Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil Engineering: Select Proceedings of SPICE 2021 (Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, 179) 9811650403, 9789811650406

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Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering

Sivakumar Naganathan Kamal Nasharuddin Mustapha Thangaraj Palanisamy   Editors

Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil Engineering Select Proceedings of SPICE 2021

Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering Volume 179

Series Editors Marco di Prisco, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy Sheng-Hong Chen, School of Water Resources and Hydropower Engineering, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China Ioannis Vayas, Institute of Steel Structures, National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece Sanjay Kumar Shukla, School of Engineering, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia Anuj Sharma, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA Nagesh Kumar, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science Bangalore, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India Chien Ming Wang, School of Civil Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

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Sivakumar Naganathan · Kamal Nasharuddin Mustapha · Thangaraj Palanisamy Editors

Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil Engineering Select Proceedings of SPICE 2021

Editors Sivakumar Naganathan Department of Civil Engineering Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering Chennai, India

Kamal Nasharuddin Mustapha Universiti Tenaga Nasional Kajang, Malaysia

Thangaraj Palanisamy Department of Civil Engineering National Institute of Technology Karnataka Mangalore, India

ISSN 2366-2557 ISSN 2366-2565 (electronic) Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering ISBN 978-981-16-5040-6 ISBN 978-981-16-5041-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5041-3 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Contents

Experimental Study on Application of Geogrid in Concrete to Improve Its Flexural Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S. Pavithra and M. Tamil Selvi Water Quality Assessment for Batu Pahat River Basin, Malaysia . . . . . . . L. M. Sidek, A. Jajarmizadeh, H. A. Mohiyaden, S. M. Noh, A. H. M. Puad, and A. M. D. Shahrir Effect of Graphene Oxide and Crumb Rubber on the Drying Shrinkage Behavior of Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC): Experimental Study, RSM—Based Modelling and Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Isyaka Abdulkadir, Bashar S. Mohammed, M. S. Liew, and M. M. A. Wahab Experimental Study on Alternative Material for Conventional Fine and Coarse Aggregate in Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V. J. Vedhanayaghi, S. Arun Bharathi, S. Muthulakshmi, and K. Divya Susanna

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Analysis of Traffic Signal Delays in Erode City Using Microscopic Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S. Janani and J. Rahul

57

Replacement of Polyethylene Bags by Bioplastics Using Solanum Tuberosum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S. Janani and S. Sathyan

67

A Review on Precast Concrete Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Harika Madireddy, Sivakumar Naganathan, and B. Mahalingam

77

Evaluation of Labor Positioning Factors Influencing Construction Manpower Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 N. Suriya, S. Kamal, and R. Sivagamasundari

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Contents

A Review on Factors Influencing the Use of Personal Protective Equipment in Construction Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 S. Elavarasan, S. Kamal, and R. Sivagamasundari Thermal Properties of Concrete Containing Cenosphere and Phase Change Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Salmia Beddu, Amalina Basri, Daud Mohamad, Nur Liyana Mohd Kamal, Nur Farhana, Zakaria Che Muda, Zarina Itam, Sivakumar Naganathan, Siti Asmahani Saad, and Teh Sabariah Causes and Consequences of Dam Failures—Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 S. V. Sivapriya and A. Anne Sherin Seismic Analysis of Hypar Shell Foundation in Sandy Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 S. V. Sivapriya, A. D. Abithoo Dass, A. Bargavi, R. Lakshmipriya, and S. Nandhini Single and Group Static Laterally Loaded Vertical Pile in Horizontal and Sloping Ground—A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 S. V. Sivapriya Innovative Investigation on Flexible Pavement Using Bitumen Blended with Waste Plastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 V. M. Rajanandhini and G. Elangovan Use of RMC Wastewater in Concrete with Admixtures for Strength Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 M. Selvakumar, S. Geetha, Christina Joby Maria, S. Pavithra, S. Rakesh, and K. Udhaya Study on Properties of Polymer Mortar with Foundry Sand . . . . . . . . . . . 209 M. Selvakumar, S. Geetha, B. V. Agaliya, S. Shine, R. U. Rupasudharshnee, and M. Sakthivel Characterization and Valorization of Sugarcane Press Mud in Civil Engineering Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Jijo James A Study of Environmental Management of Construction and Demolition Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 P. Sabareeshwaran, S. Tharanyaa, B. Mahalingam, and M. Kavitha Study on the Compressive Strength and Water Absorption Characteristics of Mortar Blocks with Cenosphere as Partial Replacement for Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 R. Vijayalakshmi, Sivakumar Naganathan, and S. Ramanagopal

Contents

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Performance Assessment of the Perforated CFS Unlipped and Lipped Channel Section Under Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 P. Sangeetha, M. Dhinagaran, A. S. Gobinaath, R. S. Saravana Kumar, and A. D. Jeevan Raj Retrofitting of Exterior Beam-Column Joint—A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 T. Pauline, G. Janardhanan, P. Sangeetha, and V. Ashok Space Frame Structure as Roof and Floor System—A Review . . . . . . . . . 291 S. N. Vinothni and P. Sangeetha Study on Microstructural Characterization of Concrete by Partial Replacement of Cement with Glass Powder and Rice Husk Ash in Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 R. Nirmala, P. Anusha, and S. T. Dhaarini Experimental Investigation on the Copper Slag, Silica Fume and Fly Ash in High-Performance Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 R. Nirmala, S. Praveen kumar, and K. M. Akash Nithish

About the Editors

Dr. Sivakumar Naganathan is currently the professor and head of the department of Civil Engineering, Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Chennai, India. He obtained his bachelor’s degree in Civil Engineering from the National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, in 1993, and Masters in Structural Engineering from the same institution in 1997. He obtained his Ph.D. in Concrete Technology from the University of Malaya, Malaysia, in 2010. He has got more than 25 years of experience in institutions in India and Malaysia. He has published more than 75 research papers in leading international journals and 9 monograms. He is a certified international professional engineer, charted engineer and fellow of the Institution of Engineers India, and, a graduate member of ICE, UK. His research interests include concrete technology, alternate cementitious material, waste utilization, controlled low strength materials, and strengthening of structures. Professor Dato’ Ir. Dr. Kamal Nasharuddin Mustapha , FASc, is currently the vice-chancellor of University Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN), Malaysia. He obtained his bachelor’s degree in Civil and Structural Engineering from the University of Sheffield, UK, in 1984. Then in 1986, he received his master’s degree in Structural Engineering from Heriot-Watt University, Scotland, and his Ph.D. in Structural Fire Engineering from the University of Aston, UK, in 1994. He had also completed his Postgraduate Diploma in Syariah at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia and ASEAN Senior Management Development Program under Harvard Business School. His research interest is in the area of reinforced concrete columns in fire, building forensic, cylindrical shell, flat slab, cold-formed channel columns, and pretensioned inverted t-beams with circular web openings. Additionally, since the mid-2000s, he is involved in research dealing with a statistical model, optimization, and safety assessment in the workplace. Dr. Thangaraj Palanisamy is currently working as an assistant professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at the National Institute of Technology Karnataka (NITK), Surathkal, India. He has published 113 articles in journals and conference proceedings at the national and international levels. He has delivered more than 123 ix

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About the Editors

keynote lectures in various levels, sponsored by AICTE, CSIR, DRDO, DST, etc. He also secured funded projects from DST-SERB, DBT, AICTE, etc., at present 01 funded project is going on with worth of 0.38 crore for the “Development of concrete battery”. He registered 14 patents along with co-inventors. He received 17 awards including the most esteemed award of “Viswakarma award—2018” by Planning Commission of India, New Delhi, “Best Faculty Award—2017”, “Bharat Ratna Mother Teresa Award—2014”, “Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam Gold Medal Award— 2015”. The Indian Concrete Institute honoured him by the award of “Outstanding Young Concrete Engineer”. Under his supervision, 11 Ph.D. were completed and 04 are pursuing. His area of research includes the development of sustainable material for structural application and micro-characterisation of the concrete.

Experimental Study on Application of Geogrid in Concrete to Improve Its Flexural Strength S. Pavithra and M. Tamil Selvi

1 Introduction Geosynthetics have numerous applications in civil engineering. They always perform at least one of the major functions as reinforcement, separation, drainage, fluid barrier and filtration when used in conjunction with soil, rock or any other civil engineeringrelated material. Geogrid is a geo-synthetic material made from polymers such as polypropylene, polyethylene or polyester and is widely used in reinforcing soil in order to improve its tensile strength. They are available as open grids with the size of the aperture ranging from 2.5 to 15 cm based on the arrangement of ribs in longitudinal and transverse direction. Interlocking of the aggregates or the soil in the apertures of the geogrid improves the strength due to their compound behaviour. They are commonly used in retaining wall construction, in steep slopes to improve its stability, to improve bearing capacity of soil and to reduce its settlement. Three types of geogrid, namely uniaxial geogrid, biaxial geogrid and triaxial geogrid, are in use based on the stress transfer mechanism and the direction of stretching of ribs during manufacturing. The tensile strength of geogrids varies depending on the process and material used to make them. A laboratory tensile strength test can be used to determine the tensile strength [1]. As mentioned earlier, one of the principal functions of geogrid is to act as reinforcement. Like many other applications of geosynthetics, with a number of different products, materials, configurations, etc., geogrid is also making up active contribution in the market. The use of geogrid as reinforcement in the plain cement concrete (PCC) beams has shown good results as studied in [2]. The strength of the composite behaviour of PCC with geogrid depends on the type, spacing and number of geogrid layers reinforced as stated in [3, 4]. It is seen from [5] that the use of geosynthetics increases the flexural strength of the beam. When the beam is particularly reinforced with uniaxial geogrid, it gives effective increase in flexural strength [6]. Using steel fibres also contributes effectively in increasing S. Pavithra (B) · M. Tamil Selvi Department of Civil Engineering, S.A. Engineering College, Chennai, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Naganathan et al. (eds.), Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil Engineering, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 179, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5041-3_1

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S. Pavithra and M. T. Selvi

the flexural strength of the beam as per [7, 8]. Reference [9] shows that the geogridconfined PCC beams show good increase in the flexural strength. Though many studies prove the advantages of introducing geogrid in concrete beams, this study explores the application of geogrid in reinforced cement concrete (RCC) beam to increase its flexural strength. A comparative study between RCC beam and RCC beam reinforced with biaxial geogrid is carried out to find the differences in their flexural strength. To achieve this, four-point bending test is performed according to the IS 516: 1959 using flexure testing machine. The study also focuses on examination of deflection characteristics and cracking pattern of RCC beam with and without geogrid.

2 Materials Used Cement. OPC of grade 43 conforming to IS 8112: 2003 was used. Table 1 lists the properties of cement. Fine Aggregate. Well-graded sand with specific gravity of 2.59 and conforming to Zone I as per IS 383:1970 was used. Coarse Aggregate. Granite-crushed angular coarse aggregate of nominal size 20 mm, with specific gravity of 2.74, was used. Geogrid. Biaxial geogrid having a tensile strength of 30 KN/m was used. Table 2 shows the properties of the geogrid. Table 1 Cement properties

Table 2 Properties of geogrid

Property

Result

Specific gravity

3.14

Fineness

4%

Consistency

30%

Initial setting time

40 min

Final setting time

410 min

Property

Result

Aperture size in cm

2.3 × 2

Aperture shape

Rectangular

Weight in

g/m2

Tensile strength

690 30kN/m

Experimental Study on Application of Geogrid …

3

3 Methodology The RCC beam with geogrid was investigated for two cases—(i) Geogrid reinforced in tension zone (ii) Geogrid-confined RCC beam. The work involved casting of six beams that included two RCC beams, two numbers of two-layer geogrid-reinforced RCC beam (with reinforcement in the tension zone) and two numbers of geogridconfined RCC beam. Each type of beam was tested for its 7 days and 28 days flexural strength. M40 grade concrete designed according to IS 10262: 2009 was used. The concrete was prepared for 100 mm slump. To improve the concrete’s workability, a superplasticizer was used. Cube tests were done to check whether the mix design attained the required compressive strength. The size of the beam was 1000 mm in length, 150 mm in width and 150 mm depth. Flexural strength of a beam can be determined from three-point and four-point flexure bending tests. It is used to evaluate the ability of the beam to withstand flexure or bending forces (Fig. 1). The sample is positioned horizontally on two points in a three-point bending test, and the force is applied to the top of the beam from a single point, causing the beam to bend in the form of a “V.” A four-point bending test is similar to a three-point bending test, but the force is applied across two points instead of a single point on the top, causing the beam to touch at four different points and bend in the form of a “U”. The beam is loaded until it fails in both cases. The flexural strength of the beam is defined as the maximum force at which it fails. The three-point flexure test is ideal for measuring a single position on the beam, while the four-point flexure test is better for testing a wide section. It reveals the beam’s flaws more clearly than a three-point flexure test. A flexure test, unlike a compression or tensile test, does not assess the fundamental material property. When flexural loading is applied to a specimen, all three fundamental stresses are present: tensile, compressive and shear. As a result, the flexural property of a specimen is determined by the combined effect of all three stresses, the rate of loading and the specimen’s size (Fig. 2). In this study, the four-point flexure test was performed. Flexural strength can be found using the formula

Fig. 1 Casting of beams

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Fig. 2 Four-point flexure test on beam

σ = 3F(L − L i )/2bd 2

(1)

where F = ultimate strength of beam in kN L = distance between the supports in mm L i = distance between the loads in mm b = breadth of the beam in mm d = depth of the beam in mm.

4 Result and Discussion The flexural testing of the beam was done according to IS 516: 1959. Using Eq. 1, the flexural strength of three types of beams was found as reported in Tables 3 and 4. It was observed that the flexural strength of the geogrid-reinforced and geogridconfined beam increased by 15% and 20%, respectively, due to the introduction of geogrid. It is also evident that the difference in flexural strength of the beam for both the cases of geogrid reinforcement was small. This observation was in line with the findings in [2, 3, 6], where it was reported that the introduction of geogrid in PCC beam increases its flexural strength. Also, the strength improvement in the beam depends on the number of geogrid layers and strength of the geogrid. It was noted in

Experimental Study on Application of Geogrid …

5

Table 3 Flexural strength of beam (7th day test) Type of beam

Ultimate load (kN) Flexural strength (N/mm2 )

RCC beam

8

2.13

RCC beam with geogrid reinforced in tension 9 zone

2.4

Geogrid-confined RCC beam

2.66

10

Table 4 Flexural strength of beam (28th day test) Type of beam

Ultimate load (kN) Flexural strength (N/mm2 )

RCC beam

17

4.53

RCC beam with geogrid reinforced in tension 19 zone

5.06

Geogrid-confined RCC beam

5.33

20

the present study that the improvement in flexural strength is more in case of RCC beam than PCC beam. The deflection characteristics of all the three types of beam were studied from the graph of load vs deflection as shown in Figs. 3 and 4. It was observed that introduction of geogrid resulted in the reduction of deflection in the beams in addition to its strength improvement. The geogrid-confined RCC beam proved to be the best for deflection reduction. The crack pattern of the RCC beam, the geogrid-reinforced RCC beam and geogrid-confined RCC beam is shown in Figs. 5, 6 and 7. It was found that the 3

Deflection im mm

RCC beam 2.5

RCC beam with 2 layer geogrid

2

Geogrid Confined RCC beam

1.5 1 0.5 0 1

2

3

4

5

Load in kN Fig. 3 Graph for comparison of 7th day flexural strength

6

7

8

9

6

S. Pavithra and M. T. Selvi 6 RCC Beam

Deflection im mm

5 RCC beam with 2 layer geogrid 4

Geodrid Confined RCC Beam

3 2 1 0 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Load in kN Fig. 4 Graph for comparison of 28th day flexural strength

Fig. 5 Crack pattern of RCC beam

Fig. 6 Crack pattern of RCC beam with two-layer geogrid

Experimental Study on Application of Geogrid …

7

Fig. 7 Crack pattern of geogrid-confined beam

RCC beam has a greater number of cracks when compared to the other beams. While comparing geogrid-reinforced RCC beam and geogrid-confined RCC beam, the geogrid-confined RCC beam has lesser number of cracks with the depth of propagation of crack being small.

5 Conclusion From this study, the following conclusions were arrived at i. ii. iii. iv. v.

The flexural strength of RCC beam with geogrid is more in comparison with RCC beam. The difference in flexural strength of geogrid-confined RCC beam and the two-layer geogrid-reinforced RCC beam is negligible. The geogrid-reinforced RCC beam has lesser deflection in comparison with RCC beam. The number of cracks formed in geogrid-reinforced RCC beam is less than RCC beam. The geogrid-confined RCC beam has the least number of cracks as compared to other cases. Also, in this case, the cracks propagate to a shallower depth.

References 1. Al-Omari RR, Fekheranldin MK (2012) Measurement of tensile property of geogrids. In: Construction materials and environment, November 2012 2. Murekar A, Devikar D, Singadhupe J, Faizan Farooqui M (2017) Comparative study and analysis of PCC beam and reinforced concrete beam using Geogrid. Int J Sci Technol Eng 3, May 2017 (online)

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3. Chand Beehi D, Visweswara Rao VK (2017) Flexural behaviour of geo-grid reinforced concrete beam. Int J Res Appl Sci Eng Technol 5, October 2017 4. El Meski F, Chehab GR (2014) Flexural behaviour of concrete beams reinforced with different types of geogrids. In: American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 5. Saranyadevi M, Suresh M, Sivaraja M (2015) Strengthening of concrete beam by reinforcing with geo-synthetic materials. Int J Adv Res Educ Technol (IJARET) 3(2):245–251 6. Shobana S, Yalamesh G (2015) Experimental study of concrete beams reinforced with uniaxial and biaxial geogrids. Int J Chem Tech Res 8:1290–1295 7. Tamilmullai K (2016) Improvement of ductility behaviour of a reinforced concrete beams. In: International conference on current research in engineering science and technology, pp 52–56 (online) 8. Arun Kumar (2017) Study on flexural behaviour of steel fiber RC beams confined with biaxial geo-grid. In: Elsevier procedia engineering, vol 173, pp 1431–1438 (online) 9. Maheswar Reddy P, Ravi Kumar J (2018) Study of geogrid confined reinforced concrete beams. Int J Sci Eng Technol Res 7(4), April 2018 10. IS-10262-2009 Concrete mix design—Indian Standard Method 11. IS 456-2000 Plain and reinforced concrete—Indian Code of Practice 12. IS 516-1959 Method of testing for strength of concrete

Water Quality Assessment for Batu Pahat River Basin, Malaysia L. M. Sidek, A. Jajarmizadeh, H. A. Mohiyaden, S. M. Noh, A. H. M. Puad, and A. M. D. Shahrir

1 Introduction Point sources are considered sources where their discharge point is identifiable as single or multiple-point locations. Point sources include domestic wastewater discharge, combined sewer overflows, stormwater discharges, industrial discharge and spills [1]. On the other hand, nonpoint births generally happen over large areas where their discharge point is not clear and identifiable. Some nonpoint sources are agriculture runoff, livestock, urban runoff, landfills, and recreational activities [1–4]. In Malaysia, the increase of population and urbanization plays their roles in increasing the demand for water consumption while the country is still challenged with water pollution. Fast development has caused substantial amounts of waste, which ultimately flows into the water bodies. A significant number of rivers in Malaysia are highly polluted. In some, the water pollution problems are to the extent that there is no way to restoring the rivers’ quality [5]. As a result, from the Malaysian authorities’ perspective, providing safe and clean water for Malaysian residents has become a crucial issue to deal with [5–8]. L. M. Sidek College of Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] A. Jajarmizadeh · H. A. Mohiyaden (B) · S. M. Noh Institute of Energy and Infrastructure, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia A. H. M. Puad ZHL Engineers Sdn Bhd, Jalan Utama Suria Tropika 1, Taman Suria Tropika, 43300 Seri Kembangan, Selangor, Malaysia A. M. D. Shahrir Department of Irrigation and Drainage, River Basin Management Division, 50626 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Naganathan et al. (eds.), Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil Engineering, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 179, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5041-3_2

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In Malaysia, Batu Pahat consists of several major natural water bodies as accounted for by the people living nearby the area [9]. As a result of development near the site, the Batu Pahat river basin’s water quality deteriorates sharply [10]. One of the Batu Pahat river basin’s significant water bodies is the Batu Pahat River that forms from main tributaries which consists of Simpang Kiri River and Simpang Kanan River. Batu Pahat River is approximately 12 km flows from eastern to westerly route before discharging to Malacca Straits [5]. The Batu Pahat river basin’s primary landuse activities are industrial-based, palm oil agricultural activities, animal husbandries, and fisheries. Batu Pahat is main contributor for textile, plastic products, food processing, wood processing, and electronics. It is also dominated in the largest rubber plantation, oil palm plantation, and cocoa plantation for agriculture. Disposing the waste and contaminants into the river without control measures is an influential factor in making the river polluted [10]. Various point sources and nonpoint sources categories have been found, which relate to the Batu Pahat river basin’s water pollution. The data sources are all extracted from the Department of Environment (DOE), Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID), Majlis Perbandaran Batu Pahat (MPBP), and Jabatan Perkhidmatan Veterinar (DVS). There are 758 water pollution sources with linkage to animal husbandry, sewage treatment plant, palm oil mill, rubber factory, commercial, industry, workshop, landfill, residential area, forest, agricultural land, institutional building, construction site, and water treatment plant. The Batu Pahat river basin’s mentioned industrial operations contain animal food processing, wood production, electronic systems, quarry works, chemical production, etc. Also, it needs to be taken into account that the workshops around the Batu Pahat river basin operate with handling automotive fuel, automotive maintenance, cleaning services, vehicle spare-part services, and others.

2 Study Area Batu Pahat river basin is situated at the southern Malaysia in Johor state, with an area of 2,049 km2 . Batu Pahat river basin area consists of five sub-basins, including Sungai Simpang Kiri, Sungai Simpang Kanan, Sungai Bekok, Sungai Sembrong, and Sungai Senangar sub-basins. The basin is situated approximately within the longitudes 102° 47 E and 103° 16 E and within the latitudes 1° 46 N and 2° 25 N. The length of the main river, Batu Pahat River, is 12 km. Batu Pahat River flows from the northern part of the Batu Pahat district to the south before flowing out into the Straits of Malacca. Sungai Simpang Kiri has an elongated basin covering an area of 815 km2 , and the upper reach is also known as Sungai Lenik. Sungai Simpang Kanan has a sub-basin area of 645 km2 , drained by two main tributaries, namely the Sungai Bekok and the Sungai Sembrong. Batu Pahat is the principal town within the river basin. Other small towns within the river basin are Sri Medan, Yong Peng, Senggarang, Parit Raja, Air Hitam, Tongkang Pecah, Parit Yaani, and Chaah. Figure 1 shows the location of the Batu Pahat river basin [11].

Water Quality Assessment for Batu Pahat River Basin, Malaysia

11

Fig. 1 Location of Batu Pahat river basin

Several sources of pollution are identified regarding the upstream and downstream of the Batu Pahat river basin. Sungai Simpang Kanan and Sungai Simpang Kiri are the rivers that are indicators of the upstream part of the Batu Pahat River. Firstly, animal farming at Sungai Simpang Kanan sub-basin is considered one of the possible causes of water pollution since animal urea can increase NH3 -N, COD, and BOD levels. Secondly, there is a food industry on the same river, namely Jambatan Sri Bengkal, which may also contribute to the increase of COD and BOD levels of the stream of Simpang Kanan due to its release of the effluent from the factory. Both factors may play their role in shifting the parameters of DO and AN to non-compliant parameters as a response to an increase in the level of NH3 -N, BOD, and COD. Thirdly, in connection with the river of Simpang Kiri, there is a direct toilet flushing from squatters at Sungai Simpang Kiri sub-basin that may increase NH3 -N, COD and BOD levels due to the effect of untreated sewage. Lastly, on the river of Simpang Kiri, the discharge of gross pollutant from palm oil mill may increase the number of flowtable sediments in the river and impairment of the river water quality. The mentioned activities may be the possible causes of making the DO and NH3 -N act as non-compliant parameters for the river of Simpang Kiri. Respective to the Batu Pahat river basin’s downstream section, the studied sampling points are Batu Pahat River, Sungai Ayam, Parit Minyak Beku, and Parit Besar for identification of pollution sources. Firstly, concerning the Batu Pahat River, the marine and industrial activities and operation of wastewater treatment plants around the river are the potential sources of water pollution. Also, changes in landuse activity surrounding the area leading to sedimentation and plantation activities near the area result in the river’s possible contamination in terms of NH3 -N. Hence, the mentioned sources may be the main drivers for making NH3 -N and pH non-compliant parameters. Secondly, the Sungai Ayam sub-basin is facing a muddy water problem

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resulting in sediment deposition. This problem is suspected of quarry and landmining activities located upstream of the river. Despite sediment deposition, effluent from restaurants and residential places is also a contributor to the potential environmental stressor. Thirdly, illegal dumping, animal farming activities, and industrial activities are the possible leading causes for recording the lowest water quality for Parit Minyak Beku with a WQI value of 51.12 among the sampling stations, which makes it classified as IV class. In other words, Parit Minyak Beku is considered to be polluted. Lastly, anthropogenic activities such as discharging direct sullage from the residential area, restaurants, and wet market are suspected as pollutant contributors to the stream. Due to these anthropogenic activities, Parit Besar recorded almost the second lowest water quality with the WQI value of 52.88 and was categorized as Class III. It is regarded as polluted. In general, a sharp increase in the population with growing urban and industrial developments in the Batu Pahat river basin areas may lead to a higher possibility of water pollution. Urbanization and a highly industrialized development, especially in the downstream of the Batu Pahat river basin where the Batu Pahat River is located, may be the leading cause of water quality degradation.

3 Methodology 3.1 Data Collection Data collection is very important in the accuracy of the outcomes of the project. Figure 2 indicates the chart for how water quality field sampling is conducted and, eventually, how the classes of the streams in the Batu Pahat river basin is determined to the data. The Department of Environment, Malaysia (DOE), recommended six major required parameters to obtain river classification. These water quality parameters are also included in this study. It needs to be mentioned that these targeted parameters are dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3 -N), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and total suspended solid (SS). The approach for determining river water referring from water quality index and National River water quality standards (NWQS) river classifications are explained in this section. Lastly, water quality field sampling regarding this study is also illustrated in this section. In this study, there are two sets of data that are analyzed. The first set of data relates to the historical water quality data provided by DOE. The second set of data represents the water quality field sampling data that has been measured in this study. For both data sets, the study area is identical, referring to the Batu Pahat river basin. However, sampling points in the Batu Pahat river basin for every dataset are different. Regarding the historical statistics, the DOE water quality data are collected yearly from 2008 to 2018. The DOE provided the corresponding data, which used its water quality monitoring stations in Batu Pahat’s basin to report the data.

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Fig. 2 Graphical outline of data collection

In this study, the data provided by DOE refers to 25 water quality monitoring stations. In Fig. 3, the locations of DOE water quality monitoring stations in the Batu Pahat river basin, which refers to the first set of data. Regarding the second set of data, the selection for water quality sampling points for the Batu Pahat river basin is based on the location distance. In total, there are 25 sampling stations. The water samples collected for the Batu Pahat river basin sampling points were conducted from December 2 to 5, 2019 between 8.00 and 16.00. The water samples were sent to an accredited analytical laboratory at Johor Bahru afterward. For the second set of data, the 25 sampling points of the Batu Pahat river basin (defines as W1 to W25) have been established. The sampling points are positioned to represent the surrounding areas of streams in the Batu Pahat river basin, including point and nonpoint sources. The sampling points of W1, W2, and W25 represent the upstream of the Batu Pahat river basin. Besides, all the stations other than W1, W2, and W25 act as indicators of water quality downstream of the Batu Pahat river basin. For all sampling points located within the Batu Pahat river basin for the second set of data, water quality data are measured in December 2019. The mentioned data are obtained by water quality field sampling. Figure 4 shows the water quality sampling points selected for the Batu Pahat river basin related to the second data set.

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Fig. 3 Locations of DOE water quality monitoring stations in Batu Pahat river basin

3.2 Water Quality Parameters The water quality parameters studied in this research are BOD, COD, AN, SS, and pH. All six water quality parameters are recommended according to the Department of Environment, Malaysia (DOE). DO concentration is one of the essential elements affecting river ecosystems because oxygen is a vital factor for most aquatic life, and it is involved in many chemical reactions. DO is necessary because it is the controlling factor for marine life’s health: The presence of aquatic plants and animals relies on DO level. The changes in the level of DO may have devastating effects on the population of aquatic plants and animals. DO is involving in many chemical reactions: One of the significant results needing oxygen is cellular respiration. This reaction is necessary because it provides energy for aquatic animals to carry out their life process. Moreover, it can be the possible cause of nutrient enrichment (eutrophication): All fishes and zooplanktons store phosphorus in their body. Once they die due to a low level of oxygen in the water, a significant amount of phosphorus can be released into water

Water Quality Assessment for Batu Pahat River Basin, Malaysia

15

Fig. 4 Locations of water quality sampling in Batu Pahat river basin

depending upon the population of aquatic animals, all of which may lead to nutrient enrichment.

3.3 River Classification in Malaysia The system of WQI is introduced by the Department of Environment (DOE) of Malaysia, with the aim of trend assessment of water quality of rivers in Malaysia in relation with six parameters, namely dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3 -N), suspended solids (SS), and pH. These water quality parameters are ultimately translated into a single number known to be WQI, which reflects the rivers’ status. The state of the streams can be classified as very good, good, average, polluted, and very polluted according to DOE [12]. The river classification is indicated in Table 1, based on WQI-DOE. Subsequently, Fig. 5 shows the WQI standard and the computation method of sub-index properties for each parameter to obtain the WQI value. The formula used in the calculation of the WQI according to DOE is: WQI = (0.22 × SIDO) + (0.19 × SIBOD) + (0.16 × SICOD) + (0.15 × SIAN) + (0.16 × SISS) + (0.12 × SIpH)

(1)

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Table 1 Classification of WQI-DOE [11]

WQI-DOE value

Condition

90–100

Very good

75–90

Good

45–75

Average

20–45

Polluted

0–20

Very polluted

Fig. 5 WQI standard and its calculation process [13, 14]

Where SIDO = Sub-index for dissolved oxygen. SIBOD = Sub-index for biological oxygen demand. SICOD = Sub-index for chemical oxygen demand. SIAN = Sub-index for ammoniacal nitrogen.

Water Quality Assessment for Batu Pahat River Basin, Malaysia

17

SISS = Sub-index for suspended solids. SIpH = Sub-index for pH. Notes: (1) X is the concentration of the parameters in mg/L, except for pH and DO. (2) SIDO, SIBOD, SICOD, SIAN, SISS, and SIpH are the sub-index (SI) of the respective water quality parameters used to compute the WQI. The use of the water quality classification of the river is shown in Fig. 6. WQI standard has been practiced in Malaysia since 25 years ago [14]. Despite having a desirable amount of data, no review of the existing WQI equations was conducted within this long period. In the year 2007, there has been a study that introduced the newly revised WQI equation and determined that this NWQI analysis is slightly more stringent than the existing WQI equations [14]. NWQI considers the parameters of DO, BOD, TSS, AN, turbidity, and total phosphorus (TP), where pH and COD are the parameters replaced with TP in NWQI. The NWQI standard and the calculation method of NWQI are shown in Fig. 7. According to [14], the objectives of NWQI rankings are to be acceptable to the local issues of certain river water quality. The method of sampling and testing was another factor that taken into consideration for choosing the parameters regarding the

Fig. 6 NWQS river Classification and its uses (DOE, 2008)

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Fig. 7 The NWQI standard and its calculation process [14]

proposed NWQI. The NWQI comprises six parameters, as given in Fig. 7. Moreover, pH and COD are replaced with turbidity (TUR). In Fig. 7, all pollutant concentrations are in mg/L for all parameters except turbidity (NTU). The formula used in the calculation of the NWQI is as below [14]: NWQI = 0.18SIDO + 0.18SITSS + 0.17SIBOD + 0.17SIAN + 0.15SITP + 0.15SITURNWQI = 0.18SIDO + 0.18SITSS + 0.17SIBOD + 0.17SIAN + 0.15SITP + 0.15SITUR Where SIDO = Sub-index of DO. SITSS = Sub-index of TSS. SIBOD = Sub-index of BOD. SIAN = Sub-index of AN. SITP = Sub-index of total phosphorus. SITUR = Sub-index of turbidity.

Water Quality Assessment for Batu Pahat River Basin, Malaysia

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4 Results and Discussion Figure 8 shows the average quality index values of 25 stations for the Batu Pahat river basin obtained from DOE, collected from 2008 to 2018. In other words, Fig. 8 summarizes the historical trend of the average quality index values in addition to the information respective to the classes of water quality for all 25 DOE stations starting from the year 2008 to 2018. Based on Fig. 8, 15 of the stations are determined to fall under Class III, 9 stations are classified as Class II, and only 1 station is classified as Class IV. In situ and laboratory testing, which refers to the second set of data for each parameter, are tabulated in Tables 2 and 3 based on the Batu Pahat river basin’s sampling station. Each measured class for every parameter must comply with the standard not to exceed the Class II limit of water quality as introduced by the DOE. The results are studied to specify the classes of the selected parameters based on the DOE standard. Therefore, as a response to the analysis carried out, all noncompliant parameters have been detected and highlighted in Tables 2 and 3. Based on the in situ and laboratory testing results conducted in December 2019, the water quality parameters are carefully investigated. Furthermore, the results of the WQI are obtained using existing WQI and the NWQI methods. Based on Table 2 using the WQI method, the water quality parameters of AN, DO, and pH are considered non-compliant for more than half of the sampling stations out of 25 stations. In other words, 20, 18, and 15 sampling stations in the Batu Pahat river basin are determined to have unaccepted AN, DO, and pH levels, respectively. Furthermore, the parameter of BOD contributes to almost half of the stations, 12 stations out of 25 stations, in terms of being non-compliant. Therefore, it is evident to state that AN, DO, pH, and BOD are all critical water quality parameters for the Batu Pahat river basin since they are regarded to be non-compliant for approximately half or above half of the sampling stations. Lastly, COD, turbidity, and SS are the least significant pollution contributors to the Batu Pahat river basin. This is because

Fig. 8 Average quality index values for Batu Pahat river basin obtained from DOE

River

Sungai Simpang Kiri

Sungai Simpang Kanan

Sungai Batu Pahat

Parit Sangit

Parit Bisu

Parit Kuda

Parit Sidek

Parit Sempadan

Parit Simen

Parit Hj Bajuri

Parit Besar

Parit Abd Salam

Parit Minyak Beku

Sungai Tk. Buloh

Pt Lapis Patah Pedang

S. Patah Pedang

S. Burong Sangkut

S. Ayam Kechil

S. Ayam

S. Suloh Kechil

Stn. ID

W1

W2

W3

W4

W5

W6

W7

W8

W9

W10

W11

W12

W13

W14

W15

W16

W17

W18

W19

W20

III

II

III

III

III

III

III

IV

III

III

III

III

II

III

II

III

II

III

III

III

CLASS (WQI)

✓ ✓

✓ ✓

✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓

AN (mg/L)

✓

SS (mg/L)

✓

COD (mg/L)

✓

BOD (mg/L)

pH

DO (mg/L)

Non-compliant parameters (based on WQI)

Table 2 Non-compliant parameters and WQI classes of the stations in the Batu Pahat river basin (based on WQI)

✓

(continued)

TUR (NTU)

20 L. M. Sidek et al.

River

S. Suloh Besar

Parit Mohd Shah

Sungai Kuris

Sungai Senggarang

Sungai Bekok

Stn. ID

W21

W 22

W23

W24

W25

Table 2 (continued)

III

III

III

III

III

CLASS (WQI)

✓

✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

BOD (mg/L)

✓

pH

✓

DO (mg/L)

Non-compliant parameters (based on WQI) ✓

COD (mg/L)

SS (mg/L)

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

AN (mg/L)

TUR (NTU)

Water Quality Assessment for Batu Pahat River Basin, Malaysia 21

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L. M. Sidek et al.

Table 3 Non-compliant parameters and NWQI classes of the stations in Batu Pahat river basin (based on NWQI) Stn. ID

River

CLASS (NWQI)

Non-compliant parameters (based on NWQI)

W1

Sungai Simpang Kiri

II

✓

W2

Sungai Simpang Kanan

II

✓

W3

Sungai Batu II Pahat

W4

Parit Sangit

II

W5

Parit Bisu

III

W6

Parit Kuda

I

✓

W7

Parit Sidek

II

✓

W8

Parit Sempadan

II

✓

W9

Parit Simen

II

✓

✓

W10

Parit Hj Bajuri

I

✓

✓

W11

Parit Besar

III

✓

W12

Parit Abd Salam

II

✓

W13

Parit Minyak Beku

III

✓

W14

Sungai Tk. Buloh

III

✓

W15

Pt Lapis Patah Pedang

II

✓

W16

S. Patah Pedang

II

✓

W17

S. Burong Sangkut

II

✓

W18

S. Ayam Kechil

II

✓

W19

S. Ayam

III

✓

W20

S. Suloh Kechil

II

✓

W21

S. Suloh Besar

III

✓

DO (mg/L)

BOD (mg/L)

SS (mg/L)

AN (mg/L)

TUR (NTU)

TP (mg/L)

✓

✓

✓

✓ ✓ ✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

✓ ✓ (continued)

Water Quality Assessment for Batu Pahat River Basin, Malaysia

23

Table 3 (continued) Stn. ID

River

CLASS (NWQI)

Non-compliant parameters (based on NWQI)

W 22 Parit Mohd Shah

III

✓

W23

Sungai Kuris

II

✓

✓

W24

Sungai Senggarang

III

✓

✓

W25

Sungai Bekok

II

✓

✓

DO (mg/L)

BOD (mg/L)

SS (mg/L)

AN (mg/L)

TUR (NTU)

TP (mg/L) ✓

the COD, turbidity, and SS parameters are non-compliant for 2, 1, and 1 stations out of 25 sampling stations, respectively, which makes them non-compliant parameters accountable for pollution of less than 10 percent of the total of 25 stations. Based on Table 3, using the NWQI method, the DO’s water quality parameter is non-compliant for more than half of the sampling stations, 19 stations out of 25 stations. Additionally, the benchmark of AN contributes to almost half of the stations, 12 stations out of 25, followed by TP, which relates to a slightly lower number than half, 9 stations out of 25, in terms of being non-compliant. Lastly, turbidity, BOD, and SS parameter are the least substantial pollution contributors to the Batu Pahat river basin. This is because the BOD, SS, and turbidity parameters are non-compliant for 1, 1, and 2 stations out of 25 sampling stations, respectively, which makes them responsible for pollution of less than 10 percent of the total of 25 stations. Based on Tables 2 and 3, once the method of NWQI is used as a replacement to WQI, the number of non-compliant stations for BOD and AN is reduced by 11 and 8 units, respectively. Therefore, BOD and AN are more sensitive to variation than other parameters in terms of exceeding the Class II limit for the Batu Pahat river basin when the NWQI method is used instead of WQI. Nevertheless, the water quality parameters of DO and TUR shown the most inconsiderate changes with a variation of 1 unit about the number of non-compliant parameters when the NWQI is applied. Also, the number of stations that failed to comply with the Class II limit remains constant using the approach of NWQI instead of WQI by considering the parameter of SS, which makes SS insignificant in terms of being related to the Batu Pahat water basin as a non-compliant parameter. Overall, by taking the standard parameters into account, BOD and AN are likely to indicate a significantly higher degree of change compared with DO, TUR, and SS in terms of being non-compliant with relation to the Batu Pahat river basin as the method of WQI is replaced by NWQI. Regarding the results where the WQI method incorporates, 20 of the stations are categorized as Class III, 4 stations are classified as Class II, and only 1 station is classified as Class IV. However, for the NWQI method for obtaining the water quality classes, 15 stations fall under Class II, followed by Class III and I, which

24

L. M. Sidek et al.

belong to 8 and 2 stations, respectively. Also, for both methods, no Class V is detected for any station. Based on the results, a definite difference between the two ways of WQI and NWQI is identified from the classes’ results. When considering the NWQI method instead of the WQI method, the number of stations falling under the Class of III tends to decrease substantially, resulting in a noticeable rise in the number of stations classified as Class II. Also, the Class I appears to show an increase by two, and Class IV is reduced by one in terms of the number of stations they relate to when changing the WQI method into the NWQI method. Overall, the NWQI method’s selection, as a replacement to the WQI approach, is a more positive way to report the WQI classes, as the comparison in this study suggests accordingly. Based on Fig. 8, a comparison is conducted for the results. Using the existing WQI equation, only 16 percent of sampling points in the Batu Pahat river basin satisfied the DOE standard, categorized as Class II. In comparison, another 84 percent still failed to comply with the standard and classified as Class III and IV. However, by using the NWQI method, 68% of sampling stations in the Batu Pahat river basin achieved the DOE requirement categorized as Class I and II. In contrast, the other 32 percent failed to fulfill the specification, classified as Class III. Therefore, again, there is an emphasis that the NWQI method is considered a less strict approach to determine the WQI classes compared to the WQI strategy, following the observation in Figs. 9. Following the comparison, as shown in Table 4, it has been found that all the WQI classes determined from the second set of data using the WQI method are identical to the WQI classes observed in the first set of data. For both sets of data, all the monitoring stations upstream of the Batu Pahat river basin recorded Class III for the water quality, which indicates that the measured and processed data in addition to computed classes in this study are correct. On the other hand, Table 5 shows both sets of data measured in the downstream section of the Batu Pahat river basin.

Fig. 9 Overall results for the WQI and the NWQI at various station

III

Sungai Bekok

3BP05

3BP01

Sungai Batu Pahat III

Downstream section of Batu Pahat river basin

III

3BP02

3BP16

III III

3BP17

Sungai Simpang Kanan

W3

W25

W2

Sungai Batu Pahat

Station ID W1

Sungai Simpang Kiri

3BP15

WQI Class

River

Station ID III

Second set of data (field survey data)

First set of data (DOE data)

Upstream section of Batu Pahat river basin

Sungai Bekok

Sungai Simpang Kanan

III

Sungai Simpang Kiri

River

Table 4 Comparison table of WQI classes between first and second sets of data regarding the upstream section of the Batu Pahat river basin

WQI Class

III

III

III

III

III

Water Quality Assessment for Batu Pahat River Basin, Malaysia 25

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L. M. Sidek et al.

