Sustainable Infrastructure Development: Select Proceedings of ICSIDIA 2020 (Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, 199) 9811666466, 9789811666469

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Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering

Vijay P. Singh Zongzhi Li Nihal Anwar Siddiqui Harshingar Patel   Editors

Sustainable Infrastructure Development Select Proceedings of ICSIDIA 2020

Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering Volume 199

Series Editors Marco di Prisco, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy Sheng-Hong Chen, School of Water Resources and Hydropower Engineering, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China Ioannis Vayas, Institute of Steel Structures, National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece Sanjay Kumar Shukla, School of Engineering, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia Anuj Sharma, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA Nagesh Kumar, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science Bangalore, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India Chien Ming Wang, School of Civil Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

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Vijay P. Singh · Zongzhi Li · Nihal Anwar Siddiqui · Harshingar Patel Editors

Sustainable Infrastructure Development Select Proceedings of ICSIDIA 2020

Editors Vijay P. Singh College of Engineering Texas A and M University Texas, TX, USA Nihal Anwar Siddiqui Department of Health Safety, Environment University of Petroleum and Energy Studies Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India

Zongzhi Li Illinois Institute of Technology Chicago, IL, USA Harshingar Patel Civil and Infrastructure Engineering Adani Institute of Infrastructure Shantigram, Ahmedabad, India

ISSN 2366-2557 ISSN 2366-2565 (electronic) Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering ISBN 978-981-16-6646-9 ISBN 978-981-16-6647-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Preface

Infrastructure development is the backbone for the socio-economic growth of any region, but it ensues the burning issue of environmental impacts in today’s times. The technological advancements in the fields of civil engineering, computer, and computational sciences, electronics and electrical engineering, telecommunications, mechanical, and automotive industries; and their inter-disciplinary impacts facilitate the design of innovative concepts to increase the system efficiency for sustainable growth. Automation in construction, development of smart cities to address the urban population’s demands in the context of globalization, driverless cars, environment friendly travel modes, alternative fuel technologies, increasing use of drones, faster mass transit options, are few of the issues which require immediate assessment to formulate new regulations and policies to ensure efficient and optimal system performance. There is an urgent and growing demand for civil engineers who are armed with these inter-disciplinary technical capabilities to provide solutions to these critical issues. This warrants a need for adapting to the industry requirements not only at the regional level, but also at a global level for optimum impact and performance. Through this publication, the reader can update himself/herself with the advances in sustainable innovations in civil engineering and inform on related opportunities and challenges. This volume includes selected papers on innovations in infrastructure domain presented at the International conference on Sustainable Infrastructure Development: Innovations and Advances, August 17–18, 2020. The conference was attended by leading academic scientists, leading engineers, industry personnel, policymakers, budding scholars, and graduate students. The contribution from the authors cover topics ranging from material innovation in affordable housing and sustainability, innovative concepts for green buildings, vehicle detection innovation, to the impact of COVID 19 on urban development. The contributions covered all domains of civil engineering planning, design, construction, and environmental aspects, tied by the themes of sustainability and innovations. Ahmedabad, India

Dr. Harshingar Patel Convener—SIDIA 2020

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Acknowledgements

This volume has been compiled from the contributions of the participants at the Sustainable Infrastructure Development: Innovations and Advances, August 17–18, 2020 with the support and input of a number of individuals and institutions. We thank Dr. S. J. Chopra (Hon’ble Chancellor, UPES) and Dr. Sunil Rai (Vice Chancellor, UPES) for their support and encouragement. We are grateful to the Chief Guests for SIDIA 2020—Mr. M. P Jain, (Former Executive Director, QHSE Engineers India Limited) and Vice President—Indian Society of HSE Professionals, and Er. G. J. S. Rosha, (Former Chief Engineer-Chandigarh Housing Board) and President—American Society of Civil Engineers, India Section, Northern Region for gracing the event with their esteemed presence. We also wish to thank our distinguished speakers Mr. Nivesh Chaudhary, Director—Infrastructure and logistics, Ascela Advisors Pvt. Ltd., Mr. Indranil Bose, Independent Consultant, and PPP Exert with World Bank, ADB, and Government of India on advisory issues, Mr. Ravi Gadepalli, Consultant and bus-based urban transport expert with International Association of Public Transport (UITP) and Prof. Anil Kumar Dhiman, Assistant Professor, Chandigarh College of Engineering and Technology, for their informative and engaging talks. The organizers of SIDIA 2020 also thank all the reviewers for their valuable time and comments on the quality of the papers. We acknowledge the support of our sponsors Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhi and Uttarakhand State council for Science & Technology (UCOST). We also thank the chairs and members of various committees as under:

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Steering Committee Chief Patron Dr. S. J. Chopra Chancellor, UPES, Dehradun, India Patron(s) Dr. Sunil Kumar Rai Vice Chancellor, UPES, Dehradun, India General Chair Dr. Kamal Bansal Dean, School of Engineering (SoE), UPES, Dehradun, India Prof. V. P. Singh Distinguished Professor, Regents Professor, and Caroline and William N. Lehrer, Distinguished Chair in Water Engineering. Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, and Zachry Department of Civil Engineering, Texas A&M University, USA Program Chair Prof. Z. Li Professor, Director of IIT Center for Work Zone Safety and Mobility, Director of IIT, Transportation Engineering Laboratory. Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, Illinois Institute of Technology, USA Organizing Chair Dr. N. A. Siddiqui Program Director (HSE), UPES, India Dr. S. M. Tauseef HoD (HSE & Civil Engineering), UPES, India Organizing Co-Chair Dr. Vijay Raj Professor, HSE & Civil Engineering, UPES, India Dr. H. Patel Associate Professor, HSE & Civil Engineering, UPES, India Mr. A. K. Singh A.P, HSE & Civil Engineering, UPES, India Publicity Chair Dr. N. Siddiqui Program Director (HSE), UPES, India Mr. M. K. Dubey Associate Professor, HSE & Civil Engineering, UPES, India Public Relation Chair Mr. A. K. Singh A. P, HSE & Civil Engineering, UPES, India Mr. D. Pandey A. P, HSE & Civil Engineering, UPES, India Session Management Chair Mr. V. Mopidevi A. P, HSE & Civil Engineering, UPES, India Mr. S. K. Sethy A. P, HSE & Civil Engineering, UPES, India Mr. R. Silori A. P, HSE & Civil Engineering, UPES, India Mr. A. N. Shankar A. P, HSE & Civil Engineering, UPES, India

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Organizing Committee Convener Dr. Harshingar Patel, Associate Professor, Adani Institute of Infrastructure, Ahmedabad, India Co-convener Mr. Anand Kumar Singh, Assistant Professor, HSE & Civil Engineering, UPES, India Conference Secretary Mr. Mukesh Kumar Dubey, Associate Professor, HSE & Civil Engineering, UPES, India Finance Committee Mr. Durga Prasad Panday, Assistant Professor, HSE & Civil Engineering, UPES, India Mr. Rahul Silori, Assistant Professor, HSE & Civil Engineering, UPES, India Technical Support Dr. Vijay Raj, Professor, HSE & Civil Engineering, UPES, India Dr. D. K. Gupta, HSE & Civil Engineering, UPES, India Dr. Kanchan Deoli Bahukhandi, AP, HSE & Civil Engineering, UPES, India Dr. A. Kumar, HoD, Mechanical Engineering, UPES, India Dr. Pankaj, Sharma, Sr. Associate Professor, Mechanical Engineering, UPES, India

Organizing Committee Dr. Kamal Bansal, Dean, School of Engineering, UPES, Dehradun, India Dr. Manish Prateek, Dean, School of Computer Science, UPES, India Dr. Neeraj Mahindroo, Dean, School of Health Sciences, UPES, India Dr. Githa Heggde, Dean, School of Business, UPES, India Ms. Manisha Mohan, Dean, School of Design, UPES, India Mr. Arun Dhand, Director, Government Relations & Media Affairs, UPES, India Dr. Pankaj Kumar Sharma, Associate Dean-Planning & Monitoring, SoE, UPES, India Dr. Jitendra Kumar Pandey, Associate Dean, R&D, SoE, UPES, India Dr. Nihal Anwar Siddiqui, Program Director, HSE and Civil Engineering, UPES, India Dr. S. M. Tauseef, HoD, HSE and Civil Engineering, UPES, India Dr. Vijay Raj, UPES, India Dr. Harshingar Patel, Adani Institute of Infrastructure, India

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Mr. Anand Kumar Singh, UPES, India Mr. Mukesh Kumar Dubey, UPES, India Mr. Mopidevi Vijai Kishore, UPES, India Mr. Durga Prasad Pandey, UPES, India Mr. Rahul Silori, UPES, India Mr. Susanta Kumar Sethy, UPES, India Mr. A. N. Shankar, UPES, India Dr. Madhu Sharma, UPES, India Dr. Mukul Kumar Gupta, UPES, India Dr. Dharmendra Kumar Gupta, UPES, India Dr. Bikrama Prasad Yadav, UPES, India Mr. Prasenjit Mondal, UPES, India Dr. Kanchan Bahukhandi, UPES, India Ms. Madhuben Sharma, UPES, India Mr. Abhishek Nandan, UPES, India Mr. Venkat Krishna Kanth, UPES, India Mr. Surendar V., UPES, India Mr. Arun P. A. UPES, India Mr. Akshi Kunwar Singh, UPES, India Ms. T. Abbasi, UPES, India

Member of International Technical Panel Dr. V. P. Singh, Distinguished and Regents Professor, Caroline & William N. Lehrer Distinguished Chair in Water Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA Dr. S. K. Ghosh, Professor & Head, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Roorkee, India Dr. C. S. P. Ojha, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Roorkee, India Dr. M. Parida, Professor & Deputy Director, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Roorkee, India Dr. Ajay Gairola, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Roorkee, India Dr. S. C. Handa, Retired Professor, IIT Roorkee, India Dr. Shepard Ndlovu, University of Central Lancashire, UK Dr. Sumeet S. Aphale, University of Aberdeen, UK Dr. Zongzhi Li, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, USA Dr. D. Rashtchian, Sharif University of Technology, Iran Dr. F. I. Khan, Memorial University, Newfound Land, Canada Dr. Rajiv Pandey, Senior Scientist, Forest Research Institute (FRI), Dehradun Dr. Vikram Garaniya, University of Tasmania, Australia Dr. Vikas Garg, Department of Civil Engineering, Central University of Haryana, India

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Dr. Bei Zhou, Chang’an University, School of Highway, China Dr. Yi Liu, Wuhan University of Technology, China Dr. Siyuan Gong, School of Information Engineering, Chang’an University, China Dr. Pegah Farshadmanesh, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, USA Dr. P. Sojan Lal, ADCO, Abu Dhabi, UAE Dr. Risza Rusli, University Technology PETRONAS, Malaysia Dr. Salim Ahmed, Memorial University, Canada Dr. Rouzbeh Abbasi, Macquarie University, Australia Dr. Vijay Raj, UPES, Dehradun, India Dr. Harshingar Patel, Adani Institute of Infrastructure, Ahmedabad, India Mr. Rajiv Malhotra, Ex officio, Chief Regional Planner, National Capital Region Planning Board, India Dr. Ashish Kumar Srivastava, CEO, Dehradun Smart City Limited & Vice Chairman, MDDA, India Mr. Jitendra Tyagi, MD & CEO, Uttarakhand Metro Rail Corporation, India Mr. Rajendra Goyal, Chief Engineer, PWD, Dehradun, India Mr. Ravi Panday, Urban Development Department, Uttarakhand, India Mr. Sanjay Raj, Executive Engineering, MDDA, India Mr. Manoj Kesarvani, Executive Chief, UJVNL, India Ms. Erica Poff, Government Affairs and Outreach Manager, Board of Certified Safety Professionals, USA Mr. Amarpal Singh, Design Head, Infrastructure Vertical, L&T Mr. Lovneek Jhandu, Quality Head (Highways), GMR, India Mr. Rajaneesh Rai, ADGM (Geostructure Vertical), L&T, India Mr. Raj Singh, Vice-President Projects, India Bull Real Estate, India Mr. Kuldeep Rathi, Head Operations, Tata Projects Limited, India Ms. Sumana Biswas, Senior Manager, Nippon Koei India Pvt. Ltd., India Mr. Nivesh Chaudhary, Co-founder, Director, ASCELA, India Mr. Sulabh Goel, Vice President, Transaction Advisory Services, Ernst & Young LLP, New Delhi, India Dr. Mohammad Neishapouri, (Transportation Engineer), David Mason Associates, USA Mr. Vikram Raina, P. E (Structural Engineer), Jacobs Engineering, USA Mr. Sanjay Singh Sisodiya, Regional Head Technical Services, Ultra Tech Cement, India

Contents

Reduction of GHGs in Buildings—Indian Affordable Houses . . . . . . . . . . Deepak Bansal, Vijay K. Minocha, and Kaur Arvinder

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Modern Techniques for Earthquake Resistant Buildings: A Review . . . . Aditya Raj, Anant Kumar Singh, Aayush Goel, and Anuj Jeena

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Review of Modern Techniques and Automation in the Construction Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arihant Sharma, Ishank Mishra, and Anurag

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COVID 19 and Urban Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Deepak Bansal, Vijay K. Minocha, and Kaur Arvinder

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A Case Study on Flyover in Urban Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Basant Twarit, Singh Neeraj Kumar, and Singh Anand Kumar

