon their carts, exhibit a bagful of weather, and is quite inert in dry weather in dry it,sell the quantity brought, deliver it to soils .

the purchasers immediately after the sale 6379. Nitrate of potash and muriate of am is effected , and then receive the money for it. A merchant who sells grain in a monia are dear special manures. stock -market does so by sample, and 6380. Nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia of bringing his stock , which perhapsthinks consists are cheap special manures, and good top - dress- never of granaries-full, to the ings for the cereal crops.

market-place ; and therefore nothing exists to prevent farmers also selling their applied early inthe season , as a top-dressing, grain bysample in a stock -market. will produce as good an effect as 3 cwt. will do 6381. Two cwt. of the same saline manures

at a later part of the season. Special manures are particularised from (4904) to (5021.)

ON CORN MARKETS.

6382. The surplus grain of the farm is disposed of to corn -merchants, millers, bakers, distillers, and brewers. These attend on the market-day in the markettown. If the market-town is a sea-port,

6385. When sold by sample, the grain is delivered by the farmer in his own carts in the course of the few days allowed him for the purpose, either at the granaries of the merchant, brewer, or distiller, or

at the mill of the miller. Water-proof tarpaulins are required to cover the sacks in the carts when grain is delivered in a rainy day ; but it is better to defer the delivery until fair weather, if not other wise inconvenient to any party.

most of the corn -merchants and brewers

reside in it permanently, and have their

6386. When sold in bags, corn is

758

REALISATION .

delivered immediately after the sale at the chaser, the next week, or whenever it may granaries of the merchants on the spot, or be. Railway companies are very accom at the brewery, or distillery, or mill in modating with sacks to farmers who deposit their grain in the companies' the country , according to agreement. granaries from one market-day to another,

6387. The payment for grain sold by should they not dispose of the grain at the sample is only made on the market- day first succeeding one.

Or, to avoid these

after the delivery bas been effected ; but manifold and obvious inconveniences, be the payment of that sold in bags is due, must take the price offered for his grain . andis generally received, on the day it is Another disadvantage is, that his horses sold, at an appointed time and place, after must stand in the market-place, exposed for hours to cold blasts, after perhaps being its delivery at the granaries. heated on their way to the market -town.

6388. Of the two modes of selling grain, each has its advantages and disadvantages to the farmer. It is very convenient to take a quantity of grain to market, sell it, deliver it on the spot, and receive the cash for it immediately afterwards. It

The exhibition of corn in bags gives power, however, to the purchaserto inspect the cleaning of every sack before purchasing it, and it also gives him the command of a quantity of corn immediately after its purchase, to make up a cargo .

enables the farmer to transact his market

business at once, and saves him the trouble

6390. The advantages of a hand sample

of attending next market-day on purpose market to the farmer are, that he is

to receive the cash only, when he may independent of the rate of price of any have no other occasion to be there. It market -day; for if it does not satisfy obliges, in a great degree, merchants to him , he can return the sample into his provide granaries for the reception of grain pocket. His men and horses do not lose in the interior market- towns, as farmers a day's work, and are not exposed to the may refuse to deal with a purchaser who weather in waiting in the market-place. wishes the grain delivered at a distance He need not clean his grain before sell

from the market-town, the fatigue to their horses being thereby probably much increased. This mode of selling grain has also the advantage of securing the farmer

ing it ; and should he be induced to sell more than that thrashed, he has time to

thrash more and clean the whole quantity at once, thereby making the stock of

against bad debts, because, if he chooses, uniform quality, and cleaning it agree he may deliver the grain and receive the ably to the purchaser's taste. The money for it simultaneously.

advantage of a sample-market to the merchant is, that, should the sample please

6389. This mode is, however, attended him , he can purchase as large a quantity

with this great disadvantage, that, in case of grain as the farmer pleases to dispose the farmer does not sell his grain on the of, and thus make up a cargo of uniform day he has brought it to themarket-place, quality. he is either obliged to take it home again,

or put it into a granary until the next market-day, when, of course, a granary , rent is incurred, and the additional expense also of either hiring carts to deliver the grain next market-day, from

6391. The disadvantages to the farmer

are inability to receive cash for the grain he sells until the next market-day after its delivery , and the risk be thereby runs of incurring bad debts with the merchant,

the temporary granary to that of his to whom the stock is delivered some days purchaser, or of sending a cart of his own to do it ; and if he keeps the grain so accommodated in his own sacks, he may be deprived of the use of them at a time

before he pays for it ; and the disadvantage to the purchaser -- which, by the way , ismost strongly felt by the brewer, dis tiller, and miller - is, that he cannot obtain

when he may have a large quantity of possession of the grain immediately after corn in the barn to measure up. If he does the purchase. not use his own sacks in this way, he must 6392. Of the two species of corn be accommodated with sacks from some

party when he delivers the grain to the pur- markets, I prefer selling by the sample, in

759

CORN MARKETS .

a market which is attended by respectable endanger the safety of the persons who purchasers, but chiefly because I dislike carry loads upon them . to see horses exposed for hours with a load in the market- place, and most pro6395. For the carriage of corn from bablyin bad weather - for none other can the granary to the ship, I have seen a con

be looked for in winter. Such an exposure venient form of bag used. It consists of cannot be for their advantage, and, in my a short sack capable of holding rather estimation, the peculiar advantages of a more than two bushels, drawn together at stock-market are insufficient to counter- the bottom, where a short piece of thick

balance the risk thus incurred in the safety pliable rope is attached ; the mouth being of the horses. The inconvenience is per- formed like any other sack. The person haps felt by some farmers, and a modi- who is to carry the bag folds the mouth fication of the plan is followed, by deliver- together when filled, so as to cover the ing in the course of a few days a larger corn, and at the same time leaves a portion

quantity of grain than was presented in of the sack loose, by which he holds firmly the market-place. No modification can with his right band. On assistance being take place in the sale of grain by sample, given to lift the sack when filled with because it is simply the presentation of the the sack -lifter, he turns himself quickly hand-sample in the market, the sale of the round with his back to it, and brings the

bulk therewith, and its consequent delivery loose part by which he holds on over his at the specified time. It would be interest- head ; and, holding on there with both ing to inquire into the particular diseases hands, he literally runs with the load to the

to which horses are most liable, that are ship’s bold, where, on a man seizing the together, and to ascertain if they are the retaining hold of it, thecarrier hitches the

exposed in a market-place for hours short rope at the bottom of the sack , and

class of diseases mostcommonly contracted sack off his back, and the grain is poured by exposure to weather. into the hold. No other form of bag is so convenient for this purpose. 6393. Every species of grain is directed

by the Weights and Measures Act (5th

6396. A sack - lifter is a convenient

Geo. IV. c. 74, sec. 15,) to be sold by implement, either in the granary of the the imperial bushel, fig. 168, containing corn -merchant or the corn -barn of the 2218.192 cubic inches ; and there is no

such recognised quantity as quarter, boll, coom , or load. The practice has settled into measuring grain into half- quarter

farmer. Fig. 589 is a view in perspective Fig. 589.

sacks of 4 bushels, which forms à con

venient size of load ; but the old designa tion of bolls, and coome, and loads are

still retained where they were in use THE SACK - LIFTER . formerly ; and the confusion arising from the size of those different measures is as of one which is very similar to

a common

great as prior to the passing of the act, hand-barrow. It simply consists of two

owing entirely to the defect in it, not pieces of ash, 3 feet 9 inches long, termi making the size of the quarter and its nating at both ends in the form of handles,

fractional parts as imperative as that of and united together, at 15 inches apart, by the bushel.

means of three cross bars of wood tenoned

and mortised into the handles. A boarding 6394. Granaries in towns are frequently is placed over the bars for the sacks to situate at inconvenient places for access to stand upon . On being filled the sack is carts, as in narrow streets and lanes ; and lifted upon the board, or it is filled while some are so inconveniently high, that four on the board, assistants taking hold of the or five flights of steps have to be sur- handles, lift' it up simultaneonsly, while mounted ere the floor be attained which the carrier turns his back to the load to is to contain the corn ; and such stairs are receive it upon it.

not unfrequently too narrow and too steep, their steps being so worn in front as to

6397. For long in Scotland, grain used

760

REALISATION .

to be sold by measure alone, and for long which has a determinate value put upon it by it used to be sold in Ireland by weight the tacit consent of the state ; if in goods, it will be barter and not sale ; and if illusory, it will alone ; and both ways are objectionable. be donation. The price must be certain, as well

When the measure alone is used, a tempta

as the subject sold . It is generally fixed by the

tion is held out to measure the corn before

parties themselves at striking the bargain.

it is properly cleaned, especially if it has Where a purchaser of oats, payable on delivery, been sold . When sold alone by weight, temporised with the seller, and delayed to take during which period the a temptation also exists to retain light delivery price of for oatsa fortnight, rose, it washeld that hewas not

corn amongst the good, with the view, in entitled to demand delivery, (Craig, May 29,

both cases, of disposing of the inferior grain at as good a price as the fine. But a check has of late years been established against both species of frauds,by the introduction of the element of weight along with the measure. Merchants know the weight of grain by its appearance and feel, and therefore, by trying the weight of a 4 bushel sack , they easily ascertain whether

1823, 2 S. D. 347. ) . In sales of grain , the price is sometimes fixed by the Sheriff's fiars. In the case of Leslie, (Jan. 27, 1714, M, 1419

and 1678,)grain where therea price was anspecified agreement to purchase without , it was held inter alia , that fiars' prices may be pre

sumed as the sale between landlord and tenant; and that merchants are presumed to contract

according to the current prices of the country where the bargain is made. As to the risk of

sale after the subject is sold, the loss is to the

the grain is in as clean a state through- purchaser, as in the case of Campbell, (July 15, out the bag as at its mouth. But the 1748, M. 10,071 ,) and in the case of Tarling,

adoption of the weight has given rise to ( 1827, 6 Barn . and Cres. 361.) But it was held the case of Milne, (Feb. I , 1809, F. C.,) that a species of deceitful dealing. The pur in where the seller takes upon himself the delivery

chaser offers a certain price for every of goods at a certain place, it throws the risk of

specified number of pounds weight of the goods,while in transitu tothat place, on the the grain , without direct reference to seller. Where the seller has delayed de the contents of the bushel ; and some livering the subject to the purchaser when .

farmersare inducedto sellon thisplan,in considered bonght, heisliablefor the risk ; but itisnot delay, when the purchaser declines the vain hope of being able to boast that paying the price. Also, when a landed proprie

they have sold their grain at such a price tor sells a certain quantity of grain of a particu

-wishing it to be believed that the price lar crop to a merchant,without specifying any applies to the true bushel, when in facted, the loss is to theseller ; but after suchquan it is received for so many specified pounds tityof grain is measured, or otherwise prepared weight. The fair and common practice is, for delivery, the risk will be transferred tohim ; to ask a price for the grain per quarter,

so found in the case of Hind, (7 East. 558,)

stating its weight by the bushed; and, of Erskine, iii. 3, 7." course, the heavier the grain , and better 6400. Hypotheo. - In regard to the landlord's the quality, the purchaser will give the hypothec over corn, restitution was given in the higher price for it per quarter. 6398. The usual denominations of corn -mea-

case of Scot, ( June 11 , 1673, M. 6223,) of corns bought from a tenant while under hypothec. Though, when bought in public market, where

sures, based upon the imperial bushel, the they had been brought in bulk , the purchaser standard of capacity, are these : 4 Gills

2 pints 4 quarts 2 gallons

- 1 pint , 1 quart,

- 1 gallon,

8 bushels

- 1 peck , 1 bushel, - 1 quarter,

5 quarters

1 loud ,

4 pecks

contain

was not liable inrestitution ; if bought only in

343 cubic inches.

samples, the landlord is entitled to restitution .

69 %

This was held in the case of Smart, Dec. 10, 1793, and of the Earl of Dalhousie, Feb. 27, 1828, 6 S. D., 626.* So that a stock -market is safest for a merchant to buy in, and a sample-market is safest for the hypothec of a landlord.

2771 5543 22188 101

feet

514

6399. Sale of Corn . - In regard to the sale

6401. Of late a movement has been made

of corn , these settled points in law may prove useful for you to know : “ In sale by sample, the buyer may decline the bargain,

against thecontinuance of hypothec. It is a natural enough desire on the part of corn -merchants who purchase from sample to remove the risk they incur on purchasing grain from a tenant

if the bulk does not correspond with the sample, ( Parker, 4 Barn . and Ald. 387.) The delivery of the sample does not transfer the

who may be indebted to his landlord arrears of rent ; but how any tenant can join in such a

property of the bulk , (Hill, Jan. 20, 1785, M, movement seems to me surprising, for, indepen 4200.) The price must consist in current money, dent of the connection of the hypothec with the either of Great Britain or some foreign country, sale of grain, its power enables the landlord to

* Farmer's Lawyer, p. 136-8 and 47.

FARM BOOK- KEEPING.

761

let his farm in safety with back-rent; and the The allegation is true in regard to farmers practical benefit of a back -rent to an incoming

as a class, for very few keep a regular set

tenant is a sum equal to as much capital on the entry to his farm . Were there no hy

of books; but many farmers know the

pothec, the incoming tenant would have to pay

state of their affairs very well, although

half his rent at the end of the first half- they do not keep a regular set of books; year after entry, as the tenants of England and many now keep books that did not do ; but the landlord, being safe of his rent under the hypothec, does not exact the first only a few years since. half-year's rent from the tenant until he has first reaped the crop which enables him to pay it - and

6405. But, at best, farmers cannot keep a perfect set of books: it is quite impos of the possession of capital at the entry to his sible for them to put a value on every arti delay, in such a case, is equivalent to the tenant

farm , to the extent of one year's rent.

cle they raise on the farm ; and if it were 6402. In regard to theorigin and nature of possible — as some writers have attempted

the right of hypothec, Mr Hunter says that,

to prove, and failed — the labour would be

“ the conclusion from the combined evidence is, thrown away. For consider the manner that, about the end of the sixteenth century, the in which a farm is conducted, and the English remedy, and that hypothec, as it now nature of many of the articles raised upon exists, had not then been recognised. Nor at it. There are articles produced, and ope

landlord's remedy was by distress, very like the

the beginning of the seventeenth century does rations performed on the farm , of the the term “hypothec ' appear in thedecisions. In pecuniary value of which no just estimate a case dated in 1611 , the term used is the prevelege ' of the landlord for the recovery of can be made. He cannot estimate, for

hisfarms. In 1623,the term "hypothecated 'is example,the value of every stone ofstraw used for the first time. The doctrinegained per. givendaily to his live-stock as fodder or manency ; and thenceforward distress ceased ,and hypothec prevailed.”

as litter ; he could not even weigh every stone so bestowed ; and the difficulty of

6403. “ The right of hypothec, as known in making a correct estimate is increased, but a right arising from a tacit contract, neces

when he is not allowed to sell straw . He cannot estimate the accumulated amount

sarily inherent in ,and inseparable from , the contract of lease. It gives the landlord a right to

of labour, both manual and mechanical, bestowed on every acre of land, before it

Scotland, is not to be deemed a right of property ;

retain and recover from creditors and purchasers the produce, raw ormanufactured, or the other yields its produce, when he does not daily

effects over whichit extends, conformably to the hire the labour of the people, nor purchase nature of the subject let. And in competition it the food of the animals which perform it. gives a preference to the lessor over the lessee's

He cannot ascertain the value of every

creditors, with a fewexceptions. From being cubic yard of manure produced on the in its nature tacit and general, it is necessarily exclusive of possession by the lessor, or of the farm , whether in composts or in the court specific appropriation by him of every particular yards, when he is not allowed to dispose subject, and the property liable to its operation

of it at market ; nor can he make a com

remains to thelessee ; but it is capable of being parative estimate of it when first taken to

converted, by thelegal process of sequestration, thedunghill, or when applied to the soil into a real right of pledge, after which it may be distinguishable from a right of lien or retention, which vests the lessor with power ofkeeping possession of the effects until the rent be paid, or of obtaining a but not of recovering them, be lost by sale preference, if the possession shall

after being fermented. He cannot put a value on every ton of turnips and other green fodder consumed by stock, nor can he weigh every ton so used. He cannot put a just estimate on the value of pasture.

in diligence . The right is purely legal,and can not be created by convention ." *

The exact weight of all these articles could be ascertained by the steelyard ; but of

ON FARM BOOK - KEEPING ,

weight and money -value be, since they are not disposed of at market and turned into cash , except in the neighbourhood of

sold for payment of the lessor's claim. It is

what use would the estimate of their

6404. It has long been alleged that large towns ? In attempting to ascertain

farmers only know the state of their affairs the weight of every article used on the in an imperfect manner, because they do farm , in conjunction with its ordinary

not adopt any system of book -keeping. labour, without the employment of addi * Hunter's Lar of Landlord and Tenant, p. 673-5.

762

REALISATION .

tional hands, he would soon find the most large number of people, and he has well important operations of the field half paid clerks in his service, who keep his neglected ; and were be to employ addi- books for him in the most approved order. tional bands for the special purpose, be The transactions of the farmer are compa would most likely incur greater expense ratively few over the whole year, and the

in estimating those weights than the largest number are confined to a particular worth . The weight of the straw given his books would not only be half-idle, but

knowledge of the estimate would be season ; so that the clerk engaged to keep to the stock in litter might be ascertained ; his wages might consume a large proportion but how could the exact quantity of the of the profits of the farm , and in some

litter be ascertained, when a part of the years sweep it away entirely. But the fodderpasses away daily amongst the litter ? most expert book -keeper could not enter Andeven with the fodder, how is its money- imaginary values of articles which are value to be estimated ? for it will not do to never turned into cash any more than the debit the stock with the market value of farmer himself. the fodder, since it has not been driven to

market, nor any profit received for it,

6407. The common-sense view of the

which the market valueof every article whole matter is this : Let the farmer keep necessarily includes. Attempts at the only such books as he really requires to estimation of such items may very well acquaint him with the state of his affairs. amuse the leisure hours of the amateur If he will attend to me for a short time, I

or the temporary investigator, but they do will show him a set of books all filled up not suit the matter -of-fact business of the

with the real transactions which have taken

farmer . It is enough, and it is necessary for place upon a farm . He may safely adopt him to keep accounts of every article for it as a pattern, and it will not entail upon

which hereceives cash on delivery from the bimmuch labour thronghout the course of farm , and every article for which he pays a whole year. The theory of the system cash when he receives it on the farm . These is simply this : Let the farmer take an two great divisions of cash transactions inventory and valuation of his live-stock,

are all that the farmer need trouble him- implements, crops, cost of labour, and self with in putting down into books, debts due to and by him at the beginning for these include every transaction that of everyagricultural year, and he will see involves the payment and receipt of whether his capital has increased or dimin money. ished in the course of the year - it will in crease by a larger produce and a higher

6406. The farmer's attention is fre- price, and diminish by a scanty produce quently directed to the conduct of mer- and a fall in price ; let him keep a cash

cantile men who keep the most correct set of books, as an example to himself, but the admonition is given by men who do not understand the occupation

book, which will inform him whether he has received or paid away more cash in

The mercantile man

will learn , whether the value of the

of the

farmer.

the course of the year ; and let him bave

an account with the farm , by which he

can estimate the exact market-value of produce he has been able to dispose every article he buys and sells, and, by of is greater or less than the cost of con striking a balance between these, he may ductingthe farm . It is clear that a know estimate his condition at any time ; but, ledge of all these particulars will acquaint as I have shown, the farmer cannot do

the farmer with the real state of his affairs

so with a very large proportion of the at the beginning of every agricultural crops he raises. The mercantile man has year. The following are the forms of numerous transactions with possibly a the respective books referred to.

763

FARM BOOK -KEEPING . 6408 .

INVENTORY AND VALUATION OF STOCK ON 1st OCTOBER 1849 .

The follorcing is a List of the Effects in my possession , and of Debts due to and by me on this the 1st October 1849 : I.

CASH On hand ,

S

L.

In British Linen Co.'s Bank,

:

:

L.

D.

II. IMPLEMENTS, III . HORSES 14 horses, at L.25 , IV . CATTLE 1 short-horn bull,

340 300

0

350

00

.

0

0

0 0

0 0

15 0 127 10

0

20 72

6 short-horn cows, at 1.12 ,

40

10 steer calves , at L.4 , 5 heifer calves, at L.3 ,

15 yearlings, at L.8, 10s,

S. D.

00 0 0

40 300

0

0 0

0

274 10

0

V. SHEEP 321) 0 0 96 0 0 304 10 0 480 0 0 9 00

200 Leicester breeding ewes , at 32s. , 60 Leicester draft ewes , at 32s. ,

290 Leicester hoggs , at 21s., 320 Half -bred wethers, at 30s.,

3 Leicester tups, at 60s.,

1209 10 0

VI . PIGS 3 sows, at 60s., 1 boar, at 60s.,

20 pigs, at 22s,

9

0

0

3 22

0

0

0

0

396 300 544

0 0 0

0 0

34 00 VII . CORN

11 stacks wheat, 20 qrs. each , 220 qrs. at 36s., 10 do. barley, 30 each, 300 at 20s., 17 do. oats, 40 each , 680 at 16s.,

0

1240

00

VIII. SEED AND LA BOUR 350

Upon 100 acres of turnips at 70s. per acre ,

0

0

IX. DEBTS DUE ME AS PER LEDGER

James Marrowman ,

:

Thomas Butters ,

30 45

0 0

0 0

75

X. I OWE TO MY LANDLORD Half-year's rent due Martinmas 1849 , Do.

do .

Whitsunday 1850 ,

00 0 0

500 500

1000 L.3173

CAPITAL IN 1849 ,

6409. 1849 . Oct. 2 4

Fol , or Ledger .

To375.farm4d .for60 qrs. of wheat, sold Isaac Marshall & Son, ai To Thomas Butters, received from him balance due for cattle ,

ử

To farm , received from Isaac Marshall & Son , for 60 qrs. of

17

To B. L. Co.'s bank , withdrew from them ,

24

Nov. 4

By farm , paid harvest expenses as per labour account, By farm , paid for 5 sacks of oatmeal, at 26s., To farın , received from John Cloy, for 80 grs. of oats sold him ,

' ï

By farm ,paid JohnIrons, for castings for mill, To farm , receivedfor 35 qrs. wheat, sold to 'James Cuthbert,

40

S. D. 00

112 30 45

00 0 0 00

48 15

0 0 00

L.

To cash on hand at this date ,

oats at 16s.,

at 16s.

L.

S.

D.

64 0 0 6 0

0

Phænix Fire Ofice, one year's premium of Byinsurance farm , paid ,

7 17

9

By farm , paid schoolmaster's stipend for year ending this date,

1 176

at 345., 22

0

00

210 0 0 71 8 10 6 10 0

By farm , paid for 30 steers bought at Yarm , at L.7,

20

0

Cr .

Dr.

CASH .

To Janies Marrowman, received from him balance due for wheat,

97

00

4173 0 0

59 14 3

By farm , paid labour account for half-year ending this day as 134 11 6

per abstract,

Dec. 2 25 30

1850 . Jan. 1

1 15 0

To farm , received from shepherd for fallen mutton , To farm , for 80 qrs. oats, sold Thomas Dewar, at 15s, 6d. To farm , for 40 wethers, sold Timothy Wood , at 349. ,

62 68

To farm , for 50 qrs. barley , sold John Newman , at 208.,

108 50

To farm , received for 20 pigs, sold Edinburgh market, at 30s., By farm , paid for 25 pigs, bought at Berwick market, at 158., To B. L. Co.'s Bank , withdrew from them ,

230

To farm , for 60 wethers, sold Jacob Keyworth , at 36s.,

Carry forward,

0 0

0 0 0

0 00

30 00

|

0

18 15

0

L.457 0

7

0

L.963 9 3

REALISATION.

764

CASA — continued .

Dr. Fol. of Ledger.

1850 . Jan. 1 6 7

S.

L.

963

Brought forward ,

Cr. D.

93

L.

S.D.

457 07 500 0 0

By farm , paid half- year's rent due Martinmas 1849, To farm , for 241 qrs. barley, sold James Marrowman , at 19s. 6d ., By farm , paid ironmonger'saccount for past year, By farm , paid sundries , their accounts , viz. —

22 12

0 8 00

L.5 0 0 2 10 0 4 10 4 4 17 10

Farrier , Roper, Mason ,

Slater ,

16 18 2 13 27 Feb. 3

To farm , for 30 qrs. barley, sold John Factor, at 18s., To James Marrowman, for 31 qrs. wheat sold him , at 359., To farm , for 30 grs. barley, sold John Factor, at 18s.6d , By B. L. Co.'s Bank , deposited with them ,

20

To farm , for Adam Buttersfor 15 steers sold him , at L.is,

270

21

By farm , paid for 15 steers, bought at Darlington , at L.7, By farm , paid James Cuthbert for 3 tons of cake, at L.8 per ton , To farm , received from J. Cornbuyer, for 30 qrs. barley, at 198., To farm , received for 100 wethers , sold at Edinburgh , at 328., By B. L. Co.'s Bank, deposited with them ,

28 10 0 160 00

99

9

9

Mar. 15 17 20 21 23

Apr. 1 14 99

22 99

28

: 007 :ce o:

1)

28 June 1

100 0 0 00 105 0 0 34 00

320 0 0

To farm , received from J. Cornbuyer, for 61 grs. barley, at 20s., By farm , paid for 15 steers, bought at Darlington, at 1.8,

61

0

0

120 00

252 0 0

To farm , received for 14 steers, sold at Newcastle, at L.18,

200 0 0 8 0 0

By B. L. Co.'s Bank , deposited with them , By farm , paid saddler's account for past year ,

To farm , recetved for 120 wethers, sold at Edinburgh , at 359.,

210 0 0 9 5 3 135 00

By farm , paid for lime, bought Sunderland kilns , By farm , paid for 15 tons of guano , at L.9 per ton , To farm , received from John Factor for L.116 3 27 15

637 wheat, at 31s. , 273 barley, at 20s.,

May 5

27 00 54 5 0 27 15 0

1 0

143 18

1

By B. L. Co.'s Bank, deposited with them , To farm , received for 48 pigs, sold at Edinburgh , at 309., To farm , received for 16 steers, sold at Newcastle, at L.14 , By B. L. Co.'s Bank, deposited with them ,

72 224

0 0

0 0

To Isaac Marshall & Son, for 20 qrs. wheat sold them , at 37s., To farm , received for 15 steers, sold at Newcastle, at 1.12,

37 180

0

0

0

0

6 15

0

200 0 0

300 0 0

By farm , paid labour account for past half-year, as per abstract, To farm , received from the shepherd for fallen mutton and skins, By farm , paid poor-rates for the year ending Whitsunday 1850 ,

130

To farm , received for 15 steers , sold at Edinburgh , at Lii ,

165

0

0

By farm , paid for 20 steers, bought at Darlington, at L.6 , 6s., To farm , received for 120 qrs. oats , sold Isaac Marshall & Son ,

9.

126 0 0

at 16s., 99

July 1

Aug. 26

7 8

25 00

96 0 0

By farm , paid clover and rye -grass seed account, By farm , paid turnip seed account for the year, By farm , paid for 10$ qrs. of beans, at 229., To farm , received for 170 clipped hogs , at 30s., To farm , received from W. Barff for 118 stones wool, at 269., By farm , paid half -year's rent due at Whitsunday last, . By farm , paid William Young for use of his stallion, By farm , paid for 3 loads of paling, at 10s., By farm , paid sundries, viz. Assessed taxes , Income tax ,

50 100 12 0 0 11 2 9 255 153

0 4

0 0 500 0 0 1 2 6 1 10 0

L.7 18 1 11 0 88

:

18 18

Sept. 27 29

To farm , received for 60 draft ewes, sold at St Ninian's fair , at 328., By farm , paid for 200 half -bred lambs, bought at Melrose , at 14s.,

96 0 0

To farm , received for the carcass and skin of a lieifer , By B. L. Co.'s Bank , withdrew from them ,

4 10 50 0

0 0

L.3559 18

4

By balance on hand at this date ,

6410.

Dr.

FARM -ACCOUNT- CROP 1849.

140

00

40

2 7

L.3559 18 4

Cr.

Fol . of

Ledger

1849. Oct. 4 11

L.

8.

D.

By cash for 60 qre wheat sold Isaac Marshall and Son , at 373. 4d . , By cash received from I. Marshall & Son , for 60 grs. of oats, at 16s. ,

17

To cash paid for 30 steers bought at Yarm , at L.;,

24

To cash paid harvest expenses, as per abstract, To cash paid for 5 sacks of oatmeal, at 26s.,

Nov. 4 •

11

20

and crop ,

6

0

D.

49

00

64

0 0

0 59 14 3

7 17

Carry forward ,

S

210 0 0 71 8 10 6 10 0

By cash received for 80 qrs. ofoats sold to John Cloy, at 16s., To cash paid John Irons, for castings bought of him , By cash received from James Cuthbert for 358 qrs. wheat, at 345. To cash paid Phænix Fire Office premium of insurance on stock

L.

112 0 0

9

£ 301 16 7

£ 283 14

3

1

FARM BOOK -KEEPING .

765 !

Dr.

FARM - ACCOUNT - continued. Fol. of

L.

8.

Cr . D.

L.

D.

8 .

Ledger.

1849 . Nov. 22

Brought forward , To cash paid labour account for half-year ending this day, as per abstract,

C.

Dec. 2 25 30 .

7

134 11

6.

1 17

To cash paid schoolmaster's stipend for year ending this day,

99

301 16

233 14

3

6

1 15 0 62 0 0 68 0 0 108 00

By cash received from the shepherd for fallen mutton , By cash received from Thomas Dewar for 80 qrs. Onts, at 15s., By cash received from Timothy Wood for 40 wetliers, at 316. , By cash received from Jacob Keyworth for 60 wethers, at 365., By cash received from John Newman for 50 qrs. barley, at 20s.,

50

0 0

30

0

0

22 12

0

1850" Jan.

9

1

By cash received for 20 pigs sold in Edinburgh , at 30s., To cash paid for 25 pigs bought in Berwick market, at 158., To cash paid half- year's rent due Martinmas 1847 ,

6

By cash received from James Marrowman for 244 qrs. barley ,

7

To cash paid'ironmonger and others their accounts,as per cash:

18 15 500 0

0 0

24 18

2

at 19s. 6d ., book , 13 . 27 Feb.

3 20

24 Mar. 15 17 90

21 1 14 22 99

28

May 5 . 8 15 26

By James Marrownian for 31 qrs.Wheat sold him , at 35.,

54 50 27 00 27 15 0 270 00

By cash received from John Factor for 30 qrs . barley, at 184., By cash received from John Factor for 30 qrs. barley , at 18s. Ed . , By cash received from Adam Butters for 15 steers , at L. 18, 105 24

To cash paid for 15 steers bought at Darlington, at L.7, To cash paid James Cuthbert for 3 tons of oilcake, at L.8 , By cash received from J. Cornbuyer for 30 qrs. barley, at 198., , t 32s . , By cash received for 100 wethers sold at Edinburgh a To cash paid for 15 steers bought at Darlington , at L.8 , By cash received from John Cornbuyer for 61 qrs . barley, at 20s., By cash received for 14 steers sold at Newcastle, at L.18, To cash paid the saddler's account for past year,

0 0

1 1

8 9 135

To cash paid for 15 tons of guano , at L.9 per ton , By cash received from John Factor for wheat and barley , as per cash -book ,

0

15

:

To cash paid poor-rates for the year ending Whitsunday 1850, By cash received for 15 steers sold as Edinburgh , at L.11 , To cash paid for 20 steers bought at Darlington , at L.6 , 6s., By cash received from Isaac Marshall & Son for 120 grs. oats,

July 1 99

Aug. 26

126

To cash paid half-year's rentdue at Whitsunday last, To cash paid William Young , for the use of his stallion , To cash paid for three loads of paling , at 108. per load , April,

143 18 37 0 72 0 224 0 180 0

1 0 0

6 15

0

0

0

0

0

50 10 12 0 11 2

0

9

500 0 1 2 1 10

0 6 0

0

0

0

153

4 0

255

00

18 18 9

By cash ,received for 60 draft ewes sold at St Ninians fair, at 32s.,

30

By cash received for the carcass and skin of a heifer , By shepherd for ewes and hoggs dead since Whitsunday, as per stock account ,

96 0 0 140

00

4 10 0

2 15 0 £2399 15 1

6411 .

LEDGER.

Dr.

BRITISH LINEN COMPANY'S BANK .

L.

8. D.

To Balance from last

year's account, To To To To To

Cash , Cash , Cash , Cash , Cash ,

£3152 3 4

Cr. Fol .

Fol.

May 8

0

To cash paid assessed and income taxes for year ending 6th To cash paid for 200 half -bred lambs bought at Melrose , at 14s.,

Apr. 28

0

96

To cash paid clover and ryegrass seed account, To cash paid turnip -seed account for this year , To cash paid for 10 % qrs. of beans, at 2:28., By cash received froin William Barff and Sons, for 118 stones wool, at 26s.,

29

1850 . Feb. 3 Mar. 15 , 23

0

210

165 00

.

Sept. 27

1819. Oct. 1

0

0

25 00

By cash received for 170 clipped höggs, sold at 308., 24

0

130 7 0

at 16s., 99

61 252

5 3 00

By cash received from shepherd for fallen mutton, 1

0 0 00

0

By cash received for 48 pigs sold at Edinburgh , at 30s., By cash received for 16 steers sold at Newcastle , at L14, By cash received for 15 steers sold at Newcastle, at L.12, To cash paid labour account for half -year ending this day, as per abstract, :

28 . June 1

28 160

120 00

By cash received for 120 wethers sold at Edinburgh, at 35s., To cash paid for lime bought at the Sunderland kilns,

By Isaac Marshall and Son, for 20 qrs. of wheat at 375. ,

0 0

300

100 320 200 200 300

0

0 0 0 0 0

0

0 0 0 0 0

£ 1420 00

1849. Oct 17 1850 . Jan. 1

Sept. 29

L.

S. D.

By Cash ,

15

00

By Cash , By Cash ,

230 50 1125

0 0 0 0 00

By Balance ,

£ 1420 00

766

REALISATION .

LEDGER - continued .

. Cr

Dr.

JAMES MARROWMAN, CORN- DEALER. Fol.

1850 . Oct. 1

Fol .

S. D.

To Balance of last year's account for wheat,

30

0

0

5

1830 . ol Jan. 27

1850 .

To Farm for wheat ,

Jan , 13

1849. Oct. 4

54

By Cash , By Cash ,

Dr.

L.

S. D.

45

0

1849 . Oct. 4

By Cash ,

S. D.

1850 .

37

00

May 15

By Cash ,

L.

S. P.

45

00

S. D.

0

Fol . L.

To Farm for fallen Mutton ,

L.

37

Cr .

SHEPHERD . Fol.

6412.

0

Fol . L.

Dr. 1850 . Sept. 30

5

Cr.

Fol .

To Farm for whent,

54

0

ISAAC MARSHALL & SON, MILLERS .

1850.

May 5

0

Fol.

To Balance of last year's

account due for cattle,

0

Cr .

THOMAS BUTTERS , BUTCHER . Fol

1849. Oct. 1

S. D.

30

£ 84 50

£ 84 50

Dr.

L.

8. D.

2 15

0

INVENTORY AND VALUATION OF STOCK AT Ist OCTOBER 1850 .

Thefollowing is a List of the Effects in my possession, and of Debts due to and by me this Ist October 1850 : D.

L.

I. CASH On hand ,

40 1125

In open account with B. L. Co.'s bank,

L.

S.

D.

2 7 00 1165 300

II. IMPLEMENTS ,

350

III. HORSES, 14 at L.25,

2 0

7 0

00

IV. CATTLE 20 0 72 0 82 10 154 0 160 0

1 Short-horn bull , at L.20 , 6 Short-horn cows , at L.12, 15 calves, at L.5 , 104.,

0 0

N

0 0 0

0

297 Leicester hoggs , at 20s.,

320 0 151 10 297 0

200 Half -bred hoggs , at 158 ,

150 00

14 yearlings, at Lill , 20 yearlings, at L.8,

488 10 0

V. SHEEP

200 Leicester breeding ewes , at 329. ,

101 Leicester draft ewes and gimmers, at 308.,

0 0

918 100

VI. Pigs 9 3 35

3 sows, at 60s .,

1 boar, at 60s. , 32 pigs, at 22s.,

0 0 4

0 0

262 10 225 0 480 0

0 0 0

0

4

0

967 10 350 0

0 0

2 15

0

4589 11

7

47

VII. CORN 50 acres of wheat, 3} qrs . per acre

175 qrs., at 30s .,

50 acres of barley, 4 qrs. per acre - 225 qrs ., at 20s., 64 qrs. per acre = 600 qrs., at 16s.,

100 acres of oats

VIII . SEED AND LABOUR on 100 acres of turnips, at 70s. per acre, IX . DEBTS DUE ME AS PER LEDER

The shepherd , X. I OWE TO MY LANDLORD

500 500

Half- year's rent due Martinmas 1849, do. Do. Whitsunday 1850 ,

0 0

0 0 1000

CAPITAL IX 1850, 1849 , Do.

:

Grain on crop 1819 ,

:

0

0

3589 11 3173 0

7 0

L.416 11

7

0

FARM BOOK -KEEPING .