Table 5 The statistical analysis with respect to WQI and NWQI values Statistical analysis

WQI

CLASS

CLASS II

NWQI

CLASS

CLASS II

Mean

68.03

Median

68.52

III

76.5

III

76.5

Minimum

51.12

IV

Maximum

82.23

10th Percentile

76.16

90th Percentile

57.98

NWQI-WQI

75.68

II

72.1

7.65

74.05

III

72.1

5.53

76.5

51.29

IV

72.1

0.17

II

76.5

95.03

I

72.1

12.8

II

76.5

88.94

II

72.1

12.78

III

76.5

66.84

III

72.1

8.86

For both sets of data, all the monitoring stations upstream of the Batu Pahat river basin recorded Class III for the water quality, which indicates that the measured and processed data in addition to computed classes in this study are correct. Therefore, the historical data confirms the accuracy of measured data and appropriateness of calculation stapes using the WQI method, which has been performed in this study. Based on Table 5, the minimum value of WQI is 51.12 (Class IV–polluted), and the maximum amount of WQI is 82.23 (Class II–slightly polluted). However, using the NWQI method, the minimum NWQI is computed to be 51.29 (Class IV-polluted) and the maximum NWQI is 95.03 (Class I–clean). Also, WQI means the value is 68.03, which is somewhat lower than the NWQI mean with a value of 72.1. Hence, a less stringent character of NWQI, in terms of reporting the WQI classes compared to WQI, is again signified [15, 16].

5 Conclusion In this research, two methods of existing WQI and the NWQI show a clear difference of results pattern. By using the revised WQI, the downstream of Batu Pahat river basin is experienced WQI Class II. On the contrary, Class III is categorized for the water quality of the Batu Pahat River using the approach of WQI. The data analysis for WQI suggested that more than or equal to half of the sampling stations is non-compliant out of 25 selected sampling stations when the focus is on the water quality parameters of AN, DO, pH, and BOD. However, the water quality parameters of COD, turbidity, and SS are responsible for the pollution of a minimal number of sampling stations, counted to be less than 10 percent of the total of 25 stations in the Batu Pahat river basin. On the other hand, according to the NWQI method, the DO, AN, and TP as the non-compliant parameters, contribute to approximately half of the sampling stations. Despite DO, AN, and TP being non-compliant for a considerable number of sampling stations, turbidity, BOD, and SS are non-compliant for the less than 10 percent of total stations, making them insignificant parameters in water quality pollution of

Water Quality Assessment for Batu Pahat River Basin, Malaysia

27

Batu Pahat river basin. Further analysis shows that the BOD and AN are considered to be highly more responsive non-compliant parameters based on the linkage to the Batu Pahat river basin compared to DO, TUR, and AN when the WQI method is changed into the NWQI approach. Also, by using the NWQI method instead of WQI for the classification of classes of sampling points, a significant number of stations fall under the Class of II instead of Class III, indicating an overall improvement in the water quality classes. As indicated by the overall results, using the method of WQI, 16 percent of the sampling points meet the DOE standard, although using the NWQI method, 84 percent of sampling points satisfy the DOE requirement. This again shows the enhancement in the water quality classes when the NWQI principles are taken into account as a replacement to WQI principles. In addition to the analysis of WQI and NWQI, the water quality field sampling data, measured in this study, is compared with the DOE historical water quality data. Hence, the comparison study demonstrated that the analyzed water quality data of DOE fully supports the appropriateness and precision of the water quality field sampling data.

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13. M. of N. R. and E. DOE (2018) Malaysian environmental quality report 2018. Putrajaya, Kuala Lumpur 14. Mamun AA, Idris A, Sulaiman WNA, Muyibi SA (2007) A revised water quality index proposed for the assessment of surface water quality in Malaysia. Pollut Res 26(4):523–529 15. Mohiyaden HAHA et al (2016) Conventional methods and emerging technologies for urban river water purification plant: a short review. ARPN J Eng Appl Sci 11(4):2547–2556 16. Sidek L, Mohiyaden HA, Lee LK, Foo KY (2016) Potential of engineered biomedia for the innovative purification of contaminated river water. Desalin Water Treat 57(51):24210–24221

Effect of Graphene Oxide and Crumb Rubber on the Drying Shrinkage Behavior of Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC): Experimental Study, RSM—Based Modelling and Optimization Isyaka Abdulkadir, Bashar S. Mohammed, M. S. Liew, and M. M. A. Wahab

1 Introduction ECC also called bendable concrete being the first-ever developed cement composite exhibiting pseudo strain hardening behavior attracts the attention of the research community. This is due to its potential as a construction material that can be one of the needed solutions to the ever-increasing demand for resilient materials to cope with the rapid infrastructural development [1]. The application of micro mechanics design principles to fashion the interaction between the ECC constituent materials led to the amazing ductility behavior of the composite. With the exception of coarse aggregate, other materials used for concrete are used in ECC in addition to polymeric fibers (commonly, Polyvinyl Alcohol fiber) at volume fraction of not more than 2% [2]. Owing to the presence of the fiber and their effect on bridging the cracks, the composite demonstrates a controlled saturated micro-crack development of less than 100 µm in width. This is chiefly the secret behind the ECC’s attainment of 2–5% strain capacity in sharp contrast to the normal concrete’s value of 0.01% [3]. I. Abdulkadir · B. S. Mohammed (B) · M. S. Liew · M. M. A. Wahab Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, 32610 Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] I. Abdulkadir e-mail: [email protected] M. S. Liew e-mail: [email protected] M. M. A. Wahab e-mail: [email protected] I. Abdulkadir Civil Engineering Department, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Naganathan et al. (eds.), Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil Engineering, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 179, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5041-3_3

29

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I. Abdulkadir et al.

In spite of the ECC’s amazing ductility, it however experiences excessive shrinkage. This problem is ascribed to the high cementitious material content and lack of coarse aggregate in the mix [4]. The use of fly ash in large volume for cement replacement in the composite has provided solution to some of the problems associated with the high cement content such as high cost, heat of hydration and environmental issues. However, the drying shrinkage problem persists. In order to address this and other problems, researchers have looked in to the use of nanomaterials that have the ability to improve the composite performance at nano-scale level due to their pore refining effect [5–9]. Some of these materials, for instance GO, Nano-silica, Nano-clays etc. are found to improve the mechanical properties of cementitious composites. Regarding the shrinkage in particular, Achara et al. [10] noted a 39% decrease in the drying shrinkage of PVA-ECC with 2% addition of nanosilica. Similarly, nano-clay has been reported to reduce permeability and shrinkage of cement composites [11]. In the same vein, carbon nanotubes have proven effective in reducing shrinkage in concrete [12]. However, the influence of GO on the volume stability and shrinkage behavior of ECC is yet to be investigated. Furthermore, with the use of CR in ECC becoming more attractive due to its positive effect on the deformation behavior of the composite [13], it becomes imperative to study the shrinkage behavior of rubberized ECC modified with GO. This is against the backdrop of the negative effect of CR on the shrinkage behavior of concrete and mortar as reported by numerous studies [14–17]. Although research in to the use of ECC in producing full structural elements is gaining ground, studying its shrinkage behavior is of great importance owing to its main and primary function as a repair material. Compatibility of strains between the repair material and the substrate is necessary to achieve the desired response. To achieve the aim of this study, RSM will be employed. RSM is a design of experiment (DOE) tool, employing mathematical and statistical analyses techniques for experimental design and development of models called response surface models which can be graphically presented using response surface diagrams [10, 18]. This entails the determination of the effect of the interaction between different levels of the input factors (independent variables) on the response (dependent variable) [19]. The response is determined experimentally while an appropriate model is used to fit the data. Using analysis of variance (ANOVA), the models are validated. Also, an optimization is performed to determine the optimum levels of the input factors required to get most appropriate response [3].

2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Materials Type I Ordinary Portland Cement conforming to the specifications of ASTM C150 was used. The fly ash (FA) used is classified as class F by ASTM C618 due to having

Effect of Graphene Oxide and Crumb Rubber … Table 1 Oxide Composition and Properties of cement and FA

31

Oxide

Cement (%)

FA (%)

CaO

82.10

SiO2

8.59

Fe2 O3

3.18

Al2 O3

2.00

K2 O

0.72

1.49

MgO

0.62

0.77

SO3

2.78

0.65

P2 O5

0.46

1.23

6.57 62.4 9.17 15.3

TiO2

0.17

1.32

MnO

0.15

0.77

ZnO

0.03

0.03

SrO

0.03

0.19

CuO

0.03

0.02

As2 O3

0.02

0.01

ZrO2

0.02

0.12

Loss on ignition

2.2

1.25

Specific gravity

3.15

2.38

a total Fe2 O3 , SiO2 , CaO and MgO of 95.87% which is more than the minimum of 70% specified. The oxide composition and properties of the OPC and FA are shown in Table 1. River sand having average particle size of 450 µm was used as the fine aggregate. CR passing 1.18 mm sieve (as shown by the grading curve in Fig. 1) was used for the fine aggregate replacement. An oil coated PVA fiber from Kuraray Company Ltd. Japan has been utilized in the mix. The fiber has an average length of

Fig. 1 Fine aggregate and CR gradation

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I. Abdulkadir et al.

Table 2 Elemental composition of GO used Element

Carbon

Hydrogen

Nitrogen

Sulfur

Oxygen

Concentration (%)

49–56

0–1

0–1

2–4

41–50

18 mm, 200 µm diameter, tensile strength of 750 MPa and modulus of elasticity of 27 GPa. A polycarboxylate-based water reducing admixture with brand name Sika ViscoCrete® -2044 was used in order to attain the desired self-compacting properties at fresh state. The admixture has a pH value of 6.2, free chloride content of 0.1% and specific gravity of 1.08. The Graphene oxide (GO) used was produced by Graphenea Ltd. Spain and it came as a highly concentrated dispersion of 2.5%w concentration. The elemental analysis result is shown in Table 2.

2.2 Material Quantities and RSM Variable Proportioning Using the user defined option of the RSM, 15 mixes were generated. The variables considered were the GO in the range of 0.0–0.08% (at an interval of 0.02%) by weight of cement and CR at 1, 3 and 5% replacement levels of fine aggregate. Using the mix proportions for M45-ECC (most commonly researched ECC), the cement, FA, PVA fiber, water-binder (W/B) were all kept constant for all the developed mixes as shown in Table 3.

2.3 Mixing, Sample Preparation and Testing The dry ingredients including the cement, FA, fine aggregate and CR were firstly mixed in a double rotation pan type concrete mixer for two minutes. This was followed by adding a mixture of the water, HRWR and GO in to the mixer and allowed to properly mix for 5 min. To ensure fiber dispersion and prevent fiber balling, the PVA was added to the mix gradually for 5 min through the mesh opening on top of the mixer. The mixing was continued for 5 more minutes to achieve a visually consistent and homogenous mix as depicted in Fig. 2a. For the shrinkage measurement, three 285 × 25 × 25 mm prism specimens were cast for each mix and were covered with a plastic material for 24 h at laboratory ambient temperature of 20 °C and 95% relative humidity. The specimens were then demolded and subsequently air cured at room temperature of 22 °C ± 3 °C and R/H of 50 ± 5% as shown in Fig. 2b. Following the specifications of ASTM C157/157 M (2008), the specimens length were measured weekly for one month using a length comparator as shown in Fig. 2c and then at 8, 16 and 32 weeks after casting.

Effect of Graphene Oxide and Crumb Rubber …

33

Table 3 RSM generated runs and quantities of materials Input variables (%)

Quantities in Kg/m3

A:GO

B:CR

GO

CR

PVA

FA

Cement

Sand

Water

1

0.02

3

0.115

3.9

22.75

705.65

577.35

463.1

320

2

0.08

3

0.462

3.9

22.75

705.65

577.35

463.1

320

3

0.08

1

0.462

1.3

22.75

705.65

577.35

465.7

320

4

0.04

5

0.231

6.5

22.75

705.65

577.35

460.5

320

5

0.02

5

0.115

6.5

22.75

705.65

577.35

460.5

320

6

0

3

0

3.9

22.75

705.65

577.35

463.1

320

7

0.04

3

0.231

3.9

22.75

705.65

577.35

463.1

320

8

0.04

1

0.231

1.3

22.75

705.65

577.35

465.7

320

9

0

5

0

6.5

22.75

705.65

577.35

460.5

320

10

0.06

5

0.346

6.5

22.75

705.65

577.35

460.5

320

11

0.06

3

0.346

3.9

22.75

705.65

577.35

463.1

320

12

0.02

1

0.115

1.3

22.75

705.65

577.35

465.7

320

13

0.08

5

0.462

6.5

22.75

705.65

577.35

460.5

320

14

0

1

0

1.3

22.75

705.65

577.35

465.7

320

15

0.06

1

0.346

1.3

22.75

705.65

577.35

465.7

320

Exp. Run

Fig. 2 a Fresh GO-RECC mix. b Test specimens. c Shrinkage measurement

3 Results and Discussion Figures 3, 4, 5 and 6 present the shrinkage values as affected by different levels of GO addition for the 15 mixes considered at 1, 3 and 5% CR replacement levels over the 16 weeks (112 days) curing duration. Generally, the shrinkage strain increased with increase in the curing duration across all GO and CR addition levels. However, the trend significantly decreased after the first 4 weeks (28 days) for all the mixes. As can be observed from the figures, the more the CR, the higher the shrinkage of

34

I. Abdulkadir et al.

0.035

SHRINKAGE (%)

0.03 0.025 0.02 0%GO

0.015

0.02%GO

0.01

0.04%GO 0.06%GO

0.005

0.08%GO

0 0

20

40 60 80 CURING TIME (DAYS)

100

120

Fig. 3 Shrinkage for mixes having 1% CR 0.08 0.07

SHRINKAGE (%)

0.06 0.05 0.04 0%GO 0.02%GO 0.04%GO 0.06%GO 0.08%GO

0.03 0.02 0.01 0

0

20

40

60 CURING TIME (DAYS)

Fig. 4 Shrinkage for mixes having 3% CR

Fig. 5 Shrinkage for mixes having 5% CR

80

100

120

Effect of Graphene Oxide and Crumb Rubber …

35

0.080

0%GO 0.02%GO 0.04%GO 0.06%GO 0.08%GO

0.070

SHRINKAGE (%)

0.060 0.050 0.040 0.030 0.020 0.010 0.000 1%CR

3%CR

5%CR

CR CONTENT

Fig. 6 Variation in shrinkage with different levels of GO and CR

the composite. At all GO addition levels, mixes having higher CR displayed higher shrinkage values. Maximum shrinkage values for 1, 3 and 5% CR replacements are 0.03%, 0.059% and 0.067% respectively as shown in Fig. 6. Considering mixes with 0%GO at different CR replacement levels, there was a 96.6% increase in drying shrinkage between Mix14 (0%GO, 1%CR) and Mix6 (0%GO, 3%CR). Similarly there was an increase of 13.6% between Mix6 (0%GO, 3%CR) and Mix9 (0%G, 5%CR). The increase in drying shrinkage with CR replacement is caused by the lower modulus of elasticity of the CR particles. This is in line with the findings of Wang et al. [20] who explained that the lower stiffness of the CR particles compared to the sand, make them deform easily under drying shrinkage stress. Similarly, as explained by Zhang et al. [16], the flexible nature of the CR offers lower internal restrain within the matrix compared to the replaced sand particles leading to the increase in drying shrinkage. In the same vein, the porosity of the composite increases with increase in CR. This is attributed to the hydrophobic nature of the rubber, making it repel water from its surface and trapping air during mixing. Consequently, the amount of capillary water increases leading to volume change as it escapes. This leads to increased drying shrinkage with higher CR content. This agrees with the findings of Huang et al. [21] and Uygunoglu and Topcu [15]. Interestingly, the results indicated a significant decrease in the drying shrinkage with GO addition for all the CR replacement levels. When compared to the mix having 0% GO, at 0.08% GO, there is 30%, 30.5% and 38.8% decrease in the drying shrinkage at 1, 3 and 5% CR replacement levels respectively. Drying shrinkage is associated with loss of water within the capillary pores. This leads to the volume change associated with the shrinkage strain. The reduction in the drying shrinkage is caused by densification effect of the GO on the matrix by reducing and refining the pore structure. Also, the enhancement of the cement hydration products owing to the abundant reactive functional groups present on GO surface increases the cement

36

I. Abdulkadir et al.

Table 4 Variables and response

Exp. run

Input variables (%)

Response

A:GO

B:CR

Shrinkage (%)

1

0.02

3

0.030

2

0.08

3

0.025

3

0.08

1

0.021

4

0.04

5

0.022

5

0.02

5

0.021

6

0

3

0.059

7

0.04

3

0.044

8

0.04

1

0.038

9

0

5

0.038

10

0.06

5

0.041

11

0.06

3

0.067

12

0.02

1

0.056

13

0.08

5

0.042

14

0

1

0.038

15

0.06

1

0.041

density and volume stability thereby reducing the drying shrinkage. This agrees with the findings of Xu et al. [22]. In the same vein, the reduced shrinkage could be attributed to the self-curing effect of the GO at early ages. As explained by Lu et al. [23], due to the hydrophilicity and large surface area of the GO particles, they absorb large amount of water to wet their surface. This water is later released in the mix further enhancing the hydration of the cement leading to production of more hydration products, densifying the matrix and reducing the drying shrinkage (Table 4).

4 RSM Modelling Validation and Optimization One of the utility of RSM is the development of response models. Equation (1) is the generalized form of the response prediction model equation developed by the RSM. As the relationship between the variables is non-linear in this case, the second degree polynomial equation is the most appropriate model equation to fit the response data. y = β0 +

k  i=1

βi xi +

k  i=1

βii xi2 +

j=1 k  

βi j xi x j + ε

(1)

j=2 i=1

where y signifies the desired response (drying shrinkage in this research). β0 is the regression coefficient for the constant term while βi for linear, βii for quadratic,

Effect of Graphene Oxide and Crumb Rubber …

37

βi j for the interaction of xi and x j factors respectively. The number of factors is represented with k and ε is the random error. Equation (2) is the response-based prediction model developed by the RSM. This model was subjected to ANOVA validation the summary of which is presented in Table 5. The analysis was performed at 5% significance level (95% confidence interval). So all terms having a probability below 0.05 are said to be significant. Hence, A, B, AB, A2 and B2 are considered to be significant model terms. What this means in essence is that the input factors (independent variables) have a significant influence on the response (drying shrinkage) collectively (due to their interaction) and individually. These effects of the variables on the response is pictorially depicted by the 2D and 3D response-surface diagrams in Fig. 7a, b respectively. Furthermore, the high F-values of the model terms indicates the significance of the model, because Table 5 ANOVA summary Source

Sum of Squares

Df

Mean Square

F—Value

P—Value > F

Significance

Model

2.673E-003

5

5.346E-004

84.25

< 0.0001

YES

A—GO

5.915E-004

1

5.915E-004

93.21

< 0.0001

YES

B—CR

1.552E-003

1

1.552E-003

244.63

< 0.0001

YES

AB

1.211E-004

1

1.211E-004

19.08

0.0018

YES

A2

2.084E-004

1

2.084E-004

32.84

0.0003

YES

31.48

0.0003

YES

B2

1.997E-004

1

1.997E-004

Residual

5.711E-005

9

6.345E-006

Cor Total

2.730E-003

14

b

B: CR (%)

Shrinkage Strain (%)

a

B: CR (%)

Fig. 7 a 2D-contour plot. b 3D-response surface diagram

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I. Abdulkadir et al.

Table 6 Model validation parameters

Std. Dev

2.519E-003

Mean

0.039

C.V. %

6.49

PRESS

2.174E-004 −144.61

-2Log Likelihood R2 Adj.

0.9791 R2

0.9675

Pred. R2

0.9204

Adeq. Precision

29.895

BIC

−128.36

AIC

−122.11

there is only a 0.01% chance that an F-value this large could occur due to noise. In the same vein, the coefficient of determination (R2 ) is another measure of the strength of a model. As shown in Table 6, the R2 for the developed model is 98%, which shows how well the developed model fits the data. Also, a difference of less than 0.2 is required between the adjusted R2 and the predicted R2 for the model to fit. In this case, the difference between them is 0.04. Two of the important model diagnostic tools are the Actual versus Predicted plot and the Normal plot of residuals which are presented in Fig. 8a, b respectively. For a good model, the data points are expected to align well with the 45° line of best fit for both cases. As can be seen in this case, for both graphs, the points are well aligned

b

Normal % Probability

Predicted

a

Actual

Externally Studentized Residuals

Fig. 8 a Plot of actual versus predicted. b Normal plot of residuals

Effect of Graphene Oxide and Crumb Rubber …

39

to the line of best fit. In the case of the actual versus predicted graph, this signifies the accuracy of the predictive model. For the residual plot, it is required that 95% of the points lie between −2 and +2. This condition is well satisfied in this case. Drying shrinkage = 0.040 − 8.880E − 03 ∗ A + 0.012 ∗ B − 4.920E − 03 ∗ AB + 8.909E − 03 ∗ A2 − 7.741E − 03 ∗ B 2

(2)

where A represents the GO and B represents the CR.

5 Optimization The optimization attempts to come up with appropriate levels of the independent variables that an optimum level of the response of interest can be attained. This is achieved by setting goals for the variables (input factors and the response) with different criteria and level of importance to achieve the objective function (minimizing the response in this case). The optimization is assessed with the desirability value (0 ≤ d j ≤ 1). The closer the value is to 1, the better the result (sometimes expressed as a percentage). In this research, the optimization criteria are assigned as expressed in Table 7. The goals for the variables were set in range (between the upper and lower levels) while the objective was to minimize the response. After running, the result obtained for each variable is presented in Table 7. The optimum levels for the input variables to attain the most minimized level of the response (drying shrinkage) of 0.021% are 0.053% and 1.14% for the GO and CR respectively as shown in the optimization ramp diagram in Fig. 9a. The optimization has a desirability value of 1.00 (highly desirable solution) as indicated in the optimization 3D response surface diagram in Fig. 9b. An experimental investigation to validate the strength of the developed model and the optimization outcome was performed. This is achieved through the development Table 7 Optimization Criteria and Result Factors

Variable (input factors)

Response (Output)

A: GO (%)

B: CR (%)

Minimum

1

7

Maximum

2

12

Goal

In range

In range

Minimize

Optimization result

0.053

1.14

0.021

Desirability

1.00

Value

Drying shrinkage (%)

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I. Abdulkadir et al.

Fig. 9 a Optimization ramp diagram. b 3D response diagram for the optimization

Table 8 Experimental validation

Response

Predicted

Experimental

ARD (%)

Drying shrinkage (%)

0.021

0.022

4.8

of another mix with the variables set at the levels obtained from the optimization. After curing for a duration of 8 weeks, the experimental result were compared with the predicted result as shown in Table 8. The percentage error was found to be 4.8% which is very desirable (as percentage error less than 5% is required) and a testimony to the strength and validity of the model in predicting the response at any given levels of the independent variables.

6 Conclusion 1.

2.

3.

The effect of the GO and CR on the drying shrinkage was successfully investigated. It was found that the drying shrinkage of the composite is directly proportional to the amount of CR replacement of fine aggregate and inversely proportional to the amount of GO addition. There was a 30%, 30.5% and 38.8% decrease in the drying shrinkage between mixes having 0% GO and 0.08% GO at 1, 3 and 5% CR replacement levels respectively. However, there was an increase of 13.6–96.6% in the drying shrinkage between mixes with different CR content at 0% GO dosage. The response surface model was successfully developed and validated with 97% R2 value. Furthermore, an optimization was performed with a desirability value of 1%. The experimental validation of the model yielded a 4.7% percentage error between the experimental and the predicted values. Based on the outcome of the optimization, GO addition of 0.053% and CR replacement of 1.14% will yield an optimum drying shrinkage of 0.021%.

Effect of Graphene Oxide and Crumb Rubber …

41

Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the support by University Teknologi PETRONAS for funding the research under the grant with cost number: 015LC0-097.

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Experimental Study on Alternative Material for Conventional Fine and Coarse Aggregate in Concrete V. J. Vedhanayaghi, S. Arun Bharathi, S. Muthulakshmi, and K. Divya Susanna

1 Introduction The high demand for natural resources due to quick urbanization and the dumping problems of industrial waste in developing countries has created a moment for the usage of such material as a replacement to conventional aggregates used in concrete. The construction sector in India is booming, and almost all the structures proposed are to be constructed using concrete being the chief material. Reuse of industrial wastes in concrete either as FA or CA can be done only after confirming its properties. This paper elaborates the material specifications, and tests that were accomplished on laterite sand, foundry sand, EPS beads, and recycled aggregates; which are proposed as an alternative to conventional FA and CA. Figures 1 and 2 show the possible aggregates to be chosen as an alternative to conventional aggregates.

2 Materials Alternate materials proposed in this paper are available in India for commercial construction purposes. The material specification is elaborated below:

V. J. Vedhanayaghi (B) · S. Muthulakshmi · K. Divya Susanna Rajalakshmi Engineering College, Thandalam, Chennai 602 105, India S. Arun Bharathi Misrimal Navajee Munoth Jain Engineering College, Thoraipakkam, Chennai 600 097, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Naganathan et al. (eds.), Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil Engineering, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 179, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5041-3_4

43

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V. J. Vedhanayaghi et al.

Fig. 1 River sand vs foundry sand vs laterite sand

Fig. 2 Conventional aggregate vs recycled aggregate vs EPS beads

2.1 River Sand River sand is used as conventional FA. Medium and fine sand are preferred to be used in concreting works. The aggregates are chosen to conform to IS383–1970.

2.2 Foundry Sand Foundry sand is widely been used as mold casting material because of its better thermal conductivity [1]. Foundry sand’s physical and chemical properties are revolving around the type of casting process used and the industry in which it is produced. [2, 3]. The foundry sand used for the study was obtained from Thiruvallur.

2.3 Laterite Sand Laterites are silica-rich [4] soil types that form in hot, humid tropical climates. Because of iron oxides, almost all laterites are rusty-red [5]. Laterite soil is a locally

Experimental Study on Alternative Material for Conventional Fine …

45

available material and of low cost [6]. Laterite sand used was gathered from a construction site located at Thoraipakkam.

2.4 CCA Blue granite stone, machine crushed, and well-graded with a standard size of 20 mm, are predominantly used as aggregates in reinforced cement concrete. The aggregate’s compressive strength, crushing value, and other characteristics must meet the specifications of IS: 383–1970.

2.5 RCA Recycled concrete aggregate processing consists of crushing the demolished RC structures, screening and washing the crushed aggregate to obtain proper cleanliness and gradation [7]. To improve the quality of aggregate, a benefaction technique such as jigging or heavy media separation can be used.

2.6 EPS Beads Epoxy polystyrene beads are created by applying steam to EPS resin in an enclosed chamber [8]. EPS beads are light weight in nature and can be used to reduce the density of concrete.

3 Chemical Properties Testing the chemical composition of FA to be used as an alternative to river sand is essential for aggregate replacement. The compositions of important chemicals which constitute chemical reaction in concrete [9] are listed in Table 1. Table 1 shows that laterite has a high iron and alumina content, while foundry sand has a high-silica content.

4 Basic Material Testing The following tests on river sand, foundry sand, and laterite sand were performed conforming to Indian Standard code:

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V. J. Vedhanayaghi et al.

Table 1 Chemical characteristics of aggregates

Constituent

River sand

Foundry sand Laterite sand

37.88

87.91

21.55

Al2 O3

3.96

4.70

24.31

Fe2 O3

1.29

0.94

39.4

CaO

0.87

0.14

3.65

MgO

–

0.30

0.04

SO3

–

0.09

3.98

Na2 O

–

0.19

0.07

K2 O

1.20

0.25

0.11

TiO2

0.20

0.15

0.00

P2 O5

0.00

0.00

16.77

Mn2 O3

0.02

0.02

0.02

SrO

–

0.03

0.01

Loss of ignition

–

5.15

–

SiO2

• • • •

Concentration in percentage

Specific Gravity Gradation of Aggregate–Fineness modulus Water absorption Bulk density (loose & compact)

CCA, RCA, and EPS beads (EPS) were tested to determine the following properties: • • • • • •

Specific Gravity Water absorption Bulk density Size of aggregate Shape of aggregate Impact value.

4.1 Specific Gravity Test on Aggregates The ratio of the unit weight of soil solids to the unit weight of water is known as specific gravity (G). The specific gravity of an aggregate is used to assess the material’s strength or standard. The specific gravity of FA was determined using a pycnometer (Fig. 3), and the specific gravity of CA was determined using the oven-dry method (IS:2386-partIII). The specific gravity of FA was determined using Eq. (1) and that of CA was found out by using Eq. (2). The specific gravity test results on FA and CA are shown in Figs. 4 and 5.

Experimental Study on Alternative Material for Conventional Fine …

47

Fig. 3 Specific gravity test

Specific Gravity of FA LS

2.54

FS

2.67

RS

2.62

2.45

2.5

2.55

2.6

2.65

2.7

Fig. 4 Specific gravity—river sand vs foundry sand versus laterite sand

Specific Gravity of CA EPS

0.11

RCA

2.27

CA

2.7 0

0.5

1

1.5

Fig. 5 Specific gravity—CCA vs RCA versus EPS beads

2

2.5

3

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V. J. Vedhanayaghi et al.

Fineness Modulus FA LS

2.6

FS

2.64

RS

2.35

2.452 2.4

2.45

2.5

2.55

2.6

2.65

2.7

Fig. 6 Fineness modulus—river sand vs foundry sand versus laterite sand

FA specific gravity =

W2 − W1 (W2 − W1 ) − (W3 − W4 )

(1)

C B−A

(2)

CA specific gravity =

4.2 Gradation of Aggregate Sieve analysis is a method or process for evaluating a granular material’s particle size distribution. A sieve shaker was used to perform sieve analysis of fine aggregate conforming to IS:2386 (part I). Using sieve analysis, the fineness modulus of the fine aggregate is found out using Eq. (3).  Fineness Modulus =

(Cumulative Percentage) 100

(3)

Figure 6 depicts the fineness modulus of fine aggregate. River sand and laterite sand were found to be in Zone II, while foundry sand was in Zone III, according to the sieve analysis results. The fineness modulus values show that river sand is categorized as fine sand, whereas laterite and foundry sand are categorized as medium sand.

4.3 Water Absorption Fine aggregate was immersed in water for 24 h. The water absorption of FA is determined from Eq. (4). The water absorption capacity of FA & CA is revealed in

Experimental Study on Alternative Material for Conventional Fine …

49

Water Absorption of FA (%) LS

12.1

FS

31.57

RS

1.2 0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Fig. 7 Water absorption—river sand vs foundry sand vs laterite sand

Water absorption of CA (%) EPS

4.8

RCA

2.02

CA

1 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Fig. 8 Water absorption—CCA vs RCA vs EPS beads

Figs. 7 and 8, respectively. From the results, it is evident that foundry sand absorbs more moisture. Percentage of Water Absorbed =

w2 − w1 × 100 w1

(4)

4.4 Bulk Density The bulk density of FA was found in loose and dense conditions, whereas that of CA was found in the dense conditions. Loose: Loose bulk density is determined by filling the container with dried aggregates until it overflows from the container. Then, the top surface of the container is leveled by rolling a rod on it.

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V. J. Vedhanayaghi et al.

Bulk density of FA(loose) (kg/m3) LS

1300

FS

1512

RS

1340

1150

1200

1250

1300

1350

1400

1450

1500

1550

Fig. 9 Bulk density (loose)—river sand vs foundry sand vs laterite sand

Dense: Filling the container in three layers and tamping each layer with a 16-mm diameter rounded nose rod for 25 times yields the compacted bulk density. The top layer is then leveled and measured. Bulk density of aggregate is found by Eq. (5), conforming to IS: 2386 (part III). The bulk density test results of both FA and CA are displayed in Figs. 9, 10, and 11. Bulk density of FA(compact) (kg/m3) LS

1514

FS

1750

RS

1535

1350

1400

1450

1500

1550

1600

1650

1700

1750

1800

Fig. 10 Bulk density (dense)—river sand vs foundry sand vs laterite sand

Bulk density of CA (kg/m3) EPS

6.86

RCA

1660

CA

1654 0

500

1000

Fig. 11 Bulk density—CCA vs RCA vs EPS beads

1500

2000

Experimental Study on Alternative Material for Conventional Fine …

Bulk density =

Weight of aggregate mass inside container Volume of container

51

(5)

4.5 Size of CA Sieve analysis test on CA was performed, and the maximum and minimum size of CA in the sample are determined and listed in Table 3.

4.6 Shape of CA CA was tested for its flakiness, elongation percentage, and angularity of aggregates. The aggregate mix had flaky and elongated aggregates less than 15% of the total sample taken. The aggregate shape is mentioned in Table 3.

4.7 Impact Value The aggregates passing through 12.5 mm sieve and retained in 10 mm sieve is filled in a cylinder and tamped 25 times. The crushed aggregates are taken out and are sieved in a 2.36 mm sieve. Figure 12 depicts the experimental setup used to determine the Fig. 12 Impact test on coarse aggregate

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V. J. Vedhanayaghi et al.

Impact Value (%) RCA

27.11

CA

24.43

23

24

25

26

27

28

Fig. 13 Impact value—CCA versus RCA

impact value of coarse aggregate. The impact value is given by Eq. (6). Impact Value =

w2 × 100 w1

(6)

The impact percentage of RCA and CCA was compared, as shown in Fig. 13.

4.8 Comparison of Material Properties Tables 2 and 3 show the effects of tests conducted on the aggregates discussed above. Taking into consideration the FA test as in Table 2, it is summarized that laterite sand and foundry sand can be used as a partial substitute for river sand. Laterite sand is rich in Iron oxide content, whereas foundry sand contains a lot of silica. Laterite and foundry sand will modify the physical and chemical properties of concrete [10], and the results will be investigated in the next section. Table 3 shows that EPS beads can Table 2 Properties of FA

Property

Laterite sand

Foundry sand

Conventional fine aggregate

Specific gravity

2.54

2.67

2.62

Fineness modulus

2.6

2.64

2.452

Water absorption

12.1%

31.57%

1.2%

Bulk density (loose) (compact)

1300 kg/m3 1514 kg/m3

1512 kg/m3 1750 kg/m3

1340 kg/m3 1535 kg/m3

Experimental Study on Alternative Material for Conventional Fine … Table 3 Properties of CA

53

Property

EPS beads

RCA

CCA

Specific gravity

0.011

2.27

2.70

Bulk density

6.86 kg/m3

1660 kg/m3

1654 kg/m3

Shape of aggregate

Spherical

Angular

Angular

Size of aggregate

6-8-mm diameter

20 mm and 12.5 mm

20 mm and 12.5 mm

Water absorption

4.8%

2.02%

1.00%

Impact value

–

27.11%

24.43%

be used as an alternative to traditional aggregate in light weight concreting programs. RCA is suitable as an alternative to CCA.

5 Compressive Strength on Hardened Concrete The concrete specimens were cast by varying the percentage of replacement of conventional fine aggregate with Laterite sand, Foundry sand; conventional coarse aggregate with EPS beads, and RCA. The percentage of replacement adopted was 0, 20, 50, 80, and 100% [7]. Specimens were cast by replacing conventional fine aggregate with laterite sand and foundry sand, comparing the results between laterite and foundry sand the best suitable FA replacement was arrived. Similarly, for CA the comparison was made between EPS beads and RCA. Standard concrete specimens of M30 grade with dimensions 150mmx150mmx150mm were cast, cured, and tested. The 28th day average compressive strength of conventional concrete and special concretes were carried under control environment according to IS 516:1959 is mentioned in Table 4. From Table 4, it is observed that laterite sand and foundry sand can be used to replace FA up to 20% in conventional concrete. Whereas RCA could be seen as a Table 4 Compression strength in kN/m2 Percentage of replacement (%)

Conventional concrete

0

39.85

FA with laterite sand –

FA with foundry sand –

CA with EPS beads –

CA with RCA

–

20

–

31.42

37.62

25.45

38.96

50

–

24.97

20.74

15.06

38.07

80

–

20.47

6.08

9.89

37.85

100

–

18.68

4.65

5.45

37.63

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V. J. Vedhanayaghi et al.

D e n s i t y o f C o n c r e t e ( i n k g / m 3) 100% 2398 2405 2412 2419 2421

FA with Foundry sand

80%

1564 1154 816

FA with Laterite sand

50%

2398 2264

2398 2104 1678 1546 1541

20%

2398 2316 2168 2154 2045

0%

CA with EPS beads

CA with RCA

Fig. 14 Concrete density at 28 days

potential replacement to coarse aggregate up to 100%. Concrete with EPS beads shows a sudden drop in compressive strength after 20% replacement. It is found that using EPS beads in concrete reduces the maturity of concrete.

6 Density of Concrete The optimum test specimens were weighed in a standard weighing machine to get the average density of the specimens. The surface dry density of test specimens is represented in Fig. 14.

7 Conclusion Referring compressive strength test in Table 4 and the density of concrete in Fig. 14. It can be concluded that laterite sand and foundry sand can be used as a partial substitute for river sand up to 20% replacement for structural applications. Figure 14 shows that the use of EPS beads as an alternate to conventional coarse aggregate is limited to non-structural applications only. RCA is best suitable as an alternate to CCA in comparison with EPS beads and can be used in partial or full replacement, but are limited to be used in pavements. Due to increased water absorption of EPS beads and RCA, field corrections have to be done prior to use at the site.

Experimental Study on Alternative Material for Conventional Fine …

55

References 1. Kaarthik M, Gokul R (2018) Trength and durability characteristics of foundry sand as a partial replacement of fine aggregate in self-compacting concrete. Int Res J Eng Technol (IRJET) 5(5):4170–4173 2. Bhandari P, Tajne KM (2016) Use of foundry sand in conventional concrete. Int J Latest Trends Eng Technol 6(3):249–254 3. Thaarrini J, Ramasamy V (2016) Properties of foundary sand, ground granulated blast furnace slag and bottom ash based geopolymers under ambient conditions. Periodica Polytech Civil Eng 60(2):159–168 4. Gowda SNB, Rajasekaran C, Yaragal SC (2018) Significance of processing laterite on strength characteristics of laterized concrete. In: 14th International conference on concrete engineering and technology, pp 1–8 5. Emmanuel A, Allan A (2014) Suitability of laterite fines as a partial replacement for sand in the production of sandcrete bricks. Int J Emerg Technol Adv Eng 4(10):9–15 6. Khitam AS, Khairul AK, Nur H, Yunus NZM (2014) Strength of lime-cement stabilized tropical lateritic clay contaminated by heavy metals. KSCE J Civil Eng 18(8):1–6 7. Radhika K, Bramhini A (2017) Construction and demolision waste as a replacement of fine aggregate in concrete. Int J Sci Eng Technol Res (IJSETR) 6(6):1016–1021 8. Parmar A, Patel U, Parmar A, Joshi C, Vaghasiya A, Joshi A (2015) Light weight concrete using EPS beads and aluminium powder. In: Proceeding of 3rd Afro-Asian international conference on science, engineering & technology, pp 785–788 9. Mustapha M, Alhassan M (2012) Chemical, Physico-chemical and geotechnical properties of lateritic weathering profile derived from granite basement. Electron J Geotech Eng 17:1504– 1514 10. Kumar RS (2012) Experimental study on the properties of concrete made with alternate construction materials. Int J Modern Eng Res (IJMER) 2(5):3006–3012

Analysis of Traffic Signal Delays in Erode City Using Microscopic Simulation S. Janani and J. Rahul

1 Introduction At-grade intersection traffic issues are often solved by installing traffic signals in cities. But the traffic signals with the incorrect cycle time are more of an issue than not installing one. Capacity at signalized intersections is one of the basic parameters in urban transport networks. The capacity of a signalized intersection depends on existing geometric design of the highways, type of control, the vehicles occupying the intersection, type of land use and weather. Estimation of capacity and demand at signalized intersections is one of the most important topics in traffic engineering and management especially in cities such as Erode. In this paper, a model with the three significant traffic signals in Erode city is done to estimate the capacity and compare it with the demand of those intersections. Erode city, Tamil Nadu, India the headquarter of Erode District, is a fast-growing urban centre of Tamil Nadu, which extends its influence over the district and neighbouring districts of Salem, Namakkal and Karur. It is located about 100 km east of river Cauvery and Bhavani. Erode is well connected with major places in the district, state and neighbouring states by road, rail and air. The typical traffic signal controlling an intersection provides a sequential display of the green, amber and red in Erode. The main objective of the project is to reduce the travelling time of the vehicles on the urban street network in Erode. The process involves counting the vehicles in each arm of the three major signalized intersections and simulating the queue formation in each junction. Then, the existing signal phase in each arm is redesigned to reduce the delays. The redesigned signal is then simulated to derive the new queue formation. Hence, the objectives of the project are S. Janani · J. Rahul (B) Kongu Engineering College, Perundurai, India S. Janani e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Naganathan et al. (eds.), Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil Engineering, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 179, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5041-3_5

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• Traffic flow of all arms in the three major signalized intersections. • Redesigning the traffic signal phases of all the intersections. • Simulating the original and redesigned phase times and comparing the queue formation. • To reduce the delays in all arms of the signalised intersections.

2 Key Notes of Literature Traffic signals are improved, and control devices which could alternatively direct the traffic to stop and proceed at junction using go and stop traffic light signals automatically. Traffic signal is to prevent traffic accidents, conflicting traffic stream and safety of pedestrians; traffic streams are separated either in space or in time. In this topic, choice procedures of the economic design traffic volume for isolated two-phase signal design in saturated flow conditions are investigated. Road design should be done keeping in view the mentality of road use. Thus, traffic signal system should be introduced at the intersection with total cycle time of 50 s.