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Planning for Pedestrian-Friendly Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manaswini Naugain and Anand Kumar Singh

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Spatiotemporal Variation in Surface Velocity of Glaciers, Namely, Mount Kolahoi in the Lidder Basin Between 2016 and 2019 Using Landsat 8 Imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ambuj Singh, Praveen K. Thakur, S. P. Aggarwal, Ram Chandra, Sudhakar Shukla, and Dhanendra K. Singh

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3D Reconstruction of Heritage Site Using Terrestrial LiDAR Scanner (Tls): A Case Study of a Section of Gulistan-E-Iram, Lucknow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aishwarya Chandel, S. K. S. Yadav, A. K. Agarwal, Sudhakar Shukla, and Joyeeta Poddar

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Efficient Bus Transport System, Case Study of Dehradun . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vibhor Goel and Ankur Chowdhary

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Contents

Snow Cover Mapping Over the Region of Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) for 2008–2018 Using Cloud Mitigated Moderate Resolution Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Snow Cover Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Nishu Bhardwaj, Bhaskar R. Nikam, S. K. S. Yadav, Sudhakar Shukla, Manaruchi Mohapatra, S. P. Aggarwal, and Joyeeta Poddar Methods for Vehicle Detection Using Roadside Sensors in Complex Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Ishank Mishra, Karan Singh Dhawai, Hritik Kumar Singh, and Arjun Sharma Model-Based Evaluation and Comparative Analysis of Biological Nutrient Removal Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Narendra Khatri, Kamal Kishore Khatri, and Abhishek Sharma Qualitative and Comparative Assessment of Pharmaceutical Industry Effluents in Selaqui Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Ayush Sahu, Rahul Silori, and Vivek Bilouhan FPGA Implementation of Area-Efficient Binary Counter Using Xilinx IP Cores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 B. Khaleelu Rehman, Ramalla Isaac, K. Abdul Munaf, Salauddin Mohammad, and Mudassar Basha Impact of Non-standardized Trucks on Vehicle Fill Rate (VFR) and Cost in Indian FMCG Sector: A Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Rudrangsu Biswas and Neeraj Anand A Characteristic Study on the Factors Influencing Dust Explosion in Different Industrial Sectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Rishi Dewan, Ragul Aadhitya, and P. R. Sushmitha Piezoelectric Materials for Sustainable Energy and Fitness Monitoring of Civil Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Gagan Anand Study on Effectiveness of Parkinsonia Aculeate for Water Treatment: A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 R. Raja, Rahul Silori, and Vivek Kumar Floating Green Buildings and Towns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Pulaparthi Tirumala Srinivas, Mukesh Kumar Dubey, and Vijay Raj Integrating Vastu Shastra for Green and Energy Efficient Building Under Byelaws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Vibhor Goel and Kushaan Kapur Efficient Municipal Solid Waste Management: A Case Study of Dehradun City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Shubham Rawat, Vibhor Goel, and Ankur Chowdhary

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A Study on Alternative Strategies for Public Transportation in Dehradun City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Yatin Arora and Harshingar Patel Sustainability Assessment Need for Construction Phase in Construction Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Mukesh Kumar Dubey and Vijay Raj Suitable Urban Land Development Model for Uttarakhand . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Siddhant Raturi, Ankur Chowdhary, and Vibhor Goel Evacuation Methods During Fire in High-Rise Buildings: A Review . . . . 269 Rishi Dewan

About the Editors

Dr. Vijay P. Singh is a Distinguished Professor, a Regents Professor, and Caroline and William N. Lehrer Distinguished Chair in Water Engineering in the Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, and Zachry Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering at Texas A&M University, College Station, USA. He completed his B.S. (Engineering and Technology) from G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology; M.S. (Engineering with specialization in Hydrology) from the University of Guelph, Canada; Ph.D. (Civil Engineering with specialization in Hydrology and Water Resources) from Colorado State University, USA; and D.Sc. (Environmental & Water Resources Engineering) from the University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa. He has been a Visiting Professor in numerous universities in Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, India, Italy, Mexico, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Singapore, South Africa, South Africa, and Switzerland. He has supervised 28 Ph.D. and 33 Master’s theses; and taught and developed more than thirty courses spanning over his career beginning with 1974. He has published 32 textbooks, two solutions manuals, two handbooks and an encyclopedia, 1372 refereed journal articles, 80 edited books, 105 book chapters, 320 conference proceedings papers, 45 book reviews, and 72 technical reports. He has completed more than 46 funded projects many of them funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) an other federal agencies. He has been awarded 3 Honorary Doctorates, and 100 national and international awards and Honors. He also is a member in 11 national/international academies, and has 20 biographical citations, 10 Fellowships and 18 Memberships. He has served as President of American Institute of Hydrology and of American Academy of Water Resources Engineers; and Chair of Watershed Council, American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). He has been Editor-in-Chief of Water Science and Technology Library Bookseries, and of Global Water Resources; Editor-in-Chief of Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, ASCE; Journal of Groundwater Research; Agricultural Research; and Open Agriculture; and Associate editor of more than 30 journals. He has given more than 100 keynote speeches, more than 300 invited seminars, examined more than 140 Ph.D. dissertations from abroad, served on numerous national and international panels, and has provided consultancy to local, state, federal, and international organizations. xvii

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About the Editors

Zongzhi Li received BE from Chang’an University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China; MSCE in transportation and infrastructure systems engineering, MSIE in operations research, and PhD in transportation and infrastructure systems engineering (December 2003) all from Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA. After PhD, he joined Traffic Operations and Safety Laboratory (TOPS Lab) at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA, as a Postdoctoral researcher until August 2004 after accepting a tenure-track assistant professor position at Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT), Chicago, Illinois, USA. Currently, he holds full professor rank with tenure and serves as the Director of Sustainable Transportation and Infrastructure Research (STAIR) Center, and Transportation Engineering Laboratory at IIT. He has served as the Principal Investigator (PI) for over US$4.3 million of research studies on multimodal travel demand and transportation system performance modeling, asset management, and network economics funded by U.S. Federal and state agencies and the private sector. He has supervised nearly 80 M.S. and PhD students; published 4 books, including Transportation Asset Management: Methodology and Applications as the world’s first graduate-level textbook and Megacity Mobility: Integrated Urban Transportation Development and Management (In Press), 3 book chapters, and nearly 70 referred papers; developed 2 software packages; and holds 5 U.S. patents. He is a member of editorial board of American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) Journal of Infrastructure Systems, and an associate editor of Elsevier Journal of Traffic and Transportation Engineering. Dr. Li was a recipient of numerous awards, including ASCE Arthur M. Wellington Prize (2011), IIT Sigma Xi Award for Research Excellence (2011), Charley V. Wootan Award by the U.S. Council of University Transportation Centers (2000), and International Road Federation Fellowship Award (1998). Dr. Nihal Anwar Siddiqui is the Professor and Head of Health, Safety and Environment and Civil Engineering Department. He completed his B.Sc. (Chemistry) and M.Sc. (Environmental Science) from University of Lucknow, and Ph.D. (Environmental Biology) from Awadhesh Pratap Singh University. He has completed an international diploma in occupational health & safety management from United Kingdom, NEOBSH IGC- UK. He is a certified Lead Auditor -OHSAS-18001 from CII, New Delhi; Lead Auditor-EMS-14001 by BIS, New Delhi; NABL internal auditor from Chandigarh; Fire warden certified by Fire Safety College in Muscat, and a certified internal auditor ISO 9001 by CDC, New Delhi. He has received Environment Prestigious Award from the Minister of Environment and Forest, Uttarakhand, World Record India Award for publishing maximum research papers in minimum time, and his administrative and academic contributions have been awarded thrice. He is a visiting faculty to FRI, Dehradun, IMA, Dehradun, Chandigarh University and Doon University. He has guided 17 Ph.D. theses and 250 Master’s theses. His contribution in the field of academics is evident by his successful creation of a new program of B. Tech Fire and Safety, M. Tech Disaster Management, MBA in Health, Safety & Environment. He has developed a NABL approved health, safety & environment lab approved lab for air, water & waste water analysis. He has also helped create the Fire Training Ground as per MB Lal Committee Report which is used by

About the Editors

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students and industry for training personnel. He has completed 8 research projects and 10 consulting projects. He has 124 research publications. And has attended 11 national and international conferences. He has 2 patents and has published 11 books. He is continually involved with community outreach programs to address social causes of environment, safe working environment and education. Dr. Harshingar Patel received B. Tech. (Civil Engineering) from Center of Environmental Planning and Technology (CEPT) University, Ahmadabad, M.Sc. (Civil Engineering) specializing in Transportation Engineering and Ph.D. (Civil Engineering) specializing in Transportation Engineering from Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, USA. She is currently an Associate Professor at Adani Institute of Infrastructure. She has more than Seventeen years’ experience in civil engineering domain, industry, academia and transportation engineering research. She has ten years’ experience in research and academics specifically in performancebased transportation asset management, having taught at national and international institutes. She was involved with prestigious projects such as Delhi Metro Rail Project. She has collaborated on research projects sponsored by U.S. Department of Transportation, Illinois Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Authority, Wisconsin Department of Transportation and Indiana Department of Transportation, Reason Foundation, to name a few. She has published ten journal articles and three conference proceedings at the Transportation Research Board (TRB). She has worked for Illinois Institute of Technology and developed long-term sustainable development strategy for the transportation network in the city of Chongqing. She has also developed crash reduction factors (CRF) and safety performance functions (SPF) for Illinois Department of Transportation, and conducted large-scale traffic simulation and data analysis for developing disaster management strategies for the Chicago Department of Transportation.

Reduction of GHGs in Buildings—Indian Affordable Houses Deepak Bansal, Vijay K. Minocha, and Kaur Arvinder

Abstract There has been a continuous increase in GHGs in the atmosphere due to massive development, in which construction sector plays a major role. It is estimated that building construction, operation and demolition consumes about 30– 40% of primary energy and release about 40% of GHGs globally. There have been many guidelines, protocols, directives to reduce energy in buildings for reduction in emission of GHGs. In developing countries like in India, a massive construction programme is going on to provide houses for all, in which about 2 million houses are being constructed annually. These houses are constructed with basic construction materials and they do not consume much energy in its operations due to poor affordability of its users. Embodied energy of construction materials used in construction and energy used in operational phase contributed a major part in its LCEA, as energy in construction, demolition and recycling is insignificant. In this paper, embodied energy of affordable houses has been analysed with various construction materials and it is found that few construction materials have a great potential for reduction of enormous primary energy without increase in construction cost. Keywords Indian affordable houses · Embodied energy · Construction materials · GHGs · Reduction in energy · Construction cost

1 Introduction Construction Industry is one of the major sectors responsible for depletion of natural resources and also for increased energy use in construction and operations of D. Bansal (B) · K. Arvinder GGSIP University, New Delhi 110075, India K. Arvinder e-mail: [email protected] D. Bansal Housing and Urban Development Corporation Limited (HUDCO), New Delhi 110003, India V. K. Minocha Department of Civil Engineering, DTU, Delhi 110042, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 V. P. Singh et al. (eds.), Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 199, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6_1

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buildings and related infrastructure [1, 2]. Ignacio stated that building construction consumes about 24% of the total materials, extracted from the earth [2]. Production of construction materials and construction of buildings consume enormous amount of primary energy (energy produced from fossil fuels), resulting in increased CO2 emission and Global Warming [1–4]. Worldwide buildings consume about 30– 40% amount of primary energy in construction, operation and maintenance, and are responsible for about 40% of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) emission [5–8]. A recent assessment by IPCC (Intercontinental Panel for Climate Change) found buildings to be one of the crucial sectors that can help to reduce the energy demand as well as to mitigate climate change issue [9]. As per IPCC report, efforts should be done to restrict CO2 in the atmosphere by 450 parts per million (ppm) to have a 50% chance of staying below a 2 °C rise in global average temperature above pre-industrial levels [9]. India is the second most populous country in the world, with a population of 1.2 billion as in year 2011 [10]. Presently there is a huge shortage of housing, especially in EWS/LIG (economic weaker section/Low Income group), also known as housing for weaker section or affordable housing in India [11–14]. These affordable houses have two rooms, kitchen, toilet and bath and are naturally ventilated [11, 15]. They do not require much energy in operational phases due to poor affordability of the occupants [16]. Energy required in construction of these houses is also very less due to the predominance of manual labour in India [3, 4, 17–19]. Hence energy, carbon footprints and GWP (Global Warming Potential) of these houses are governed by energy of their construction material, which is known as embodied energy of construction materials [3, 4, 16]. The Government of India has initiated a programme “Housing for All” under which millions of houses for EWS/LIG categories are under construction on Pan India basis [12, 15]. In India, more than 2 million houses are being constructed every year, having 25–60 m2 of plinth area [12, 15]. The massive construction of such houses engross significant amount of embodied energy and leads to an intense carbon footprint in this sector [4, 16, 20]. A study was undertaken by few researchers to identify and assess embodied energy of Indian affordable housing as a unit as well as at the level of various components of the buildings for large number of load bearing affordable houses in India [3, 4, 16]. Many more researchers have also analyzed embodied energy of many types of houses, without discussing detailed specifications of them [20–30]. The studied Indian affordable houses have been constructed as single, double, triple or four storeys, depending upon the load bearing capacity of the soil and cost economics [3, 4, 16, 25]. The chosen typology of the houses, in this study is the most common in India. The fired clay brick is the most commonly used material for walls and foundations in cement and coarse sand mortar. The houses were designed as per provisions of National Building Code of India [31]. In this paper embodied energy analysis of all affordable houses to be constructed in India in housing for all Programme is done and it is found that with the intervention of alternative construction materials the energy saving is huge.