767

6413. Remarks.- When a sale is made only given, and no information is afforded for ready money, it is entered in the Cash- as to its disposal. book as it occurs, and thence posted to the Farm-account. But when a delivery of 6415. The rent is subdivided into a any produce is made, which is not paid convenient form for the farmer. One half for in ready money , the transaction is en- is paid in cash, and the other half by com

tered in the Farm -account, and posted from muting an equal sum by an equivalent it to an account which is then opened in quantity of grain, the value of which against the purchaser in the Ledger. When is estimated by the fiars prices ( 5292) a payment, either to account or in full, is for the crop and year. The equivalents

received from him , it is entered in the in grain are taken in equal quantities of Cash - book , and posted from it to his credit wheat, barley, and oats, at 144.665 quar in the Ledger. If the farmerhad no trans- ters, because the fiars prices of Berwick actions but ready -money ones, and no cash shire, where the farm is situate, for crop passing through his hands but in connec- 1849, were 35s. Old per quarter for wheat,

tion with his own business, a Cash -book alone would preserve a sufficient account of his year's proceedings. But as he will inevitably have cash transactions not directly connected with his business, as

18s. 4£d. for barley, and 15s. 8 d.for oats, which give the amount of the half-year's rent at £500, the money-rent having been estimated, at the time of taking the farm , at £ 1000 a - year, or £ 2 per acre.

well as his family and personal expendi. To carry out the principle of paying the tures, which should be duly entered; and rent illustrated in (5292,) £500 have to as he may, from time to time, make both be paid in money, and the other half by sales and purchases on credit, it is clear the valueof the fiars ; but as the farm was that a Cash -book alone would not give an supposed to have been taken at the period

accurate view of thereal state of his affairs, when its first year's rents were payable for or of the clear profit or loss on his year's crop 1849, the second half of the £ 1000 farming; and, therefore, it is necessary to have a Farm-account, to show what is the real increase or deficit on the farm produce of the year, apart from all extraneous transactions; and a Ledger, to show wbat debts are due to the individual,

had to be commuted into equivalent quan tities of grain at the price of the fiars of 1849, which will be found to yield £500, at the fiars specified above, on 144 quarters and a fraction of each sort of grain. In future years £500 will have

and by whom, and for what.

to be paid in cash at one term , and the value of 144 quarters of each sort of grain

6414. The Inventory and Valuation in at their respective fiars prices for the year, (6412,) made up at the beginning of the at the other term, for each crop. The agricultural year of 1850, are the counter- balf of the rent will thus fluctuate with

half part of those in the beginning of 1849, the value of the grain, and the otherbeing (6408,) showing the state of affairs at remain stationary. The profit

the beginning of both years, by which £416, 11s. 7d., it indicates that the rent it appears that a gain of L416, 118. 7d. is a fair one to leave a reasonable per has been made upon the transactions of centage on a capital of £4173, shown in the year 1849–50, which is the sum the (6408) to be required to stock the farm . farmer has received as interest upon his capital, and remuneration for his labour.

6416. The young farmer is of course

After deducting from this sum his outlay aware, that in book -keeping the Debtor for family and personal expenditure, and column is always the left hand one, and adding it to his capital, the balance forms the Creditor the right; and that the word

his starting -point for the following year's “ To ” is prefixed to Dr. sums, and “ By ” accounts. The family and personal expen- to Cr. ones. But as he may be at a loss ditures are not given in detail, or at all, to understand why the same transaction

because they are wholly a private matter, appears in the Cash -book as a Dr. sum , and will vary according to the babits and and in the Farm -account, or Ledger, as views of the individuals interested in a Cr. one, I offer the following explana them .

The clear income, therefore,

tion :- In the Cash -book, the farmer, or

derived from the business for one year is keeper of the books, is Dr. “ To” all sums

REALISATION.

768

received by him , and Cr. “ By ” all sums of book -keeping ; but the following subsi paid by him. In posting the books, how- diary ones areso useful and instructive, ever, when the various entries are carried that they should not be dispensed with. to the Farm -account, or Ledger, as the case may be, these terms are reversed, for

6418. The farm is supposed to contain

this reason — that in the Farm -account, the 500 acres ( 5367,) of arable land, divided farm is accounting to the farmer for intro- into 20 equal-sized fields, and wrought in missions on its special account, and is Cr. a five -course rotation , so that the “ By ” all the sums which he has received Fields E, A, B, C, and D, will be in turnips, F , G , and H , wheat and barley, for its produce, and Dr. “ To " all the

first year's grass,

I , K , L, and M , N , O , P, and Q ,

sums which he has paid on its account. And, in like manner, in the Ledger, each

second year's grass, oats .

R , S, T, and U ,

6419. The corn - accounts show all the

person with whom there have been credit

transactions appears Dr. “To” the Cash- particulars connected with this species of

book, or Farm -account, for whatever cash produce, the time when thrashed, the or commodity has been paid or delivered parties to whom it has been sold, the uses to that person, and Cr. “ By” whatever which have been made of it on the farm has been received from him.

during the year, the balance of grain on band at any time in the corn - barn and

6417. These make up the stated and granary, the weights of the grain, and the indispensable books for an orderly system prices obtained for it. 6420.

Weight . bushel per

CORN -ACCOUNT - CROP 1849. Whole Quantity

Amount of Produce .

Rate . Clean .

Qrs ,

Disposal.

WHEAT .

Ib.

Bu.

To

62

Thrashed from field G , (stacks 9 , 10, 11 ,)

4

By

60

Sold Isaac Marshall & Son ,

Used .

Qrs. Bu . Qrs. Bu | Qrs . Bu

60

5

1

Price

Sold .

LS . D.

Qrs. Bu .

3

64

37/4

60

112 00

:

1849 . Oct. 3

Light.

2

3 3

By

7

Το

15 21

7

By

36 1

6

Bruised for pigs,

35 35

1 1

Sold to John Cuthbert,

11

21 23 7

To

10

By

7

Thrashed from field E, ( stack 2,)

20

16

4 1

38

Sold to J. Marrowman , Thrashed from field G, ( stacks

59 14 3

14

28

By

63 63

7 7

30

To

20 20

7

63

54 50

60 ,

6, 7, 8, )

31

99

35 /

63

7

36 /

23

Sold to John Factor, (3 qrs. 7

bu . light,) Thrashed from field E , (stack 3,) Sold to Isaac Marshall& Son ,

64

116 3

1

>

62

By

34/

4

To

May 5

4

Sown upon field B, :

» 4 3

Apr. 25

351

63

Thrashed from field E, (stacks

40

32 31

3

Sown on field A , and part of B,

4 and 5 ,)

13

»

. 4

1850 . Jan. 9

21

4

Nov. 7

Thrashed from field E, ( stack 1 , )

Το

>

4

20

64

20

37 /

37 0 0

7

Bruised for pigs, 220 5 7

Totals ,

227

,

7

17 52

210 175 27 15

€ 379 2 4

per Weight

FARM BOOK -KEEPING . 6421 .

769

Whole

BARLEY.

. Busbel

CORN - ACCOUNT - CROP 1849. Amount of Produce .

Disposal. Rate .

Quantity. Clean .

To

Qrs .

Bu .

32

3

. Ib

1849 Oct. 2

Dec. 26

66

By To

25 30

Price ,

Sold .

Qrs . Bu. Qrs. Bu , Qrs. Bu . Qrs. Bu,

L. S. D.

Thrashed from field H. , (stack 21,1

3

Used .

Light.

31

13 6

Used for wages ,(supper barley ,

6

5

Thrashed from field H. , (stack 20,1

6

28

1 2

55

, 30 1

1850 Jan. 1

5

To

5 29 34

5

6

6

27 3

7

24 24

3

6

56

Thrashed from field H. , (stack 19, ) .

50

28

Used for wages ,

6

6

5

Light bruised for pigs,

3

5

2 2

Sold to James Marrowman ,

.. 24

To

31

>

Ву

30

TO

1 34

4

35

7

20 /

50 00

2

19/6

22 12 0

30 ,

18/

27 00

30

18/6

27 15 0

>>

50

By

9

Sold to John Newman ,

By

55

24

Thrashed from field H. , ( stack 17 , )

Sold to John Factor;

54

:

27

30

3

Thrashed from field H., ( stack 18, )

16

3

By 19

33 30 4

Το

3 14 16

3

>

19

Sold to John Factor,

2

3

56

Thrashed from field H. , ( top

30

of stack 16 ,) Do. from of stack 16 , ) Do.

13

field F. , (top 16

from field F., (stack

63 30

7

By

7

To

33 31

By

64 3

7 7

2

56

30

19 /

.

Sold to Jonathan Cornbuyer, .

3

99

28

15, ) 24

1

Light bruised for pigs,

4

99

4

33

.

Feb. 3

Mar. 15

17

»

30

Thrashed from field F. , ( stack 12, )

30 ,

1

»

Boiled for horses,

99

Το

63

By

6

6

Used for wages,

6

6

56

2 2

Sown on field C. ,

9

2

* Sown on field D.,

9

9

25

47 9

99

Sold to Jonathan Cornbuyer ,

28

34 27

May 23

6 6

56

Thrashed from field F. , ( stacks 13 and 14, )

60

61 00

276 | 20

27 15 0

3

Boiled for horses,

3

Sold to John Factor,

56

6

6

Used for wages ,

298 6 12 7 1

12 7 Totals, VOL . II .

61 , || 20!

4

.

37 3

00

37

61 61

April 14

28

311 5

66 58 5 253

£ 244 12 0

58 5 311

5

30

REALISATION . Weight per

770

Whole Quantity.

. Bushel

CORN -ACCOUNT - CROP 1849 .

6422.

Rate . Clean .

22

Bu .

To

65

7

By

10

7

Used for horses,

То

55 89

2

Thrashed from field T. , (stacks

2

30 and 33,) . Used for wages,

By , 26

Ib .

Qrs.

Το

Thrashed from field T. , ( stacks 31 and 32 ,) .

60

6

83 60

4

23 40

4

Nov. 1

Qrs. Bu . Qrs. Bu . Qrs. Bu. Qrs . Bu.

55

L.

80

»

28 20

D.

9

80

2

606 43

Thrashed from fields T. and U. , ( stack 34)

Thrashed from field U. , ( stack 38 ) ,

35 ,,

5

391 4

54

60

16 /

48 0 0

42

Sold to J. Cloy,

80

16 /

64 0 0

15 /

62 0 0

16 /

96 0 0

:

By

S.

10

108 4

Pries

Bold .

Used

107

Sold to Isaac Marshall & Son ,

63 45

Light.

19

1849 . Oct. 15

Disposal.

Amount of Produce .

OATS .

99

30

20

Used for horses. 4

8

To

123

By

131 80

>

Dec. 2

51 19

Thrashed from field U. , (stacks

110 , 13 ,

35 , 36 , and 37 ,) 99

30

4

,

Used for horses, ·

19

Used for horses,

20

32 20

4

4

Feb. 7

Το

12 120

To

132 43

Ву

175 30

Thrashed from field S. , ( stacks 23, 24 , and 29,)

20

40 ,,

3

4

4

21

115 31

4

31

81 9

99

75 20

4

4

To

55 41

By

96 20 76 120

4

To

196 110

4

99

(Potato ,)

99

Used for horses,

9

Used for horses,

20

99

Thrashed from field S. , ( stack 35

28 ,)

6 99

Used for horses ,

:

9

20

31

31

.

:

.

May 23

99

Sown upon fields () and Q.,

By

April 30

30

Sown upon fields N. and P. ,

(Sandy,)

9

30

>

Used for horses,

145 30

92

100

Thrashed from field R., (stack 27 , )

Mar. 15

9

.

Sold to Thomas Dewar, .

1850 Jan. 30

10

80

42

9

June 6

Thrashed from field R. , (stacks 120

22 , 25, and 26 ,) 9

>

9

86 86

10

Sold to Isaac Marshall & Son , | 43

120

4 4

In granaries for horses,

614 4 Totals,

864 825 3571 340

82 5

357

6971 1

697

£ 270 0 0

FARM BOOK -KEEPING . 6423 .

771

AMOUNT OF PRODUCE - CROP 1849 . Numbers

Average per

Size of Fields .

Amount of each Field

Aere .

Kind of Crop

of the

Gross Amount.

Fields. A.

R,

P.

5

25

0

0

7

25

0

0

6

25

0

0

5

8

25

0

0

6

17

25

0

0

6

Do.

Barley , Do.

Oats ,

4

Qrs .

Bu .

1.5

103

2

124

3

140

3

171

2

44

163

0

18

25

0

0

6

Do.

19

25

0

0

7

3)

161

0

Do.

20

25

0

0

7

200

0

0

6

0

188

1

175

0

..

Do.

0031

Qrs .

Bu ,

227

5

311

5

687

1

1226

3

.

Acres in crop ,

Ba .

Qro.

totoha

Wheat ,

6424 .

DISPOSAL-CROP 1849. Acres in crop , 200 at a general average Qrs. Bu ,

Qrs. Bu.

Per acre of 6 031

L'sed in seed ,

1226 3 Qrs . 15 18

of wheat, of barley ,

::

of oats ,

Used in provender, of wheat, of barley , of oats ,

Used in wages ,

of barley , of oats ,

Bu . 0

6

CI

0

2 12 235

5 7 3

27 60

0

Qrs . Bu , 94 6

250

7

87

6

6

433 3 793 0

Leaving for sale , Qrs.

of this there are 210

Total,

6425 .

253

of wheat, at the average price of £ 1 15 104-1 of barley, at the average price of 0 19 31-4

330

of oats , at the average price of

793 at a gross average price of

0 15 .

£377 0 0 213 19 259 17

9

1 2 24. }

3 6

t'880 16 9

STACKYARD - CROP 1849.

1. Wheat . Field E.

2. Wheat.

3. Whent.

Field E.

Field E.

4. Wheat . Field E.

5. Wheat. Field E.

6. Wheat. Field G.

7. Wlieat . Field G.

8. Wheat . Field G.

Barley. Fields F & H .

9.

10.

11 .

12.

13.

Wheat.

Wheat. Field G.

Wheat.

Barley Field F.

Barley.

14 . Barley.

15 . Barley.

Field F.

Field F.

Field F.

Field G.

Field G.

16 .

of each . 17 .

18 .

19.

20 .

21 .

Barley. Field IT.

Barley. Field H.

Barley. Field H.

Barley. Field II .

Barley. Field H.

26 . Oats. Field R.

27 . Oats. Field R.

28. Oats . Field S.

35 . Oats. Field U.

36 . Oats . Field U.

25 . Oats . Field R.

33. Oats . Field . T.

34 . Oats. Fields T & U.

2 Loads of U.

22. Onts .

23.

Field R.

Oats . Field S.

Field S.

30 . Oats . Field T.

Field T.

37 . Onts . Field U.

38 . Oats . Field U.

29 . Oats .

31 . Oats .

24 . Oats .

Fields .

32 . Oats. Field T.

REALISATION .

772

6426. The live stock accounts give, in numbers on hand at different periods, like manner, the particulars of every the prices obtained, and those paid for species of stock, the disposal of them, the them . 6427.

STOCK - ACCOUNT — 1849. Whole No.

1849 . Oct. 2

CATTLE .

Steers . Cows ,

Calves . L.

To

1

Bull ,

9

6

Cows,

10 5

10

By

21

10

do. ,

5

15

37 30

Two year old steers bought at Yarn , at L.7 ,

26 30

Steers sold Adam Butters, at L.18,

56 15

Steers bought at Darlington , at L.7,

41 15

105 0 0

Steers bought at Darlington , at L.8,

56 15

120 00

Steers sold at Newcastle , at L.18,

71 14

Steers sold at Newcastle , at L.14 ,

57 16

224

Steers sold at Newcastle , at L.12,

41 15

1800

67 15

To

15

9

67 15

By

82 14

May 8 15

9

52 15

9

37 15

Το

22 20

By

42 1

Το

41 15

Sept. 29 )

9

S

Steers rising 2 years old,

68 16

June 1

L.

15

52

March 20

D.

6

Steers rising 1 year old , Heifers

S.

1

11

210 0 0

.

1850. Feb. 20

Price .

270 0 0

252 0 0 0

0

26

Steers sold at Edinburgh , at L.11 ,

15

Steers bought at Darlington , at L.6 , 6s.,

11 20

165 00 126 00

31

Heifer died ,

1

4 10 0 £ 561 00 £ 1095 100

10

Calves weaned , .

15 10

56

31

56

6428 .

STOCK - ACCOUNT - 1849 .

Whole No.

Pigs.

Breeding Pigs,

Feed ing or store

Rate .

Price ,

Pigs , 1849.

L. S. D.

Store pigs ,

Oct. 24

24 18

Weaned , (2 litters, )

18

Nov. 7

99

42 8

Weaned ,

38 8

By

50 20

Sold at Edinburgh ,

46 20

To

30 25

By

55 48

To

7 30

1850 . Jan , 1

May 8 June 8

To

Sows , Boar ,

3 1 20

Oct. 2

L.

SD

3 1

20

30 0 0

30 /

26

Bought at Berwick ,

25

15 /

Sold at Edinburgh,

51 48

30 /

Weaned , (3 litters ,)

3 30

37 1

33 1

36

32

36

18 15 0

7200

L.18 15 0 L.102 0 0

FARM BOOK -KEEPING . STOCK ACCOUNT - 1849.

6429 . Whole No.

1849. Oct. 2

SHEEP.

Ewes ,

Feed ing Sheep

Price .

Hoggs. Rate .

L.

To

Oct. 30 By

200 290 320 3 813 3

Nov. 30

810 2

Dec. 25

808 40

Ewes, Hoggs, Wethers , Rams,

31 1850 . Jan. 3

764 60

3

2

Mar. 15

699 100

3

596 120 99

S.

D.

3 323 1

2 hoggs and I wether dead ,

322

Hoggs dead ,

2

150

288 2

9 100

286

Wethers sold to Timothy Wood ,

40

3 hoggs and 1 wether dead ,

282 1

Wethers sold to Jacob Keyworth ,

281 60

34 /

68 0 0

3

1 10 0

283

36 /

108 00

221 3

Hoggs died ,

I ewe and I hogy dead ,

1

280 1

199

279

Wethers sold at Edinburgh ,

100

2 ewes and 1 wether dead,

121 1

599 30

L.

320

701 Feb. 28

D.

290

704

30

S.

200

768

April 14

773

2 197

Wethers sold at Edinburgh ,

1 10 0

0 15

32/

0

160 00 2 0 0

120 120

35 /

210 00

476

30

2

3

May 30

471 170

June 15

Hoggs dead, 2 ewes and I hogg dead,

2

Clipped hoggs sold at home,

200 101 170 130

Breeding ewes and gimmers , Draft ewes and gimmers, Wether lambs weaned , do ., Ewe do.

60 541 200

30

3

255 0 0

32

9600

301 101

170 130

300

Draught ewes sold at St Ninian's fair,

60 41

Half -bred wether lambs, bought at Melrose ,

741

Ву

30 /

200

601

Sept. 27 By

100

106 195

Account altered by addition ofLambs. To

1 0 0

276 170

195

301

July 8

2 277 1

200

14/

140 00

500

Hoggs dead,

3 497 41

733

1 150 £ 140 00 £ 908 5 0

200 738

6430. Remarks. — The quantity and exact Inventory and Valuation of stock value of live-stock on band, at the end should be made up annually, and added of one year, may vary so materially to the summary of his balances and liabi from that at the next, that the balance lities, and it will contribute to the exhibi

exhibited by the stock -book miglit give a tion of a true state of his affairs at the

most farmer's fallaciousaffairs view of this department of close of the year. therefore an the

; and

REALISATION .

774

names of certain of the field -workers, the

6431. Of the Labour-account concern-

ing the field -workers, a few examples number of whom on this farm actually for one month will suffice to show how it is reaches to the letter P , as will be seen in

kept. The letters A, B, C, represent the the subsequent detailed account.

T.

W.

T.

1

1 1

1

1

1

P.

M.

S.

1

1

5

1

1 1

1 1

4 6 3

M.

T.

W.

1

1

T.

F.

S.

1

1

1 1 1 1

M.

T.

W.

1

1

1 1

1

T.

F.

1

1 1

S.

Ren . thaye of

C.

B.

A.

Week

ending 1849 . Oct. 6 13 20 27

1

1

1 1

1 1

1

1

1

1

1 1

1

1

6

1

5

1

4 5

1 1

1

3

6432. On an extension of this form of The gross amounts only of this account account, it affords the materials for a sum- have been entered in the preceding books.

mary of the amount of all the manual With this account the system of book labour executed on the farm in the course keeping recommended concludes. of a year, including the harvest expenses . LABOUR ACCOUNT - WHITSUNDAY 1850.

LABOUR ACCOUNT - MARTINMAS 1849. No. of Rate per days, day .

Names.

729 1123 19

A B C

105 108

D

E F G

111g 1117

Hн

63

I

645 674 105 138

K L M

122

N

154

0 P

8 10

Names. L. 8. D.

10d. 100 .

0

5

4 13

9

A

10d .

0 15 10 4 7 6

B

3

10d . 10d . 10d . 10d. 5d . 5d . 100 . 10d . 5d . 5d . 10d . 10d . ls. 3d .

4 10

2 16 5 7

6

2 17

6

4

6 8 0 7 0 12

Half-year's wages of 7 yearly ploughmen , Groom's half-year's wage, 129 2s.

129. 2s.

Blacksmith's account, Joiner's do., Foreinan's expenses, Own incidental expenses ,

4 1 6

39

0 0

0

60

0

12 19 12 19 13 15 11 7 2 3 5 0

0

14 7

do. ,

Q , spadesman , R , do. ,

705 6 8

| 389

D

E

1723

L. 134 11

0

0

0 6 9

J K L M N 0 P

160 64 1 11 12

Bread , Beer ,

L.71

8 10

47111

10d . 10d . 10d. &d. 8d .

4 5 5

0 66 0 12 11 6 7 6 9 0 0 0

13 13 0 7 S

9 4 10 4

L.44 8 5

Half-year's wage of 7 yearly ploughmen , Foreman's balf-year's wage,

Joiner's

6 0 0

do. ,

Blacksmith's account ,

L.48 17 4 11 5 6 11 60

0 10 8

&. ) 10d .

111 ) 1523

43

{ 21

Q , spadesman , do ., R , Wages ,

46 %

હ d. ? 104. Sd . 10d .

Ed . 10 LS 10d .

Hн I

Groom's

Harvest Expenses.

1 7 7

54

714 431

0

69

8d . )

8d . 10d . S & d. 10d . 8d . 100. S Sd . 101 .

S43 73

F

LSD

10d . 8d . 10d. 1

C

2 11 08

L.49 7

Foremnan's

3

( 304

23

4 12 11 4 13 13 1 6 3 1 6 103

Xo , of Rate per day, days .

1173 157

11 15 0 15 14 0 12 10 9

do. ,

Foreman's expenses , Own incidental expenses,

5 94 5 0 0 L. 1307S

6433. Were the same accounts arranged page of any of the former books. Such a

in the form of Charge and Discharge, they would give a bird's-eye view of the amount of all the transactions of the year; and such a view may be engrossed on a single

form not only classifies all the transactions of the year, but checks the accuracy of the total sums of the various accounts, and facilitates a correct balancing of accounts.

775

FARM BOOK- KEEPING .

, FARMER

ACCOUNT OF CHARGE AND DISCHARGE OF THE INTROMISSIONS OF A- B AT FOR CROP AND YEAR ENDING Ist OCTOBER 1850 . DISCHARGE .

6434 . L.

BRANCH I.--RENT, TAXES, AND INSURANCE. 1850

L.

S.

L.

D.

S.

D.

1st. Rent

By paid half -year's rent, due at Martinmas, do . By due at Whitsunday,

Jan. 24 June 24 1849 Nov. 22

D.

S.

2d . Taxes-

By Schoolmaster's stipend, for year ending this

1 17

6

25 0 7 18 11 0

0 1

500 500

0

9

0

0

1000

0

0

date , 1850

May 28

By poor -rates for year , to Whitsunday 1850 ,

Aug. 26

By assessed taxes,

9

By income -tax ,

99

85 45 16 33

1849

3d . Fire Insurance

Nov. 20

7 17

By premium paid Phænix , for one year,

9

1053 14

04

BRANCH II. - LIVE STOCK BOUGHT. 1st. Cattle

Cattle bought, per stock account,

561

0

0

140

00

2d. Sheep

Sheep bought, per stock account,

99

3d . Pigs 79

18 15

Pigs bought, per stock account,

0 719 15

0

BRANCH III .-FARM WORKING. 1850 June 9

1st. Seed bought 50 12 11

By clover and grass seed account, By turnip - seed account,

By 103 qrs. of beans, at 22s., 1849 Nov. 7 1850 Jan. 7 9

2d . Furnishings and Repairs By John Irons, for castings for mill ,

6

By ironmonger's account, for past year, By sundry accounts

0

April 221

0

8 0 0

16 18

July 1

0 0 9

L.5 0 0 2 10 0 4 10 4 4 17 10

Farrier , Roper , Mason , Slater , Feb. 20

0 2

By 3 tons of cake from James Cuthbert , at L.8 per ton ,

By saddler's account, for past year, By lime , bought at Sunderland kilns, By 15 tons of guano , at L.9 per ton ,

By 3 loads of palings, at 10s.,

2

24

0 0 0 8 0 9 5 3 135 00

1 10 0

208 13 5 1849. Oct. 27

Nov. 22 May 26 July 1

3d . Labour and Oatmcal

By harvest expenses, By 5 sacks of oatmeal, at 265., By Labour account for half-year to date , do.

By

do.

do .

By William Young, for use of his stallion ,

71 8 10 6 10 0

134 11 130 1

7 2

63 8 6

344 0 68 626 6

83

BRANCH IV . - DEBTS DUE ME.

1850

Sept. 30

2 15

By shepherd , due me for fallen mutton , BRANCH V .--BALANCE . Cash on hand ,

Balance at credit in account, with the British Linen Company,

Sum of discharge,

0

40 2 7 1125 00

1165 2 7 3567 13 4

REALISATION .

776

CHAROR.

6435. BRANCH

L.

I. - Balance on hand at 31st October 1849

Cash ,

Balance in account with British Linen Bank,

40 300

s. 0

0

0

0

D.

L.

8 .

340 75

BRANCH II . - Debts due me at 1st October 1849, per last account,

D.

0 0 00

BRANCH III.-Corn sold 379 2 244 12

Wheat sold , per corn account, do. do. Barley do. Oats do.

4 0

270 00 893 14

4

2258 19

0

BRANCH IV.-Live stock sold Ist. Callle.

Cattle sold , per stock account,

1095 100

.

2d . Sheep.

Sheep sold , per stock account,

908 50

.

3d . Wool. Wool sold , per farm account,

153

4

102

00

0

4d . Pigs. Pigs sold , per stock account,

Sum of charge ,

L.3567 13

6436. The only remark I shall make on posted in the proper book. Without such

the plan of farm book-keeping, just parti- a memorandum , confusion may not only cularised, is, that were a state of Charge ensue in the larger transactions of the

and Discharge made out every year, the farm , but promises verbally given may Farm -account might be dispensed with. be broken, and inconvenience arise to That account distinctly points out, at any parties from forgetfulness and neglect.

given period, the receipts from , and the At one time, it was customary in farmers expenditure on, the farm ; but as such to trust solely to the memory to record be desiderated only at their transactions, and I have heard extra

information may

the end of the year, the gross amounts of ordinary instances of accuracy in persous the different kinds of produce from the who transacted business of the most multi

farm - constituting the heads of the vari- farious character by memory alone ; never ous classes of expenditure inserted into theless, the safer plan for the farmer is to the Charge and Discharge - seem all that jot down every particnlar that involves, is necessary to afford the information re- in the least degree, the interests of others besides his own.

quired .

6438. A simple form of keeping the 6437. Every farmer ought to be provided with a pocket Memorandum - book , Field -workers' Daily Labour -account is

in which should be written down every the following; and 'I take the particu transaction as it occurs, according to its lars from the Labour- account

exem

date, whether connected with cash or not, ber plified in (6431 ) for the month of Octo : and from which the particulars should be

A. Oct. ||1.111.111. B.

1.

111

C. ... |

111== 18 days, at 10d., £0 15 =

0

19

at 10d.,

0 15 10

= 16

at 10d .,

013

1.111.1.1111 |111.11.11. 11.11=

4

The explanation requisite is, that between By placing the name of the month in the the long strokes are comprehended the line of the strokes when it arrives, the four days of a week. The short strokes are the weeks in each month will be easily dis

full days' work done by the fieldworker ; cerned, as also the days of each week . the dot is the day in which she is not at The account thus kept for half-a -year, the work ; and when a quarter, or half, or days are summed up and calculated at the

three- quarter day is only wrought for, the rate of wages per day, and the gross figure of a 1, l, or is substituted for a amount of half-year's earnings are brought short stroke or dot, as the case may be. out as distinctly as in the example

EXHORTATIONS . in the Labour Account above. In this

777

are working separately, and when the field

manner the accounts of a large num- workers are working separately, they

ber of field -workers may be kept by the should do their respective works efti ciently ; but when ploughmen and field

steward in a small book.

workers are employed in the same work when manual and mechanical labour are CONCLUDING EXHORTATIONS TO THE YOUNG FARMER.

combined — the relative strength of each should be proportioned to produce the greatest amount of combined labour in a

6439. When the young farmer is com- given time. pletely settled on his farm , he volun 6443. As one great means of obtaining tarily undertakes certain duties and obligations which he must perform and fulfil. full and efficient work, the farmer should A simple relation of these may prove use- have his horses in the best order : they

6440. It is a paramount duty of every farmer of an arable farm to have his field operations in an advanced state at all seasons . He should remember that, if by forgetfulness or delay any important ope-

should be well selected, equally matched , sufficiently fed, properly groomed, and judiciously wrought; and when so treated they will be willing and able to do their work, they will do a large amount of work , and they will be in good health to perform it at all seasons.

ration is postponed for even a week beyond its most proper season, it may not only be overtaken by the succeeding bad

same end, the farmer should select active,

ful to him.

.

6444. As a concurrent means to the

weather, but he thereby invites a deficient willing, strong, honest, and skilful labourers. crop. When his field operations are in ad- With such ploughmen he will have his vance of the season , it is in his power to horses well driven, and the land well

wait a few days at any time for the land to wrought ; and with such field -workers the be in the best possible state ; and when lighter and more minute parts of work

every operation is finished with the land will be neatly and quickly executed. in that condition, he may cherish the well

founded hope of a good return .

6445. As a still further means to the same end, the farmer should select the

6441. For the attainment of this ad- best- constructed implements of each class; vancement of labour, the working stock for, how little soever the effects of good which the farmer possesses should be fully and bad implements may be appreciable

adequate to undertake every field opera- at any given time, he may depend upon tion in its most proper season ; for, inde- it that, with implements constructed on

pendently of the reasonableness of this the most correct mechanical principles, requirement, he should remember that the labourers will not only make the best delays may be imposed upon him to an work, but the horses will use them with indefinite extent by bad weather ; and the the greatest ease to themselves. time thus lost can never be made up should

those means be inadequate, but which may

6446. The plonghmen , horses, imple

easily be made up when the work is in ments, and field -workers, may be regarded advance, simply by waiting the lost time.

as the workingstock of a farm ; and unless

they are all maintained in the most efficient 6442. That his means of labour may at state, thefarmer cannot expect his fieldope

at all times be most efficiently employed, rations to be executed in the best manner. and then they will also be most economi

cally employed -- the farmer should have the ingenuity to arrange each department of his labourers so as not only to receive from them the largest amount of labour, in a given time, but also the largest amount

should bestow much of his solicitude on the welfare of his live-stock. In winter, he should be satisfied that those confined in the steading have abundance of food ,

when the different classes of labourers co-

are comfortably lodged, and carefully

6447. Besides the land, the farmer

operate. For example, when the ploughs tended , and those abroad in the fields

REALISATION .

778

are provided with sufficient food. It is suffers, and advantage is taken of this by of much importance to the wellbeing of future purchasers.

stock , whether in the steading or the field, that the turnips be always in the

6450. These particulars constitute the

most proper state ; and that, although ordinaryroutine experienced on an arable frost should ensue, sufficiency of them are farmofmixed husbandry. Thefarmer, how

stored for the emergency. In summer, too, ever, ought never to be satisfied with ordi the pasturing of grass fields requires his attention , asmuch for the sake of the pasture itself, that it be neither too much nor too little eaten down ; as for the stock,

nary routine, and the Scottish farmer sel dom is. He should constantly be making experiments on a limited scale, both in raising the plants of the field and in rearing

that they never be injured by an insuffi- and feeding live-stock ; and although no ciency of food and water ; and the same great effect may have been derived

degree of attention is requisite when the from any one experiment, they not ouly stock are soiled on green forage.

serve as beacons, to warn him from pro

ceeding in his ordinary practice inonedirec 6448. As long as the grain market con- tion, but as incentives to prosecute them tinues active in winter, the farmer should

still further in another. Let the farmer

attend to the thrashing and the cleaning never fail to try every experiment

of the grain, for the double purpose of suggested, the object and importance supplying his stock with a sufficiency of of which have been sufficiently explained straw , whether of fodder or of litter, and of to him . He may much more safely disposing of the grain while the market is in an ctive state . It is not safe for a farmer to speculate on his own grain in the straw ; for, ifhe retain it in the stack, the live -stock

follow such suggestions than adopt the recommended practices, of an unreason able nature, of non-practical men. For example, when the farmer is told that suffer from the want of fodder and litter, cattle thrive better when lodged on bare and the land suffers from the want of deal boards than on comfortable straw ,

manure ; and if he thrash it faster than and that they are more healthy on

the stock can consume its straw, this such boards, with their urine and dung suffers deterioration in quality both as exposed below and behind them , even al fodder and litter, and also as manure. though under the process of deoderisation, It should be the farmer's endeavour to than when these are absorbed and hidden in clean bis grain for the market to a perfect the straw, let him not believe it ; because

state, and to acquire in the grain market he knows that when he is himself comfort he attends the character of a clean dresser ably lodged, he is better in everyrespect

of grain ; for in that state alone, let him than in a contrary situation. He may be assured, grain weighs heaviest and com- probably be recommended to cut all his mands the highest price. straw into chaff, for the purpose of giving the whole of it in fodderto his live -stock , 6449. The farmer should endeavour to with the view of increasing the size of his

dispose of his fat stock at home. If he farmyard dung -heap. Let him not give a good breeder and feeder, and of being be correct in his views of the mode by

has earned for himself the character of ear to such persuasion ; because, if Liebig

always desirous of disposing of his extra which the animal beat of the body is stock at home, purchasers will regard it maintained, no less than 60 per cent of no trouble to come and inspect them , and the carbon of the straw will be breathed

make a bargain. The driving of stock to away in carbonic acid gas into the air. a market-stance has a certain depreciating When he is told that it is better, in every eflect upon their appearance, besides the respect, for sheep to be tied by the neck expense and trouble of doing it, and the in a house than at freedom in the open air, depriving them of food for a number of let him give no credence to it, because he hours.

The exhibition of stock at a mar-

knows that confinement and restraint

ket implies either the acceptance of the are quite contrary to the nature and market price, whatever that may be, or habits of that animal. When liquid the driving them home again - in which manure is 80 strongly recommended

latter case the character of the stock to him , that, in order to obtain it, the

EXHORTATIONS.

779

cattle must be confined in byres instead of from the conduct of the cattle when in hammels, let him doubt the propriety of them. When farmyard manure is recom the recommendation, because he knows

mended to be wholly appliedto the soil in a

that it has been ascertained by chemistry, liquid form , let the farmer doubt the pro that the urine is the more valuable priety of the expedient, becanse, although portion of the evacuations of every ani- he is aware that plants take their food in mal, and that, when it is separated from the liquid form, he also knows that every

the dung, the latter is deteriorated in cereal and green crop will only take as value in that proportion, and that the urine itself, unless scientifically managed , will lose a large proportion of its ammonia -the most valuable of its ingredients.

much food as it requires at any given time-and he does not yet know at what period of its growth it is disposed to take the largest proportion of food ; and be

When cattle are recommended to be con-

knows besides that, if more moisture is

fined within thelimits of a box which will presented to a plant than it wants, the deprive them of any exercise, that they surplus quantity will rather injure than may fatten the quicker, instead of being promote its growth . Moreover, it is quite in a sinall hammel, where they may have possible that the surplus moisture may

moderate exercise if they choose, let him

enter into such combinations with the con

receive the recommendation with caution, because he is aware that the laying on of fat is not the only object in feeding cattle -the paramount object being the laying on

stituents of the soil, as to form compounds injurious to the particular state of the plant, when the dissolved manure happens to be applied. The recommendation is as

oflarge masses of flesh; and when he knows yet wholly unsupported by experience. that the animals he breeds are come of a

kind having a strong disposition to fatten, they will find no difficulty in acquiring a sufficiency of fat, provided they lay on abundance of flesh. It is well known that

It is probable that the manure in the liquid state would always form a good top dressing to grass land, but its safe appli cability to ploughed land is attended with reasonable doubt, especially in a moist

the taste of the consumer for fat meat has climate. much altered within the last twenty years. Then, colliers could not obtain too fat mut6451. When the farmer is told by the

ton ; now , they won't purchase it : then it scientific man that the nutritive prin was supposed that beef could not be made ciple of the plants he raises — the nitrogen too fat ; now oxen fetch the highest price, -is chiefly derived from the ammonia

in the London market, which afford the wbich was first produced by decomposi

largest and deepest cuts of flesh along the tion of animal matter in the soil, then back.