3 Methodology

Problem definitiontraffic delay Traffic volume data collection (CCTV footage) Estimate the traffic delay & volume Determining possible solution Simulation Results & conclusion

Analysis of Traffic Signal Delays …

59

4 Data Collection 4.1 Population The population of Erode LPA (extended LPA of 730.7 sq. km) as per 2012 Census is 867,256 including the population of Erode City Corporation (498,121). The city population contributes about 58% of the LPA population (covering only 15% of the extended LPA area), while the remaining parts of the LPA share about 42%. The population density—2011 for the LPA is 1187 and for the city is 4548. Erode city comprises about 2% of the district area and accommodates more than 20% of district population. ECMC as per Census—2011 is 498,121, whereas it was 403,834 in 2001, reflecting a growth of 2.1% per annum. There are 139,127 households reside in the city, with an average household size of 3.6. The total workers of the city comprise of 44% of the population (2.18 lakhs), in which 96% are main workers. The major road network in Erode district connecting area NH-47: Kanyakumari Road; SH-20: Bhavani Road; SH-15: Sathy Road; SH-173: Nasiyanur–Thingalur Road; SH-96: Perundurai Road; MDR: Chennimalai Road; MDR: Arachalur–Kankayam Road; SH-84: Karur Road; SH-79: Sankari Road and 10.SH-84A: Shivagiri Road.

4.2 Intersections There are twenty-eight intersections in the city and another forty-six in the Local Planning Authority. The major intersections in and around the city had been considered for our project. After a generalized study, we have concluded that following intersections contribute to major delay in Erode city • Kaalaimadu Junction (Bull Fight Junction) • P.S. Park Junction • Swasthick Circle Junction.

4.3 Kaalaimadu Junction (Bull Fight Junction) Kaalaimadu Silai junction is one of the busiest junctions in the Erode city. It has three arms as follows: 1. 2. 3.

Erode main road (Towards Paneer Selvam park—North). Erode–Chennimalai road (Towards Erode junction—South West). Erode main road (Towards Poondurai, Moolapalyam—East) (Table 1).

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Table 1 Existing signal timings at Kaalaimadu Junction Arm

Red time (s)

Green time (s)

Amber time (s)

East (Erode main road—Towards Poondurai, Moolapalyam)

57

30

3

North (Erode main road—Towards P.S. Park)

58

28

3

South West (Erode—Chennimalai road—Towards Erode Junction)

69

18

3

4.4 P.S. Park Junction Paneer Selvam Park junction is also a busy junction. Erode Superintendent of Police office and Erode Corporation office are located near this junction. This junction has four arms namely. 1.

Erode main road (East)

Erode main roads connects with Nethaji road and continues into residential area. There is an Uzhavar Santhai at that area. 2.

Erode main road (East)

Erode main roads connects with Nethaji road and continues into residential area. There is an Uzhavar Santhai at that area. 3.

Brough road (North) This road continues to Manikoondu and this the major way which leads to Erode bus stand. This road leads commercial area. Erode main road (South—from Kaalaimadu junction).

4.

The main traffic attractions along are • Erode Superintendent of Police office • Erode fire station The volume count of this junction is shown in appendix I table no. 13–20. The volume count of this junction in Passenger car unit is shown in appendix II table no. 33–40 (Table 2). Table 2 Existing signal timings at P.S. Park Junction Arm

Red time (s)

Green time (s)

Amber time (s)

North (Brough road—towards Manikoondu)

80

30

3

South (Erode main road—From Kaalaimadu junction)

58

14

3

East (Erode main road)

75

6

3

Analysis of Traffic Signal Delays …

61

Table 3 Existing signal timings at Swasthic Signal Arm

Red time (s)

Green time (s)

Amber time (s)

North (VOC park approach road)

122

10

3

South (Mettur road)

109

27

3

East (Sathy road—towards Manikoondu)

99

32

3

4.5 Swasthick Circle Swasthick circle junction is located very nearer to Erode bus stand. It has four arms namely 1. 2. 3. 4.

Sathy road (East—Towards Manikoondu) Sathy road (West) Mettur road (South) VOC park approach road (North) (Table 3).

5 Simulation and Analysis VISSIM is a microscopic, time step and behaviour-based simulation model developed to model urban traffic and public transit operations. Simulation in a nut shell means imitation of a situation or process.

5.1 VISSIM Simulation—Step by Step Process Assuming a homogeneous condition of traffic, simulation is carried out at these three major junctions.

5.2 Creating Links Links are nothing but the various road segments present at that junction. Select the links icon present over the tools box. Right click over the work space and drag the mouse pointer to create the link. Link width can be changed correspondence to the road width.

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S. Janani and J. Rahul

5.3 Vehicle Inputs For generating a simulation, it is very important to give a vehicle input at each link. Vehicle configuration is defined first. It includes total volume and defining each class of vehicle. The different classes of vehicles are HGV, car, bus and bike. As car and auto have similar passenger car unit values, they are brought under same category. Select vehicle input options, use the keys control + left click on the link where vehicle input is to be given.

5.4 Generating Spline At junctions, all arms cannot be perfectly straight. In order to bring the horizontal curves splines are generated. Just zoom into the link, and click on the point where spline is to be provided. Adjusting the link suitably creates the desired curve.

5.5 Signal Inputs Before giving signal inputs at each links, the signal programmes are to be predesigned. Signal controls are defined by giving suitable red, green, amber and suitable cycle time. Fix the signals at desired links by selecting signal board option. Use the keys ctrl + left click on the link where signals are to be fixed.

5.6 Queue Counters The major objective of this project is to find delay at the intersections and re-designing of signal phases suitably. For this process, we need to know the extent of queue formation. Queue counters give the length of the corresponding location. Use the keys ctrl + left click on the link where queue counters are to be placed.

5.7 Anaylsis 5.7.1

Kaalaimadu Junction

See Table 4.

Analysis of Traffic Signal Delays …

63

Table 4 Corrected signals phases at Kaalaimadu junction Arm

Red Red time time (s) (s) corrected current

Green Green time time (s) (s) corrected current

Amber time (s) fixed

Queue length (current) (m)

Queue length (after redesigning) (m)

East (Erode main road—Towards Poondurai, Moolapalyam)

57

55

30

32

3

11

8.6

North (Erode main road—Towards P.S. Park)

58

52

28

35

3

14.3

13

South West 69 (Erode—Chennimalai road—Towards Erode Junction)

60

18

27

3

10

9.17

Table 5 Corrected signals phases at Swasthick junction Arm

Red time (s) current

Red time (s) corrected

Green time (s) current

Green time (s) corrected

Amber rime (s) fixed

Queue length (current) (m)

Queue length (after redesigning) (m)

North (VOC park approach road

122

95

10

15

3

11

0

South (Mettur road

109

87

27

30

3

0

0

East (Sathy road—towards Manikoondu)

99

76

32

35

3

3.5

0

West (Sathy road

85

76

47

47

3

5

0

5.7.2

Swasthick Circle

See Table 5.

5.7.3

P.S.Park Signal

See Table 6.

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Table 6 Corrected signals phases at P.S.Park junction Arm

Red time (s) current

Red time (s) corrected

Green time (s) current

Green time (s) corrected

Amber rime (s) fixed

Queue length (current) (m)

Queue length (after redesigning) (m)

North (Brough road—towards Manikoondu)

80

77

30

33

3

8.7

8

South (Erode main road—From Kaalaimadu junction)

58

55

14

16

3

14.3

13

East (Erode main road)

75

75

6

6

3

17.5

11.3

West (Brough road)

67

66

14

15

3

6.6

4.3

6 Conclusions Traffic flows at each arm of the intersections are variable. Traffic volume at each is accounted using video graphic and manual methods at all these junctions. The existing road width and traffic signal phases at these major junctions are also studied. The phase timings are redesigned suitably with aid of micro simulation software VISSIM. Simulation is done for existing phase and for corrected timings also. This helps to predict the extent of reduction in queue formation. As a result of redesigning the phases, at Kaalaimadu junction we obtain an average of 13% reduction in queue length. At Swasthick junction, 100% reduction in queue length is obtained. At P.S. Park signal at an average of 25.8% reduction in queue length is obtained. As a result, reduction in delays at these signalized intersections was achieved. This in turn leads to minimizing the queue formation.

References 1. Sharma I, Gupta PK (2015) PEC University of Technology, India 2. Kockelman KM, Shabih RA (2000) Effect of light—duty trucks on the capacity of signalised intersections 3. Reddy S, Reddy VH (2016) Signal design for T-intersection by using Webster’s method in Nandyal town. SVR college of Engineering and Technology, Nandyal 4. Surendrasinghdangi, Vidhsa S (2016) Design and analysis of two-phase traffic signal at Durganagar square Vidisha and improved traffic facility at junction 5. Mehta B Introduction to transportation engineering. Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Kharagpur 6. Indian Road Congress “IRC SP 41, Guidelines on design of at-grade intersections in rural and urban areas” IRC New Delhi

Analysis of Traffic Signal Delays …

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7. Indian Road Congress “IRC-93:1985, Guidelines on design on installation of road traffic signals.” IRC New Delhi 8. Indian Road Congress “IRC-108:1996, Guidelines for Traffic prediction on Rural highways”. IRC New Delhi 9. Gupta PK, Sharma I (2015) Study of traffic flow in an entire day at a congested intersection of Chandigarh. J Civil Eng Environ Technol 2(12):70–73. ISSN 2349-8404 10. Vidhya K, Bazila Banu A (2014) Density based traffic signal system. Int J Innov Res Sci Eng Technol 3(3):2218–2222 11. Tan KK, Khalid M, Yusof R (1996) Intelligent traffic lights control by fuzzy logic 12. Karthick S, Deeban B, Abirami S (2012) Automated traffic signal prediction from surveillance videos. Int J Comput Appl 42(1):41–45 13. Mathew TV (2006) Transportation engineering—I. Transportation Systems Engineering, Civil Engineering Department, India Institute of Technology Bombay 14. Retting RA, Chapline JF, Williams AF (20002) Changes in crash risk following re-timing of traffic signals change intervals. Accident Anal Prevent 34(2):215–220. Pergamon Press, Oxford N.Y 15. Rodegerdts LA, Nevers B, Robinson B (2004) Signalized intersections: informational guide. FHWAHRT-04-091

Replacement of Polyethylene Bags by Bioplastics Using Solanum Tuberosum S. Janani and S. Sathyan

1 Introduction The worldwide atmosphere is changing gradually, and right now, it has become a challenge to human survival due to the hideous truth that each and every country is trying to advance their nation without taking into discussion of natural crash of deterioration and greenhouse gases. Humans are using polybags that are ecologically dangerous products for their routine life mainly for purchasing things as a result of which the ecological and cultivable lands are thereby being contaminated. We are trying to decrease the environmental and also cultivable land pollution, and users of polythene bag and the business organizations unitedly can play an immense role in the decrease of usage of poly bags. In India, deserted as waste accounts for 80% of overall plastic consumption, and official data finds country generates about 25,940 tonnes of waste every day. At least 40% of this remains unfinished. Global plastic production rose from 2 million tonnes in 1950 to 380 million tonnes in 2015. This man-made substance has worked its way into the domain of human survival due to its sheer convenience, lightweight, and longevity. 8.3 billion tonnes of plastic have been manufactured in the last 75 years. The Indian plastics industry is one of the fastest developing in the nation. According to a 2017 awareness paper published by FICCI, a company and market lobby, the Indian plastic manufacturing industry expanded at a 10% annual pace between 2010 and 2015. By 2020, annual plastic demand is projected to rise from 12 million tonnes to 20 million tonnes.

S. Janani · S. Sathyan (B) Kongu Engineering College, Perundurai, Erode, India S. Janani e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Naganathan et al. (eds.), Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil Engineering, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 179, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5041-3_6

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1.1 Literature Gap Analysis Many of the researchers highlighted that the tremendous of use of plastic not only results in environmental concern, but also gives alarming scenario for the living organisms. Nowadays, plastics are used widely because of its simplicity, affordability and comfort. Unaware of the environmental concern most of the used plastics were dumped in the landfill and buried. As a result, it gives an extremely unsafe conditions for the living organisms and for the surrounding environment. Many of the nations prohibited the use of plastics mainly due to the public concern in climate, farming and horticulture. There comes a situation need of alternatives for plastics, and so many researchers are under the identification and examination for the perfect replacement for plastics and undergone many research in cocoyam starch, corn starch-based bioplastics Malawian sweet potato and cassava. Bioplastics play a major role in the current environment because of its renewable characteristics and better for the environment more than the conventional plastics. Many identified and examined the different forms of bioplastics from various sources which are renewable but nothing matches the affordability given by the conventional plastics. So, this research paper highlights the importance of mechanisms of degradation of plastics, environmental impact and focussing on the sustainable development goals. In order to overcome the benefits given by the conventional plastics, solanum tuberosum was used to make starch-based bioplastics with and without cellulose, and the results were discussed.

2 Extraction of Starch Form Potato tubers 2.1 Extraction Process Water medium is picked for the extraction, and it was seen that the extraction rate was improved when contrasted with antacid extraction. With salt medium, the extraction of starch from potato is diminished when contrasted with different tubers (Fig. 1).

2.2 Potato Preparation There were a few steps followed ahead the separation of the starch from the sweet potato. These included the: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Weighing Washing Peeling Dicing

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Fig. 1 Preparation of bioplastic—overall process

1.

2.

3.

Weighing The finalized sweet potato was first weighed. This was done to find out the initial weight of the tuber. Potato tubers with an overall weight of around one kilogram were consumed in the extraction. The proportion of the scum to the potato was then driven by the divergence in the weighing before and after washing. Washing The choose potato was then washed with H2 O to dispose of poisons like earth, soil, little roots and other undesirable plant materials that will change the last yield of the tuber. The scour in the washing interaction is a broad quality factor which correspondingly directs the yield. There are numerous contaminations that are like the last starch. To stay away from defilement in the item, legitimate washing should do (Fig. 2). Peeling The washed potato was again weighed to acquire the variety in the saying something both when washing (Fig. 3).

4.

Dicing The washed potato was then hand stripped utilizing a blade. Care was taken to stay away from pointless pare of the potato spore. More likely, it causes harm of the mash and starch granule in the potato cause in starch misfortune. A lot of broken starch granule could prompt change the physiochemical substance of the starch to be separated by the technique picked. The strips got from the potato can be slurring, and refined water was added to it to lessen heat-prompted

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Fig. 2 Washing of shredded potato

Fig. 3 Blending and slurring

harmed to the starch granule. Anyway, the absolute load of water added was painstakingly controlled which shows the water slurring after the settlement of starch for eliminating additional garbage (Fig. 4).

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Fig. 4 Settled starch

3 Blending and Slurring The mixing and slurring technique of the potato test was done in H2 O by utilizing a blender. This sort cycle of slurring is engaged to the potato on the grounds that the tissues of the tuber are delicate and require no crushing when contrasted with hard plant tissues, for example, for oat or vegetable grains as per the convention received.

3.1 Water Slurring The tuber-to-water-added ratio was 1:>10 (W/W) for water slurring of diced potato samples. A cumulative mass of 250 g of water was applied to the sample of 25 g diced sweet potato, representing eleven times more H2 O by weight. To avoid heat lossinduced damage to the starch granules during the water slurring process, distilled water was used. The total weight of water applied, on the other hand, was significantly greater (Fig. 5).

3.2 Filtration Filtration was accomplished by passing the collected slurry through a filter. The filtration technique was used to isolate the extract of starch granules from the potato residue. By spraying water from a beaker on the residue, the starch was washed into the filtrate. The lack of opacity in the filtrate suggests that it was washed properly. The potato residue was mixed two more times.

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Fig. 5 Water slurring

3.3 Final Starch Figure 6 shows the final starch obtained after extraction.

4 Production of Starch-Based Bioplastic Without Cellulose In a 500 ml beaker, 15 g dried potato starch was diluted with 150 ml water. In the beaker, a glass rod was inserted and stirred at 2 r.p.m. The mixture was pipette with 10 ml of 0.1 M HCl and the same volume of 0.1 M Noah for neutralization. A total of 5 mL of 1% glycerol was added. The hotplate was preheated to 100 °C. Since the mixture was hardening, and the stirrer was lowered at 3 r.p.m. after 15 min of heating. It took about an hour for the mixture to transform into an opaque gel. The gel was applied to a mould with a thickness of two millimetres. The sample was left to dry for a while. The stirrer was set to three revolutions per minute as the mixture hardened, and the mixture was ready to heat for around a quarter-hour. The liquid Fig. 6 Final starch

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Fig. 7 Bioplastic without cellulose

transformed into an opaque gel after about an hour. A 2 mm thick mold was used to apply the gel. The sample was allowed to dry for an extended period of time (Fig. 7).

5 Production of Starch-Based Bioplastic with Cellulose Before the addition of glycerol, the bioplastic process without cellulose is the same as the cellulose process. The water resistant was given a boost with the addition of 5 gm of cellulose. The hotplate temperature was increased to 100 °C. The mixture was allowed to cool for about 15 min before being hardened by raising the speed of the stirrer to 3 r.p.m. After 1 h, the opaque gel was formed. In 2 mm thickness mold, the gel was applied. The sample is then dried (Fig. 8). Fig. 8 Bioplastic with cellulose

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Fig. 9 Linear gauge (thickness)

6 Specimen Testing • Thickness test • Roughness test

6.1 Thickness Test (Linear Gauge Experiment) It is used to find out the thickness of the specimen. Its range is between 0 and 10 mm thickness, and its least count is 1 µm. The total thickness of our specimen is about 0.244 mm, where the normal plastic bags will have 0.05 mm. For enhancing the strength of bioplastic specimen, the thickness will be increased (Fig. 9).

6.2 Roughness Test It is usually used to find out the surface roughness of the given specimen using portable surface roughness tester. And its evaluation range is about 25 mm. The surface roughness that we get for the sample specimen is about 0.176 mm and its average of about 1.326 mm (Figs. 10 and 11)

7 Conclusion To summarize, the development of starch-based plastic film is a viable industry, even if it will remain reliant on petroleum products for the time being, such as

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Fig. 10 Roughness test of the specimen

Fig. 11 Roughness graph

energy resources for machine activity. However, as environmental concerns grow in importance, the use of renewable resources such as starch-based plastic products will become a requirement around the world.

8 Future Progress 1.

2.

To ascertain the positive and negative impacts of both process plants, a life cycle assessment (LCA) should be performed on starch-based biodegradable plastic bags and degradable plastic bags. A sustainability analysis should be conducted on the starch-based plastic product to assess if it is EES (Economic, Environmental, and Social) suitable.

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3.

Other sources that contain various forms of bioplastics, such as PHB or PHA from microorganism digestion, should be examined.

References 1. Jalil MA, Milan MN (2013) Using plastics bags and its damaging impact on environment and agriculture: an alternate proposal. Int J Learn Dev. ISSN: 2164-4063 2. Adane L, Muleta D (2011) Survey on the usage of plastic bags, their disposal and adverse impacts on environment: A case study in Jimma city, Southern Ethiopia. J Toxicol Environ Health Sci 3. Ramaswamy V, Sharma HR (2007) Plastic bags—threat to environment and cattle health: a retrospective study. II0AB J. ISSN: 0976-3104 4. Nikwachukwu OI et al (2013) Focus on potential environmental issues on plastic world towards a sustainable plastic recycling in developing countries. Int J Ind Chem 5. Mweta DE (2009) Physiochemical, functional and structural properties of native Malawian cocoyam and sweetpotato starches. Philosophiae Doctorate Degree (Chemistry/Plant Sciences), University of the free State Bloemfonte in South Africa 6. Coats ER, Dobroth ZT, Hu S, McDonald AG (2010) Polyhydroxybuterate synthesis on biodiesel wastewater using mixed microbial consortia 7. Michigan Technological University (2005) Biodegradable PLA/starch foam 8. Gouda MK, Swellam AE, Omar SH (2001) Production of PHB by a Bacillus megaterium strain using sugarcane molasses and corn steep liquor as sole carbon and nitrogen sources 9. Vilpoux O, Averous L (2003) Starch-based plastics, technology, use and potentialities of latin American starchy tubers 10. Azios T (2007) A primer on biodegradable plastics. Christian science monitor. Retrieved from academic one file database 11. Vasanthan T (2001) Overview of laboratory isolation of starch from plant materials. Curr Protoc Food Anal Chem 12. Lui W-B, Peng J (2003) Effects of operating conditions on degradable cushioning extrudate’s cellular structure and the thermal properties 13. Cardona CA, Orrego CE, Paz IC (2009) The potential for production of bioethanol and bioplastics from potato starch in Colombia 14. Van Soest JJG, Knooren N Influence of glycerol and water content on the structure and properties of extruded starch plastic sheets during aging 15. Gaspar M, Benk˝o Z, Dogoss G, Reczey K, Czigany T (2005) Reducing water absorption in compostable starch-based plastics

A Review on Precast Concrete Construction Harika Madireddy, Sivakumar Naganathan, and B. Mahalingam

1 Introduction In simple understanding a product manufactured with usual or special composition of aggregates, cementing material, water, with or without reinforcement at a place and used else-where to function, can be termed as precast product. Bricks of different kinds, cement-mesh works, lining works of open ground wells can be thought of primitive/initial precast products. A few decades back, India with its largest network of railway tracks, could replace different types of track-sleepers with PSC (prestressed concrete) sleepers. They are factory produced precast products which are pre-stressed by pre-tensioning. Accomplishing this gigantic task, at very early times in the advancement of precast-construction, India still needs to catch-up the wide applicability of the methodology. This is necessitated because the country’s priorities are moving around mass housings, public toilets, community utilities like drainages, roadways, transporting of petroleum products and many more. Having talked to some extent about precast, now it is high time to define it. Precast concrete construction is defined as “a method of execution of a structure, wherein the structure as a whole or its component segments are cast beforehand, off-site, either at nearby available location or a separate and exclusive plant/factory, cured, transported and placed/connected on-site to function”. Each process cited in the definition, is a characteristic feature and is again a field of study/practice.

H. Madireddy (B) · S. Naganathan · B. Mahalingam Department of Civil Engineering, Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Chennai, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Naganathan et al. (eds.), Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil Engineering, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 179, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5041-3_7

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2 Application A large number of departments/organizations/agencies have adapted to precast concrete construction for the inherent advantages. Highways, railways, public works, irrigation, water supply, gas and oil transportation, housing, bridges, geo-technical applications etc. Highway structures whether to be newly constructed or retrofitted or rebuilt like culverts, bridges, flyovers, subways can be of precast. Railway structures usually adopt similar designs owing to its uniform loading standard in a route and majority of them are culverts, pipes, retaining walls, bridge piers, deck slabs, girders etc. Similar to the railway sleepers as wholly factory produced, the other routine structures can also be precast and factory made. Presently metro rails are being laid under-ground or over head. For under-ground constructions precast tunnel lining units and for over head, precast post tensioned girder units are used. Public works departments need to provide storm water drains as channels, culverts, pipes, sewage disposal systems with pipes, man-holes, inspection chambers, pavements for pedestrians, light vehicular traffic and for recreations and public toilets. Irrigation department utilizes pipes, culverts, canal linings etc. Petroleum industry needs very long pipelines across hundreds and even thousands of kilometers to transport its crude oil, natural gas. Housing department provides mass housing for the homeless and caters for the lion’s share for this construction technique. Geo-technical applications include precast retaining walls for highways and railways, slope protection structures to check land-slides and earth-slips can be precast when combined with the soil anchoring techniques.

3 Positive Aspects of Precast Construction As precast is done off-site, the holding time of the on-site will be minimum. Also, the various phases of its manufacture, viz, casting, curing etc. are done under controlled environment which in succession enhance the quality, strength, finish and aesthetics of the final product. The controlled environment with reference to temperature, humidity and quality of raw-materials automation of the operations minimizing human interference are all advantageous. Labor required at the off-site manufacturing plant is minimal by adopting mechanization and automation, there-by reducing number of wrongs and mistakes and increasing design and dimensional accuracy of the final product. Precast concrete construction is a safe and quicker method, avoids on-site farm work in construction of buildings and temporary staging and other allied arrangements in bridge construction. Structural benefits due to manufacturing of precast in controlled environment, transporting with due care and safety and assembling individual elements with robust connection designs, all of these give precast an unmatched reliability.

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The economic benefits due to reduced time of execution, eradication of certain processes at site like curing, plastering/surface finishing, erection of heavy formwork associated with men and material etc., is most welcome to the builders and clients equally. In the environmental aspects, precast concrete construction is the most desirable construction practice for less holding time, less wastage, virtually no temporary arrangements like diversion of drains, traffic and communication infrastructure. It is cost effective when taken up in large volumes besides its characteristic timeeffectiveness, really a blessing to construction sector and the government.

4 Negative Aspects of Precast Construction The first ever disadvantage of precast method is that a high initial investment is required. If a project requires component elements in mass numbers, then it is favorable but for smaller works and for want of getting enough work orders, the investment may not give sufficient returns to continue in the business. The second disadvantage of precast method is the product transportation required from off-site where the products are manufactured to on-site for placing to function. The third disadvantage is high skilled workers supervisors required for connecting the joints formed by individual component elements. This difficulty is more initially and can be overcome and meted out by acquiring the skills and techniques in some time. The fourth disadvantage is an unavoidable situation, where a prefabricated structure cannot be modified or retrofitted further. Also, due to handling difficulties, precast components size is limited and hence is not useful for two way structural systems. Handling of component elements like lifting, moving and placing require cranes, gantries of sufficient capacity and specifications is another disadvantage.

5 Types of Precast Construction Precast concrete construction can be classified into three types as per the material of its composition and the function to be served: (1) plain concrete (for compressive loads), (2) reinforced concrete (for flexural and lateral buckling loads) and (3) prestressed concrete (for long span beams, slabs, girders for specific aimed functions). Each type in separate sections:

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6 Plain Concrete Precast Construction Different types of inter-locking paver blocks, Jali-works/mesh-products, Kerb stones, road dividers/partitions and pedestals fall in this category.

6.1 Inter Locking Paver Blocks and Pavement Systems Paver blocks can replace any kind of pavement works for pedestrian pathways, light vehicle passages and open move-around pavements. These are already a great success in India. They are adopted for footpaths, pavements and slope-pitching of soil embankments (Figs. 1, 2). There is still scope for further application in the form of road surfaces for light vehicular traffic. Their designs shall take into account compressive action with impact effects and sub-grade characteristics. Sometimes paver blocks are used to protect the sloped embankments, for which the seismic effects shall also be kept in mind while designing the same. A lot of research study has already taken place to enhance material composition of concrete paver blocks. Use of bamboo and rice husk ash, industrial waste, construction waste, coal waste, fly ash and glass powder and polypropylene

Fig. 1 Various kinds of paver blocks with wide choices of size, shape and colour

Fig. 2 Open-field pavements (air-field, open auditorium etc.)

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Fig. 3 Jali-works/cement-mesh-products of numerous styles

fiber for longevity, no abrasion, durability and other characteristics are established. Precast concrete pavement systems like Miller system, Michigan system, Uretek stitch system, Kwik system are now available for either virgin laying of airfield and highway pavements or repair and rehabilitation of such pavements.

6.2 Jali-Works/mesh Products Precast cement products (Jali-works/mesh products) are of different shapes and sizes and are being in practice for a long time. Vertical plane partitions, compound walls, partial wall openings etc. are the places of application. They provide controlled ventilation as well as partial privacy at the same time. In our country manufacturing of jali works is very popular and are being produced as a cottage industry (Fig. 3). They are used for vertical plane partitions, staircase rooms, ventilators and other such openings, compound walls, recreation places like public parks etc. Since they replace solid walls for particular portions in a building and therefore shall not form weak spots. They shall be so designed that they well inter-connect and well-integrate with the main structure besides maintaining their functional requirement. These products employ the same basic methodology of mould, thin reinforcement and concrete with small size course aggregate, cement and water in their manufacture, but not much design principles are applied as in other precast concrete constructions.

6.3 Kerb Stones and Road Divider Barriers These products are used everywhere in Highways and public places for their usual functions of footpath edges, roadway medians etc (Fig. 4). Stone kerbs are almost replaced by precast concrete kerbs and cast-in-situ road dividers are substituted with precast ones since for the prime reason that no holding time on the site for execution in traffic places is required. A wholesome review has been done on design requirements for taking impact loads on such road barriers.

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Fig. 4 Kerb-stones for both public places and private gardens

7 Reinforced Concrete Construction Building component elements like wall panels, beams, columns, stairs, stair cases, lintels, sunshades, Bridge elements/structures like Pipes, Culverts, Box subways, deck slabs, girders, Earth protection structures like retaining walls, curtain walls, toe walls, Foundation structures like piles, sheet piles, wells’ linings, Posts for compound walls, masts for community electrification, Public health infrastructures like storm water drains and other sewage disposal systems, manholes, inspection chambers etc. can all be precast reinforced concrete.

7.1 Precast Concrete Wall Panels There are different types of wall panels like cladding or curtain walls, load bearing walls, shear wall panels. Apart from the usual functions of a wall, precast wall panel can also be made better thermal resistant, moisture protective, fire safety, acoustic, durable. No maintenance is needed for the panel but regular maintenance is a must at the connections, sealants, anchorages and accessories (Figs. 5, 6, 7).

Fig. 5 Load bearing wall panels

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Fig. 6 Hollow core wall panels

Fig. 7 Cladding wall panels for aesthetic elevations

While reviewing on precast wall panels, both cladding and load bearing types, American concrete Institute’s publication: “Guide for precast concrete wall panels” is worth mentioning. All 8 chapters of this publication are a practical guide to everyone.

7.2 Building Component Elements These are columns of one, two and three tier, beams, wall panels, floor panels, lintels, stairs and footings. They can either be Reinforced precast concrete or Pre-stressed precast concrete (Figs. 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18). Since, these are only component elements and have to be connected to form joints at site. More skilled labor is required to form the joints as per the designs so that the intended behavior of the structure is obtained to the action of different kinds of loads. The usual connections of these elements are panel-panel, column-beam, beam-floor. Corbels are provided to the columns at beam level.

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Fig. 8 2-tier & 3-tier columns Fig. 9 Beams of different cross-sectional shapes for a building

Fig. 10 Single steps for a stair with landing steps for a stair

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Fig. 12 Lintel for wall opening

Fig. 13 Lintel for specific shape of opening

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Fig. 14 Isolated footings

Fig. 15 Compound wall footing

7.3 Culverts and Aqueducts These are widely useful in Irrigation system especially when canals and channels are crossing Roadways and Railways. The types of Culverts used in precast method are Box culverts or Pipe Culverts. (Figs. 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 and 25). These culverts are manufactured off-site but not far away from the site. When are ready, Block time (holding time of the site) of 6–8 h is obtained from concerned authorities and excavation is carried out using machinery, sub-grade is prepared and

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Fig. 16 Compound walls

Fig. 17 Well linings

Fig. 18 Inspection chambers of different types for different purposes

the precast units are crane lifted and placed. Immediately after placing the precast units, the roadway or railway is connected and traffic is allowed with some initial speed restrictions.

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Fig. 19 Box culvert units of lateral sections

Fig. 20 Vehicular box subway sectional units both laterally and longitudinally

7.4 Retaining Structures A simple retaining structure is available at every railway station, at the edge of every passenger platform. They retain the earth fill of platform to have vertical end near the track. They are of counter-fort type precast concrete wall units. Other places of application are Roadways and Railways in cutting where land-slides or earth slips are usual under the action of weather and/or human activities. Since, retaining the

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Fig. 21 Box culvert end unit with wing type returns and bed-level flooring

Fig. 22 Pedestrian Box subway

soil/rock in cutting or embankment, requires for larger lengths and higher slopes, slender retaining sections may not be possible. This discourages the Governments to adopt the same, resulting seasonal land-slides, earth slips and eventful loss of lives and property. However, combining slender precast concrete retaining panels and soil anchoring systems can be tried to achieve economy and wide adoption (Figs. 26, 27 and 28).

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Fig. 23 Pedestrian Box subway in a turning

Fig. 24 Pipe lengths

Fig. 25 Pipe units of different shapes designed for carrying specific characteristic flows

7.5 Storm Water Channels and Sewage Disposal Drains These facilities are mostly necessitated in cities and towns, for speedy and safe disposal of rain water and sewage. Nowadays precast technology is not being utilized to its potential by concerned departments in the country. Erection of the same is still

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Fig. 26 Cantilever retaining walls in erection

Fig. 27 Sheet piles

Fig. 28 Piles for foundation

continued as cast-in-situ method taking not less than two months of time for the stretch of work taken up (Figs. 29 and 30). During this period, there is restricted movement of traffic and unsafe conditions for the lives. This is highly deplorable because if precast method is adopted, targeted length of drain can be laid overnight without affecting traffic or human movement.

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Fig. 29 Storm-water channel

Fig. 30 V-shaped drain units

The joints between successive precast units can be designed/provided with suitable polymer materials and tie-locks for leak proof construction.

8 Pre-Stressed Concrete Precast Construction Railway track sleepers, Bridge Piers, Beam girders, Deck slabs, Floor systems, I girders, T girders, Box girders, U girders are some of the types that cover under this group.

8.1 Railway Track Sleepers As mentioned earlier, India had replaced all other type of Railway track sleepers into pre-stressed concrete sleepers completely (Figs. 31).

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Fig. 31 Railway track sleepers

Fig. 32 Monolithic piers

8.2 Bridge Piers These are monolithic for full height or segmental type either transversal or longitudinal for full height. Recent advances include that of segmental pier sections being practiced in most of the developing countries (Figs. 32, 33, 34, 35, 36 and 37).

8.3 Box Girders and U Girders For longer span bridges conventional types of RCC deck slabs, steel trusses etc. are short of adoptability due to heavy dead loads, uneconomical sections and further complications surrounding these (Figs. 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44 and 45). Only with segmental precast pre-stressed Box/U sections with slender sizes, light weight, higher load carrying capacity by employing high strength concrete and steel

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Fig. 33 Piers formed from segmental units

Fig. 34 Trestle beam being lifted to position on pier columns

tendons, all of the above mentioned short comes with RCC can be overcome. All metro trains are now run on this kind of sections (precast enabled) both in elevated segmental girder bridges or in underground tunnel units.

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Fig. 35 Footings for compound wall

Fig. 36 Isolated footing

8.4 Some Illustrations on Precast Concrete Factory See Fig. 46.

9 A Special Structure While in the literature search-hunt, a special structure that came across, is of worth mentioning. It is a giant segmental precast pre-stressed concrete arch culvert of 20 m

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Fig. 37 Isolated footing in position

Fig. 38 I-girders placed in position

span, 6 m central rise and 65 m barrel length as a buried passage of the Three Creek Crossings situated in British Columbia, Canada (Fig. 47). The arch rib of this culvert is segmental both laterally and longitudinally. The imposed physical, environmental, demographic conditions have contributed to the inception of this structure. It is the largest of precast concrete structures of its time. Each stage of its planning, execution and function is remarkable and researchable. These stages of its becoming a reality were well presented in the publication [1].

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Fig. 39 T-girders to be lifted and when placed to receive in-situ deck topping Fig. 40 Segmental box-girders with cantilevers

Fig. 41 Segmental box-girder unit in position on bearings

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Fig. 43 Full span U-girder being transported on special hauling system

Fig. 44 Full span T-girder unit being transported on special tucks

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Fig. 45 Launching of girders

Fig. 46 Precast concrete production

Fig. 47 Giant segmental precast pre-stressed concrete arch culvert

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By now, it can be realized that how vast the precast concrete method is spread in the construction engineering of infrastructure development throughout the world. It is high time to consult and understand the research work done on the topic and equip with more depth of knowledge in this field of interest. Though not for the purpose of virgin review, the literature work study by a team was in itself a review on some research studies and would be very useful for the people concerned to acquire first-hand knowledge on precast concrete construction [2].

10 Case Studies In order to realize the large scope of precast construction, in India, a case study done by Ram Kumar and team took Amrapali Dream Valley Project of high rise residential towers in Greater Noida, Delhi NCR. This project with 10 million square feet, including 2 + 1 + 18 floors and 3.79 million square feet precast construction. The study indicated that the scope of growth of precast technology in India especially when the country needs 30–35 thousand units of houses per day at least for the next 8 years. In this kind of mass application the precast method of execution would ensure speed, durability, modularity, quality, efficiency, automation, aesthetic, affordability, accuracy, optimization and last but not the least, its low maintenance. The study also specified the precast component elements with illustrations viz., precast slabs both core and solid types, columns of 1 tier, 2 tier and 3 tier, with corbel projections to receive beam elements, exterior and interior beam elements of rectangular sections, L and T sections, precast wall elements both core and solid, precast staircases etc. Also precast compound walls, kerb stones and pavement blocks. The paper also presented the connection details like column-column, beam-column, floor-beam and wall-wall junctions [3]. Prefabricated public housing the other way of calling precast concrete construction for providing houses for the homeless. For highly populated countries like India and China, addressing this need is not so easy to accomplish. Then, what are the benefits by practicing the PCT (Precast Concrete Technology) over the traditional in situ methods. On this aspect a detailed analysis is done by the team Shen et al., to find the environmental cost–benefit. For this purpose Beijing case is selected, where mass public housing adopted the PCT. The findings show that B/C (benefit to cost) ratio as 1.81 (>1) and the investment on the PCT for public housing is environmentally acceptable and efficient [4]. One case study done by Lanke on the analysis, design and compared the cost of precast and cast in situ RCC building of twelve floors. The floor area measured around 72mx24m and height of floor was 3.6 m. The structure was framed with beams, columns and staircases as well as lift cores. The precast floor slabs were of hollow core and precast beam and column elements. Different standards of codes and diaphragm action of floor were followed. In the end, cost comparison and time effectiveness arrived. It was found that with precast method the construction of the

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building took less time and to that effect the cost was reduced. It was felt that precast construction, if practiced in mass numbers, production of same precast elements would reduce the cost further [5].

11 Advances in Multi-Storey Buildings An application of “precast hybrid moment resisting frames” is developed by Yooprasertchai and Warnitchai for improving seismic safety of a standard five-storey residential building with gravity loaded cast in situ reinforced concrete beam-column frame system. The improved new system is governed by the opening and closing of discrete gaps at the interfaces of precast members. In the findings, excellent seismic performance was demonstrated using each hybrid joint type and their force–deformation responses exhibited ductile stable hysteretic loops for up to 6% drift levels without severe damage. The hybrid frame building can withstand strong ground shaking of 0.5 g of peak ground acceleration [6]. A type of precast concrete structure system with precast reinforced column, precast pre-stressed concrete beam and slab was investigated. The seismic performance of the system is done with structural analysis software OpenSees. The outcomes of this study are outstanding: adoption of first pre-stressed easily, reduction in the height of member section, convenient construction of joints and low amount of steel usage. So also, the hysteretic loop of beam-column joint is full and energy dissipation capacity of the joint is excellent, as reported by Jianguo et al. [7].

12 Wall Panels While reviewing on precast concrete wall panels both cladding and load bearing types, American Concrete Institute’s Publication, ACI533R-11, is worth mentioning. All 8 chapters of the publication serve as practical guide to the concerned [8]. Precast concrete wall panels including shear wall panels can act as load bearing elements and are economical means of transferring loads from roof and floors through the structure into the foundations. For a perfect product, the designer, pre-caster, constructor and the client should form a team right from the initial stage. The connections of these wall panels with floors, other wall panels and foundations are of utmost important. Sidney Freedman of Precast/Pre-stressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, Illinois, in his article in PCI Journal detailed these connections that have come up in different cases of structures across United States, where the wall panels are adopted. While describing on these connections in the article, the design, production, erection methods including variations are well explained [9].

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13 Lintels Precast lintels which are of low height (thickness) cause concerns on their shear resistance capabilities. Ambroziak et al. of Gdansk University of Technology experimental research have discussed the topic at large [10].

14 Stairs General notion of the public while using a cast in situ stair, especially at public utility structures in India, is that a user has to tune up his/her movement to the irregular tread and rise ratio while climbing up/down stairs. Therefore, precast stairs and landings, cast as elements at a plant, will be devoid of any dimensional irregularities. However, connecting of the stair elements, viz, flights and landings is of utmost concern and the same are well discussed by Billington of J&P Building systems ltd. The short comes of various prevailing codes in Europe and the necessity of development in achieving robustness of precast concrete stair elements with “Proprietary Cast-in inserts” are discussed [11].

15 Joint Connections A kind of composite structural system, the PCS system (Precast concrete Column and Steel beam) when subjected to experiments and analyzed seismic performance of beam to column bolted connections. ACI criteria such as strength deterioration, stiffness degradation and energy dissipation capacity are all maintained by the connections at large levels of storey drift [12]. Structural systems based on precast concrete elements are safe and reliable in nonseismic designs. Due to scarce design calculations with respect to seismic design, their implementations are getting limited. In a research by Alcocer and team on beamcolumn connections subjected to inelastic cyclic loading in uni-axial and biaxial directions with respect to two specific types of joints are formed with precast beams and columns (strong column and weak beam concept). The test results are very encouraging and achieved 90% of what the monolithic construction would be giving. The only draw-back found from the test, being beam rotation took place inside and outside these joints. However, for emulating monolithic construction beam rotations inside the joints should be minimized. One approach to accomplish this objective to force the concentration of beam rotations far from the column faces ie., to relocate the beam plastic hinges, somewhere in the length of the beam and not at its ends [13]. This was a research paper on the working of joints in precast members efficiently when compared to conventional joints done by Gopinathan and Subramanian. In it,

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a 2-dimensional conventional frame of 3 bays and G + 5 storeys and assembled by precast elements cast for the purpose. The outcomes of various other studies were taken into account mentioned under references therein. The said 2-dimensional frames namely conventional and precast assembled, using materials like fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, steel and cement and with specified mix proportion were subjected for testing. The type of joints and their performances studied are L-joint, T-joint, Crossed joint and these joint connectors with steel bolts and L-angles. The test set up was depicted in a figure and the loads were applied in the form of lateral reverse cyclic loading and deflections were measured at top and bottom storey levels using LVDT of least count 0.01 mm. It was concluded through the load deflection curves that the precast joints were efficient than the conventional [14]. In precast concrete structure, the joint connection of individual elements is the most important aspect. The connection transfers force between the precast components, and determines the strength, stiffness and ductility of the whole structure. Providing joint in beam-column intersection region always cause difficulties during the erection stage. According to Hery and team, relocation of the joint connection at a certain distance from the column to the beam span is an alternative solution that creates the beam to beam connection. The paper is a review on all such beam-beam connections and worth consulted [15]. Implementation of Industrialized Building System (IBS) in the construction field by precast technology requires various components to be assembled and connected at the site properly. A study by Vaghei et al. on the precast wall connections subjected to in-plane lateral ground movement, investigates the behavior of such connections by subjecting to lateral loads. The crack propagations in the IBS walls and connections mostly occurred at the bottom and along the interface simultaneously. Furthermore, the lateral in-plane loads show a few cracks on the bond between the walls and connection. Based on the results, it is asserted that the common connection has low efficiency in terms of capacity against lateral loading and consequently it is claimed that the common connection role could be ignored in the lateral in-plane loading [16]. The prefabricated concrete structures of the technical development and promotion is an important means to achieve housing industry and to research a reasonable form of beam-column connection is the top priority of the prefabricated concrete structures research and promotion. A paper by Han Jian-Qiang and Liu Yang summarizes the recent years domestic un-bonded post-tensioned prefabricated concrete framed structure beam-column connection and seismic performance [17].