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2 Literature Review LCA/LCEA of buildings have been studied and presented by many researchers including embodied energy of buildings and it was found that in conventional buildings embodied energy varies from 10 to 20% and operational energy is 80–90% of LCA [4, 5, 16, 20]. It was also found that in sustainable buildings embodied energy can be as high as 100% of its LCA [32, 33]. Building consumes energy in four stages, i.e. construction or pre-use, use or operational, demolition and recycling stage [5, 30, 34, 35]. This is called cradle to cradle approach of LCEA [34, 35]. It is estimated that conventional buildings consume maximum energy in its operational stage due to its long service life of 50–100 years [5, 20]. However in zero energy or sustainable buildings operational energy is reduced by efficient building envelope and renewal energy system and there is continuous technological advances in electrical equipment required in houses like lighting fixtures, fans, refrigerators, desert coolers/air conditioners, TVs etc., hence operating energy requirement is decreasing along with the fact that in affordable housing, the purchasing power of occupants is less [3, 4, 36], hence it’s embodied energy share is more in its LCA [3, 4]. The embodied energy values of construction materials are quite dynamic and region specific, which may change according to the technology and transportation distances and mode involved [8, 16, 25, 26, 29]. It was also found in a study that embodied energies of these houses can be brought down by about 40% by using alternative construction materials like Hollow cement concrete blocks, Fly ash bricks, Autoclaved aerated concrete blocks, Soil stabilized blocks, Fly Ash Lime Gypsum blocks, Calcium Silicate bricks, etc., without increase in construction cost [16, 37]. SriKonda Ramesh et al. have also analysed few houses and found same results [19]. Bansal et al. [16] had analysed variations in the cost of major construction materials and embodied energy in Indian affordable load bearing houses, from 1 to 4 storeys, and presented variation in its embodied energy with different construction materials, as 2–4.2 GJ/m2 . Reddy et al. [3] analysed embodied energy of houses of different storeys and estimated embodied energy as 2.92 GJ/m2 and as 4.21 GJ/m2 for two storeys load bearing houses and eight storeys RCC houses, respectively. T Ramesh et al. [5, 20] also assessed embodied energy for Indian residential single storey, double storey, multi-storey and duplex houses, to vary between 240 and 380 kWh/m2 per annum and life cycle energy 75 GJ/m2 . Das et al. [17] have done exhaustive study for primary schools in Andhra Pradesh in India, and quantified the CO2 emission from construction as 6.8 MT per m2 . Chel et al., and Shukla et al. [7, 38] estimated embodied energy footprint for adobe house in India, as 4.75 GJ/m2 . Debnath et al. [25] have analysed load bearing and RCC framed residential buildings up to 4 storeys high in India and presented their energy footprints between 3 and 5 GJ/m2 . Pinky Devi et al. [18, 26] analysed single and triple storied houses in India and calculated its embodied energy as 4.9–5.9 GJ/m2 and 8.1–10.89 GJ/m2 , respectively. Bansal et al. [39] calculated break up of embodied energies of different building components of Indian affordable housing, as foundation—8–25%, masonry—39–50%, roof—18– 24%, terracing—3–11%, of % of embodied energies. Many more researchers from

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other developing countries, which does not have extreme climate reported similar results [18, 26, 40–51]. It is clearly seen that embodied energy of Indian houses is less with alternative construction materials. The embodied energies of houses calculated by many researchers have been compiled and presented in Table 1.

3 Methodology In this study, basic embodied energy values (EBE) of the construction materials have been taken from previously published work by BMTPC (Building Materials Technology Promotion Council) a government of India’s organization [52]. Bansal et al. had analysed 122 numbers of houses constructed in various floor levels from one to four floors, with detailed bill of quantities and basic construction materials were calculated for each component [16]. It was found that the quantities of the construction materials per m2 of plinth areas are decreasing with increase in the number of storeys, but there is no linear interpolation between the number of storey and quantities of construction materials [16, 39]. This is further complicated as the embodied energy values of all construction materials are very much different from each other [3, 16, 39]. The data of affordable housing has been taken from MoHUA, GOI, and based on its most common typology, Table 2, and design Fig. 1 has been analysed as per embodied energy of Indian construction materials.

4 Analysis As per report of Technical Group, MoHUA, GOI (Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, Government of India), there was a shortage of 26.53 million houses in urban areas in India in year 2012, subsequently the shortage in urban houses was reduced to 18.78 million in later years [13]. About 95.7% of this shortage was in EWS/LIG category as 56.2% and 39.5%, respectively. Another study by MoHUA estimated that the average sizes of different categories of houses in India are as EWS 39 m2 , LIG 78 m2 , MIG 117 m2 and HIG 156 m2 [13, 26]. This translates into shortage of urban housing area as 18.78 × 0.562 × 39 + 18.78 × 0.395 × 78 = 990.21 million m2 in EWS/LIG category. The average embodied energies of EWS/LIG houses are about 2–4.2 GJ/m2 say 3.1 GJ/m2 [16]; hence total embodied energy of these houses will be 3069.72 million GJ. It is estimated by various researchers that with the intervention of several alternative construction materials like hollow cement concrete blocks, Autoclaved aerated concrete blocks, Fly ash blocks, etc., the embodied energy can be reduced by 40%. Hence this will result in a saving of 1227.88 million GJ. The total electricity production in India in year 2018 was 4498 million GJ (Ministry of Power, 1249.33 billion units). Hence a saving of embodied energy equivalent to 27% of national annual electricity production can be done by using alternative

Numbers of storeys

1

1

2

2

3

1–4

1–4

4

1 to multi-storey

8

S. no.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Residential/RCC

Residential

Residential/RCC/Air-conditioned

Residential/Load bearing/RCC

Residential/Load bearing

Residential/RCC

Residential/Load bearing/Soil blocks

Residential/Load bearing

Residential/RCC

Residential/Earth/RCC

Type of building

Table 1 Embodied energies of residential buildings compiled from literature

India/2003

India/2012

India/2013

India/1995

India/2013

India

India/2003

India/2003

India/2018

India/2009

Country/Year

4.21

18.56–28.12

7.35

3.1–5.0

2–4.2

8.1–10.8

1.61

2.92

4.9–5.9

2.29–3.7

kWh/m2 /annum

Embodied energy in GJ/m2

Reddy

T Ramesh

T Ramesh

Debnath

Bansal

Palaniappan

Reddy

Reddy

Palaniappan

Chel, Tiwari and Shukla

Source

Reduction of GHGs in Buildings—Indian Affordable Houses 5

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Table 2 The Specifications of the affordable houses (load bearing up to 4 storeys and framed for more storeys) S/No.

Specifications

1

Structure

Load bearing/RCC framed structure

2

Wall

230 mm thick brick masonry In 1:6 (1 cement: 6 coarse sand), mortar

3

Roof/Intermediate floor

Flat RCC (M25),115 mm thick with TMT Fe 500D reinforcement (1% of RCC by volume)

4

Flooring

40 mm thick Cement Concrete (1 cement:2 coarse sand: 4 coarse aggregates) Flooring

5

Skirting/Dado

12 mm thick 100/1200 mm high, 1:6 (1 cement:6 coarse sand) mortar

6

Plaster/Rendering

12/15 mm thick 1:6 (1 cement: 6 coarse sand) mortar

7

Mud Fuska on terrace

100 mm average with brick tiles

8

Parapet

900 mm high In 115 mm thick brick masonry In 1:4 (1 cement: 4 coarse sand) mortar

9

Joinery

Mild Steel Frames with steel grills and 4 mm float glass panels

10

CC Gola/Khurrah/Coping

P.C.C. (Plain Cement Concrete)1:2:4 (1 cement: 2 coarse sand: 4 coarse aggregates)

Fig. 1 The drawing of the affordable houses up to four-storey load bearing type (staircase not shown)

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construction materials in affordable housing in India. This is a substantial saving and can save about 12–16% of GHGs (40% of 30–40% of GHGs attributed to housing). The conversion factor of electricity to MJ is taken as 1000 kWh is equivalent to 3600 MJ.

5 Results It may be summed up that since there is a large number of population in EWS/LIG category in India, which do not have permanent houses and there is a government programme to provide houses to all, which will generate a tremendous amount of GHGs in its construction, hence there should be conscious efforts to reduce GWP in this development. Although these EWS/LIG houses do not use much energy in operational phase due to poor affordability of its occupants, the construction of these houses requires huge amount of energy in the form of embodied energy of construction materials, which can be identified and reduced by efficient structural design and replacing high embodied energy construction materials in components like walling/masonry and foundations without compromising on structural, comfort and environmental factors. The construction materials like hollow cement concrete blocks, Autoclaved concrete blocks and Fly ash blocks result in saving in energy and construction cost. These can be produced on the construction site eliminating transportation, taxes and wastages. This will save a lot of carbon footprint of these houses. This is achievable by using alternative energy efficient construction materials without increase in construction cost.

6 Discussions and Future Work Very encouraging results are obtained as saving in energy is tremendous without any increase in construction cost. These types of more studies are needed to be undertaken with different housing designs in different parts of the country with different construction materials and a concrete hypothesis needs to be formulated in planning, designing and construction of sustainable affordable housing which are cost effective also. This will not only results in cost-effective energy efficient houses but will provide employment to locals in manufacturing quality construction materials. Acknowledgements Authors are thankful and acknowledge the support and help provided by Mrs. Manju Safaya, Ex Executive Director (Design Wing) HUDCO, New Delhi, India, for permitting to use the housing data of HUDCO, for carrying out this research. Authors are also thankful to Dr. Shailesh Kr Agarwal, Executive Director, Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC), New Delhi, India, Prof (Dr.) Navin Kwatra, Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, India, and Ms. Yashika Bansal, student of B. Design, FDDI, Noida, India,

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for constant encouragement and help in analysing the data used and critical comments during this study. Financial Grant No financial grant has been received for carrying out this research and there is no conflict of interest with anybody.

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Modern Techniques for Earthquake Resistant Buildings: A Review Aditya Raj, Anant Kumar Singh, Aayush Goel, and Anuj Jeena

Abstract Earthquake is an unpredictable natural disaster. Its impact is sudden but severe on the livelihood. It is the reason for the catastrophic failures of the structures and hampers the foundation and stability of the structure. The primary challenge for any civil engineer today is to deal with this earthquake and develop some methods to make the structure of the building earthquake resistant. The first and foremost part of the building that is severely affected is the foundation beneath the ground. Many pieces of research and studies are conducted to develop a solution for the resistance of the earthquake. In this study, a rigorous and thorough literature review of studies conducted before is presented. The main emphasis of this paper is on reviewing different techniques such as base isolation, provision of aluminum shear locks, elastomeric polymer bearing technique, usage of fluid viscous dampers, and self-righting technique is presented and compared. This study will develop a base for future researchers to work in this area and will help the researchers to develop a better and effective method to make the building structure earthquake resistant. Keywords Earthquake resistant structure · Base isolation · Elastomeric polymer bearings · Self-righting

1 Introduction An earthquake occurs due to the sudden release of the stored energy in the Earth’s crust in the form of seismic waves. The tectonic plates are moving continuously, but sometimes it gets stuck due to the friction at the edges. This friction generates stresses in the plates which were released by the generating the earthquakes. All the civil engineering structures/buildings rest on their foundations which are bedded on the soil strata. The released seismic wave transfers its energy to the foundation and thus to the superstructure. Being a natural phenomenon, these cannot be stopped but all we can do is to construct earthquake resistant structures.

A. Raj (B) · A. K. Singh · A. Goel · A. Jeena HSE & Civil Engineering Department, UPES, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 V. P. Singh et al. (eds.), Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 199, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6_2

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Earthquake resistant structures are designed with the aim to be less prone to the damages followed due to any seismic activity. For a structure to resist any seismic attack (earthquake), it must have the capacity to dissipate the Kinetic Energy developed due to ground oscillations. The approach used is to separate the load carrying function from the energy absorbing function of the building and to see if any special device can be used in the structure that can absorb the Kinetic energy generated by an earthquake [1]. India is one of the earthquake prone counties of the world. More than 50% of the land in India is vulnerable to earthquake. India has experienced several major earthquakes with the intensities more than 5 in the last 20 years. The main reason is that the Indian plates are moving toward the Eurasian plates at a rate of 50 mm/year. The impact of earthquake in India is so severe because 855 of the Indian buildings are non-engineered buildings. So, it is the structures that are creating so much impact on the livelihood. The new structures can be designed as per the requirements but some special retrofitting techniques should be intimated for the old structures. Only if the buildings can be made earthquake resistant like in USA and Japan and the other developed countries, then we can bring down the casualties (Fig. 1). The traditional construction techniques should be replaced with the modern techniques for minimizing the impacts. This study covers the major techniques of planning and designing earthquake resistant buildings. It also covers the retrofitting techniques for the old structures.

2 Studies and Discussion Many studies were conducted on the topic “Earthquake resistant building design” in the past few decades. Brief reviews of all these studies were performed and are enumerated below.