It is therefore a retrograde move- taken up in the air by its lightness, and

ment to desire, now -a-days, to puton addi- sent back into the ground by means of tionalfat by depriving animalsof exercise. rain and snow, let him doubtthe efficacy The object of the farmer should rather be of such a process to sustain his crops, to increase the disposition to fatten in his even although it should bave Liebig's

stock, by carefully following the principles great name in support of it; because of superior breeding, than to contrive re- he knows that the very careful experi

strictive measures to put fat upon ill-bred ments of Frezenius only detected 0.133 of a part of ammonia , out of 100,000

stock. Of the three modes of feeding oxen

—the byre, the box, and the small bammel parts of air; and he also knows by --- experiment has already proved the supe- experience, that the wheat he cultivates riority of the hammel over the byre, and thrives best in dry weather, provided no experiment has yet proved that of the the heat be not excessive, and that in all

box over the small hammel ; no farmyard wet seasons it is not so good in nutritive manure has yet been produced superior properties as in dry - neither of which re to that obtained from small hammels. sults ought to accrue if the nitrogen of

Warmth, not heat, is favourable to lay- plants be derived from the air alone, as ing on both flesh and fat; and the small is stated to be the case . Chemistry informs hammel, provided with abundance of bim, besides, that wheat requires the most straw , affords the requisite quantity of ammonia of any crop he cultivates, and

warmth and shelter, if one may judge that the farmyard manure supplies as

780

REALISATION .

much of it as wheat requires ; and, there- thus seems requisite for calves when fore, there seems no necessity at least for drinking their milk. When he is recom crops to receive their ammonia in the

mended to single Swedish and white

roundabout way described. If he is told turnip, though not the yellow, at 13 or that the carbon of his crops is principally, 14 inches apart — instead of 9 or 10 if not wholly, derived from the atmo- inches, the usual distance — he may rea

sphere, and that all he has to do is to sonably try the experiment, because he

supply, by mineral manures through the knows that turnips are plants which soil, the mineral ingredients required by require both room and air, and the the particular plant he wishes to cultivate, smaller number of plants upon the acre as Liebig hastily recommended, let him may each attain to much greater size,

doubt it, because careful experiments from the quantity of manure usually given have rendered it probable that some of thecarbon of farmyard manure is taken up as food by plants independently of that existing in the atmosphere. If any one

to the acre, and produce a greater weight than the larger number of plants of smaller size. If sheep are recommended to be experimented on for fattening in pre

specific manure is recommended to him as

ference to cattle, because their size allows

being necessary for any particular plant, them to be more easily weighed-their Jet him receive it with doubt, because smallness requiring less quantity of food,

researches into the composition of plants and their numbers affording facility in have shown a difference in the consti-

subdividing them into lots, each of which

tuents of the same plant when grown in different situations, or fed with different inanures. We do not yet know how far those variations may be carried, but the fact that they are considerable is established .

may contain a

considerable

number,

among which the idiocrasy of any parti

cular sheep could not affect the results of the experiment so sensibly as one ox in a small lot — he may adopt the sug At all events, plants are not dependent on gestion at once, because he discerns one sort of food for their growth and truth to be contained in these differences between the two kinds of stock . And development. lastly, not to multiply instances, when he

6452. On the other hand, when a prac- is told that cabbages, or any other plant tical man recommends a plan of pulveris, containing much nitrogen, is good food ing strong clay in preparation for turnips, for sheep, the wool of which it isdesirable by rolling the ground when a little dried to increase, the statement may be believed,

on the surface after being ploughied, and because he knows that the wool contains then barrowing it after the rolling instead 134 per cent of nitrogen, whereas the flesh of before, thefarmer may safely follow only contains 31 percent. In short, the the practice, because it not only stands to judging between reasonable and unrea. reason, but the difficult object of pulve- sonable practices is easily acquired, when rising strong clay in dry weather is said the farmer takes time to consider the to be thereby attained. When a veterinary nature of plants and of animals, and the surgeon recommends the giving only a peculiar idiocrasy wbich each exhibits. small quantity of milk at a time, and fre

quently, to a new-dropped calf, until it is

6453. In his bearing to his own people,

a week or ten days old, the farmer may the farmer should always show them kind believe him, because he knows that calves

ness ; and if he ever bave to change his con

are not seldom afflicted with indigestion duct towards them , it should befrom some when young ; and he may deem it ex- fault of theirs, not his. He should not

tremely probable, wben told so, that the find fault continually, as constant rebuke young calf large quantities of milk at a ference. A fanlt should generally be time, withouta due proportion of saliva, checked ; but those arising from the head, indigestion is superinduced by giving the produces no reformation, but rather indif

contrary to the small quantities which it takes from its mother, when allowed to suck her, and the large quantity of saliva which it discharges in the act of sucking. An active motion of the jaws

and not the heart, should be gently dealt with. Theft and falsehood should never be pardoned, and the delinquent should be got rid of at the end of the term of service. Such a step is necessary , for checking the

EXHORTATIONS.

781

spread of moral contamination. When a he should dispose of as much of the grain ploughman is seen to quarrel seriously with as will make up the sum with the balance his horses, the safest expedient for both man and horses is to cause him to unloosen them from the yoke, and put them into the stable until the next day, when his temper

in his Bank book ; and at Lammas the sum is easily made up by the sale of cattle, sheep, and wool, besides grain. It is safe practice for a tenant, whenever one rent is

will have calmed down. Even severe re- paid, to provide immediately for the suc bukeat the time, with allowance to continue ceeding one ; and he should always re- . at work, will never convince him that member that the payments to the servants,

he was wrong and the horses were right, and of accounts, are made at the inter althougb that is the more probable state of mediate terms between those of the rent. the case .

The wives and children of

married men are frequently troublesome 6457. The farmer should provide re about a farm. Whenever it is seen that creation and instruction at home. Recrea

a man cannot control his own household, he should be parted with at the expiry of the term . Much more work will be obtained from field -workers by kind-

tion he may find in his own family, and occasionally in visits with and from friends at a distance, and neighbours at hand ; and for instruction he must have

ness than by severity.

recourse to books and papers, and partly to the converse of friends and strangers.

6454. The farmer ought to be punctual in his payments to bis servants at the specified terms. He who neglects to pay them regularly loses control over them, and actually places himself in their power

If he provide not these attractions at home, he will go where they are to be found, and neglect the concerns of bis farm . It is a common remark by townspeople that far mers, as a class, are averse to reading:

in many ways. Workpeople calculate on laying out their earnings when they becomedue; and on their being withheld at the period of expectation, the disappointment is far greater than they choose to exhibit. Women feel disappointment acutely .

If they knew the habits of farmers as well

as I do, the observation, even if strictly

true, would be no obloquy. Little do townspeople know the weight of fatigue which early rising and constant exercise in the fields on foot , which the farmer is obliged to take in summer, who has improv

ing operations to superintend — impose, 6455. In his relation to his neighbours and of the lassitude which overtakes the the farmer should be most punctual to his frame when resting in the evening after

engagements. If he has promised to buy the fatigues of the day. It is then physi orsell any commodity with a person on a cally impossible for any man to betake to given day, he should faithfully keep reading a subject that requires thought his appointment. If he has promised to and reflection, or any subject at all. The settle accounts with any one on a given desultory newspaper affords the most fit time, he should do so without fail. A ting literature to his mind until the hour very few breaches of promises will of bed, which must be early. No one has

attach an unenviable reputation to his a higher relish for reading than myself, name in the part of the country in which and yet I have seen a whole summer slip

he resides, and a few more such may en- away without having read anything but tirely ruin his credit.

the newspapers. In winter it is different, and in that season it is not true that the

6456. Above all, the farmer onght to farmer does not read — for many read much, be punctual in the payment of his rent to his landlord, because it is by agreement with him that he is in the position of a tenant at all. In treating for terms

and as a farmer advances in years and takes less exercise, his leisure is greatly devoted to reading. We have only to peruse the discussions in the Farmers' Clubs

of payment on negotiating for thelease, they should be fixed at Candlemas, in the beginning of February, and at Lammas, in the beginning of August.

in England and at the monthly meetings of the Highland and Agricultural Society in Edinburgh, to be satisfied that the pre sent race of farmers read and have read

For the settlement of the Candlemas rent to good purpose. Townspeople believe

.

782

REALISATION .

that the artisans of towns are more intel- And yet the foreign manufacturer is ligent than the labonrers of the country. equal to the production of marketable

I have had many opportunities of con- goods to the British manufacturer ; while versing on miscellaneous subjects with both it is acknowledged, on all hands, that the classes of workpeople, and never could British farmer is superior in every respect observe the superior intelligence of the to the foreign farmer, in what relates to town artisan .

I am sure the grocers' the cultivation of the soil and the rearing

shopman does not know the countries from whence the various articles he deals in come, nor the processes by which the articles are prepared for the market, except, it may be, the art of adulteration. The journeyman cabinetmaker knows as

of live-stock. In comparison, therefore, with foreign compeers, the British fariner stands in a much higher position than the British manufacturer.

6458. In catering for his mental food,

little of the countries which supply the the young farmer should not neglect to different kinds of ornamental wood. It is take the periodicals connected with the the same with other trades. The country great Agricultural Societies of the king labourer is at least observant of every dom .

The best works on agricultural

thing around him : he knows the weather, chemistry and physiology, both animal different kinds of soil, different kinds of and vegetable, should not be neglected . rock, different kinds of trees, the habits of His own local newspaper he of course

plants and animals; and can discriminate always patronises; and I think that he individual character very shrewdly. The should procure, besides, a London agricul intelligence of the manufacturer, too, is tural newspaper, on account of the fulness often placed in favourable contrast with of the reports of the numerous markets of

that of the farmer ; and the usual example the kingdom , as well as foreign ones, of superiority is adduced in the manufacturer availing himself immediately of every improved piece of machinery, while the farmer is represented as neglecting similar opportunities for improvement in his business. The cases are not at all analogous. The manufacturer knows, with certainty, that the machinery which

which they always contain . 6459. In conclusion, I would exhort the

young farmer to maintain that indepen dence of mind and judgment, which is not only honourable and becoming, but a posi tive duty to the very important class of which he is a member. Let him never

will suit a similar manufacture to his own forget that he belongs to a profession which at one place, will suit his purpose also ; bas been recognised, by those best entitled but the farmer has no certainty of an im- to form an opinion on the subject, as con plement suiting a district of the country tributing inno small degree to the main

altogether dissimilar to his own

in

climate, soil, situation, and locality, answering his own . He prudently waits the approval of others before he adopts it in his own business, which is always

tenance of the constitution and liberties of

these islands ; and that he is bound by every means in his power, whenever the occasion

may present itself, to discharge the func tions of a loyal British subject. In part

materially affected in its results by the ing with the young farmer, I do not know I that I can better conclude thanby exhorting would put the cases of the manufacturers him to maintain in his own person, and in and farmers of this kingdom in this way : his own sphere, the high, manly, and inde The British manufacturer is situated in pendent character which for centuries has slightest change of the elements.

the most favourable circumstances for the prosecution of his business, with coal, machinery, conveyances, and sea -ports, the British farmer is not, in regard to soil

been acknowledged as the attribute of the British agriculturist. And with an anxious and heartfelt hope that my labours may prove profitable and instructive to some

and climate. The foreign manufacturer of my younger brethren , and be consid is not placed, in those respects,in the most ered by the more experienced as tend favourable circumstances for the prosecu- ing to illustrate the science of agricul tion of his business — the foreign farmer is. tural economy, I conclude my

task .

INDE X.

(THE FIRST FIGURES REFER TO THE VOLUME : THE SECOND TO THE PARAGRAPH.)

Academies, education of the agricultural student at, i. 514 --compared with colleges , i. 515 Acrospire, what, i. 1922 Actinometer, the, ii. 3032 Acts , parliamentary, regarding importation of diseased ani.

Angus doddies, points of, i. 6228 Animal charcoal, on , ii. 3330 , 5012 Animals injurious and beneficial to man , i. 505 - carcasses of, as manure, ii. 5008 - feeding of, see Feeding Annotto , nature , & c ., of, ii. 4250

mals, ii. 3750 Adie , J. , on the thermometer , i . 164

Aphides, ii. 3300

Aged bull, what, i. 1151ewe, i . 927 — tup , ib .

April wheat, on , i. 2378 — its produce , ib .-- its character , i ,

Ansted on the origin of soils , i. 488

Agricultural colleges, seminaries, & c., Cirencester, i. 532– Hoddesden , i . 533 – Oxford , i. 534 – Templemoyle, i . 535 -Hofwyl, i. 536 – Möeglin , i. 538 – Grignon , i. 539. Agricultural pupil, where he can best acquire practical husbandry , i . 1 - time required for it , i. 11 - why he

2379

Arable farms, physical geography of, ii . 5216 — change that may be effected in , ii. 5219

circumstances which affect

their value, ii. 5220 — period of entering, ii . 5352 Arable soil, specific gravity of, i . 374

should go to a farın , i. 5 - winter an agreeable season

Arbitration , settlement by , ii. 5362

to him , i. 6 - should become acquainted with the farm , i. 7 - fees payable, i. &-should not have a horse , i. 9 - cloth ing required , i. 10 — difficulties he has to encounter, i. 12 ---why these baffle him , i . 13 – should learn the minutiæ of labour, i. 14rensons of the difficulties of his profession ,

Arnott , Dr, on the construction of machines , i. 80 - on natural ventilation , i , 100 - on the friction of water in

pipes, i. 110 - on the thermometer , i. 168 - on the pro perties of coal, i. 187 - on light, i. 189 — and colour, i . 191 Arsenic, danger of application of, ii. 4785

i. 16-how these are to be overcome, i. 18 - cannot ex

Artificial grasses , what, i. 2634

pect constant attention from the tutor farmer, i. 19 - why he should put his hand to any kind of work , i. 20 — should be thoroughly trained , i. 27 -- should consult books, i , 29 - should be acquainted with the laws of friction , the strength ofmaterials, & c. , i. 79 - institutions of education

Ash , specific gravity of the, i. 119 — its ash , i. 465

best suited for, i. 512 - his observing and recording facts ,

i . 559 — unable at first to understand operations, ib. should attend to minute detail , i. 560 — reason for this , i.

561 - importance of method in this, i. 562 - should know what constitutes tlie agricultural year,i. 563 – should take the operations as they occur, i. 565 - should observe every phenomenon , i . 567 — difficulties of his observing these , i.

Ash pits should not be near cottages, ii. 5549 Aspen , specific gravity of the, i. 119

Asphalt, not suited for floors of steadings, ii. 5120 Atmosphere, height of the , i. 82 — its pressure , i . 83-- its

components , i. 84 - why the temperature sinks as we ascend , i. 101

August's Psychrometer, i. 183 Aurora borealis, the, i. 600 — its elevation , i. 601-the prog nostics of, i. 602 — seen in winter, i . 564 - in spring, i. 2175

568 - should note the effects of the weather, i. 569 - and

-in summer , ii . 3063 -- in autumn , ii . 4350 Autumn, its distinctive character, ii. 4319 — its tempera ture , ii. 4321 - its effects on the animal system , ii. 4346

the time each crop was sown , i. 570 - should keep a register of each field , i. 571 - best form for these , i. 572 should make a plan of the farm , i . 573 — and of the stack

Ayrshires , points of, ii. 6229

Aynesley, Mr, his experiments with special manures on car rots , ii. 4944

yard every year, i. 574_summary of the results,i.575 time not much required for these, i. 576 — to be initiated into mixed husbandry , i. 577 Agricultural year, the, i. 655 Agriculture , sciences most applicable to , i. 70 , 73 - hitherto purely practical, i. 71 -- its neglect by men of science , i .

72 --natural philosophy in its applications to , i. 74 mathematics, natural history, and chemistry, ib . - chair of, at Edinburgh , i. 522 Ahl, what, i. 2089

Air, effects of therespiration of plants on , i.

126 - chemical

properties of, i. 212

Alder, specific gravity of, i. 119

Alluvial deposits, what, i. 491 - plants distinguishing them , i . 396 — and weeds, 397 Alsike clover, i . 2675

Ammonia, its electric state, i. 143— sulphate of, ammo. nincal salts, & c., see Special Manures Analectric bodies, what, i. 122

Back -band , the, i. 682 Bag , the, peculiarly formed for carrying grain , ii. 6395 Bagging, kind of reaping called , ii . 4494 Bagrie , Mr, his draught mare, ii. 6216 Baikie for cow -byres , a , i. 1131 Bandster , the, ii. 4508

Band -win reaping, ii. 4472 Barley, ash of, i. 462, 1288 — its botanical position , i. 1906 -classified by the ear , ib.-by the grain into bere or

bigg, i. 1907 - and barley, i. 1908 — varieties cultivated in Scotland, i. 1909 - criterion of it for malting , i . 1910 crops of it , i. 1911 - quantities malted , i. 1912-pot and pearl, i. 1916 — gluten in, i. 1917 — its composition , i. 1918its fecula , i. 1920 — its geographical distribution , i. 1924 meal, i. 1290 - period of sowing, i. 2685 -- ploughing of land for, i. 2686 — sown when spring wheat cannot, i. 2687 -- furrows ploughed deep for, i. 2689 - hand and machine sowing, i. 2690 _-- quantity sown , i. 2694 - gowing

Anatomy, comparative, study of, by the farmer, i. 510

affected by the weather , i. 2695 — sown in autumn cannot

Aubury in turnips , ii . 3312 - insects accompanying, ii. 3313 Anemometer, the , i. 98 - Lind's, i. 99

stand the winter , i. 2702 —- instance of ribbing , i. 2703 its treatment in Germany, i. 2704 — its culture in summer ,

Aneroid barometer, the, ii. 4322 — observations with, ii. 4323 Angleberries in cattle, i. 1384

ii. 4120 - top -dressing, ii. 4123 — its diseases in summer,

ií. 4128 — insects affecting it , ii . 4130 — the crops of it vary, il. 4551---circumstances in which it may be sown in

784

INDEX .

Barley, continued autumn , ii. 4880 — its culture in autumn, ii. 4882 - sown then as a forage crop , ii. 4884 — grown first as forage, then as green , ii. 4885 ---winter, grown in genial cli. mates, ii. 4886 - effects of special manures on , ii. 4925 -mineral ingredients taken by it from the soil, ii. 5057 — the cost of replacing these, ii. 5070 — heat required to ripen it, ii. 5240 - extremes of temperature that will ripen it, ii. 5245 - straw , ash of, i. 1970 Barley meal, i. 1290 - its composition, i. 1919 - commended by the ancients, i. 1921

Blood - burn in meat , how produced, ii. 3646

Blowflies, checkered , ii. 3755 — green , ii. 3756 - bluebottle and larder, ib . Blows, injuries to stock from , ii. 3652 Blurton's milking tube , i. 2263 Boar or brawn , what, i. 1587

Boar-pig, what, i. 1587 Boiler and furnace, the , i. 1467

Boiling, how produced , i. 185 Bokhara clover, see Clover Bonedust, preparation of the land for, ii. 3227 - its action

Barley sprouts, used in feeding cattle , i. 1232 - ash of, i.

on the soil, ii. 3229 — its surprising effect, ii. 3231 - best

1233 - their composition , i. 1284 Barn sheet, the, i . 1740 Barometer, kinds of the , i . 85 — tables of, i . 86 - how to use

to use it with farmyard dung, ii. 3233 — and sulphuric

it , i . 87 — its cost , i . 88 — its general indications, i . 224affected by the wind, i. 225 --and the latitude , i . 226– its mean in England in winter, i. 654in spring, i. 2175 --in summer , ii. 3035, 3063 — in autumn , ii. 4350 — its mean height each month for 30 years, ii. 432_pheno mena accompanying its oscillations, ii. 4325 - its indica tions during autumn, ii. 4326

Barren ewe , what , i. 929 —- gimmer, i. 925 ---mare , i. 1432 Barrow for sacks, the , i. 1818 Bars, see Swing-trees

Basalt, specific gravity of, i. 119 Basket, seed, i. 2317 -- for potato sets, i. 2746 Bath for sheep, soft soap ,ii. 4749 — sulphur, ii. 4750 — tobacco liquor, ii. 4751

Batts in horses, i. 1490 Beaches, weeds which they supply , i. 399 - lake, i. 400— river, i. 401

Beans , mineral ingredients in, i. 462 - their botanical posi tion , i. 1950 — their grain , ib . crops of, i. 1952 - used by horses, i. 1953 — their composition, i. 1299, 1954 – fecula of, i. 1956- ancient notions regarding, i. 1957 , 2451 - ash of their straw , i . 1982 --nutritive matter in an acre of, i . 1298 —- their ash , i. 1300 - barrow for sowing them , i. 2434

apparatus for sowing, i. 2438 - Bowing of them , i. 2409 suitable soils for, i. 2410 — their place in the rotation , i. 2411 -- the culture is suited to their nature , i. 2412 - sown

in drills , i. 2413 -- and broadcast, i. 2414culture of the ground for them , i. 2415 — sown with or without manure , i. 2126 - broadcast without manure , i. 2427 - and with , i.

2131)—in rows in the flat without manure, i. 2428 - and with , i. 2431 - in drills without manure , 1. 2429 - and with , i. 2432 - applying the dung in the drills, i . 2433— sowing with the bean -barrow , i. 2434 — applying the dung in rows in the flat , i. 2437 - and in broadcast, i. 240– variety sown, i. 2441-and quantity , i. 2442 - use of the drill-harrow ,i. 2443 — cases in which alone to be sown in the flat, i. 2449 - where not to be sown , i. 2447 - their

culture in summer, ii. 3979 - much affected by insects , ii. 3982 – increase of crop by cutting off the tops, ii. 3986 their culture for winter, ii. 4418---turnips sown between the drills, ii. 4423 — reaping of them , ii. 4577 — winning, ii. 4655 - effects of special manures, on , ii. 4936 - mineral ingredients they take from the soil, ii. 5059 - cost of re placing these, ii. 5702

Bean -meal, feeding of cattle with , i. 1297 — its composition , i . 1299

Bearing reing, i. 1681

Beech , specific gravity of, i. 119 - percentage of mineral in . gredients in , i. 465

Beef, proportion of tallow to , ii. 6147 — and of offals , ii. 6148 — staple of aniinal food, ii. 6149 - loss by cooking, ii. 6150 - salted, ii. 6151 — imported, ii. 6153 - tierce of, ii. 6154 Beef bones, specific gravity of, i. 119 Beer, antiquity of, i. 1923 Beet, mineralingredients in , i. 463 - ash of, i. 3399. See also Mangold-wurzel

Beetle, the pea, ii. 3990 Beistyn , what, i. 2248

Berberry, the, does not affect wheat, ii. 4115 Berkeley, Rev. Mr, on the potato disease, ii. 4162 Bigg's sheep- dipping composition , ii. 4767 Binding sheaves, method of, ii. 4479 Birch, specific gravity of, i. 119_ash of, i. 465 Birds, injury to grain crops from , ii . 4694 – scarecrows for frightening, ii. 4709 --poison used against, ii. 4710 - gun powder most efficacious, ii. 4712 Bistournage, see Torsion Biting fly , the, ii. 3864

acid , ii. 3235 — mode of fermenting it , ii. 3236 — its cost, ii. 3237 — its durability , ii. 3324 - its specific gravity , ü . 3326 -its composition , ii. 3328 - heated with steam , ii. 3331

the parts useful for manure, ii. 3332 – compared with farm yard manure , ii. 3333 — sort most efficacious, li. 3335 where obtained, ii. 3336 - way of keeping it, ii. 3339

effect of heating it, il. 3340 - importation of it, ii. 3342 Bones, composition of, i. 1512 — sulphated, sic Special Manures

Book -keeping of the farm , allegations regarding, against farmer, ii. 6404-why farmers cannot follow a regular system of, ii. 6405 — necessary difference in farming and

mercantile, ii. 6406 — theory of farm , ii. 6407 - explana tion of cash and farm account-books in , ii. 6113_ explan ation of inventory and valuation of stock in , ii. 6414 explanation of the estimate of rent, ii. 6415 - explanation of Dr. and Cr. sides of, ii. 6414 modification of the sys tem of, ii. 6436

Boring-irons, ii. 5876 Boss, pyramidal, ii. 4650 - prismatic, ii. 4651 — formed by a bundle of straw , ii . 4652 Boswell , Mr, his experiments on the feeding of cattle, i. 1339, 1365

Bot, great spotted horse , ii , 3680 - red -tailed horse , ii. 3861 -others, ii . 3862 Bots on sheep , ii. 3752

Botanical physiology, what, i. 322 Botany , a branch of natural history , i. 215 — how divided , i. 320 - systematic, i. 321 Bothy system , mode of abolishing the, ii. 6302 Boussingault, remarks of, on the ſoeding of cattle , ii. 3664 Bowels, inflammation of the, in horses, i. 1491 Box -beds, evils of, in cottages, ii. 5541 Box -feeding sheep, i. 964 - cattle, i. 1369 Box hand -churn , the, ii. 4216

Boxes for feeding cattle, size and cost of, i. 1369 — compared with hammels, i. 1370

Brake - harrow , the, i. 2416 Bramah's hydraulic press, force of, i. 107 Bran , composition of, i. 1880 — feeding of cattle on , i. 1327 -and poultry , i. 1632 Branding-iron , the, ii. 4022 Bratted sheep , a, i. 1038 Bratting sheep, what, i. 1035 — how done, i. 1036 - its cost, i. 1037 - preferable to salving, i. 1040 Brats, time for taking them off sheep, ii. 3726 Braxy in sheep , i. 1077

Bread, fondness of horses for, i. 1443 — from oatmeal, i. 1938 — from rye -meal, i. 1949.

See also Wheat

Breaking - in1 , necessary for young dranght horses, ii. 6087 a horse-breaker should be employed, ii. 6088 - mode of, ii. 6089 — and of first working a young horse , ii. 6090 effects of the harness on the skin , ii. 6093 — first shoeing, ib . - docking, ii. 6095 Breeding, principles of, ii. 6249 — functions of the locomo tive organs, ii. 6251 -- of the vital, ii. 6252 — and of the mental, ii. 6253 — selection of parents, male , il. 6260_ selection of parent, mares , ii . 6261 —- cows, ii. 6262 - ewes, ii. 6263 - points derived from the male and from the female, ii. 6265 — each parent should be perfect, ii . 6266 characteristics of the best cattle, ii. 62119 in -and-in , ii. 6273 – immediate effects of this , ii. 6274ordinary idea of it not correct , ii. 6275 - male first fails in it , ii. 6276— crossing, its object , ii. 6277 -- ordinary crosses , ii. 6278

crosses cannot be maintained , ij. 6279 — law of crossing, ii. 6280 — difficulty of maintaining a cross permanently, ii. 6281 - summary of the laws of, ii. 6282

Black cars in oats, ii. 4136-in wheat, ii. 4118

Brewers ' draff, ash of, i. 1279 Bridle, the , i. 680 —- price of, i. 1542 Bridling in sheep , i. 1069 Broadcast sowing, effects of the surface on , ii. 3522 - on waste of seed by, ii. 3531, 3535 - produce of grain and

Black earth of China, its use , ii. 4984 Black bonnet injurious to crops , ii. 4697

Brodie , Mr, experiments on the feeding of cattle by ,

Blackfaced sheep , points of, ii. 6231

Blackthorn moth , the, injures hedges , ii. 5689 Blinding in sheep, ii . 3744

straw by , ii. 4537 i, 1325

Broken wind in horses, i. 1499 Brood mare , what , i. 1432 - Sow , i. 1587

785

INDEX . Brooms for barns, i. 1794 Brown -tailed moth , the, injures ledges, ii. 5689 Bruce, Mr, his experiments on feeding sheep, i. 976 , 981 ; ii . 3122

Carpenter -work of the steading, specification of the, ii. 5134 — measuring it , ii. 5168 - its cost, ii. 5512 - timber used in , ii. 5469 — for cottages , ii . 5557

Carrion crow , the, destructive to sheep, ii. 3718 — and to

Brush for horses, i . 1419 - price of it , i. 1424 Buccleuch , Duke of, his short horn cow , ii. 6212_his Leicester tup , ii. 6219_his Leicester ewe and lamb, ii. 6220_his brood sow , ii. 6221 - his boar, ii . 6237

Buckwheat, not suited to Britain , ii . 3164-its culture , ih . - its use , ii. 3163 -- its botanical position , ii. 3165—

poultry, ii . 5207 Carrots, mineral ingredients in , i . 463 — pulling of, i. 837 - storing of, i. 838 - specific gravity of, i. 853 - com

position of, i. 854 - varieties of, i. 897 ; ii. 3411 - nutritive matter in , i. 898 - save hay to horses, i. 899 , 1441 why their culture limited, ii . 3403 --- soil for, ii. 3404

and character, ii. 3466 --composition of its green stem ,

depth of it required , ii . 3405 - manuring, ii. 3406 —- cul

ii. 3467 - and of the seed , ii. 3468 - ash of the seed , i. 462 ; ii. 3169 - nutritive matter in an acre , ii. 3470 — its geo graphical distribution , ii . 3171 - quantity imported , ii. 3472, 4668 — reaping and winning of it , ii. 46150 - its pro ductiveness , ii . 460+ its straw good for fodder, ii. 4665 --used for poultry, ř . 4666 Buisting iron , the, ii. 4018 Bull, call, what, i. 1152 - rearing of, i . 2290 — treatment of, in summer, ii. 3818 - ringing of his nose , ii. 3819 - goes

ture, ii. 3407 - Sowing the seed , ii . 3 + 10 — insects infesting it , ii. 3116 - recipe against these , ii. 3118 -Weight of

with the cows in summer , ii. 3325 - becomes vicious when contined , ii . 3826 ---fond of calves, ii . 38 :27 - should be

kept separate, ii. 382%-number of cows served by, ii. 3529 - prize, ii. 3330 - farms on which not kept, ii. 3831— and on which kept , ii. 3834, 3836 - trial concerning one, ii. 3837

Bulls , hammels occupied by, i. 1149 - ring for them when open ,, ii. 3820 --wlien closed, ii. 3821--putting it in , ii. 3822 -swivel for leading -rein for, ii. 382 when called aged , i. 1154

Bulled , what, i. 1154 Bullock -holder , the, ii . 3823

Burnett's reckoning cycle, i. 2238 - ewe-louse, i. 2597 Burning, see Paring Busliel, the, i. 1806 — it the statutory measure of grain , ii. 6393

Bush -harrow , the , ii . 3732

Butchers, their mode of purchasing sheep , ii. 3588 Butter, making of, ii. 4217 - tub, ii. 1218 - fat kit , ii. 4219 ---moulds, i . 1511 ; ii . 4220 - spade, ii . 4221 - texture of,

crop , ii. 3421 - hares, & c ., destroy it , ii. 3 :22— limitations to its culture in Scotland , ii . 3123 - its botanical position , ii. 3425 - and character, ii. 3127 -- water in it , ii. 3128 -ash of the root, ii. 3129—and of the leaves , ii . 3130 - ash in one ton , ii . 3131 - raising it in Belgium , ii . 3432 — its seed

easily raised , ii. 3433 — seed imported , ii. 3434 - effects of special manures on it , ii. 4943

Carse farms, what, i . 39 — of what extent, capital , and rent, i. 40 - feed no sheep , i. 991 - treatment of cows in winter on , i. 1221 -- plan of steading for, i. 1249 - have no pas turage, ii. 3719 - graze no young cattle , ii. 3778 -- grow hay, ii. 4067

Carse farmer, qualifications of the, i. 41 Cart for water , i. 2075 - for liquid manure, i. 2076 - Cross kill's, i. 2077-Stratton's , i. 2078

Carts , i. 1824single and double, i. 1825 — single tilt one, i. 1827 -- double horse one , i. 1828-nails for, i. 1830– proportion of weight on the horse's back, i. 1831 - yoking of horses to , i. 1832-mand unyoking , i . 1839 — shed for , i. 1810 -- grease for, i. 1811 - frame for tilt , ii. 4594 - corn

and hay , ii. 4595 - Robertson's, ii. 4596 - advantages of, ii . 4597 — treatment of, ii. 6343 Cash -book , ii . 6409 Castration , see Calves , & c . Cats, treatment of, ii. 5204

Cat's-tail grass for pasture, on , i. 2645

ii . 4222 — from cream , ii. 4223 — from the entire milk , ii.

Caterpillars, destructive character of, ii . 3298 Catgut , manufacture of, ii, 6173

4224 - salt for , its quantity , ii . 4226 -- and quality , ii.

Cattle, winter accommodation of, in the steading, i. 1083–

4 :227- process of salting, ii. 4228 - kit, ii. 4229 - how

names of, at different ages , i. 1152 - black , i. 1155

kitted , ii. 1230 - its composition , ii. 4274 - yield of, ii. 4275 -- composition of its fat, ii, 4277 — its production not

horned , ib . - neat, ib.-- dodded , i. 1156 - humbled, ib. slicing of turnips for, i. 1170- how fed every day, i. 1168

yet understood , ii. 4276 - new churned unwashed , ii. 4313

-how foddered and littered , i. 1190 -- these should be

Buttermilk , how disposed of, ii. 4225 — its properties, ii.

done regularly, i. 1211- loss on , when these are ne glected, i. 1213 - low fedfor a show, i. 1214 - dressing & c .

4278

Byre , the cow , i . 1120-plan of, for large dairy farm , i.

of, in the byre , i. 1215 — how the different kinds of

1231 - stone troughs for it , i. 1239 - hydraulic apparatus for, i. 1240 — how occupied in winter , i. 1085 - mangers

turnips are appropriated to , i. 1216 - washing of turnips for, i. 1217-thawiing of frozen ones , i. 1218 -- weight attained by , i. 1219 - different kinds of food besides turnips, i. 1252 - Warnes' compound for , i . 1307 - feed ing on swedes and mangold -wurzel, i. 1316 — on turnips

for, i. 1122 — door for supplying green food to , i. 1123– stalls for , i. 1121 - floor of, i. 1125 -- seal for, i. 1132

window for, i. 1133 - cooler for, i. 1224 — those for oxen , i. 1133

Cabbage, composition of, i. 855 - mineral ingredients in , i. 463--good for milk cows, i. 893 - ash in the fresh leaves , i . 894 - its crop , i. 893 - as a substitute for the potato , i. 895 -- relished by lambs, i. 973- affects a strong soil, ii.

and hay , i. 1320 - on distillery draff and dreg, i. 1321 on linseed oil , i. 1322_feeding with green malt , i. 1324

on different kinds of food, i. 1325 —- table of live weight, beef, tallow , and hide, ib.— feeding on bran or pollard , i. 1327 - on steamed and raw food , i. 1329 , 1338 - table of

3376 - ash of the leaves, ii. 3377 --mineral ingredients

live -weight, beef, & c. , i . 1332 --feeding on boiled and raw food , i. 133 - on oil -cake, i. 1342—— with Warnes' com pound, i. 1351 - on boiled linseed and ground corn , i. 1354on oil -cake, i. 1360— on oil- cake, bean -meal, and turnips, i. 1361 - linseed preferable to bean -meal or oil .

they take from the soil , ii. 5063--- cost of replacing these , ii . 5076--pulling , i. 841-storing, i. 842 — the turnip

in boxes, i. 1369 — how best to be fattened, i. 1373 - dis .

3368 -- its culture , ii. 3369 —-transplanted or sown , ii. 3370 -weight of crop , ii. 3372_top -dressing for, ii. 3374 attacked by insects, ii. 3375 - its botanical position, ii.

rooted , ii. 3379

Caillat on the mineral ingredients of plants, ii. 4996 Calf, or cow - calf, what, i . 1152

Calf - bed , coming down of the, on cows, i. 1337

cake, i. 1362–Marshall's and Warnes' compounds como pared, i. 1363 - fed in hanımels and byres, l. 1365 — and eases of, in winter, i. 1374 – lice, i. 1375—0x -louse, i. 1376 , 1377 - choking , i. 1378 -hoven , i. 1331 - fardle

bound , i. 1383 — warts and angleberries, i. 1381-encysted

Calf-louse, the , i . 22 : 9

tumours, i. 1385 - ticker, i . 1386 - coming down of calf

Calves , cribs occupied by the , i. 1143-treatment of, when dropped , i. 2270 — their navel-string examined , i. 2275– their first food , i. 2276 -- objections to tying them by the neck , i. 2284--suckling , i. 2285 - castrating, i. 2286 weaning, i. 2299 -bull , i. 2230 -- farms on which they are reared , i. 222- fed for veal at Strathaven , i. 2293 - and near London , i. 2294 - diseases of, i . 2296 -- navel- ill, ib . -costiveness, i. 2297 — scouring, i. 2298 --- louse, i. 2299 gasteritis, ii. 3843 — joint fellon , ii. 3846 - chine fellon , ib . - quarter-ill, ii. 3847-period of weaning , ii. 3838 age of, ii. 3839 -- get good pasture after weaning, ii. 3811

bed , i. 1387 — chaff in the eye, i. 1388_ſat, are sold in spring, i. 2172 — fat, determines their disposal, ii . 3609— symmetry explained , ii. 3612 - judging of, ib.- determi nation of the weight by the live.weight , ii. 3624 — measur ing of them , ii. 3625 ---determination of the weight by the measurement, ii . 3626 - why these rules are not perfect, ii. 3631 - comparison of tables in live and dead weight, ii. 3635 - preparing them for the road , ii , 3642 — their treat ment on it, ii. 3613 -qualifications of their drover , ii.

--may graze among cows and young cattle , ii . 3842

Campbell, Mr, of Jura , his West Highland ox , ii. 6227

3644 — their treatment at a ferry, ii. 3645 --disadvantages of overdriving , ii. 3646 — blemishes which distigure them , ii. 36 17 --practices of salesmen in London , ii. 3650

injuries by overcrowding in markets , ii . 3651- and by

Cantelo's incubator improved , ii. 5194

blows and bruises, ii. 3652 - benefits of steamboats and

Capons , i. 2957 — mode of preparing, ii. 5187 - feeding of,

railways , ii. 3651 - should be carried by railways by weight, ii . 365. - at Sunithfield each month , ii . 3657–

ii . 5191

and there from

Carbon , electric state of, i. 142 Carlins , what, i . 1963

Carmichael, James, on the food of horses in winter, i. 1147 VOL . II.

various districts, ii . 3658 - in Great

Britain , ii. 3660 --- importations into London , ii. 3661- and into the kingdom , ii. 3002 - daily increase in fattening , 3D

786

INDEX.