16 Cracks in Precast Elements There is a study made by Ng et al. to detect the defects such as cracks or voids in the precast concrete beam with the assistance of finite-difference time-domain numerical modeling. Results indicated that defects with different sizes can be detected; even fine cracks with 3 mm can be detected. This proved that 2 GHz high frequency ground

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penetrating radar (GPR) antenna is an ideal non-destructive testing (NDT) solution for concrete surveying particularly for small size cracks [18].

17 Paver Blocks and Pavements A study on the present precast concrete pavement system revealed that it is being adopted in highway, parking place and airfield pavements. In such interlocking pavement systems, load transfer between precast panels represents crucial aspect. Concrete spalling and cracks and such other stitch interlocking failures might occur and can be avoided by providing the precast panels with keyed joints so that stress concentration is eliminated as suggested by Novak et al. [19]. Precast concrete paver blocks prepared in M30 grade and subjected to experimental investigation like compressive strength, split tensile, thermal effect and water absorption are accomplished. Polypropylene fibers are added in 0%, 0.05, 0.15, 0.25 and 0.35% in the paver blocks. The 28 day test revealed that the paver block with 0.15% polypropylene fiber showed better strength performance in comparison with conventional blocks, reports Ananthi [20]. A Spanish team lead by Rodriguez has done an experimental study on the properties of concrete paving block and hollow tiles with recycled aggregates from construction and demolition wastes. The construction/demolition wastes are classified into MA, CA, RMA, CMA etc., for masonry, concrete aggregate, recycled, ceramic waste. The reduction in strength values differently at different composition with these recycled wastes could be increased by incorporating silica fumes [21]. The results of the research carried out on concrete paving blocks has shown that their production with cement replacement with Rice Husk Ash up to 30% and addition of bamboo 3% by weight of cement is technically possible and is a potential partial replacement for cement in the production of concrete paving blocks [22]. A documentation of existing literature on gain full utilization of industrial waste in rubber mould paver blocks is done. By this, various types of industrial waste available in the local markets and the fine aggregate (sand) can be replaced by different percentages for different wastes. The work is commendable for its usefulness by the industry and eco-system [23]. A study on fine glass waste to substitute partially for fine aggregate in the process of manufacturing of paving blocks reveals that with decrease in density, unit weight, water absorption, bleeding, and the final cost whereas increases workability, compressive strength. However, the flexural strength decreases with increase in such glass substitution as per Nishikant and team [24].

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18 Advances in Bridge Construction Cast in situ construction of bridge pier columns can now be replaced by segmental precast pier columns as revealed by a paper presented recently by Zhou and Zeng. According to which five splicing methods between the precast columns and the cap beam or footing are available: Wet joint connection, Socket connection, Grouted splice sleeve connection, Grouted ducts connection and the UHPC connection. All these are studied and analyzed for engineering application [25]. Precast pre-stressed pier columns are excellent design option due to their self centering capability for seismic actions. Shim et al., at Chung Ang University, Korea have conducted an experimental research whereby providing a combination of bonded pre-stressing tendons and mild steel reinforcement crossing the segment joints showed significant increase of ultimate strength and ductile failure modes and other findings to overcome the present drawbacks of segmental precast pier columns [26]. When the spans get longer in precast pre-stressed concrete beam, they become slender and buckle under their own self weight, at various stages (manufacture, transport and erection). Stratford says that the most severe case is their hanging from cable hooks while lifting since no lateral restraint possible. This causes torsional and buckling stresses to develop in the beams, which may lead to failure. Support conditions are the main point of concentration. In one related investigation, it is arrived that the support conditions are different in different stages. All these stages are to be well considered and the inclinations of hooks and cables for a beam to hang are to be arrived. Also, the levels at top of piers with flexible bearing are to be discussed. While transport, the lateral loads due to super elevation of the road way, wind loads and the dynamic effects are to be analyzed. Design engineers can benefit on these issues, from the equations provided in the paper [27]. Through their evolution, precast pre-stressed beams of longer spans had changed their shape of cross-section viz., inverted T and I sections, M beam, Y beam and Super Y beam. Concrete being heavy and to overcome limitations to transport increasing in length has to be compensated by reduced widths. Lateral stability of such beams are more susceptible when they are in the temporary stages of construction than permanent stage/position where their tops are restrained by the top deck slabs. Combining with the analysis for checking the stresses induced during the 3 temporary stages of construction, the Southwell plot to allow the effect of initial imperfections to be investigated [28]. The rollover instability in precast girders on elastomeric bearing pads, particularly during construction is analyzed and simplified numerical studies were performed to determine the critical wind load, lateral displacement and rotation. The critical wind load and rotational angle at the support were found to be strongly related to the length of the girder but not to the sectional properties of the girder. An analytical equation was developed to determine the critical wind load, lateral displacement using the critical rotational angle. Also charts were developed by Lee and team, that can be

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used to determine the above effects, given the section properties and length of the girder [29]. For bridges and flyovers in horizontally curved shape, the usual adoption is I, U or Box girders for full curved spans (Abutment to Pier or Pier to Pier) shall be precast at plants. To accomplish this, according to Alawneh et al., very careful form work and shoring is necessary, which may lead to less number of competitors in the industry along with associated high costs. Also, there may be tendency to shift from precast to steel girders. In this context, an innovative system for curved precast post tensioned concrete I and U girder manufacturing is developed. By this method, instead of casting for full span curved girder, two to three straight segmental girders with pre skewed ends to form chords of the curve are cast. They are joined by post tensioning. Different stages of their manufacture in the existing plants and the design-aids to be followed are also given [30]. The authors Gordon and May made in depth review on full depth precast deck systems and half depth precast with in situ topping deck systems. They have found that the half depth decks, with in-situ topping, is of no additional advantage over full depth precast deck systems. Also, the reluctance for its adoption by some developed countries like UK is ridiculed but assigned a reason that the joint detailing of such system could be the reason. Moreover in countries like Canada the use and development of steel-free precast deck systems could be adopted in UK and Europe [31]. In bridge construction, the substructure namely, Pier Cap, Pier Column and Footing/foundation, until recent past was almost cast in situ. Due to the demand for shorter construction time and due to various other technical reasons, precast segmental pier column and footings are being introduced. One recent study by Kim et al. done large scale experiments and tried to make the performance assessment of precast segmental pre-stressed concrete bridge columns with precast footings. Four types of specimen were proposed and RCAHEST, ie., a non-linear finite element analysis program is applied and the outcome has established that the proposed models are apt for practicing and left space for further research work to confirm design detailing to be adopted in the field [32]. Pre-stressed precast box girders are widely used nowadays especially in busy urban areas in the form of flyovers and express ways crossing waterways and other roadways connecting distant places. The usual practice for such bridges is to adopt a number of full-span box girders of relatively smaller in sizes to make up full carriage width. Later on U girders for full spans are adopted with cast in situ deck slab for the carriage width. Two to three such U girders usually necessitate. Recently one or two trapezoidal c/s girders have also come in. In order to restrict the weight for lifting to be possible they are segmental (2–3 m) in transverse direction. In such cases, till erection for full span and post tensioning is completed, they need temporary supporting system. A new research by Ma, has suggested to segment a full span girder so that resulting part cross section for full span is manufactured with initial pretension, transported and placed in position and then is followed by its other half. Finally such two longitudinal segments of un-symmetric cross sections placed in

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position are post tensioned transversely to join them and longitudinally to function as desired [33].

19 Pipes Concrete pipes are always precast and are widely employed in sewage and storm water systems. Generally, long term performance of these pipes is reliable, however the longitudinal cracks in non-pressure pipes (flow as if in open channel) is worth concern. Mohamed et al. in their research work, could prepare tables for different pipe classes, which can be used as design aids to overcome the said cracks and function efficiently. For the purpose they have adopted SFRC for the pipes (Steel fiber reinforced concrete composite), instead of regular reinforced cages and tested the pipes by three edge bearing including finite element modeling [34].

20 Roofs for Industrial Structures More than ever before the cost of a concrete structure is a function of the speed of erection, which is, in turn, dependent on the method of construction. This is true for almost every type of structure, but for none more so than concrete shell roofs and foldedplate roofs. The advantage of making folded-plate roofs of prefabricated pre-stressed concrete sheets as compared with the conventional method of pre-casting or in situ construction is explained by Adler. Pre-stressed folded-plate assemblies of both V and W cross sections were used to roof large unobstructed floor areas. The construction technique adopted permitted the whole roof to be built from prefabricated flat sheets, 3 ft 7 in wide × 2 in thick and up to 67 ft 8 in long, of pre-tensioned concrete. The proposed assemblies were tested for adoptability. Construction technique, design considerations, lifting arrangements, buckling instability, rotation instability are all well discussed with the help of mathematical equations [35].

21 Railway Sleepers Pre-stressed precast concrete sleepers are now the most commonly used type of sleepers for a railway track. They play an essential role in track performance and safety. They are the connecting elements between the superstructure (Rails and pads) and substructure (ballast, sub-grade formation) of a railway track. As per Taherinezhad and team, the present situation is that the cracks developing under the railseat (pad) and near middle of the sleeper are reducing their designed life. A possible way to overcome this deficiency is to investigate the material of composition of the

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sleeper with the use of polypropylene, rubberized cement, fly-ash and ground blast furnace slag under dynamic loads [36].

22 Noise Barriers and Highway Structures Francois Kaiser of R&D Engineer of Ronveaux, Ciney, Belgium gave a solution to noise propagation from highway and other structures with precast concrete noise barriers. These noise barriers are developed considering the definition of noise and its propagation. They are of reflecting, dispersing and absorbing types. The paper also mentions various European standards governing these structures/devices [37]. The paper was presented by Tomek at “Creative construction conference 2017”, Primosten, Croatia. The topic covered was precast concrete construction for Highway Development/Maintenance. It was felt by the author due to increase of traffic volume on highways multiple times and to upgrade the same, felt necessary to form new lanes and /or retrofitting the existing ones. The solution proposed for the problem was to finish the task within less time, less expenditure and less traffic congestions due to closure of existing lanes for execution of works. The solution proposed being that the units of precast for pavements shall beof pre stressed, so that the cost of material can be reduced by 40%. Also, the very next day of laying the pavement, traffic could ply as usual due to absence of curing process. Upgrading or building of bridges afresh was also studied under “Accelerated Bridge Construction (ABC)”. It was arrived that almost all component parts of a bridge could be of precast (pile, pier column, pier cap, beam, deck and barrier/railing) [38].

23 Sheet Piles Sheet piles are used mainly for water front constructions. Conventional jetting sheet pile practices result in uncertain bearing capacity and allied problems. “Puyong Economic Development Zone construction project” as given by Xiao Wen Wei have developed methods on grouted jetted precast concrete sheet pile driving along the coastal region near the mouth of Yellow River Delta in China. As per which it is a quite operation and does no harm to environmental surroundings and is an efficient technique, to overcome the drawbacks of forming large disturbed and liquefied soil zones around the sheet piles reducing bearing capacity by conventional methods [39].

24 Manholes and Covers In the research paper by Sabouni et al. on precast circular manholes, it has been found that the present usage of the total amount of reinforcement is heavy and that

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the stresses beneath the manhole and strains in the base and the risers are much less than the permissible, so also the cracks in the concrete for increased live loads from trucks over ground. This finding helps more economical robust design of the precast concrete manholes [40]. Further to manhole improvement, one experimental finding of manhole covers with GFRP sheet provision makes it more stiffer and increases in strength with the number of layers of FRP and thereby ultimate load carrying capacity as found by Pradhan [41].

25 Manufacturing Management A paper on Intelligent system for precast concrete element manufacturing management, reveals that a new management system is designed and implemented as per which tracing the manufacturing process, optimizing the manufacturing schedule and analyzing product quality can be ensured. A special detachable RFID chip structure is designed and applied by Min and Junyu. It has become the media between PC elements and PC management database. Artificial intelligence is used to guide workers’ operation and assist decision making [42]. The holistic/unified MtA system (Manufacturing, transportation and Assembling) of precast construction projects is developed as a heuristic method. For which a multi objective Genetic Algorithm has been developed to optimize cost and time associated in different precast construction techniques there by allowing to constrain the number of on-site workforce per day from congested construction site, as reported by Anvari [43].

26 In-House Layout Management Simulation modeling and optimization of stockyard layouts for precast concrete products was developed by Marasini and Dawood, to model stockyard layouts. Genetic algorithms used to identify the clusters of products that are frequently ordered and to assign developed clusters to storage locations to reduce throughput time. Genetic algorithms integrated with the simulation model have proved to be potential techniques to identify the allocation of products to storage locations to reduce throughput time. In developing this model, Microsoft’s Component Object Model using ActiveX automation, Data Access Objects and ActiveX Data access Objects were well integrated and lastly VBA is efficiently utilized in integrating the above [44].

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27 Plant Network Owing to specific promotion policies for prefabricated structures, the enterprises of precast concrete components grow by leaps and bounds, especially in China. Many factors influence selecting the PC factories locations. It’s a complex and multi-criteria decision making problem. How to make a right decision is vital otherwise a location selected may prove costly and core competence. One related research paper from Zhu et al. is available [45].

28 Production Planning Management Precast technology has been and will be more and more extensively utilized in Singapore as well as many other developed countries. There is a requirement for a specialized planning model to aid pre-casters in production management. The model should effectively capture distinctive features of precast production and help generate production plans to fully meet PC demand with minimum planning related cost. Based on that requirement, a simulation GA based planning model is proposed for make-to-order precast production. Out of 3 simulation approaches considered, the one BI_CP (Bi-directional scheduling based on Critical Precast rule) performs the best not only in the overall planning related cost, but also in every cost category, according to Zhai and team [46]. For a successful yet profitable future of precast industry, a critical study in Singapore is done as per which the present workflow and proposed one are reported in detail. For productivity measurement, a fuzzy mapping technique was used so as to address the uncertainties involved during estimation. Tushar Nath and team showed that how the production of difficult versus easy components optimistic and pessimistic values respectively. For all the three: easy, moderate and difficult category components, MEP (mechanical, electrical and plumbing) was considered as the critical activity to be taken into consideration [47].

29 Conclusion For rapid development of engineering infrastructure in the country precast concrete construction, in plain, reinforced and pre-stressed forms is the most sought after technology. Structures built with such technology, taking into consideration, topology, hydrology, geography, demography including seismic effects etc., are a necessity for any developing nation. Since, resources are limited especially for a developing country like India, every penny spent on the infrastructure shall be worth enough, to give quality and longevity in their functioning.

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Evaluation of Labor Positioning Factors Influencing Construction Manpower Allocation N. Suriya, S. Kamal, and R. Sivagamasundari

1 Introduction Construction is one of the massive economic-based industries such as agriculture. A huge amount of investments is involved in the infrastructure toward the huge profits and developments. This cost-based industry highly depends upon the productivity, and turnover of the construction manpower as well as the construction manpower productivity depends upon the effective use of manpower [1, 2]. Improper workforce planning is the significant cause of project delay in construction projects [3]. Project delivery on time is the ultimate target of a construction organization [4]. Many factors are related to the construction project delivery such as organization effectiveness, effective management, and effective manpower usage. Likewise, project delay partially depends on the manpower allocation practices and skills and experiences of the construction manpower [4–7]. Both the skill shortage and aging workforce are the dominant issues influencing the present world [8]. Physical health condition of laborers like physical fatigue is one of the critical factors influencing the manpower allocation process as well as productivity ratio [1, 9, 10]. Negative behaviors like drinking habits and poor physical and mental health conditions affect the construction field workers and the performance flow [11]. Similarly, lack of labor experience adversely influences the labor productivity [4, 12, 13]. Shortage of labor skills and the lack of supervision from the management are the most significant factors impacting the construction professionals [9, 13, 14]. Effective supervision criteria enhance the productive hours of the task in construction job sites [9]. Impact of the age and experience is psychologically related to the N. Suriya (B) Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Annamalai University, Tamil Nadu, India S. Kamal · R. Sivagamasundari Associate Professor, Department of Civil and Structural Engineering , Annamalai University , Tamil Nadu, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Naganathan et al. (eds.), Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil Engineering, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 179, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5041-3_8

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stressors and the labor productivity especially on labor positioning; furthermore, the aged workers are the key factors of poor productivity based on their physical and mental health as well as challenging work environment [1]. Shortage of skilled workers causes the time overruns in construction projects [4, 14]. Aging workers are influenced by the job dissatisfaction, fatigue effects, sleeping disorders, digestive problems, and work–family conflicts and are not fit to the shift works, risky tasks, and the bottleneck situations [15, 16]. Poor payment and the lack of recognition of efficient workers may cause dissatisfaction with the job and reduce the motivation level in the manpower allocation process in construction projects [17]. Work situations and social and cultural behaviors influence employees’ job satisfaction [18]. But, age-related factors are not significantly influencing the job satisfaction level of the construction workers [19, 20]. However, there is a relationship between workers’ job satisfaction, job performance, behavior, and competencies [18, 21]. Moreover, overall job satisfaction can be focused on different dimensions such as satisfaction with occupation, quality of work life, personal development, health conditions, relationship with co-workers and supervisors [20]. Developing a job satisfaction culture will provide comfort feel during the work [22]. Positive psychology provides scope to enhance job satisfaction, job site productivity, and motivation in their task and also to sustain in workflow in order to improve the learning qualities and to reduce anxiety [23]. Rewards and incentive schemes from the management side toward the workforce can motivate and encourage the performance of every individual working in order to improve their competent quality and job satisfaction [9, 12]. The poor decision-making process can collapse the effective manpower practices and causing the delay effects in construction projects as well as the skill of the manpower is one of the key factors in the area of project delays in the construction sector [5]. Schedule compression, working in similar activities, weather effects are directly significant with the physical and mental health in manpower assignment practices and labor productivity [24]. Construction workers’ absent behavior can influence the other co-workers and the workforce team and reduces the efficiency in the team performance and the overall workflow [25]. Motivation is a significant factor to improve productivity similarly; challenging tasks and decision-making processes are the influencing factors in labor productivity [26]. Motivation factors influence the job performance of construction workers [27]. Workers’ ineffectiveness, experiences, and absenteeism affect the construction labor productivity [28]. Organizations should minimize the difference between available personnel and the demand and develop technical solutions based on the demand of the personnel [29]. The aims of the manpower allocations are to sustain satisfactory human resource levels both in quality and quantity [30]. Labor capacity, absenteeism, and an ageing workforce are the significant factors related to the competency of workforce [31]. Many construction projects face the productivity loss originating from workers absenteeism [32]. Construction labor activity and absenteeism influence construction operations and impact project performance [33]. Absenteeism problems and unskilled labors are causing time overruns in major construction projects [34]. Individual characteristics of the workers and unsafe environment have a significant relationship with unsafe

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behavior and construction site accidents [35, 36]. Construction supervisors should pay more attention to the behavioral changes of the experienced workers at construction jobsite [37]. However, the construction professionals update their skills; the negatives from the workforce side influence the manpower allocation practices. In this connection, this paper identifies and evaluates labor positioning factors influencing manpower allocation in construction projects. Questionnaire survey method was adopted for the data collection process. Data analysis works are done to evaluate the collected data from the respondents. The results help the construction professionals to understand the influence level of the individual factors in manpower allocation practices.

2 Methodology The present study evaluates the labor positioning factors influencing manpower allocation in construction projects. Through the literature survey, twelve different factors were identified for the questionnaire preparation. This study is adopted a questionnaire survey method to collect the data from the construction professionals in the construction sector. In this regard, 288 effective samples are successfully retrieved from 467 respondents from a questionnaire survey. Further, the samples were analyzed by using the relative importance index (RII) method for ranking and the independent sample Kruskal–Wallis test to test the hypotheses. The results from the data analysis showed the influence range of the labor positioning factors in manpower allocation in construction projects.

3 Results and Discussion In this section, the statistical analysis of the data was discussed. “relative importance index (RII) method” was used for ranking the factors, and “independent sample Kruskal–Wallis test” was used to understand the significance of labor positioning factors influencing manpower allocation in the perspective of the respondents’ experience perspectives. For the data analysis, 288 questionnaire samples collected from the respondents from the various construction fields in south India were analyzed by using SPSS software version 25. Before the analysis, the twelve factors were labeled for the ease of understanding the twelve different factors as shown in Table 1. In this study, the relative importance index (RII) method was used to calculate the relative importance index values and ranking of twelve different labor positioning factors which influencing the manpower allocation in construction projects. The same method was used to understand the different perspectives of the respondents’ experience level (i.e., “1–5 years,” “5–10 years,” “10–15 years,” and “above 15 years”). The ten-point scale ranging from 1 (very low) to 10 (extreme) was used and transformed to the RII for twelve individual factors. The data collected from the 288

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Table 1 Labor positioning factors influencing construction manpower allocation S. No. Factors

Factor label

1

The influence level of workers’ lack of job satisfaction

F1

2

The influence level of aging workers

F2

3

The influence level of workers’ lack of skills

F3

4

The influence level of workers’ lack of experience

F4

5

The influence level of workers’ different personality and suitability

F5

6

The influence level of workers’ absenteeism rate

F6

7

The influence level of workers’ lack of involvement and cooperation

F7

8

The influence level of the social and cultural characteristics of workers

F8

9

The influence level of poor workflow and negative behavior of workers

F9

10

The influence level of safety issues and health problems of construction workers

F10

11

The influence level of non-initiative workers

F11

12

The influence level of the workers’ late coming behavior at construction F12 site

effective respondents were analyzed from the perspective of the respondents’ experience category. This RII method was used to find the highly influencing factors, and those factors were further ranked based on the values of RII. In the following section, the four different perspectives of the respondents’ experience category about the relative importance of labor positioning factors influencing the manpower allocation are presented. Relative important indices were calculated using the following formula:  RII =

( f × W) , (0 ≤ RII ≤ 1), 10 × N

(1)

where W is the weight given to each factor by the respondents ranging from 1 to 10, with 1 representing “very low influence” and 10 representing “extreme influence”; f —the frequency of response to each rating (1 to 10) for each factor; and N—total number of respondents for that factor. 10 is the maximum weight possible in this case.

3.1 Labor Positioning Factors Influencing Manpower Allocation—Perspective of the Respondents’ Experience From the point of view of the respondents having 1–5 years of experience level in the construction field, the twelve critical factors were ranked depending upon the RII values and are presented in Table 2. In this Table 2, the higher RII values will be

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Table 2 Relative important index and ranking of factors—the perspective of the respondents having “1–5 years” of experience S. No. Factors

RII

Rank

1

The influence level of workers’ lack of skills (F3)

0.68

1

2

The influence level of workers’ lack of involvement and cooperation (F7) 0.62

2

3

The influence level of workers’ absenteeism rate (F6)

0.60

3

4

The influence level of workers’ lack of experience (F4)

0.60

4

5

The influence level of aging workers (F2)

0.60

5

6

The influence level of safety issues and health problems of construction workers (F10)

0.55

6

7

The influence level of poor workflow and negative behavior of workers (F9)

0.53

7

8

The influence level of the workers’ late coming behavior at construction 0.51 site (F12)

8

9

The influence level of non-initiative workers (F11)

0.47

9

10

The influence level of workers’ lack of job satisfaction (F1)

0.45

10

11

The influence level of workers’ different personality and suitability (F5) 0.38

11

12

The influence level of the social and cultural characteristics of workers (F8)

12

0.32

considered as the most influencing factors in construction manpower allocation. The top five factors are “the influence of workers’ lack of skills” (RII = 68%) ranked in the first position, with the higher relative important index value, which indicated the influence range of the factor with the construction manpower allocation. Workers’ lack of skill causes poor workflow and reduces the efficiency of the organization. Similarly, the important factor was “the influence of workers’ lack of involvement and cooperation” (RII = 62%), followed by “the influence level of workers’ absenteeism rate” (RII = 60%), “the influence level of workers’ lack of experience” (60%), and “the influence of aging workers” (60%). From the point of view of the respondents having 5–10 years of experience level in the construction field, the twelve labor positioning factors are ranked depending upon the RII values and are presented in Table 3. In this Table 3, the higher RII values will be taken as the most critical factors in construction manpower allocation. The top five factors are “the influence of workers’ lack of skills” (RII = 66%) ranked as the topmost factor, with the higher RII value, which indicated the impact range of the factor with the construction manpower allocation. Similarly, the important factor was “the influence level of aging workers” (RII = 66%), followed by “the influence level of workers’ lack of involvement and cooperation” (RII = 59%), “the influence level of workers’ lack of experience” (RII = 57%), and “the influence level of workers’ absenteeism rate” (54%). From the point of view of the respondents having 10–15 years of experience level in the construction sector, labor positioning factors were ranked depending upon the relative importance index values and are presented in Table 4. In this Table 4, the

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Table 3 Relative important index and ranking of factors—the perspective of the respondents having “5–10 years” of experience S. No. Factors

RII

Rank

1

The influence level of workers’ lack of skills (F3)

0.66

1

2

The influence level of aging workers (F2)

0.66

2

3

The influence level of workers’ lack of involvement and cooperation (F7) 0.59

3

4

The influence level of workers’ lack of experience (F4)

0.57

4

5

The influence level of workers’ absenteeism rate (F6)

0.54

5

6

The influence level of safety issues and health problems of construction workers (F10)

0.52

6

7

The influence level of the workers’ late coming behavior at construction 0.48 site (F12)

7

8

The influence level of non-initiative workers (F11)

0.47

8

9

The influence level of poor workflow and negative behavior of workers (F9)

0.45

9

10

The influence level of workers’ lack of job satisfaction (F1)

0.42

10

11

The influence level of the social and cultural characteristics of workers (F8)

0.32

11

12

The influence level of workers’ different personality and suitability (F5) 0.31

12

Table 4 Relative important index and ranking of factors—the perspective of the respondents having “10–15 years” of experience S. No. Factors

RII

Rank

1

The influence level of aging workers (F2)

0.70

1

2

The influence level of workers’ lack of skills (F3)

0.59

2

3

The influence level of poor workflow and negative behavior of workers (F9)

0.54

3

4

The influence level of workers’ lack of experience (F4)

0.49

4

5

The influence level of workers’ lack of involvement and cooperation (F7) 0.48

5

6

The influence level of workers’ absenteeism rate (F6)

0.48

6

7

The influence level of the workers’ late coming behavior at construction 0.36 site (F12)

7

8

The influence level of non-initiative workers (F11)

0.35

8

9

The influence level of workers’ lack of job satisfaction (F1)

0.34

9

10

The influence level of safety issues and health problems of construction workers (F10)

0.33

10

11

The influence level of workers’ different personality and suitability (F5) 0.30

11

12

The influence level of the social and cultural characteristics of workers (F8)

12

0.26

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higher RII values will be taken as the most critical factors in construction manpower allocation. The top five factors are “the influence level of aging workers” (RII = 70%) ranked as the first factor, with the higher relative importance index value, which indicated the range of influence of the aging with the construction manpower allocation. Similarly, the important factor was “the influence level of workers’ lack of skills” (RII = 59%), followed by “the influence level of poor workflow and negative behavior of workers” (RII = 54%), “the influence level of workers’ lack of experience” (RII = 49%), and “the influence level of workers’ lack of involvement and cooperation” (48%). From the point of view of the respondents having “above 15 years of experience level” in the construction sector, labor positioning factors are ranked depending upon the relative importance index values and are presented in Table 5. In this Table 5, the higher RII values will be taken as the most critical factors in construction manpower allocation. The top five factors were “the influence level of workers’ lack of skills” (RII = 70%) ranked as the first factor, with the higher relative importance index value, which indicates the range of influence of the aging with the construction manpower allocation. Similarly, the important factor was “the influence level of workers’ lack of involvement and cooperation” (RII = 67%), the third most influencing factor ranked in Table 5 was “the influence level of workers’ absenteeism rate” (RII = 58%), the fourth top factor was “the influence level of workers’ lack of experience” (RII = 56%) and the fifth top factor was “the influence level of aging workers” (55%). From the point of view of the overall respondents, labor positioning factors are ranked depending upon the relative importance index values and are presented in Table 5 Relative important index and ranking of factors—the perspective of the respondents having “above 15 years” of experience S. No. Factors

RII

Rank

1

The influence level of workers’ lack of skills (F3)

0.70

1

2

The influence level of workers’ lack of involvement and cooperation (F7) 0.67

2

3

The influence level of workers’ absenteeism rate (F6)

0.58

3

4

The influence level of workers’ lack of experience (F4)

0.56

4

5

The influence level of aging workers (F2)

0.55

5

6

The influence level of poor workflow and negative behavior of workers (F9)

0.51

6

7

The influence level of non-initiative workers (F11)

0.50

7

8

The influence level of the workers’ late coming behavior at construction 0.49 site (F12)

8

9

The influence level of workers’ lack of job satisfaction (F1)

0.43

9

10

The influence level of safety issues and health problems of construction workers (F10)

0.40

10

11

The influence level of workers’ different personality and suitability (F5) 0.34

11

12

The influence level of the social and cultural characteristics of workers (F8)

12

0.26

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Table 6 Relative important index and ranking of factors—an overall perspective S. No. Factors

RII

Rank

1

The influence level of workers’ lack of skills (F3)

0.66

1

2

The influence level of aging workers (F2)

0.62

2

3

The influence level of workers’ lack of involvement and cooperation (F7) 0.60

3

4

The influence level of workers’ lack of experience (F4)

0.57

4

5

The influence level of workers’ absenteeism rate (F6)

0.56

5

6

The influence level of poor workflow and negative behavior of workers (F9)

0.50

6

7

The influence level of safety issues and health problems of construction workers (F10)

0.47

7

8

The influence level of the workers’ late coming behavior at construction 0.47 site (F12)

8

9

The influence level of non-initiative workers (F11)

0.46

9

10

The influence level of workers’ lack of job satisfaction (F1)

0.42

10

11

The influence level of workers’ different personality and suitability (F5) 0.34

11

12

The influence level of the social and cultural characteristics of workers (F8)

12

0.30

Table 6. In this Table 6, the higher RII values will be taken as the most critical factors in construction manpower allocation. The top five factors were “the influence level of workers’ lack of skills” (RII = 66%) ranked as the first factor, with the higher relative importance index value, which indicates the range of influence of the aging with the construction manpower allocation. Similarly, the important factor was “the influence level of aging workers” (RII = 62%), the third most influencing factor ranked in Table 6 was “the influence level of workers’ lack of involvement and cooperation” (RII = 60%), the fourth top factor was “the influence level of workers’ lack of experience” (RII = 57%) and the fifth top factor was “the influence level of workers’ absenteeism rate” (56%). The comparison of the RII values based on five different perspectives of the respondents’ experience is shown in Table 7. According to the results from the experience perspectives, the factor F4 (the influence level of workers’ lack of experience) is the most common factor ranked as the fourth place in all the perspective which shows the similarities of all kinds of respondents in the construction sector during the manpower allocation; similarly, the factor F3 (the influence level of workers’ lack of skills) is the second most common factor ranked as 1 from the four out of five different perspectives from the respondents experience level. The factors such as F1 (the influence level of workers’ lack of job satisfaction), F5 (the influence level of workers’ different personality and suitability), F8 (the influence level of the social and cultural characteristics of workers), and F12 (the influence level of the workers’ late coming behavior at construction site) are common factors between three different perspectives shown in Table 7.

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Table 7 The comparison of labor positioning factors based on five different perspectives of the respondents’ experience level Factor label

1–5 years

5–10 years

10–15 years

Above 15 years

Over all

RII

Rank

RII

Rank

RII

Rank

RII

Rank

RII

Rank

F1

0.45

10

0.42

10

0.34

9

0.43

9

0.42

10

F2

0.60

5

0.66

2

0.70

1

0.55

5

0.62

2

F3

0.68

1

0.66

1

0.59

2

0.70

1

0.66

1

F4

0.60

4

0.57

4

0.49

4

0.56

4

0.57

4

F5

0.38

11

0.31

12

0.30

11

0.34

11

0.34

11

F6

0.60

3

0.54

5

0.48

6

0.58

3

0.56

5

F7

0.62

2

0.59

3

0.48

5

0.67

2

0.60

3

F8

0.32

12

0.32

11

0.26

12

0.26

12

0.30

12

F9

0.53

7

0.45

9

0.54

3

0.51

6

0.50

6

F10

0.55

6

0.52

6

0.33

10

0.40

10

0.47

7

F11

0.47

9

0.47

8

0.35

8

0.50

7

0.46

9

F12

0.51

8

0.48

7

0.36

7

0.49

8

0.47

8

The perspectives of the respondents having “1–5 years experience” ranged from 0.32 to 0.68; the perspectives of the respondents having “5–10 years experience” ranged from 0.31 to 0.66; the perspectives of the respondents having “10–15 years experience” ranged from 0.26 to 0.70; the perspectives of the respondents having “above 15 years experience” ranged from 0.0.26 to 0.70; and the overall perspectives ranged from 0.30 to 0.66. Through the ranking, it has been observed that the influencing range of factors is varied from the different points of view based on the experience level of respondents. Further, the significance evaluation of factors is required to identify the relationships associated between the factors and respondents’ experience level.

3.2 Evaluation of Significance To check the significance, independent samples Kruskal–Wallis test has been adopted in the analysis by using SPSS software version 25. It is the nonparametric test to check whether the data samples originate from the same distribution. This method is an equivalent alternative to the one-way ANOVA from the parametric test. Twelve different null hypotheses were framed in this study based on twelve factors to find the significant relationship between twelve factors and the experience category of the respondents. If the significance value is more than 0.05 (95% confidential level), the null hypothesis is accepted and is concluded that there is no significant difference between each factor and experience category of respondents. The total number of the

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data samples (N) is 288. The categorical data for this test are 1–5 years experience (35.42%), 5–10 years experience (28.13%), 10–15 years experience (16.67%), and above 15 years experience (19.79%). The response for each factor is considered as the continuous field data for this analysis. The degrees of freedom for each factor is (4 − 1) = 3. Table 8 shows the significant relationship between the factors with the experience category of respondents with the test statistics (Chi-square values (H)) and significance values (p). Table 8 Independent samples Kruskal–Wallis test summary Null hypothesis

Sig. (p)

Decision

The distribution of F1 is the same across the categories of experience of respondents

Test statistic (H) 5.378

0.146

Retain the null hypothesis

The distribution of F2 is the same across the categories of experience of respondents

11.976

0.007

Reject the null hypothesis

The distribution of F3 is the same across the categories of experience of respondents

9.180

0.027

Reject the null hypothesis

The distribution of F4 is the same across the categories of experience of respondents

11.280

0.010

Reject the null hypothesis

The distribution of F5 is the same across the categories of experience of respondents

5.864

0.118

Retain the null hypothesis

The distribution of F6 is the same across the categories of experience of respondents

8.800

0.032

Reject the null hypothesis

The distribution of F7 is the same across the categories of experience of respondents

17.810

0.000

Reject the null hypothesis

The distribution of F8 is the same across the categories of experience of respondents

10.883

0.012

Reject the null hypothesis

The distribution of F9 is the same across the categories of experience of respondents

7.597

0.055

Retain the null hypothesis

The distribution of F10 is the same across the categories of experience of respondents

32.110

0.000

Reject the null hypothesis

The distribution of F11 is the same across the categories of experience of respondents

11.259

0.010

Reject the null hypothesis

The distribution of F12 is the same across the categories of experience of respondents

13.878

0.003

Reject the null hypothesis

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Fig. 1 Independent sample Kruskal–Wallis test view (for F2)

For F2, the null hypothesis is rejected because there was a significant difference between the distribution of F2 by different experience level (H(3) = 11.976, p = 0.007), with a mean rank of 135.19 for 1–5 years experience, 156.30 for 5–10 years experience, 170.59 for 10–15 years experience, and 121.69 for above 15 years experience. Figure 1 shows the test views of F2 (the influence level of aging workers) by using box plots indicating the median lines as mean ranks from each group of respondents. For F3, the null hypothesis is rejected because there was a significant difference between the distribution of F3 by different experience level (H(3) = 9.180, p = 0.027), with a mean rank of 152.75 for 1–5 years experience, 141.25 for 5–10 years experience, 114.99 for 10–15 years experience, and 159.21 for above 15 years experience. Figure 2 shows the test views of F3 (the influence level of workers’ lack of skills) by using box plots indicating the median lines as mean ranks from each group of respondents. For F4, the null hypothesis is rejected because there was a significant difference between the distribution of F4 by different experience level (H(3) = 11.280, p = 0.010), with a mean rank of 158.85 for 1–5 years experience, 147.15 for 5–10 years experience, 110.69 for 10–15 years experience, and 143.53 for above 15 years experience. Figure 3 shows the test views of F4 (the influence level of workers’ lack of experience) by using box plots indicating the median lines as mean ranks from each group of respondents. For F6, the null hypothesis is rejected because there was a significant difference between the distribution of F6 by different experience level (H(3) = 8.800, p = 0.032), with a mean rank of 158.82 for 1–5 years experience, 136.17 for 5–10 years experience, 119.32 for 10–15 years experience, and 151.90 for above 15 years experience. Figure 4 shows the test views of F6 (the influence level of workers’ absenteeism

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Fig. 2 Independent sample Kruskal–Wallis test view (for F3)

Fig. 3 Independent sample Kruskal–Wallis test view (for F4)

rate) by using box plots indicating the median lines as mean ranks from each group of respondents. For F7, the null hypothesis is rejected because there was a significant difference between the distribution of F7 by different experience level (H(3) = 17.810, p = 0.000), with a mean rank of 151.55 for 1–5 years experience, 140.99 for 5–10 years experience, 104.54 for 10–15 years experience, and 170.53 for above 15 years experience. Figure 5 shows the test views of F7 (the influence level of workers’ lack of involvement and cooperation) by using box plots indicating the median lines as mean ranks from each group of respondents.

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Fig. 4 Independent sample Kruskal–Wallis test view (for F6)

Fig. 5 Independent sample Kruskal–Wallis test view (for F7)

For F8, the null hypothesis is rejected because there was a significant difference between the distribution of F8 by different experience level (H(3) = 10.883, p = 0.012), with a mean rank of 157.43 for 1–5 years experience, 155.19 for 5–10 years experience, 121.61 for 10–15 years experience, and 125.45 for above 15 years experience. Figure 6 shows the test views of F8 (the influence level of the social and cultural characteristics of workers) by using box plots indicating the median lines as mean ranks from each group of respondents. For F10, the null hypothesis is rejected because there was a significant difference between the distribution of F10 by different experience level (H(3) = 32.110, p = 0.000), with a mean rank of 169.82 for 1–5 years experience, 157.51 for 5–10 years

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Fig. 6 Independent sample Kruskal–Wallis test view (for F8)

experience, 97.35 for 10–15 years experience, and 120.40 for above 15 years experience. Figure 7 shows the test views of F10 (the influence level of safety issues and health problems of construction workers) by using box plots indicating the median lines as mean ranks from each group of respondents. For F11, the null hypothesis is rejected because there was a significant difference between the distribution of F11 by different experience level (H(3) = 11.259, p = 0.010), with a mean rank of 149.40 for 1–5 years experience, 149.48 for 5–10 years experience, 108.84 for 10–15 years experience, and 158.69 for above 15 years experience. Figure 8 shows the test views of F11 (the influence level of non-initiative

Fig. 7 Independent sample Kruskal–Wallis test view (for F10)

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Fig. 8 Independent sample Kruskal–Wallis test view (for F11)

workers) by using box plots indicating the median lines as mean ranks from each group of respondents. For F12, the null hypothesis is rejected because there was a significant difference between the distribution of F12 by different experience level (H(3) = 13.878, p = 0.003), with a mean rank of 157.82 for 1–5 years experience, 145.62 for 5–10 years experience, 105.39 for 10–15 years experience, and 152.01 for above 15 years experience. Figure 9 shows the test views of F12 (the influence level of the workers’ late coming behavior at construction site) by using box plots indicating the median lines as mean ranks from each group of respondents.

Fig. 9 Independent sample Kruskal–Wallis test view (for F12)

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From the results, it has been observed that the point of view from the different experience groups of respondents about the labor positioning factors is significantly varied. So the overall summary of this study indicates that the labor positioning factors do influence significantly the manpower allocation in construction projects. Lack of motivation, lack of training from the management side, and organizational inefficiencies are the other reasons behind these factors. To make sustainability in the manpower positioning practices can reduce the negatives of the workforce. Competency (skill, performance, and adaptability)-based hiring and allocation process is another solution for this labor positioning issue.

4 Conclusion Reinforcing sustainability in manpower planning is the way to achieve organizational goals. Construction professionals often struggle in the manpower allocation process, especially in labor positioning. Though the competent engineers handle the labor positioning efficiently by their skills, the negatives from the workforce side cause performance inefficiency, task delay, and stress in the manpower planning process and also affect the confidence level of the construction professionals psychologically. The results of this study conclude that the labor positioning factors are highly influencing the manpower allocation in construction projects as well as highly significant to the construction professionals’ experience perspectives. Hiring skilled youngsters, dual skilled workers, and multi-skilled workers are effective ways to reinforce the manpower allocation and labor positioning process. The use of human resource strategies such as job analysis and job rotation practices in the allocation process will secure the valid time of construction professionals engaging with manpower allocation and labor positioning practices. By providing effective training and motivation to improve the qualities of construction workers will help construction professionals to sustain manpower allocation to use the workforce based on the task demands in different situations.