2.1 Fluid Viscous Dampers The research concludes that the use and the effectiveness of fluid viscous dampers for the response control of the structures and to reduce the damping. They performed a nonlinear time history analysis on a 12 storey 3D model. Two building models were analyzed (one with damping and the other without), with the help of ETABS. The results proved the use of the dampers reduced the stress demands on the structural elements. It was also observed that the optimized use of the Fluid viscous dampers at the critical locations has also reduced the dampers demand [2] (Fig. 2).

Modern Techniques for Earthquake Resistant …

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Fig. 1 Seismic zones in India. Source https://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/india/seismiczone.htm

2.2 Base Isolators The author discussed the base isolation technique used for making structure earthquake resistant. Various base isolators like lead rubber bearings, high density rubber bearings, friction pendulum system were discussed. The result of the study stated that the storey shear can be minimized with the help of lead rubber bearing. Structures will be highly stable with the use of base isolators than the conventional buildings [3] (Fig. 3).

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Fig. 2 Use of fluid viscous dampers. Source https://www.brant-hydraulics.com/en/products/fluidviscous-damper-fvd

2.3 Elastomeric Polymer Bearings The author performed an experimental study to observe the effectiveness of the elastomeric polymer bearings (EPB) in minimizing the structural vibrations. The results proved that the use of the EPB had significantly decreases the lateral acceleration. It was observed that the dynamic properties had improved significantly with the use of EPB [4] (Table 1).

2.4 Dampers The author performed a dedicated study on the earthquake resistant buildings. They discussed the different techniques of the base isolation. The observations from the study concluded that by increasing the damping, the base mass can be increased and thus the stiffness of the building can be increased. It will result in the effective isolation of the superstructure [5].

2.5 Self-righting and Aluminum Shear Links The authors performed a detailed study on the different approaches toward the earthquake resistant buildings. The major outcomes of their studies are listed below:

Modern Techniques for Earthquake Resistant …

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Fig. 3 Base isolation technique used in the structure. Source https://theconstructor.org/earthquake/ earthquake-resistant-techniques/5607/ Table 1 Result of the sine swipe testing [4] Peak acceleration (m/s2 )

With base isolation

Without base isolation

Acceleration reduction (%)

3.25

7.74

58%

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• Chevron bracing performs more effectively than any other lateral load resisting systems. • Aluminum shear links are proved to be economical approach toward the earthquake resistant building. They get deformed by the dissipated energy from the seismic waves (with minimal deformation to the structure). • Self-righting method is also an important approach. It helps the structure to return to its original position after the occurrence of the seismic events. It is also so important because it saves the life and is cost effective too [6].

2.6 Composite Materials The author brought up the technique of using composite materials for the earthquake resistant buildings. The composite materials are the mixture of two or more materials that are made to achieve the desired properties. The use of fiber reinforced cement composites is found to be very effective during the construction and the rehabilitation of the masonry structures [7] (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4 Self-righting structure. Source https://news.stanford.edu/news/2009/august31/quake-sha king-design-090109.html

Modern Techniques for Earthquake Resistant …

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2.7 Moment Resisting Connections The author proposed the method of moment resisting connections for the earthquake resistant steel structures. Most of the steel structures fail from the beam column connections during the seismic loading. The wedge connection was proposed with dog-bone shaped geometry. The reason behind the geometry was that the hinge point would be located at a distance that will be same as the beam depth away from the column face. They concluded that the plastic modulus reduced effectively near the beam column connection thus reducing the seismic effects [8]. The detailed study on the different techniques of the earthquake resistant buildings was performed on the three major parameters, i.e., working, uses and the cost. The comparison of each technique is listed and then tabulated for the efficiency of the study (Table 2).

3 Conclusion The research toward the topic Earthquake resistant buildings has been increasing day by day and new advanced techniques are being used. The important conclusions are listed below: • Performance-based design approach should be followed for the building constructions. Bureau of Indian standards have their specified codes like IS 1893, IS 4326, IS 13827, etc. for the proper design and planning of earthquake resistant buildings • Base isolation technique is a constructive approach for the new constructions. It isolates the superstructure from the foundation which allows minimal displacement in the structure. It is very much effective in low rise buildings. Lead rubber bearings, high density rubber bearings, etc. can be used as a base isolators. • With the help of EPB, the peak acceleration is reduced to 58% in the swipe sine test and more than 40% in the dynamic test. It made clear that the use of EPB can reduce the vibrational effects in the structure. • The use of VFD in building frames reduces the drift to 1.2%. Uses of FVD reduced the shear stress effectively. • Self-righting structure will be helpful and cost effective for the retrofitting of old structures. Fuses are used in the self-righting frames which can be easily changed. It is very much effective in the earthquakes with intensity greater than 7 also. With the use of these techniques the hazards can be minimized to a great extent. Special attention should be given to old structures that comprises 85% (approx.) of the structures built in India. The present study will help the researchers to develop a better and effective method to make the building structure earthquake resistant.

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Table 2 Detailed comparison of the earthquake resistant techniques Working

Uses and suitability

Cost

Base isolators

Fixed above the foundations and breaks the direct transfer of the seismic energy to the superstructure

Suitable for new constructions. Minimum maintenance is required

Economical in use Low-cost base isolators are available [9]

Dampers

Used in the foundation part as well as in the superstructure. It increases the weight of the component and thus the stiffness

Suitable for new constructions. Installation and maintenance are easy

Costly in comparison of the base isolators [10]

Elastomeric polymer bearings

Advanced method of base isolation. Suppresses the structural vibrations with great efficiency because of its visco-elastic properties

Suitable for new Low-cost EPBs are constructions. Easy to available install with effective performance

Fluid viscous dampers

Viscous fluid is used for Due to ease of the energy dissipation installation and adaptability, widely used in the design as well as retrofitting

Composite materials

Composite materials are mixed with the reinforced cement to achieve the desired properties

Easy to use in both the Costly and needs conditions of regular maintenance retrofitting as well as new construction

Self-righting structure

Steel frame is provided at the core of the structure. Fuses are used in the self-righting structures to safeguard the buildings from the damage

Suitable for the retrofitting purposes. Easy to install and maintain

Cost effective. Maintenance cost is low too [6]

Moment resisting connections

Reduces the plastic modulus at the beam column connection of the structure

Suitable for the steel structures

Minimal changes in the cost in comparison to other connections

Life-cycle cost is optimum. Easy to maintain and repair [11]

References 1. Kelly JM, Skinner RI, Heine AJ (1972) Mechanisms of energy absorption in special devices for use in earthquake resistant structures. Bull New Zeal Soc Earthq Eng 5(3):63–73 2. Sinha AK, Singh S (2017) Structural response control of RCC moment resisting frame using fluid viscous dampers. Int J Civ Eng Technol 8(1):900–910

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3. Pune TL (2019) Earthquake analysis of structure by base isolation techniques using ETABS, pp 4150–4152 4. Robert Jankowski (2012) Shaking table experimental study on the base isolation system made of polymer bearings. In: 15th World Conf Earthq Eng 5. Panchal D, Prajapati H (2019) Earthquake resistant buildings techniques: a review, 4(3):441443 6. Patil R, Naringe A, Kalyana Rama JS (2018) Novel techniques for seismic performance of high rise structures in 21st century: state-of-the art review. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng 330(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/330/1/012126. 7. Ahmad MI, Mallick R, Chakraborty S, Guin A, Chakraborti A (2015) Composite materials: the present scenario, future trends & its applications focusing on earthquake resistant building constructions. J Civ Eng Environ Technol 2(12):65–69 8. Wilkinson S, Hurdman G, Crowther A (2006) A moment resisting connection for earthquake resistant structures. J Constr Steel Res 62(3):295–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr. 2005.07.011 9. Nanda RP, Shrikhande M, Agarwal P (2016) Low-cost base-isolation system for seismic protection of rural buildings. Pract Period Struct Des Constr 21(1):1–8. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASC E)SC.1943-5576.0000254 10. Kim D, Sung EH, Park KS, Park J (2014) Evaluation of seismic performance and effectiveness of multiple slim-type damper system for seismic response control of building structures. Sci World J. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/189106. 11. Gidaris I, Taflanidis A, Design of fluid viscous dampers for optimal life cycle cost, Iitk.Ac.in. http://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/wcee/article/WCEE2012_3563.pdf.

Review of Modern Techniques and Automation in the Construction Industry Arihant Sharma, Ishank Mishra, and Anurag

Abstract As of now, India is coming up with the dynamic era of the construction and infrastructure. There has to be something that can bear the challenges humanity faces in working with conventional techniques nowadays. The traditional methods result in the involvement of a lot of time and effort. Apart from this, there are chances for human error introduction in these methods, as in most cases, the results are collected for a short duration and are extrapolated to bring out the outcome for a more extended period. These are the challenges with the traditional method. Many countries have come up with certain modern technologies, including automation, that is quite imperative for this growing Urbanization. However, in India, it lacks due to fewer resources and recommendations. It is challenging to get or provide the support which deals with the automation of these things. This paper sets out for the study of the difference in the conventional and modern techniques of construction and the various techniques adopted by other countries over India, which is coping with the challenges with old methods and how we can settle these techniques. Keywords Conventional methods · Automation · Construction

1 Introduction In developing countries like India, there is an extreme growth of technologies, modern trends, and materials in the worldwide Infrastructural market. With the Urbanization, the need for the latest technologies is rising to fulfil the current requirements. In the modern era, automation has a crucial role in the newest construction productivity to meet the demands and challenges in construction projects. There is a need to implement modern construction techniques to augment efficiency, productivity, enhanced quality, environmental performance, user satisfaction, sustainability, and A. Sharma (B) Mechanical Engineering Department, UPES, Dehradun, India e-mail: [email protected] I. Mishra · Anurag HSE & Civil Engineering Department, UPES, Dehradun, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 V. P. Singh et al. (eds.), Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 199, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6_3

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predictability of project completion. The conventional practices in infrastructural development are not that adequate, and there is a need to augment the traditional techniques of construction following the global trend. For this purpose, automation is a crucial tool for operating and controlling the various stages of a project by using different electronic devices or systems to minimize human interference. The design and application of such techniques have shown progressive outcomes compared to the conventional methods and are discussed in this paper. Specific suitable methods seem to have a high potential in fulfilling the current industrial needs like 3-D volumetric construction, precast flat panel modules, tunnel formwork system, flat slabbing technology, precast foundation technique, hybrid concrete building technique, thin-joint masonry technique, Insulating Concrete Formwork (ICF) Technique. The paper here presents a review of various conventional and modern construction techniques, their comparison, and the potential of contemporary construction techniques in infrastructural projects.

2 Studies and Discussion The study depicts the various methods used in the construction industry, both conventional as well as non-conventional. It has been observed that the traditional techniques used in the infrastructural market involve a lot of time and effort, impacting the cost of the overall project. To reduce this impact and the price for the project, specific advanced techniques are discussed in this paper, along with the comparison with traditional methods adopted. For developed countries, many of these practices are already taking place while in countries like India, it is still a challenge. Let us first look at the various conventional methods that are described in the following section [5].

2.1 Conventional Methods Used in Construction As discussed in [1], the various conventional methods are still widely used in the industry and involve the implementation of work at the given site only. This method includes setting up the various components of the building at the construction site only. This method consists of the installation of formwork, reinforcement steel, and casting. Most of the parts are constructed on reinforced concrete frames. Various examples of conventional construction methods (In-situ) are the foundation, framed structures, walls, floors, and roofs. These methods are responsible for incurring higher costs for the construction as the labour cost, material cost and transportation cost for these materials is comparatively higher as the construction periods are quite lengthy.

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2.2 Modern Construction Methods The modern or advance construction methods are full of two types, as discussed in [2]: (i)

Off-site construction methods (non-on-site construction methods): All the products that are pre-fabricated in the industry are used at construction sites with their attachments and installation. The different frameworks of this method are: • 3-Dimensional Volumetric Construction: All the products used at the construction site are already manufactured in the factories. The technique is used for the construction of bridges, houses, etc. (Fig. 1). • Precast Flat Panel Module: Modules that include flooring and primary walls that are manufactured away for the construction sites and after their completion is transferred to the working place (Fig. 2). • Flat slabbing technology: This method uses the integrity of contemporary formwork for rapidly assembling the slabs, which makes it smooth and quick to place it vertically and horizontally (Fig. 3). • Precast Foundation Technique: Establishments can be assembled quickly with precast reliable concrete units that are delivered in a processing plant and are high on the quality remainder. Quality is bestowed to establish related structure development materials through interconnected substantial concrete heaps (Fig. 4). • Hybrid Concrete Building Technique: This method facilitates development turnaround time by mixing the benefits of concrete precasting with in-situ construction. Quality improves, though the expense of development dives.

Fig. 1 3-D volumetric construction. Source http://sanchetibuilders.com/8-modern-building-constr uction-techniques/

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Fig. 2 Precast flat panel module. Source http://sanchetibuilders.com/8-modern-building-construct ion-techniques/

Fig. 3 Flat slabbing technology. Source http://sanchetibuilders.com/8-modern-building-construct ion-techniques/

(ii)

In this method, we add volumetric construction with a precast panel module (Fig. 5). On-site construction methods (site-based construction methods): Else than offsite, this method deals with the use of traditional methods in a new or ingenious way to save human error, time, and cost. • Tunnel Formwork System: With this procedure, development is paced up for cell structures of monotonous arrangements through the construction of solid dividers or units in a solitary activity for each day.