Cattle , continued ii. 3668 - time for putting on pasture , ii. 3765 — treatment

of cows on pasture, ii . 3766 — and of young, ii. 3767 best size of field for them, ii. 3768 - young require little tending on grass , ii . 3769 — do not crop grass close, ii. 3770 — treatment of calves on pasture, ii. 3771 - water essential to them on pasture, ii . 3775 — and advantages of sheds, ii. 3777 - farms on which young are not gra zed , ii. 3778 —— treatment of the cows on dairy farms, ii. 3779 and by dairymen in towns, ii. 3780 --- the calves go with their dams on pastoral farms, ii. 3781 - grazing of the young on pastoral farms, ii. 3782 — points of young, to purchase for grazing, ii. 3783 — and age, ii. 3784 — pasture confined to the border counties of Scotland , ii. 3789 fattening on pasture in Holland , ii, 3790 — in Normandy, ii. 3792-in Old Friesland , ii. 3795 - and in Galloway , ii. 3797 - diseases of, in summer ; chill, ii . 3798 — those of the

Cirrus, character of the, i. 238 — its relative heights , i. 239

its periodsof duration, i. 240 - colour of the sky with it, i. 241 - its indications as to weather , i. 242 Cistern , rain -water, ii . 5531

Clay, burning of, ii. 4991 - specific gravity of, i. 119_that of brick, grey, and loamy ciay, i. 374- soil, see Soil Clay loam , character of, i. 337 - plants characterising, i. 33 -and weeds, 389 Clay marl, composition of, ii. 6032 Claying the soil in the lens of England , i. 2119 - process of, i. 2124

Cleg , the cattle , ii. 3804_horse , ii. 3859 Climate, inattention to its effects on vegetation , ii. 5221 definition of, ii. 5222 - general, characterized , ii. 523 mean temperature not sufficient to indicate , ij . 5237

local, ii. 5255 — this to be observed in looking at farms, ii. 5262

teats , ii. 3799 —- warbles, ii. 3803 - by the cleg , ii. 3804

Cling of belly in cattle , what, ii. 3643

pleuro-pneumonia , ii. 3805 - laryngites, ii. 3815 — inter

Closing in cattle, what , ii. 3617

nal tumour, ii. 3816 — insurance of,ii. 5563– slaughtering

Clouds, how formed , i. 174 — height of, i. 261 - number of ,

of, see Slaughtering

Cattleman, duties of the, i. 65, 1150 - carrying straw a large proportion of his work , i. 1158 -- convenient mode of it for him , i. 1159 - his dress, i. 1160 - should be regu . lar in his time, i. 1161 - his day's work described , i. 1162 -his wages , ii. 6317

Centigrade thermometer , the, i. 164 Cereal grains, the, sec Wheat, Barley , & c.

Chaff, removal of, from the eye of cattle, i. 1388 — of wheat, not relished by cattle, i. 1965—of barley, relished by them , i. 1969 – of oats, its uses, i. 1973 - of beans and pease , eaten by cattle and sheep , i. 1980 Chaff -house, the, i. 1682 Chaff -sheet, the, i. 1749 Chaffinch, the, injurious to crops , ii. 4701 Chain , measuring, ii. 5601 Chalk as a top-dressing, ii. 6027 - mode of applying it , ii. 6028 - quantity, ii. 6029 Chalk soils , character of, i. 341 Chalmers, Mr, experiments by, with special manures, ii. 4931

Charcoal, heat produced by, i. 186 Charge , ii. 6435 Chaser, what , i . 2577

Cheddar cheese, composition of, ii. 4287 Cheese , utensils for making of, ii . 4231 -- the milk warmed for it, ii. 4232 - calf's stomach for rennet , ii. 4233 -- cut

ting of the curd , ii. 4235 — the salting it, ii. 4239 - after pressing, placed in the cheese -room , ii. 4245 —- casualties to which subject , ii. 4250 — on the dyeing of, ii . 4251 yield of, per acre and per cow , ii. 42s6 — its composition , ii. 4287 - its ash , ii. 4288 - forms of, ii. 4289 — from whey ,

ii. 4290 — from buttermilk, ii. 4291 — from potatoes, ii. 4292 - Parmesan , ii. 4293 — Cheshire, ii. 4294 - Stilton , ii. 4295 — the fly and maggot , ii. 4296 — mouldy , ii. 4297—

inoculation of it , ib.-- the mite, ii. 4298 - destroyed by rats and mice, ii. 4299 - prussic acid produced from un sound , ii. 4300 - imported , ii. 4301---cream , ii . 4312 Cheese -press, stone , ii. 4242 – combined lever, ii. 4243 Cheese -room , the, ii. 4193 Cheese -turner, the , ii. 4247

Cheese - vat, the , ii. 4240 Chemical action , electricity evolved during, i. 128 Chemistry, science of, i. 197 - practical classes of, i. 523 Cheviot hills, peculiarities of the pasture on , ii. 4005 Cheviot sheep , points of, ii. 6230

Chickens, cock distinguished from hen , i. 2891 - treatment of, i. 2892 - time when they leave the hen , i. 2896 -- super stition of the Greeks in their management, i. 2936

i. 174 - how classitied , i. 236 - how suspended in the air ,

i. 237 - what prognostics of, i . 260 -- the cirrus, i . 233 the cumulus , i . 243 - the stratus, i. 248_tlie cirro cumulus , i. 250 -- the cirro - stratus , i . 253 - the cumulo

stratus, i. 255 —- the cirro -cumulo -stratus or nimbus , i. 258 -scud , i. 259 - size of, i. 262 — the most common in winter, i. 607 —-the prevailing in spring, i. 2146 - cirri, i. 2147 -

cirro -cumuli, i. 2148 - autumn, ii. 4332 — their hues pecu liarly rich then , ii. 4340 - cirrus, cirro -cumulus, cumulus, cumulo - stratus, stratus, ii. 3009 Clover, red and white , percentage of mineral ingredients

in , i. 464 - red, its properties, i. 2636_white, 2631 - vel low , i. 2638 - seed of red , its weight and cost, i . 2045 that of white , i. 2641 - that of yellow , i. 2642 —its botani

cal position, i. 2669 - soil best adapted for red , i. 3871 doctoring the seed , i. 2680 — where imported from , i *71

varieties of, i. 2672- perennial red , ib .-- the process of -duty on importation , i. 2682 — its treatment in Gez . many, i. 2683- dodder , ii. 3885 -- the crop in various sex sons, ii. 3886 — thrives in any soil, ii. 3897 - its manage ment in Flanders , ii. 3888 — sick land , ii. 32 preven . tive suggested for this, ii. 3890 - green more nutritious

than dry, ii. 3891 - comparison between stall -ferding and tether- grazing on , ii. 3892 - never injures cattle before flowering, ii. 3893_disease of, ii. 3891- composition of the green stems of, ii . 3896 — ash of, ii. 3.97 -cultivated

in China , ii. 3898 - and rye- grass , effects of special manures on , ii. 4965 — crimson , its culture in England , ii. 4370 — its pecuniary advantages, ii. 4376 — the tardif or late - flowering , ii. 4374 — would be a boon to Scotland , ii. 4375 - Bokhara , ii. 4377 - red for seed , sown alone, il

4380 — its culture for seed , ii, 4381 - injured by a weevil, ii. 4382 - period of cutting down , ii. 4383 — thirashing from the husk , ii. 4384 — importation of seed , ii. 438 ; , mineral ingredients it takes from the soil , ii. 5060ousi of replacing these , ii. 5073

Clyers , ii. 3816 Coal, 5020heat produced by , i. 186_ashes, composition of, ii. Cobham red wheat, variety called , i. 2377 Coccinella , see Ladybird

limestone, composition of, ii. 6035 — lime, i . Cockermouth 6039 Cock's- foot, rough , for pasture, i. 2645 Cod in cattle , what, ii. 3618

Coffee, mineral ingredients in , i. 462 Coke , heat produced by , i. 186 Colbeck , Mr, experiments by , with special manures , ii. 4957

hatching of, in Egypt, i. 2943 —— and in France , i. 2914– Bucknell's hatching in England , i. 2947 — and Cantelo's, i. 2948-habits of, when artificially hatched, i . 2952—

Colds in horses, i . 1492

profits of hatching, i . 2953 — diseases of, i . 2954

Colleges, advantages of, over academies, i. 516 Colt -foal, what, i . 1432 Colours, their origin , i. 191 — their influence on vegetation ,

Childers, Mr, experiments of, on the feeding of sheep , i. 958

Chill, the, in cattle , ii . 3798 — its effects , ii. 3647 Chine -fellon in calves , ii. 3846

Chlorine accompanies soda , ii. 5053 Chloroform , employment of, in slaughtering animals, ii. 6189

Choking in cattle , i. 1378 Chubb's locks, on , ii. 5519 , 5520

Churns, classification of, ii , 4212 ---varieties of, ii. 4213— table, ii. 4214 - box -hand , ii. 4216 --- power , ii. 4254 Cirencester, agricultural college at , i . 532

Collar, the East Lothian draught-horse , i. 676 - the For farshire , i. 677- the English , i . 678

i. 193

Colza , the, ii. 3457 - cultivated for its seed , ii. 3158

Comins, what, i . 1922. See Barley sprouts Compass, the, ij. 5602

Composts, forming of, in winter, 1. 2037 -- carriage of mate rials, i. 2041 - order of materials , i. 2042 - of peat- turf and lime , i. 2044of farmyard dung and peat -turf, i 2045 - of lime and mould , i. 2046 - of rape - cake and mould , i. 2047 - of shell -marl and bog.turf, i . 204_of

Cirro -cumulus, the, how formed , i. 250 — by what wind clianged , i. 251 - weather indicated by, i. 252

burned bog -turf, i. 2049 of potato - shaws, & c., i. 2051 ofdead animals and mould , i. 2032 – of privies, pigeons dung, fowl dung , &c. , i. 2053 - of sawdust , i. tof

Cirro-stratus, low formed , i. 253 — weather indicated by it, i. 254 Cirro -cumulo -stratus, or rain - cloud, the, i. 258

spent tanners' bark , i. 2055 - of fish refuse , i. 2006 - of whale -blubber, i. 2057 -- of whin -cuttings and mould , i

2058- oſ quicken , horse -dung, and nitrate of soda , 1. 3:30

INDEX. of the solid refuse of manufactories, i. 2060 - and the

787

Concrete , not suited for floors of steadings, ii. 5419

Craig , Mr, his Cheviot tup , ii. 6230 Cranston , Mr, his Ayrshire bull, ii. 6229 Cream , yield of, from milk , ii . 4257 -- cannot rise from great depth of milk , ii. 4267 ---not entirely fatty matter , ii. 4268

Consumption dykes , what, ii . 5957 Consumption in pigs, i. 1596 Contract and job work , comparison of, ii . 6334

Cream - jar, ii. 4207 -- skiminer, ii. 4206 Creosote , preservation of meat by , ii. 6188

liquid , i. 2061 - mixed up besides in liquid -manure tank , i. 2074

Coprolites , ii . 5005 -- their composition , ii. 5006 - their

manufacture for manure, ii. 5007 Corns in horses, i. 1498

Corn , sale of, Scotch law of, ii. 6399

Corn- account , wheat, ii. 6420 - barley, ii. 6421 - oats , ii. 6422

Corn -barn , the, i. 1679 - outer door of, i. 1680 — floor of, i. 1681

Corn - barrow , the , i. 1741 Corn -basket, the, i. 1790 Corn -box for sheep , i. 943

Corn - bruiser, hand , i. 1313 - power , i. 1314 Corn -bunting , the, injurious to crops, ii. 4698 Corn - chest for work -lorses, i . 1409

Corn -markets , ordinary purchasers in , ii. 6382_stock and

sample, ii. 6383 - stock, ií. 6384 — sample, ii. 6.385 – settlement of cash in , ii. 6387 - advantages of stock , ii.

6388 -- and disadvantages , ii . 6339 - advantages of sample, ii. 6390_and disadvantages , ii. 6391 - grain now sold by weight and measure in , ii . 6397

Corn-measures, usual denominations of, ii. 6398 Corn -store for sheep , i. 1063 Corona in winter, i. 605 Corrosive sublimate, danger of using, ii. 4786 Costiveness in calves, i. 2297 -- in lambs, i. 2594 Cottages for farm - servants , long in a neglected state , ii.

5537-- the tendency now too much the other way , ii. 5538 for small families in one room , ii, 5539 -- for large ones in

-dishes made from , ii. 4306 Crib -biting in horses, i. 1502 Crimson clover , see Clover Crook , sheep , i. 2568

Cross -ploughing before winter , on, i. 2448 —- in spring, i. 2603 — reason for it , for barley , i. 2606 — preparation for it , i. 2608 — feering for it, i . 2611 - the furrow in it, i. 2618 , 2619 - deep , distinguished from treach ploughing , i . 2625

Cross -table, the , ii . 5603 Crossing, see Breeding

Crosskill's liquid -manure cart, i. 2077 - clod.crusher, i1 . 3099 Crown -and - furrow ploughing, i. 752 Cruciferæ , geographical distribution of the, ii . 328their character , ii. 3285

Cumulo -stratus, the, i. 255 - weather indicated by , i. 257 Cumulus, the, i. 243 -- weather indicated by , i. 245 Curd analogous to other substances, ji. 4279 - yield of, . from milk , ii. 4280 — for rennet , how prepared , ii. 4285 and cream , ii. 4304 — treacle posset, ii. 4316 Curd -breaker, ij. 4236_cutter, ii . 4234

Curry - comb for horses, i. 1419 - price of, i. 1424 Currying cattle in byres, on , i. 1215 Curtis , Mr, his experiments on feeding cattle, i. 1322 Curwen , Mr, ingredients employed by , in feeding cows , i. 1243 Cut sow - pig , what , i. 1587 Cutaneous eruptions in spring, i. 2166 Cutting- bill , the, ii. 5642

two , ii. 55 12 - of two stories, ii. 5544 - cost of, ii. 5548

double , ii. 5546 - improved foundations for, ii. 5550position of fire- places in , ii. 5551 -- chimneys of, ii . 5552— chimney - top, ii. 5554 - rain -spouts round , ii. 5559 —-win dows for, i. 1134 Couch -grass sold for forage, ii. 4178 Coulters for ribbing land , i. 2630 Couplings for fastening hurdles , i. 1050

Courts, how occupied in winter, i. 1083 Couteur, Colonel le , his classification of wheat, i. 1844 Coventry , Dr, his mode of estimating a grain rent , ii . 5303-its advantages, ii. 5310 Covering , what, i. 1432

Powie , Mr , experiments by , on feeding horses, i. 1436 Cows, what, i. 115 occupy the byre, i. 1141 — the servants occupy their own byre , i. 1142_ -kept on every species of farm , i. 1220 — how treated in winter on carse farms, i. 1221 -- on pastoral ones , ib . - on dairy ones , i. 1222cooking of their food , i. 1223 - serving it out, i. 1225 -- near towns, how treated in winter, i. 1241 — and in Edinburgh, i. 1242- give more milk in byres than on pasture , i. 1372 -effects of being turned out to pasture in winter , ib . calving of, i. 2181---their treatment before it , i. 2182 - to ascertain them to be in calf, i. 2181—their womb , i. 2186 -time of calving to be registered , i. 2187 - yielding most bull or heifer calves, i. 2183 - coming down of the calf bed , i. 2189 - administration of their food, i. 2190 - criti cal period before calving , i. 2191- oil - cake good when in calf, i. 2192 - over- leanness to be avoided , i. 2193 — slink ing of the calf, i. 2191 - symptoms of calving, i. 2200— attendance at their calving, i. 2201 - preparations for it , i. 2202 - presentation of the calf, i. 2204its treatment after birth , i. 2207 — its apparent death after birth , i. 2209 -difficult presentation of it , i. 2211 -- the after -birth , i. 2219 - food after calving, i. 2222 — and treatment, i. 2224 --when they again desire the bull , i. 2230 - heifers first

brought to the byre, i. 2236 - table of the reckoning of their calving , i . 22:37 - complaints of, after calving ; puer peral fever , i. 2249 -- corded teats, i. 2241 - red -water, i. 2242 - tail -ill, i. 2244 - inflammation of the udder, i. 2266 --first milking after calving, i. 2248 - hefting of, i. 2250 milk - veins in , i. 225 ) -- their sensitiveness in milking, i.

2254-- milking side of, i. 2255 — the persons who milk, i. 2256 — ways of milking, i. 2257 -- ill-treatment makes

troublesomein milking ,i. 2261 - yieldthe milk differently, i. 2262 ---milking by tubes , i. 2263 - differ in time of giving milk , i. 2267 — spaying, to keep in milk, i. 2268-the best imported from Holland , &c. , ii. 3663 - chapped teats , ii. 3799 - sore ones , ii. 3800 — warty ones , ii. 3801---Cow -pox, ii. 3802 - afford different quantities and qualities of milk , ii. 4256 - yield of, in butter and milk , ii. 4258 Cow - cabbage, the, ii. 3382

Dace of hay , what, ii. 4061

Dairy farms, what, i. 45 - stocking, capital, rent, &c. , of, i. 46 —- qualifications of the occupant, i. 47 - fatten no sheep, i. 893 - treatment of cows in winter on , i. 1222_ require rich old pasture , ii . 3721 --- cows graze most in

summer , ii. 3779 - grow hay , ii. 4069 - ordinary business of, ii. 4252 -- how to estimate the fixed money -rent, ii. 5287 - most convenient time of entry , ii. 5353 Dairy -maid, duties of the, i. 67 Dairymen in town , ordinary business of, ii. 4252 Dairy operations on mixed husbandry farms, ii. 4191 Dale's hybrid turnip, see Turnip Daniell's hygrometer, i. 181

Danskin vegetable mould , composition of, ii. 5999 Dart-moth , the, injures the roots of wheat, ii. 4111 — and of oats, ii. 4137

Davis, Mr, quantities sown by, ii. 3540 Dealers, mode of purchasing sheep by , ii. 3588 Deep-ploughing, its object, ii. 5978— by trench and subsoil ploughs , ii. 5979 Devon ox , Lord Farnham's, proportion of offals to live. weight, ii . 3632

Dew ,low formed , i. 175 - theories of, i . 176 — its phenomena, ii. 2976 Diarrhæa in pigs, i. 2874

Dibble -sowing,experiments on the waste of seed by, ii. 3531 , 3533

Dibbling, produce of grain and straw per acre by, ii. 4537 Dickson , Mr, his experiments with special manures on oats , ii. 4933 Digging, cost of, ii. 6002

Digestion , organs of, in the domesticated animals, i. 1645 Diluvium , what, i. 490 Dinmont, what, i. 924 Discharge , ii . 6434

Disease , tendency to , in autumn, ii . 4354 Diseased animals, acts regarding importation of, ii. 3751 Diseases, see Horses, Cattle , Sheep, & c. Distillery dreg , see Dreg Ditcher's shovel, the, ii. 5604

Dobits, Mr, his experiments on feeding cattle, i. 1327 Docking horses, on, ii . 6095 worrying of sheep by, ii. 3757. Sce also Shepherd's Dogs, Dog Domesticated animals, origin of the, ii. 6248

mould - board plough, the , i. 2363 -- for drilling-up Double land , i. 2406

Cow -clover , i. 2073

Downs, weeds peculiar to , i. 407 Draff, brewers ', used for feeding cattle, i. 1277 — its com position , i. 1278 — its ash , i. 1279 --- its weight, i. 1280best used with other ingredients , i. 1281 Draft ewe, what,i. 930-gimmer, ib .

Cow -clubs , ii. 5565 Cradle -scythe for reaping, ij . 4197

Drainage, temperature of surface raised by , ii. 5217

Drafts, what, i. 930

788

INDEX.

Draining, enclosing should precede, in new ground , ii. 5776 -bow known whether land requires, ii. 5778— time for, ii . 5782 – extentof, in any year , ii. 5784 - fall required for, at the outlet , ii. 5790 - fallascertained in flats by a level, ii. 5789— fall in field to be ascertained , ii. 5792 - exploratory

drains, ii. 5793 - data for contracting afforded by these, ii. 5794- superintendence of, ii. 5795 -main drain marked off, ii. 5796 – and small drains, ii. 5799 - deternination of

the depths, ii. 5800 - experimental distance, ii. 5804 — the distances probably effective, i. 5803 - laying down the tiles , ii. 5810 - main drains cut, ii . 5811-filling of the main drains, ii. 5820 - sub -main drains cut, ii . 5828

way of making them , i. 2031 - treatment of farmyard , L 2712 - are turned over, i. 2713 - sometimes not for

potatoes, i. 2714rules for forming proportional, i. 2716 -are turned by field -workers, i. 2718 -- ile daces cut by a man , i. 2719_mode of turning, i. 2720 - state of, after it , i . 2722 — twice turned for turnips, i. 2723 - old some times preferred for swedes, i. 2725 -old modeof manag . ing, i. 2726 - new mode of turning, i. 2727 - indications of the fermentation in , i. 2731

Dung -hawk, the, i. 2433 - spade, i . 2012 Dunlop cheese , composition of, ii. 4287 Durham , Mr, his mode of keeping harness horses, i 1533

small drains cut , ii. 5831 - and filled in , ii . 5837 - earth returned into the drain , ii. 5848 - drains should draw

Dust- balls in horses, i . 1503 Dutch ashes , composition of, ii. 4989

from below , ii. 5850 - plan of thorough -drained field , ii. 5851 -- cost with tiles , ii. 5852—physical benefits of, ii. 5853 - pecuniary benefits, ii . 5856 - obstructions in drains, ii . 5859 — dress for drainers, ii. 5865--Elkington mode of, ii. 5866 — that of cemeteries, ii. 5878—with stones, ii. 5879 -- cost of these , ii. 5889-bogs, ii. 5890 - sheep, ii. 5900 — land for plantations , ii . 5905 - cost of, ii . 5910– quicksands, ii. 5911 - railway cuttings, ii . 5912 —-most effective along the slope of the ground, ii . 5927 - minimum depth determined by field operations, ii . 5931 ---soles always used with common iiles, ii . 5932- answer to objections against pipe- tiles, ii. 5933 — bulk of earth relieved by, ii. 5935 — should be complete at once , ii. 5936

Dutch clinkers, for floor of steading, ii. 5422

-effects on peat, ii. 5938 - does not remove manuring

matter from the soil, ii. 5939 — water discharged by , ii.

5941 — proportion of expenses to be paid by landlord and tenant, ii . 5943

Drains for liquid manure , i. 1113 — for rain water , i . 1118 ; ii . 5426

Drain-gauge , the, ii. 5816 Drain -scoop, to draw ,ii. 5813 -— to push , ii. 5935 Drain -spade, narrow , ii. 5812 - narrowest, ii. 5835 Drain -tube, larch , ii. 5896 Drain -water meter , ii. 5940

Druiner's plumb -level, the, ii. 5821 Draught bars, see Swing - trees

Dreg, distillery, used for feeding cattle, i. 1273 — its com position , i . 1275

Dutch hoe, ii. 5699

Dwellings , certain plants always near , i. 428 Dyke, drystone, used as a fence, ii. 5692 - generally con structed on erroneous principles, ii. 5633 -how measured, ii. 5694 - double and single faced, ii. 5695 — tools for, ii. 5696 /-time for erecting , ii. 5697 —- digging foundation, i. 5698 - boulders carried and stones laid down , ii. 50

mode of building it, ii. 5702 - various expedients for con venience , ii. 5711 - best at first, ii. 5714 — inferior to

hedges, ii. 5720 — for a sunk - fence , ii, 5721 Earth , specific gravity of, i. 119 Earth , chemical properties of the, i. 214 East-Lothian plough , the , i. 662 - two -rowed turnip - sowing drill , ii. 3208

Edging-iron , ii. 5892 Edinburgh , chair of agriculture at , i. 522 - classes of prae tical chemistry at , i . 523 - laboratory of the Highland Society at , i. 524 - veterinary college at , i. 528 — dairies,

treatment of cows in winter in, i. 1242 - sheep market al, ii. 3601

Education best suited to agricultural students, i. 512 scientific, for sons of farmers , i. 517 Eel of the wheat, the , ii. 4119 Egg , constituent parts of the, ii. 5170 — the shell , ii. 5171 the membrane , ii. 5172 - the white, ii. 5173 — its ash , i --the yolk , ii. 5174 difference between white and yolk ,

Drill-grubber, common , ii. 3253 – Wilkie's, and harrow, ii. 3254

ii. 5175 -- specific gravity of, ii. 5176 — proportion of re spective parts , ii. 5177- changes on , by boiling , ii, 5178

Drill-harrow , rectangular , i. 2413_triangular , i , 2446 Drill- sowing, effects of the soil on , ii. 3524 - experiments on

source of the bone of the chick , ii. 5179 - nature of animal

waste of seed by , ii. 3531 , 3534

Drill-sowing machine, ii . 6341 Drilling-up land , true and false , i . 2381 - land made flat prior to, i . 2382 — the prior ploughing affects, i . 2383— partakes of the form of the ground, i. 2381 - single and double, ib .-- varieties of single, i. 2386,2390 - distinction between these , i. 2391 - feering for double , i. 2394_ varieties of double, i. 2397 , 2398 – difference between them , i. 2399 - double always unequal, i. 2400 - obliterat ing horses' footmarks, i . 2102 - width of drills, i. 2403—

why double with the common plough is unequal, 1. 2404 -double mould - board plough for, i. 2405 - produce of grain and straw per acre by, ii. 4537 Driver for stakes, the , i. 906 Drosometer , the , ii. 2978

Drover, cattle, shouldhave no dog, ii. 3644 – of sheep, his qualifications, ii. 3594

Druce , Mr, his Hereford ox , ii. 6226 Dry fogs, ii. 2981

Ducie grubber, the , i. 2421 Ducks, winter treatment of, i . 1601- early layers, i . 2925— hens good foster-mothers for, i , 2926 - treatment of young,

i. 2928 - numbers reared at Aylesbury , i . 2929 — hatching of, in China , i. 2950 - to secure their eggs, ii. 5167

Dudgeon , Mr J. , his experiments on feeding pigs, i . 1598 Dung from the cow -byre, how affected under cover , i. 2024 -horse and cow , compared , i. 2025 , 2027-loss on , by

albumen , ii. 5180 — comparison of seed and it, ii. 5181 sex of, ii . 5192

Eggs in winter, i , 1616_scheme for producing a large num

ber of, i. 1635 –- old, not worth hatching, i.237 - aily phenomena in hatching , i. 2910 - period of laying, il 5155 - nests provided for laying, ii. 5156 - places suitable for these , ii. 5157-- time for collecting, ii. 5158 - Inarked characters of, ii. 5160 --treatment of, ii . 5161 - to pre erva

fresh , ii. 5163 — importation of, ii. 5185_- duty on , ii. 5186 Eild gimmer , what, i. 925-cow , i. 1154 -- Inare , i. 1432 Eirometer, the, ii. 3961 Electric theory of vegetation , the, i. 135 dir. Electricity , its nature undefined , i. 120at- universally the surface of fused, i. 121 -when excited , found bodies, i . 123 - accumulates in the atmosphere when set free , i. 124 - conductors and non- conductors of, i. 12

its causes uuexplained , ib . - positive and negative, i. 123 means of exciting it , i. 124- the atmosphere the great reservoir of, ib . - sources of, i . 125 - states of the ground

when it is evolved from plants, i. 127 - its force, i. 124– identified with galvanism and magnetism , i. 13. velocity of, i. 131 - develops plants, i. 13+considered as one or two fluids, i. 136 - resides on the surface of matter, i 157

--and vegetation , i. 149 -- easily excited in metals, i. 151

Electro -culture, how suggested, i. 133 — its first application, ii. 5023 —- how electricity can be made available to it, il 5024 - apparatus necessary for it , ii. 5024 -- results of experiments in , ii. 5031-conclusions from thiem , ii. 5032

fermentation , i. 2026 - pics, compared with cow , i. 2028 -and sheep's, i, 2029 - effects of its application on weeds,

-practicable to a limited extent, ii. 5033 Electrometer, the , i. 132

i. 2030 — its colour affected by that of the straw , i. 1986

Elliot, Mr, experiments by, with special manures, ii. 1970 Elm , specific gravity of, i , 119 - mineral ingredients in , ..

and urine, comparative values of, ii. 5019 Dunghills, forming of, in winter, i . 1999 - contents of all the courts formed into mixed , i , 2000 - position of, in the tields, i. 2001 — formed in fallow - fields, i. 2003 - emptying of courts for, i. 2006 — fornu of, in the field , i. 2009 - com

pression prevents fermentation , i. 2010 - covering on them , i. 2011 - from the hammels, i. 2012 - from byres , i. 2013-no fermentation in winter , i . 2014 --from in covered courts, i. 2015 -- covered in the fields, i. 2016 fermentation much in the farmer's power , i . 2017 - shed for , in the field , i. 2018 -- general treatment recom

mended , i. 2019 --oozings from , i. 2020 — composition of these , i , 2090 --- plan of field -stance for , i. 2021 - drains for ogs , i. 2022 - examination of strictures on common

465

Embankment, where necessary , ií. 5744 - dimensions of, ii. 5745 - line of, ii. 3746 - construction of, ii. 5749 -- faced

with single-faced dyke, ii. 5749 -- cost of making, ii 5750 -time for making, ií. 5751 - watering pool to be pro vided , ii . 5752_of larger dimensions, ii. 5753 Emigrants should acquire agriculture , i. 551 - reasons for this, i. 557 - agriculture the best knowledge they can acquire, i. 558 Enclosure, depends on the purpose intended , ii. 5567 ring -fence indispensable , ii. 5568 -- carse farms often devoid of such , ii . 5569 - individual fences deterinined by

various circumstances, ii. 5571 - on the directio

of he

INDEX . ridges, ii . 5572-- parallel to each other , ii. 5573-in straight lines , ii. 5574shape determined by circum stances, il. 5575 — size of, ii. 5581-- position , ii. 5582 number, ii. 5585 — small objectionable, ii. 5587 ---of the ancients, ii . 5589 Encysted tumours in cattle , i. 1385 English draught -horse collar, the , i. 678 Entire colt, what, i. 1432 - horse , ib .

Entomology , its connection with agriculture, i. 506 Ergot of barley, ii. 4128 — its probable cause, ii . 4129 Ergot of rye , its properties , ii . 4143-its ash , ii . 4144 - its poisonous effects, ii. 4145-- chronic ergotism on the Con tinent, ii. 4146 -- aids parturition , ii . 4147 Ermine moth , the, injures ledges , ii. 56-9 Evaporation , electricity induced by, i. 125, 128 - in spring, i. 2151 -in summer , ii. 3028 — from the ground and from water, ii . 5248

789

in the grain market, ii. 6416 - liis duty in experiments, ii. 6450 — his duty to his servants, ii. 6153 — his duty to his

neighbours, ii. 6455 --his duty to his landlord , ii.6156 his recreations, ii. 64574-his comparative position , ib.his duties as a subject, ii. 6159 Farming , different kinds of , i. 34 - pastoral, i . 35 - carse, i. 39_near large towns, i. 42 - dairy, i. 45 — at a distance from towns, i. 48 - mixed , i . 50 — why recommended , i. 53 , 54

Farm -horses, names given to , i . 1472 Farm.servants receive potatoes as part of wages, ii . 4809

hiring married , ii. 628 +-- and unmarried , ii. 6287—mode of it , ii. 6288_conditions of it, ii. 6289 — workmen , ii. 6298 — Scotch law ofhiring, ii. 0290_markets for it, ii. 6300. Farrow , what, i. 1597

Farrowed , what, i. 1587

Fat, distribution of, ii. 6187—Liebig's theory of its forma tion , ii. 6272

Ewe hogg , what, i. 924_lamb, what, i. 923 Ewe-milk cheese , composition of, ii. 4287 Ewes in lamb, how treated in winter, i . 950-lambing of, its

Feathers, origin and structure of, i. 2942 - to prepare for

time and duration, i. 2538 - preparations for lambing , i.

Feeding of animals , rationale of the , i . 1613_their organs of digestion , i. 1645—their functions explained , i. 16164

2541 - extracting the lamb without assistance , i. 2547

use , i . 1623

and withi, i. 2548_treatment after lambing , i. 2550 — how to support orphan lambs, i. 2553-put out to the field , i. 2555 - examples of unnatural presentation , i. 2557

the æsophagus of the horse , i. 1647 — the stomach of the pig, i. $18 - th of cattle and sheep , i. 1649-intestines , i. 1650--rumination , i . 1652-digestive organs of birds, i.

meany used to make then take their own lambs , i. 2561 and to take those of others , i . 2563 - effects of condition

1658 - composition of the food of the domesticated ani mals , i. 1664- Liebig on digestion , i. 1660 — the saccha

on lambing, i. 2565 -— pet lambs , i. 2567_mode of catching, i. 2568 - yield of lambs by Leicester, i. 2578 —-by Cheviot,

rine and azotised parts of food , i. 1673 Feering-pole, the, i. 741 Feering ridges, on , i. 742 Fen land , soil and drainage of, i. 2120 Fever, milk or puerpernl, i. 2210—in lambs, i. 2595 Fiars prices, not a true estimate of prices of grain , ii. 5314

Blackfaced , and Southdown, i. 2580 - putting out to grass , i . 2541 - farms on which kept , i. 2582-- Iambing of Cheviot and Blackfaced , i. 2544 lambing on the hills, i. 2585 — its time, i. 2587 -- diseases of, i. 2590 - slipping of lamb, ib. -- protracted labour, i. 2391 — inflammation of the womb, i. 2592 - udder - clap, i. 2596- individual ,

--the old mode of striking , ii. 5315

sheltered in ewe house, i . 2597 --mode of milking, ii . 3996

Field operations, summary of, in spring, i. 2130_should always be in an advanced state , i. 2176-time lost in them

-a busy time in the farm , ii. 3997 - its injurious effects when continued , ii. 4002 - drafting of them and gimmers ,

of labour, i. 2178 - examples of advanced labour in , i.

ii. 4007 - marks which determine this , ii. 4008

pro

portion only drafted , ii. 4009 — their treatment after draft ing , ii . 4011 - drafts, when disposed of, ii. 4012 — drafting in hill -farms, ii . 4013 — period of lambing from tupping , ii. 4716 -- and gimmers put together , il. 1718-- their treat

cannot be made up, i. 2177 — best advanced by subdivision 2179 - and of the contrary state , i. 2180 - summary of, in summer , ii. 3061 - anomalies in , in autumn, ii. 4353— summary of, in autumn , ii. 4357 Fields, a few sinall, useful , ii. 5584 Field- sports commence in autumn , ii. 4355

ment before tupping , ii . 4719 - length of tupping season ,

Field -workers, their duties, i. 66— their wages , ii. 6318

ii. 4725—marked as tupped , ii. 4726-treatment of, after

their condition as bondagers, ii. 6318 Filly foal, what, i. 1432

tupping, ii. 4728 - gimmers later tupped than, ii. 4732 --their treatment on hill - farms in autumn , ii. 4734 diseases of, in autunin , ii . 4740

Exhortations to the young farmer, ii 6439 Experiments , the farmer engaged in practical, ii. 6348 suggested by men of science , ii. 6350 — their primary ob ject, ii. 1352 - mode of conducting, ii. 6353 - ingredients

Fingers -and - toes in turnips, ii . 3314 Finnie, Mr, experiments of, with special manures on barley, ii. 4926 - on onts, ii. 4930 — on turnips, ii. 4951 - on tares, ii. 4963 - on clover and rye - grass , ii. 4965

used in , ii. 6357 --and quantities of these , ii . 6358-- these all weighed , ii. 6361 - collecting the products , ii. 6362

Fire balls, number of, in spring , i . 2175 — in summer , ii. 3063—in autumn , ii. 4350_in winter, i. 564 Fire-fanging in dung, what, i . 2024 Fire- insurance, necessity of, ii. 5560

difficulties in conducting, ii. 6363 - qualitications of the

Flail , construction and action

suggestor of, ii . 6366 — and of the maker of, ii. 6367 --em

ployment of special manures in , ii. 6369-and of saline ingredients, ii . 6370

the, ii. 4080 — often errone .

ously constructed , ii. 4081 -American , ií. 4082-used in England , ii. 4083 Flanders , value of human manure in , i . 2091 - contents of

Experimental farm , why unsuited for tuition , i. 541

liquid -manure tanks in , i. 2002 - con position of liquid

Factor, the ignorant, i. 518 — the competent, i. 549

Flauchter-spade, the, i. 2818 -how used , i. 2819 --- work done by, i. 2821 - cost of using it , i. 2.22 Flax , mineral ingredients in , 462— sowing and summer treatment of, ii. 3096_quantity sown, ii . 3108 - time of sowing , ii . 3110 — weeding of, ii. 3115- dodder, ii . 3117 its botanical position , ii. 3118-- Greek period of sowing , ii. 3128 — native country of, ii. 3136 test of its ripeness, ii. 4425-pulling, ii . 4126 - rippling, ii . 4427 --- steeping, ii . 4428_spreading, ii. 4429 - lifting, ii. 4430 - hould not be steeped by the farmer , ii. 4433 -- crop of, ii. 4434 - seed

manure in , i , 2093 - to what it owes its efficacy, i . 2106 Fahrenheit's thermometer , i. 164 Fairs, when first instituted , ii. 3602 Fardlebound in cattle , i . 1383

Farm , persons required to conduct the, i. 55 --where these are respectively required , i. 68---supposed extent of the, to be farmed , i. 630 - pigs kept on all kinds of, i. 1591 those in which calves are and are not reared , i. 2292

occupy the entire surface of the country, ii. 5210- local climate to be ascertained on looking at , ii . 5262 — common

mode of offering for one , ii. 5316 - conditions of this de pendent on its state , ii. 5317-the common mode objec tionable, ii . 5321 - better mode of offering recommended, ii. 5322 -- periods of entering , ji . 5.351 -- how the outgoing crop is disposed of, ii . 5339 -- questions of minor import, ii.

good quality of itself and of seed incompatible , ii . 4438– forms a scourging crop , ii. 4439 — ash in flax steep, ii.