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A Review on Factors Influencing the Use of Personal Protective Equipment in Construction Projects S. Elavarasan, S. Kamal, and R. Sivagamasundari

1 Introduction The PPE usage is needed in particular workplaces for the security of the workforce from different hazards in construction projects. PPE is an equipment that will protect the user against safety risks at work. The equipment must utilize for its intended task on the worksite to ensure workers’ safety. Each construction site should have a safety engineer. Commonly, the workforce liable for requiring wear of PPE equipment in construction sites includes: To attend all PPE training sessions, using appropriate PPE in workplaces is very important, follow all warnings and precautions, and listen and follow directions, support assigned PPE in healthy condition, report any unsafe conditions you may find in your work areas. PPE is not interested in the workforce in many construction workplaces. PPE is very important for construction sites to save human life. PPE typically includes head guard, eye guard, face guard, respiratory guard, hand guard, hand and skin guard, and overall protection. Generally, the most safety problems in construction are developing on the low quality of PPE, improper utilization of PPE, lack of awareness about PPE, and insufficient safety training. This paper reviews overall factors affecting the safety equipment in construction fields through a detailed review of the literature.

2 Literature Review Ibrahim [1] showed a high prevalence of workplace accidents along with a low rate of PPE use among construction workers. Choi [2] indicates that the lack of

S. Elavarasan (B) · S. Kamal · R. Sivagamasundari Department of Civil & Structural Engineering, Annamalai University, Tamil Nadu, Chidambaram, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Naganathan et al. (eds.), Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil Engineering, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 179, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5041-3_9

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use of personal protective equipment is the most critical factor. Hallowell [3] indicates safety training, insufficient use of PPE, safety inspection, and observation improve safety performance in the long term. Solomon [4] revealed that the main class of workers responsible for construction accidents, insufficient utilization of safety accessories are the critical factors causing accidents on sites, and injuries caused are often found. Hassan [5], revealed the important safety variables for civil engineers to improve the construction workers’ attitude towards safety, health, and environment and hence good safety culture in the building construction industries. Hashim et al. [6], discussed awareness of safety accessories usages at construction job sites to improve safety performance levels. Ulang [7], identified that the awareness and knowledge among workers about the proper safety accessories usages are moderate. Praveenkumar and Vishnuvardhan [8], discussed the leading causes of serious accidents occurring in India that are very high compared to foreign countries, with sound planning, effective implementation, and continuous training with focused safety management, a good safety record comparable to that of international level. Ahmad et al. [9], investigated the four aspects of construction safety, including safety policy, safety training, PPE program, and safety promotion. Alfred Goh Pui Tecka [10] discussed the “Effectiveness of Safety Training Methods for Malaysia Construction Industry” and recommended the advanced work practices related to the safety knowledge about the safe environment for workers. Chengjie Xu et al. [11], investigated the safety variables in the civil engineering field through the factor analysis method. The extracts seven common factors from 40 top factors summarized: building environment factor, poor personal equipment, design factor, material factor and equipment, improper site arrangement factor, safety investment factor, and construction technology factor. Finally, carry out construction safety management in a relevant manner and constantly improve the quality of safety management. Langford et al. [12], indicated that factors influence work behavior. Given the effect of others on worker efficiency, management’s commitment to improve safety is manifested in the presence of an effective safety management system; that is, a complete safety infrastructure must be provided that empowers the individual worker. Benny and Jaishree [13], demonstrated about security measures that are more important than security planning and training. To ensure safety, an engineer or safety officer should always be present at the construction site to inspect the safe environment at the sites. Management must create mandatory security teams. All workers should have safety accessories for ensuring their safety. Appropriate measures and remedies must be taken at each construction site to avoid any possibility of many accidents occurring. Dhrisya and Thangaraj [14], generated scientific and useful knowledge about process improvement and safety management for worker’s fitness. This study helps to understand the most critical factors affecting safety in building construction and new methods to overcome safety problems. Purohit [15], reveals that safety accessories are the main element used for risk control. However, there was enough PPE at the sites. Based on factors that influence risk management, the study reveals that the legal system plays an important role in

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risk assessment, communication, and control. The regulations foresee some dangers such as falls from a height and control mechanisms. Jazayeri and Dadi [16], demonstrated cutting-edge research on a variety of safety-related techniques and other related measurement methods. Provide background studies on the development of security management systems. Professionals can benefit from applying the available security management systems mentioned. Khan et al. [17], focused on many safety problems related to the safety knowledge grounding for power tools and the insufficient knowledge for the mechanical damage. In addition, the study also proposes some recommendations for site safety. Kadiri et al. [18], discussed the main causes of accidents for assuring safe and accident-free construction site, and implemented all safety measures, which are periodic supervision and inspection by safety officers and leaders on-site, safety items, training programs which should include how to handle tools, equipment, and plants, management should ensure that safety policies are obeyed, should be carried out testing employees for drug use, alcohol intake, and other future purposes. Agwu [19], concluded that the best organizational performance (fewer accidents, better safety practices) contributed to the total implementation of safety management in the six selected construction companies. Jokkaw and Tongthong [20], stated that factors used for safety management in construction works of international level were at a high and very high level, the probability of the factors used for safety management at construction worksites. Kartam [21], observed the key factors such as disorganized workforce, poor accident reporting, recording system, and migrant labor. Oreoluwa and Ondaunkanmi [22], investigated the scope of such safety policies whenever an unfortunate accident occurs and also sought to build affordable fitness practices in small-scale companies. Orji Solomon [23], revealed that safety accessories related to an accident are highly influencing safety than electrical accidents. Jasani [24], revealed that the huge numbers of employees did not have adequate knowledge about work-related hazards and their prevention. Rusli et al. [25], showed that the growth of the development project of the elevated highway segment (MYC) in general has worked well, while the factors that most influence the improvement of the implementation of OSH are the first aid indicator and PPE indicator. Ganesh and Rajesh [26] stated that the variables such as space congestion, improper use of safety elements, non-complacence with safety regulations, and inappropriate equipment are impacting the safety conditions. Alice [27], reveals that the improper application of regulations and unfounded attitude towards health and safety are the main reasons for their misuse by workers at project sites. Kumar and Bansal [28], raised awareness among professionals about various safety-related practices. The need for safety culture and climate in mitigating site hazards has also been discussed. The paper highlights the description of homeowners and designers in ensuring a safe construction process. Tadesse and Israel [29], discussed about physical damages of site workers. An institution-based crosssectional study was conducted among building construction employees in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, from February to April 2015. Multistage sampling followed by simple random sampling techniques was used to select study participants. Durdyev

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[30], stated that the findings and recommendations of this study may be useful to construction professionals looking for ways to improve safety records in developing countries. Meena [31], focused on the fitness and health management of construction workers for better performance and awareness about safety accessories in construction workplaces. Vitharana et al. [32], stated that health hazards can be classified into two: acute health hazards and chronic health hazards. Other main factors of safety trainingrelated issues at job site include lack of productivity, lack of training facilities, lack of effective job training, lack of understanding of work, unsafe behavior found in the industry (working with moving machinery, wearing hanging clothing, lifting unsafe objects, carrying and location), financial hardship, and the addiction of alcohol and drugs. Huang and Hinze [33], discussed the analysis of fall accidents at worksites. This further investigated most worker-related fatalities, and many accidents involve serious injuries. Youngcheol Kang [34], identified the factors such as insufficient fall protection tools and overtime works are influencing above seventy percentages of accidents in the construction workplaces.

3 Methodology This paper identifies the critical factors from the systematic literature survey. This work was started through the specific literature review of previous studies related to the utilization of safety equipment. Thirty-three main factors were identified through the literature review. These factors further ranked for the observation of safety issues in workplaces. This study reveals the highly impacting variables linked to the unawareness about the safety accessories at workplaces.

4 Result and Discussions This chapter discusses the factors in the following overview Table 1. Thirty-three factors were identified from the overview Table 1. All the factors ranked by their frequencies in previous studies from the literature review are given below.

4.1 An Overview of the Personal Equipment Issues from the Last Nineteen Years In the modern construction industry, PPE plays a vital role. To frame an overview table will be useful to be aware of the specific focus on PPE issues from the last twenty years. Table 1 focuses on the different factors affecting the safety accessories

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Table 1 An overview table—PPE problems from the past eighteen years Author’s name and years

Methods

Identification of Factors

Ahmad et al. [9]

Questionnaire survey

Safety policy, safety training, and promotion

Alice [27]

Literature review

Unavailability of PPE, insufficient PPE usage,

Hallowell [3]

Meta-analysis

Insufficient training & insufficient PPE usage,

A.V Praveenkumar and Vishnuvardhan [8]

Literature review

Insufficient training, safety response from management

Alfred Goh Pui Tecka [10]

Literature survey

Insufficient knowledge & unawareness of safety

Chengjie Xu et al. [11]

Questionnaire survey

Risky work

Choi [2]

Factor analysis

Failure to wearing PPE

Hassan [5]

Questionnaire survey

Poor safety policy & culture

Langford et al. [12]

questionnaire survey

Poor records about health

Benny, and Jaishree [13]

Questionnaire survey

Insufficient PPE usage, site accident or incident investigation, emergency procedure, insufficient training

Dhrisya, and Thangaraj [14]

Literature review

Construction accidents, site accidents, and unsafe climate

Purohit [15]

Protection analysis

Insufficient PPE usages, and fall from height. Insufficient training

Ibrahim [1]

Questionnaire survey

Insufficient PPE usage and safety training

Jazayeri, and Dadi [16]

Questionnaire survey

Insufficient PPE usages, insufficient training, safety monitoring, and worker unlike PPE

Hashim et al. [6]

Experimental research

PPE indicators and insufficient safety kits

Kadiri et al. [18]

Questionnaire survey

Unawareness of safety, worker technical level is low, insufficient training, and workers unlike PPE

Agwu [19]

Questionnaire survey

Poor safety supervision

Jokkaw and Tongthong [20]

Questionnaire survey

Insufficient training, unsafe act, and unsafe working conditions

Kartam [21]

Interview

Risky works

Ulang [7]

Questionnaire survey

Insufficient training, workers are unlike like PPE, and poor working condition

Oreoluwa and ondaunkanmi [22]

Questionnaire survey

Insufficient PPE usage, insufficient knowledge, and unawareness of safety (continued)

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Table 1 (continued) Author’s name and years

Methods

Identification of Factors

Solomon [4]

Questionnaire survey

Not following the regulations of safety

Orji Solomon [23]

Questionnaire survey

Insufficient training & lack of first aid training

Jasani [24]

Questionnaire survey

Not focusing precautions

Rusli et al. [25]

Questionnaire survey

Insufficient PPE usage & insufficient training

Ganesh, and Rajesh [26]

Questionnaire survey

Insufficient PPE usage

Kumar, and Bansal [28]

Literature survey

Insufficient maintenance of PPE

Tadesse, and Israel [29]

Questionnaire survey

Not focusing precautions

Durdyev [30]

Questionnaire survey

Unawareness of safety, insufficient maintenance of PPE, and insufficient PPE usage

Ragunath [17]

Questionnaire survey

Insufficient training & lack of first aid training

Meena [31]

Literature survey

Insufficient maintenance of PPE

Vitharana et al. [32]

Questionnaire survey

Not following the regulations of safety

Huang and Hinze [33]

Questionnaire survey

Insufficient training & lack of PPE

YoungcheolKang [34]

Questionnaire survey

Not focusing the fall protection

utilization among the workforce and also focuses on the various kinds of methods that were used in the PPE-related issues from the past twenty years. From this overview Table 1, we can understand the various factors & methods of PPE-related issues in workplaces. Through Table 1, 33 main factors were identified. Furthermore, the critical factors are parts into 6 major categories.

4.2 Critical Factors Affecting the PPE at Workplaces In the present construction sector, safety equipment-related issues have highly contributed to a maximum of safety incidents. Discover the factors that will help to understand the knowledge about overall PPE-related key factors in workplace safety. In this chapter, the factors had been grouped and ranked in Table 2. Through Table 1, 33 factors were identified through a review of literature related to PPE in construction sectors. These factors are furthermore grouped into 6 categories such as human errors, site accidents, safety management, risk factor, environment factor, and another type of factors. The details in Table 2 show the five groups of factors with the classification format. Here, the first group factor is called human error factors. In this factor, the

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Group factors

Factors

Number of occurrences

Human error

Insufficient PPE usage Unawareness of safety Workers unlike PPE Insufficient PPE maintenance Lack of PPE Unavailability of PPE Worker technical level is low Poor attitude of workers

10 4 4 3 2 1 1 1

Site accident

Not focusing precaution Emergency response Insufficient safety kits Emergency procedure Lack of emergency measure Site accident

2 2 1 1 1 1

Safety management

Insufficient training Insufficient inspection Not following the regulation of safety Poor site management Poor environment conditions Poor safety conscientiousness Poor safety monitoring

11 2 2 1 1 1 1

Risk factor

Risky works Unsafe act Unsafe working condition Unsafe material lack of attention from ladders

2 1 1 1 1

Environment factor

Unsafe climate Policy & culture Poor working condition

2 2 1

Other type factors

Poor health conditions 1 of workers 1 Safety issues

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insufficient PPE usage is rank first. The second group factor is called site accidents. In these accident site factors, the no focusing precaution these factors ranked first. The third group factor is called safety management factors. In these factors, insufficient training is ranked first. The fourth group factor is called risk factors. In this group, the risky works factor ranks first. The fifth group factor is called environment factors. In these factors, the unsafe climate these factors ranked first. The sixth group factor is named as another type of factor. In these factors, poor health condition of workers these factors ranked first. There are several important factors grouped in this part. From the point of view of the data collected in these parts, we clearly understand that insufficient PPE usage, improper utilize of safety accessories, insufficient safety kits, site accidents, insufficient training, no safety precaution, workers not wearing PPE at worksites construction, safe environmental conditions, and insufficient safety precaution are factors frequently mentioned by many researchers in previous studies of PPE in construction sectors. These different factors affect workforce site safety conditions at construction workplaces.

4.3 Top Five Critical Factors Impacting PPE There are top five critical factors impacting the use of personal protective equipment in construction workplaces. Table 3 shows the top five critical factors impacting the use of personal protective equipment in construction workplaces. In these, insufficient training factor was frequently mentioned (11) in the previous study followed by insufficient PPE usage factor, unawareness of safety factors, workers unlike PPE, and insufficient PPE maintenance. These are the critical factors impacting the use of personal protective equipment in construction workplaces in recent years. Table 3 Top five critical factors impacting the use of PPE Years Top five critical factors

2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Total

Insufficient training

*

3

1

2

3

1

1

*

11

Insufficient PPE usage

*

*

1

*

5

2

1

1

10

Unawareness of safety

*

1

1

*

1

1

*

*

4

Workers unlike PPE

*

2

*

*

1

*

*

1

4

Insufficient PPE maintenance 2

*

*

*

1

*

*

*

3

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5 Conclusions This study provides the different kinds of factors that specifically affect personal equipment usage at construction workplaces. Thirty-four numbers of previous studies in the last twenty years have been ranked. Through this, top five factors impacting the use of PPE in construction projects, insufficient training, insufficient PPE usage, unawareness of safety, worker unlike PPE, and insufficient PPE maintenance are the highly contributed factors which influence the PPE in construction workplaces. This paper recommends that the approaches by taking advanced technologies for workplace monitoring process will reduce the construction workplace accidents and problems in the civil engineering sector.

References 1. Sehsah R, EI-Gilany AH, Ibrahim AM (2020) Personal protective equipment use and its relation to accidents among construction workers. J la medicina del lavora 111(4):285–295 2. Usukhbayar R, choi J (2020) Critical safety factors influencing on the safety performance of construction projects. J Asian Architect Build Eng 19(9):600–612 3. Alruqi W, Hallowell M (2019) Critical success factors for construction safety. J Construct Manage 145(3):1–10 4. Orji SE, State E, Nigeria Enebe Eucharia C, State E, Felix NO, E. (2016) Accidents in Building Construction Sites in Nigeria; a Case of Enugu State. International journal of innovative research & development, Vol-5. Issue- 4:244–248 5. Che hassan CR, basha OJ, wan hanafi WH (2007) Perception of building construction workers towards safety, health and environment . J Eng Sci Technol 2(3):271–279 6. Mohd Amir Shazwan H, Ee JM (2018) Effectiveness of personal protective equipment (PPE) at construction site. Int J 1(12):1–12. eISSN: 2600-7920 7. Md Ulang N, Salim NS, Baharum F, Agus Salim NA (2014) Construction site workers’ awareness on using safety equipment : case study, conference, EDP Sciences, pp 1–8 8. Praveenkumar AV, Vishnuvardhan CK (2014) A studies on construction job site safety management. Int J Innovative Res Sci Eng Technol 3(1):44–52 9. Choudhry R, Fang D, Ahmad S (2008) safety management in construction. J Prof Issues Engg Educ Prac 134(1):20–32 10. Tecka AGP, Abdullah MN, Asmonib M, Misnanb MS, Jaafarb MN, Meib JLY (2015) A review on the effectiveness of safety training methods for Malaysia construction industry. vol 74:2 , pp 9–13www.jurnalteknologi.utm.my 11. Xu C, Zhang Y, Xu B (2016) Research of construction safety factors based on the factor analysis method. ICCREM, pp 1348–1354 12. Langford D, Rowlinson S, Sawacha E (2000) Safety behaviour and safety management: its influence on the attitudes of workers in the UK construction industry. Eng Construct Architectural Manage 7(2):133–140 13. Benny D, Jaishree D (2017) Construction safety management and accident control measures. J IJCIET 8(4):611–617 14. Dhrisya KR, Thangaraj R (2017) A study on safety management in building construction by incorporating RFID technology. Imperial J Interdisc Res 3(2):1257–1259 15. Purohit DP, Siddiqui NA, Nandan A, Yadav BP (2018) Hazard Identification and risk assessment in construction industry. Int J Appl Eng Res 13(10):7639–7667 ISSN 0973-4562 16. jazayeri E, Dadi GB (2017) Construction safety management system and methods of safety performance measurement: a review. J Safety Eng 1(2):15–28

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17. Khan KMI, Suguna K, Raghunath PN (2015) A study on safety management in construction projects. Int J Eng Sci Innovative Technol (IJESIT) 4(4):119–128 18. Kadiri ZO, Nden T, Arre GK, Oladipo TO, Edom A, Samuel PO, Ananso GN (2014) Causes and effects of accidents on construction sites( A case study of some selected construction firms in Abuja F. C. T Nigeria) vol 11, issue-5, pp 66–72 19. Agwu MO (2012) Total safety management : strategy for improving organizational performance in selected construction companies in Nigeria. Int J Business Soc Sci 3(20):210–217 20. Jokkaw N, Tanit T(2016) Factors influencing on safety management status in construction project in Cambodia. J ASEAN 5(1):34–48 21. Kartam NA, Flood B, Koushki P (2000) Construction safety in Kuwait: issues, procedures, problems, and recommendations, Safety Sci 163–184 22. Oreoluwa OO, Olasunkanmi F (2018) Health and safety management practices in the building construction industry in Akure, Nigeria. American J Eng Technol Manage 3(1):23–28 23. Solomon EO, Lilian NN, Eucharia CE (2016) Hazards in building construction sites and safety precautions in Enugu Metropolis, Enugu State, Nigeria. Imperial J Interdisc Res (IJIR) 2(1):282–288 24. Jasani PK, Joshi JB, Kartha GP, arsh Mehta H, Shah I (2016) A study of knowledge and utilization of safety measures against occupational hazards among constructional workers in Surendranagar city. Gujarat, India. Int J Commun Med Public Health 3(11):3055–3058 25. Rusli IFS, Hamzah B, Asdar M (2017) Implementation of the management systems on safety and health to construction workers. Int J Eng Inventions 6(6):35–39. e-ISSN: 2278-7461, p-ISSN: 2319-6491 26. Sakthi Ganesh G, Rajesh M (2017) A study on identification of causes and effects of accidents in construction industry—Indian Scenario. Int J Civil Eng 4(6):41–47 27. Emuze, Fidelis, Khetheg, Alice (2016) Workers safety on construction sites, conference, 2–4, pp 220–228 28. kumar S, Bansal VK (2013) Construction safety knowledge for practitioners in the construction industry. J Frontiers Construct Eng 2(2):34–42 29. Tadesse S, Israel D (2016) Occupational Injuries and building construction workers. J Occup Med Toxicol 11(16):1–6 30. Durdyev S, Mohamed S, Lay ML, Ismail S (2017) Key factors affecting construction safety performance in developing countries: evidence from Cambodia. J Construct Econ Build 17(4) 31. Meena SR, Pawar SN, Nemade PM, Baghele AS (2013) Implementation of safety management through review of construction activities in M. S. building projects. Int J Eng Res Technol (IJERT) 2(5):1656–1662 32. Vitharana VHP, De silva GHMJS, De silva S (2015) Health hazards, Risk and safety practices in construction sites: a review study. Institution of Engineers Srilanka, vol 48, issue 3, pp 35–44 33. huang X, Hinze J (2003) Analysis of construction worker fall accidents. J Construct Eng Manage 129(3):262–271 34. Kang Y (2018) Use of fall protection in the US construction industry. J Manage Eng 34(6):1–10

Thermal Properties of Concrete Containing Cenosphere and Phase Change Materials Salmia Beddu, Amalina Basri, Daud Mohamad, Nur Liyana Mohd Kamal, Nur Farhana, Zakaria Che Muda, Zarina Itam, Sivakumar Naganathan, Siti Asmahani Saad, and Teh Sabariah

1 Introduction The most commonly used energy source nowadays is coal in power plant. Currently, about 41% of world’s electricity produced from coal combustion process with the presence of heat at power plant. However, it was expected the usage of fossil fuel will increase up to 44% by 2030, due to increment in world’s population [1]. From this scenario, it is clearly showing that the number of by-product produced from combustion of coal in power plant will simultaneously increase with year. Fly ash cenosphere is one of the by-products produced during coal-burning process. S. Beddu (B) · A. Basri · D. Mohamad · N. L. M. Kamal · N. Farhana · Z. C. Muda · Z. Itam Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, 43000 Kajang, Malaysia D. Mohamad e-mail: [email protected] N. L. M. Kamal e-mail: [email protected] Z. Itam e-mail: [email protected] S. Naganathan Department of Civil Engineering, SSN College of Engineering, Old Mahabalipuram Road, SSN Nagar, Kalavakkam, Chennai 603110, India e-mail: [email protected] S. A. Saad Civil Engineering, Kulliyyah of Engineering, International Islamic University Malaysia, Jalan Gombak, 53100 Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] T. Sabariah Institute of Tropical Biodiversity and Sustainable Development, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu (UMT), Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Naganathan et al. (eds.), Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil Engineering, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 179, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5041-3_10

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In construction industry, concrete is hard and chemically inert that consists of coarse and fine aggregate, bonded by cement and water. Selecting appropriate construction materials affects the strength as well as thermal comfort of the building. High-strength concrete with low thermal conductivity helps in reducing the energy demand as well as the greenhouse effects. The potential incorporation of phase change materials (PCM) and cenosphere in concrete’s thermomechanical properties will be determined.

1.1 Cenosphere Cenosphere is one of the components exists in fly ash produced during coal combustion process and released as waste products [4]. Annually, around 750 billion tons of fly ash produce and increase steadily [5]. Researchers around the world have proposed many applications of fly ash and its components. Table 1 demonstrates the potential applications of fly ash components: The combustion of coal produces fly ash which consists of four components: unburned carbon, cenospheres, magnetite and solid fraction. In terms of this project, the component used for the experiment is cenosphere. The characteristic of cenosphere was generated from two Greek words which are kenos (hollow) and sphaira (spherical) [5]. Cenosphere is one of the most demanded materials produced from coal combustion process in construction industry. This tiny hollow sphere has diameter around 10–1000 µm and represents about 1–2% of the fly ash acquired from the procedures of carbon combustion. Cenospheres are significant topic of coal-fired power plants due to its properties which are low density, high mechanical strength and lowering thermal conductivity of concrete [6]. Figures 1 and 2 show the images of cenospheres and fly ash under the scanning electron microscope (SEM). Table 1 Components of fly ash and its potential applications

Fly ash components

Potential applications

Unburned carbon

Adsorbent Activated carbon Supplementary fuel Carbon black

Cenosphere

Lightweight metal alloy Less water absorption Lightweight ceramic Lightweight cement and Concrete Insulation and thermal resistant

Magnetite

Coal cleaning Fertilizer Cement additive Lightweight electronic packaging

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Fig. 1 Cenosphere under scanning electron microscope (SEM) [2]

Fig. 2 Fly ash under scanning electron microscope (SEM) [3]

Flexural, compressive and splitting tensile strength may change when cenosphere and PCM introduced into mortar mixture. This analysis is focusing on comparing the thermomechanical properties of mortar containing cenospheres (0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%) and phase change materials (PCM) at 7%.

2 Experimental Details One of the most critical requirements for experimental investigation is to practice strict quality control procedures in order to obtain more accurate results. The unreliable results can be eluded by adopting the existed code of standard and specifications during determining the materials for concrete production. Five mixes were prepared

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Fig. 3 Cenosphere

with five different compositions of cenosphere (0%, 5%, 15%, 20%, 25%), while percentage of polypropylen fiber and PCM remains constant at 0.5% and 0.7%, respectively. Water and admixture were estimated as a percentage of the total cement weight.

2.1 Cenosphere Cenosphere is a by-product waste produced during coal combustion process that are spherical in shape, hollow, lightweight and containing inert gas. Alumina and silica are the major composition in cenosphere. Currently, it is used as cement fillers as to create concrete of low density or lightweight concrete (Fig. 3).

2.2 Phase Change Materials (PCM) Phase change materials is a substance that releases and absorbs energy during freezing and melting process. PCM in form of microcapsules may be incorporated into fibers, foams or may be coated onto fabrics. Based on the past research, it shows that the salt hydrate eutectic CaCl2 •6H2 O and MgCl2 •6H2 O have an excellent thermal efficiency and reasonable cost [4]. Therefore, calcium chloride hexahydrate was used in this project (Fig. 4).

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Fig. 4 Phase change materials (PCM)

Fig. 5 Polypropylene (PP)

2.3 Polypropylene Fiber (PP) A tough and thermoplastic polymer or generally known as PP fibers is synthetically produced during petroleum refining process. According to [5, 6], mechanical strength of concrete is increasing when PP was added but reducing its workability (Fig. 5).

2.4 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) Cement or specifically known as ordinary portland cement (OPC) made up from mixing of limestone with other raw materials that will harden when blended with

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Fig. 6 Ordinary portland cement (OPC)

Table 2 Fiber volume fraction Volume Fraction (%) Cenosphere

0

5

10

15

20

Polypropylene

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

Phase change materials (PCM)

0

7

7

7

7

water and aggregates. After hardening, OPC has ability to maintain its strength and stability even under water. Cement used in this study was supplied by Tasek Corporation Bhd (Fig. 6).

2.5 Mortar Design Mix The mortar mix design was calculated based on ASTM C91 standard specification which is using 1:3 mix. Type-M mortar is the most suitable types for plastering works. Several trials were conducted to get optimum mix design. Cement–to-sand as well as water–to-binder ratio was selected with 1:3 and 0.5, respectively. Superplasticizer was added to improve workability of fresh mortar. Many trials of Superplasticizer– to-water ratio were made to get desired workability value. Table 1 illustrated the percentage of cenosphere added individually (Table 2).

2.6 Experimental Method According to ASTM C1437 standard, the consistency of mortar can be determined by using flow table test method. This procedure was conducted immediately after

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mixing mortar in the laboratory. Five fresh cement mortar samples were tested to evaluate all the fresh properties. The density of each sample was taken after 24 h of curing by measuring weight samples and divided by its volume. The compressive tests were done to determine the ability of the cement mortars to carry loads before failure by following the ASTM C109 standard. Referring to ASTM C496 standard, universal testing machine was used to determine the mortars’ compressive and splitting tensile strength. Following ASTM C1783, the thermal conductivity of mortar was determined by using Fox 50 Heat Flow Meter.

3 Results and Discussions 3.1 Compressive Strength 3.1.1

Compressive Strength of five days

The test was carried out at five-day age for control mix (CM), and each volume percentage of cenosphere and volume of PCM are constant. Three cubes were used for each sample. The compressive strength was tested by age of all of the mixtures, and the average test result for each of the three specimens is shown in figure below.

3.1.2

Compressive Strength of seven days

The compressive strength of seven-day age samples was tested. The average of compressive strength of each sample is reported. The results also revealed the reduction in strength.

3.1.3

Compressive Strength of 28 days

To determine the compressive strength of cube specimen, a load was applied until it breaks by using compression testing machine. It was observed in Fig. 7 that the inclusion of a higher percentage of cenosphere greatly reduced the compressive strength compared to control mix. The inclusion of 5% cenosphere reduced the compressive strength by 55%. The number reduced to 64%, 65% and 68% when 10%, 15% and 20%, respectively, when cenosphere fiber was added. The test on mortar cubes revealed that cement losses its strength due to replacement of cenosphere, but the strength loss can be stabilized by adding PCM which is salt hydrate eutectic (CaCl2 •6H2 O and MgCl2 •6H2 O) at proper proportion. The relationship between the cenosphere percentage and compressive strength was obtained and given as below: For five days:

150 25

Linear (5 days) Linear (7 days)

Compressive strength (MPa)

Fig. 7 Effects of adding cenosphere and PCM to compressive strength of the concrete

S. Beddu et al.

Linear (28 days)

20

15

10

5

0 CM 1

Cf-5 2

3 Cf-10

4 Cf-15

Cf-20 5

Cenosphere percentage(%)

f c = −2.37FC + 12.57 R 2 = 0.6083 where f c is compressive strength (MPa) and F C is dosage of cenosphere (%). For seven days: f c = −3.2FC + 16.8 R 2 = 0.679 where f c is compressive strength (MPa) and F C is dosage of cenosphere (%). For 28 days: f c = −3.24FC + 20.64 R 2 = 0.6622 where f c is compressive strength (MPa) and F C is dosage of cenosphere (%).

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Tensile Strength (MPa)

15 12 9 6 3 0 CM

Cf-5

Cf-10

Cf-15

Cf-20

Cenosphere Percentage (%) Fig. 8 Effects of adding cenosphere and PCM to splitting tensile test of the concrete

3.2 Splitting Tensile Strength The tensile strength of the cement mortar was performed after 28 days of curing to determine the strength between mortar and fibers. Figure 8 shows the trend for control mix and mixes with cenosphere. The trend shows a linear decrement in the tensile strength with the increment of cenosphere dosage. The tensile strength of the concrete mortar from control mix to 5% of cenosphere contents has reduced greatly by 55%. In addition, the number reduced to 52%, 54% and 57% when 10%, 15% and 20% of cenosphere replaced, respectively. It can be concluded that addition of 5% cenosphere reduced greatly the tensile strength CM. However, there is no significant changes in tensile strength when the dosage of cenosphere increases.

3.3 Density Mortar density was vital factor which had a significant effect on its thermal conductivity and therefore had to be measured. Both saturated and oven-dried densities were calculated and shown in Fig. 9. The addition of cenosphere and PCM has resulted in a decrease in both oven-dried and saturated density for all sequence of cenosphere content. As shown in figure below, the reduction of 20% of cenosphere was 29.93% for oven-dried density. A reduction in density was anticipated as cenosphere, and PCM have lower density of particles than mortar, and therefore, the addition of cenosphere and PCM would definitely reduce the density. As far as saturated density is concerned, it can also be seen that the inclusion of cenosphere, and PCM has slightly decreased for all series of cenosphere content. The decrease in density was with varying amounts, reaching 16.67% for 20% of

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Fig. 9 Oven-dried and saturated densities

4500 SD 4000

Density (kg/m3)

OD 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 CM

Cf-5

Cf-10

Cf-15

Cf-20

Cenosphere percentage (%)

cenosphere, while a slight decrease of 4.25% was observed for 5% of cenosphere compared to the control mix. After analyzing the variations between saturated and oven-dried densities in Fig. 9, it can be said that the presence of cenosphere and PCM has a significant effect on the absorption of water. The water absorption went up as the dosage of cenosphere was increasing.

3.4 Thermal Conductivity The purpose of the thermal conductivity test is to determine the ability of material to transfer heat. The test was performed using the FOX 50 Heat Flow Meter. The K values are shown in Fig. 10. It can be observed that with the inclusion of 5%, 10%, Fig. 10 K values for CM and all cenosphere series

2 k value (W/m.K) Linear (k value (W/m.K))

K value (w/m.K)

1.5 y = -0.27x + 1.662 R² = 0.6361 1

0.5

0 1

2

3

4

Cenosphere percentage (%)

5

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15% and 20% of cenosphere, the K values were reduced to 61%, 63%, 67% and 72%, respectively, as compared to the control mix. Inclusion of 20% of cenosphere causes the highest reduction of thermal conductivity as compared to other mixes. It is due to properties of cenosphere that have lower density as compared to water. Hence, lower density contributed to lower conductivity in concrete [7].

4 Conclusion A study has been conducted to produce a new lightweight concrete that contains cenosphere and PCM. The mechanical properties and thermal properties were characterized using various volume percent of cenosphere as a replacement of sand, while the volume of PCM added is constant as an additive for the mixture. In the results, it is shown that the reduction of compressive strength value as the volume percent of cenosphere increases and the presence of PCM in the mixture. The compressive strength does not achieve the strength requirement, yet 10% of cenosphere content has the highest compressive strength comparing to the other cenosphere series. The loss of strength was due to the application of water during the mixing process and probably due to the weak properties of the interfacial resistance between the cenosphere and the binding materials. For the splitting tensile test, it is shown that the improvement in the dosage of cenosphere and presence of PCM in the mixture decreased the tensile strength. This is due to the addition of cenosphere and PCM inside the mixture, which influences the mechanical properties of the concrete mortar, which lowered the density of the concrete but caused some loss of strength. The thermal conductivity test was conducted at an average of 28 °C as this is the average annual temperature in Malaysia. Decreased k value shows a good thermal conductivity. As the calcium chloride hexahydrate is an organic PCM, it shows high latent heat storage, high heat of fusion, good thermal conductivity, low flammability and inexpensive. It is proved that cenosphere and PCM to be an effective way of improving thermal conductivity in building. Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia, for providing financial support (BOLD2020) Grant No (RJO10517844/050 and RJO10517844/041) and International Islamic University, Malaysia (IIUM RESEARCH ACCULTURATION GRANT SCHEME (IRAGS) 2018) Grant No (IRAGS18-029-0030), for this study.

References 1. Nakonieczny DS, Antonowicz M, Paszenda ZK (2020) Cenospheres and their application advantages in biomedical engineering—a systematic review. Rev Adv Mater Sci 59(1):115–130. https://doi.org/10.1515/rams-2020-0011

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2. Abu-Zahra N, Khoshnoud P (2015) Effect of cenosphere fly ash on the thermal, mechanical, and morphological properties of rigid PVC foam composites. J Res Updat Polym Sci 4(1):1–14. https://doi.org/10.6000/1929-5995.2015.04.01.1 3. Kaasik M, Alliksaar T, Ivask J, Loosaar J (2006) Spherical fly ash particles from oil shale fired power plants in atmospheric precipitations. Possibilities of quantitative tracing. Oil Shale 22(4):547–561 4. Tang W, Wang Z, Mohseni E, Wang S. A practical ranking system for evaluation of industry viable phase change materials for use in concrete. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018. 05.112 5. Awang H, Ahmad MH, Almulali M (2015) Influence of kenaf and polypropylene fibres on mechanical and durability properties of fibre reinforced lightweight foamed concrete 6. Sohaib N, Mamoon R, SG, SF (2018) Using polypropylene fibers in concrete to achieve maximum strength, pp 37–42. https://doi.org/10.15224/978-1-63248-145-0-36 7. Beddu S et al (2020) Utilization of fly ash cenosphere to study mechanical and thermal properties of lightweight concrete. AIMS Mater Sci 7(6):911–925. https://doi.org/10.3934/matersci.2020. 6.911

Causes and Consequences of Dam Failures—Case Study S. V. Sivapriya and A. Anne Sherin

1 Introduction A dam can be defined as a barrier that stops or restricts the water flow or underground streams that is used for various purposes such as irrigation, generation of electricity, and flood barrier. Dam structures are subjected to various loading such as transverse loading from the water head on the upstream, the pressure from the water toward the dam materials, the surrounding geology conditions along with the size of the dam or the reservoir which greatly influences the dam. The following are the causes of dam failure. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

loading which is surpassing or overtopping flood flow-through beneath the dam sesmic action or blasting loading terrorist attacks deterioration due to natural conditions, etc.

When the resistance exceeds, the factor of safety against overtopping, internal erosion, sliding/overturning, piping effects, slope instability, excessive deformation, holding capacity, etc., causes failure. To understand the causes of failure, it is important to concentrate the characteristics of the dams which experience failure patterns in the past to avoid such errors in the future [1]. The frequent cause of failures are caused due to hydraulic failures (erosion of upstream face, erosion of downstream toe, overtopping, frost action, formation of gullies), Seepage failures on account of piping effects, and structural failures by sliding of foundation and embankments. An extensive study done by Foster et al. has shown that nearly 94% of failure causes the earthen dams are due to some form of erosion. Approximately 48% of failure is due to surface erosion, and 46% is due to internal erosion. Considering all these S. V. Sivapriya (B) · A. Anne Sherin Department of Civil Engineering, Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Naganathan et al. (eds.), Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil Engineering, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 179, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5041-3_11

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facts; this paper deals with various studies on dam failure and their reasons across the globe [2].

2 Case Studies 2.1 Failure Caused by Internal Erosion Internal erosion and piping through the body of dam or its foundation are considered as the important reasons for many serious source of dam troubles. In the case of piping failure, the failure of the embankment is two times higher than the piping beneath the foundation and twenty times higher than piping from the embankment into the foundation [2]. As per the research done by McCook, seepage erosion occurs when the water flowing through the cracks or any defect erodes the soil from the vicinity of the crack or any defects [3]. It happens through the four phases, namely initiation, erosion, formation of piping, and finally forming a breach, which ultimately lead to the failure [4]. In Teton Dam, the cause for failure is due to erosion and piping phenomena which occured in the trench fill situated on the right abutment of embankment, and investigations have concluded that it might have been caused by seepage through cracks in the abutment. The seepage occurred due to inadequate or improper grouting in the sealing of rock joints during construction or differential settlements happened in the key trench fill itself or by both causes [5]. In the Big Bay Lake Dam failure of Mississippi, the reasons are open defect, high water pressures and possibility of the localized liquefaction, high seepage troubles, erodible nature of the foundation soil, and embankment soils due to the errant investigation and failure development order. Hatton later blamed the partial failure of Pennsylvania was due to insufficient time for concreting to reach the ultimate strength as it was constructed during the winter season and thus the water entered into the base of the dam and caused the excess uplift pressure. Due to these reasons, the safety factor of the dam reduced to a greater extent and caused the foundation to slide resulting in the disastrous failure [6]. Improper geotechnical investigations in Anita Dam (Montana, 1997) is the reason behind the failure, which is due to the presence of dispersive clay material, hydraulic fracture, anti-seep collars everywhere the conduit of the pipes. And, there was no fitters or drains are provided around the downstream side of the outlet pipe conduit portion of the embankment dam which causes the failure. Another case is that the Baldwin Hills Dam failure which caused by land settlement or subsidence due to the concentrated along the fault found to be a weak plane after the failure investigation. The embankment elements and base which have high possibility of erosion must have satisfactorily good drain and filter protection to reduce the piping and erosion problems. In the same way, the foundations in erodible rocks and risky geology must

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be meticulously explored to take preventive measures to avoid the ill effects of the pre-existing cavities or unidentified defects. Some failures are caused due to improper maintenance of the structures. For example, in IVEX dam, the failure is due to the large hydrologic event and blend of several factors such as absence of an emergency spillway, inadequate spillway design, sedimentation problems (slow sedimentation process of 152 years), and improper maintenance which results in the seepage piping failure [5]. The inefficient construction process is also one of the main causes of failure. The proper execution of a large structure contributes to the long life of a structure. The Penn Forest Dam originally an earth-fill embankment dam structure was constructed without any internal filter drains, inadequate abutments, foundation with poor quality control, and execution during construction. Thus, the dam does not had any proper design features to prevent erosion from progressing to failure.

2.2 Failure Caused by Overtopping Overtopping is the most frequent causes of failures, especially embankment dams. As per the findings of the international committee on large dams (ICOLD), one – third of total identified dam failure cases was induced by overtopping of the dam. Overtopping in a dam is the predominant consequence of an extreme flood event and also other dam related failures. Lake Delhi Dam was originally constructed by the Interstate Power Company between 1922 and 1929 for hydroelectric power generation. There were totally three gateways for the dam. In the year 2010, the inability to open the spillway gates during the heavy rainfall amplified the potential. In addition to it, improper design also became an apparent cause for the failure. The lack of importance in considering the erosion in the design contributes to its failure too [7]. Tous dam—rockfill dam of 70 m height in Spain—failed by overtopping as the water inflow exceeded the calculated inflow and also due to improper handling of emergency gates[5, 8]. The differential settlement of the filled embankment material along with variety of design/construction flaws, improper instrumentation (improper sensors failed to indicate that the reservoir was full), and human errors contributed to a catastrophic failure of the upper reservoir of Taum Sauk Dam (USA) in 2005. Another such case can be seen in Machhu Dam II (Gujarat, India, 1979) which was caused to the improper calculation of floodwater that was over three times [5]. Some failures can occur without any warning as in case of Lawn Lake Dam (Colorado, 1982) which is due to leakage under high pressure from the leaded connection of the outlet pipe and valve, causing progressive piping of the dam embankment in the vicinity of the outlet pipe during the time of high reservoir levels [9]. The Banqiao Reservoir Dam—China is considered the largest dam failure in history. The failure to plan and initiate immediate action for the extreme floodwaters results in immediate death of 26,000 because of the flooded water itself [10].