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Fig. 4 Precast foundation technique. Source http://sanchetibuilders.com/8-modern-building-con struction-techniques/

Fig. 5 Hybrid concrete building technique. Source http://sanchetibuilders.com/8-modern-bui lding-construction-techniques/

Quick work is accomplished by conveying formwork and promptly blended cement in with the comfort and spryness of manufacturing plant conditions. Formworks in burrow structures are stacked and utilized at the site with cranes (Fig. 6). • Thin-Joint Masonry Technique: This is also known as aircrete. Concrete products that were aircreted are joined together to make significant parts of the building, such as walls, floors, and roofs. With huge estimated solid squares, higher development effectiveness alongside massive cost decrease can be accomplished. Inside a single day, the quantity of mortar courses laid is higher as restoration of mortar happens rapidly without settling on holding quality bringing about the disposal of drifting issues (Fig. 7).

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Fig. 6 Tunnel formwork system. Source http://sanchetibuilders.com/8-modern-building-construct ion-techniques/

Fig. 7 Thin-joint masonry technique. Source http://sanchetibuilders.com/8-modern-building-con struction-techniques/

• Insulating Concrete Formwork (ICF) Technique: ICF strategy utilizes polystyrene bars that component twin surfaces and can be quickly assembled for making building surface formwork. The formwork is then siphoned in with excellent, prepared blended, manufacturing plant made concrete. The structure development process becomes idiot-proof, and the resultant structure has a significant level of sound and thermal protection (Fig. 8).

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Fig. 8 Insulating concrete formwork (ICF) technique. Source http://sanchetibuilders.com/8-mod ern-building-construction-techniques/

3 Automation in Construction Sector There are various sub-sectors in the construction region such as surveying, 3-D printing, and automated earthmovers that have reduced the chances of human error up to the maximum extent. The table [3] depicts the various categories in automation, along with their application in the industry (Table 1).

4 Results and Discussion Certain vital aspects require attention when infrastructural market growth is considered. As per the data available in [4], it has been observed that there is a downfall in labour productivity during the past years. However, there is a rise in manufacturing and the industry as a whole, which is quite alarming for the construction industry. The chart below depicts the labour productivity that is recorded in the past years (Fig. 9). As per the graph, it can be observed that there is a need for automation in our industry to cover the lacking of labour productivity in the construction sector. It will not only increase the overall productivity of the industry but also it will save time, which is another essential factor.

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Table 1 Different automation equipment and their applications according to various categories Automation category

System type

Application

Surveying [6, 8]

Total station

Measure horizontal, vertical angles as well as the sloping distance of object and contour

3-D laser scanner

Discrete and rapid field acquisition for the reliable site and design as well as dimension

GIS system with an analytical tool

Surveying Planning and measurement; Route analysis

Deep tows

Deep-sea research and offshore structural projects

Drones/Unmanned aerial vehicles

Calculating and monitoring of filling and excavated material and 3-D modelling

Contour crafting

Rapid home construction with accuracy and improve site safety

D-Shape

Four-time faster construction of the sophisticated design than the traditional method

Excavator

Excavation for rapid airport runway and repair

Laser-Aided Grading System

Grading control for high-volume earthwork

3-D Printing

Automated earth movers [7]

Bricklaying machines

Wall assembling robot [6]

Micro tunnelling

Micro tunnelling

Hadrian

Handles the automatic loading, cutting, routing, and placement of all the brick with high accuracy, High level of safety

SAM bricklaying robot

Checks for vibration and auto-correct itself, improve site safety and faster construction

Mighty hand

Lifting heavy panels including concrete or glass curtain walls

Shuttle system

Facilitates the construction of extra-large exterior wall panels

The mechanized panel assembly system

The panels are installation of heavy exterior and interior materials

Multi-jointed handling robot

Assists in the installation of heavy exterior and interior materials

Automated construction system

Erection and welding of the steel elements, fitting of curtain walls and the jacking of the construction operation platform (continued)

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Table 1 (continued) Automation category

System type

Application

Concrete floor finishing

Floor work robot

Successfully applied for floor finishing in large projects

Concrete finishing robot

Useful for floor finishing in small areas

Mark II

Useful for floor finishing in small areas

Road robot

Asphalt paving

Computer integrated paving

Track paving

tiger stone paving machine

Road paving

Roma; rest

Steel bridge inspection and welding robot

Automated paver

Inspection system

Nero

Nuclear plant inspection

Ultra-wideband

Location sensing, positioning, and tracking

Fig. 9 Labour productivity in the manufacturing industry, construction industry, and industry as a whole

5 Conclusion On studying the various types of modern techniques that are being implemented or are proposed for the purpose, it can be concluded that in the modern era of construction, the use of these techniques seems to be quite imperative to save both cost and time of development which are the leading vital indices of any project. Apart from this, automation has changed the whole scenario and has reduced the human effort and

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the probable human error in any aspect. It can be observed from the study that there is an extreme requirement of automation in developing countries like India so that the future development and level of service can be enhanced qualitatively [9, 10].

References 1. Investigation of industrialized building system performance in comparison to conventional construction method Othuman Mydin MA, Md Sani N, Phius AF 2. Analysis of automated advance construction methods over conventional construction methods, Kapil Yadav 3. Advanced machines and automation techniques in modern construction practice and their possible use in India Mahima S, Soumya K, Bahurudeen A, Haneefa M, Mahalingam 4. The future of construction automation: technological disruption and the upcoming ubiquity of robotics, Thomas Bock 5. Construction automation: research areas, industry concerns and suggestions for advancement, Qian Chena, Borja García De Sotob C, Bryan T Adeya 6. Automation and robotics in construction: opportunities and challenges, Elattar SMS 7. Robotic excavation in construction automation by Quang Ha, Miguel Santos,Quang Nguyen, David Rye, and Hugh Durrant-whyte 8. Advanced visualization and simulation techniques for modern construction management, Mohammad Rohani, Mizi Fan and Chuck Yu 9. A framework of indicators for assessing construction automation and robotics in the sustainability context Mi Pan, Thomas Linner, Wei Pan, Huimin Cheng, Thomas Bock 10. Robots and construction automation by guillermo morales, Dr. Zohar Herbzman, Dr. Fazil T. Najafi

COVID 19 and Urban Development Deepak Bansal, Vijay K. Minocha, and Kaur Arvinder

Abstract Pandemic “COVID 19” is affecting almost all the countries across the globe. This spread through body fluids, hence people are advised to follow social distancing. As a result, most of the people are staying at homes and not visiting their places of work, markets, restaurants, public places, etc., resulting in slowing down of economy. Many people have migrated from urban to rural areas for employment. The current level of infrastructure, i.e. Transport, roads, parking, markets, cinema halls, restaurants/hotels, industries/factories, institutions, etc., is not required and only hospitals, police, communication, and essential services are required. Demand for Water/electricity/food and related paraphernalia has been reduced or finished. This trend is expected to continue for few more years, as more such virus attacks are expected in near future as well as due to low economic activities. This is resulting in a change in urban built environment as more urban spaces are becoming free. With this trend, future cities are going to be different than the present ones with less built-up spaces and less demand for urban infrastructure. An analysis of future urban built environment has been done in this paper. Keywords COVID 19 · Urban development · Sustainability · Disaster resilience · Planning norms

1 Introduction COVID 19 is a viral disease, affecting almost all the countries across the globe, therefore has been classified as a pandemic, which spread through body fluids, hence D. Bansal (B) · K. Arvinder GGSIP University, New Delhi 110075, India K. Arvinder e-mail: [email protected] D. Bansal Housing and Urban Development Corporation Limited (HUDCO), New Delhi 110003, India V. K. Minocha Department of Civil Engineering, DTU, New Delhi 110042, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 V. P. Singh et al. (eds.), Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 199, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6_4

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people are advised to maintain social distancing [1]. The governments of many countries had imposed national lockdowns for considerable long periods [1, 2]. As a result, most of the people are working from homes and not visiting their workplaces, markets, restaurants, public places, etc. The traffic, congestion on roads, crowd in markets, full parking, house full cinema halls, crowded restaurants/hotels, buzzing industries/factories, etc., are a thing of the past [2]. Only hospitals, police, and essential services are functioning with full strength [3]. Old people, people having health conditions, labour, people working in unorganized sector, street vendors, daily wage earners, people living on streets, and stray animals are worst affected [2, 3]. Demand for Water/electricity/HVAC/food and related paraphernalia has been reduced or finished [4]. This is resulting in a change in urban built environment [5]. This trend is expected to continue for few more years, as more such virus attacks are expected in near future as well as because of slow down of economy [6]. The cost of built-up spaces has tanked both in terms of rental as well as in terms of capital cost [7]. The future cities are going to be very much different than the present ones, with less business/commercial centres and less demand on urban infrastructure [8]. Lots of built-up spaces are going to be free in cities, if the current trend of lifestyle continue. People are finding it extremely difficult to survive in this economic crisis, as their income is either reduced or stopped completely. People with small/nil saving and those, who have taken business loans, are most worried. Although moratorium on equated monthly instalments (EMI) on loans has been announced by Reserve Bank of India (RBI), but how to pay EMI, after moratorium, is a big question among affected people, as there is no income on the assets brought by the loans, but fixed charges on bills for utilities, maintenance, insurance and wages to their employees are to be paid even in the lockdown period. The perishable stock/inventories kept in the facilities, have either withered or have expired, resulting in compounding losses. The landlords are also affected as most of their tenants are not in a position to pay rents, affecting the survival of those landlords, whose only income is through rents. There is depression, anxiety, fear, and uncertainty among a vast population. The current situation may be used as an opportunity to develop new sustainable cities and old cities can be decongested and green retrofitted with disaster resilience and preparedness. Slums can be improved and IOT (Internet of Things) based monitoring and management can be done in urban areas. An analysis of land use of built environment of future cities has been done, based on current Urban and Regional Development Plans Formulation and Implementation (UDPFI) [9] and National Building Code of India (NBC) guidelines [10], and based on pattern of current usages in urban areas.

2 Literature Review There is not much literature available on this topic as this is unprecedented pandemic and its management is also unprecedented, where long duration national knockdowns have been imposed in many countries and people are working remotely

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using computers and Internet [1, 2]. However many MNCs like Google, Facebook, Microsoft, TCS, etc., have been already promoting remote working since so many years, to save cost on office spaces, utilities, transport, food and to give flexibility to their employees [11]. Now more and more people are learning to use online working. Classes for coaching, dancing, music, gardening, theatre, and many more businesses are now online. Many new business/start-ups have cropped in this pandemic like manufacturing of sanitizers, face masks, PPE kits, oxygen concentrators, oxymeters, etc., [12]. Online portals for e-retailing are doing brisk business. It is learnt that e-retailers like Amazon, Flipkarts, etc., are posting huge profits in this lockdown and its CEOs are expected to become new trillionaires within next 2–3 years [13]. Unfortunately few businesses are dying out also. The requirements for food, transport, clothes, electronics items, energy are less [4]. This trend is promoting sustainability as consumption is less. The saving on transport is huge in the current way of living. Transportation will also be affected hence road/rail/air/water in future as people may not travel for work but will only travel for leisure after this pandemic [14]. Few researchers have done studies on new cities based on Mass Rapid Transport System (MRTS) and Transit oriented Development (TOD) and have prescribed some formulas for sustainability and very high Floor area ratio/Floor Surface Index (FAR/FSI) [15, 16] with onsite working. Stephan et al. [17] have calculated that transportation takes huge amount of primary energy and releases substantial GHGs in a study of suburb of Australia. Bansal et al. [18, 19] have also found that transport and industry are major sectors, responsible for global warming. UDPFI [9] guidelines stipulate substantial land area for business, recreation, academic, transportation, etc., which will be substantially reduced in current way of living. NBC [10] and Central Public Health Engineering Organization (CPHEO) [20] has proposed certain data for water supply, solid waste generation, sewerages system, air and water pollutants, based on consumption patterns in urban areas, which may not be applicable in new future cities with current lifestyles. Hawkers/street vendors may not survive in new environment, as people are not venturing out and eating/shopping in open [21]. However none of these concepts will work in future cities as transportation, business centres, and commercial centres will not be required in such strength along with the related paraphernalia as people will be working off-site. The expected future new cities will be thin in population will be smart, will not have much business centerest, recreation centerest, restaurants, hotels, malls, cinema halls, and street vendors [22]. It will be having different weightages of land uses for different activities and consumption pattern. Emir [23] has studied a town of Baku in Azerbaijan and found that green areas in city are increasing and have a fair share of land area at city level. Yang Fu et al. [24] have analysed land use of different activities in New Cities, low carbon cities, and Ecocities and have seen a usage of land in transportation as 10%, landscaping as 10–15%, and economy and Industrial activities as 15–35%. Carolina et al. [25] have analysed a city of Chile and found that areas under wetlands are contributing in sustainability and disaster resilience. Linda et al. [26] analysed a master plan of a city of Dar es Salaam, in Tanzania and found that green areas need to be not only planned but also managed effectively for sustainability. The future and sustainable cities are analysed by few researchers

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[23–26] but all these researchers have analysed cities with current lifestyle. In this paper, an exercise has been done to understand future cities and urban development.