5369 - most convenient time of entering, ii. 5334 - Most common one in England , ii. 5355-those near towns feed

Flea-beetle, the turnip , ii. 3290 Fleece, the, on what rolled up, ii . 3934 — preparation of it

no sleep , i . 992—- treatment of cows in such , i, 1241 -- no winterings kept on such , i. 1251 -- pasturage not profitable on such , ii. 3720 -- more profitable for such to dispose of grass than hay, ii. 4070 - ordinary dairy business of such , ii. 4252 - arable, see Arable - carse , see Carso , & c.

for rolling, ii. 3935 —- freeing it from impurities, ii. 3936 how rolled up , ii. 3937-differences in them , ii. 3338

Farm account book , ii. 6110

Farin book -keeping , see Book -keeping Farmer, what he is , i. 56 - qualifications, &c. of the tutor, i. 2, 19 - should be acquainted with mechanics, i. 78 , 79 --and with hydrostaties, i. 102- difficulties of his profes sion , i . 15 - exhortation to the young , ii . 6134 his duties and obligations, ib. - his duty to his farm , ii. 6140 - his duty to his live-stock , ii. 6 +17 -- liis duty

used for cattle , ii. 4435-structure of the plant , ii. 4136 4410 - value

fabrics ,

4141 - extremes of heat that

will ripen it , ii. 5243

coarse stray locks, liow used, ii. 3939 - storing of, ii. 3940 -moth which attacks , ib .

Flesh , decayed , poisonous, ii. 6190 — its constituent parts, ii. 6191—its alkaline and acid principles, ii. 6192 -motion of its juices, ii. 6193 Flesh - coloured trefoil, i . 2676

Flint, specific gravity of, i. 119 Flour of wheat, the, i. 1863 Fluids, operation of gravity on , i. 103 Fluids and solids, the laws of, i . 114

Flukes in sheep , ii. 4744

790

INDEX.

Fly, black -lorned , injures pease , ii. 3983 - the horse , ii. 3363 — the wheat -stem , ii. 4108 -- the wheat, ii. 4104 - pro bably long known, ii . 4110

Foal, what, i. 1432-800n gains its feet to suck , ii. 3673

should be assisted , ib.-- its weight to that of the mare, ii. 3700 -- its growth , ii . 3701 - its increase after weaning, ii . 3702 - and after the first year, ii. 3703 -- its increase in proportion to its food , ii , 3704

Fog, formation of, i. 263-varies with electric state, i. 261 - its states difficult to explain , i. 265 - prevails from hot and moist soils, i. 266 --what wind brings it , i. 267 -- prog . nostics of, i . 263-- its optical effects, i. 269 Folding of sheep, the , ii. 4173

Fold pitcher for setting hurdles, i. 1049 Foot piek ,the, ii. 3149 Foot-picker for horses, i. 1419 — price of,i. 1424 Foot rot in sheep , i. 1073 -- causes difference in management of hill pasture, ii. 3725 Foot -sore in cattle, its effects, ii. 3547 Forage plants, see Soiling

Force-pump, action of the, i. 90 Forest tly , the, ii . 3865 Forfarshire dranght-horse collar, the, i. 677 Fork , stable, i. 1420 - Lincolnshire straw , ib .-- for sheaves, ii.

43:48 — for trenching , three-pronged , ii. 3151 - two pronged , ii. 3152 - mode of protecting, i. 1765 Fork , trenching , ii. 3118 -- cost of, ii. 3155 , 5995 Forking from the ground, ii. 4613 - hooded stooks , ii. 4615 -gaitins, ii. 4616- from the cart and on the stack , ii. 4625

Four teeth ewes , what, i. 931

of laying, i. 2911 - conhned to lay each egg , i. 2912 - set on a made nest, i. 2914 – supplied with oats while sitting , i. 2915 - should have liberty to go off the eggs, i. 2016 treatment of the goslings, i. 2920 — bringing up by haud , i. 292 + their treatment in autuinn , ii. 5166 Gelding , what, i. 1432

Geology, science of, i. 215 - its connection with agriculture, i . 330

Gimmer , what, i. 924 - drafted like ewes , ii. 4010

Glazier work of steading, specification of, ii. 5505 - sky lights , ii . 5506

Gloves, reapers',

ii. 4536

Glue , what made of, ii. 6159

Gold of pleasure , injury to flax from , ii. 3116 Goose fat, composition of, i. 1633

Gore -furrow , i. 756 Grain , the botanical classification of, i. 1842 – Couteur's, of wheat, i. 1844 - classitication by the ear and grain , i.

1845 - proportion of, to straw per acre, ii. 4533_ - dry cannot be cooked by steam , i. 1463- birds destructive to , ii. 4694- carrying of, ii . 4590 — winning, ii. 1592 - stack

yard prepared for it , ii. 4593 — forking it from the ground , ii. 4613 - clearing the ground of stooks , ii. 4614 - forking 4615 - and gaitins, ii. 4616- loading cart with stooks, sheaves, ii. 4617 - roping the load , ii . 4618 - tares for the

horses , ii . 4620_setting cart to stack, ii. 4623 - unloading it , ii. 4623

Grains, see Draff

Graip, the, i. 1165 — the three -pronged dung, i. 2433 - the potato , ii . 1796 Granaries , i . 1685-in towns, ii. 6394

Fowls , common , treatment of, in winter , i . 1601 - diseases of , i . 162 -sniffters , i. 1625 - classified list of diseases , i.

Granite , specific gravity of, i. 119 - preparation of, for

1626 — lice , i. 1627 –-symptoms of laying in hens, i . 2380

Grass, thatching of stacks with , ii. 4658 /-preservation of, for fodder in Germany, ii . 4058 Grasses, effects of deep -sowing on , ii. 3558 - artificial, i.

-every hen should not sit , i . 28-1 - selecting the eggs, i.

23-2 - making the nest , i. 2385 --place chosen for sitting, i. 28864- time of day best for sitting, i. 2888 - supplying food while sitting, i. 2889-appearance of the chicks, i.

manure , ii . 4992

2634

Grass cocks of hay , what, ii . 4083

2-90-hens should be set in succession , i. 2894 - are dis

Grass parks, let in spring, i . 2173

posed to wandur, i. 2895 - treatment of, in autumn , ii.

Grass seeds , time for sowing , i . 2631 -- varieties sown , i. 2633 - and quantities, i . 263.3 - mixed when sown , i . 2646

5147

Fox, the, destructive to poultry, ii. 5195 Fraine for tilt - cart, the , ii. 4594

Free martin , what , i. 1154 Friction , attending to, in constructing machinery , i. 79 of water in pipes, i. 110 - its effects on the motion of water . i. 115

Frost, what, i. 613 — where it originates, i . 614 - extent of its penetration into the ground, i. 615 --always present in winter, i. 616 -- its uses in husbandry, i. 616 Frost -smoke , effects of, i. 639 Fuel, kinds of, i , 186 Full -mouthed ewes , what, i . 931

Fungus, detinition, &c. , of, ii. 4112 - originates diseases in crops, ii . 4113 Furze, used for horses, I. 1450 --mineral ingredients in , i. 465 ---used as a ledge , ii. 5090 Gardner , Mr, his experiments with special manures on wheat, ii. 4919 - on barley, ii. 4925- on oats, ii. 4932

on beans, ii. 4936 – on potatoes, ii. 4940 - on swedes, ii. 4917 -on yellow turnips, ii. 4953 —- on clover and rye grass, ii . 4967-on lea , ii . 1968 Gaitin of oats , what, ii . 4512 Galactometer , the, ii. 4269

Galvanism , identitied with electricity, i. 130 , 152 - its name and discovery, i . 151 Game fowls, i . 1622 Gander, castration of the , ii. 5193

Garden mould , specitic gravity of, i. 374

Gardens, the bind's, dressed in spring, i. 2170 - farmer's, i 2171 Garget in ewes , ii. 3995

Gasteritis, its symptons, ii. 3943 — its treatment, ii. 3814– its prevention , ii. 3-45 Gates , field , repairing of, ii. 3572 – convenient position for, ii. 3573 - and use , ii . 3574-fixing the posts of, ii . 3575 their structure , ii . 5756-strengthening their rectangle ,

--sown by hand , i. 2647 --by machine , i. 2018 - harrow ing in , i. 2632 - the cereal grains among which suwn , i. 2855 — frost injures , i. 2665 Grating for drains in steading , i . 1112

Gravel pits, the weeds they supply , i. 403 Gravel, seashore , the weeds it supplies , i. 40_and river , i. 405

Gravelly loams, character of, i. 340 - soils , i . 339 Grease for carts , i. 1841 Grease in horses, i. 1493 Greenfinch , the, injurious to crops, ii. 4695 Green glass, milk -dishes of, ii. 4197 Green manures , for fallow , white mustard , ii. 4174 - green

weed , ii. 4180_used in different parts of the globe, ii. 4181

Green rose - chafer, the, injures turnip seed , ii. 4186 Green skit in lambs , i. 2581 Grey linnet, the, injurious to crops, ii . 4700 Grieve, the, his duties, i. 57 --not required always to work, i. 58 — not required on every farm , i. 59 Grignon , agricultural school at , i. 539

Grisenthwaite, Mr, on special manures, i. 205 , 207 -- on the benefits of chemistry to agriculture , i. 209 Groom for the saddle -horse , the, i. 1523 Ground and air, connection of temperature between , ii. 5246

Grubber, Kirkwood's, i. 2417— Ducie's , i. 2421 Grubs, injurious to turnips, ii . 3310 Guano, excellent for turnips, ii . 3238 — best with farmyard dung, ii . 3239 — its name, ii. 3343 - compared with excre ments of quadrupeds, ii. 3346 - its use in Peru , ii . 3315– Bolivian and Chilian , ij. 3316 - African , ii. 3347 - ana lyses of, ii. 3318 -azotised matter in , ii , 33.30 -- adulter

ations of, ii. 3351 -price of, ii. 3352 — importation of, ii. 3353 - quantities used , ií. 335 effects of, ii . 376 Gülle , what, i. 2093 Gunpowder, use of, to frighten birds, ii . 4712

ii. 5757 --the diagonal when of wood , ii . 5758 - use of the tie , ii . 5759 --imperfections of the common, ii. 5760

Gypsum , calcination of, ií. 4997. See also Special Manures

trussed wooden , ii . 5761 -iron , ii . 5762 — tension iron , ii. 5763-angle iron , ii . 5.65- Miles' iron postd wooden , ii.

Hail , ii . 3000 - its formation , ii . 3003 - storms of, in summer ,

5766 —posts, ii , 5767 - hanging them , ii. 5768 - fastening, ii . 5769 - painting of, ii . 5770 - posts in the Isle of Man , ii . 5773-cause of the destruction of the wood , ii. 5774 Gaulting, see Claying Gaws or grips , i . 779 Geddes' turnir -sowing drill , ii . 3212 Geese , treatment of, in winter , i. 1603-their incubation

early , i . 2909 -- embrace only on water , i. 2910-- symptoms

ii. 3063 – in autumn, ii . 4350 - in winter, i. 564, 610 insurance against, ii. 5364 Haims, i. 679

Hainault scythe, the , ii. 4496

Hair , its composition, i. 1507—its production , i. 1508 - its structure, i. 1509_manufactured, i. 1510 -- of animals, affected in summer , ii, 3062 Halo in winter, i. 604

Hams, imported, ii. 6185

-

INDEX .

791

Hammels, how occupied in winter, i. 1084 - how fitted up,

Jlerefords, points of, ii. 6226

and size, i. 1004 - comparison between, and byres, i. 1365 Handcocks of hay , what, ii . 4055 Hand -hoeing the wheat crop , ii. 4099 Hand -pick , the, ii. 5004 Hand -rakes, ii. 4039 - using them , ii. 4040 - American , ii . 4087

Herschel, Sir John, on the benefits ofthe physical sciences,

Handling cattle , how done , ii. 3622 Hannam , Mr, his experiments with special manures , ii. 4938 , 4955 Happergawin , what, i. 2320 Hard lands , what, i . 2119

Harness, where accommodated , i. 1405 - price of, i. 1542 cleaning , ii. 6333 — for carts , i. 1832 - for the shaft-horse , ib . — for the trace one , ib . - its weight, ib . - of Forfarshire

trace -horse , i. 1833 - of leather, i. 1836 - reins, i. 1837 shaft -horse in , ib .--- and trace one , i. 1838

Harness.plough, the Lothian collar, i. 676 — the Forfarshire , 1. 677 --and the English , i. 678 — haims, i. 679 - bridle , i.

680 - bearing-reins, i. 681 -- back -band , i. 682--reins, i . 683-ornaments , i . 681 -weight of, i. 685 Harness of the saddle-horse , i. 1534 Harrows, rhomboidal, in wood , i. 2346 - in iron , i. 2319 the tines , i. 2350 -- how equipped , i. 2352 - drill , rectangu lar, i . 2443 - triangular, i. 2446 - brake, i. 2416 — for grass seeds, i. 2652-iron , for grass seeds, i. 2653 -- Norwegian , ii. 3104- snow , i. 2599 - for spreading top-dressing ou pas. ture, ii. 3732 - carriage for , ii. 6005-- treatment of, ii. 6337

Harrowing, how done , i. 2355 — cross, i. 2356_finishing, i. 2357 — to judge of, i . 2358 - importance of good , i. 2359 Harvest, the great event of autumn, ii. 4351 Harvest bug , the, i. 2956 Hatted kit , ii. 4314

Hawthorn butterfly , injures hedges, ii . 5689 Haxton , Mr, his experiments onsowing. ii. 3544 Hay , Mr, his experiments on sowing, ii. 3533, 4872 Hay, should be raised on hill- farms, i. 1041 - given to work

horses, ii. 3087 — and to young horses , ii. 3089 — to feeding cattle, ii. 3090 - nutritive properties of, ii. 3092 - ash of, ii. 3093 - good old , ii . 3091 - bad, ii. 3095 — making, not well done in Scotland , ii. 4023 - how done there, ii. 4024

-why this mode is pursued , ii. 4025 — from natural and artificial grasses, ii. 4027 - cut by the piece , ii. 4029

English mode of making, ii. 4033- English modeof stack ing, ii. 4012-economical mode of carrying, ii . 4044 Scotch mode of making, ii. 4052--and of stacking, ii. 4060---made on carse farms, ii. 4067-on pastoral ones ,

ii. 4068-on dairy ones , ii. 4069 - and on mixed hus bandry ones, ii . 4071 - crop of, ii. 4072 — the English the best mode of making, ii. 4073—making in Saxony, ii. 4074 Hay -house for work -horses, i. 1408 Hay -kniſe, the, ii. 3056 Hay- racks in work -horse stable, i. 1393 Hay -rake, the American , ií. 4084 Hay seed , mode of securing, ii. 4079 Hay -stack , how cut down and brought in , ii. 3085 - oblong , English mode of making, ii. 4045-two formsof heads, ii. 4046 - heating in , ii. 4047 — preparatory to thatching , ii. 4018 - thatching, ii. 4019 - round form , ii . 4050 - oblong , Scotch mode ofbuilding , ii. 4060 - ascertaining the con tents of an oblong, ii. 4076 - of a round , ii . 4077

Heat , electricity excited by , i. 121 - antagonistic to gravity , i. 159, 160 - cannot be seen , i. 161 - alters the forms of bodies , i . 162 - expansion of bodies by , i. 169 - produced by various fuels , i. 186 -- in summer , ii. 3033

Heath , young, bears frost better than old, ii. 3737 Heathcote's steam - plough , i . 171 Heavenly bodies, aspects of the, i. 2159 Hedges , how made in Holland, ii. 5635

Hedge weed - hook , ii. 5669 Hedger , his duties, i. 61 --not needed on all farms, i. 62 his wages, ii. 6316

Hedger's axe, ii. 5644 - spade, ii. 5669 Hefting, injurious to cows, i. 2250 Helio - thermometer , the , ii . 3032

Hemp, mineral ingredients in , i . 462 - sowing and summer treatment of, ii. 3131 --not suited for Scotland , ii. 3137 its botanical position , ii. 3139 - weed infesting, ii. 3140

oil , ii . 3141 - price of seed , ii. 3142 -- composition and aslı of seed , ii . 3113, 314 + its management similar to flax , ii. 4112 - the farmer should not steep it , ii. 4451 - seed pre

pared for cattle, ii. 44524- treatment of seed , ii. 4453

crop of, ii. 4454 -uses of, ii. 4155 — scutchings, ash of, ii. 4156 --- stems of Indian , a substitute for opium , ii. 4458

Hens, time when hatching should cease , ii. 5148 — will go abroad to seek nests , ii. 5149 - cruel expedients to prevent clueking , ii. 5151 - time for selecting to lay, ii. 5153 moulting , ii . 5151 .

Hen -house, the, i . 1609

Hepburn's double-conical roller,

i. 74 - on their acquirement, i. 511 Hide of the horse , ihe, i. 1506 — of ox , good and bad , ji. 6155 - imported , ii. 6156 - uses of, ii. 6157 - tanned im

ported, ii. 6158 Heifer calf, what, i. 1152 Higliland and Agricultural Society , laboratory of the, i . 524

Hinds' houses, see Cottages Hint- end furrows, i. 751 Hinting, what, i. 1432 Hirseling of flocks, the, ii . 4005

Hoar -frost, origin of, i. 627 - injurious effects of, i. 628 easily melts , i. 629 - accompanied with clear air, i. 630— happens with rising barometer, i. 631 - flat lands most

subject to it, i. 632 — objects easily protected from it, i. 633 - injurious near streams, i. 635-promoted by damp subsoil, i. 636 - produces peculiar currents in the air , i. 637 —- its crystals, i. 638 - effects of, in spring. i. 2167 Hoddesden , agricultural farming school at , i. 533 Hoe , wooden , for barn , i. 1792 - for scraping mud , i. 2039 -hand draw, ii. 3257 — for drains, ii. 5814 Hofwyl, agricultural school at , i. 536 Hog , what, i. 1587 Hog's lard , ii. 6181 - skin , its uses , ii. 6182 - bristles, ií . 6183

Hogg , what, i. 924

Hogg lamb , what, i . 923 Holcus, mineral ingredients in , i. 464 Holly used as a hedge , ii, 5685 Honey dew , ii . 3303 Hook , see Sickle

Hop , mineral ingredients in , i. 465 - square hills for, ii. 3158 --and quincunx , ii. 3159—-production of the young plants, ii. 3161 - planting, ii. 3162 -- varieties, ii. 3163 - digging about it, ii . 3169 - manuring it , ii. 3170 - dressing the shoots, ii. 3172-poling, ii. 3174 - training, ii. 3179— treat ment of the bines, ii. 3181 - attacked by wire -worm , i . 3181 - and by the fly, ii. 3191 - affected bymould , ii. 3192 --its botanical position , ii. 3194 - uses of the bines, ii . 3195 — ash of the leaves , ii. 3202 — of the bine, ii. 3203 picking, ii.4390 , 4391 - crop of , ii. 4396 - drying, ii. 4397 -cooling , ii. 4400 - proposed plan of drying , ii . 4401 bagging, ii. 4404 - stacking the poles, ii. 4406 - cost of picking, ii. 4407 — its history, ii. 4408 - ash of, ii . 4412— of the flower, ii. 4415 — and of spent, ii. 4416 —mineral ingredients taken from soil by , ii. 4413- import duty on , ii. 4 + 17

Hop fly, the , ii. 3191 - ladybird destroys it , ib . Hop ground , formation of, ii. 3145 — its cost, ii. 3165 - its duration , ii. 3193

Hop trefoil, the , i. 2678 Hopetoun oats, composition of, i . 1292 Hopetoun tare , the , i. 2472 Hopper , Mr, his short - horn bull , ii. 6211

Hordein , its nature, i. 1920 Horizontal spade, the, ii. 5894 Horns , uses of, ii. 6161 - forms of, ii. 6238 - indications of

age, ii. 62.39 -- and of disease , ii . 6240 Hornbeam , used as a hedge in Germany, ii. 5685 Horses, language to , assistance to reins, i. 687 - to stop, i. 688 - to lessen motion , i. 689 — to go forward , i. 690 — and backward , i . 691 - to come towards you , i . 692 — to go from you , i. 693 — construction of stables for , i. 1389 daily winter treatment of, i. 1411 - mash for , i. 1422 treatment during bad weather in winter , i , 1427 - should

be bred on the farm , i . 1428-thrive on cooked food , i. 1434 - rationale of feeding them , i. 1435 --- young, where accommodated in the steading, i. 1430 - food given to thern in winter, i. 1431 - names according to age, &c. , i. 1432 – bruised raw equal to cooked food , i. 1437 - econo mic ration for, i. 1438-turnips given to, i. 1439 - rota . toes , i. 1440—carrots, i. 1441 - and parsnips , i. 1142 fond of bread, i . 1443 — meals for them , i. 1444 — formula of food by Professor Low , i. 1445 — food for posting , i. 1446 -- their intelligence , i. 1471 - winter diseases and their treatment , i. 1473 - bleeding , i. 1474blistering , i.

1476 - physicking, i. 1477 - drenching , i. 1480 — fomenta tion , i. 1482 — poulticing, i. 1483 - lotions, i. 1484 - pulse, i. 1485 - injections, i. 1486 - louse, i. 1488 — batts , i . 1490 -inflammation of bowels , i. 1491 -- common colds, i. 1492 - grease, i. 1493 –shot of grease , i. 1494 - stomach staggers, i. 1495 --- thrush , i. 1497 - corus, i . 1498 - broken wind, i. 1499-sprains, i. 1500 - saddle galls , i . 1501 -

crib -biting and wind -sucking, i. 1302 -- dust -ball, i. 1503 -worms, i, 150specks in the eye , i. 1505 - number used in agriculture , i. 1513 - annual tear and wear , i . 1514 value of the labour of, i. 1515 - on farms exempt from

duty , i. 1516 - imported free , i. 1917 - dealers in them 3102

INDEX .

792

Horses, continued

duce from , ii. 6070 - period of, on hill-farms, ii. 6071–

must be licensed , i. 1518 - and slaughterers , i. 1519 stealing them not now capital, i. 1520 — warrandice of, i.

1521- their foot liable to diseases, i. 1541- its form , i. 1545 - preparing it for the shoe , i. 1546 — shoe for it, how formed and fitted, i . 1549 --- shoeing, i . 1552 -- loose box allows the foot to expand , i. 1557 — trimming their heels , i. 1569 — hay given to them , ii. 3087-time for pasturing them , ii. 319 - their treatment on pasture, ii . 3850 — in

stable or hammel, ii. 3851 -- time for their lying out at night, ii. 3852 -- time for pasturing young , ii. 3853 watering pool essential to them , ii. 3851- eat constantly at pasture, ii . 3856 - saddle , run at grass , ii . 3855 - should

not graze with sheep , ii . 3857—their diseases in summer , ii. 3858__saddle galls, ib .-- cleg, ii. 3859 - bot, ii . 6860_ fly , ii . 3863 - forest fly , ii . 3805 ---meteoric fly , ij. 3866 their flesh sold in Paris, ii . 3867 — used in London , ii. 3868_draught gelding, points of, ii. 6211 - stallion , ii. 6215 - mare, ii . 6216 - colou : s of, ii. 6217

Horse- chestnut, specific gravity of the , i. 119 Horse -hoe, the, ii. 3250_Smith's, for drilled green crops,

theory of, ii . 6072

Italian rye-grass, ash of, ii. 3897 — sown amongst wheat, ii. 4104 - a forage plant , i). 4387 - compared with other rye- grasses, ii. 4388 - ash of the seed , ii. 1389

Jerusalem artichoke, mineral ingredients in , i. 463– its cul ture , ii. 4689_its botanical position , ii. 4690 - ash of the tubers, ii. 4693

Joiner-work , calculation of, ii. 6328

Joint -fellon in calves, ii. 3816

Johnston, Professor, on the relation between the study of plants and agriculture, i. 323 – on the mechanical action of the soil, i. 471-on the mineral ingredients of plants, i. 466 - on the origin of mould , i. 501

Johnstone,A.K., on the distribution of plants, i. 325, 326 -on the plıysiognomy of the vegetable kingdom , i. 327– on the distribution of vegetable forms, i. 323 - on the

relative proportions of families ofplants, i . 329 Juniper, used as a hedge , ii. 5685 Jussieu's natural method of botany, i. 321

ii. 4100 - how used, ii. 4102 — Wilkie's , with parallel mo tion , ii . 3252

Kaemtz on the cumulus, i . 244 , 246 — on the influence of

Horse -pond, forming of, ii. 5336 Horse -power of water , calculation of, i. 117 Horse -rake, hay and stubble , ii. 4037 Horse -wheel, under-foot and over -head, i, 1715

Horton, Mr, his long - horn bull , ii. 6225 Hoven in cattle , i. 1381 Howey and Co. , Messrs , their draucht gelding, ii. 6214 Ilowden , Mr, his experiments on feeding cattle , i. 1338 Humble - bee, the, injures the bean , ii . 3984 Hummeller, cylinder, i. 1810 - hand , i. 1811

Humus, electric state of, i. 144 -- specific gravity of, i. 374 its functions, ii . 5126

Hunt , Mr, on the intiuence of coloured light , i. 194 – expe riments by , on comparative sowing , ii . 3512

Hurdles , how set , i. 902 - their dimensions and parts, i.1042 --- larch , i. 1044willow , i. 1046 -- oak , i. 1047_English

form of, i. 1047 — fold - pitcher for setting, i. 1049 couplings for, i. 1050_number required , i. 1051 Husbandry , best method of acquiring , i. 1 - practical, ib. ditficulties of the pupil , i. 12 Hutin and Boutigny, their process for preventing decay of wood , ii . 5774

Hutton , Mr, his experiments on feeding cattle, i. 1360 Huxtable , Mr , his method of feeding sheep, i. 961 Hydraulics, what, i . 108 Hydraulic press , Bramah's, i. 107 Hlydrogen, electric state of, i. 140 Hydrography, science of, i. 215 Hydrostatics, laws of, should be known by the farmer, i. 102 Hygrometers, what, i. 178 — various substances for , i. 184 feathers of birds are , i. 234

Hygroscopes, what, i. 178 Hypothec, its effects , ii. 6400 — its use to the tenant, ii. 6101 -- its origin , ii. 64

-its nature , ii. 6403

the sun on clouds , i . 247 -- on the cumulo stratus, i . 236

onseasonal rains, i. 304 - on the crystallisation of water, i. 646

Kain , what , ii . 5350 Keil for marking sheep, ii. 3591 Keds, what, ii . 3753 Kelp , whence derived , i . 2116

Kilmory wooden trussed gate , ii. 5761 Kilnhead limestone, ii. 6035 — lime, ii . 6039 King , Mr, experiments by , on sowing wheat, ii. 4878 Kirkwood's grubber, i. 2417 — sheep -fodder rack , ii. 1787 Knives , for trimming turnips, i. 815 Knot-grass, mineral ingredients in , i. 464 Kolil-rabi, properties of, ii. 33.55 — its culture , ii. 3357 — transplanting or sowing, ii . 3358--manure for , ii . 3361 compared with Swedish turnip , ii. 3312-varieties of, ii.

3363- weight of bulb , ii . 33364-- its botanical position, ii. 3365 -- culture of, in Germany, ii. 3366 - feeding of horses and cows with , ii. 3367 Labour, different distribution of, in England and Scotland , ii. 5364 -- results of, in England , Scotland , and Ireland , ii. 5365

Labour account, ii. 6431 - sample of farm , ii. 6138 Ladders, i. 1742 — numbers of, i. 1743 — to set up , &c. , i. 1744

Ladybird, the, tuseful in the hop -ground , ii. 3191 - inimical to aphides , ii. 3306 Laing's Swedish turnip , see Turnip. Lamb, what, i. 923

Lambs, to mother, on ewes , i. 2563 — pet, how brought up, i. 2567 - age when castrated , i. 2364 -- weather for it, i . 2570 - castration , i . 2571 - old mode of it , i. 2572 - dock ing their tails , 2573 - marking their ears, i. 2574 - how

to stop bleeding after docking, i. 2575 - treatment of the Ice, not compact, i.611 - its origin , i. 642 - its expansion ,

scrotum after castration , i. 2576 — the testes do not always

i. 613 — its force , i . 644 --why not formed on deep water,

descend, i. 2577 - how kept warm on hill farms, i. 2526

i. 645 — evaporation from , i. 647--couling powers of, i.

losses from snow on these , i. 2598 - diseases of, green skit ,

648 - different thicknesses of, i. 649 Ichneumon fly, the, ii. 3307 Idio- electric bodies, what, i. 122

should be simple and strong , i. 78 — care of, Implements, ii. 6335

Implement-house, fitting up of, ii . 6346 Imponderable bodies, what, i. 158 In -and -in breeding, ii. 6273 In- calvers, what, i. 1154 Indian corn , see Maize

Indian rubber pavenient, for cow byres, i. 1126 — how laid , i. 1127 --size of, i. 1129 Indigestion in pigs, ii. 5141

Inorganic matter, what, i. 200 - materials of plants, propor tion of, i. 203

Insects which infest sheep , i. 1067 ; ii. 3752 - cattle, i. 1375 ; ii. 3803 - horses, i. 1488 ; ii . 3859 -- swine, i. 1595 - poultry ,

i . 1627 -- the hop , ii . 3184 -- turnip , ii. 3290 - cabbage , ii. 3375 --mangold -wurzel, ii. 3391 - carrot, ii . 3116 parsnip , ii . 3411 -- rape , ii. 345_clover, ij . 3894 - wheat,

ii. 4107 - barley , ii. 4130 -- oats , ii. 41:37 - potato , ii . 4163 Insurance against fire , ii . 5560—for cattle, ii . 5573-- against bail , ji . 5564- for hinds' cows, ii . 5505

Inventory and valuation of stock , ii . 6108

Iron , wrought, specific gravity of, i. 119 Iron bedsteads, for cottages, ii. 5943 - hammer rut-key , ii. 6003 Irrigation , managing the water in water -meadows, ii. C064 -muismanagement of it , ii. C066 -- time for , ii. 6069.--pro

i. 2581 - purging , i. 2593 - costiveness , i. 2591 - fever, i. 2595 - many wean themselves at shearing - time, ii. 3933 -weaning of Leicester , ii . 3994 — the ewes deserted to be milked , ii. 3995 - doddering of, ii. 3998 - when disposed of, ii. 3999 — dipping arsenic deprecated , ii . 4000 treatment on hill farms after weaning , ii. 4003 — for the table , ii . 400+ diseases of, in summer , ii. 4005 -- wean

theniselves on hill farms, ii. 4005 — where may be bled , il. 4006

Lammas red wheat, a variety for spring sowing, i. 2377 Land , period of judging it aright, ii. 5263 — subsoil as well as soil to be attended to , ii. 5268 - diversity of soils in most farms, ii. 5269 -method of judging of them ,ii. 5280

--requirements of, for mixed husbandry, ii . 5283- fixed money- rent of, how estimated, ii. 5235 —- unsatisfactory with fluctuating prices, ii. 5291 - rent, hali cash and half grain , ii. 5292 - rate of interest affects that of rent, ii. 5293 -ordinary mode of estimating rent, ii. 5294 - argunients in favour of money- rent, ii. 5295-rent dependent on state of farm , ii. 5300 -- natural rent,what,ib .-- covenanted rent, ii. 5301 - both may be constant or fluctuating, ii. 5302

injustice of present system of grain rents, ii. 6304 - remedy proposed , ii. 5305— difficulties attending its adoption , ii. 6306 - its advantages, ii. 5307 -- objection against it , ii . 5308_various schemes proposed , ii. 5312 - old proportion of produce not now correct, ii. 5313

Landowners, evils of their neglect of agriculture, i. 543 their sons as agricultural pupils, ib. - should learn agri. culture when young , i. 541and afterwards study other

INDEX . professions, i, 545 - apt otherwise to acquire a distate for agriculture , i. 546 -- consequences of their ignorance of it , i. 547, 548 , 551, 555-and of their acquaintance with it, i. 549 , 550 , et seq.

793

Liquid manure drains, i. 1113 -- tank , i. 1114 -- pump, i. 1115 Litter , what, i . 1587

Litter, how laid down in courts, i. 2004-how it should be, i, 2005

Lapcocks of hay, what, ii. 4054

Littered , its meaning, i . 1597 Littering turnip ground for sheep, i. 955 Live -stock , points to be aimed at in breeding, ii. 6197 symmetry, ii. 6198 — robustness of constitution , ii. 6206– disposition to attain early maturity , ii. 6208

Larch , specific gravity of, i. 119 - mineral ingredients in

Loam , character of, i . 336

the, i. 465 Larynx of cattle, inflammation in the, ii. 3815

London , veterinary college at , i. 530 - raising of veal for, i.

Land -breeze, the , how produced , i. 94

Land-roller, Hepburn's double-conical, ii. 3102 - Swedish , ii . 3106 Lantern , a , i. 1209 — stable , i . 1425

Lawson's potato -raiser, ii. 4794 Lawton hybrid turnip , sce Turnip. Lea , effects of special manures on , ii. 4968 Lead, whence derived , ii. 5197 — specific gravity of, i. 119 Leases, usual mode of obtaining information of a farm , ii.

5323 -- printed conditions of , ii . 5324 - conditions might be easily adjusted , ii . 5325 - ordinary reservations in , ii. 5326 -— the cropping clauses of, ii . 5329 ---ordinary devia tions of, ii . 5330,—the penal clauses of, ii . 5331 - subletting , &c. , in Ireland , ii. 5335 ---in parts of England , ii. 5338 not without alloy, ii. 5339 - application of grain rent to tenancy -at-will, ii. 5341 - many trifling conditions should be abolished, ii. 5342 - difference in England and Scot

land of the tenant's paying the public burdens, ii. 5314 minute of, ii . 5349 Ledger , ii. 6411

Leguminosæ , properties of the , i. 1951 - their division , i. 2150

Leguminous plants, see Beans, Pease, &c. Leicester paring plough , the, i. 2828 Leicester sheep, dinmont, points of, ii. 6218 - tup, ii. 6219 -ewe , ii . 6220

Lentils, mineral ingredients in, i. 462 Leslie's hygrometer , i. 180 Level lot of catile , what, ii. 3783 Levelling of high ridges , the, ii. 5964 — box , ii. 5966 - mode of using it , ii. 5967 - staff for drains, ii. 5817

Lice in sheep , i. 1067 -- in cattle , i. 137in horses, i . 1488 --in pigs , i. 1595 — in call, i. 2.299 Liebig on the inorganic constituents of plants , i. 201 -- on the ammonia brought down from the atmosphere , i . 292 , 294 -- on the effect of the discovery of the mineral ingre dients of plants on agriculture, i. 470 - on digestion in animals, i . 1606

Lifting of potatoes, see Potatoes Light, treated of by science of optics, i. 189 — in summer, ii. 3030 — it compared with that of other seasons, ii. 3031 influence of yellow , red , and blue, on vegetation , i. 193 Lightning , different kinds of, ü . 2988

Lime tree , specific gravity of, i. 119 Lime, specific gravity of unslaked , i . 119 – in plants, ii. 5051 where procured , ii . 6023 - etlete and caustic, ii . 6024 — has most effect near manure , ii. 6025 - in shells from the kiln ,

ii. 6010 )- slaking , mode of, ii. 6011 --mode of spreading, ii. 6013 – quantity laid on , ii. 6016 -- applied once in a lease, ii. 0018 -- its price , ii. 6019 - its weight, ii. 6020

period of applying, ii. 6021 — its effects, ii. 602-2 - compo sition of slaked , ii. 6038 — the purest best, i. 6010 - in large or small doses, ii . 6041 -exhausting to the land, ii. 6012 - compost for top -dressing, ii. 6044its effects on heath , ii. 6045 Limestone, specific gravity of, i. 119_where found , ii. 6033 -gravel , ii . 603_omposition of good , for land , ii . 6035 how burnt, ii . 6036 --Carluke, Cockermouth , Kilnhead , and Relig , ii. 6035

Liming land , objects of, ii. 6008 - over, its effects, ii. 6043 Lined , what , i . 1587

Links, weeds peculiar to , i. 407 Linnet, the, destroys turnip seed , ii. 4188 Linnæus's system of botany. i. 321 Linseed , oil yielded by , i. 1323 - lised for feeding cattle, i. 1261 -- composition of, i. 1262 - ash of, i. 462, 123 — impor tation of, i. 1264 , ii. 3126 - machine for bruising , i . 1265 --J'roperties of, ii . 3111 - meal, its uses , ii. 3119 - oil, ii.