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3 Lessons Learned The defect in foundation causes 30% of reported dam failures. Before the design phase, reconnaissance and feasibility studies should be performed at the proposed dam site to understand the regional geology, and proper site characterization is required, as they relate to stability. Improper site investigations lead the road to the failures of dam structures. To avoid such failures, proper foundation treatments such as grouting, providing filters drains, cutoff walls, berms, and other safety measures can be followed. Dams located in seismic zones require more care to minimize liquefaction, cracking, potential fault offsets, deformations, and settlement due to seismic loading and other consequent failures. The first-filling in a reservoir is an important step to check the proper functioning of a constructed dam, and thus, it should be properly planned, regulated, and supervised for any failure patterns. A properly managed and planned first-filling is crucial to the stability of success of a dam. Giving to the research study of Bureau of Reclamation on internal erosion failure modes is found that majority of the failures are caused during the first-filling or in the first initial five years of the operation of the dam or reservoir structure [11]. Around 25% of failures are triggered by the internal erosion or piping associated with conduits. Thus, the seepage along with penetrations and the pipes over dams should be controlled using a filter diaphragm instead of anti-seep collars as it causes discontinuity in foundations which in turn causes cracks and differential settlements [12]. The current industry has adopted the use of filter diaphgrams which uses the filter materials around the conduits which is more beneficial than the anti-seep collars. Proper maintenance is the key to the long safe life of a structure, and thus, the regular operation, periodic maintenance, and regular inspection of dams are imperative to the early detection and prevention of failure [13]. Concrete gravity dams should be evaluated and measured to accommodate full uplift [14]. Emergency plans and effective warning systems should be made mandatory issues in the dam safety regulations [15].

4 Conclusion Dam is an extremely important part of a national infrastructure serving numerous economic, agricultural, environmental, and recreational purposes. It is due to catastrophic event with dangerous consequences to the downriver area and the surrounding environment. In many locations, if a dam fails it causes massive damage to property, the economy, environment, and fatalities. Thus, it is important to understand and formulate solutions that can reduce such failures in the upcoming years. The case histories considered in this paper refer to the failures that happened due to overtopping, internal erosion, design and construction errors, seepage, and piping failures are complied in the interest of the future safety of dams to learn from the

Causes and Consequences of Dam Failures—Case Study

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past experiences. As the result, it is found that majority of the failures are caused due to faults and errors which are related to the improper stability designs and thus have to concentrate on this part to avoid similar failure incidents in the near forecoming years.

References 1. Zhang LM, Xu Y, Jia JS (2009) Analysis of earth dam failures: a database approach. Georisk 3(3):184–189 2. Foster M, Fell R, Spannagle M (2000) The statistics of embankment dam failures and accidents. Canad Geotech J 37(5):1000–1024. https://doi.org/10.1139/t00-030 3. McCook DK (2004) A comprehensive discussion of piping and internal erosion failure mechanisms. In: Proc. Association of state dam safety officials (ASDSO). Annual Meeting, Lexington, pp 1–6 4. Fell R, Wan CF, Cyganiewicz J, Foster M (2003) Time for development of internal erosion and piping in embankment dams. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 129(4):307–314 5. Association of State Dam Safety Officials (2013) Dam Failures and Incidents | Association of State Dam Safety (2013) Association of State Dam Safety Officials. [Online]. Available: https://damsafety.org/dam-failures%0A. https://damsafety.org/dam-failures%0A. The Causes of Dam Failures 6. Associatin of State Dam Safety officials (2021) Case Study: Austin Bayless Dam - Pennsylvania. Lessons Learned from Dam incidents and failures. [Online]. Available: https://damfai lures.org/case-study/austin-bayless-dam-pennsylvania-1911/ 7. McDaniel L, Garton J, Fiedler W, King W, Schwanz N (2011) Lake Delhi Dam Breach—two perspectives. In: Association of state dam safety officials annual conference, Dam Safety 2011, vol 1, pp 45–65 8. Ryan S (1982) Case study: tous dam. Colorado Division of Water Resources 9. Baker M, McCormick B (2012) 30th anniversary of the Lawn Lake Dam failure—a look back at the state and federal response. In: Association of state dam safety officials annual conference 2012, Dam Safety 2012, vol 2, pp 1495–1525 10. Xu Y, Zhang L, Jia J (2008) Lessons from Catastrophic Dam Failures in August 1975 in Zhumadian, China, pp 162–169 11. US Army Corps of Engineers (2019) Internal Erosion risks for embankments and foundations. In: Best Practices in dam and Leeves safety risk analysis, June 2017, pp 1–47 12. Federal Emergency Management Agency (2011) Filters for embankment dams 13. Denver C (1990) Training aids for dam safety: How to organize an operation and maintenance program. Bureau of Reclamation 14. US Army Corps of Engineers (1995) Gravity dam design, pp 1–88 15. Federal Emergency Management Agency (2013) Federal guidelines for emergency action planning for dam safety

Seismic Analysis of Hypar Shell Foundation in Sandy Soil S. V. Sivapriya, A. D. Abithoo Dass, A. Bargavi, R. Lakshmipriya, and S. Nandhini

1 Introduction Foundations are broadly classified as shallow and deep. Depending upon the soil nature and superstructure, the desired foundation is adopted. For small residential buildings, a shallow foundation is preferable. Flat slab type of footing is a common and general type of isolated shallow foundation. HYPAR shell foundation is a modified version of shallow foundation which is a parabolic structured is considered in our study and then associated with the flat slab footing. The main objective is to analyse the seismic behaviour of hypar shell footing for the calculated structural load and compare it with that conventional flat slab footing. In hypar shell foundation, the column base is enlarged or spread to provide distinct support for the load. The pressure intensities depend upon the footing rigidity, soil type and soil condition. The shape of the foundation is square, rectangle and circular shapes. Whereas hypar shell footings are the hyperbolic, paraboloid shell is a doubly curved anticlastic shell that has translation as ruled surfaces. The strength of shell foundation derives from its geometry rather than mass, and the size of hypar shell foundation depends upon the soil type, column size and load. The study by Krishnan et al. [1] involves analysis of settlement characteristics of hypar shell footings with variation in the edge beam sizes using a finite element code—PLAXIS. The effects of changing the embedment ratio on the aspect of settlement, load bearing and soil–shell interface stresses are also studied. With full embedment of shell foundation that carries maximum load bearing capacity, this decreases with decreasing embedment ratio. This helps in determining the ideal cross section S. V. Sivapriya (B) Department of Civil Engineering, Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Chennai, India A. D. Abithoo Dass · A. Bargavi · R. Lakshmipriya · S. Nandhini Civil Engineering, Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Kalavakkam, Tamilnadu, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Naganathan et al. (eds.), Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil Engineering, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 179, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5041-3_12

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of hypar shell footing for the purpose reduction in settlement and maximum load bearing requirement. When the similar Hypar foundation was designed and related to sloped footing and found that the former was economical, it saves the concrete and steel up to 43.78% and 4.76%, respectively. It gives minimum materials consumption over the conventional footing. It gives the greater load capacity and stability over the conventional footing [2]. Haut and Mohammed [3] studied the geotechnical behaviour of shell footing, and it is found to have increased load capacity compared with the conventional to flat footing. Ramesh et al. [4] concluded that hyperbolic shell footings are the most appropriate footings for weaker soils. They are able to transmit negligible eccentric loads safely into the soil. Hypar shells are suited for supporting single-column loads, because of their single point of discontinuity. These footings are safer and costeffective up to 30% than flat footings in large-scale constructions with unsafe soil. It can also be used for structures with heavy columns loads and soil having low bearing capacity making the structure economical. The hypar shell with varying rise of shell to lateral dimension ratio as 0.25, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7 and 0.85 is considered. The static analysis is carried out for loose sand and medium clay with bonded and smooth contact between soil and shell. Settlements and stresses were analysed in this research. The results were compared with rectangular footing. Hypar foundation shows better performance in stress and settlement rectangular footing [5]. Apart from the discussed literatures, Kurian had done lot of research in Hypar foundation which payed way to future research [6]. The important findings from literature show that hypar foundation is more economical and structurally gives more strength than conventional footing [7]. Hence, dynamic study of hypar shell is rare and we have made an attempt on analysing the seismic behaviour of hypar shell footing in this project.

2 Methodology In this project, a finite element analysis is carried out in a hypar shell foundation subjected to both static and dynamic conditions. Analysis is done by idealizing the problem as a two-dimensional plane strain system, using PLAXIS [8]. The foundation is modelled using a 15-node element triangle with clay and sand material (Fig. 1). Material parameters of the foundation are given in Table 1. For analysing the problem, first a 2D geometry model is generated for both flat and hypar shell foundation. Also, the soil model must be sufficiently large enough such that the results are not affected. The next step is to select boundary conditions. For dynamic analysis, absorbent boundary is selected to avoid reflection of earthquake waves into the model after reception to these boundaries. When the geometry model is complete, the FEM (or mesh) is generated. The generation process is based on a robust triangulation principle.

Seismic Analysis of Hypar Shell …

(a) Flat Slab

163

(b) Hypar Foundation

Fig. 1 Modelled flat and hypar foundation

Table 1 Material properties

Parameters

Sand

Concrete

E, kN/m2

2 × 104

2 × 107

Poisson’s ratio

0.33

0.15

Cref, kPa

0.1

–

, deg

33

–

18

25

Unsaturated unit weight,

kN/m3

After that the numerical calculations, three phases of analyses are done as follows: Phase 1: Plastic analysis of the footing when the construction is over. Phase 2: Plastic analysis of footing under own body load. Phase 3: Dynamic analysis. After static analysis, existing displacements were set to zero to study net seismic displacements which are followed by performing calculations. Once the calculation has been completed, the results are evaluated due to loading on the foundation and deformation of the foundation is observed, variation of pore pressure within the foundation is automatically generated. Behaviour of foundation under seismic loading is studied by analysing the effective stresses and displacements.

164 Table 2 Sequence of steps followed during static analysis

S. V. Sivapriya et al. Phase

Start phase

Calculation type

Load input

1

0

Plastic

Staged construction

2

1

Plastic

Staged construction

3

2

Phi/c reduction

Incremental multipliers

3 Result and Discussion 3.1 Static Analysis Initial behaviour of the footing is studied under static loading. This intends to define the stresses and deformations generated by the foundation before dynamic analysis. In this model, horizontal and vertical deformations on the horizontal boundary and horizontal deformation on the vertical boundary were set to zero to define static boundary conditions. Static analysis is done for both flat slab and hypar shell footing. The result of static analyses and dynamic analyses of hypar shell and flat slab footing is discussed. Table 2 gives the sequence of steps followed during static analysis.

3.2 Dynamic Analysis Dynamic analysis is done (foundation) to understand the response to earthquakes. It is essential to select correct dynamic boundary conditions to achieve a correct modelling of real conditions and to obtain valid results. Thus, dynamic boundary conditions are selected as an absorbent boundary to avoid reflection of earthquake waves into the model after reception to these boundaries. Dynamic analysis is done for both flat slab and hypar shell footing. The deformation and the stress developed due to dynamic load are discussed. Table 3 gives the sequence of steps followed during dynamic analysis. Table 3 Sequence of steps followed during dynamic analysis

Phase No

Start phase

Calculation type

Load input

1

0

Plastic

Staged construction

2

1

Plastic

Staged construction

3

2

Dynamic analysis

Total multipliers

Seismic Analysis of Hypar Shell …

(a) Static analysis

165

(b) Dynamic analysis

Fig. 2 Settlement behaviour of flat slab and hypar shell footing during static and dynamic analysis

Figure 2 shows the settlement characteristics of flat slab and hypar foundation under static condition results. Hypar shell foundation is able to withstand the dynamic loading and it reduces the settlement one-fourth Hence hypar can be used in the seismic prone area.

4 Conclusion With upsurge in demand of concrete and to effectively use the time for construction, hypar shell foundation can be used. From the previous studies implies, it can withstand large structural load under static condition and works well in cohesion less soil. Considering the fact, dynamic analysis was carried out for the hypar foundation. The following observation was made: 1. 2. 3. 4.

It can bear large static load. It reduces the settlement under dynamic condition by 23.63%. From the static analysis, the hypar foundation is able to withstand larger axial load and it is good at bearing the settlement. As the soil in between the hypar shell acts as solid mass and takes more load, hypar shell foundation is able to withstand the dynamic loading and it reduces the settlement by 23.63% as compared to flat slab footing. Hence, it is suggested to use in seismic prone area.

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References 1. Krishnan AV, Sivapriya SV, Nagarajan S (2016) Finite element analysis of HYPAR shell footings with variation in edge beam dimensions and embedment ratio. IJEE 10(02):150–154 2. Ahmed SM, Kewate S (2015) Analysis and design of shell foundation: IS: 9456-1980 Provision. Int J Sci Eng Res 6(12):279–284 3. Huat BBK, Thamer AM (2006) Finite element study using FE code (PLAXIS) on the geotechnical behavior of shell footings. J Comput Sci 2(1):104–108 4. Ramesh J, Aswini V, Manishaa S (2018) Design of a hyperbolic paraboloid footing. IJARIIE 4(2):664–669 5. Kurian NP, Shah SH (1984) Economy of conical and inverted dome shell foundations. J Inst Eng 64(1):281–286 6. Kurian NP (2006) Shell foundations: geometry, analysis, design and construction. Narosa 7. Fred T (1961) Shell foundations. Concrete construction, pp 1–4 8. Plaxis (2002) Version 8 material models manual, pp 1–146

Single and Group Static Laterally Loaded Vertical Pile in Horizontal and Sloping Ground—A Review S. V. Sivapriya

1 Introduction The usage of pile started way from 6000 years back by Neolithic tribes, presently called as the “Swiss Lake Dwellers” as a structure to prevent them from wild animals. The first documented usage of the deep foundation—pile to bear the heavy structural load (from bridges) was by Romans in 60 A.D to cross the Thames river, London using Timber material. Apart from this, the building constructed between 100 B.C and 400 A.D in Venice and Ravenna were on piles as foundation element [1]. Initially the material used to construct pile foundation was timber and to resist large vertical loads. Upon further development, Piles are broadly classified depending upon the material (timber, steel and RCC), installation technique (Bored and driven), loading (vertical, lateral, seismic and oblique) and functions (end bearing and friction). The geometry of pile can be cylindrical, tapered, helical, hexagonal, under reamed and H-piles. Which is used to minimise the damage in bridges, berthing structures etc., due to scouring in the pile due to water action. Depending upon the characteristics of soil and structural load the pile—type is decided. Initially, studies concentrated more on pile as column member to resist the vertical load. The piles’ vertical capacity can be determined using the formula Eq. (1) which involves both the end bearing and friction. Qu = Qs + Qb − W

(1)

where Qu is the ultimate bearing capacity of pile, Qs is the skin friction, Qb is the end bearing of the pile and W is the weight of the pile. As the lateral capacity of pile is a multifaceted soil-structure interaction problem, it is suggested to take lateral—capacity of vertical pile as 10% of axial/vertical load [2]. S. V. Sivapriya (B) Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Chennai 603110, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Naganathan et al. (eds.), Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil Engineering, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 179, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5041-3_13

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The study of pile initially for single pile with head as free and constrained was done excessively. However, in practical pile will occur as group where the number of pile varies between 2 and 9. These piles are integrated by means of pile cap; which transfer load from the super structure to pile. It was concluded that when the spacing between the piles is more than 2.5 times the pile—diameter, it will not influence the efficiency of pile [3]. The failure of the pile group occurs either by group action or by individual pile failure. Former failure occurs when the piles spacing is less than 2—3 diameter of the pile and the later occur due to large spacing between the pile [4]. Initially, a model was developed by Blum [5] to determine the diameter, ultimate load and the soil’s volumetric weight. Followed by Brinch Hansen, developed analytical method to calculate the ultimate- resistance of cohesionless and layered soil [6]. In the current paper, the emerge in development in determining the static lateral load of single and group pile in a slope is reviewed.

2 Lateral Load Behaviour in Horizontal Ground The piles were initially driven into the ground using weight hoisted and dropped by hand. During the industrial revolution, the method of installation improved by using steam power [7]. Meantime the usage of better material like steel and concrete became popular in 1890’s, which enhanced the size of diameter and length, as well as its capacity. The developments in construction technology made to use tapered pile, under-reamed pile, hollow piles, screw piles etc. are widely used. Earlier, it was believed that the vertical piles can only resist axial loads and to resist the lateral load batter piles have to be used. Later, the lateral load capacity of a vertical pile is realised and considered in high-raised building, bridges, berthing structures, off- shore structures, etc. which bears large lateral load (Fig. 1). Fig. 1 Load transfer mechanism of the pile from super-structure into the soil

H – Horizontal Load M - Moment

Single and Group Static Laterally Loaded …

169

2.1 Single Pile Behaviour In earlier days, studies were carried for short rigid piles and later extended to large flexible piles. Pile are classified as rigid pile when the length of the pile is less than or equal to 2R or 2 T. It is classified as flexible pile when the length of pile is greater than or equal to 4 T or 3.5R [8]. Where R and T are the relative-stiffness factor calculated by using Eqs. (2) and (3).  R=

4

EI kh

(2)

EI ηh

(3)

 T =

5

Here EI—stiffness factor, kh and ηh the moduls of the soil. From the previous study by Matlock and Reese [9], the rigidity is related to flexural stiffness of the structural member, soil modulus and co-efficient of subgrade modulus. The pile flexibility was also determined by the depth of embedded pile to it diameter by Kasch et al. [10]. They inferrred that the ratio of depth to diameter should not exceed 10 for rigid behaviour and should be greater than 20 for flexible behaviour. The outcome of the paper also suggested the usage of Rankine’s passive pressure to calculate the lateral resistance which is very conservative. McClelland and Focht [11] suggested the value of soil modulus based on laboratory and full-scale tests. The complexity of soil-structure interaction needs to understand the method of installation and loading also [12]. Hansen [6] studied the behaviour for short rigid laterally loaded pile and observed that the determined bending moment does not exceed the ultimate moment of resistance (Mu) of the pile. The ultimate lateral load (Hu) is calculated for the homogenous layer and then extended to multi-layered soil. When considering a uniform layer, the method suggested by Broms [13, 14] is simple and conservative. The author had ignored the soil resistance from ground to a depth 1.5 times the pile diameter and used passive resistance of 9cu D (cu —undrained shear strength and D—pile diameter), which almost satisfy the lower and upper bound solutions. With an increase in lateral load, the soil stiffness degrades leading to deformation around the soil and the largest stiffness reduction happen between the first and second cycle of loading [15]. The deflection increases when the sub-grade modulus decreases in laterally loaded pile and the fixity of pile head didn’t play a vital role [16]; the modulus was majorly influenced by pile stiffness [17]. The capacity varies depending upon the relative density; the capacity of pile in medium sand was 41% higher than of the pile in loose sand [18, 19]. Meyerhof et al. [20] suggested the final lateral resistance per unit width of pile is greater than that of a wall in a homogeneous layer of sand. A shape factor is introduced to calculate the ultimate lateral resistance and observed the depth of embedment of single pile and small group piles are same [21]. Table 1 displays the correlations of

170 Table 1 Ultimate lateral pressure by different authors

S. V. Sivapriya Author Name

Correlation

Poulos and Davis [2]

8–11 cu

Randolph and Houlsby [22]

9.14–9.2 cu

Murff and Hamilton [23]

11 cu

Poulos et al. [24]

9 cu

Bransby and Springman [25]

11.75 cu

Pan et al. [26]

7.1–8.6 cu

Martin and Randolph [27]

9.14–9.2 cu

undrained shear strength with ultimate lateral pressure and concluded the ultimate pressure does not exceed 12 times the cohesive strength of the soil. The influence of axial load on the laterally loaded pile was discussed by Ismael [28] and Anagnostopoulos and Georgiadis [29]. From their laboratory experiments of closed-end Aluminum, pile studied the interaction of axial and lateral pile response. Under the same vertical load, with increasing lateral load to 60%, the axial displacement increases about 81% and bending moment (BM) is about only 4%. The effect of lateral load on axially loaded pile increases the axial displacement significantly. But when an axial load is applied on the lateral loaded pile, there was not much difference in lateral displacement and it is limited. For a short rigid pile, the displacement occurred in the bottom was permanent for large lateral loads for the free head condition [30].

2.2 Group Pile Behaviour For higher deflection i.e. load corresponding to the displacement of 20% pile diameter, the average load was 10 to 15% lower than single pile [15]. While comparing the single and group pile (3 × 3) behaviour, the reduction due to lateral capacity was considerable and the critical spacing of pile was limited not only to loading directions, pile number in a group and embedment length, it major depends on the arrangement also i.e. whether the loading with parallel or series arrangement [31]. To accelerate the behaviour, centrifuge tests were conducted from 1 to 70 g by several researchers [18]. The load carrying capacity of pile group depends mainly on amount of pile in a row and the consistency of soil. The study of single and group pile under static loading for cohesive and cohesionless soil show that the deflection decreases along the pile length with increases in depth. In a group of pile the fixed head pile deflects about 1/3 to 1/2 of the deflection of a free-head pile [32]. With increase in pile number in a group, the group interaction decreases and the group effect vanishes beyond 6D spacing [16, 33, 34]. Similar

Single and Group Static Laterally Loaded …

171

observation from their full-scale and small scale tests [35–41] was observed and it is summarised as, o o o

Increase in pile spacing increase the resistance Average load for single pile in group is lower than single pile With rise in number of piles in a group increases the resistance.

The resistance offered by the front pile was higher related to the pile in rear in a group [42]. With increase in spacing, the resistance of the pile group increased but the average load per pile for the group tests was lower than that of single pile for the same deflection through a field test conducted for three groups and two isolated single piles [33].

2.3 Comparing Single and Group Pile Behaviour The behaviour of piles behaves similarly under same average load. When pile were closely spaced, failure zone of individual pile in a group overlap with the adjacent piles [43–45].With increase in count of piles in a group having less centre to centre distance (even 5D) the interactions between piles known as pile group effects, shadow effects or near-field effects, reduces the lateral-capacity of each individual pile. Figure 2 shows the schematic representation of reduction in lateral-load-capacity in pile groups due to overlapping of failure zone and gap formation behind the pile due to lateral loading. If pile was arranged in row, the group effect extends even beyond 5D and group factor decreases as spacing decreases [26] (Table 2). If a pile was closely spaced(s) i.e. s = 3D, under same average load the pile in a group defelcted 2–2.5% more than that of a single pile [46] and the bending moment increased to 50 -100%. Ilyas et al. [47] carried 70 g centrifuge model tests on lateral-load pile groups 2 × 2, 2 × 3, 3 × 3 and 4 × 4 using spacing 3D and 5D for normally and over

Fig. 2 shadowing effect

172 Table 2 Optimum spacing

S. V. Sivapriya Authors

Type of soil

Optimum spacing

Cox et al. [43]

Sand

6D

Prakash [16]

Sand

3D

McVay [54]

Loose to medium dense sand

3D to 5D

Ito and Matsui

Sand

4D

Prakash and Saran [55]

Clay

6D

Brown and Shie [56] Clay

5D

Rao et al. [57]

Clay

6D

Gandhi and Selvam [34]

ϕ

2T

Pan et al. [26]

Clay

5D

Rollins et al. [58]

c-ϕ

6D

Chandrasekar [31]

Clay

5D

Kourkoulis et al. [59] c-ϕ

5D

consolidated clay. It was experiential that the average lateral-load on single in a group decreases with increase in count of piles in the group. The shadowing effect depends upon relative position. The measured bending-moment is higher for a font pile in a pile group than the free—head pile located at the same location. The soil arching was observed between the rows of piles when the yielded soil gets detached from its surroundings [48]. Apart from the above said study few others like Reese et al. (1974), Reese and Welch [49], Georgiadis and Butterfield [50], Georgiadis [51], Gabr et al. [52], Fan and Long [53] and few others analysed the behaviour through back analyses of lateral-load tests and included it in API code.

2.4 p-y Curve The study of laterally loaded pile evolved in comparing the behaviour of single and group pile using p-y curve [60]. With the use of py curve method for single pile, the graph was projected to group pile (Fig. 3) by using a parameter called pm (Eq. 4) which was initially proposed by Brown et al. [38] and later many researchers developed it. pm =

pgroup pfree−field

(4)

Fig. 3 p-multiplier concept

Horizontal Resistance / Length (p)

Single and Group Static Laterally Loaded …

173

Single pile psp Group pile pgp= pm x psp

Horizontal displacement (y)

3 Sloping Ground With the growth in infrastructure, the availability of land with good soil has become difficult. Hence the construction of structure in weak soil or sloping ground is a common scenario in present days. Few examples of pile-supported structures on slope is sketched in Fig. 4. As much of the study in the past is carried for behaviour of piles in horizontal ground, the study for lateral-loaded pile in a slope is scarce. Pile passing through slope is classified into as (De Beer [61]); active piles and passive piles as shown in Fig. 5. The active pile passes through a stable slope and subjected to lateral load which is transmitted to the stable soil with slope through shear and moment in the pile. Passive pile is used in unstable slope to reinforce the slope and to increase the stability of the slope. It is known fact, that with rise in slope inclination the lateral-capacity of the pile decreases [63–65]. By considering this scenario, Bhushan et al. [66] conducted test

Fig. 4 Example of pile in slope

174

S. V. Sivapriya

Fig. 5 Pile in Slope [62]

from drilled short rigid piers by accounting the slope by placing the pile in it and proposed lateral resistance factor (ψ) for stiff clay as in Eq. (5). ψ=

1 1 + tan θs

(5)

where, θ s = slope angle.

3.1 Passive Pile Usage of piles in unstable slope are termed as passive piles. Timber piles were extensively used to reinforce the sliding slope in Sweeden, Europe and United States as a reinforcing material [67–70]. The mechanism of piles failure in slope as a reinforcing agent was study earlier by many researchers ([67, 71–73]). The location of pile in uniform soil slope at crest or toe is the effective position of pile in slope, as a stabilising element. However, diameter, pile spacing and limit pressure are the influencing factor, soil modulus and pile stiffness don’t have much effect on its performance [74]. But for non- uniform layer, the embedded length of piles through soft or loose soil till stiff or hard strata influences the performance of the pile. The study by Gabr and Borden [75] to stabilize the slope by pier helps in observing the influence of active force, the active force generated by the pile in the slope reduces the passive resistance by approximately 5–10%. The displaced wedge angle in front of the pile is ϕ/2 and the capacity reduction with slope over predicts the capacity by 50%. But if the slippage in axial loading and gap formation in lateral-load not considered while modelling, it overestimates the ultimate capacity and hence an buffer /interface element was suggested to overcome the shortcoming [76]. The pile

Single and Group Static Laterally Loaded …

175

when a pile is installed in the slope center offers more resistance and increases the stability of the slope [77]. The study of using finite difference method by Ng and Zhang [78] discusses the impact of sleeves in a laterally loaded pile in slope; where the sleeve effect is not great due to plastic zones that formed across the pile.

3.2 Active Pile When the geometry of the ground of the soil ground increases, the capacity reduces to a maximum of 37.5%; but the influence was negligible for a smaller slope (1 V:5H) [79]. When a rigid pile-group is installed in slope crest, the depth of fixity of the leading pile is higher than the single pile with fixed head [80]. A 3D FEM study by Sawant and Shukla [81] emphasised the displacement increases with increase in slope angle. There is only a marginal change in bending moment when the slope is almost steep 70°. Few studies concentrated on the effect of slope in a lateral-load pile when it is moved towards the embankment (Table 3). Chen and Martin [85] from a FEM study inferred that the effect of slope became negligible when the pile was kept 6D away from the slope and analyzed for slope angles less than 45º, the capacity reduces by 10%. The effect of slope is negligible when the ground inclination is less than 11.3° ([79, 91]) and the influence of slope is neglected below the depth of fixity [92]. The effect of eccentricity in sloping ground is also studied, where reduction in capacity is mainly due to rigidity of the pile which decreases with reduction in depth of embedment [93]. Table 3 Safe distance for no slope influence

References

Soil type

Optimum position

Poulos [82]

Sand

5D

Boufia and Bouguerra [83]

Sand

15–20D

Mezazigh and Levacher [84]

Sand

6–12D

Chen and Martin[85]

c-ϕ

6D

Sawwaf [86]

Sand

5–10D

Barker [87]

Sand

4D

Chong et al. [88]

Sand

7D

Sivapriya and Gandhi [89]

Clay

2.5 R

Muthukumaran [90]

Sand

15 D

* D—Pile

diameter, R—Stiffness factor

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4 Summary From the detailed literature survey of single and pile group in horizontal ground through experimental (centrifuge and 1-g model test) studies, numerical studies and case studies the behaviour is studied. The study includes the behaviour for different soil condition, loading condition and water table effect in cohesive and cohesionless soil. The soil- structure interaction of the is well discussed and the observation from the study concluded that the lateral resistance of pile depends on geometry of the pile, soil strength, elastic modulus and spacing between the piles in case of pile group. The literature available on pile and pile groups in a slope is not extensive, especially for active piles. However, few studies are available where single pile kept in the slope. Most of the study explains the influence of slope effect in the pile when it is moved towards the embankment. Few field studies were also carried out by placing the pile in the crest of the slope. From the studies by various authors Fig. 6 shows the summary of load ratio (Lateral load at sloping ground condition to horizontal ground) of different researchers when pile is moved away from the crest of the slope and loaded towards the slope. 1.00 Lateral Resistance Factor

0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20

-5

-4

-3

-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Distance from the crest of the slope /Pile diameter

8

9

10

Gabr and Borden (1990)-Analytical model Mezazig and Levacher (1998)-Centrifuge model Chen and Martin (2001)-FEM Chae et al.(2004)-Model Chae et a.(2004)-FEM Reese at al.(2006)-Analytical Mirzoyan (2007)-Full scale Barker (2012)-Full Scale

Fig. 6 Comparison of resistance ratios presented by researchers as a function of distance from crest

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5 Conclusion The increase in usage of land in all possible ways is a great challenge not only to structural engineer but also for geotechnical engineer. Especially when heavy structures are proposed, the need of understanding the soil—structure interaction for deep becomes mandatory. When the structure is proposed in a unconventional slopy terrain, there is additional load suffered by the pile from the moving ground if it is a unstable slope or pressure if it is from a stable slope. Horizontal loading of a pile with ground variation resulted in a reduction in the ultimate resistance, with not much effect on the stiffness of the py curves at small deflection and the bending moment of pile increased with increase in slope steepness. The slope effect is negligible when the inclination is less than 11° and moved away from the crest at a distance of 4–20 D liable upon the relative density or consistency of the soil.

References 1. Council TP (1848) Credit : timber piling council 2. Poulos HG, Davis EH (1980) Pile foundation analysis and design. Rainbow-Bridge Book Co., Canada 3. B. of I. Standard (1980) Code of practice for design and construction of pile foundation. 2911(June):1–31 4. A. S. R. R. Gopal Ranjan, “Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics,” p. 1223, 2007. 5. Blum H (1932) Bautechnik. Heft 5:1932 6. Brinch-Hansen J (1961) The Ultimate resistance of rigid piles against transversal forces. Danish Geotech Inst 12:5–9 7. Caesar J (1983) The conquest of gaul. Penguin Classics, Europe 8. Tomlinson MJ (2001) Foundation design and construction. 7th ed. Prentice Hall, Great Britain 9. Matloack H, Rees L (1960) Generalized solutions for laterally loaded piles.pdf. J Soil Mech Found Div 86(5):63–94 10. V. R. Kasch, H. M. Coyle, and E. B. and W. G. S. Richard, “lateral load test of a drilled shaft in clay,” 1977. 11. J. McClelland, B and Focht, “Soil Modulus for Laterally Loaded Piles.pdf,” J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., vol. 82, no. 4, pp. 1–22, 1956. 12. B. Trevor, D. Smith, and M. Asce, “Pile horizontal soil modulus values,” vol. 113, no. 9, pp. 1040–1044, 1988. 13. Broms BB (1964) Lateral resistance of piles in cohesionless soils. J Soil Mech Found Div 90(3):123–156 14. Broms B B, “Lateral resistance of piles in cohesive soils,” J. Soil Mech. Found. Divsion, vol. SM 2, pp. 27–63, 1964. 15. Jeffrey L.Snyder, “Full-scale lateral load tests of a 3 x 5 pile group in soft clays and silts,” 2004. 16. Shamsher Prakash, “Behaviour of pile groups subjected to lateral loads,” UNiversity of Illinois, 1962. 17. Vesic A.B, “Beams on Elastic subgrade and Winkler’s Hypothesis,” in 5th International Conference - Society of Soil MEchanics and FOundation Engineeing, 1961, p. 845. 18. McVay M, Zhang L, Molnit T, Lai P (1998) Centrifuge testing of large lateraly loaded pile groups in sand. J. Geotech. Geoenvironmental Eng. 124(10):1016–1026

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Innovative Investigation on Flexible Pavement Using Bitumen Blended with Waste Plastic V. M. Rajanandhini and G. Elangovan

1 Introduction Plastic waste is a colossal natural issue as the use of plastic is being expanded each day. Industrialization and large-scale production of plastic seemed to be cheaper and more reliable raw materials. In India, almost 5.6 million tons of plastic waste are produced annually. The durability of plastic is high and degrades very slowly due to non-biodegradable polymers with high molecular weight. Its disposal is a huge concern and poses many problems for society. Every important sector of the economy, plastics are being used from agriculture to packaging various material such as fruit, water, electronics, electrical, building and communication industries. After its usage, plastics are being thrown to garbages. It contributes to air pollution, global warming through green gas emission on the environment condition and causes issues such as breast cancer, fertility problems in humans as well as animals and genitourinary anomalies. But on the other end, the flexible payment can perform poorly during the monsoon due to heavy rain and under high impact loading due to applying the brake of the moving vehicle, dramatic rise in traffic intensity and also the impact of variations in temperature on the pavement. Bitumen is commonly used in lightweight pavement construction. At a temperature of around 30 °C, pure bitumen is a viscous fluid, and basically, it possess decreased creep strength. It undergoes significant distortion over a period of time due to load applied. Hence, adding plastic waste to pavement construction lowers plastic shrinkage and drying shrinkage. It also increases pavement abrasion and slip resistance. The only way is to reuse the plastic waste materials with bitumen aggregates as a partial replacement. It is possible to use HDPE (high-density poly-ethylene) as a mixing admixture to develop road performance.

V. M. Rajanandhini (B) · G. Elangovan Department of Civil Engineering, University College of Engineering, Thirukkuvalai, Nagapattinam, TamilNadu, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Naganathan et al. (eds.), Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil Engineering, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 179, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5041-3_14

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2 Why Replacement There are some emerging problems worldwide that endanger the climate from the usage of bitumen! It is our contractual obligation to look after Mother Earth as competent engineers. The Bitumen issues are. • Bitumen produces large amounts of carbon dioxide. • The carbon content of a single gallon of oil asphalt would be 8–37%. • Bitumen road surfaces built from natural bitumen continue to get slick during damp road conditions. This is attributed to residual bitumen oil material. • Dark road surface made from bitumen soak up so much heat that heavy vehicles have been known to lift the road surface create road safety hazards for the public and also for the motor vehicles. • Enormous heat is required to dissolve the bitumen during transport along with usage • Cumulative and bitumen bond is disagreed by the water reaction. Hence, it is advicible to use waste plastic materials (poly-ethylene, polystyrene, polypropylene) with the bitumen as a partial replacement to mitigate the environmental issues. It makes a very significant steps toward eco-friendliness, compared to new and conventional bitumen construction practises.

3 Objectives of the Study The fundamental aim is to use plastic waste effectively to make environment free from pollution for maintaining sustainability. 1. To suggest an efficient way of using this plastic waste as a useful binder material. 2. To find opimum volume of waste plastic usage in bitumen for effective replacement increased strength and cost savings.

4 Review of Literature According to Amit Gawande(2012) [1] and Sunil J. Kulkarni (2015) [2], the amount of plastic waste in municipal solid waste (MSW) is rising as a result of increased population, urbanization, construction activities and improvements in lifestyle, resulting in widespread littering on the landscape. As a result of their non-biodegradability and unhygienic appearance, waste plastic dumping has become a global threat. Moreover when they are not disposed of scientifically, it will pollute groundwater seriously. In general, bitumen is used as a binder in traditional road construction. Such bitumen can be modified with waste plastic scraps to create an enhanced mechanical properties of blended bitumen mix that can be used as a top surface coat in flexible pavement.

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Bhageerathy K.P, et al. (2014) [3] examined utilization of biomedical waste in bituminous street construction and reported that improved crushing strength and impact values were observed while adding waste plastics at the percentages of 2, 3, 5, 7%. C.E.G Justo et al. (2002) [4] expressed that the inclusion of 8% by weight of waste plastic is preferable to save 0.4 percent bitumen by weight of bitumen. AvulaVamshi (2013) [5] expressed that polymer bitumen mix is a superior cover contrasted with plain bitumen. It depends on mellowing point and diminished infiltration with reasonable flexibility. At the point, when utilized for street development it can withstand higher temperature. Another similar report by Mohd.Imtiyaz (2002) [6] inferred that bitumen blend made with modifiers has higher protection from long-lasting distortion at elevated temperature. V.S. Punith (2001) [7] reported that softened plastics can be used as a binder for road construction. There is no gas evolution in the temperature range of 130–180 °C and become soften these temperatures. Rishi Singh Chhabra, et al. (2014) [8] studied about different materials that suits for design and construction of road pavements. Sabina et al. (2009) [9] studied the comparative performance of properties of bituminous mixes containing plastic/polymer and reported Marshall Stability has increased more than the conventional bitumen. R.Vasudevan et al. (2007) [10] states that with appropriate ductility, it can withstand softening point and enhanced penetration. When used in road construction, it can survive higher temperatures and loads.

5 Methodology Figure 1 shows the methodology for entire experimental work as per this plan experimental work was carried out.

6 Materials and Methods The Materials used in this investigation are: • Bitumen: Bitumen of grade 60/70 • Aggregates: Coarse aggregates retained on IS sieve of 4.75mm • Waste Materials: Polythene carry bags as waste plastics

7 LABORATORY TEST Conducted on Material As a first phase of this research work, preliminary experiments were conducted on coarse aggregate for crushing strength value, impact value, water absorption, specific gravity and los angel abrasion test. All test results for coarse aggregates are presented in Table 1. Table 2 represents test results of penetration, ductility, softening point,

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Fig. 1 Methodology

Identification of Problem

Formulation of Objectives Literature Review

Procurement of Materials Test on Materials

Nominal Bitumen

Nominal Aggregate

Modified Bitumen

Results Comparison between Conventional and Modified Bitumen Material Conclusion Table 1 Test on road aggregate

Sl. no

Name of the test

Observed value

1

Crushing value test

27.19 < 30%

2

Impact value test

20.7 < 30%

3

Water absorption test

2.5%

4

Specific gravity

2.78

5

Los angles abrasion test

16 < 30%

Table 2 Test on bitumen and plastic with bitumen Sl. no

Name of the test

observed value for normal bitumen

observed value for plastic added bitumen

1

Penetration test

72 mm < 100

64 mm < 100

2

Ductility test

80 mm < 100

43.2 mm < 100

3

Softening point test

65 < 75

57 < 75

4

Specific gravity

1.01 < (0.97–1.02)

1.01 < (0.97–1.02)

5

Flash and fire test

100, 268 (272,220)

259, 317 (272,220)

6

Viscosity test

09:46:13 < 12 Min

10:08:40, 12 Min

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specific gravity, flash and fire point and viscosity tests on bitumen with and without waste plastics. Figure 2 shows softening point test. It was found that all the test results found in Table 2 obeyed its allowable limits. After preliminary tests, Marshall stability test was conducted on normal bitumen for optimizing bitumen volume by varying its volume from 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5 and 6%. Marshall Stability Test: Figure 3 shown below is test set up for conducting Marshall stability test on bitumen specimen with and without waste plastics at different volumes. In all cases, total weight of bitumen sample with and without waste plastics was 1200 gms. A 12.5-mm-sieve was driven through the aggregate used and kept on a 10-mm-sieve. About 20 min, the aggregate is to be boiled in Fig. 2 Softening point test

Fig. 3 Sample mold containing bitumen and plastic

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an oven to remove humidity and debris. The bitumen test was conducted on grade 60/70 bitumen. Bitumen is to be heated in an oven till melting, and uniform color was reached. Later, the estimated amount of plastic at different volumes were applied and stirred for approximately 1 min. Mix was filled with three layers in a mold of size 10.16-cm-diameter and a height of 6.35 cm, and each layer was compacted with 75 blows. Sample was removed from the mold after four hour and open to room temperature for 24 h. For this sample, the marshal stability test was performed, and the readings of each sample were noted and compared to the default readings of bitumen material. Marshal stability strength test results are presented in Table 3. Marshal stability strength, flow value, air voids, bilk specific gravity, voids filled with bitumen are shown in Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. Marshal stability strength, flow value, air voids, bilk specific gravity, voids filled with bitumen are shown in Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. From these figures, it was found that optimum volume of bitumen was found as 5.5% In the second phase, Marshall stability test was conducted on bitumen blended with waste plastics. After fixing optimum volume of bitumen as 5.5% and keeping it as reference mix, Marshall stability test was conducted on bitumen blended with waste plastics at various volumes from 0, 3, 6, 9, 12 and 15%. About 5 specimens were prepared for each volume. Blended bitumen with waste plastic and heated aggregate were heated till uniform color was reached and was carried out as per Sect. 7. From Table 4, it was found that Marshall Stability values are increasing from 1115 to 1474 kg/mm2 on par with increasing volume of waste plastics. Similarly flow value, air void present, voids in mineral admixture and voids filled with bitumen are found as comparatively better values while comparing reference mix. Figures 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13 depict the various test results as in Table 4.

8 Optimization of Waste Plastics by Anova Test Results ANOVA techniques were made on each volume of blended waste plastics with different bitumen test values from the phase II and are presented in Table 5. Hence, One way ANOVA analysis was made by using SPSS software. In this study, there are six variables available like volume of blended plastics, marshal stability, air voids, V MA , V FB and flow value. All these variables are to be defined under scale variable along with their properties. As per oneway ANOVA analysis, comparing means of grouping for Marshal stability under different volume of blended bitumen was carried out in SPSS by keeping the plastic content as independent variable and Marshal stability as dependent variable. One way ANOVA was carried out by using TUKEY option at the significant level of 0.05. Similar procedures were made on remaining variables. Figure 14 represents analysis of variables by oneway ANOVA in SPSS software. All the output are in Tables 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10. It is found that stability value is higher at 12% replacement, air voids value is lower at 12% replacement, voids in mineral aggregate V MA value is lower at 12% replacement, voids filled with bitumen V FB value is higher at 12% replacement, and flow value is lower at

1150.5

1115.5

980

4.5

5

5.5

6

3.46

3.32

3.1

2.8

2.73

Flow value mm

70

64

58

52

46

Wb g

2.54

2.55

2.56

2.57

2.58

Gt

2.27

2.32

2.283

2.248

2.23

Gm

10.6

9.01

10.82

12.8

13.5

Vv (%)

9.89

9.29

8.32

7.35

6.77

Vb (%)

20.49

18.3

19.14

20.15

20.27

VMA (%)

48.26

50.76

43.46

36.47

33.39

Vfb (%)

W b —weight of bitumen, Gt —theoretical specific gravity ,Gm —bulk specific gravity, V v —Air voids percent, V b —Percent volume of bitumen, V MA —Voids in mineral aggregate, V fb —voids filled with bitumen

825

985

4

Marshall stability strength Kg/mm2

Bitumen in (%)

Table 3 Marshall stability test on bitumen

Innovative Investigation on Flexible Pavement Using Bitumen … 189

190

V. M. Rajanandhini and G. Elangovan

Fig. 4 Stability graph

Fig. 5 Flow value graph

Fig. 6 Air voids(V v ) graph

12% replacement than by 0, 3, 6, 9 and 15%. Finally, observing results from the all outputs by ANOVA from SPSS it was found that optimum plastic content for partial replacement in binder for Bitumen concrete mix is 12% to make flexible pavement.