3 Analysis of Future Urban Areas Cities are engines of growth with high economic activities, hence there are lots of inward migration in cities. Thus most of the cities have expanded beyond municipal limits and have included so many villages. Slums, unauthorized colonies on different land uses, other than residential have cropped in cities. Floods plains/Forest/Government land have been encroached upon and many settlements are located on low lying areas, hence many cities are vulnerable to flooding. The structural conditions of the buildings in most of the cities are very poor and in many residential buildings, commercial activities are being taken place illegally, violating all rules and regulations. The roads are so narrow in many localities, where fire tenders cannot move in case of exigencies. The natural lighting and ventilation in these unauthorized colonies is another big question, resulting in poor health conditions. Sewerage systems and stormwater drains are overflowing and electrical cables/wires are dangling dangerously everywhere. The urban areas are at high risk in cases of Earthquakes, floods, cyclones, fires, etc., and in case of spread of diseases like Dengue, Plague, etc. Even COVID 19 is affecting more people in urban slums like “Dharavi” in Mumbai and in slums in almost all the cities, due to very dense settlement, no physical distancing, and poor hygienic conditions. This is a lesson for urban planners/engineers and enforcement agencies that such unabated unauthorized/illegal developments are most vulnerable in case of any hazard/pandemic. These should not be regularized even on humanitarian/economic ground. Human safety is of utmost important and these slums/unauthorized colonies need to be re-modelled. The current pandemic COVID 19 may leave unskilled and semi-skilled people jobless residing in these urban slums/unauthorized settlements, resulting in mass migration from urban to rural (reverse migration). Rural economy is expanding at the cost of urban and Government of India has put more focus/resources on agriculture, micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSME), cottage industries, Mahatma Gandhi National Rural employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA), StartUps, etc., hence people from urban slums may find suitable employment in their native places [27]. This may result in an opportunity for doing resettlement of these dense, unhygienic urban slums as per National Building Code of India [10]. As urban planner/Engineers, we need to focus more on safe urban built environment and plan urban infrastructure according to the current trend with less demand. We have to design more sustainable cities with less population with focused economic activities and less infrastructural services. Presently there are certain guidelines for planning, designing, and construction of cities, based on optimization of resources like population, energy, land, water, air, trees, etc. In India, the proposed land use structure of the towns is prescribed by UDPFI guidelines [9] is as follows:

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1. Residential = 40–45%, 2. Commercial = 3–4%, 3. Industrial = 8–10%, 4. Public and Semi-public = 8–10%, 5. Recreational = 18–20%, 6. Transport and Communication = 12–14%, 7. Agriculture and Water Bodies = 2–10%. In these guidelines land use for residential spaces is less than 50% and rest is related to other activities like transportation, industrial, etc., which may shrink in future cities. It is believed that other spaces like commercial, industrial, recreation, Transport and communication will be less than 10% and public and semi-public spaces, agriculture, water bodies will be about 40%, based on work done by few researchers [23–26]. Hence proposed land use of future cities would be: 1. Residential = 50%, 2. Commercial, Industrial, Recreational, and Transport and Communication = 10%, 3. Public and Semi-Public and Agriculture and Water Bodies = 40%. These future cities will be sustainable (less consumption and less wastages) and have more disaster resilience because they are not over crowded and have more green areas and Internet of Things (IOT) based. The urban design of future cities will be different. Many researchers have analysed Master Plans of many cities in Europe/Australia/Africa/Middle East and found that there are more green areas and they have big city parks and water bodies with less population [23–26]. It is also estimated by few researchers that a tree sequester about 12 kg of CO2 per annum and built-up area [28] have an embodied carbon footprint of about 2–4.2 GJ/m2 , averaging to 3.1 GJ/m2 [18] for a life span of 50 years. Luisa et al. have calculated average CO2 emission from primary energy is 0.08 kg per MJ [29]. Hence number of trees can be counted for counting carbon footprint of built environment and thus land area required for planting such trees can be calculated. Bansal et al. [30] have calculated in a project at Raibareilly, UP, India that by plating 1.5 numbers of trees per m2 of built-up areas can sequester all embodied energy related carbon. The cities will be smaller and people will be living in small hamlets. Industries will be outside cities along with integrated townships. CPEHO has proposed guidelines for water supply, stormwater drains, sewerages system, solid waste management based on population. The current water supply at town level is 150 lpcd (Litres per capita per day), (135 lpcd for population and 15 lpcd for horticulture, public, and wastages) but with a change in consumption pattern, this may reduce and related stormwater, sullage, sewerages, solid waste and pollutants will also reduce. This will result in the reduction of requirements for Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs), water treatment plants, landfill areas, electricity generations, traffic, and pollution. This current trend is expected to continue (in fact accelerate) with the arrival of Internet of Things (IOT) and 5G/6G generation of the Internet, where many more things can be done at homes and at remote locations. The cities will neither have centralized big business centres, nor mass housing in cities and huge traffic. The huge demand for water/electricity/HVAC/office furniture/stationary/Desktops computers/Vehicles/office spaces will not be there. The demand for unskilled/semiskilled manpower will be substantially reduced. The cities will be slum free. The pollution is expected to reduce, the quality of life may change for good, but people will be lonelier.

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4 Results and Discussions Since substantial urban population have now been/will be used to work from home and many MNCs/local offices/Business have/will shelve their offices spaces, giving freedom to its employees to work remotely, resulting in a win–win situation for all and load on urban infrastructure has/will also be decreased. This pattern is going to continue/increase in near future and future cities are going to be much different than the present ones. Many industries will be finding it extremely difficult to survive, like hospitality, tourism, food and beverages, physical retailing, street vendors and many new businesses will offshoot like MSME, e-retailing, start-ups, etc. The pollution will be reduced and greenery will be more in urban areas. The urban built-up areas will be based on less demand and less waste generations. We need to formulate new standards for planning and managing these cities and can remodel/retrofit current cities as per principles of sustainability and disaster resilience.

5 Future Work There is a need to study requirements of water, sewerages, electricity, transport, solid waste, utilities, public spaces, commercial/institutional spaces in cities based on concept of working remotely, for comfortable living and working, so that new data is created based on real-time basis and can be used in the formulation of new standards for planning and designing new cities. Acknowledgements Authors are thankful and acknowledge the support and help provided by Mrs. Manju Safaya, Ex Executive Director (Design Wing) HUDCO, New Delhi, India, for permitting to use the housing data of HUDCO, for carrying out this research. Authors are also thankful to Dr. Shailesh Kr Agarwal, Executive Director, Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC), New Delhi, India, Dr. Navin Kwatra, Thapar Institute of Engineering &Technology, Patiala, India, and Ms. Yashika Bansal, student of B. Design, FDDI, Noida, India, for constant encouragement and help in analysing the data used and critical comments during this study. Financial Grant We all authors confirm that no financial aid has been received from any agency and we do not have any conflict of interest in carrying out this research.

References 1. https://www.mohfw.gov.in/pdf/SocialDistancingAdvisorybyMOHFW.pdf. Accessed 25 June 2020 2. https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/delhi-markets-empty-traders-say-metro-is-onlysliver-of-hope-6418358/. Accessed 25 June 2020 3. https://www.ilo.org/sector/Resources/publications/WCMS_741467/lang--en/index.htm. Accessed 25 June 2020 4. https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/energy-efficiency/covid-19-candle-plan-delhi-powerdemand-dropped-37-in-25-min-70242. Accessed 25 June 2020

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5. https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/covid19-wfh-to-impact-office-space-demand-inshortterm-say-experts/1845518. Accessed 25 June 2020 6. https://www.crn.com/news/running-your-business/some-may-work-from-home-permanentlyafter-covid-19-gartner. Accessed 25 June 2020. 7. https://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/covid-19-design. Accessed 25 June 2020. 8. https://www.citiestobe.com/covid-19-the-future-of-cities/. Accessed 25 June 2020 9. UDPFI Guidelines—Urban development plan formulation and implementation guidelines, 1996. Accessed 25 June 2020 10. http://www.bis.org.in/sf/nbc.html. Accessed 25 June 2020 11. https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/stung-by-covid-19-google-facebook-extendwork-from-home-plans-until-2021-11588963899066.html. Accessed 25 June 2020 12. https://www.boomlive.in/videos/fact-file/covid-19-how-india-became-a-ppe-kit-manufactu ring-hub-8408. Accessed 25 June 2020 13. https://tech.hindustantimes.com/tech/news/amazon-jeff-bezos-facebook-mark-zuckerbergwere-the-highest-earning-billionaires-during-covid-19-pandemic-71590302660041.html. Accessed 25 June 2020 14. https://www.urbantransportnews.com/covid-19-and-its-effects-on-rail-transport-industry/. Accessed 25 June 2020 15. Griffiths S, Sovacool BK (2020) Perspective rethinking the future low-carbon city: carbon neutrality, green design, and sustainability-tensions in the making of Masdar city. Energy Res & Soc Sci 62:101368 16. https://www2.deloitte.com/global/en/pages/about-deloitte/articles/covid-19/understandingthe-sector-impact-of-covid-19---transport-organiza.html. Accessed 25 June 2020 17. Stephan A, Crawford RH, de Myttenaere K (2013) Multi-scale life cycle energy analysis of a low-density suburban neighbourhood in Melbourne, Australia. Build Environ 68:35–49 18. Bansal D, Singh R, Sawhney RL (2014) Effect of construction materials on embodied energy and cost of buildings—a case study of residential houses in India up to 60 m2 of plinth area. Energy Build 69:260–266 19. Bansal D, Minocha VK, Kaur A (2019) Component-wise-embodied energy analysis of affordable houses in India. J Asian J Civ Eng. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42107-019-00184-4, a Scopus indexed Journal of Springer on 14/8/2019 20. http://cpheeo.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/3_40.pdf. Accessed 25 June 2020 21. https://www.wiego.org/street-vendors-essential-goods-and-urgent-needs. Accessed 25 June 2020 22. https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/cinema-after-covid-19/article31643937.ece. Accessed 25 June 2020 23. oglu Huseynov EF (2011) Planning of sustainable cities in view of green architecture. Procedia Eng 21:534–542 24. Fu Y, Zhang X (2017) Planning for sustainable cities? A comparative content analysis of the master plans of eco, low-carbon and conventional new towns in China. Habitat Int 63:55–66 25. Rojas C, Munizaga J, Rojas O, Martínez C, Pino J (2019) Urban development versus wetland loss in a coastal Latin American city: lessons for sustainable land use planning. Land Use Policy 80:47–56 26. Petern LL, Yang Y (2019) Urban planning historical review of master plans and the way towards a sustainable city: Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Front Arch Res 8:359–377 27. https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/india-lockdown-rural-distress-corona virus-a-moment-to-revive-mgnrega-6421558/. Accessed 25 June 2020 28. Bansal D, Minocha VK (2018) Analysis of low rise vs High Rise development of affordable housing in India, for cost and energy optimization. In: International conference on clean technologies and sustainable development, by NITTTR Chandigarh and DOST, GOI, Feb 23–24, 2018, Chandigarh, pp 105–111

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29. Cabeza LF, Barreneche C, Miró L, Morera JM, Esther Bartolí, Inés Fernández A (2013) Low carbon and low embodied energy materials in buildings: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 23:536–542 30. Bansal D (eds) (2011) Sustainability urban development and biodiversity conference, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 14 Dec 2011

A Case Study on Flyover in Urban Context Basant Twarit, Singh Neeraj Kumar, and Singh Anand Kumar

Abstract Taking into account the health of a highway bridge by considering the rapid growth of traffic and urbanization at higher pace, there is an urgent need to monitor the bridges at regular interval. There exits very examples of consequences faced when these things remained unidentified. To achieve this goal, the paper takes a deep look of a highway bridge situated in Dehradun, which is being termed as Balliwala Flyover. As many more than 20 accidents have happened on that flyover just because of poor structural formation and incapability of government for its maintenance. Therefore, there was an urgent need to study the flyover design and its capability to perform under huge traffic flow. The paper mainly focuses on the methods related to the feasibility study and the suggestions for its improvement by using the methods of TVC, TMC, PCU, ADT, and traffic movements. Upon studying the feasibility of that flyover as per guidelines of IRC and other codal provisions, we concluded that with much increase of the traffic flow on that flyover, there is an urgent requirement of constructing an additional flyover along with existing flyover by 2023 in order to maintain the uninterrupted flow. Keywords Balliwala flyover · Traffic survey · ADT · TMC · PCU

1 Introduction It is being accounted that mainly five flyovers have been constructed in Dehradun till date in which four of the major bridges are fit to use and one bridge situated in Balliwala has been a trouble for the traffic of that area which is also a major cause of the accidents happening there.