3120 --husk, ii. 3121—its price ,ii.3127 — used in bread, ii. 3129 Liquid manure, tanks for, i. 2062 - carts, i. 2076 – obloquy

Lomba, M. , his plan for evading the potato disease, ii. 4157 2294-sheep best suited for its market, ii. 3600 — and cattle , ii. 6450

Long-horns, points of, ii. 6225 Lothian draught-horze collar, the , i. 676 Lovelace , Lord , liis experiments on carrots, ii . 4946 - on mangold -wurzel, ii . 4962

Low , Professor, his formula of food for horses , i. 1445 Lucerne , mineral ingredients in , i. 464 — not suited for Scot land , i. 2513 — its culture , i. 2514—its botanical position, i . 2518 - its ancient origin , i. 2519-its culture near London , i. 2520 ---variety cultivated in Switzerland , i. 2521 - ashi, i . 2522 - weight and cost of seed , i. 2523

Lyary, when cattle are said to be , ii. 3622 Lythas, in rearing calves, i. 2278 Macaroni, manufacture of, i. 1902 M.Bryde, Mr, his experiments on feeding sheep , i. 960 M'Culloch's window for cottages, i. 1134

Macgillivray, Professor, on the connection between plants and the soil, i. 435 — on the digestive organs of birds, i. 1660

Machines, error regarding increase of power in , i. 80 MʻLagan , Mr, experiments by , on sowing, ii. 3531 M'Lean , Mr, his experiments on special manures, ii. 4966 M.Lintock , Mr, his experiments with special manures, ii. 4922

M.Turk , Mr, his Blackfaced ram , ii. 6231 Madia , its history and culture , ii. 3176 - its oil , ii. 3477 grows in Scotland, ii. 3478 — its botanical position , ii . 3479 -ash of the seed , ii. 3480

Maggots , in cheese, ii. 4296 — injure sheep in summer , ii. 3754

Magnesia , accompanies phosphoric acid , ii . 5052 Magnetism , one means of electricity , i . 124 - identified with it , i. 130 , 154 — its extent of operation , i. 153 - terrestrial, how supposed to arise, i. 156 — how it and voltaism may affect the ground in culture, i. 157 Magpie, the, destructive to poultry, ii. 5208 Main , Mr, his experiments with special manures , on wheat, ii. 4920 - on barley, ii . 4927 - on carrots, ii. 1943 Maize , mineral ingredients in , i. 462- given to horses, i. 1451-- and to poultry , i. 1301 - nutritive matter in an

acre , i. 1302- composition of, i. 1303_ash of, i . 1304 —not suited to Britain , ii. 3481 - requires good soil and shelter , ii . 3182 - its culture, ii. 3484 - time for sow.

ing, ii . 3486 — its botanical position , ii. 3492 — its geogra phical distribution , ii. 3-93 - ash in its straw , ii. 3194 importation of, ii. 3495 , 4688 — period of harvest, ii. 4673 -cobs pulled off, ii . 4674 - taking off the husk , ii . 4675 -keeping of the heads , ii . 4676 - taking the grains off the

heads, ii . 4677 - its produce, ii. 4679 - value of, per acre , ii. 4681 --good for poultry and pigs, ii. 4682 - nutritive matter in acre of, ii. 4684 - produce of, in America , ii .

4685 - value of it , ii. 4686 - heat required to ripen it , ii. 5241 Malformations in live - stock , ii. 6247 Mallet for driving stakes, i. 902

Malt, is it nutritious ? i. 1285 — its composition , i. 1286 — its nutritive power, i. 1287 — its ash , i. 1288 - green for cattle -feeding , i. 1324— its use falling off, i . 1913 — its con .

sumption , i. 1914its importation, i . 1915 Malting, process of, i. 1922 - loss sustained in , i. 1289 Man , Isle of, stone gate - posts of the, ii. 5773 Mane comb for horses, i. 1419 - price of, i. 1424 Mange in pigs, ii. 5144

Mangold-wurzel, mineral ingredients in , i. 463 — pulling, i.

for not using it , i. 2085 -- motives for using it , ib .

831 - storing, i. 836 - composition of long red , & c. , i . 854 -nutritive matter in, i. 900 — its properties , ii . 3381

neglect of it in towns, i . 2088 — dairy farnis supply most of it , i. 2091 - its composition , i. 2094- circumstances

varieties of, ii . 3382 - soil for , ii. 3383 — Scotland not suited for it , ii . 3381 - its culture , ii. 3385-50wing , ii . 3386 — manuring , ii. 3390 - insects which attack it , ii.

regulating its value, i. 2035 --- cows' urine , i . 2006 - its value varies with the season , i. 2097---changes traceable

in it with age , i. 2098 — its specific gravity, i. 2099 — human urine, i . 2100.-- that of the horse , the sheep , and the pig , i. 2101 -mineral ingredients of these last , i. 2102 --when best applied , i . 2103 --- quantity of manure in it , i. 2104Sprengel's conclusions regarding its application , i. 2105 - effects of mixing with mould , i. 2106

3391 - weight of crop , ii. 33: 2 - weight of ronts, ii. 3393 ant to run to seed, ii. 3394 — its botanical position , ii. 3395)—its proper name, ii. 3397 -- its seed peculiar, ii. 3398 -ash of yellow globe, ii. 3399 — and of long red, ib .-- ash in one ton , ii. 3400—probable effects of, on milk , ii. 3402 --effects of special manures on , ii. 4961 Marble milk.cooler , ii. 4200

794

INDEX .

Manual implements , trentment of, ii. 6342 Mare, what, i. 1432 - period of her foaling , ii. 3670 symptoms of it , ib . - foals quichly, ii. 3671 - her treatment

Mountain pastures, plants which distinguish them , i. 417-

after foaling, ii . 3674 - put to grass at rest, ii. 3675 --when

Mowbray, Mr, his experiments on feeding cattle, i. 1320 ,

ready to take the horse, ii. 3676 - how to present her to him , ii. 3677 - to determine her being in foal,ii. 3679 - cir . barren , ii. 3680-- proportional weight of, to her foal, ii.

cumstance against her being in foal , ib .-when becomes 3700

Marl , shell, ii . 6030 -- clay , ii. 6032 Marling land in England , ii. 6031 Marshall, Mr, his experiments on feeding cattle , i. 1353 his mixture for horses , i . 1448

Marshes, plants which distinguish , i. 411 - sea, i. 412 – cul. tivated , weeds which infest, i. 413

Martin , Mr, on the potato disease , ii. 4156 Mason -work of steading, specitication of, ii. 5396 - mode of measuring, ii . 5394 - cost of, ii. 5511 - stones used in , ii. 5427- for cottages , ii. 5556 Mason's hygrometer, i. 182

Masters, obligations of, to servants, ii. 6292_responsibility of, for servants , ii. 6293

Mathematics, why applicable to agriculture, i. 74 - abstract and demonstrative, i. 75 - their study elevating, i. 518 Mattock , the, ii . 5956

Meadow , permanent, moist climate necessary for, ii. 3785 --more useful than pasture, ii . 3786 -- abundant in Eng land , ii . 3787 — scarce in Scotland , ii . 3788 — in Holland , & c ., ii. 3790

Meadow hay, ash of, ii . 3093 Meadow crane- fly, the, i. 2304 Measles in pigs, i. 1597 , ii. 5145 Mechanics , uses of, to agriculture , i. 77 Mechanists, should know practical husbandry , i. 78

dry , i . 418- wet , i . 419

Mouth -piece, the, for cattle when choking, i. 1379 1321

Mudie , R. , on the trade - winds , i . 298. - on the influence of

the tropics on the winds, i. 299 -— on the difficulty of fore telling the weather , i. 319 Muir-burning, improves the heath for sileep , ii. 3736 - how done , ii. 3738 - law of, ii. 37 40 Muir -ill , see Red -water Mushrooms in autumn , ii. 4314

Musical strings , intestines of sheep used for , ii. 6173 Mustard seed, mineral ingredients in , i. 462 Mutton , relative weights of offal and , ii. 6162 - weights of different, i . 6163 - rule for knowing the age of, ii. 6165

loss in cooking, ii. 6106 -ham , ii. 6167 Muzzle for saddle-horses, i. 1560 Nails in barn , i. 1795 - for carts, i. 1830

Natural history , its objects, i. 215 Natural philosophy, why applicable to agriculture, i. 74 physical sciences embraced under, i. 76 — its elevating effect, i . 518 Navel- ill in calves , i . 2296 Nebulæ in horses, i. 1505

Nets , how set , i. 907 — the shepherd's knot in , i. 908 -- ap pearance when set, i . 910 - what made of, i . 1054-how

wrought , i. 1055 -- needles for, i. 1056 - spools for, i. 1057 -length of, i. 1060—will contine Blackfaced sheep, i. 1061 -wrought by machinery , i. 1062 Newberry's dibbling-machine, ii. 3550

Newington's dibbling machine, ii. 3551 - mode of using, i . 3552 - his cultivator, ii . 4103

Mechi, Mr, luis experiments on sowing , ii . 3611

Nievling, a mode of milking, i. 2258_better than stripping ,

Melvin , Mr, his experiments with special manures, ii. 4964 Merino, origin of the name, ii. 3975 -- sheep, ii. 3976 Meslin , what, ii. 4893 -- practice correct in theory, ii. 4894

Nightsoil and urine, use of, in China , ii. 4987 - in Belgium ,

-most common mixtures for, ii. 4895

Meteoric fly , the, ii. 3866 Meteorology, science of, i. 215 Mildew , injures pease , ii. 3991- in wheat , ii. 4114 Miles' wooden tield - gate, ii . 5766 Milch or milk cow , what , i . 1154 Milk , treatment of, in winter , i. 124 - most derived from

cows in byre, i. 1372 - utensils for, ii. 419 + its treatment

i. 2259 ii . 4988

Nimbus, see Cirro -cumulo -stratus Nitrates of soda and potash , sue Special manures Nitrogen , its electric state, i. 141 -in horse and cow dung ,

i . 2025 — in pigs'dung, i. 2028 -in sheep's, i. 2929 - most abundant in seeds and green leaves, ü, 5047

Nitrogenous substances, effects of, ii. 6374 Norwegian harrow , the, ii. 3104 Nose -bags, price of, i . 1424

in the dairy, ii. 4209 - yield various , ii. 4256 --circum

stances which affect its quality, ii. 4260 - and quantity, ii. 4259 — phenomena accompanying its changes , ii. 4261 -its composition, ii . 42 12 -- boils and freezes as water, ii. 4263 — its aslı , ii. 4264-its composition varies, ii. 4265

its specitic gravity , ii. 4266_adulteration of, ii. 4270 plants affect its flavour, ii. 4271 - composition of skimmed , ii. 4272— is it a natural emulsion ? ii . 4273 -- required to

Oak , specific gravity of, i. 119 --mineral ingredients in , i. 465

Oats , mineral ingredients in , i. 462 - nutritive matter in an acre of, i.1291 - composition of the grain , i. 1292- si of, i. 1294 - oil in , i. 1293 — for horses , i. 1423 - ash in straw , i. 1974 --their botanical position , i. 1925 - classifi cation by the grain , short , i. 1926 - long, i. 1927 — and by

make a cheese , ii. 4280--under the disease named cocote ,

the ear, panicles diffused, i. 1928- panicles lateral, i. 1999

ii. 4302 -- a sour cog of, ii. 4305 - oatmeal porridge, ii. 1308

--crops of, i . 1930 - the farina , i. 1933 -- not mentioned in

Milk - cooler, ii. 4200

Milk - dishes, earthenware, ii. 4195 - Wedgewood ware , ii. 4196 - glass, ii. 1197 — wooden , ii. 4198 -- zinc, ii. 4199, 4201

Milk -house , plan of, ii. 4192 — to be kept clean , ii. 4208 Milk -sieve, ii. 4205 Mok - sickness in America , the , ii. 4203

Millet seed , mineral ingredients in , i. 462 Mist, see Fog Mites in cheese , ii . 4298

Mixed husbandry, its origin , i. 49--what , i. 50 - extent, capital , and rent for farm , i. 51 - recommended , i. 52- and wliy , i. 53 — its excellence and safety , i. 54 - qualifications of farmer, i. 69 — dixed money -rent of farm , how estimated , ii. 5238

Model farms, why a misnomer , i. 542 Möeglin , agricultural school at , i. 538

Moles, disfigure pasture , ii. 3763 - catching them , ii. 3765 its cost , ib.

Moor, plants which distinguish it, i. 409 - dry , its plants, i. 410

Moorband pan , breaking it up , ii. 6006 — its formation , ii. 6007 Monsoons, the, i. 93 Morton , Mr, on the origin of soils , i. 486

Mothering a lamb, what , i . 2343 Moths, injurious to turnips, ij. 3309 -- plan for destroying, ii. 3311 -to pasture , ii . 3761

Mould , character of, i. 343 —what , i . 492 - changed accord . ing to circumstances, i . 493—its origin , i. 495, 500

Scripture , i. 1935 - geographical distribution of, i. 1936 when sown, i. 2484 – suitable for all sorts of farms, i. 2486 - varieties sown , i. 2487 --quantity sown , i. 2493 sowing broadcast , i. 2494 - water - furrowed , rolled , and gawed , i. 2497 --- 90wn broadcast with machine, i. 2500 sown in rows with drills, i. 2501 - season of sowing now

curtailed , i. 2503 -- the grub, i. 250_recover from its attacks, i , 2507 --weaning tint different from grub ravage, i. 2506 - treatment in Germany , i. 2509 — their culture in summer , ii. 4131 - top-dressing. ii. 4133 - diseases in summer , ii . 4135 - ash of, ii . 4138 - nitrogen in , ii. 4139

crops of, vary, ii. 4552 - results of sowing different kinds together, ü. 4296 - effects of special manures on , ii. 1930 -mineral ingredients they take from the soil, ii. 5058 cost of replacing these, ii. 5071 Oatmeal , i. 1931 -- proportion of, in the grain , i. 1932 - the ordinary food of the Scottish ploughman , i. 1937 - bread , i. 1938

Oat -grub , the, i. 2504 - affects wheat on lea , i. 2508

Ethrioscope, the, ii. 5257 Offals, proportion of, to live -weight, ii. 3633

Oil-cake, for feeding sheep, i. 976 --for feeding cattle, i. 1266 - price of, i.1267 - nutritive properties of English and American , i. 1268 - ash of these , i. 1269 - substitute

for, i. 1270 - importation of, i. 1272.-ii. 3121 - experi ments with it in feeding sheep , ii. 3122 - given to calves for quarter -ill, ii . 3124 - of China, ii. 4985

Oil -cake box forsheep, i. 943 — breaker, i. 945 Oil -can , the, i. 1746 Open sow , what, i. 1587

Mould -furrow , i . 751 Mould affecting the hop , ii . 3192 Moulting fever, the , i . 2955

Optical square , the, ii. 5600

Mountains, colours of, indicated by certain plants, i. 434

Overdriving cattle, what , ii. 3646

Optics , the science of, i. 188 Organic matter , what, i. 198

INDEX . Overshot water-wheel, the, i . 113 Oxen , what, i. 1154- occupy the hammels , i 1146 — their treatment in byres, i. 1210 — the best, imported from Holstein , ii. 3663 Oxford , agricultural chair at , i. 534 Ox -louse , the, i. 1376

Oxygen , its electric state , i. 139 Pack of wool , its weight,

3943

Packing of wool , how done, ii . 3943 Pack - sheets for wool, how made, ii. 3943 Pail , the milking , i. 2252

Painter-work of steading,specifications of, ii. 5507 -measur ing and pricing, ib .-- lithic paint, ii. 5508 — white lead , ii. 5509

Paragrêles, ii. 3007 Paratonnères , ii. 2991

Paring and burning , what, i. 2813 – its objects, i. 2814 done by the flauchter -spade, i. 2819-by the paring plough , i. 2823 --- when done, i. 2829 --- setting up the turfs, i. 28:30 -- the burning, i. 2931 -- harrowing in the ashes, i. 2835 - its cost , i. 2836 - crop after it , i. 2837 - dif erences of opinion regarding it , i. 2838 — when to be done, i. 2340 - rationale of it , i . 2811 - test of its utility , i. 2842 Parker, Mr, his experiments with Newberry's dibbler , ii. 3337

Parochial schools of Scotland, education of the agricultural student at , i, 512

Parsley , for pastures , i. 2645

Parsnips, mineral ingredients in , i. 463 – pulling, i. 839 -storing , i. 810 -- their composition , i. 854 — their pro

perties, i. 896 - given to horses, i. 1442 --scarcely suited to Scotland , ii. 3135 --soil for, ii. 3436 -- culture, ii. 3437 -seed , ii. 3438 - attacked by insects, ii. 3441 - seed easily raised , ii. 3142 - cost of cultivating, ii. 3443— botanical position , ii. 3441- and characters, ii. 3445 culture inJersey, ii. 3446 Partridge, the, injurious to crops, ii. 4706 Parturition, definition of, ii . 3683 — period of gestation , ii.

795

Pease , mineral ingredients in , i . 462 — nutritive matter in acre of, i. 1296 - ash of, i. 1300 -- composition of, i. 1299 -their botanical position , i. 1958 -- their grain , ib . - crops

of, 1959 - composition of, i. 1960—— the fecula of, i. 1962 were much cultivated , i. 1963- less sown than formerly , i. 2452-- formerly sown broadcast, i. 2453 - now mostly with the benn , i. 2454 — their culture , i. 2155 - never manured , i. 2459 - varieties sown , i. 2460 — quantity sown , i. 2461 -garden , sown in the field , i . 2463.-- their

culture in summer , ii . 3987 - injured by insects , ii . 3988 and by mildew , ii. 3991 - reaping them , ii . 4584-winning, ii. 4651-their culture in autumn , ii . 4888 - in winter afford no advantage to the farmer , ii. 4889 --winter treat

ment of, in Germany, ii. 4890 — sown as forage in Flanders, ii. 4891 - effects of special manures on, ii. 4938 Pease-meal , feeding animals on , i. 1295-used for rearing calves , i. 2280

Peat, heat produced by, i. 186 - indicated by certain plants , i. 433 - charring of, ii. 4990_effects of drainage upon , ii. 5938

Peat-bog, plants which distinguish it, i. 414wet, i. 415— cultivated , weeds which infest, i. 416 Peat- tile, the, ii . 5898 Peat soils, character of, i. 342 Pen wet , what, ii . 4623

Peschel on the influences of electricity, i. 134 Pheasant, injury to crops by the , ii . 4703 Phillips' tire annihilator, on , ii. 5561 Phosphates, effects of, ii. 6373. See also Special Manures Phosphoric acid , presence of, in seeds, ii. 5050 Phyllolobæ , the , i. 2450

3682 - subdivisions of labour, ii. 3684 - natural, preter

Pickling of wheat , the, i. 2308 - apparatus for, ib .--- sub stances employed in , i. 2310_annoys the sower, i. 2324 efficacy of different substances, ii. 4865 Pigs, should be no litter of, in winter , i. 1574 - feeding of the younger, i. 1575 - young to be kept in separate courts , i. 1576 - older have liberty, i. 1577 -- circular trough for them , i. 1578 - wall one, i . 1582-- of good kind always ready for market, i. 1579 - fattening of, on cooked and raw food, i. 1583 - washing with warm water, i . 1584 —- sleep

natural, difficult, and complex , ii. 3685 - example of the first, ii. 3686 - of the second, ii. 3687 — of the third , ii. 3638 -- and of the fourth, ii. 36x9— its phenomena , ii.

much when fattening, i. 1585 - receive acid food on the Continent, i. 1586 — their names , i. 1587 - to judge of, when fat, i. 1588 - effects of the colour of their hair , i. 1589

3690 - stages of, ii . 3691 - action of the muscles in , ii.

36 :24-effect of the liquor amnii, ii. 3693. — this action ex plained , ii. 3694 - contraction of the womb, ii. 3695 — its dilatable condition, ii. 3696 - its rigidity , ii. 3697 — effect the last, ii. 3098 - nothing should be done with violence , of ii. 3099 Pastoral farms, where found , i. 35 — what appropriated to, i. 36 -their extent, ib. -stocking , capital, and rent, i. 37 -do not ſatten sheep on turnips, i, 994—- number of sheep on , i. 999 - should have arabie land , i. 1000 — winter treatinent of cows on , i. 1221 --arable land in , i. 1245

steading for , i. 1246 —- have different kinds of pasturage, ii . 3722 - calves go with the cows on , ii. 3781- where the young stock graze on , ii . 3782 - grow hay, ii. 4068 - those

for sleep , their physical geography, ii. 5211 - and that of those for sheep and cattle, ii. 5213 - how to estimate the fixed money - rent of, ii. 5236

Pastoral farnier, qualifications of the, i. 38 Pasture , repairing the fences of, ii. 3366 — mathering the stones off, ii . 35: 7 -- rolling, ii . 3568 - rubbing -posts in , ii. 3576 — in summer, period of lambs and ewes at, ii. 3705– advantages of artificial ones natural for them , ii . 3706

new grasses for, their selection , ii. 3708 - carse farms destitute of, ii. 3719--not profitable for farms near towns, ii . 3720 - kind required by dairy farms, ii. 3721 and by pastoral, ii. 3722 - soft best for lambs, ii. 3723 and hard for ewes , ii. 3722 - regulation of hill, ii. 3725

unfenced , inconvenient , ii . 3728 --plants in mountain , ii.

western breed of, i. 1590 - diseases of, in winter, louse, i. 1595 - consumption , i. 1596 — measles, i. 1597—the first born strongest, i. 2818 --sometimes more littered than teats , i. 2819 - young soon get on foot, i . 2850 — should be

removed as they die , i. 2852-always use the same teat, i. 2854 - become strongest at foremost ones , 2855 —- getting

milk , i. 2856 -are great sleepers, i. 2857 - male and female are gelded , i. 2859 - time of weaning, i. 2861 - in a litter , and their value, i. 2863 - numbers kept on a farm , i. 286 one way of rearing, i. 2865 — another, i. 2866 – disposable at all seasons, i. 2867 — omnivorous disposition of,i. 2368 -ringing , i. 2869-catching or holding, i. 2872 - diseases of, i. 2870 - pulse of, ib . - bleeding. i. 2871 -- drenching , i. 28734 -weaned, should have nourishing food , ü . 5131 should have green food in summer , ii . 5133 - should not

be constantly confined , ii. 5134 -- period of disposal, ii. 5135 - to judge of fat, and their symmetry, ii. 5136 numbers in Britain , ii . 5137 — numbers weekly at Smith field , ii. 5138_number imported into Londoni, ii . 5139and into the kingdom , ii. 5140 - diseases, indigestion , ii . 5141- mange, ii. 5144measles, ii. 5145 - skin of, ii. 5143 --points of brood -sow , ii. 6221 --of boar , ii. 6222

Pig -styes, for brood sow , i. 1580 - for feeding pigs , ib .-- for weaned ones , ib . - door, i. 1581

Pigeons, winter treatment of, i. 1606 - Weeding of them , i. 1611 - right of shooting them , i. 1612 - hatching of, i . 2931

-dove-cot examined frequently, ii. 5168 -- feeding of, ii. 5169

3729 - appearance of white clover on , ii. 3730 - top

Pigeon -house , construction of the, i. 1610

dressing mountain , ii. 3731 ---- injured by the crane- fly, ii. 3758—— weevil, ii. 3759 - by ants, ii. 3760 — by various moths, ii . 3761 -by the cockchafer, ib . - by moles , ii. 3763—— injured by overstocking, ii. 3772 - and by con

Pigeons' dung , sue Special Manures

tinual stocking , ib . - effects of mixed stocking, ii. 3773

Pipe-clay , specific gravity of, i . 374 Pipe-tile, cylindrical , ii. 5811 - connected with collars, ii. 5842 — with tubes, ib.--horse-sloe , ii. 5813 - egg -shaped ,

peculiarly affected by mixed husbandry , ii. 3774 - use of permanent, ii . 3789--fattening powers of, in Holland, ii. 3790 — in Normandy, ii . 3791- in the valley of Auge, ii. 3792 - extent required to fatten an ox , ii. 3793 - com pared with hay in fattening, ii. 3794-in Old Friesland , ii. 3795 — in Auge, fattens all winter, ii. 3796 - increase of flesh per day in , ii. 3797

Pavement, Caithness and Arbroath , ii. 5423 - Indian rub ber , i . 1126

Pawlett, Mr, his experiments in feeding sheep, i. 968, 972 --on washing turnips for them , i. 974 Peacncks, i. 1621

Pea hens, management of, in hatching , i. 2930

Pining , its cause , ii. 4005 Pip , in fowls , i. 2934 Pipes, friction of water in , i . 110

ii . 5844 - concrete , ii. 5937

Pitch -pine, mineral ingredients in , i. 465 Placenta of the cow , the, i. 2219

Plant-louse of common turnip , ii. 3301 -- of the Swedish , ii . 3312 - of the hop, ii. 3191 — the bean , ii. 3983 — of the turnip flower, ii. 4186 Plants , action of, on the constituents of the air , i. 126

electric relations of, i. 127 - their meteorological habitudes , ii . 5254

Plaster-work of steading, specification of, ii. 5500 - measur ing and pricing it , ib . - its cost , ii . 5515

INDEX .

796

Pleuro -pneumonia , history of, ii. 3805 — what it is, ii. 3807

other roots, i. 1260_a fallow crop, i. 2732 - planish .

-symptoms of inflammation in , ii. 3808 --- weather favour.

ing for them in autumn , i. 2733 spring culture for, i. 273+ preparation of the sets, i. 2737 - dunging the land , i. 2749 planting the sets, i. 2751 -- the dung to be quickly

able for, ii . 3810 -- young animals subject to it, ii. 3811 flesh and milk not affected at first , ii. 3812 - decided treatment necessary, ii . 3813– treatment of, ii . 3814

Plough , the, perfection of its mechanical construction , i. 78 -serves same purpose as the spade, i. 658 - its effects

objectionable mode of dunging, i. 2758_width of drills , i. 276 )—varieties of seed , i. 2762 — dunging the ground in autumn , i. 2772 — culture in lazy - weds, i. 2775 - drills

intended to imitate the latter, i . 660 - now made of iron , i. 661 - the East Lothian or Small's , i. 662 - staff , i. 666 -the two -horse yoked , i . 686 - its action , i . 702- ac tion of Wilkie's , i. 703 -- tempering the irons , i. 708

with the sets against it , i. 2778 characters of good , i

position of the coulter, i. 709 --- state of the reins , i. 710

2787 - their intrinsic value , i . 2788

and of the mould -board , i. 711-- double mould -board , i. 2363 — double mould -board for drilling, i. 2406 — for snow , i. 2600 — for ribbing , i. 2627 - for paring in

2794character of their order, i . 2790 --- found wild in

the fens, i. 2827 — Leicester paring, i. 2828 — brander for, for lifting potatoes, ii . 4794 -turn -wrist, ii . 5970 Smith's subsoil , ii . 5980 - Rend's subsoil , ii . 5982 Marquis of Tweeddale's subsoil- trench , ii. 5983 — the Tweeddale , ii. 5985 - slide, ii. 6004 - treatment of, ii. 6339

Ploughing, to give less earth , i. 696 - and more , i. 697 — to

give more land , i. 698 -- and less, i. 699 -- leaning to one side or other , i. 701 — rectangular furrow- slice , i. 702 trapezoidal furrow -slice, i . 703 - serrated bottom sole, i.

704 - weight of soil turned over by , i. 717 --- position of the furrow -slice , i. 718 — correct, i. 719- speed of horses in , i. 720 — distance walked in , i. 721 - time lost by short

ridges, i . 722 - long and short ridges compared , i. 723 driving of horses beyond their step, i. 725 ---steep ground , i. 726 - benefits of matches, i. 727 - Highland Society's medal for, i. 728 --- matches fairly conducted , i . 729— judges should be present at them , i. 730 -- comparison of rectangular and trapezoidal furrow -slices, i. 731 - different formsofridges, i. 736-different modes, i . 736 - constituent parts of a ridge , i. 738_direction of the ridges , i. 739

their breadth , i. 740 - feering - pole, i. 741 - making feer . ings, i. 742 - cross-table, i. 743 -- gathering up from the flat, i . 749 — number of furrow- slices in ridge , i. 750, - the

mould -furrow , i. 751 — crown -and -furrow , i. 752 - gather ing up and crown - furrow , i . 753 -- fterings should make complete ridges, i. 754 - casting or yoking, i. 755 - gore furrow , i. 756 - when casting should not be used , i. 757 two -out-and -two- in , i. 739-feering for it , ib.-- when it is suitable , i . 761 -in breaks or division s , i. 703 -- twice

gathering up , i. 764- gathering up the second time, i. 765 - cleaving or throwing down , i. 766 - cleaving down

without gore -furrows, i. 767—and with , ib .---cross, i. 768 single, i. 769 -- bad , i . 770 — does not change the form of

harrowed down, i. 2790_ -breaking clods by roller , i. 2792 -curl in , i. 2777 - disease , and expedients res tad to effects of moisture on

their sprouting, i. 2789 --- their botanical position , i . 2793, Chili, i. 2797 -— their introduction into Europe, i . 2791 cultivated at great elevations, i. 2800—their geographical distribution, i. 2801 — first field culture in Seotiand, i. 2802 — street manure unsuited to them , i.9803- inorganic substances required in their manure , i. 2807 - cultivation

in Germany, i. 2808 - rooks destructive to young plants, i. 2809 — nitrogen in sprouts of, i. 2310 —- poison from , i 2811 - boiled , useful to sitting poultry, i. 2017 -- their cul ture in summer, ii. 4148 - top -dressing, ii . 4152 - effects of removal of blossoms, ii. 4153_disease , plans forevading it , ii. 4155 — ash of the leaves, ii. 4159_time for lifting , ii. 4788 — lifting by the plough , ii. 4710_haulms gatliered after the ground is cleared, ii. 4793 - raised with the graip , ii . 4797 - quantity raised by it per day, ii. 4792 variously disposed of, ii. 4800 - bolls, single and double , ii. 4805 - produce , ii. 4806 — price , ii. 4807 - starch , ii . 4813 fecula , ii. 1814 -- washer, ii. 4815 — loss in boiling, ii. 4519

--spirits from , ii. 4820 - object ofstoring, ii. 4823 - sites

for pits, ii. 4824conical pit, ii. 4825 —- prismatie pit, ii. 4827- heat in pits, ii. 4828 pitted with earth and lying in field not analogous, ii. 4829 pitting affects them differ ently now than formerly , ii . 4830_expedients for keeping in pits, ii . 4832 - effects of frost, ii.4840 — importation of.. 4841 - disease , peat most protective against it , ii. 4835 it considerable on heavy land , ii. 4536mless on light, ii. 4837 - its connection with manure obscure , ii . 48

planting in autumn as a preventive, ii . 489 & diseased sets have produced sound crops, ii . 4899 - explanation of this , ii. 4900— their culture in autumn , ii. 4901 -- using whole potatoes , ii. 4902 - effects of special manures on ,

ii. 4940_- heat required to ripen , ii . 52 12 - extremes of heat that will ripen , ii. 5245 - mineral ingredients they take from the soil, ii. 5061 - cost of replacing these , ii. 5074

the ground , i. 771 -- rib , stubble -land, i . 772 - stubble in different soils , i. 775-strong day, i. 776 - in snow , i. 777 --deep , when advisable , i. 778--- faws or grips should be made after, i. 779-lea , on strong soil, i. 780 - cutting

Potato oats, composition of, i. 1292 Poullards, i . 2958 Poultry, winter treatment of, i . 1598_none reared in win ter, i. 1599 — how they should be caught, i . 1600 - prices in

gaws in lea , i. 781 -- head - ridges, i . 782, 783 — these com mon to different ridges , i . 781 -- requisite depth , i . 785

Edinburgh , i. 1607 - to judge of, i . 1608_daily treatment of, i. 1612 -- food of, i. 161 + young broods of, i. 1617

shallow, when advisable , i. 787 - deed and shallow , i.

always ready for the table, i. 1618 -- pampering, i. 1619.

793

denominations of, i . 1621 - feathers of, i. 1623 - diseases of, i . 1624- insects which infest, i. 1627 - bran as food for, i. 1632 - fattening profitable, i. 1635_spring the season of

Ploughman , duties of the , i. 60 -- bad , lean to right, i. 706

--and press on the stilts, i. 707 — good , i . 712-young , i. 713 - cannot learn early, i. 714 — a beginner, i. 715 -- boys unfit for, i. 716 - take charge of work -horses, i. 1411 young and old , arrangement of work between , i. 1429

other employments for, in winter , i. 1433 — their wages , ii. 6305 in Berwickshire, ii. 6307-—in Northumberland, ii. 6308 - in East- Lothian , ii. 6309 — in Fifeshire , ii. 6310

-married and single , ii. 6319 — those who must provide field - workers, ii . 6318

Plumber-work of steading , the , ii. 5494 - measuring and pricing , ii. 5499_its cost, ii , 5514 - lead , whence derived ,

ii. 5497 - and zinc, ii . 5198 — for cottages, ii. 5558 Pneumatics , science of, i. 81 Poa pratensis , mineral ingredients in , i. 464 P

covered , i, 2753 - arrangement of labourers , i . 275

on for birds , dangerous, ii. 4711

Pole - cat, destructive to poultry, ii. 5296

reproduction , i. 2878 in towns, i. 293_suitable for all farms, i. 2933 – diseases of ; pip , i. 2954- moulting fever, i. 2955 - harvest bug, i. 2956 - injurious to crops, ii. 4713 -value of, in the kingdom , ii . 5183- value of, ' imported , ii. 5184animals destructive to , ii. 5195-points of, ii. 6224 Presser roller, i. 2368 - objects of it , i. 2367_its use , i. 2371

Probang, the, for cattle, i. 1379 Produce, amountof, ii . 6423 — disposal of, ii. 6424 Proudfoot, Mr , his experiments on barley, ii. 492on oats, ii. 4934 Psychrometer , the, i. 183

Pump, common , action of the, i. 90 — force, ib.- stomach, its use for live -stock , i. 91 -- cast -iron , for liquid -manure, i. 1115 - peculiar one, i. 2066_another, i. 2082 — force, what constitutes it , i. 2083 - and lifting , i. 2084

Pollard , see Straw

Punching -nippers, ii. 4016

Poplar, specific gravity of, i. 119 --mineral ingredients in ,

Purves, Mr, his experiments in feerling sheep, i . 962

i . 465

Poppy, ash of the, ii. 4014 - cake, ib. Pork , liveand dead weight of, ii . 6174 - Joss in cooking, ii.

6175 pickled, ii. 6176 --ham , ii. 6177--- tiitch , ii. 61784

Pusey , Mr , his experiments in feeding sheep, i. 971 - with special manures on mangold -wurzel, ii. 4961 Putrid eggs , poisonous, ii. 5182

Pyroheliometer, the , ii. 3033

imported , ii . 6184

Porkers and porklings , what, i. 1587 Porphyry, specitic gravity of, i. 119 Potashi and soda , where chietly found in plants , ii. 5048

Quarter-ill , symptoms of, ii. 3847 — its prevention , ii. 3848 Quartz, specific gravity of, i. 119 Quey calf, what , i. 1152

nitrate of, see Special Manures

Potatoes, mineral ingredients in , i. 463 - given to horses , i. 1440 -- used in feeding cattle ,i. 1253---nutritive powers of, i. 125 + water in , i. 1255 - composition of, i. 1250 - ash of, i . 1257 - ash in fibrous part of, i . 1258_nutritive mat

ter from acre , i. 1259 - nutritive matter compared with

Rack , hay or straw , i. 932- straw , covered , i. 1091 - square , i . 1092 - iron , i. 1093

Radnor, Earl of, his experiments on feeding sheep , i. 987 Rag -fallowing after lea , ii. 4183_objection to it , ii. 4184 Rags as a manure, sce Special Manures

INDEX. Railways , conveyance of stock by , ii. 3595 Rain , beneficial as moisture , i. 270 — Hutton's theory of, i. 271 -its connection with the fall of the barometer, i. 275 -periodical, i. 276 - zone of constant precipitation, i. 277 -annual amount of, i. 278 - European , i. 279 - laws affecting its distribution , i. 280 - increase of days of, i. 281 -- decrease of, i. 282 - this from the coast to the in terior , i. 283-more falls on west than east coast , i. 281

frequency of, i. 285 --difference in day and night, i. 286extremes of wet and dry years , i. 287 – where great falls

occur , i. 288 ---amount influenced by the moon, i. 239 foreign matters brought down by, i. 290 --general prog

nostics of, i. 295 – in winter, quantity and number of days, i. 608 —character of winter, i. 603 -mean annual fall, i. 610 -- fall on the land , i. 611 - its uses to husbandry , i. 612 - mean fall in winter, i. 654 - what it is , i. 928– management of sheep during heavy , i. 918 - in spring, i. 2149 -- number of days then , i. 2150 - mean fall in spring ,

Rick, conical, calculation of its contents , ii. 4078 Rick - cloths , sizes and prices of, ii. 4043

Riddles, i. 1777--wheat, wooden , i. 1778 - barley, wooden , i. 1779 — oats , wooden , i. 1780 - beans, wooden , i. 1781 slap wooden , i. 1782 - wheat wire, i. 1783 -- barley wire, i. 178_oats wire , i. 1785 -slap wire, i. 1786 -- sieves, wooden , i. 1787 ---wire, i. 1788 --- for potatoes , ii. 4803 Riddling , mode of, i. 1822

Ridges, time lost in ploughing short, i. 722 - constituent parts of, i. 738_direction of, i . 739 – breadth of, i. 740— gathering ridges from the flat, i. 749 -- yoking, i. 755 casting or coupling, ib . - two -out-and -two- in , i. 760— twice gathered up , i. 761 - cleaving or throwing down , i. 767 — ill- ploughed , i. 769-levelling high , ii. 5964 Riglins, what, i. 2301 Rivers, ordinary flow and slope of, i. 115 — measuring their velocity, i. 116 Robertson's corn -cart, ii. 4596

i. 2175 - quantity in summer , ii . 3013 - number ofdays, ii.