Innovative Investigation on Flexible Pavement Using Bitumen …

191

Fig. 7 Bulk specific gravity (Gt ) graph

Fig. 8 Voids filled with Bitumen (V ibe ) graph

9 Cost Analysis Cost Analysis was made for how much quantity of bitumen and its cost saved for DBM road construction about 1km length of road as per State Highway Department of Tamilnadu, INDIA. Cost of Construction for 1km single lane road ( 3.75 m Width) DBM road= Rs. 120000 Bitumen Requirement for 1 km construction = 21.75 ton Quantity of bitumen saved for 12 % = 2.61 ton or 2600 kg Therefore cost of saving for bitumen per kilometers = Rs 75,690

10 Conclusion Based on the test results the following major conclusions are presented.

1115.5

1206

1293

1350

1474

1390

0

3

6

9

12

15

2.87

2.75

2.83

2.90

3.15

3.32

Flow value mm

54.4

56.32

58.24

60.16

62.08

64

Wb g

2.57

2.57

2.56

2.56

2.56

2.55

Theoretical specific gravity Gt

2.38

2.4

2.36

2.31

2.28

2.32

Gm

7.39

6.61

7.81

9.77

10.94

9.02

Vv (%)

8.55

8.92

9.07

9.17

9.34

9.80

Vb (%)

15.94

15.54

16.88

18.94

20.28

18.82

V MA (%)

53.62

57.42

53.73

48.44

46.07

52.08

V fb (%)

W b —weight of bitumen, Gt —theoretical specific gravity ,Gm —bulk specific gravity, V v —Air voids percent, V b —Percent volume of bitumen, V MA —Voids in mineral aggregate, V fb —voids filled with bitumen.

Marshall Stability strength Kg/mm2

Bitumen with plastic content (%)

Table 4 Marshall stability test on bitumen with plastic

192 V. M. Rajanandhini and G. Elangovan

Innovative Investigation on Flexible Pavement Using Bitumen …

Fig. 9 Stability graph Fig. 10 Flow value graph

Fig. 11 Air voids(V v ) graph

193

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V. M. Rajanandhini and G. Elangovan

Fig. 12 Bulk specific gravity (Gm ) graph

Fig. 13 Voids filled with bitumen (V fb ) graph

• Optimized volume of bitumen was found as 5.5% by comparing the different tests results on the bitumen. • The findings of the graph indicated that 0–15% of the plastic was bitumen mix provides better results as the percentage of plastic increases. • By observing all of the above values, we firmly infer that Plastic mixed bitumen mix provides better values. Marshall Stability is improved from 1115 to 1474 kg/ mm2 . This indicates that the value of Marshall Stability has increased by 32% of the conventional bitumen strength value. It’s great, Success from such a good point of view. • From the Experimental results as well as the results from optimization techniques by ANOVA, It was found that optimum plastic content for partial replacement in binder for Bitumen concrete mix is 12% to make flexible pavement. COST ANALYSIS as per State Highway Department of Tamilnadu, INDIA.

12

9

6

2.83 2.86

1350

1332

2.71

2.80

1369

1489

2.85

2.94

1279

1342

2.89

1302 2.81

2.90

1357

2.87

1293

3.19

1194

1309

3.13

1214 2.93

3.16

1193

1282

3.15

3.32

1115 3.12

3.34

1117

1206

3.22

1120

1223

3.38

1111

3

3.34

1113

0

Flow value mm

Marshall stability strength Kg/mm2

Bitumen with Plastic content in (%)

Table 5 Use of waste plastic in flexible pavements

56.32

58.24

58.24

58.24

58.24

58.24

60.16

60.16

60.16

60.16

60.16

62.08

62.08

62.08

62.08

62.08

64

64

64

64

64

Wb g

2.57

2.57

2.57

2.57

2.57

2.57

2.56

2.56

2.56

2.56

2.56

2.56

2.56

2.56

2.56

2.56

2.55

2.55

2.55

2.55

2.55

Gt

2.42

2.34

2.36

2.37

2.36

2.37

2.30

2.32

2.31

2.31

2.31

2.27

2.29

2.27

2.28

2.29

2.32

2.32

2.36

2.30

2.30

Gm

5.83

8.94

8.17

7.78

8.17

7.78

10.15

9.37

9.76

9.76

9.76

11.32

10.54

11.32

10.93

10.54

9.01

9.01

7.45

9.80

9.80

Vv (%)

8.99

8.99

9.07

9.11

9.07

9.11

9.13

9.21

9.17

9.17

9.17

9.30

9.38

9.30

9.34

9.38

9.80

9.80

9.96

9.71

9.71

Vb (%)

14.82

17.93

17.24

16.89

17.24

16.89

19.28

18.58

18.93

18.93

18.93

20.62

19.92

20.62

20.27

19.92

18.81

18.81

17.41

19.51

19.51

V MA (%)

(continued)

60.66

50.13

52.61

53.93

52.61

53.93

47.35

49.56

48.44

48.44

48.44

45.10

47.08

45.10

46.07

47.08

52.09

52.09

57.20

49.76

49.76

V fb (%)

Innovative Investigation on Flexible Pavement Using Bitumen … 195

2.84 2.87 2.91 2.93

1397

1402

2.75

1474

1390

2.78

1461

1382

2.77

1467

2.80

2.74

1479

1379

Flow value mm

Marshall stability strength Kg/mm2

54.40

54.40

54.40

54.40

54.40

56.32

56.32

56.32

56.32

Wb g

2.57

2.57

2.57

2.57

2.57

2.57

2.57

2.57

2.57

Gt

2.39

2.37

2.37

2.39

2.38

2.40

2.38

2.39

2.41

Gm

7.00

7.78

7.78

7.00

7.39

6.61

7.39

7.00

6.22

Vv (%)

8.58

8.51

8.51

8.58

8.54

8.92

8.84

8.88

8.95

Vb (%)

15.58

16.29

16.29

15.58

15.93

15.53

16.23

15.88

15.17

V MA (%)

55.07

52.24

52.24

55.07

53.60

57.43

54.46

55.91

58.99

V fb (%)

W b —weight of bitumen, Gt —theoretical specific gravity ,Gm —bulk specific gravity, V v —Air voids percent,V b —Percent volume of bitumen,V MA —Voids in mineral aggregate, V fb —voids filled with bitumen.

15

Bitumen with Plastic content in (%)

Table 5 (continued)

196 V. M. Rajanandhini and G. Elangovan

Innovative Investigation on Flexible Pavement Using Bitumen …

197

Fig. 14 Analysis of oneway ANOVA using SPSS software Table 6 Marshall stability by oneway ANOVA Bitumen Number of Subset for alpha = 0.05 with plastic samples No Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 in % 0

5

3

5

6

5

9

5

15

5

12

5

Group 4

Group 5

Group 6

1.1153E3 1.2060E3 1.2930E3 1.3500E3 1.3900E3 1.4740E3

Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed. Table 7 Air voids by oneway ANOVA Bitumen with plastic in %

Number of samples No

Subset for alpha = 0.05

12

5

6.6100

15

5

7.3900

9

5

0

5

6

5

3

5

Group 1

Group 2

Group 3

Group 4

Group 5

7.3900 8.1680

Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.

8.1680 9.0140

9.0140 9.7600 10.9300

198

V. M. Rajanandhini and G. Elangovan

Table 8 Flow_Value by oneway ANOVA Bitumen with plastic in %

Number of samples No

Subset for alpha = 0.05

12

5

2.7500

9

5

2.8300

15

5

2.8700

6

5

3

5

0

5

Group 1

Group 2

Group 3

Group 4

Group 5

2.8700 2.9060 3.1500 3.3200

Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.

Table 9 Voids in mineral aggregate V MA by oneway ANOVA Bitumen with plastic Number of samples Subset for alpha = 0.05 in % No Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 12

5

15.5260

15

5

15.9340

9

5

0

5

18.8100

6

5

18.9300

3

5

17.2380

20.2700

Table 10 Voids filled with bitumen V FB by oneway ANOVA Bitumen with plastic in Number of samples No Subset for alpha = 0.05 % Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 3

5

46.0860

6

5

48.4460

0

5

52.1800

9

5

52.6420

15

5

53.6440

12

5

57.4900

Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.

• Bitumen saved for 1 km single road = 2600 kg • Cost of saving bitumen per Km = Rs.75,690 /• Eventually, it is concluded that the plastic blended bitumen mix displays higher efficiency than the conventional bitumen roads. • Basically, Plastic is a huge pollution problem that can be used to improve the environmental sustainability by using this form of technique.

Innovative Investigation on Flexible Pavement Using Bitumen …

199

• Consequently, expense of removal plastic waste can be reduced by and large. Provided problems with incineration, land filling may be avoided.

References 1. Gawande A, Zamare G, Renge VC, Tayde S, Bharsakale G (2012) An overview on waste plastic utilization in asphalting of roads. J Eng Res Stud 3:01–05 2. Kulkarn SJ (2015) A review on studies and research on use of plastic waste. Int J Res Rev 2(11) 3. Vamshi A (2013) Use of waste plastic in construction of bituminous road. J Eng 2(3):123–128 4. Bhageerathy KP, Anu PA, Manju VS, Raji AK (2014) Use of biomedical plastic waste in bituminous road construction. Int J Eng Adv Technol 3(6):89–92 5. Justo CEG, Veeraragavan A (2002) Utilization of waste plastic bags in bituminous mix for improved performance of roads. Banglore University, Bengaluru 6. Mohd I (2002) Adhesion characteristics study on waste plastics modified asphalt. Int J Technol Res Eng 2(9):2077–2080 7. Punith VS (2010) Study of the effect of plastic modifier on bituminous mix properties. Open J Civil Eng 5(3) Sept 9 2015 8. Chhabra RS, Marik S (2014) A review literature on the use of waste plastics and waste rubber tyres in pavement. Int J Core Eng Manage 1(1):1–5 9. Sabina, Tabrez A Khan, Sangita, D K Sharma and B M Sharma (2009) Performance evaluation of waste plastic and polymer modified bituminous concrete mixes. J Sci Ind Res 68:975–979 10. Vasudevan R, Nigam SK, Velkennedy R, Ramalinga A, Sekar C, Sundarakannan B (2007) Utilization of waste polymers for flexible pavement and easy disposal of waste polymers. In: Proceedings of the international conferenceon sustainable solid waste management. Chennai, pp 105–111

Use of RMC Wastewater in Concrete with Admixtures for Strength Enhancement M. Selvakumar, S. Geetha, Christina Joby Maria, S. Pavithra, S. Rakesh, and K. Udhaya

1 Introduction Water, being one of the most vital substances along with air and food for the survival of any living species on the plant, is found everywhere on the planet from ice caps in the polar regions to the steamy geysers in the volcanic regions. But 97.2% of it is salt water present in the oceans and with the rest 3% of fresh water, about 2% is present as ice and glaciers making them inconsumable [1, 2]. The rest . (12 Jan 2020) 8. Nitivattananon V, Borongan G (Sept 2007) Construction and demolition waste management: current practices in Asia. In: Proceedings of the international conference on sustainable solid waste management, Chennai, India, pp 97–104 9. Shrivastava S, Chini A (2010) Construction materials and C&D waste in India. M.E. Rinker Sr., School of Building Construction University of Florida, USA 10. Shetty RS (2013) Construction and demolition waste—an overview of construction industry in India. Int J Chem Environ Biol Sci (IJCEBS) 1(4) 11. Ramanathan M (Feb 2015) Status of demolition and C&D waste recycling in India. Workshop on construction and demolition waste recycling (CDWR), JNTUH, Kukatpally, Hyderabad 12. Khandelwal P (2015) Construction and demolition waste processing a pioneering initiative by Delhi. Workshop on construction and demolition waste recycling (CDWR). 13. Gayakwad HP, Sasane NB (June 2015) Construction and demolition waste management in India. Int Res J Eng Technol (IRJET) 02(03) 14. Sharma KD, Jain S (2019) Overview of municipal solid waste generation, composition, and management in India. J Environ Eng 15. Kabir S, Al-Shayeb A, Khan IM (2016) Recycled construction debris as concrete aggregate for sustainable construction materials. In: International conference on sustainable design, engineering and construction, procedia engineering 16. Nandhinipriya B, Janagan S, Soundhirarajan K (2016) Construction waste management. In: Int Res J Adv Eng Sci 1(4):132–135 17. John A, Mittal SK, Dhapekar NK (2017) Applicability of construction and demolition waste concrete in construction sector—review. Int J Civil Eng Res 8(2):131–138 18. Gupta S, Malik RK (May 2018) The impact of C&D waste on Indian environment: a critical review. Civil Eng Res J 5(2) 19. Mahpour A, Mortaheb MM (Mar 2018) Financial-based incentive plan to reduce construction waste. J Constr Eng Manage, Iran 20. TOI report on Construction and Demolition debris can be reused. Available from: . (28 July 2017)

Study on the Compressive Strength and Water Absorption Characteristics of Mortar Blocks with Cenosphere as Partial Replacement for Cement R. Vijayalakshmi, Sivakumar Naganathan, and S. Ramanagopal

1 Introduction The use of lightweight cementious material with low density, good thermal and acoustical property is of main demand in the construction industry. Using such lightweight material not only reduces the dead weight of the concrete composites but also help in the proper disposal of the industrial by-products, which are produced in tons and disposed in open land leading to a serious environmental threat. Cenosphere is one such light weight cementious materials produced in the coal industry along with fly ash as by-product [1]. According to a recent report, every year about 90 million tons of cenosphere are being disposed in open land, which not only results in aesthetic deformation but also causes serious air and land pollution. Cenosphere when buried in land will contaminate ground water. Therefore, using this waste materials as partial replacement for cementious materials will avoids all such environmental problems and also reduces the amount of cement production, thereby reduces the amount of carbon blue prints. Other than using cenosphere as cementious material in concrete industry, it is also used in rubber and plastic industry and also for sound insulation [2]. Cenosphere is a hollow material with a density of around 200–1000 kg/m3 and diameter varies from 10µmm to 600 µm. Cenosphere being a lightweight material is mainly composed of aluminate and silicate which mainly contributes to the hydration reaction in concrete [3]. The chemical properties of cenosphere help in the pozzolanic reaction and this binder property increases with the decrease in particle size and high temperature [4, 5]. Many research works have been done using cenosphere as partial substitute for cement, sand, filler material and concluded that cenosphere as filler material can be used in lightweight cement composites application and also have good thermal and acoustical properties [6]. Baduge et al. [7] used three types of cenosphere and reported that cenosphere is a sustainable alternative for lime binder R. Vijayalakshmi (B) · S. Naganathan · S. Ramanagopal Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Kalavakkam, Chennai, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Naganathan et al. (eds.), Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil Engineering, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 179, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5041-3_19

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and cement binder. The spherical shape of cenosphere increases the workability and the shrinkage resistance of cementious mix [8, 9]. Wang et al. [10] studied the effect of cenosphere and metakaolin on geopolymeric composites. It was reported that compressive strength, bulk density and thermal conductivity decreases with the increase in content of cenosphere and metakaolin. The thermal conductivity and bulk density decrease with cenosphere replacement and concluded that cenosphere is a promising material for thermal insulation application. Wang et al. [11] studied the performance of ultra-lightweight cement composites which was produced by using cenosphere as micro fine aggregate. The crushing and flexural strength of fibre-reinforced ultra-lightweight cement composites showed improved performance. Hanif et al. [12] used 1% nanosilica along with different percentage of replacement of cenosphere and reported that the strength increases at the initial stage after which the strength decreases with the addition of cenosphere content. Huang et al. [13] replaced 42% of cement with lightweight cenosphere and studied the elastic modulus, compressive strength, temperature resistance and proposed empirical equations to predict mechanical and durability property. Brooks et al. [14] carried out investigation to study about different fillers and its effect in cement composites. Cenosphere, polystyrene beads, thermo plastic micro spheres and hollow glass microspheres were used to produce lightweight cement composites which has the advantage of reduced structural load and reduced building operation energy consumption. Satpathy et al. [15] carried out experiments with cenosphere as partial replacement fine aggregate and concluded that porosity and water absorption increase with the percentage of replacement of cenosphere, but the density decreases with the same. Concrete with 50% cenosphere and 50% sintered fly ash resulted in a sustainable lightweight concrete [16]. From the literature study, it is clear that large number of works has been carried out using cenosphere as partial replacement in cement composites and studied the physical property, mechanical property and durability aspect of the same. Therefore, the objective of this work is to study the fresh properties of cement paste with cenosphere as partial replacement in the range of 5–20% of weight of cement. Then, study the mechanical properties and durability property of cenosphere replaced cement mortar.

2 Experimental Study To start with the experimental work, the fresh properties of cement namely the consistency and initial setting time were studied for different percentage of replacement of cenosphere. The SEM image of cenosphere used in this study is shown in Fig. 1. The physical property of the cenosphere is listed in Table 1. Cenosphere was replaced at the percentage of 0%, 5%, 10%, 15% and 20%, and the initial study was carried out. Then, a M30 mix was designed in which the cement was replaced with cenosphere at the percentage of 0% (control), 5%, 10%, 15% and 20%. The compressive strength was studied using cube specimen. The durability study, i.e. water absorption and sorptivity study was carried out using cylindrical specimen.

Study on the Compressive Strength and Water Absorption Characteristics…

253

Fig. 1 Microscopic image of cenosphere used in the experimental study

Table 1 Physical property of cenosphere used in this study

Physical property

Range

Colour

Whitish-Grey

Bulk density

350 kg/m3

Porosity

65%

Water absorption

1%

Crushing strength

3 MPa

Diameter

10–300 µm

Melting point

1500 °C

Thermal conductivity

0.08 W/mK

2.1 Fresh Properties of Cenosphere Replaced Cement Binder The consistency and initial setting time were carried out using vicar apparatus for cement binder with different percentage of cenosphere. The depth of penetration of 10 mm diameter plunger needle was noted down for different percentage of water. The percentage of water for which the plunger needle penetrates to a depth of 5–7 mm is noted as the consistency of the mix. Similarly, the test procedure was repeated for other percentage of cenosphere and the values were tabulated in Table 2. Then, the Table 2 Consistency and initial setting time of cenosphere replaced cement binder

Percentage of replacement of Cenosphere

Consistency (%)

Initial setting time (minutes)

0%

32

38

5%

32.5

45

10%

33.2

48

15%

33.5

117

20%

34.5

147

254

R. Vijayalakshmi et al.

Table 3 Compressive strength of mortar cubes Specimen ID

Average weight of oven dried specimen (Kg)

Density (Kg/m3 )

M-C0

0.843

M-C5 M-C10

Maximum compression load (KN) Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial 3

Mean values (KN)

Compressive strength (MPa)

2405

155

157

156

156

31.39

0.826

2357

147

152

160

153

30.78

0.822

2345

132

135

130

132

26.63

M-C15

0.765

2183

120

127

121

123

24.68

M-C20

0.752

2146

101

102

100

101

20.32

initial setting time test was carried out using same vicat apparatus, for cenosphere replaced binder mixes. Here, the time taken for the needle to penetrate up to 5 mm depth from the bottom of the mould was measured and noted in Table 2.

2.2 Mechanical Property of Cenosphere Replaced Cement Mortar Mortar cube specimens of size 70.5 × 70.5 × 70.5 mm were casted using one part of cement and three parts of sand (1:3). In this mix, cement was replaced with cenosphere in the range of 5–20% by weight of cement. The mortar specimens were casted according to Indian standard codal provision, while placing the mortar in mould, the layer was completed compacted using tamping rod and mould was filled in three layers. The casted specimens were kept in room temperature and demoulded after 24 h and water cured for 28 days. The mortar cubes were removed from the curing tank and oven dried at 100 °C, and the oven-dried weight was noted to study the variation in the density of mortar. The compressive strength of the mortar cubes was calculated by testing the specimen in 2000 KN capacity compression testing machine, and the maximum load was noted. The average weight of oven dried specimen, maximum load values and corresponding density and compressive strength values are tabulated in Table 3.

2.3 Durability Test on Cenosphere Replaced Cement Mortar The durability of cenosphere replaced cement mortar was studied by measuring the permeability of the porous medium, which is done by observing the rate of movement of water in the mortar specimen. This rate of movement of water by capillary suction was measured by conducting water absorption and sorptivity test. For doing the water

Study on the Compressive Strength and Water Absorption Characteristics…

255

absorption test, cylindrical specimen of size 100 × 50 was casted and water cured for 28 days. After 28 days curing, the specimens were oven dried at 100 °C for 24 h, and the dry weight of the specimens (M o ) was noted. The circumference of the cylinder specimens was covered with an impermeable layer to ensure the capillary movement of water. The specimen is placed in the water bath, in such a way, that the bottom portion of the specimen is at a distance of 5 mm above the base of the water bath. The cylindrical specimens were placed in a water bath with water filled up to a height of 25 mm from the base. The schematic view specimen arranged inside the water bath is shown in Fig. 2. Water absorption and sorptivity set up is shown in Fig. 3 The amount of water absorbed by the specimen was carefully measured at regular intervals (0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24, 48, 72 h). The increase in weight of specimen at regular time interval (M1, M2, M3…) was carefully noted after drying the wet surface of the specimen and measured using weight balance. The procedure was repeated till the increase in weight of specimen remains constant. The dry weight and increase in weight of specimen after regular time interval were noted in Table 4. The percentage of water absorption and the sorptivity coefficient of each specimen was calculated using Equations 1 and 2 and tabulated in Table 5. Percentage water absorption (Wn ) = (M0 − Mn /M0 ) × 100

Fig. 2 Schematic view of water absorption and sorptivity test setup

Fig. 3 Arrangement of cylinder specimen for water absorption and sorptivity test

(1)

0.856

0.831

0.823

0.744

0.746

M-C10

M-C15

M-C20

0.749

0.748

0.829

0.837

0.863

M1

M0

M-C5

0.25 h

Weight (Kg)

M-C0

Specimen ID

0.749

0.749

0.829

0.838

0.864

M2

0.5 h

Table 4 Weight of specimen at regular time interval

0.750

0.749

0.830

0.839

0.865

M3

1h

0.750

0.750

0.831

0.840

0.866

M4

2h

0.751

0.751

0.832

0.841

0.868

M5

3h

0.752

0.752

0.833

0.842

0.869

M6

4h

0.753

0.753

0.834

0.843

0.870

M7

6h

0.753

0.754

0.835

0.845

0.871

M8

8h

0.754

0.754

0.836

0.846

0.873

M9

12 h

0.755

0.755

0.837

0.847

0.873

M10

24 h

0.755

0.756

0.838

0.847

0.873

M11

48 h

0.755

0.756

0.838

0.847

0.873

M12

72 h

256 R. Vijayalakshmi et al.

0.856

0.831

0.823

0.744

0.746

M-C10

M-C15

M-C20

0.402

0.580

0.710

0.780

0.842

0.450

0.620

0.750

0.850

0.963

W2

W1

M0

M-C5

0.5 h

0.25 h

Weight (Kg)

M-C0

Specimen ID

0.536

0.720

0.820

0.923

1.083

W3

1h

0.600

0.800

0.950

1.070

1.203

W4

2h

Table 5 Water absorption percentage of different mortar specimen

0.712

0.930

1.086

1.230

1.358

W5

3h

0.820

1.040

1.200

1.350

1.510

W6

4h

0.890

1.150

1.310

1.500

1.650

W7

6h

0.990

1.300

1.458

1.650

1.800

W8

8h

1.100

1.410

1.580

1.780

1.930

W9

12 h

1.190

1.500

1.710

1.910

1.970

W10

24 h

1.270

1.560

1.820

1.940

2.000

W11

48 h

1.27

1.560

1.823

1.940

2.000

W12

72 h

Study on the Compressive Strength and Water Absorption Characteristics… 257

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Sorptivity coefficient (K ) = (M/A)/t 2

(2)

Where M o —Dry weight of specimen M n —Weight of specimen after “t” time interval (t varies from 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24, 48, 72 h “n” varies from 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12) ΔM—weight of water absorbed (M o –M n ) A—Area of specimen which is in contact with water (mm) t—elapsed time.

3 Result and Discussion 3.1 Consistency and Initial Setting Time The consistency of Ordinary Portland Cement without any admixtures is around 32%, but the consistency of cement binder with cenosphere as partial replacement increases with the increase in percentage of replacement. The consistency of cenosphere replaced cement varies from 32.5%, 33.2%, 33.5% and 34.5% for 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% of replacement, respectively. Cement with 10% of cenosphere has only minor change in the fresh property. The consistency increases at the rate of 5 and 8% for 15 and 20% of cenosphere. The porosity of cenosphere is around 66%, and water absorption is around 1%; this physical property of cenosphere increases the amount of water used to reach the required consistency. The hollow shape of the cenosphere increases the air void content and thereby increasing the consistency. The chemical composition of the cenosphere also plays a major role in the increase in consistency value. The initial setting time of OPC is 38 min, but the initial setting time of cenosphere replaced cement binder increase with the percentage of replacement. The setting time varies in the range of 45 min, 48 min, 117 min and 147 min for 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% of cenosphere, respectively. Similar to consistency, the initial setting time is also less affected by cenosphere replacement up to 10%, beyond which the initial setting time increases at the rate of 207% and 286% for 15% and 20% of replacement, respectively. From the fresh property test, it can be concluded that up to 10% of replacement of cement with lightweight cenosphere binder is recommended for lightweight concrete applications. The variation of consistency and initial setting time is shown in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5, respectively.

Study on the Compressive Strength and Water Absorption Characteristics…

259

Fig. 4 Consistency of cenosphere replaced cement binder

Fig. 5 Initial setting time of cenosphere replaced cement binder

3.2 Compressive Strength of Mortar Cubes The bulk density of cenosphere varies in the range of 350–450 kg/m3 , using such lightweight pozzolanic material in cement as partial replacement will reduce the density of the concrete mixture. The density of mortar cubes with 5, 10, 15 and 20% of replacement of cement with cenosphere is shown in Fig. 5. The density of control mix without any replacement is 2405 kg/m3 , but with partial replacement, the density decreases in the range of 2%, 2.49%, 9.23% and 10.76% for 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% of replacement, respectively. We all know that, density and compressive strength are related to each other as the density decreases, the compressive strength also decrease. The mortar cubes prepared with 5 and 10% of cenosphere has only a minor effect in density as well as the compressive strength. The compressive strength for control mix is 31.39 MPa, while that for 5% and 10% replacement, the compressive strength is 30.78 and 26.63 MPa, which is not very much less than the control mix. The compressive strength for 15% and 20% replacement is around 24.6 and 20.3 MPa, which is more or less equal to the minimum recommended strength values. The

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Fig. 6 Compressive strength and density of mortar cubes with different percentage of cenosphere

percentage of replacement of cenosphere up to 10% produces only a minor change in the density and strength values. The variation of density and compressive strength of mortar cubes is shown in Fig. 6.

3.3 Water Absorption and Sorptivity Coefficient The water absorption percentage is found to increase with the increase in percentage of cenosphere. The amount of permeable void in cenosphere is much higher, which results in the increased water absorption rate when used as partial replacement in cement. The water absorption percentage for control mix and mortar cylinder with 5, 10, 15 and 20% of cenosphere is shown in Fig. 7. All the specimens show a uniform trend in water absorption rate. The maximum water absorption rate for control specimen was 1.27%, while that for 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% cenosphere Fig. 7 The water absorption percentage for mortar cylinders

Study on the Compressive Strength and Water Absorption Characteristics…

261

Fig. 8 The sorptivity coefficient of mortar cylinders

replaced mortar cylinder was 1.56%, 1.82%, 1.94% and 2%, respectively. The water absorption rate increases with the elapsed time up to 48 h. After 48 h, the water absorption remains constant since the specimen has reached the saturation level, and all the void were filled with water. The cumulative water absorption per unit area when plotted with respect to square root of elapsed time will give the sorptivity coefficient. The sorptivity coefficient plot for different mortar specimen is shown in Fig. 8. Similar to water absorption rate, the sorptivity coefficient also increases with the amount of cenosphere. The coefficient varies from 0.0083 g/cm2 for control specimen to 0.012 g/cm2 for mortar specimen with 20% of cenosphere. From the graph, it can be concluded that the sorptivity, which is the measure of capillary movement of water, increases with the amount of replacement of cement with porous cenosphere lightweight cementious material.

4 Conclusion The fresh property and hardened property of cenosphere replaced cement and cement mortar were studied. From the study, the following conclusion can be derived. • Cenosphere, a lightweight pozzolanic material, can be used as a partial replacement for cement binder which otherwise is used as landfill may pose a serious environmental deterioration. Using such lightweight waste material can also lead to a sustainable development in concrete industry. • Light weight porous material with spherical surface when used as partial replacement increase the consistency and setting time of cement binder. The porous nature of the cenosphere increase the consistency and thereby increase the initial setting time. The consistency and initial setting time in not much affected up to

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10% of cenosphere, only 15 and 20% shown a drastic change in the consistency and setting time. • The density of mortar mix with cenosphere as partial replacement decreases with the increase in percentage of replacement. As the density of the mortar decreases the compressive strength also decreases. The density and compressive strength are not much affected up to 10% of replacement of cenosphere. Even for 20% of cenosphere, the compressive strength is around 20 MPa which is well within the acceptable range. • The water absorption rate increases with the increase in percentage of cenosphere. The maximum water absorption percentage observed was 2% for 20% replacement of cenosphere. The sorptivity coefficient, which represents the rate of capillary movement of water, also increase with the cenosphere content. • On comparing the fresh property, strength characteristics and durability values of cenosphere replaced cement and cement mortar, it can be concluded that, this cenosphere can be used as a partial replacement for cement up to 10% by weight without affecting the major characteristics of concrete. Even it can be used up to 20% by weight with some minor reduction in strength and durability characteristics.

References 1. Fomenko EV, Anshits NN, Solovyov LA, Mikhaylova OA, Anshits AG (2013) Composition and morphology of fly ash cenospheres produced from the combustion of kuznetsk coal. Energy Fuels. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef400754c 2. Wang L, Gao J, An Z, Zhao X, Yao H, Zhang M, Tian Q, Zhai X, Liu Y (2018) Polymer microsphere for water-soluble drug delivery via carbon dot-stabilizing W/O emulsion. J Mater Sci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-018-03197-7 3. Fomenko EV, Akimochkina GV, Kushnerova OA, Rogovenko ES, Zhizhaev AM, Anshits AG (2020) Composition of individual microspheres in a finely dispersed fraction from fly ash after the pulverized combustion of ekibastuz coal. Solid Fuel Chem. https://doi.org/10.3103/S03615 21920020032 4. Wang JY, Zhang MH, Li W, Chia KS, Liew RJY (2012) Stability of cenospheres in lightweight cement composites in terms of alkali-silica reaction. Cement Concr Res. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.cemconres.2012.02.010 5. Hanif A, Lu Z, Diao S, Zeng X, Li Z (2017) Properties investigation of fiber reinforced cementbased composites incorporating cenosphere fillers. Construct Build Mater. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.02.093 6. Li Y, Gao X, Wu H (2013) Further investigation into the formation mechanism of ash cenospheres from an Australian coal-fired power station. Energy Fuels. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef3 020553 7. Baduge S, Mendis P, San Nicolas R, Nguyen K, Hajimohammadi A (2019) Performance of lightweight hemp concrete with alkali-activated cenosphere binders exposed to elevated temperature. Construct Build Mater. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.07.069 8. Magiera A, Kuznia M, Jerzak W, Ziabka M, Lach R, Handke B (2019) Microspheres as potential fillers in composite polymeric materials. E3S Web Conf. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/201 910802009

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9. Wu Y, Wang JY, Monteiro PJM, Zhang MH (2015) Development of ultralightweight cement composites with low thermal conductivity and high specific strength for energy efficient buildings. Construct Build Mater. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.04.004 10. Wang MR, Jia DC, He PG, Zhou Y (2011) Microstructural and mechanical characterization of fly ash cenosphere/metakaolin-based geopolymeric composites. Ceram Int. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.ceramint.2011.02.010 11. Wang JY, Chia KS, Liew JYR, Zhang MH (2013) Flexural performance of fiber reinforced ultra-lightweight cement composites with low fiber content. Cement Concr Compos. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2013.06.006 12. Hanif A, Diao S, Lu Z, Fan T, Li Z (2016) Green lightweight cementitious composite incorporating aerogels and fly ash cenospheres—mechanical and thermal insulating properties. Construct Build Mater. 10.1016/ j.conbuildmat.2016.04.134 13. Huang Z, Liew JYR, Li W (2017) Evaluation of compressive behavior of ultralightweight cement composite after elevated temperature exposure. Construct Build Mater. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.04.121 14. Brooks AL, Zhou H, Hanna D (2018) Comparative study of the mechanical and thermal properties of lightweight cementitious composites. Construct Build Mater. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.conbuildmat.2017.10.102 15. Satpathy HP, Patel SK, Nayak AN (2019) Development of sustainable lightweight concrete using fly ash cenosphere and sintered fly ash aggregate. Construct Build Mater. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.01.034 16. Adesina A, Atoyebi OD (2020) Effect of crumb rubber aggregate on the performance of cementitious composites: a review. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. https://doi.org/10.1088/17551315/445/1/012032

Performance Assessment of the Perforated CFS Unlipped and Lipped Channel Section Under Compression P. Sangeetha, M. Dhinagaran, A. S. Gobinaath, R. S. Saravana Kumar, and A. D. Jeevan Raj

1 Introduction Cold-formed steel is normally used in light weight structures, storage structures, support structures, etc. The structural steel section, flat sheet, plates, etc., are formed by cold process like pressing, rolling and folding. The CFS section with web or flange perforations is normally provided to accommodate electrical wires, water pipelines and heating services. The size, shape and location of perforation affect overall behaviour of the section. The parametric study on the perforated channel sections was analyzed for FE package ABAQUS for varying dimensions and size of the perforation [1]. The buckling study on the columns with elliptical holes subjected to compression load and its failure pattern was discussed [2]. Buckling failure was done by the researchers on the perforated rack long and stub columns [3]. Discussed the overall behaviour of perforated columns made from CFS obtained by conducting test and FEA analysis [4, 5]. Kulatunga M.P and Macdonald M [6] have studied the effect of position of the perforation on the ultimate load of the column. ANN prediction of CFS Box struts [7] and perforated CFS hollow beam under flexure [8] was studied. Cold-formed steel columns with the stiffeners along the edge were discussed and stated that the ultimate load and shape of the edge G – stiffener were found influenced by web perforations [9]. Kulatunga et.al [10] have discussed the presence of circular and elliptical perforation in the CFS channel with lip. From the literature study, it was clear that significant research was performed in cold-formed steel columns, but the columns with perforation were quite less. The comparative study between the perforated column with lip and without lip was found to be minimal in the published paper. So, in this paper, author wants to compare the effect of shape of perforations on lipped and unlipped channel cross-section subjected to compression P. Sangeetha (B) · M. Dhinagaran · A. S. Gobinaath · R. S. Saravana Kumar · A. D. Jeevan Raj Department of Civil Engineering, Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Chennai, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Naganathan et al. (eds.), Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil Engineering, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 179, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5041-3_20

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Fig. 1 Specifications and coupon test specimen

load and found that shape of perforation affects the strength and failure pattern between the lipped and unlipped channel section.

2 Experimental Study 2.1 Material Property The material study was made on 2 mm thick cold-formed steel plate by conducting standard tensile coupon tests as per ASTM E8/E8M—16ae1. Three coupon specimens were subjected to tensile load under tensile testing machine. Figure 1 describes the specifications and coupon test specimens. Figure 2a and b shows the progress of testing and stress–strain curve for the cold-formed steel. From Fig. 2b, the yield stress and young’s modulus of materials were found as 297 N/mm2 and 1.9 × 105 N/mm2 , respectively.

2.2 Specimen Details The cold-rolled steel flat plate of thickness 2 mm was utilized to fabricate channel section of dimension 100 × 60 mm along with lip section of 15 mm as per IS 801. The column length was limited to 750 mm. The ends of the columns were welded with steel plate of thickness 3 mm to provide pin ended condition. The channel sections were made with the holes of shapes like circular, diamond and

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267

Fig. 2 Test set-up and stress–strain

elliptical, both at mid-height and one-third height of the specimen. Figure 3 shows the detail specification of column specimens and its perforations. Table 1 describes the specimen identification of all column specimens and its dimensions. From the

Fig. 3 Specifications of the perforated column specimens

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Table 1 Cold-formed steel column description Sl.no

Specimen ID

No. of perforation

Details of perforation Shape

b/d ratio

Length (mm)

Channel dimension (mm)

Lip dimension (mm)

1

NP-0P

0

–

–

750

100 × 60 ×2

–

2

NP-1CP

1

Circular

1.0

749

100 × 60 ×2

–

3

NP-2CP

2

Circular

1.0

751

100 × 60 ×2

–

4

NP-1DP

1

Diamond

1.0

750

100 × 60 ×2

–

5

NP-2DP

2

Diamond

1.0

749

100 × 60 ×2

–

6

NP-1EP

1

Elliptical

0.4

758

100 × 60 ×2

–

7

NP-2EP

2

Elliptical

0.4

751

100 × 60 ×2

–

8

WP-0P

0

–

–

752

100 × 60 ×2

15

9

WP-1CP

1

Circular

1.0

750

100 × 60 ×2

15

10

WP-2CP

2

Circular

1.0

750

100 × 60 ×2

15

11

WP-1DP

1

Diamond

1.0

751

100 × 60 ×2

15

12

WP-2DP

2

Diamond

1.0

752

100 × 60 ×2

15

13

WP-1EP

1

Elliptical

0.4

749

100 × 60 ×2

15

14

WP-2EP

2

Elliptical

0.4

748

100 × 60 ×2

15

table 1, it is noted that NL—no lip, WL—with lip, CP—circular perforation, DP— diamond perforation and EP—elliptical perforation. The numbers 0, 1 and 2 refer to number of perforations (Fig. 4).

2.3 Test Procedure The column specimens were loaded axially at the uniform rate of 5kN/min with the help of hydraulically operated universal testing machine of capacity 600 kN (Fig. 5).

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269

Fig. 4 Perforated column specimens before testing

Fig. 5 Test set-up

3 Analytical Study 3.1 FEM Modelling, Loading and Boundary Condition All the column specimens were modelled in ANSYS using SOLID 185 element from ANSYS library. The material properties obtained from test results were given as input for the software. Figure 6 shows the mesh model of all perforated column

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Fig. 6 Mesh model of the perforated column specimens

specimen. Nonlinear analysis was performed to study the behaviour of the lipped and unlipped channel section with perforations. The load was applied through the top plate as similar as the point in which the load is applied in the experiment. The top and bottom plate was got restrained for 3DOF and 2DOF, respectively.

4 Result and Discussion 4.1 Effect of Perforation on Column Strength The ultimate load recorded for CFS channel section without perforation was 55 kN, and it was nearly same strength for columns with elliptical perforations (one and

Performance Assessment of the Perforated CFS Unlipped and Lipped …

100

50

Maximum Load (kN)

Maximum Load (kN)

60 NL-0P

40

NL1CP NL2CP NL1DP

30 20 10 0

271

0

1 2 Axial Deformation(mm) (a)

3

80 WL-0P WL-1CP WL-2CP WL-1DP WL-2DP WL-1EP WL-2EP

60 40 20 0

0

2 4 Axial Deformation (mm) (b)

Fig. 7 Load-axial deformation curve of the perforated columns

two) of 54 kN. The Fig. 7a, b shows the load versus axial deformation curve of the unlipped and lipped channel sections. From the curve, it was seen that the strength got reduced by 10% for the channel sections with circular and diamond perforation. Figure 7a describes that the load-deformation behaviour of NL-1EP and NL-2EP was stiffener than channel section with other perforations. The load observed by WL-1CP and WL-2CP was nearly same as compared to specimen WL-0P of 82 kN. The strength reduction was only 5% for elliptical and diamond perforated lipped channel section. The lipped channel section having a lip dimension of minimum 15 mm was more effective in the overall performance of the column.

4.2 Effect of Lip on the Load-Strain Behaviour Figure 8 gives the load versus microstrain study of the perforated columns with or with lip section. From the Fig. 8, it was observed that lipped channel section able to resist the axial deformation. The maximum strain recorded is 0.0009 and 0.0033 for unlipped and lipped channel section, respectively. Perfect load-strain behaviour was able to obtain for all lipped channel specimen with more area under the load-strain curve. The energy absorption capacity was calculated by computing the area under the load-strain curve. The energy absorption capacity of the lipped channel section was three times more than that of unlipped channel perforated section. Figure 9a, b shows comparison between the load-strain curves of unlipped and lipped channel section, respectively. The non-uniformity in load-strain behaviour of the unlipped channel section is found in Fig. 9a, whereas the ductile behaviour was observed for all the perforated columns with lipped channel section as shown in Fig. 9b.