B. Twarit Tata Consulting Engineers Ltd, Noida, India S. N. Kumar Prism Johnson Ltd, Kanpur, India S. A. Kumar (B) School of Engineering, UPES, Dehradun, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 V. P. Singh et al. (eds.), Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 199, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6_5

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Few newspaper reports show the accidents happening on that flyover and the government’s temporary plans for minimizing those accidents. There are many articles present for the design specifications of these bridges but are not being published from a general perspective [1]. Growing population, rapid urbanization, accelerating pace of industrialization, and intensification of human resources have exerted heavy pressure on our vast but limited transportation facilities. Nowadays, the flyovers are also getting congested as the traffic demand is continuously increasing leading to the obstruction in the route. In an urban area, the design of a flyover, a type of bridge, significantly depends on the convenience of construction because challenges like utilities management, traffic management and safety and security are challenges during construction. Minimization of construction cost through optimal design of the bridge and ensuring durability against static and moving loads are also ensured to rule out possibility of damage or defects in the bridge structure. Recent design philosophies consider the concept of life cycle design of a bridge, which evaluated the expectation of all stakeholders including the citizen, government, and urban agencies. The design engineer takes into account the functional life cycle requirements into the design calculations considering the entire service life of the structure. The specification of the bridge design shall differentiate between a low volume road to that of an urban road. So, there should be clarity and understanding of the bridge design and behavior but without sacrificing the required design skills [2–5] In this project, Dehradun’s Balliwala Flyover is taken into consideration to study its feasibility as per the traffic demand on that flyover and junction. It was examined that due to limited lane width and curve on the flyover, a large number of accidents has unfortunately took place from the time of its construction. Also as per the Road Accident data 2017, released by Ministry of Road Transport & Highways and Transport Research Wing, there has been continuous increase in number of accidents in Uttarakhand ranging from 1410 in 2014 to 1603 in 2017. The data also reveals that the number of deaths has also increased from 878 in 2014 to 942 in 2017. Out of these 942 accidents 20 accidents have taken place on that flyover only [6, 7]. The Government or the concerned authority has taken no meaningful action in order to curb the accidents happening on that flyover. Thus, in order to come with an alternate solution for the problem, we have studied the Traffic flow, Traffic movement, TMC, PCU, ADT, etc. using videography method at the junction of the highway below the flyover and at the flyover in order to get the approximate flow of traffic on daily basis so that the solution can be given on that basis. After studying the traffic flow, we concluded that there is an additional requirement of a flyover along with the existing flyover by 2023 as per the codal provisions. The proposed bridge should have a lane width of 7 m having 800 m length as per the calculations. Thus, in order to come with an alternate solution for the problem, we have studied the Traffic flow, Traffic movement, TMC, PCU, ADT, etc. using videography method at the junction of the highway below the flyover and at the flyover in order to get the approximate flow of traffic on daily basis so that the solution can be given on

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that basis. After studying the traffic flow, we concluded that there is an additional requirement of a flyover along with the existing flyover by 2023 as per the codal provisions. The proposed bridge should have a lane width of 7 m having 800 m length as per the calculations.

2 Objectives and Methodology A. Objective of the Study The main objective of this study is to evaluate the functional effectiveness of the existing flyover constructed over level crossing and assess how far they are successful in mitigating congestion and enhancing mobility at Balliwala flyover. The specific objectives of this study are as follows: • To assess the relative level of usage of road space under and over the flyovers. • To evaluate the mobility and road accessibility conditions of vehicles both at-grade and above-grade level. • To assess the effectiveness of flyover in terms of reducing traffic congestion levels and improving safety at level crossings. B. Project Influence Area The project mainly consisted of the feasibility study of the Balliwala flyover, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, accounting its traffic flow and accidents happening on that flyover (Fig. 1). C. Methodology The data for this project has been collected from field surveys and videography methods as well as from secondary sources. Vehicle growth rates have been correlated to the demographic and economic growth trends of the state to establish future growth rates [5]. The methodology used for the study is shown below.

Fig. 1 Satellite image of the Balliwala flyover

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D. Traffic Survey and Data Collection In order to understand the characteristics and the volume of traffic using the project roads, data on road network, traffic volume, and turning movement plying on the project road were collected through primary surveys. For this purpose, a detailed reconnaissance survey was conducted to identify the appropriate locations for carrying out the turning movement count and traffic volume count. Once appropriate locations were finalized for these traffic surveys, the following traffic surveys were carried out in this study: • 8 h directional classified traffic volume count surveys at Balliwala Junction to derive the ADT. • 8 h directional classified traffic volume count surveys at Lakme Saloon, Balliwala, Dehradun Center, just where the Balliwala Flyover Starts. • 8 h directional classified turning movement count surveys at Balliwala Junction to derive the directional distribution of vehicles (Figs. 2, 3, and 4 ).

A Case Study on Flyover in Urban Context

Fig. 2 Survey at Lakme salon toward Ballupur end

Fig. 3 Survey at Balliwala junction

Fig. 4 Inventory survey

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3 Result and Discussion A. Data Analysis and Inference The hourly variation of traffic illustrates the distribution of traffic over the day with respect to time and the peak hour factor is the maximum percentage of the total traffic that uses the project highway in one single hour of the day (Table 1). It is of significance as highway capacities and design calculations are based on peak hour factor. Figure below shows the hourly variation of ADT (vehicle-wise) observed at the two traffic survey locations on the project road at Balliwala and at location near Balliwala Flyover. The peak hour factor observed at the various count locations is summarized in Table 2 (Fig. 5). The peak hours at the Flyover survey locations along the project road are also observed in the afternoon hours at 13:00–14:00 with almost 24% of the total ADT playing during this hour (Fig. 6). It is seen in the table above that at the peak hour at Balliwala Junction is in the afternoon, i.e., 13:00–14:00 h with almost about 7% of the total ADT playing during this hour. On the project road, the hourly variation patterns by each mode indicate that passenger vehicles like cars and two-wheelers peak during day and afternoon peak time (indicating commuter rush). On the other hand the truck and LGV traffic is almost constant throughout the day, since there is no time restriction on their movement and show constant movement patterns. Analysis was carried out to find the composition of traffic in terms of various types of vehicles plying on the project road and flyover. The salient points from the traffic composition analysis derived from data are summarized in the following Fig. 7. The following vehicular composition pattern is observed at Balliwala Junction: Table 1 Videography locations S. no.

Type of survey

No. of locations

Location

1

Traffic volume count

1

Balliwala Junction

2

Traffic volume count

1

Lakme Saloon, Balliwala

3

Turning movement count

1

Balliwala Junction

Table 2 Hourly variation Sl. no.

Survey location

1 2 3

Road

Peak hour volume (PCU)

ADT (PCU)

Peak hour

Balliwala junction Project road

3,871

53,896

13:00–14:00

Balliwala flyover (Ballupur-ISBT)

Project road

6,362

27,511

13:00–14:00

Balliwala flyover (ISBT-Ballupur)

Project road

7,394

27,511

13:00–14:00

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Fig. 5 Modal hourly variation on Balliwala flyover

Fig. 6 Modal hourly variation at Balliwala junction

• Passenger vehicles constitute about 90.5%, of the traffic and consist of mainly twowheelers (67.7%) and cars (18.5%). 3.92% of the traffic observed is commercial in nature consisting of mainly light commercial vehicles. • The high percentage of passenger traffic may be attributed to the commercial area near this survey location which may be generating the commercial traffic. The following vehicular composition pattern was observed on Balliwala Flyover at Lakme Saloon survey location:

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Fig. 7 Composition of traffic at Balliwala junction

• Passenger vehicles constitute about 93.92%, of the traffic and consist of mainly two-wheelers (40.15%) and cars (52.1%). 6.06% of the traffic observed is commercial in nature consisting of mainly light commercial vehicles. • The high percentage of passenger traffic may be attributed to the ISBT near this survey location which may be generating traffic (Fig. 8). It can be seen from the 8-h turning movement counts diagram of the 4-legged Balliwala Junction that the peak daily total (slow and fast) hourly incoming traffic is Fig. 8 Composition of traffic on Balliwala flyover

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about 76,236 PCUs, out of which almost 23% is contributed from the through traffic movement. Almost 58% of the traffic is contributed toward Station and Vikasmall. B. Discussion of Results As per the government data source, i.e., MOSPI, the annual traffic growth rate of Dehradun city is between 12 and 15% which is more than the normal growth rate of traffic. So in respect of this data, there is a need of another flyover by the year 2023 to cater the demand of the traffic avoiding traffic congestion and road accidents (Table 3). After analysis of the data obtained, the results clearly show that the existing flyover is not sufficient to cater the traffic demand of today’s scenario. As a result of which the traffic congestion and chances of accidents are more likely to occur as per the data obtained after analysis and surveying. The first analysis after surveying is that the lane width for a two-way traffic is not enough that’s why the congestion occurs. Secondly, the existing flyover is not capable enough to meet the demand of future generation in terms of traffic. The first objective was to access the relative level of usage over and under the flyover which was then noted that the more number of traffic lied under the flyover because of the junction lying below the flyover. It can be noted that instead of less traffic lying on the flyover, the road accidents and congestion are happening which is a major issue as the design of flyover is not up to that mark so that it can meet the traffic demand. The second objective is to evaluate the mobility and road accessibility condition of vehicles both at-grade and above-grade level, it was being noted that the peak hour mobility between 13:00 h and 14:00 h is maximum at both the levels and also there are more likely chances that 12% increase in the traffic mobility as well as accessibility at both levels would take place in result of which we require an additional flyover to meet the future traffic demand. C. Recommendation The following solutions can be proposed to the existing problem: 1.

On developing an additional flyover just beside the existing flyover, either of the flyover should have only one-directional flow of traffic and another directional flow at another flyover to maintain the safe, easy, economical, and fastest mobility of traffic above that Balliwala junction.

Table 3 Growth rate analysis Growth rate scenario Optimistic

Traffic growth rate (%)

Four lane divided (two-way) flyover

Six lane undivided (two-way) flyover

8

2031

2036

Normal

12

2026

2029

Pessimistic

15

2023

2027

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2.

Secondly, the development of another flyover can take place at above-grade than existing flyover for one-directional flow of traffic, i.e., one-way traffic and another direction flow of traffic at the existing flyover because of the land constraint in that area to move the traffic safely and rapidly.

4 Conclusions After all the traffic data analysis, traffic counts, Traffic forecasting, study of accidents and congestion causes and their calculations, we came to a conclusion that the existing flyover is not suitable for fulfilling the today’s traffic demand. As the current growth of traffic in Dehradun is far above the normal growth rate which requires a proper suitable way to cater the demands of the traffic, the temporary works would not be practically enough to give a solution to the problem. So there is an immediate need of another flyover as stated above for a safe, rapid, and easy flow of traffic. As per the calculations and analysis, after development of additional flyover, the future growth rate can be managed for a longer duration without unconditional accidents and congestion. Moreover, growing economy, rapid urbanization, and connectivity of minor streets to major roads, etc. have led to huge traffic growth in urban areas and therefore the existing transportation facilities need to be revised to meet the future traffic demand. We can also conclude that there is an urgent requirement of a traffic signal at the junction below the flyover for congestion-free traffic movement. And lastly after the implication of the result obtained from the data analysis, public outrage can be minimized up to a possible level of control on both the levels, i.e., at flyover and below the flyover.

References 1. Mermigas KK (2008) Behaviour and design of extradosed bridges. Diss, 2008 2. Rao G, Hota VS, Zelina TR (1988) Development of economical low-volume road bridges. J Struct Eng 114(9):1941–1961 3. Xanthakos PP (1994) Theory and design of bridges. Wiley 4. Islam R (2018) Performance evaluation of flyovers constructed over level crossings. Dhaka 5. Anwari N, Hoque MS, Islam MR (2016) Effectiveness of Flyovers Constructed Over Railway Line. BUET-ANWAR ISPAT 1st Bangladesh civil engineering summit 6. Newspaper, Amar Ujala (2019) 7. Jagran D (2019) Newspaper

Planning for Pedestrian-Friendly Cities Manaswini Naugain and Anand Kumar Singh

Abstract For the past century, the car has been the main lifeline of the moving traffic, in the design of the connecting roads and planning of our urban areas. However, the car-dominated planning era is behind us, as people nowadays rely on walking, cycling, and using public transit for daily travel and it’s time for city planning and design to catch up with this new trend. The present study focuses on creating pedestrian-friendly public street space by inspecting the street design of Dehradun, Uttarakhand. According to literature studies, in an urban environment, the dense mix of land uses and public spaces which are safe, comfortable, and easily accessible are the factors on which pedestrian activity depends and these conditions are the focus of this assessment. Our research is a theoretical framework and a detailed site assessment of the Public Transport Terminals-Railway Station and Inter State Bus Terminal (ISBT), Dehradun, to understand and examine the problems in design of these areas in order to create improvised conditions of walkability for pedestrians. The proposed method for improving the existing pedestrian facilities in the aforementioned sites consists of a thorough study of the existing scenario by surveying and analyzing the problems in order to suggest the measures for improvement. This study is also expected to provide a better understanding of the roles of planners in the creation of pedestrian-friendly street space, and to explore what potential exists to make the street environment of Dehradun more pedestrian-friendly. Keywords Pedestrian-friendly · Urban environment · Walkability · Public transport terminals

1 Introduction The quality of a city’s life mainly depends upon its creation and the advancement of transportation is one of the main criteria. The word pedestrian-friendly is termed for the streets considered as “walkable” ensuring that people can safely cross from one M. Naugain · A. K. Singh (B) School of Engineering, UPES, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 V. P. Singh et al. (eds.), Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 199, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6_6