Rock salt, specific gravity of, i. 119

3011- mean fall at Greenwich for 25 years , ii. 4328 quantity in autuninal months, ii. 4329 - number of days

Roller, for horses, price of, i. 1542

then , ii. 1330 -- probabilities of wet to dry, ii. 4331 — mean fall in autumn, ii . 4350 Rain - gauge, the , i. 271-- its cost , i. 272 Rainbow , the, ii . 30 46

Rain -water, specitic gravity of, i. 119 -spouts for , i. 1117, ii. 5496 -drains , i. 1118, ii. 5426 ~ -cistern , ii. 5531 Rape cultivated in Scotland for forage , ii. 3448 --consumed at different seasons, ii. 3149 - its culture, ii. 3450 - grows on any soil , ii . 3451 --raised for manuring land with sheep , ii. 3152 - useful for ewes, ii. 3453 – infested by insects , ii. 3451 - sheep supported by, ii. 3455 — its botanical position , ii . 3456 - seed imported , ii. 3461 - its culture in autumn , ii. 4369 - good for sheep , i. 951

Rape -cake, how formed , il . 3459 — its composition , ii. 3460 -and dust , how preserved , ii. 1994 Rape-dust, see Special Manures Raspail, M. , on the fecula of wheat, i. 1902 - barley, i. 1920

- oats, i. 1933 -- rye, i. 1945 - beans, i.1956 - pease, i. 1962 - buck -wheat, i . 4667 - potato , i. 4814 Rats, destructive to poultry , ii. 5199 - best mode of killing,

ii. 5201-- other means, ii. 5202 — and mice , provision against, in steadings, i. 1687 — destroy cheese , ii. 4299 Raven , the, injures lambs, ii. 3717 Razor -back in cattle , what, i. 3622 Read's subsoil - plough , ii . 5982

Reaping, requires hired labourers, ii. 4460 — symptoms of ripening, ii. 4163 - superintendence necessary, ii. 4470 clothing of those employed, ii. 4471 - band win with the sickie, ii. 4472 -- its advantages, ii. 4485 — thrave with the sickle, ii. 4480 — its simplicity, ii. 4491 - instances of indi vidual, ii. 4193-bagging with the sickle , ii. 4194-leaving a high stubble , ii. 4195 - with the Hainault scythe, ii. 4196 — with the scythe, ii. 4501 - quantities done with sickle and scythe, ii. 4507 -- against the standing corn im proper , ii. 4511 - in gaitins, ii. 4512 - food of those en gaged , ii. 4515 - discipline of them , ii. 4518 - lodging of them , ii. 4520—their wages, ii. 4522 - done by the piece in England , ii. 4523 — its cost, ii. 4524 - advantages of

mowing, ii . 4530 -- proportion of straw to grain , ii . 4532— in dibbled , ii. 1531-in drilled , ii. 4535 - in broadcast, ii. 4536 - weight of crop , ii . 4537—weigiit of stubble and roots , ii. 1533 - produce by dibbling, ii. 4539 — drilling, ii. 4510-and broadcast, ii 1541 - crop of wheat varies , ii. 4550 — of barley, ii . 4551 -of oats , ii. 4552 --neglect of

weeding detrimental, ii . 4556 - short ridges waste time in, ii. 4557-age of crop when best reaped , ii. 4539 -- various modes of stuoking , ii. 4564German mode, ii. 4565 Swedish , ii. 4.366 --machines, ii. 4363 - relation between

grains in the ear and the crop per acre , ii. 4574 - that of beans and pease , ii. 4576 Reaping machines, kinds of, ii. 4568 Reaumur's thermometer, i. 164

797

Roller, the land, i. 2473 - its treatment , ii. 6338 Rolling of land , the, i . 2475

Rook , the, frequents oat-fields for grubs , i. 2505 – injurious to crops, ii. 4707 - destructive to eggs , ii. 5206 Rook -battery, a , ii. 4712 Ropes for carts, ii. 4599 Rot in ewes , symptoms and prevention of, ii . 4742

Rotation of crops , definition of , ii. 5080-crops which ripen seed most exhaustive, ii. 5082-order of crops by their exhaustiveness, ii. 5083 — exhausting and unexhausting alternated , ii. 5084 - regular rotation unnecessary in arable culture, ii. 5085 — necessary where stock is reared , ii. 5086-it insures regularity of work , ii. 5105 — its theory not yet understood, ii. 5106 -- theory of excretion , ii. 5107 - of nutrition , ii. 5109 — Boussingault's views, ii. 5110

Rubbing - post in pasture - fields, ii. 3576 Ruddle , see Keil

Rug , for horses, price of, i. 1542 Rumination , process of, i. 1652 Rusky , the seed , i. 2314

Rust , injures the pea crop , ii. 3992 — of the straw

wheat,

ii. 4113 -in inside of chaff scales, ii. 4116

Rutherford's self- registering thermometer , i . 165 Rye, its culture, ii. 4140-mineral ingredients in , i. 462— its botanical position , i. 1940 — its ear, ib . - its grain , i. 1941 - cultivated on the Continent , i. 1942-crop of, i. 1943 - composition of its grain , i. 1941 - fecula of, i. 1915—

nutritive matter from an acre of, i. 1916 - ash of the grain , i. 1947 — of the straw, i. 1978 - geographical distribution of, i. 1918 — bread , i. 1919

Rye- grass, mineral ingredients in , i . 464 - two varieties of, i. 2639_quantity sown, i. 2635 — seed, its weight and cost, i. 2643 — Italian , i. 2614– sown with the clovers , i. 2633 ash , ii. 3897 -- ash of its lay , ii. 3093_effects of special manures on it , ii. 4970

Sacks, i. 1817 - setting full ones , i. 1812_lifting full ones, i. 1813 - loading cart with , i. 1816 - barrow for them , i. 1818 — and sheets , treatment of, ii. 6345 - lifter , ii. 6396 Sack - lifter, the, ii . 6396

Saddle , riding , price of, i. 1542 Saddle horses, i. 1522 - winter treatment of the, i. 1524 loose - boxes for , i. 1558 -when deemed idle , i. 1563 — when merely exercised , i . 1564 — the legs , when ill formed , i. 1565- the feet, when diseased , i. 1566 - food of, i. 1567 --

diseases of fore -legs, i. 1572 - of hind ones , i. 1573 – break ing- in , ii. 6097 -- mode of doing it , ii. 6098 Saddle - galls in horses , i. 1501 , ii. 3858 Saddlery.work, two ways of executing, ii. 6331 Sago , feeding of calves with , i. 2279 Sainfoin , not suited to Scotland , i. 2524 — its culture, i. 2525

-a perennial, i. 2527 — as forage, i. 2528 - its botanical

Reckoning, table of, for cows , i. 2237 — Burnett's cycle for,

position , i. 2529 -may be cultivated in drills , i , 2530

i. 2238 Red clover , see Clover Red- water in cows , i. 2212 Register - offices for servants, ii. 6301

makes tine hay, i. 2531 - unprofitable to cultivate as a perennial, i. 25:34 — its ash , i. 25:35 --weight and cost of

Regularity , importance of, in treatment of cattle, i. 1211 Reid , Hugo , on the temperature of the atmosphere, i. 101 -on evaporation , i. 126 --on the air , i . 212 — on water , i. 213 -- on the earths, i. 214

Reid's theory of storms, i. 312 Reins, i. 683

Rennet, how produced, ii. 4233 — its action , ii. 4281 - pre paration of curd for , ii . 4285

Ribbing land for the seed -furrow, i. 2626 - mode of, i . 2628 --object of, i . 2629 - plough , i. 2627 -- coulter, i. 2630

seed , i. 2536 -giant , culture of, i . 2537

Salesmen , the best disposers of stock at market, ii. 3396 Saline manures, effects of, as top -dressings, ii. 6372 Salt, good for sheep on turnips, i. 946– keeps them free of rot, i.947 - strewn in hay in stacking , ii. 4065 - its effects , ii. 6377 .-- See also Special Manures Saltpetre, see Special Manures

Salve , Ballantyne's , ii. 4777 - anothier , ii. 4778 — Stewart's, ii . 4779 - tar, applying , ii. 4781

Sand , specific gravity of, i. 119 - drifting, weeds supplied by, i. 407

Rib -grass for pasture, i. 2645

Sandstones, specific gravity of, i. 119 Sandy clay, specitic gravity of, i. 374

Rice , mineral ingredients in , i. 462

Sandy loams, character of, i.340 - plants which distinguish ,

INDEX.

798 Sandy loams, continued

i. 392 - weeds which infest, i. 393-- porous ones, plants of, i . 394- Weeds , i. 395

Sandy soils , character of, i. 334plants which distinguish tbem , i. 390 --Weeds infesting them , i. 391

Sarcolobæ , character of tlie ,i. 2450 — used as food, ib . Saw - fly of the turnip , the, ii. 3294 Scab in sheep , i. 1071

1081 — and water, ib . - bowel- sickness, ib . - sickness in the flesh and blood , ib.- Warnes ' compound for , i. 1916

- circumstances which determine their disposal, ii. 3578 -hoggs are put to turnips lean , ii. 3580 - progress or formation of fat in , ii. 3581-- to judge of fat , il. 3553 mode of turning a , ii. 3584ewe hoggs, retained on the farm , ii . 3585 - wether, fed as flying stock , ii. 3587 - fat,

purchased by dealers and butchers, ii. 3588 --cost of send

Scalded head in sheep , ii. 3751

ing them to market , ii. 3589_selecting them for it , ii.

Scarecrows, uselessness of, i . 2809

3590_drover of, his qualifications, ii 359-their treat ment on the road , ii. 3593_conveyance by railways, ii. 3595 - a salesman the disposer of them at market, ii.

Sciences, those most applicable to agriculture, i. 70 - time required for studying them , i. 520 Scirpus, mineral ingredients in , i. 464 Scoop for filling water-barrel, ií. 3776 Scoops, corn , i . 1793

Scots tir, specificgravity of, i. 119 — mineral ingredients in , i, 465

Scottish sheep , the original, points of the , ii. 6232 Scouring in calves, i. 2298 Scud , cloud called , i, 239

2596 —-rules of market to be attended to , ii. 3597 - their

conveyance by steamboat to London , ii. 3598_thoe best suited to the London market, ii. 3600 -- Edinburgh weekly market for, ii. 3601 —- fairs for , first instituted , ii. 3602 — in Great Britain , ii. 3603 — sold annually at Smitb field , ii. 3604 presented weekly there, ii. 3605 - number imported into London , ii. 3606_into the kingdom , ii. 3608--period of ewes and lambs remaining on pasture, ii.

Scuffler and Grubber, the, ii. 6340

3705 - artificial pasture best for ewes , ii. 3706 - selectioni

Scuftler, see Horse - hoe Sculls for turnips, i. 1184

of new grass for, ii. 3708 — treatment of wether hoggs in summer, ii. 3711 - of dinmonts , ii. 3712_of ewe hoggs,

Seythe, common and patent, ii. 3878_common, mounted , ii . 3877 - blade, ii. 3879 -- sharpened with strickles, ii. 3880

with stones, ii 3551-cutting forage with , i. 3-82

-manufacture of, ii.3599 — unsuited for reaping, ii. 4498 Scythe, cradle, ii . 4497 Sea -breeze , origin of the , i. 94 Sea -water , specific gravity of, i. 119

ii. 3713 — of tups, ii . 3714 - Leicester hoggs apt to lie awk .

ward , ii. 3716 - lambs injured by the raven , ii . 3717-and by the carrion - crow , ii. 3718_ewes best suited for hard

pasture, ii . 3722 - and lambs, ii. 3723 — change of them in some pastures dangerous, ii . 3721 - taking off brats, ii. 3726 - delight to spread over hill pasture, ii. 3727-tray over unfenced marches, ii. 3728_Blackfaced subsist on

Sea -weed as a manure, i. 2107 – quantities of, on the shores ,

heath , ii. 3736 - diseases in summer, sturdy , ii. 3745

i. 2108 - put fresh on stubble and lea , i. 2109 — put on

blinding. ii. 374 + pox , ii. 3745 - scalded head , ii, 3751 bots , ii. 3752 — ked , ii. 3753_blow - flies, ii. 375 + worried by dogs, ii. 3757— washing-pool for, ii. 3900_order of washing them , ii . 3902 —- preparation , & c., of the men , ii. 3903-- mode of washing , ii. 390_treatment after wash ing, ii. 3905- period of the day for it , ii. 3996 -washing on a hill farm , ii. 3908--none equal to clean water for it, ii. 3909 — washing in Wurtemberg, ij. 3910 - time for

trenched ground , i. 2110dries to one-third its bulk , i.

2011 - its botanical position , i. 2113composition of, i. 2115 — on combustion yields kelp, i. 2116 - its ash , i. 2117 -of Jersey , i. 2118 Segg, what, i . 1156 Segging in oats , ii. 4135

Seeds, rationale of their germination , ii. 3496 — are living

shearing, ii. 3915—the shearing floor , ii. 3916 --the per

objects, ii. 3497 — vital, in the ground affected by agencies, ii. 3498 -affected by physical agencies, ii . 3199 — by air, ib.---by heat, ii. 3500_-by moisture, ii . 3501 - by pulverised soil, ii. 35024- by chemical agencies, ii. 3504 - by azotised and non -azotised, ib.-ripe, contain much carbon, ii.

shorn every day , ii. 3926 - a new shorn one, ii. 3923

3505 - absorb moisture in the soil, ii . 3506 - assisted by

some Jambs wean themselves after their mothers are

sons employed , ii. 3917 - its object, ii. 3919 - method of using the shears , ii. 3920 — shearing in the three different stages, ii . 3921 - state of the fleece, ii. 3925 - Dumler

heat, ii . 3507 — the vital principle decomposes the water ab sorbed , ii. 3508 — diastase formed in them , ii. 3509_sugar

shorn , ii. 3929-shearing a joyous season , ii. 3930 — shear.

formed , ii. 3510_further growth , ii. 3512_why light is pre

-effects of too early shearing, ii . 3933 - marking them ,

judicial to germination , ii. 3513 - affected by physiological agencies, ií . 3516 — consist of an embryo , ib .--force of

ii. 4015 --materials for it , ii . 4019 -way of doing it , ii.

vegetation in , ii. 3520

Servants , obligations of masters to , ii. 6292--masters res ponsible for, ii. 6293 — their obligations to masters , ii.

629

grounds for dismissing , ii. 6296 — characters to, ii.

6297

Served , what, i . 1154

Sewerage water of towns, the, ii. 5013 - composition of London , ii . 501 of Edinburgh , ii . 5015 — cost of fitting

apparatus for, as a manure , ii . 5016 - its efficacy , ii. 5017 Shackel , Mr, his experiments on feeding Southdowns, i. 989 Sheaf- gauge, the, ii. 4487 Shear -hoggs, what, i . 931 Shearling tup, what, i. 924 Shears , stable , price of, i. 1424

Shed for hay, cost, &c. , of, ii. 4075 Sheddings, wliat , i . 930 Sheds, movable , for sheep, i. 956 - permanent, for them , i. 957 — in steading , i. 1103 - in pasture fields , ii. 3777 Sheep , feeding of, on turnips in winter, i. 901 --- selected to put on turnips , i. 917 - aged tups, i. 918young sheep, i. 918 old ewes , i. 920 - castrated lambs, i. 921-- how arranged ,i. 910 -names at different ages, i . 923 - feeding in sheds, i . 956

-box -feeding, i. 961stall-feeding, i. 965 -should have white turnips at first , i . 972 — relish cabbages, i. 973-— tur

vips should be unwashed , i. 974confinement ungenial to , i . 975 --- fed on oil cake , i . 976 — on oil - cake , linseed , and

beans , i. 981-relative weiglits of skin and tallow, i. 986 -different breeds ſed , i. 987 - Hampshire Southdowns, i. 989 — not fed on carse farms, i . 991 - nor on those near

towns, i. 992 — nor on dairy farms, i. 993 — Cheviots on low pastoral farnis, i . 998 — and Blackfaced on high , ib . hoggs fall off on turnips in spring , i. 1007 - hay provided in the stells, i. 1017 - different forms of stells , i. 2009

Southdowns likely to supersede Cheviot, i. 1020 _-- Black faced suited to hill farms , i. 1023 - a bratted one , i. 1038

-hay to be provided for them , i. 1041 - hurdles, i. 1042— nets , i. 105 +

corn - store for , i, 1063--fed on horse - chest

ing on a hill farm , ii. 3931 - improvement therein , ii. 3932

4020_diseases, yellows, ii. 4740 - rot, ii. 4741 — fukes, ii. 4744bathing requisite to kill keds on , ii. 4745 - it useful in cutaneous diseases, ii. 4746 — composition of the bath, ii. 4748 - its cost , ii. 4755 - is employed in dry weather, ii. 4757 — mode of applying it , ii . 4759 - sheds made in the wool, ii. 4760—imniediate effects of the bath , ii. 4761 stoolfor bathing, ii. 4756_ewes bathed after tupping, ii. 4763 — they are dipped , ii . 4766-mode of dipping, 'i. 4770 --- smeared on hill farms, ii. 4773 - it objectionable, li. 4774

- varioussalves, ii. 4776 - applying them , 11.4779 – putting on tar -salve, ii. 4781 - uses of their skins, ii. 6171 - heat radiated from it , ii. 6172

Sheep- cots, not advisable, i. 1015 Sheep -pox , the, ii . 37 45 Sheet , sowing , how put on , i . 2316 Shell - fish and shells, ii. 4998 Shell -marl, its use , ii. 4999 its composition , ii. 6030 Shelter, advantages of, for sheep , i. 953 , 1005 -_- want of it

on pastoral farms, i. 995 on lill farms secured by stells, i. 1033 - and by bushes , i. 1034 - effects of low objects in affording it , ii . 5594 - copes of walls secure it , ib .-- instances of successful, ii . 5595

Shepherd , the, liis duties, i. 63 — where required , i. 64 lambing season an onerous one to , i. 2532- profit deriv able from a good , i. ib . - loss sustained from a bad , i. 2540 -- prepares turnip -slicer and troughs, i. 2542 — kale and turnips, i . 2543 - lantern and crook, i. 254+ means to ward off the fox , i. 2515 - knows the lambing ewes ,

i. 2546 — prevents desertion of lambs, i. 2352- supports orphan lambs, i. 2553 - makes ewes take their own lambs, i. 2562 - mothers lambs on other ewes , i . 2.63_brings up pet lambs, i. 2567 - castrates lambs , i. 2571 - his duties

on a hill farm , i. 2585 - qualifications of the hill, i. 2389 his wages , ii. 6315

Shepherd of Banbury's rules for winter, i. 652 — spring, i . 2165 —- summer , ii . 3045

Shepherd's dog , temper of the shepherd indicated by, il 6102 — two varieties of, ii. 6104 -mode of training, i .

i. 1067 --- bridling, i. 1069 ---scab , i. 1071 --foot- rot, i.

6105_its character, ii. 6107 Shepherd's knot, the, i. 908

1073— wildfire, i. 1076 - braxy, i. 1077 – dry braxy, i.

Shoeing a young horse, the, ii. 6094

nuts , i . 1065 - diseases in winter, purging. i. 1066_louse,

INDEX. Short-horn ox , points of, ii. 6209 — bull, ii. 6210 - cow , ii. 6212 - colour of, ii . 6213 Shot, what , i. 1587 Shot of grense in horses , i. 1494 Shoulder -shaken , what, ii. 3613 Shovel, broad -mouthed , i . 1168 Show , feeding of cattle for a , i. 1214

Showers of sulphur, ii. 2979 — blood , ib. - corn , ib. aniinals , ii. 290

Sickle , toothed , ii. 4463— smooth -edged , ii. 4469 — prices, ib .

Sifting, how done, i. 1823 Silica , where found in plants, ii. 5054

799

i. 411 - and near the sea , plants on , i. 412 — weeds on , i.

413- peat, plants on , i. 414 --wet peat, plants on , i. 415_ and dry peat, weeds infesting, i. 416 - near dwellings, plants indicative of, i, 428 - those indicative of presence of peat, i. 433 - aspect of, i. 373 - retention of heat by , i.

374- specific gravity of, ib . - shrinking of, by heat, i. 375-- warming of, by heat , i. 376 --absorption of moisture , i: 377 — saturation by water, i . 378--retention of moisture , i. 379 — absorption of oxygen , i. 380 - physical properties of, i. 381 - discrinination of them by the plants growing on them , i. 382 – clayey , indicated by certain plants, i. 421 - gravelly, i. 422-vegetable , i. 423 very dry , i. 424 -moisture below , i. 425 - in rich condition , i. 429 - and

Silicious sand, specific gravity of, i. 374 Siphon , action of the, i. 92

in poor , i. 430_manured from towns, i. 431 - not well farmed , i. 432-- their mechanical structure , i. 436 — their

Six -teeth ewes , what, i. 931

mechanical analysis, ib.--their chemical composition ,

Skins of sheep, dressing of, at the Cape, ii. 3974 Skip , what, i. 2:33

Skirty lands, what, i. 2122 Sky , the , in spring, i. 2152 - in winter , i. 653 Skylark, the, injurious to crops, ii. 4699 Slates for steading , the , ii. 5489

Slater-work of steading, specifications of the, ii. 5484– measuring and pricing, ii . 5493 - its cost, ii. 5513 Slaughtering oxen , preparation for, ii, 6111 – different modes of, ii. 6112—cutting down carcass, ii. 6113 — Scotch

mode of dividing, ii. 6115 — and English , ii. 6118 - differ ent sorts of beef, ii. 6123-- sheep , preparations for , ii. 6124 - mode of, ib .-- displaying the carcass, ii. 6125— cutting it down , ii. 6126_scotch mode of dividing, ii. 6127 - and English, ii. 6123 - ifferent kinds of mutton , ii. 6130_tup mutton , ii. 6135 - proportion of fat, ii. 6136 pigs , mode of, ii. 6137 -- Scotch niode of dividing, ii. 6138 --and English , ii. 6139 - judging of pork , ii. 6140 - calves, mode of, ii. 6141 - Scotch division of carcass, ii, 6142 and English , ii. 6143 — best veal in Scotland and England , il. 6144-lambs, mode of, ii. 6145 — mode of dividing, ii. 61 46

Sleet in winter, i. 654, ii. 3008

Slight's trussed iron swing- tree, i. GRR - new lever -drill sow ing -machine, i. 2341 - angle iron field - gate, ii. 5765 Slip -calf, what, i. 1154 Slipping of lambs, what, i. 2590 Slug , the, attacks the bean crop , ji. 3982 — red clover , ii . 3895 — the wheat plant, ii. 4091 -- the pen crop, ii. 4892 Smail's plough , description of, i. 662 - rectangular furrow slice , i. 702

Smearing sheep , objectionable, ii. 4774mode of, ii. 4770

i. 447 - silica in , i. 418— alumina , i, 419 — oxide of iron , i. 450 - oxide of manganese , i. 451 -potash and soda , i. 453 --table of analyses of, i. 457 - use of analyses of, i . 458

field before the analytic chemist regarding, i. 461 - classifi. cation of, i. 471 – Gasparin's, i. 47%-origin of, i. 486_full of interest to the agricultural pupil , i. 503 - gaulting or claying of, i.2119 -rotation of crops, for strong, ii. 5089 --for light, ii . 5100 - naturally fertile , ii . 5113_elements of fertility unknown , ii. 5114 influence of climate on fer tility of, ii. 5115 - none here bear crops without manure,

ii. 5116 - how it effects fertility , ii. 5118 - residue of crops a source of fertility , ii. 5119 - manure should be in ex. cess of produce removed , ii. 5125-functions of humus fertilising, ii. 5126 - effects of their pulverisation , ii. in 5996 Soiling stock , objections to pasturing, ii . 3869_difficulties attending , on arable farms, ii. 3870_comparative extent

required for it and pasturing, ii . 3872--labour attending the cutting of grass, ii. 3873 - work -horses treated in this way, ii. 3874 - impracticable on a large scale, ii. 3875 -more practicable in England than Scotland, ii. 3876 green forage for, should be cut dry, ii . 3883–it mixed with hay or straw , ii. 3884clover crop varies, ii. 3886 Soot, ii . 5000 - composition of wood , ii . 5004Sowing machine for, ii . 5001- see also Special Manures Southdowns, points of, ii. 6234 Sow pig , what, i. 1587 Sows, should farrow in spring, i. 2843 - symptoms of farrow ing, i. 2844 - litter for them , i. 2546 - attended to when farrowing, i . 2847-many become sick in farrowing, i. 285 )-- the placenta should be removed , i. 2853 - food given after farrowing, i . 2858 — have seldom any com

Smith's , Messrs, drop -sowing drill , ii. 3220

plaint , i. 2860_time for taking the boar ,i. 2862 — a good

Smith's, J. , subsoil-plough at work, ii . 5981 Smith -work of steading, specifications of it , ii. 5501 - the

litter, and value of brood , i. 2863 —- number of brood , i.

iron for it , ii . 5504- two ways of executing , ii . 6326

2867 — fecundity of, i. 2876— the breeding of, profitable, i. 2877 — diseases of, i. 2870 — pulse , ib . - bleeding, i. 2871

Smithfield , sheep presented at , ií. 360 + -sales of stock in ,

drenching , i. 2873 - diarrhoea , i. 2874 white flux , i. 2875

unfair ones , ii . 3650 Smut in the grains of wheat, ii . 4117 Snow , falls in winter, i. 617 -- varying forms of Ankes , i . 618

Sowing by hand with sowing -sheet , i. 2316 — with basket, i. 2317-- with one hand , i. 2319_casting the seed equally ,

--these enumerated , i. 619-their descent, i. 620 - changes on it, after fall, i. 621 - temperature rises when it falls, i.

622 — its bulk in melting, i. 623 — reflection of light from it , i. 62 - heavy fall of, i, 625—its uses to husbandry, i.

626 — should not be plouglied in, i. 777---management of sheep on turnips during, i. 949 - storms in spring , i. 2142

--then destructive to ewes and lambs, i . 2143 - effects on wild animals , i. 2168 - on hill farms, source of loss in

lambs, i. 2598 —- harrowed to cause melting , i. 2599--and ploughed , i. 2600 Sock for paring with plough , i. 2823 Soda, nitrate and sulphate of, see Special Manures

Soils, strictly defined, i . 331 -and subsoils, condition of, i. 346 - clay , i. 333 -- sandy, i. 334 - tilly , i. 335 - loam , i. 336 - clay loam , i. 337 - clay, what best adapted for, i. 338 - gravelly , i. 339 —- sandy and gravelly loams, i. 310_ chalk , i. 311 - peat, i. 312 - mould , i. 343 - light, i. 347

--wet, i. 348_- dry , ib . - poor, i. 349 - rich , ib .-- deep , i. 350 — thin , ib.-hungry, i. 351- grateful, i. 352 kindly , i. 353 --- sick , i. 354 – sharp, i. 355 — deaf, i. 356 porous, i. 357-open , ib .-retentive , i. 358close , ib .

--hard, i. 359 - soft, i. 360 - tine, i. 361 -coarse , i. 362 harah , ib . - smooth , i. 363 — rough , i. 36 of fine skin , i. 365 - colours of, i. 366 - black , ib . - white , i. 367 blue, i. 36-red , i. 369 - brown , i. 370-colours of sub

soils, i. 371 - colours retain different degrees of heat, i. 372 -good clay , plants on , i. 383 - and weeds, i. 384 - thin clay , plants on , i . 385 — and weeds, i. 386 —- deep strong loam , plants on , i. 387 -- thin loam , plants on , i. 388 weeds, i. 389 — sandy, plants on , i. 390 .-- and weeds, i. 391 ---loam , plants on , i. 392 - and weeds, i. 393 - porous loam, plants on , i. 394 — and weeds, i. 395—alluvial, plants on , i. 396 -- and weeds, i. 397 - moory , plants on , i. 409.— dry moory , plants on , i . 410 - marshy, interior, plants on ,

i. 2320_ -with both hands, i . 2322 – Irish mode of, i. 2323 - with machines , i. 2326 - arrangement in , i. 2364- cir

cumstances affecting the seed , broadcast , ii. 3522 drilled , ii. 3524 - and dibbled , ii. 3526 -quantities of the cereals sown , ii. 3521 - waste of seed , wheat, ii. 3527

barley, ii. 3528_oats , ii. 3529_waste of each per square yard , ii. 3530_plants come up, dibbling, drilling, and broadcast, ii. 3531 - number come up by dibbling , ii . 3533 -by drilling, ii. 3534 - by broadcast, ii. 3535 - thick and

thin , ii. 3540_comparison of the three methods, ii . 3545 -depth of, ii, 3553_effects of deep, on wheat , ii. 3554 and on the grasses, ii. 3558 — turnip seeds at different depths, ii. 3559 — loss of seed may be accounted for, ii. 3562 — one mode of drilling wheat, ii. 3563 Sowing -machine, broadcast, i. 2327-how used , i. 2333 judging of the quantity sown , i. 2334 — the East -Lothian drill, i. 2337 - new lever, i. 2310_- English drill , i. 2343 Spade, the , how to use it . i. 659 — No. 5, i. 2817 Spade-tool for cutting peat-tiles, ii. 5897 Spade- trenching, a kind of fallowing, and its advantages, ii. 4185

Spades -hind, or Spadesman , se Hedger Sparrow , the , injurious to crops, ii. 4702 Spayed heifer or quey, what, i. 1156 Spaying cows, objects of, i. 2268 —— its advantages, i. 2269 heifer calves, i. 2287

Special manures, when available, i. 204 -farmyard dung long the chief manure, ii. 4904 - since bone -dust and guano have come to its aid , ib.-- these three not special manures , ii. 4905 not decided which is the best

special, ii. 4906 --- composition of one ton of farmyard dung, ii. 4908_bone-dust applied per acre , ii. 490: ammonia and phosphate of lime in guano , ii. 4910_ artificial guano cannot be made, ii . 491_effects of rape

dust on wheat, ii. 4919 - nightsoil on wheat, il. 4920–

800

INDEX.

Special manures, continued saltpetre refuse on wheat, ii. 4921 -- and saltpetre, ii. 49 :22 - nightsoil and nitrate of soda on wheat, ii. 4923

Turnbull's dissolved bones on barley , ii. 4925 - nitrate of soda on barley , ii . 4926 - salt petre refuse and nitrate of soda on barley , ii.4927 --- nitrate of soda and common salt on barley , ii. 4928 - guano on oats , ii . 4930 - sul

phate of ammonia on oats, ii. 1931 - nitrate and sulphate

-water-troughs, i 1095 -- grating for drains, i. 1112 liquid -manure drain , i. 1113 -- and tank, i. 111 + pump for it , i. 1115 - rain -spouts, i.1117 — and drains, i . lll byres, i. 1120_stalls, i. 1121 - mangers, i. 1122–110 , i. 1125 - travis , i. 1130 — baikie and seal, i. 1131 - win dow , i. 1133 - ventilator, i. 1137 - occupation of, i. 1140 -plan for pastoral farm for cattle, i. 1246— (or a carse farin , i. 1249 — work -horse stable in , i. 1390_number of

of soda on oats , ii. 4932 - nitrate of soda and common

stables , i. 1391 - width of stalls in them , i. 1392 – hay .

salt on oats , ii . 4933 — sulphated bones on oats, ii.

racks , i. 1393_hind -posts , i. 1395 - floor , i. 1396 — stall fitted up , i. 1397 - cast- iron travis - posts, i. 1398 rool, i. 1399_ ventilator, i. 1400 — window , i. 1401 – loose -box , i. 1407--hay -house, i. 1408 -- corn -chest, i. 1409 - pig -styes in , i. 1580 — part appropriated to grain crops in , i. 1678

4934 six different manures on oats , ii. 1935 -- gypsuin

on beans , ii . 4936 -- and on pease , ii . 1933 - five different manures on beans, ij. 4937 —-nitrate and sulphate of soda on pease , ii . 4939 different manures on potatoes, ii. 4940 - pigeons' dung on carrots , ii . 4943 - common salt

corn -barn , i. 1679- its outer door, i. 1681 - its floor , i. 1681

and soot on carrots , ii . 491 + guano on Swedish turnips, ii. 4947 – different manures on Swedish turnips, ii. 4949

-chaff -house, i. 1682 — upper barn , i. 1683- gangway, i.

-guano and farmyard manure on swedes, ii. 4950

1686 — provision against rats and mice , i. 1687 -- arrange ment of machinery , i. 1688_calves' house, i. 2271 - their cribs, i. 2272 - door of these, i. 2273 - their courts , i. 2274 -wool -room , ii. 3940_plan for a dairy farm , ii. 4253- its

ammoniacal salts on yellow turnips, ii. 4951 — burnt bones on white turnips, ii. 4955_six manures on them , ii. 1956 alkaline phosphates and ammonia on hybrid turnips, ii. 4957 - anomalies obtained from the former, ii . 4959—dung , guano , and rags, on mangold -wurzel, ii. 4961- ammoniacal salts on tares, ii. 4963 — sulphate and nitrate of soda on tares, ii. 1961 - nitrate of soda on clover and rye - grass , ii. 1965 - guano on these , ii. 1966 nine manures on these, i . 4967 - nitrate of soda on lea , ii. 4968 - and on rye - grass seed , ii. 4970 - five different manures on lea , ii. 4969 - list of saline, ii. 4974

calcined , ib . - mineral acid , ib .-natural, ib . - mang . factured , ib .-- refuse , ib .--percentage of impurity in ,

ii. 4976—weight per bushel of, ii. 4977 -- rules for applying , ii. 1979 — rationale of their application , ii. 5034 Liebig on the formation of ammonia , ii. 5035— and Mulder, ii. 5037 - Mulder on the action of plants on manures , ii. 5038 - inorganic constituents derived from

the soil, ii. 5039 - analyses of plants desiderated, ii. 5040_and also of soils , ii. 5041-action of the elements of

farm manure on plants, ii . 5044 - those abundant in the soil, ii. 5057 — the remainder to be supplied , ib .- mineral ingredients taken from it , ii . 5056 - green crops take most of these , ii . 5061 - how these are to be returned , ii. 5065

-proportions of each , ii. 5067 - the equivalents for each , ii. 5068 - the cost of each , ii. 5069 - summary , ii. 5079 --dear .6374_cheap , ii. 6330 - seasonal application , ii . ii6331 of themones,

Specific gravity, what, i. 118 - tables of, i. 119 Spencer, Earl , his experiments on feeding cattle, i. 1316 Spinning of straw -ropes, the , ii. 4603 Spirit- level , the, ii. 5788

1681 - granaries, i. 1685 — their windows, ib .-- stackyard , i

position , ii. 5380 — leading principle of constructing, ii. 5382 — universally applicable , ii. 5385 - reason why not correctly constructed , ii. 5386 - best conditions for build ing, ii . 5391 - specifications of the work required , ji. 5:23 -trussed wooden roof for, ii. 5465 - trussed iron roof, ii. 5466

Steam - engine, its action , i. 170 — its use to the fariner , i. 171 --crank high -pressure, i 1701 - setting it down , i. 1702 — rule for horse -power of, i . 1703 —— to set it on , i. 1704 -to stop it , i. 1705 - signal bell, i . 1706 — the boiler, i. 1707 -- rule for its dimensions, i. 1709 — the furnace, i. 1711 - the chimney, i. 1712 — water , i. 1713 - fuel , i. 1714 Steam -vessels, conveyance of stock by, ü . 3598 - accidents liable to in them , ii , 3653

Steaming apparatus, for cooking food, i. 1454 - price of, i. 1465 Steedman , Mr , his draught stallion , ij . 6215 Steelbow , definition of, ii. 5357 - its benefit to the farmer, ii . 5358 - its establishment, ii. 5366 Steelyard for carts, ii. 3638 Steer, what, i. 1153

Stells, outside with plantation , i. 1009 — without it , i. 1013 -ancient forms of, i. 1015 - insideone, i. 1029 - circular, i. 1030_and with hay -racks, i. 1031 Stephens, Mr, his short-horn bull , ij . 6210 Stephenson , Mr, his experiments on feeding cattle . i. 1342 Stethoscope , the, used for detecting the calf, i. 239

Stevenson , Mr, his experiments with special manures, ij. 4970 Steward , the, his duties, i. 57 — notalways required to work,

Sprains in horses, i . 1500

i. 50 — not required on every farm , I. 54 - conduct of,

Spring, field operations in , i. 2133 - as a season , i . 2130—

under a master ignorant of agriculture, i. 550 — his wages ,

the weather in , i. 2136 Springers and springing , what, i. 2200

ii. 6314

Spruce, specific gravity of, i . 119 — used as a hedge, ii. 5685 Spud for hop ground , ii. 3169 Spyler , its use , ii. 4297 Stable, saddle -horse , i . 1541 - work -horse , i. 1390_its

floor, i. 1396 — its roof, i. 1399 — loose box in , i. 1407 window of, i. 1404

Stack , barley, heating, ii. 4644 - oats, ji. 4645 — wheat, ii. 4646 -props, how used , ii. 4648 - safeguard against heat ing, ii . 4649 — in China, ii . 4659 Stacking , placing of the sheaves in , ii. 4623—- size of stacks, ii. 4624-trimming them , ii. 4626---forming the cone, ii. 4627 --building the top , ii. 4628 - forming the stool, ii. 4629 - reaped sheaves make smooth ones , ii. 4630

Stewart, Mr , on trimming horses' beels, i. 1570 Stirks , what , i. 1153

Stock -account, cattle, ii. 6427 — sheep, ii. 6429 — pigs, i. 6428 Stocking a farm , first outlay, ii. 5:308_deduction of receipts , ii. 5377 - actual outlay, ii, 5378 Stomach -pump, its use , i . 91 Stomach -staggers in horses, i. 1495 Stone fences, repairing, ii. 3570 Stone harp for screening stones , ii. 5881 - rake for drams, ii. 5882-benter , ii . 5883

Stones for scythes, ii. 3881 Stooks, various forms of, ii. 4564 - of rye in Germany , ii. 4565 — of corn in Sweden , ii. 4506 -best position for, ii. 4614

--and mown rough , ii. 4631 - casting down and taking

Stooking sheaves , how done , ii . 4480

in stacks, i. 1730

Stool for barn , i. 1791 - the milking , i. 2253 — for stacks, ii.