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100

Maximum Load (kN)

80 WL-0P NL-0P

60 40 20 0

0

80 WL2CP

60 40 20 0

1000 2000 Microstrain

Maximum Load (kN)

40 20 0

0

1000 2000 Microstrain

3000

80 WL-1DP NP-1DP

60 40 20 0

3000

0

100

100

500 1000 Microstrain

1500

80

80 WL-2DP NL-2DP

60 40

WL-1EP NL-1EP

60 40 20

20 0

WL-1CP NL-1CP

60

100

Maximum Load (kN)

Maximum Load (kN)

100

0

80

1000 2000 3000 4000 Microstrain

Maximum Load (kN)

Maximum Load (kN)

100

0

500

1000 1500 Microstrain

2000

0

0

500 1000 Microstrain

Maximum Load (kN)

100 80 60 40

WL2EP

20 0

0

500 1000 Microstrain

1500

Fig. 8 Load-strain plot between perforated lipped and unlipped channel section

1500

50

NL-0P NL-1CP NL-2CP NL-1DP NL-2DP NL-1EP NL-2EP

40 30 20 10 0

273

100

60

0

Maximum Load (kN)

Maximum Load (kN)

Performance Assessment of the Perforated CFS Unlipped and Lipped …

250 500 750 1000 1250 Microstrain (a)

80

WL-0P WL-1CP WL-2CP WL-1DP WL-2DP WL-1EP WL-2EP

60 40 20 0

0

1000 2000 3000 Microstrain (b)

4000

Fig. 9 Load-strain curve of the perforated columns

4.3 Failure Mode The failure modes of perforated columns for lipped and unlipped channel were different. The mode of failure of all perforated columns is shown in Fig. 10a, b, respectively. The unlipped channel section shown in Fig. 10a fails mainly by inward buckling at the location of perforation for all shape of the perforation except elliptical perforation. The unlipped channel with elliptical perforation failed mainly by local outward buckling, and this may be due to the b/d ratio of 0.4 for the ellipital shape, whereas the b/d ratio of the circular and diamond shape is 1.0. From Fig. 10b, it was clear that the perforated lipped columns fail only by outward buckling at the place of the perforation. The perforated columns deformed along the edges of the perforation. The deformed shape obtained from analytical model is shown in Figs. 11 and 12. The red colour failure pattern in the deformed shape of the specimens is similar to the failure pattern of experimental model.

(a) Fig. 10 Deformed shape of the unlipped perforated columns

(b)

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Fig. 11 Deformed shape of the unlipped perforated columns

Fig. 12 Deformed shape of the lipped perforated columns

Table 2 gives the comparison between the test and FEA results. The Table 2 also gives the mean, standard deviation and coefficient of variance for the axial deformation (ANSYS )/ (EXP ) are 0.977, 0.054 and 5.524, respectively. From this correlation, it was clear that developed ANSYS model accurately founds axial deformation of lipped and unlipped channel with different shapes of perforation against  EXP . Figure 13 shows the bar chart comparison between maximum strength of perforated columns. The maximum load resisted by the lipped channel section was increased by 33% as compared to unlipped channel section.

Performance Assessment of the Perforated CFS Unlipped and Lipped …

275

Table 2 Test and FEA results Sl.no

Specimen ID

ε EXP [Microstrain]

P EXP [kN]

 EXP [mm]

 ANSYS [mm]

 ANSYS /  EXP

1

NP-0P

55

650

1.90

1.970

1.037

2

NP-1CP

52

611

2.06

1.940

0.942

3

NP-2CP

53

868

1.52

1.359

0.894

4

NP-1DP

52

640

1.42

1.302

0.917

5

NP-2DP

50

831

1.80

1.780

0.989

6

NP-1EP

54

858

0.84

0.810

0.964

7

NP-2EP

54

1142

0.89

0.887

0.997

8

WP-0P

82

3328

2.50

2.780

1.112

9

WP-1CP

78

1976

2.17

2.006

0.924

10

WP-2CP

80

1316

3.02

2.950

0.977

11

WP-1DP

81

1071

1.85

1.843

0.996

12

WP-2DP

79

1600

1.75

1.679

0.959

13

WP-1EP

78

1012

1.78

1.750

0.983

14

WP-2EP

78

1177

2.15

2.130

0.991 0.977

Standard deviation

0.054

Coefficient of variance

5.524

Fig. 13 Bar chart comparison between perforated column capacity

Ultimate load[kN]

Mean

Column without lip

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0P

1CP

Column with lip

2CP 1DP 2DP Specimen ID

1EP

2EP

5 Conclusion The CFS channel section with perforation under axial compression was studied for varying parameters like shape and number of perforations. Perforated columns were also analyzed using FEA package ANSYS 20.0. From the test and analytical study of the perforated columns under compression for pin ended conditions, the following conclusions were arrived.

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• The column strength of the CFS lipped channel section was 33.43% more than CFS unlipped channel section. The strength enhancement of lipped channel section is 1/3 of the strength of the unlipped channel section. • The perforation in the web sections was act as energy dissipator against overall buckling of the perforated column. • The elliptical perforation was more effective in resisting the load and overall behaviour of columns when compared to other perforations like circular and diamond. • All the unlipped columns fail by inward buckling except for the elliptical perforation. The elliptical perforated unlipped columns fail mainly by local outward buckling, and this may be because of b/d ratio of 0.4 for the ellipital shape, whereas the b/d ratio of the circular and diamond shape is 1.0. The perforated lipped columns fail only by outward buckling at the location of the perforation irrespective of the shape of perforation. • The unlipped channel section fails mostly by overall distortional buckling that was reduced by providing the lip of 15–20 mm in the channel section. • The perforated CFS columns were analysed using ANSYS and able to achieve good correlation between the test and FEA results. The mean, standard deviation and coefficient of variance for the axial shortening of the perforated columns (ANSYS )/ (EXP ) are 0.977, 0.054 and 5.524, respectively.

References 1. Yao Z, Rasmussen KJR (2017) Perforated cold- formed steel members in compression. I: parametric studies. J Struct Eng 134(5):1–15 2. Moen CD, Schafer BW (2008) Experiments on cold-formed steel columns with holes. ThinWalled Struct 46:1164–1182 3. Casafont M, Pastor MM, Roure F, Pekoz T (2011) An experimental investigation of distortional buckling of steel storage rack columns. Thin-Walled Struct 49:933–946 4. Crisan A, Ungureanu V, Dubina D (2012) Behaviour of cold formed steel perforated sections in compression part 1—experimental investigations. Thin-Walled Struct 61:86–96 5. Crisan A, Ungureanu V, Dubina D (2012) Behaviour of cold-formed steel perforated sections in compression part 2—numerical investigations and design considerations. Thin-Walled Struct 61:97–105 6. Kulatunga MP, Macdonald M (2013) Investigation of cold-formed steel structural members with perforations of different arrangements subjected to compression loading. Thin-Walled Struct 67:78–87 7. Kulatunga MP, Macdonald M, Rhodes J, Harrison DK (2014) Load capacity of cold-formed column members of lipped channel cross-section with perforations subjected to compression loading-part I: FE simulation and test results. Thin-Walled Struct 80:1–12 8. Sangeetha P, Shanmugapriya M, Jagadeesh A, Deveshwar K (2021) Numerical and experimental evaluation on the behaviour of cold-formed steel box struts and prediction of experimental results using artificial neural networks. Lect Notes Civil Eng 79:349–357 9. Sangeetha P, Revathi SM, Sudhakar V, Swarnavarshini, Sweatha S (2021) Behaviour of cold-formed steel hollow beam with perforation under flexural loading. Mater Today: Proc 38(5):3103–3109

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10. Xiang Yi, Xuhong Zhou Yu, Shi LX, Yunpeng Xu (2020) Experimental investigation and finite element analysis of cold-formed steel channel columns with complex edge stiffeners. Thin-Walled Struct 152:1–10

Retrofitting of Exterior Beam-Column Joint—A Review T. Pauline, G. Janardhanan, P. Sangeetha, and V. Ashok

1 Introduction The framed reinforced cement (RCC) concrete structure plays a vital role in modern developments after 1970s. In the framed RCC structures, columns, beams meeting intersections are common and are termed as beam to column joints. In that, the beam to column joints are very crucially critical elements/points where intersection between beams to column are in three directions [1]. The RCC frames that are resisting the moments have three forms of connections namely interior joints, exterior joints and corner joints and it was shown in Fig. 1 [2]. These moment resisting frames beam-column joints are most essential component in load transferring mechanism, and they have to be properly detailed and designed [3] If in case, there is any discrepancies in design, detailing or if structure gets deteriorated, so as to reuse those olden structure, the structures has to satisfy the modern techniques, and this will be done by the process of retrofitting [3–5]. Intense and brief reviews of various researches were studied and analysed pertaining to the essential beam to column joints from various journal papers. Several researchers have studied and analysed behaviour and structural performance of the T. Pauline Jeppiaar Engineering College, Anna University, Chennai, India G. Janardhanan Head Centre for Environment Management and Center for Internal Affairs, NITTTR, Chennai, India P. Sangeetha (B) Department of Civil Engineering, Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Chennai, India e-mail: [email protected] V. Ashok Department of Mechanical Engineering, Prince Shri Venkateshwara Padmavathy Engineering College, Ponmar, Chennai, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Naganathan et al. (eds.), Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil Engineering, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 179, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5041-3_21

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Interior Joint

Exterior Joint

Roof - Interior Joint

Roof - Exterior Joint

Corner Joint

Roof - Corner Joint

Fig. 1 Types of beam column joint connections [1]

RCC-beam to columns structural joints in the buildings that are resisting moments subjected by earthquake/seismic loadings. Studies have proven that, in the load bearing members which are structurally damaged [6], structural inadequate [7] or deteriorated structures [8] can now be strengthened and upgraded by the modern techniques of retrofitting [9] or strengthening. It was confirmed with many modern practical applications across the world that the fresh technique of retrofitting the structure are sounding technical and practically more efficient [1, 10, 11]. Detail reviews of various literatures were studied to analyse and understand the structural performance of the several joints of beams, columns and beam to column with emerging and new retrofitting techniques and methods.

2 Literature Studies and Reviews The literatures relevant for the existing research have been reviewed and presented in the following sequence. 1.

Study on RC beam-columns structural joint • Characteristics in strength of beam-columns structural joints. • Performance of beam-columns structural joints • Seismic characteristics, beam-columns structural joints detailing

2.

Retrofitting strategies in the beam-columns structural joints • Polymers retrofitting—FRP, HFRC, GFRP, CFRP • Retrofitting using Steel Angles/Steel Jacketing/Haunch Elements/Bracings • Ferrocement

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2.1 Studies on the Reinforced Cement (RCC) Concrete the Beam to Column Joint 2.1.1

Characteristics in Strength of Beam-Columns Structural Joints

Columns have to be properly designed, detailed and constructed so that columns perform well during strong earthquakes [5]. An accurately designed and detailed confining transverse reinforcement prevents buckling of longitudinal reinforcing bars, avoid shear failure and provide satisfactory ductility. An equation was proposed, which takes in to account all the parameters and found in correlating with the existing structures by adopting that equation, sufficient deformations and ductility could be ensured [5]. Due to interaction in shear cracking and concentration in stress, particular brittle failure mechanism called concrete wedge was observed [12]. When considering the complete seismic performance/behaviour of RC framed structure, flexural damage was significant whereas in soft storey, it occurred at early stages [7].

2.1.2

Performance of Beam-Column Joint

The lateral drift or lateral displacement in the RCC column when exposed to axial failure was fully dependent on and directly proportional to spacing provide in the reinforcement in the transverse direction and the axial stresses that are being developed with in the columns [10]. The lateral drift qualified by columns at axial disaster of column was inversely proportional to and fully dependent upon the amount of axial load subjected on the columns. Secondary moments caused because of drift directly influences, performance of columns under seismic loads [10, 13]. The various experimental studies revealed that anchoring the beam reinforcements into column reinforcement was very much essential to develop the hysteresis response in frames [2]. It was governed that the sequence in which member capacities will be attained, nature in failure modes, and the overall energy dissipation potential in the systems. It was stated that the diagonal compression strut will carry a shear force at joint core, only when horizontal shear stress would be limited to a value less than characteristic compressive strength in concrete core when it is extensively cracked under load reversals and it was shown in Fig. 2 [2]. The work emphasizes need for larger joint sizes and extra shear reinforcement at joints. The researchers concluded that competitive alternative for closed ties in joint regions were to provide hairpin type reinforcement [14].

2.1.3

Seismic Characteristic and Detailing of Beam to Column Joint

The reinforcement provided in joint region namely SH—square hoop, SS—square spiral, CH—circular hoop, CS—circular spiral, SD—substandard detail without

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(a) Gravity Load at joint

(b) Seismic Loading at Joint

Fig. 2 Forces at the joints

any hoop were analysed for stiffness of member, ductility, load displacement relations, load ratio and cracking sequence patterns. It was finally concluded that specimens with SS confinement in joint region showed high strength, spindle-shaped hysteresis loop with a very huge energy dissipation capacities, higher stiffness and the highest cumulative energy dissipations [15, 16]. The characteristic compressive grade strength in concrete was major factor in governing shear capacity at joints. It was experimented and verified that joint shear capacity increases by simultaneously increasing number of stirrups at joints [17].

2.2 Retrofitting Strategies of Beam to Column Joint 2.2.1

Polymer Retrofitting

Wrapping Wrapping will be an alternative and rapid method which could be speedily applied without any disruption in occupancy. The corner of the RCC joints was wrapped with FRP sheets. A small base course was applied over which epoxy-based repair or anchorage mortar was applied to get smooth finish. The flange and web were bonded with FRP retrofitting provisions for exterior reinforced concrete joints of frame resisting moments. The overlay length was essential for number of layers for transfer of plastic-hinge and strength of joints. Rearrangement of plastic-hinge away from faces of column into the portion of beam was possible by providing FRP-laminate-plies with sufficient overlays in length. It was established out that the length of FRP laminates above the beam flanges would increase strength of joints. Nevertheless, it was concluded that to relocate plastic hinge, large number of plies of FRP Laminates were required [18, 19]. When there was deficiency in ductile detailing design of RCC joints of beam and column, there was a greater degree of damage in non-linear rotations. The

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Wrapping method of Retrofing [8]

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Anchorage method of Retrofing [21]

Fig. 3 Polymer retrofitting

damaged joints in beam and in column when retrofitting techniques were adopted had a greater flexibility in strengthening their performance. Retrofitting materials restrictions and initial damage extent in joints directly affects behaviour and performance in the retrofit [20]. Ultra-high-performance-hybrid-fibre-reinforced concrete (UHP– HFRC) was used as retrofitting material to estimate their effectiveness in retrofitting. Experimental test investigations indicated that UHP–HFRC strengthening will rises load carrying capacity, ductility, energy dissipations and of strengthened joints above the unstrengthen joints [20].

Anchorage When the joints are damaged causing severs degradation, then anchorage method of strengthening would be adopted. Structural behaviour in RC beam-column structural joints retrofitted with various types of FRP2014composite laminates and hybrid structural connectors. The interior parts of beams to column joints were exposed to both cyclic reversal loading and simulated type of gravity loadings. Retrofitting were designed based on high carbon strength and composites of epoxy laminates, high modulus carbon and epoxy laminates and epoxy/e-glass external laminates. Newly developed connectors were introduced and evaluated through a very large-scale test so as to avoid the bong slipping while process of retrofitting the lightweight hybrid composite. The optical seismic performance method for strengthening RCC beam-column structural joints, wherein the specimens were subjected to reverse cyclic loading further down with constant axial loading to stimulate earthquake consequence and in finding out, monitor the deflections [9]. The beam-column structural joints were retrofitted with FRP—fibre-reinforced-polymer and combination of carbon, glass fibres and hybrid FRP fabrics and techniques were shown in Fig. 3. Initially, loading was given after damage specimens were retrofitted with FRP’s. Arami’s digital video cameras were used in monitoring the various strains and cracking. The ductility, strength and energy dissipation capacities were obtained in regard to various strengthening alignments. It was studied that while using hybrid sheets of glass–carbon, the ductility and dissipation energy were improved greatly at the RC beams to column

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joints [9]. The strengthened joints not regained only their unique strength and stiffness, but those specimens also overcame the deficiencies in the non-ductile detailing [21]. Hence, it was established that appropriate repair ad retrofitting technique; this methodology could be adopted for improving and strengthening the damaged regions of RCC structures.

Near Surface Mounted (NSM) A new innovated technique to retrofit the RCC exterior T-beams to column joint with help of segmental circular concrete covers and adding on with CFRP—carbon-fibrereinforced-polymer. The modification of concrete cover over concrete to become a circular section activated the CFRP efficiency performance. Retrofitting, repair leads to escalation of confinement effects on concrete that reduces the opportunity of debonding of CFRP at joints [14]. Strengthening RCC structures with FRP and the achievements of the retrofitting and strengthening involvement largely depends on a bond between FRP sheets and concrete surfaces. FRP sheets were anchored to develop high strength for short span [22]. To study seismic strength and performance/behaviour of RC exterior beams to column joints with addition of applying implanted CFRP—carbon-fibre-reinforced-polymer bars mutually with sheets of CFRP and bars of CFRP having a flat typed hexagonal cross sections [11]. It is an established and a newly framed strengthening methodology of applying the embedded hexagonal CFRP bars united with outwardly bonded sheets of CFRP [11]. When the web-bonded FRP strengthening technique is adopted for strengthening the insufficient detailed joints and would be adopted when joints were damaged such that it yields severe deprivation of the joint’s structural strength. The specimen can be restored or even has possibilities of upgrading its strength at joint when RCC structural systems are strengthened with FRP, proving the method is effective [23]. The basic principles of equilibrium and compatibility analytical models were obtained which helps to simplify analysis and method of designing an efficient way of strengthening, wherein wide varieties of design graphs were obtained in order to choose type and capacity of FRP that will be required to upgrade the existing structural joint to a very specific moment capability and curvature ductility based on structural models [23].

Externally-Bonded The seismically deficient joints performance was improved significantly when the CFRP strips were near to surface mounted as shown in Fig. 4. It was also analysed that plastic hinges formations were effectively relocated far away from structural joint region. This proves that the failure will be a ductile mode of failure which thereby validates the effective seismic retrofitting methods effectiveness [7].

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Externally Bonded [15]

NSM [8]

Fig. 4 Retrofitting joints

2.2.2

Retrofitting with Steel Angles/Steel Jacketing/Haunch Elements/Bracings

Retrofitting joints and connections without considering seismic connections needed much care and attention because of a very weak bond occurring between steel and RC concrete. The steel angles were assembled on interface of beams to column joints and they were externally fixed by prestressing cross ties as shown in Fig. 5 [8]. Various specimens are tested for cyclic loadings with variation in angle dimensions, number of angles and rate of prestressing enhancement in the retrofitted joints so that the joints will be protected from large deformations, ductility response performance was more and greater hysteresis with higher energy capacities. Hence, it had been concluded that joints which had smaller angles, minimum cross ties numbers, retrofit level minimum and prestressing rate low and without stiffeners have succeeded well [8]. Retrofitted failed specimen was which included steel jacketing and retrofitting using

Steel Plates [11] Fig. 5 Retrofitting by jacketing joints

Steel Angles and Ties[11]

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haunch elements, performance was examined for various considerations like relationships for load drift, failure and damages, dissipation energies, ductility, and profiles of strain for longitudinal reinforcements [4]. There were enhancements in seismic capacities of RC joints in factors, for example, deformation capacities, strength and energy dissipation capacities, but the deformations because of shear at the panels zone was significantly reduced [6].

2.2.3

Ferrocement Retrofitting

Retrofitted with ferrocement mesh layers helps the retrofitting techniques in strengthening of beams to column joint so as to find out shear deficiency [24]. The specimens that were strengthened/retrofitted with ferrocement mesh layers proved with greater ultimate strength capacity, high ultimate displacement former to failure showing better ductility and these specimens not exposed to have heavy damage when compared with specimens with traditional reinforcements. Performance of strengthened/retrofitted specimens gets improved compared to traditionally reinforced specimens when retrofitted with increased number of ferrocement layers improving ultimate displacement and ultimate capacity [3]. When the orientation of the ferrocement layers expanded, mesh wires angle was 60° showed a better behaviour than 45° angle orientations. When the specimens were retrofitted/strengthened using steel angles in adding to ferrocement layers seismic behaviour/performance of specimens improved [24]. The specimens also showed a good stability when stiffness was degrading, attained higher capacities in dissipated energy and joints vulnerability was reduced pertaining to less damage. It was finalised that if joints of beams to column are retrofitted with two layers of ferrocement with addition of steel angles as a stiffener and orientation of expanded ferrocement, mesh is kept at 60° best effective retrofit will be obtained [24]. Best methods in strengthening shear deficient joints in RC members are to confine the members with composite elements. The displacements vs. load, hysteretic curve was drawn and the stiffness, ultimate load carrying capacities and energy dissipation were analysed [25] (Table 1).

3 Conclusion Various recent earthquakes have indicated importance in restoring structure that is seismic-deficient. The beams to column structural joint designed are generally hinged, and these joints are generally braced for withstanding lateral loads. The paper dealt with a detailed overview studies on the various methods of retrofitting, strengthening and repairing methods for RCC beams to column joints which were generally exposed for cyclic loading and reversed cyclic loading. Sustainability in the RCC structures by means of safeguarding their enhancement and their existing capacities without need for demolition and rebuilding can be contributed by

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Table 1 Comparison of retrofitting techniques Sl. No

Method in retrofitting

Demerits of retrofitting Merits of retrofitting

1

Polymers

• The material cost is high • Efficiency of material is only 30–35% because of deboning nature • Less thermal efficiency when exposed to higher temperature and moist environment • Strength and stability are relatively low • Bonding cost of chemicals is high

• Installation is simpler • Resistance to corrosion • Does not affect aesthetic of any buildings and no modification of dimension of load carrying members • Durability is high • Increase in energy absorption capacity • Ductility also high

2

Steel plates/haunches/jacketing/bracings

• Corrosion is more • Changes in stiffness of members depend on sectional properties of various sizes used • Self-weight high

• More ductile and easy available material • Increase in both ductility and strength could be achieved • Expensive and required skilled labour

3

Ferrocement

• Cover cracking due to brittle nature of cement paste • Interruption in occupancy • Changes in stiffness of member due to change in cross sectional size

• Easily available material • Retrofitted to any shape • Increase in both ductility and strength • Reduction in crack width • Low technology and light weight

various methods from reviewed techniques of retrofitting and strengthening. It was studied that • The exterior, interior beam-column joints were studied, and these joints are weak in seismic loading carrying capacities, having very little ductility and very limited resistance towards cracking. Addition of steel fibres in beams to column joints leads to reduction in cracking, degradation of stiffness, and thereby increasing energy absorption capacities. • The polymers had higher strength but lower strain. When strength of specimens is increased with retrofitting with polymers, ductility gets decreased. When number of layers of polymers are used greater increase in ductility is achieved,

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•

•

•

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but increasing the number of layers is not proportional to increase in strength. But cost, anchoring and retrofit layouts are demerits when using polymers. Orientations of the retrofitting material are important. Orienting the retrofit layers in the angle of the principal stress shows more effectiveness than vertical or horizontal placement of retrofits. Lateral load carrying capacities increases with sheets types of retrofit than strips. Bonding failure is brittle failure that leads to hasty loss of the retrofitting mechanism. Sufficient development length and the reduced level of design straining are necessary to prevent such failures. If the retrofit layers are not given sufficient anchorage, the retrofit mechanism is ineffective. Hence, percentage of anchorage and method of anchorage the retrofit are more important. Various studies conclude that anchorages using metallic anchors are more efficient. Anchors enhance the effective strains. Retrofits are affected by axial-load applications. When axial loads that are applied are higher strength and ductility of retrofit are enhanced. Tested specimens studied were exposed to axial load of 10–20% of axial load of column. Only very few literatures were the studies where no axial loads were applied. Retrofits highlighted proper assessment is required for practical engineering aspects of the retrofits. Many studies ignored the practical challenges that are involved in retrofit’s applications. Studies are not made according to labour knowledge, efficiencies, reduced invention time and of reduction in invasiveness. A retrofitted specimen that actually and accurately resembles the actual real-time structure is very much important which will not be directly dealt. Plastic hinge relocation is another application of retrofitting, thereby increasing seismic performance of structures. Various studies showed that retrofitting/strengthening of beams at proximity of joints allows the relocation of the plastic-hinge and damage formations away from RCC joints. This method of strengthening and protecting joint forms yield penetration and improves further dissipating behaviour/performance of joints.

References 1. Uma SR, Prasad AM (2006) Seismic behaviour of beam column joints in reinforced concrete moment resisting frames—a review. EQTIP 31 2. Murty CVR, Durgesh CR, Bhajpai KK, Jain SK (2001) Anchorage details and joints design in seismic RCC frames. Indian Concr J 75(4):274–280 3. Ravichandran K, Jeyasehar CA (2012) Seismic retrofitting of exterior beam column joint using ferrocement. Civ Struct Eng 4(2):35–58 4. Ruiz–Pinila JG, Pallares FJ, Gimenez E, Calderon PA (2014) Experimental tests on retrofitted RC beam-column joints under designed to seismic loads. Eng Struct 59:702–714. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2013.11.008 5. Subramanian N (2011) Design of the confinement reinforcement for the RCC column. Indian Concr J 25:1–9

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6. Dang C-T, Dinh N-H (2017) Experimental study on structural performance of RC beam column joints retrofitted by steel jacketing and haunch element under cyclic loading simulating earthquake excitation. Adv Civ Eng 2017:11, 9263460. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/ 9263460 7. Wang G-L, Dai J-G, Bai Y-L (2019) Seismic retrofit of exterior RC beam-column joints with bended CFRP reinforcement: an experimental study. Compos Struct 224:111–118 8. Adibi M, Mohammadd S, Marefat AE, Arani KK, Esmaeily A (2017) Seismic retrofit of external concrete beam-column joints reinforced by plain gars using steel angles prestressed by cross ties. Eng Struct 148:813–828 9. Attari N, Amzine S, Youcef YS (2019) Seismic performance of reinforced concrete beamcolumn joint strengthening by FRP sheets. Inst Struct Eng 20:353–364 10. Elmasry MIS, Abdelkader AM, Elkordy EA (2018) An Analytical study of improving beamcolumn joints behavior under earthquakes. In: Rodrigues H, Elnashai A, Calvi G (eds) Facing the challenges in structural engineering. GeoMEast 2017. Sustainable civil infrastructures. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-61914-9_37 11. Ha G-J, Cho C-G, Kang H-W, Feo L (2013) Seismic improvement of RC beam-column joints using hexagonal CFRP bars combine with CFRP sheets. Compos Struct 95:111–118 12. Pampanian S, Calvi GM, Moratti M (2002) The seismic behaviour of RCC beam-column joints designed for gravity only. In: Proceeding of 12th European conference on earthquake engineering, Reference 726 13. Elwood KJ, Moehle JP (2003) Shake table test and analytical studies on the gravity load collapse of RCC frames proceedings of PEER Report-2003/01. University of California, Berkeley, Pacific Earthquake Engineering Center 14. Hadi MNS, Tran TM (2014) Retrofitting non seismically detailed exterior beam-column joints using concrete covers together with CFRP jacket. Constr Build Mater 63:161–173 15. Asha P, Sundararajan R (2001) Evaluation of seismic resistance of exterior beam column joints with detailing as per IS13920:1993. Indian Concr J 33(1):29–34 16. Mosallam A, Allam K, Salama A (2006) Analytical and numerical modelling of RC beamcolumn joints retrofitted with FRP laminates and hybrid composite connectors. Compos Struct 214:486–503 17. Alva GMS, El Debs ALHC, El Debs MK (2007) An experimental study on cyclic behaviour of reinforced concrete connections. Can J Civ Eng 34:565–575 18. Ha G-L, Cho C-G, Kang H-H, Feo L (2013) Seismic improvement of RC beam-column joints using hexagonal CFRP bars combined with CFRP sheets. Compos Struct 95:464–470 19. Mahumoud R, Maheri AT (2019) Retrofitting of external RCC beam-column joints of an ordinary MRF through plastic hinge relocating using FRP Laminates. Inst Struct Eng 22:65–75 20. Sharma R, Bansal pp (2019) Behavior of RC exterior beam column joint retrofitted using UHP–HFRC. Constr Build Mater 195:376–389 21. Sasmal S, Ramanjaneyulu K, Novak B, Srinivas V, Saravana Kumar K, Korkowski C, Roehm C, Lakshman N, Nagesh RI (2011) Seismic retrofitting of non-ductile beam-column sub assemblage using FRP wrapping and steel plate jacketing. Constr Build Mater 25:175–182 22. Brena SF, McGuirk GN (2018) Advances on the behaviour characterization of FPR-anchored carbon fiber-reinforced polymer(CFRP) sheets used to strengthen concrete elements. Int J Concr Struct Mater 7(1):3–16 23. Seyed S, Mahini H, Ronagh R (2009) Strength and ductility of FRP web-bonded RC beam for the assessment of retrofitted beam-column joints. Compos Struct 92:1325–1332 24. Ibrabim G, Shaaban O, Seoud A (2018) Experimental behaviour of full-scale exterior beamcolumn space joints retrofitted by ferrocement layers under cyclic loading. Case Stud Constr Mater 8:61–78 25. Venkatesan B, Illagovan R (2016) Structural behaviour of beam-column joint retrofitted with ferrocement laminates. Int J Adv Eng Technol 7(2):1272–1280

Space Frame Structure as Roof and Floor System—A Review S. N. Vinothni and P. Sangeetha

1 Introduction In architecture and engineering, a space frame is a lightweight structure constructed from connecting struts in a geometric pattern with inherent rigidity of the triangle to cover large span with few interior supports. It can be understood that the use of space truss systems is lately emerging not only in construction but also in various other industries, due to aesthetic appearance, lightweight and ease in large span construction. Further study in this field is an integral part of building the critical knowledge, and it is the most reliable way to know the complexities in this novel and recent development which has the potential to revolutionize the construction and other industries. Space trusses were able to resist the unsymmetrical and concentrated loading. The depth of the space frame is more, and the space between the chords was effectively utilized for various service like lightning, air conditioning and water lines, etc. The space truss is an assembly of steel tubular members connected to the Mero node connector using hexagonal sleeve and dowel pin. The components of the space truss structures are shown in Fig. 1 [1–3]. The only disadvantage of the space truss structures is the sudden collapse of the compression chord member that can be avoided by provide concrete slab of smaller thickness. The concrete slab takes the compression and protects the top member from failure. But achieving the composite action between the steel space truss and concrete deck is the challenging task that can be obtained by providing proper shear connectors along with profile decking sheet. This study is a literature review on space frame systems and discusses application of 3D truss as roof and floor system. S. N. Vinothni · P. Sangeetha (B) Department of Civil Engineering, Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Chennai, India e-mail: [email protected] S. N. Vinothni e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Naganathan et al. (eds.), Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil Engineering, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 179, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5041-3_22

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Fig. 1 Space truss components

2 Space Frame as Roof System The commonly used space truss structures for roofing are double-layer configuration type and barrel vault type. The 3D truss structures may be used to provide curved and flat surface for aesthetic appearance. The various configurations of double-layer space frames [4] are square on square offset (SOS), square on large square (SOLS), square on diagonal (SOD) and diagonal on square (DOS) [5] and are presented in Fig. 2. Barrel vault shown in Fig. 3 is the oldest form of space truss used to cover a large span with the additional support based on the span (L) and radius of curvature (R) [6]. The example for space truss as roof system is illustrated in Fig. 4.

Fig. 2 Configuration of the double-layer truss

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Fig. 3 Barrel type frame

Fig. 4 Space truss roof structure

3 Space Frame as Floor system Composite action between 3D truss and concrete deck was produced by techniques like providing continuous chord, shear connectors, ferrocement slab, decking sheet and steel flat plate. The various techniques used to achieve composite behaviour are shown in Fig. 5.The space truss floor structure is shown in Fig. 6. The achievement of composite action in the 3D truss is by using pre-cast concrete blocks resting on the inclined members [7]. The corrugated deck sheet with stud connector is over all Mero node and also placing more connectors at equal internal in the decking sheet to achieve composite action [8]. A new technique was discussed to achieve composite action by providing continuous top chord member get connected through the tubular

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Fig. 5 Composite action achievement in floor system of 3D truss

diagonal member with the bolt [9]. Ferrocement slab of thickness of 25 mm was casted on the steel plate which was welded on the top layer of the space truss [10]. The steel flat of 3 mm was placed above the space truss grid with the help of purlin stool at the places of joints and composite action between the 3D truss, and concrete deck was obtained by welding headed shear connectors on the flat plate [11]. The

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Fig. 6 Space truss floor structure

composite mechanism between 3D truss and concrete slab was obtained by placing headed stud connectors at every Mero node along with steel flat plate running along the length and breadth of the tubular section [12]. This is the technique of removing of all upper compression members and welding the additional plates to the top of all joints [13].

4 Result and Discussion 4.1 Experimental Study The yield load [14] behaviour of 3D truss with concrete slab was reported. The study stated that double-layer grid can be utilized as floor slab in the multistorey building and composite behaviour between the steel and concrete was achieved with the proposed shear connectors. The 3D truss of 3 m × 2 m with 0.05 m floor slab was tested within the yield limit and presented that the uniform behaviour was obtained both in loading and unloading of double-layer truss. It was presented that full composite behaviour was obtained in the ultimate loading condition [12] and also clear yield line crack pattern was observed on the slab. The reason for the failure of 40 m × 25 m space truss in Turkey was studied [15]. The factors which affect the design of double-layer space grids like support condition, grid module, grid depth and grid layout were discussed [16]. Implementation of new framed structure [17], space frame under direct loading [18], stability and durability study [19], efficient design using performance control [20] of the double-layer grids were presented. Many of the experimental work reported in the previous work was made only for the smaller span of the space truss due to the lack of laboratory facilities to know the ultimate behaviour and cost involved. Proper shear interaction mechanism must be proposed to obtain full composite behaviour in the 3D truss with slab. The slip between the steel and concrete is very important parameter to analyse and study shear

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connector behaviour for composite structures. The study can extend by varying the type of connector, spacing between the connectors, etc.

4.2 Analytical Study The effect of deck opening and support pattern on the behaviour and ultimate load capacity of the double-layer truss structures analysed using ABAQUS was reported [11]. The parameters like module size, thickness of the deck slab and concrete strength were varied in the analytical study of the composite 3D truss done using ABAQUS. The output was validated using published results. The influence of these parameters on 3D truss was discussed in terms of stiffness, ductility factor and absorbed energy [21]. The ANSYS model for the composite space truss of 30 m × 30 m size was created, and nonlinear analysis was carried out to know the overall deflection for different support conditions [22] and openings in the deck slab [23]. The flexural buckling failure experienced in the shopping mall in Turkey made by space truss roof was discussed, and 3D model was created to prove that the buckling was mainly due to differential settlement of soil around the foundations [24]. The previous literature on the double-layer truss structures under static and dynamic loading was highlighted [25]. The presence of concrete slab above the double-layer truss [26] was studied and compared with double-layer truss without slab, and it was found that buckling failure was resisted by truss with concrete slab. From reviewing the literature, in the analytical behaviour of the composite and non-composite space frame, it was seen that more analysis was performed by varying many parameters especially the size and layout is not a constraint in studying using finite element tool. The analytical work can be extended further under dynamic and thermal load on the space frame. The maximum composite action between the 3D truss and concrete floor was achieved, which gives confidence in using composite space truss as floor slab. To use space truss as floors in the high-rise buildings, the composite truss structure must be studied after subjected to live load, seismic and wind load both experimentally and analytically.

5 Conclusion This paper projected the study carried out in the space frame under experiment and analytical as roof in the industrial building and floor in the building. After studying the space truss structures in the literature, the following conclusions were made. • The space grid structure can be used as roof in important buildings like assembly hall, stadium, sports complex, toll plaza, etc., for obtaining lightweight and high strength roof system. Roofs made from space truss structures observed brittle or critical upper chord compression member failure. It was stated in the previous

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work that upper chord compression member failure was overwhelmed by over strengthened upper chords and concrete deck over the truss with proper shear mechanism. • The experimental study can be extended to get interaction between the space truss and concrete deck and must be validated by developing proper finite element model. • The study on composite space truss must be continued to know the behaviour of the same under live, seismic and wind loads.

References 1. Makowski ZS, Ramaswamy GS, Eekhout M, Suresh GR (2002) Book review: analysis, design and construction of steel space frames. Int J Space Struct 17:243 2. Makoswski ZS (1988) A worldwide review of space structures in sports buildings. Bull Int Assoc Shell Spat Struct 29:11–40 3. Arekar VA, Bhavsar BB (2013) Analytical study of MERO connector in double layer grid structure. IJLTET 2:35–42 4. Subramanian N (1999) Principles of space structures. 2nd edn. Wheeler Publishing, pp 1–666 5. Elsheikh A (1999) Effect of force limiting devices on behaviour of space truss. Eng Struct 12(1):34–44 6. Makoswski ZS Analysis, Design and Construction of Braces Barrel Vaults. Taylor & Francis, pp. 1–489 7. Castillo HA (1967) Space frame construction with steel and reinforced concrete, the tridilosa spatial structure. In: Davies RM (ed) Space structures. Blackwell, Oxford, pp 1089–1093 8. El-Sheikh AI, McConnel RE (1993) Experimental study of behavior of composite space trusses. J Struct Eng ASCE 119(3):747–766 9. El-Sheikh A, Shaaban H (1999) Experimental study of composite space trusses with continuous chords. Adv Struct Eng 2(3):219–232 10. Aboul-Anen B, El-Shafey A, El-Shami M (2009) Experimental and analytical model of ferrocement slabs. Int J Recent Trends Eng 6:25–29 11. El-Shami M, Mahmoud S, Elahd M (2018) Effect of floor openings on the capacity of composite space trusses. J King Saud Univ Eng Sci 30:130–140 12. Sangeetha P, Senthil R (2017) A study on ultimate behaviour of composite space truss. KSCE J Civ Eng 21(3):950–954 13. Al-Bazzar AJ (1976) An investigation into composite double layer space grid structure. PhD thesis, University of Strathclyde 14. Sangeetha P, Senthil R (2018) Experimental study on the service load behaviour of the composite space truss. J Struct Eng (CSIR) 44(6):632–536 15. Caglayan O, Yuksel E (2008) Experimental and finite element investigations on the collapse of a Mero space truss roof structure – a case study. Eng Fail Anal 15(5):458–470 16. Madi UR (1987) An investigation into the design parameters of double layer space frame grids. Space Struct 2(4):215–222 17. El-Sheikh A (2000) New space truss system – from concept of implementation. Eng Struct 22:1070–1085 18. El-Sheikh A (2000) Effect of direct member loading on space truss behavior. Struct Eng Mech 10(1):1–15 19. Fulop A, Ivanyi M (2004) Experimentally analyzed stability and ductility behaviour of a spacetruss roof system. Thin-Walled Struct 42:309–320

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Study on Microstructural Characterization of Concrete by Partial Replacement of Cement with Glass Powder and Rice Husk Ash in Concrete R. Nirmala, P. Anusha, and S. T. Dhaarini

1 Introduction Sustainable development is the only logical response to the never-ending demand in any sector of expansion and industrial progress. Housing is another inescapable habit that must be controlled and aligned in order to achieve long-term sustainability. The usage of cement is required for this process. The cementitious content producing units contribute more to global carbon-di-oxide emissions than the aviation sector. This industry contributes for around 7% of total carbon-di-oxide emissions. The six key issues identified by society are climate conservation, fuel and raw materials, employee health and safety, pollution mitigation, local impacts and internal company operations. As a result, alternative materials and technology that could solve the problem aid in the preservation of natural resources while simultaneously acting as a pollution-mitigation tool. According to Ubong [1], the need to develop alternative materials to current traditional ones, as well as to intensify sand Crete blocks, has motivated researchers to concentrate their efforts on cement substitutes in sand Crete blocks. This research investigates into the use of coconut husk ash (CHA) in sand Crete blocks. The coconut husk ash was used in 5 percent increments up to 30 percent. The compressive intensity of cement/coconut husk ash sand Crete blocks diminishes as the percentage of coconut husk ash content increases. According to Krishna [2], the use of durabilityenhancing supplemental cementing solutions has become extremely important to the long-term service survival of concrete frameworks. Bakar [3] investigated the impact of foundry sand and bottom ash in equal amounts as a partial replacement for fine aggregates in varying contents (0–60%) on concrete assets. Except for a 60% substitution, the use of scrap foundry sand and bottom ash has no negative R. Nirmala (B) · P. Anusha · S. T. Dhaarini Department of Civil Engineering, School of Building and Environment, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 S. Naganathan et al. (eds.), Sustainable Practices and Innovations in Civil Engineering, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 179, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5041-3_23

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impact on toughness. The SEM image exhibited a proper and visible fibrous pattern of gel content, indicating that the building combination is resistant to aggressive environments. De Sensale [4] recognized rice husk ash (RHA) as a cementitious content auxiliary in concrete proportions of 0, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25%. As the OPC replacement by RHA increased, the compacting factor fell. The compressive strength of hardened concrete decreased as the percentage of OPC substituted with RHA increased. It is proposed that more research be conducted to understand more about the suitability of partially substituting OPC with RHA in blends. Nassar [5], Le [6] and Prema [7] explored the effects of substituting 10, 20, 30 and 40% of the glass dust in a mixture with cement. The strength qualities are shown to increase initially as the percentage of binder replaced by glass dust increases, peaking at around 20% and subsequently dropping. The homogeneity of concrete reduces monotonically as the binder replaced by glass powder increases.

2 Material Properties The materials used in the analysis were cement binder (grade 53), mild steel bar (500 N/mm2 yield stress and 2 × 105 N/mm2 elasticity modulus), M-sand, coarse aggregate of 20 mm, rice husk ash, glass dust, and closely spaced welded wire mesh with square opening of grid size 12 mm and wire diameter of 0.6 mm (Table 1) (Figs. 1 and 2). The raw components and the mixture were subjected to preliminary testing. A binder study was performed, and its fineness value was revealed to be 9 percent, which is less than the standard fineness of cement, which is 10 percent. Binder consistency was 29 percent. Fine and coarse aggregates had mass densities of 2.72 and 3.021, respectively. The modulus of fineness property of M-sand is 3.42 and for aggregate is 8.925 based on the grain size distribution in a sample of aggregate known as call gradation. M-sand and aggregate have water holding power of 2.56 Table 1 Compound of rice husk ash and waste glass dust

Composition

Rice husk asha

Waste glass dustb

Sio2

93.4

68

Al2 O3

0.05

7

Fe2 O3

0.06