Stackyard , the, i. 1686 - cleaned after harvest, ii. 4657 plan of, ii . 6245 Stakes, forming of, for nets, i. 905 of, in work -hor stable, i . 1392 - fitted up , i. Stall, wid 1397 - collar, i. 1406 --- price of, i. 1512 Stall - feeding sheep , i . 965 Stallion , what, i. 1432 — not necessary on a farm , ii. 6076 diseases which render it useless, ii . 6078 - treatment till

4629

Store, triangular, for turnips, i. 824 Storing potatoes, see Potatoes

Storms , their origin and direction , i. 312 - concomitants of, i. 313 - prognostics of, i. 318 - number in spring, i. 2175 -in summer, ii . 3063 -- in autunin , ii. 4350 - in winter, i. 654- sheep provided for during, i. 1008 Stot, what, i. 1152

ready for service, ii. 6079leader of a , ii. 6081 - number of mares it serves, ii. 6483 — their treatment during the season , ii . 6082 ---and after it, ii. 6085 Standing flock , what, i. 952

Strathaven , feeding of calves at , i. 2293

Starch of wheat , the , i . 1902 Stathel for stacks, i. 1687

Straw , littering of, required , i. 1086 - deficient in begin .

Stratton's liquid -manure cart , i. 2078

Stratus, form of cloud called the , i. 248 — changes indicated by , i . 249 ning of winter, i. 1087-moving to the straw barn , i. 1763

Steading, how occupied in winter, i . 795 — for the arable land of a pastoral farm , i . 1001 - winter accommodation

-carrying for litter, i. 1764 - of wheat, i. 196+ best for

for cattle in , i . 1082-courts occupied by calves and year

of barley,i. 1968 — its ash , i. 1970 - its nutritive matter, i. 1971 -- ofoats, i. 1972 — its composition, i. 1976 - its nutri

olds, i . 1083_hammels by fattening cattle, i. 1084 —-byres by cows or fattening cattle, i . 1085 - littering ground in , i. 1086 ---troughs for turnips, i. 1090 - covered straw-rack , i. 1991-- square straw -rack , i. 1092 - an iron one, i. 1093

litter , ib . - its ash , i. 1966 - nutritive matter in , i . 1967

tive matter , i . 1975--of rye , i. 1976 - its uses , i . 1977– its ash , i . 1978-its nutritive matter, i . 1979 - benn and

pea , their properties, i. 1980 - their aslı , i. 1987

INDEX . their nutritive matter, i. 1983 - use of, as fodder colour affects that of dung, and litter, i. 1985

i. 1986 — specific gravity of, i. 1987 — too much ne glected , i. 1988 -- its proper management, i. 1989 — its conversion into manure , i . 1990 — its value, i. 1991 - pro

duce of, i . 1992 — near Edinburgh , i. 1993 — its price , i. 1991 Romans used it as litter , i . 1996 - substitutes for it ,

i. 1997 - origin of its name, i. 1998 – laid on road to form into manure, i. 2040 — ash of 100 lbs., i. 1984 — its propor tion to grain , ii. 4533 - mode of drawing it , ii. 4610 Straw -cutter, cylinder, with oblique knives, i. 1226 — with straight ones, i. 1227 - the Canadian, i. 1228—the disc , i. 1230

Straw - ropes, throw - crooks for, ii. 4600 — spinning of, ii. 4603 — mode of twisting , ii. 4605 — best straw for, ii. 4606 -length of, ii. 4607 -- coiled up , ii. 4609 Streams, how affected by friction , i. 115 - measuring their velocity , ib .

Street manure , composition of, i. 2803 Strength of materials, regulation of, i. 79

801

Teeth , uses of, ii. 6241 - of the adult horse , ii. 6242 — of the adult ox , ii. 6243 - of the wild boar, ii . 624 + indicative of age , ii . 6245 — to open horses' mouths to examine them , ii. 6246 - and cows', ib.

Temperature, falls as we ascend in the air - i. 101 - mean , indicated by that of springs, i. 227 — its phenomena over the globe , ii. 5223

Templemoyle, agricultural school at , i. 535 Tenant-right in England, a desire for a lease , ii. 5347-- in Ireland, highly objectionable , ii. 5348 Thåer , Von , his experiments on feeding cattle, ii. 3892 Thatching stacks, in the lozenge form , ii. 4634 – in the netted form , ii. 4637 – in the Northumberland fashion , ii. 4638 - English form , ii . 4639 - roping, ii. 4641 Thaw , spring, in pastoral districts, i. 2144 Theaves, what, i . 931

Thedam , Mr , his experiments on sowing , ii. 3538 Thermometer, the, i. 163— how to be placed , i . 166 — mean , in different localities, i. 227 - mean in spring, i. 2175 --- in summer, ii. 3036 , 3063 — in autumn, ii. 4350 — in winter, i. 654

Strickle for scythes , ii . 3880 Strike for the bushel, i. 1807

Stripping, one mode of milking cows, i. 2257 Stubble , left in the soil when reaping, ii. 4538 Stubble-rake , hand , ii. 4500 Sturdy in sheep , ii. 3743

Thompson , Mr, his experiments on feeding cattle , i. 1361 -his mode of preparing compound for them , i. 1363 Thomson , Dr R. D., on the food of animals, i. 1673 Thorn hedges ,preparation of the ground in winter for, ii. 5598 — and of the plants, ii. 5605 — means for letting off water, ii. 5608 - setting off the lines, ii . 5609 - forming the

Styes, see Pig , Sow

Subsoils , composition of, ii. 5998defined , i. 341 - affect the soils above them , i. 345 - conditions of, i. 346_

retentive , indicated by certain plants , i . 426 - and por ous, i , 427

Subsoil -plough, Smith's, ii. 5980 — Read's , ii. 5982 - Mar quis of Tweeddale's, ii. 5983 — Lord James Hay's, ii. 6000 Subsoil-ploughing, mode of, ii. 59814- different opinions on it, ii. 5993 --- less efficient than fork -trenching , ii. 5994 Sucking pig , what, i. 1587 Sucking -pump, its action , i. 90 Suet , how produced, ü. 6168 — its composition , ii. 6169 — its uses , ii. 6170

Sugar refuse, its composition , ii. 5011 Sulphate of ammonia , see Special Manures Sulphate of soda, effects of, ii. 6378-- and lime , best pickle for wheat, ii . 4868

Sulphated bones, ii . 3235 - effects of, ii. 6375 Sulphuric acid , accompanies nitrogen, ii. 5049

Summer, its character, ii. 2959 -- its atmospheric pheno mena , ii. 2975 -- electricity in , ii. 2982 Summer-fallow , why necessary, ii. 4164 – sort of land for, ii. 4165 - weeding it , ii. 4165 - working it, ii . 4168 - ridg ing it up, ii. 4170 - manuring it , ii. 4171 - best mode of

doing so , ii. 4172 — theory of it , ii. 4175

Sunflower , species of the, ii. 3473- culture of the tall, ii. 3474 — its botanical position , ii. 3475 — dwarf, ib . - symp toms of ripeness, ii. 4669 - cut down with knife, ii. 4670 -oil from the seed , ii. 4671 — forms good fuel , ii. 4672 Sun -hemp, ii. 3139 Swedish land - roller, ii. 3106

Swedish turnips, ste Turnips Swine, points of, ii. 6235 - See Pigs, Sow Swing-trees for two horses, i. 667 - trussed iron , i. 668 for three horses , i. 669, 670 — for four, i. 673, 674 - for three horses with compensation apparatus, i. 671 — with de ſective apparatus, i. 672 — for more than four horses, i. 675 Switching-bill, the , ii. 5633 Sympiesometer, the, i. 89

Syringe for bathing sheep, ii. 4675

bed , ii. 5610 - planting and finishing , it, ii. 5613 — forming curves in the angles of fields, ii. 5620 - scarcements in jurious, ii. 5626 — in sunk fences, ii. 5628 / hedge -row trees objectionable , ii. 5629 — pruning in spring , ii. 5632 -switching of, ii. 5634one properly switched , ii. 5635 --effects of snow on a young, ii. 5636 - hog -mane and natural forms, i. 5637 —-breasting over one , ii. 5640_cut ting down , ii. 5643_mismanaged in cutting, ii. 5646– plashing , ii. 5648 - scouring out the ditch , ii . 5650 — water tabling , ii . 5651 - to fill gaps in old, ii. 5653 —— removing banks deprecated , ii. 5656_dead one,ii. 5659_stake-and rice, ii . 5663 — putting up paling , ii. 5665 — turf wall and , ii. 5666_weeding in summer, ii. 5670- oiher methods of forming fences with , ii. 5686 — often neglected , ii. 5687 injured by insects , ii. 5689 — repairing, ii. 3569 Thorn plant, the, ii. 5605 — prepared for planting, ii. 5612 -its botanical position , ii. 5676_ -long lived , ii. 5679— its flowers, ii. 5680_tradition of that of Glastonbury , ii. 5681 — the haw, ii. 5682 — the wood , ii. 5683 — known by the ancients , ii . 5685

Thrashing of grain , the, i. 1738 - casting down the stack , i. 1739 — barn - sheet, i. 1740 — corn - barrow , i . 1741 - lad

ders, i. 1742 - taking in stack , i. 1745— oil- can , i. 1746 steward feeds in the corn , i. 1748_chaff- sheet, i. 1749– thrashing motion , i. 1750 - rule to ascertain capabilities of machine, i. 1751 - feeding in , i. 1752 — driving the horses, i. 1753 — foul thrashing, i. 1754 - inconveniences attending the thrashing, i. 1756 - closing of it , i. 1757 treatment of barley roughs, i. 1758 and of damp straw , i. 1759 — thrashing beans and pease , i. 1762 — mowing the straw , i. 1763 - straw carried for litter, i. 1764

Thrashing machine, details of the, i .1692 - pa - sing of the corn through it , i. 1696 – fans, i. 1697 — motive power, i. 1698_steam - engine , i. 1701 — horse -wheel, i. 1715 — its diameter, i. 1716 - circle of teeth , i. 1717 -- its elevation, i. 1718 - conduct of horses working in it , i. 1719 - equali. sation of draught in it , i. 1720 - water -wheel, i. 1721– diminutive form of, i. 1733 – English portable, i . 1734 its construction , i. 1735 — contrast with Scottish machines, i. 1736 - amalgamation of the two , i. 1737

Table churn , ii. 4214 Tails, what, i. 930

Thrave -reaping, ii . 4486 Three - shear tup and wether , what, i. 926

Tail- ill in cows, i. 2244

Three year old heifer, quey , stot , and bull, whnt, i. 1153 Throw.crooks, different forms of, ii. 4600

Tallow and skin , relative weight of, in sheep, i. 986 Tallow , quantity imported, ii. 6160 Tank ,

liquid -manure, i. 1114its

site, i. 2062not

required for every farm , i. 2063 — considerations requisite in forming it , i. 2064 — fall in its bottom , i. 2065 pump for it , i. 2066 — its size, i . 2067, 2068 — its cost , i. 2070 — simple form of, i. 2071 - cost of making this form , i. 2072-one for cottages , i. 2073 - proper form for them , i. 2079—in Flanders , i. 2092 Tape - line, the , ii. 5601

Tares for forage, i. 2464thrive in all soils, i. 2466 — best with manure, i. 2467-8own broadcast, i . 2468 - quantity sown , i. 2469 --cultivated for seed , i. 2470 — their botani

cal position , i . 2471 - the Hopetoun , i. 2472— winter and summer , ii. 4361 - English variety of winter, ii. 4365 — not suited to Scotland without manure , ii. 4367—their cul.

Thrush in horses, i. 1497

Thunder in winter, i. 603 – storms of, ii. 2984 Ticker in cattle , i. 1386 Tiles , common , see Draining

Tillering, circumstances which promote it in the cereals, ii. 3560 — and which discourage it , ii. 3561 - by dibbling and drilling, ii. 4544

Timber, sold in spring, i. 2174foreig , for steadings, ii. 5649 Tin flask for bath , ii. 4752 Tod of wool , weight of, ii. 3943

Torsion , castrating calves by , i. 2300 Towns , farms near, what, i. 42— their capital, rent, &c. , i. 44qualifications of occupant, i. 43 — those distant from , i. 48 .

See also Farms

ture , ii. 4368 - reaping for seed , ii. 4587 - effects of special

Trade winds , the , i. 298

manures on , ii. 4963

Tramped picks of hay, wha ii. 4059 Transplantation of plants, effects of, ii. 3564 -- cost of, ii.

Teats of cows, chapped , i. 2266 — corded , i. 2241 Tedding -machine, ii. 4034 VOL . II .

3565

3 E

INDEX.

802 Travis for cow -byres , i . 1130

blades , i. 1171 - band, i. 1172 – lever, i. 937 — wheel, L

Trefoil , Alexandrian , i. 2677 - flesh - coloured , i. 2676 Trembles, a disease in America, ii. 4203 Trenching ground with tree roots, ii. 5951 -- stony ground , ii. 5957 - expense of, ii. 5960 - season of, ii. 5961 - in

Turnip sowing-drill, the East-Lothian, ii. 3208_Geddes', ii.

Flanders, ii. 6001 Trimmer for stack , the, ii. 4626 Trins , what , i. 1154 Trochar, cattle , i. 1382

Turnip -rooted cabbage, ii. 3379 Turn -wrist plough, the, ii. 5970 Tussac grass , its character, ii . 5972 — its culture, fi. 5973 nutritive matter in , ii. 5974composition of, ii. 5975–

Trotter, Mr, on the maintenance of horses , i. 1453 Troughs, turnip , for sheep , i. 939 — at the steading , i. 1090 --stone, for dairy byre , i. 1239

Tweeddale plough, the, ii. 5991 - subsoil trench -plough, ü .

Trowel for drains, ii. 5821 Truck system , different from wages in kind , ii. 6321 Tup, what , i . 928

Tup - eild ewe , what, i. 929 Tup hogg , what, i. 92 +

lamb, i. 923

Tups or rams, fed on turnips separately, i. 942 - period of putting them to ewes, ii. 4715 - symptoms shown at this period, i. 4717-keil put on their breasts, ii. 4720 — number of ewes served , ii. 4721 - hoggs not allowed to serve , ii . 4722 - qualifications of good , ii. 4723 - period of with

drawal of, ii. 4727 - season on hill farms, ii. 4731 -letting of , ii . 4737

Turkeys, treatment of, in winter, i. 1602 - rearing not diffi. cult , i. 2897 - eggs taken away as laid, i, 2898 - set in made nest, i. 2899 hens watchful of brood , i. 2907 — one impregnation fecundates, i. 2908 - treatment of poults, i. 2901 — some hens great layers, i. 2906 — their treatment in autumn, ii . 516 +

second brood worthless , ii. 5165

Turnips, mineral ingredients in , i. 463 – left on ground to be eaten by sheep, i. 810 - proportions so left, i. 811 pulling, to leave certain proportions, i. 812–how pulled for storing, i. 813 — tops useless to cattle , i. 814 knives for topping and tailing, i. 815 - node of it , i. 817 - removing

from field ,i. 819 -storing, i. 824 variousforms of stores , I. 827 — varieties of, i. 843—white globe , i. 84-yellow , i. 847 — Swedish , i.849 -- composition of, i. 85 + white stone , i. 857 - Laing's Swedish , i. 858 — its history , i. 887– weight of bushel , i. 865_ - nutritive matter per acre, i. 866 -eaten in a day by a Leicester sheep , i. 867-in half year by sheep , i. 86 % per week by two year old ox , i. 869 price of, i. 871— Dales ' hybrid , i. 872— its crop , i. 874 its history, i. 885 -- Lawton bybrid , i. 873 — its crop, i. 874 -its history, i. 886an ill-shaped, i. 876 — tankard , ib . white globe, its properties, i . 844_weight and size of, i. 816 -- epecific gravity of, i. 853 — nutritive matter in , i. 859 -good crop of it , i. 864its origin , i. 883 - yellow , its pro perties, i. 847 - its weight, i . 848 - continues fresh in the

store, i. 852 — its specitic gravity , i. 853 — a good crop of it

938

3212 — barrow , ii. 3214— bone- dust drill, ii. 3216 — Smith's drop drill , ii. 3220

ash of, ii. 5976

5983 - at work, ii. 5985 — its advantages , ii. 5989 Twice gathering up rides, i. 764 Twilight, ii. 3054 Twins, what, i. 1154 Twinter ewe , what , i. 926 Two - out -and -two- in ploughing, i. 759 Two -shear tup and wether, what , i. 925

Two -year -old bull, heifer, quey , and stot, what, i. 1153

Udder of cows, the, its structure , i. 2245 — its form , i. 2246 position of the teats, i. 2247 — different states of the milk in , i. 2249 — subject to inflammation , i. 2266 Udder-clap in ewes, i. 2596 , ii. 3995 Udometer, the, i . 273 Umbellifera , their characteristics, ii. 3426

Undershot water -wheel, the, i. 113 Universities, education of theagricultural student at, i. 513 Urine and dung of animals, composition of, i. 2094 — ow's, i. 2096 - human, i. 2100 - horse's, i . 2101 2, 102 - sheep's, i. 2101 , 2102 — pig's, i . 2101 , 2102 — its effects when the

urea is undecomposed, i. 2103 — and mould -composts of Germany, i. 2105 Vapour, how produced , i. 172 — its weight, i. 173 – quanti ties in the atmosphere, i. 228 - its elevation and descent, i. 229 — its quantity varies, i. 230 — its force , i. 232 — its height in the atmosphere, i. 233 — that from steam -engines hygrometrical, i. 235 - plane, i. 233 — its tension in spring, i. 2175 — in summer, ül. 3029, 3063 — in autumn , i. 4342, 4350 — in winter, i. 654 Veal, i. 2295 Vegetation, a source of electricity, i. 125 electric theory of,

i. 135 — and electricity , results produced by them , i. 119 influence of coloured lights on , i. 195

Ventilation , principle of, and natural process of, i. 100 Ventilator for roof, i. 1137 - for work -horse stable, i. 4100 Vetches , mineral ingredients in , i. 462 Veterinary College, Edinburgh, i. 528 — London , i. 530

i. 863-— its history unknown, i. 882 — Swedish , its proper

Veterinary science, connection of, with agriculture, i. 507 Vicia ,

ties , i. 849 - its weight, 1. 850 — proportion of top to bulb, i. 851 - specitic gravity of, i. 853 - nutritive matter in , i.

Voltaism , influence of, on culture, i. 157

varieties of, & c., i. 2471 , 2472 Voltaic pile , the ground is one, i. 155

860 - good crop of, i. 862 — its history , i. 881 - number and

weight per acre, i. 877 - measuring an acre of, i. 879 weighing, i. 880 — their history , i. 881- ash in the bulbs, i. 888 in the tops, i. 889_meal, i. 890 — how made, i. 891 its composition, i. 892_sheep feeding on them in winter, i. 901 — break of, what, i.914_topsnotgood for sheep at first, i. 915 --stores at the steading, i. 1094when different kinds

should be given to cattle , i. 1216 --when dirty should be washed for them , i. 1217 - frozen , how thawed for them , i. 121 / given to horses, i. 1439_transplanting for seed , i. 2476—ash of the seed , ii . 3144their culture, ii. 3204— land drilled for, ii . 3205 — broadcast deprecated , ii. 3240

Waddell's plan for outhouse floors, il. 5418 Wages of farin - servants in kind and in cash , ii. 6304— in kind , ii. 6304 - more in cash than in kind , ii. 6311 — in cash , ii. 6313 — of stewards, ii. 6314 of shepherds, ii. 6315 -of hedger, ii. 6316of cattle-man, ii . 6317 — of field worker, ii. 6318 - law of, in Scotland , ii. 6295 — in kind, different from the truck system , ii. 6321

Walker, Mr , on feeding cattle , i. 1329 , 1592 Warbles in cattle, ii. 3803

-distance between rows , ii. 3267 - cost of singling, ii. 3271 - drill-grubbing, ii. 3273 — first hoeing , ii. 3274

Warnes ' compound for sheep, 1. 1306 — for cattle , i. 1307— how made, i. 1308 - quantity used , i , 1310 — formed of any farm produce, i. 1311 - apparatus for making it, i. 1312 objections to mode of making it, i. 1364 experiment with it , i. 1351 - his compound for horses, i. 1449 Warrandice of horses, the law of , 1521

scuffling again , ii. 3275 - second hoeing, ii. 3276 - setting up the drills , ii . 3277 - filling up blanks, ii. 3269_weeds

Washer for potatoes, ii. 4815 — how used , ii. 4816 — its advan

infesting , ii. 3278 — top-dressing, ii. 3282-on strong soil, ii . 3242— its botanical position , ii . 3283 — that oftheSwed ish , ii . 3286-the common , ii. 3287 - waste of seed in sow ing , ii. 3289 - flea -beetle, ii. 3290 — saw -fly, ii. 3294 weevils , ii. 3294 - aphides, ii. 3300 - leaf-miner, ii. 3308

Waste land , improved by trenching. ii. 5949— by the plough , ii. 5952 — by digging, ii., 5955 - turf, ii. 5962

--manuring, ii. 3206_varieties sown , ii. 3207 – propor tions sown, 11. 3247 - scuffling, ii. 3256 - singling, ii. 3259

anbury in , ii. 3312 — fingers and toes, ii. 331 + water in their tops , ii. 3316 — ash in their tops , ii. 3317 - effect of

transplanting Swedish , ii. 3321 - ash in tops of various kinds, ii.3319 - effects of deep sowing on, ii. 3559_reaping of seed , ii. 4189 — its crops , ii. 4190 — utility of the store, ii . 4358 - English mode of cultivating , ii. 4359 — its cul ture , ii. 4360 — their culture in autumn for seed , ii. 4361

-best seed from transplanted bulbs , ii. 4362 — but most from sowing, ii. 4363 - effects of special manures on Swedish , ii. 4947 — on yellow , ii . 4951 - on white , ii. 4955 on hybrid , ii . 4957---mineral ingredients they take from the

soil, ii. 5062 - cost of replacing them , ii. 5075 Turnip -pickers, i. 934

Turnip-slicer, hand, with cross blades, i. 1170 — with parallel

Warts on cattle, i. 1384

tages, ii. 4817 Washiness in cattle , what, ii. 3619

levelling the surface, ii. 5963 - levelling high ridges, ii. 5964 -first crop turnips, ii. 5968 — why land should be ridged , ii. 5969 — ploughing steep land , ii. 5970 Water, effects of ascent on its boiling point, i. 101 – its gravity , i. 103 - pressure it exerts on the bottom of a ves. sel, i. 104and on the sides, i. 105 - gravity it exerts on bodies immersed in it, i. 106 — is incompressible, i. 107 -equalisation of height in , i. 108—how supplied to reser. voirs, & c ., ib. - law of its velocity from an orifice, i. 109

its friction in pipes, i. 110 - rain, action of the, i. 111 effects of moving, i. 112 - to calculate its motive power, i. 117 - chemical properties of, i. 213 — essential in grazing fields, ii. 3775_expedient when scarce , ii. 3776 - hard and soft for domestic use , ii . 5532

Water -brush for horses, i, 1529 - price of, i. 1542

INDEX Water-furrowing, i. 2360 — how conducted, i. 2361 - plough for , i. 2362

Water -meadows, considerations on forming, ii. 6046 sluices for, ib . - thorough -draining land for, ii. 6019 bed work , ii. 6050 — Beeds for sowing in , ii. 6053 - catch -work , ii. 6056 -- cost of making, ii. 6061 — advantages of, to hill farms, ii . 6062 - time for repairing, ii . 6063

Water -troughs at the steading, i. 1095 - of flag -stones, i. 1098 --of wood , i. 1092 - cistern , i. 1102

Water -wheels, various kinds of, i. 113 — undershot, i. 1721– overshot, rules to ascertain quantity of water, i. 1722 to ascertain if sufficient without a dam , i. 1723 - position of the dam , i .-- of the sluice , i . 1726 — size of wheel, i. 1727 — its structure, i. 1729 — the shrouding-plates, i. 1730 -power taken off, i. 1731 - laying the water on it , i. 1732 Watson, Mr , his Angur ox , ij . 6228 Wax -lights, for lamps , i. 1543 Weasel, the, destructive to poultry, ii. 5197 Weather, the, low best to be studied, i. 218 – its effects on the operations of the farm , i. 219 — desirable to anticipate it, i. 220_better understood by the shepherd than the farmer, i. 221 - use of instruments, i. 223 — similar in dif ferent months and quarters, ii . 4356 - prognostics in

spring, i. 2153—in summer , ii. 3034in autumn, ii. 4343 -in winter, i. 606

Weathercock , position of the, i. 95 — varieties in its con struction , i. 96 - good ones , ib . - origin of its name, i. 97

Webb , Mr, his Southdown tup , ii. 6234 Wechts or maunds, i. 1790

Wedgewood-ware milk -dish, ii. 4196 Weeds , definition of, ii. 3281 - classification of, ii. 3741 soils indicated by them , i. 421 - in clay soils , i. 383 — clay loams, i. 386 , 389 - in sandy soils, i. 391 - sandy loams, i. 393 , 395 — alluvial soils, i. 397 — supplied from sea beaches , i. 399_from lake ones , i. 400 — from river ones, i. 401 - by gravel- pits, i. 403 — from sea -shore gravel, i . 404 —from river gravel, i. 405 - on dry marshy grounds, i. 413 -on cultivated peat, i.416 — infesting flax , ii. 3117 - hemp, ii. 3140 -- the turnip , ii. 3278_on low country pastures, ii. 3709 -on high , ii. 3742 — cutting them , ii. 3710 / amongst the wheat crop , ii. 4098 barley, ii. 4121 - oats, ii. 4132 rye , ii. 4141 - potatoes , ii. 4150, -on bare fallow , ii. 4167 -on the margins of fields, ii. 4177-- which render milk poisonous, ii. 4202 - at barvest, ii. 4556_about hedges, ii. 5671, 5672 — ditches , ii. 5673 — which lodge the turnip -fly, ii. 5674

Weed -hook , the, ii. 4096 Weeding cereal crops , mode of, ii. 4097 - pastures, imple ments for, ii . 3710 - mode of doing it , ib . Weevils of the turnip , ii. 3299 — white clover, ii. 3894 -bean ,

ii. 3985 — pea, ii. 3989 - turnip -seed, ii. 4187 Weigh of wool, its weight, ii . 3943 Weighing machine for barn , i. 1820 Well , circumstances favourable and unfavourable for, ii. 5521_mode of digging it , ii. 5526 - cost of digging, ii. 5527 — pumps and their cost , ii. 5528 - sinking in loose sand , ii. 5529

Wells, Dr, on the theory of dew, i. 176_on hygrometers, i. 184 West Highland ox , points of, ii . 6227 Wether, what, i. 925 — hogg, i. 924 - egg , i. 931 Wheat, mineral ingredients in , i. 462—its different forms of ears , i. 1846 — its botanical position , i. 1847 - benrded ,

i. 1848 - small grain , i. 1849_medium , i. 1850 - large, i. 1851 - relation between ear and grain , i. 1853— judging of , i. 1854 - yielding the best flour, i. 1855_weight, i. 1856 - seed , i. 1857 - kiln drying , i . 1858 --- damaged , i. 1859 – preserving in granaries, i. 1860 - shieling, i. 1861– grinding, i. 1862 - cooling and dressing the flour, i. 1863 -over-head flour, i. 1861broad bran, i. 1865-London dressing of flour , i. 1866 - increase of bulk by grinding, i.

1867—to judge of the grinding, i. 1868 large bran, i. 1869 - to judge of the dressing, i. 1871 - whether it will make good bread , i. 1871 -- sacks of flour , i. 1872 - its adulterations, i. 1873 - analyses of flour , i. 1874 — its com . position , i. 1875 — its gluten , i. 1876 — its oil, i. 1877 — ash of wheat , i. 1878 — of the husk , i. 1879 - composition of bran , i. 1880 — leaven , i. 1881 - proportion of flour in bread , i . 1882 - household bread , i. 1883—8our bread , i.

1884 - yeast, i . 1885 – substitute for fermentation , i. 1886 -unferinented bread , i. 1890_action of yeast , i. 1891 what ferment is, i . 1892 - mixing of potatoand wheat floor, i. 1893 - structure of four, i. 1895 — most gluten in wheat, i.

1896 ,-nutritive properties of gluten , i. 1897 — why bakers use foreign wheat, i. 1899 - composition of Lincolnshire,i. 1901 -- wheat- starch , i. 1902 - nutritive matter in an acre, i. 1903 —— itsorigin unknown, i. 1904 limits of it, i.1905 ash of its straw , i. 1966 — sown in spring, i. 2302 - weather and soil for it , i. 2303—— turnip land prepared for it , i . 2304

-sown quickly, 1.2306 —— the seed pickled , i. 2307 - setting

803

down the sacks, i. 2311-- Sowing by hand, i. 2316 - car rier of the seed, i. 2313 — sowing with machines, i. 2326 barrowing, i. 2352 — water -furrowed , i. 2360 - on lea , i. 2365, 2366_objections to this , i. 2371---varieties sown in spring, i. 2375_ April, i. 2378, 2379 — sowing grass seeds amongst, i. 2656 , 2664 - state of winter , in spring, i. 2660 --April, useful in filling blanks, i. 2661 -- March the time for sowing grass seeds among winter, i. 2662 - effects of deep sowing on , ii. 355 + ils culture in summer , ii. 4089 -top -dressing, ii. 4105 –the flowering season , ii . 4106 diseases in summer , ii . 4107 — crops vary , ii. 4530 — sown in autumn in the summer- fallow , ii. 4843 — its culture , ib .

--period of sowing , ii. 4849_old wheat best for sowing , ii. 4850 —- varieties sown in autumn, ii. 1851- seed pickled, ii. 4852 - sown broadcast, drilled , or dibbled , ii . 4853 land left with large clod , ii . 4855 - ribbing and ploughing down , ii. 4856 — bean land sown with , ii . 4849 - and

potato, ii. 4861 — sown in lazy-beds in Ireland , ii, 4363 and broadcast on lea there, ii. 4864 — weevil, its destruc tion , ii. 4870 , 4871 - cost of sowing on ribs broadcast, ii.

4473 - of dibbling on ribs, ii. 4875 — of sowing on tops of drills, ii . 4876 — and of dibbling , ib.-- the mixed of Poland ,

ii. 4897 - effects of special manures on , ii. 491&mineral ingredients it takes from the soil, ii. 5056 - cost of repla cing them , ii. 5069 — heat required to ripen , ii. 5231 extremes of temperature that will ripen , ii. 5245 Wheel-barrow , a , i. 1182

Whey, its nature, ii. 4281 — drink for pigs, ii. 4282 - cream from , ii. 4283 — foat, ii. 4315 - white wine, ii. 4317 - fresh two- milk , ii. 4318 Whin -bruiser, the, i. 1450

Whipple-trees, sče Swing -trees White beet, see Mangold -wurzel White clover, see Clover White flux in pigs, i. 2875

White globe and stone turnips, see Turnips Whitley, Mr, on the origin of soils, i. 487 Wildfire in sheep, i, 1076 Wilkie's trapezoidal furrow -slice , i. 703 - horse -hoe , ii. 3252

Wilkin, Mr, his experiments on feeding sheep, i. 959 Willow , specific gravity of, i. 119 - mineral ingredients in the, i. 465

Wilson , Mr, his short-horn ox , ii. 6209 — his prevention of quarter- ill in calves , ii. 3124 Wilson's dipping mixture , ii. 476 - apparatus, ii . 4769 Wind , influence of, on the barometer, i. 225 — influence of the tropics on , i. 299 - course of, its causes, i . 300 - mon soons, i. 301 - land and sea breeze , i . 302-- variable, i. 303

— the seasonal rains produced by , i. 304 - prevalence of east and west in Britain , i. 307 — at London , i 308 - at Inveresk , i. 309 - at Harraby, ib . - direction, how effected , i. 310 — Sirocco and Tramontana, ib .-- force and velocity , i. 311-- connection between the force of, and the oscilla tions of the barometer , i. 314electric power of, i. 315 ogy between tides and , i. 316 — prognostics of, i. 317— modifies other phenomena, i. 650 — its character in win ter, i. 651 - Shepherd of Banbury's rules for it, i. 652 causes of the east, in spring . I. 2137 -- peculiar in spring,i. 2139 — causes of its variability , i. 2140 — its character in spring , i. 2141

Winds, how occasioned , i.93 trade, ib .-- differently charged with moisture, i. 231 - their changes as indicative of the weather, i. 296 — disparity of phenomena between the zones of, 1. 297— the regular, of the torrid zone, i . 298 prevailing ones in spring, i. 2175 — in summer , ii. 3019 , 3063 — in autumn, ii. 4327, 4350 — in winter, i. 654 Wind -sucking in horses, i. 1502 Window - sashes, what best made of, i. 1135

Winnowing of grain , the, i. 1766 — the dressing -fanner, i. 1767—the finishing -fanner, i. 1772 - the thrashing machine fanner , i. 1776 — riddles, i. 1777-sieves , i. 1787 --- setting of the fanner for, i. 1796 - arrangement of persons , i. 1797 — the thrashed heap of corn , í. 1798— the corn dressed clean , i. 1799_ -measuring it up and sacking , i. 1800 — filling the bushel , i. 1901 -

striking it, i. 1803 - hummelling of barley, i. 1808_setting up full sacks , i. 1812--lifting them , i. 1813 - loading a cart with them , i. 1816 - proper mode of riddling, i. 1822 - and sifting, i. 1823

Winrow of hay , what, ii . 4053 Winter, weather and field operations in , i. 578_field labour chiefly ploughing, i. 579 - ploughed land kept free of surface-water in , i. 580 — lea ground ploughed , i. 581 draining prosecuted , i. 582— fields enclosedwith hedges, i. 583 — water -meadows irrigated , i. 584 --- live-stock sub divided in the steading, i.585 — turnips for them taken up , i. 586 - straw thrashed , i. 587 — sheep fed on turnips, i. 588 -ewes in lamb in pasture , i. 589 --- grain prepared for market, i. 590 — manure taken out to the fields, i. 591 - the

INDEX .

804

Winter, continued serson for attending the market-town , i , 593 - field -sports are prosecuted , i. 594 - the season for hospitality, i. 595 and for domestic comfort, i. 596 -- emblematic ofmortality , 1. 597-- weather precarious in , i. 599 - same work does not always begin , i. 657 - commencing operations, i. 655 Wire - basket for turnips, i. 1185 Wire- fences, not nowexpensive, ii. 5722 — fixing the strain ing-posts , ii. 5723_iron ones , ii, 5726_fixing the inter mediate ones , ii. 5728 --- wires used , and their strength , ii. 5730 - cost of, ii. 5738their durability, ii. 5741 — where

its geographical distribution , ii. 1955 — its fineness, i. 3957 —— its density, ii. 3958 - its internal structure, i. 3959 -- diameter of its fibres, ii. 3960 -- manner of its

growth , ii. 3962 — its felting, ii . 3963 -- quantity in Britain , ii. 3967 — its value, ii. 3969 - importation of ii. 3970

Wool-moth , the white -shouldered , ii . 3940 Wool- room , the, ii. 3940

Wool- shears , the, ii. 3918 Woollen manufactures, declared value of, ii. 3971 - Im

portance of home market to , ii. 3972 - curious trade in , ii. 397

most suitable , ii. 5742

Wire -worm , the, ii. 3185 insects inimical to the, ii, 3188 -injures wheat, ii . 4107 Womb, the , its contractive state, ii. 3695 — its dilatable state , ii. 3696 - its rigid state , i. 3697 - of ewes, inflammation of the , i. 2592

Wood, heat produced by, i. 186 Wood -ashes , ii. 5021

Wood pavement for steadings, il. 5421 Wood -pigeon, the , injurious to crops, il. 4704 Wooden posts, charring them, ii. 5728 Wool, yolk of, its nature , ii. 3911 -- its composition , ii. 3912 - its action , ii. 3913 -- its quality , ii. 3914 - not safe for a farmerto keep, ii. 3941 – mode of weighing it, ii. 3942 - of packing it, ii. 3943 – as packed in the Highlands, ii. 3944different qualities, ii. 3945 - good ,

Worms in horses , i . 1504

Year-old bull, heifer, quey , and stot, what, L 1152 Year -olds and yearlings, what, i. 1152 Yeast, mode of cleaning, i. 1885 Yeld cow , what, i. 1154_ewe, i. 929mare, i. 1432 Yellow light, influence of, on vegetation , l. 193 Yellow clover , see Clover

Yellow turnips, see Turnips Yellowhammer, the , injurious to crops, il. 4696 Yellow -tailed moth , the, injurious to hedges, ii. 5689 Yellows in ewes, ii. 4740

Yester subsoil, composition of, ii. 5998 Yoking, a long, injurious to horses, i, 1415 Yolk of wool, the, ii. 3911

Young's iron field -gate, ii. 5763

its properties , ii. 3946 — its fibre, ib. - its staple, ii. 3947 facturer, ii. 3950 - carding, ii. 3951 - combing, ii. 3952

Zinc,whence derived , ii. 5498 - rolled , specific gravity of

- distinction in the spinning and carding, ii. 3953 intermediate between carding and combing, ii. 3954

Zoology, science of, i. 215, 504

-its various points, ii. 3948 —- states useful to the manu

. i. 119

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