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place to another. We know that a walkable city is a better city and the more we walk the better will it be in every aspect. The roads are considered as the most important public spaces in cities and pedestrians are its largest users. Indian cities are struggling constantly to provide safe and secure walking spaces to pedestrians, who are considered as the most vulnerable road users among all the others. According to a study conducted by Wilbur Smith Associates for the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA), 28 percent of the population is a walking population and yet these cities have become unsafe for them. As per a survey conducted by the Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) in 2008, 9 out of 10 pedestrians felt unsafe while crossing the roads [1]. From the report of The Law Commission on “Legal Reforms to Combat Road Accidents” it has been stated that 53% of road deaths are among pedestrians. Our country has the least amount of pedestrian infrastructure where improper sidewalks, and zebra crossings, makes pedestrians prone to jay-walking, crossing the roads wherever convenient, putting themselves and the motorists at risk. The sidewalks in India are strictly said to be vehicle-free zones but the reality is that cyclists and sometimes even motorized vehicles prominently use the sidewalks, making pedestrians very prone to accidents. It is advised to the drivers to warn pedestrians by blowing horns. While Indian roads are a constant cacophony of horns, the irony is, very less drivers use it to warn pedestrians. Not only drivers but the pedestrians themselves are at fault too as they tend to use the risky shortcut more in order to reach a place faster as compared to the route that will take more time but is safest to travel. The overall situation related to pedestrianization in Dehradun is very disappointing. Once known as a “walker-friendly” city, Dehradun roads are becoming less user friendly for the pedestrians nowadays. According to a study, 19% of travel in the city is done on foot or non-motorized transport. With the increase in encroachment of footpaths and vehicular traffic on roads, pedestrians are seen struggling to even walk to a nearby distance. As per Dehradun Smart City Proposal, 48.1% of roads in Dehradun are characterized by on-road parking on both the sides. According to Mr. Jugmohan Singh, Urban and Transport Planner–Mussoorie Dehradun Development Agency (MDDA) [2], when it comes to roads and pedestrians, multiple agencies play their role which makes the work difficult. Also, the classification of urban roads in Dehradun is not proper, making the city planning difficult. He also thinks that the implementation of the Master Plans in their letter and spirit is the only factor that can help in ensuring proper development of pedestrian facilities in the city. There is no appropriate legislation to govern the behavior and use of roads by pedestrians and non-motorized traffic. It has been left to the States to legislate thereon. However, a notice from Punjab and Haryana high court was issued to the Government of India on making adequate provisions for enforcement of “right to walk” as a fundamental right. We can just hope that in the future, Indians are able to walk on, without stepping on other’s toes.

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Table 1 Problem statements for Dehradun S. no.

Item

Problem statements for Dehradun

1

Footpaths

a. They are in dilapidated condition with open drains, broken hoardings, and concrete, obstructing the Right of Way for pedestrians b. As per a study, 62% of city roads currently do not have footpaths

2

Vehicular traffic

a. Increasing number of vehicles have exceeded the road capacity b. Rising vehicular traffic and haphazard parking practices has resulted in unavoidable traffic congestions and multiple road accidents

3

Infrastructure

a. Lack of foot-over bridge and subways at major locations where the traffic is heavy, thus making it difficult for pedestrians to cross the roads

4

Junctions

a. Improper designs b. Approaches have haphazard parking and lack footpath, making it dangerous for pedestrians to walk

5

Traffic movement

a. Proper channelization for the free left turn is not everywhere b. Lack of proper signalization system for the smooth traffic movement

6

Zebra crossing

a. Not used by pedestrians much

7

Traffic rules regulation

a. Encroachment of footpaths or streets by the shop owners and vendors indicates that there is a lack of enforcement of traffic rules

1.1 Problem Statement and Study Objectives To test the pedestrian-friendliness of our city Dehradun, it was decided to start from the inter-modal locations of the city, known as ISBT and Railway Station. Our aim being to ensure safe and smooth movement at these two prime locations by conducting surveys of the site areas in order to know the problems faced by pedestrians while traveling through the same and accordingly propose solutions via which the safety and comfortability of the pedestrians may be improved (Table 1). After our thorough assessment we came across the following issues which require improvement. As per the above points indicating the problem statement, the research objectives have been proposed in order to achieve the goal [3].

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1.2 Research Objectives and Expected Goal • • • •

To provide facilities for all groups of society. To provide safer and convenient streets. Provision for engineering study. Suggested solutions/designs.

With the help of this study, we undertook primary data collection, road inventory, and collection of other information related to the inter-modal locations in Dehradun City with a focus on above research objectives. Hence, our expected goal as per statement is defined below: “To ensure safe and smooth pedestrian movement, at inter-modal locations in Dehradun”.

2 Literature Review This section primarily concentrates on reviewing the existing literatures on the various factors and processes of the relationship between walking and condition of the urban environment, the role of public space in cities, concepts of walkable neighborhoods, and pedestrian-friendly design for urban streets. This theorizing informs the framework for understanding the current state of pedestrian-friendliness in Dehradun, and guides potential design interventions and concepts which could be applied there. The findings are summarized and presented in the following order: (a) (b) (c) (d)

Most advanced pedestrian-friendly cities in different continents. Design study for best walkability in plain terrain. Design study for best walkability in urban region. Design study for best walkability considering psychological factors.

2.1 Most Advanced Pedestrian-Friendly Cities in Different Continents The following table demonstrates the best practices followed in the selected cities of the different continents of the world. This study has been done to understand and determine the applicability of these practices in Dehradun (Table 2).

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Table 2 Best practices of cities in different continents S. no.

Continent and cities

Best practices

1

Europe (Copenhagen and Lisbon) [4]

a. Footpaths constructed of artistic tiles to attract pedestrians b. Parking spots reserved for PWDs c. Bus and metro facilities provided 24 × 7 d. Introduction of bike share program e. Directional bar and crosswalk maps on the side of the signals provided f. As per the law, pedestrian crossings are given absolute priority over all vehicles on road g. Pilot projects with led lights embedded in the asphalt with alternating use of space like virtual bus stop islands h. The traditional crosswalk symbol switched with a stick figure that imitates the dance moves of nearby people in real time

2

Australia (Sydney and Brisbane) [5]

a. Gardens planted along the footpath, to attract pedestrians b. Use of tactile-street signs for the visually impaired c. Introduction of night ride operating from midnight to 5am d. Introduction of scramble and 3-D zebra crossings e. Inscription in braille, for visually impaired on the sign boards containing information

3

South America (Bueno a. Super-wide and leveled with streets sidewalks Aries and Bogota) [6] b. Zones with stricter speed limits c. Some streets reserved for pedestrians only during the day d. Introduction of bike share system and guarded bicycle parkings

4

North America (New York and Toronto)

a. Introduction pedestrian programs to increase the pedestrian safety and more use of footpaths b. Introduction of 3-D zebra crossings c. Wide sidewalks with great range of amenities are provided to increase the number of pedestrians

5

Asia (Dubai and Singapore) [7]

a. Fans and humidifiers have been set on the sidewalks b. Pedestrian lamps can be seen in almost every signalized intersection c. Ramps or raised pedestrian crossings for the physically disabled people d. Introduction of pedestrian underpasses for isolated and convenient movement of pedestrians e. Use of automated car park system and 3-D zebra crossings

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Table 3 Plain terrain Design components

Characteristics

References

Footpath surface

Surface should be smooth and slip resistance in order to allow comfortable pedestrian movement

Guidelines for planning and implementation of pedestrian infrastructure (version 1.0) 2014, clause 3.1.1.5

Footpath width

Footpath with a minimum width of 1.8 m in residential areas and a minimum width of 2.5 m in commercial areas

Institute For Transportation & Development Policy (ITDP) Footpath design 2013, clause 4 (width)

Obstructions

Obstructions like hoardings, garbage bin, electric pole, trees, telephone wire boxes, etc. must be properly placed within the clear height of walking zone

Indian Road Congress (IRC)-103 2012 clause 6.1.4

Encroachment

Footpaths should be designed in such a IRC-103 2012 clause 6.11.2 way that sufficient space is available for encroachment outside the pedestrian zone

Risk of pedestrian-vehicle conflict

Sidewalks should be barricaded with railings or plantation of trees. Bollards can also be used with a spacing of 42 inches

Guidelines for planning and implementation of pedestrian infrastructure (version 1.0) 2014, clause 3.8.1.1

Continuity

For continuous travel of pedestrians having mobility impairment, ramps can be constructed. Gradients from 1:14 to 1:20 must be used

Planning and design for pedestrians: guidelines, clause 7.6.2

Convenience

Route of footpath should be short in comparison to the direct path so it is effective and preferred by all pedestrians

Pedestrian safety in multi modal public, by Pawan Kumar, Table 3

Safe

Footpath should have lightning facility for safe pedestrian movement. Access of footpaths should be made strictly to pedestrians only

Guidelines for planning and implementation of pedestrian infrastructure (version 1.0) 2014, clause 2.6

Accessible

Tactile pavers, guide blocks, and warning IRC-103 2012 clause 6.4 blocks can provide guidance and avoiding confusion to the pedestrians with vision impairment

Allurement

Use of street furniture like benches, trash bins, signage, etc. imparts sense of discipline on road users and add aesthetic value to the footpaths

Urban street design guidelines clause 4.6

2.2 Based on Terrain This section concentrates on the different characteristics of design components which exists and are provided in plain terrain. The main aim is to understand the different design components and their characteristics with reference to different pedestrian codes applicable to our selected locations, shown in Table 3.

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Table 4 Urban regions Parameters Characteristics

References

Footpaths

• Extra wide shoulders for safe Guidelines for planning and developing pedestrian movement infrastructure (version 1.0), 2014, • Benches should be provided at frequent Clause 2.7 intervals

Foot-over bridges

• Steel bridges • Concrete bridges

–

Parking facility

• Minimum spacing of angled parking: 2.4 m wide and 5.4 m long • Minimum dimension of parallel parking: 3.2 m wide and 7.8 m long

Planning and designing for pedestrians: guidelines, Sect. 12

Bus transport

• 57% urban population uses bus transportation • Bus transportation is rapid

–

Walking street

• Walking streets with proper drainage system • Guide tiles on walking streets

IRC: 103-2012, 6.1.6 and IRC: 103-2012, 6.1.4

Crossings

• Reflective zebra crossings • Table top crossing • Crossings induced by lights visible for drivers

Guidelines for planning and developing infrastructure (version 1.0), 2014, Clause 2.6, Safety of at-grade pedestrian crossing

2.3 Based on Regions The conceptualization of a walkable environment is also done on the basis of regions. Our selected locations come under the urban region and hence a tabular analysis based upon the characteristics of different parameters with reference to pedestrian codes, which can be used in improving the conditions of the selected sites, is shown in Table 4.

2.4 Based Upon Psychological Factors This section shows the analysis of the impact of psychological factors on the pedestrians, cyclists, and vehicle drivers which in turn affects the street design of a city (Table 5). Gap Assessment This section is about identifying the existing conditions of the pedestrian facilities in Dehradun. After the analysis of the literature review, a thorough study of the codal provisions has been done to give us a clear idea on how to proceed further. We have referenced the selected design parameters obtained from the codal provisions with the existing conditions of the same in Dehradun, shown in Table 6.

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Table 5 Impact of psychological factors Pedestrians, cyclists, and vehicle drivers [8] • Bicyclists struck by drivers who don’t stop to allow the bicyclists to cross in front of them • Pedestrians struck by turning drivers who don’t see and stop for the pedestrians • Pedestrians and bicyclists are not always aware of their vulnerability and so they don’t always act appropriately to protect themselves • Drivers have a habit of seeing only motor vehicles at the junctions, therefore they do not take into account the roads or junctions where pedestrians and bicyclists might be present • Younger and male pedestrians take more risk and do not comply with the traffic rules related to road crossing • Pedestrians might become more aggressive with less compliant behavior due to the low income, perceived social inequality, and the lack of alternatives to walking • Pedestrians taking up recreational or healthy activities are more safety conscious • The pedestrians who take less risks do not cross the roads outside the designated locations • Pedestrians who have negative opinions for drivers are more careful and compliant

Table 6 Existing conditions of Dehradun Parameters

Existing condition of Dehradun

Footpath surface

• Improper and uneven surface • Improper drainage facility

Footpath width

• Less than permissible value forcing pedestrians to use carriageway for walking

Obstructions

• Presence of open drains and hoardings in the walking zone

Encroachment • Most of sidewalks space is taken up by roadside vendors and by shops to display products Risk of pedestrianvehicle conflict

• Improper parking facility for vehicles • Lack of guardrails or bollards for isolation of pedestrian traffic from vehicular traffic

Continuity

• Sidewalks are not connected and integrated

Convenience

• Unavailability of zebra crossing • Lack of pedestrian signals and markings

Safe

• Unavailability of lights • Lack of pedestrian protection facility

Accessible

• Highly raised kerbs causing difficulty for pedestrian with wheel chair and walking sticks

Allurement

• Unavailability of trash bins on footpaths • Stinky footpaths with no regular cleaning

After the gap assessment, we proceeded toward carrying out the survey for the collection of data and its analysis, as per the standards of the parameters mentioned in the codal provision (Fig. 1).

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Fig. 1 Map of ISBT

Fig. 2 Map of railway station

3 Data Collection and Analysis The selected sites, ISBT, and Railway Station are areas of high-density population which makes it easier to analyze and understand the quality and development of the services that are provided for the betterment of the pedestrians and the city (Fig. 2). • ISBT, Dehradun, Uttarakhand (30.2870° N, 77.9983° E); survey carried out on November 16, 2019. • Railway station, Dehradun, Uttarakhand (30.3145° N, 78.0335° E); survey carried out on November 23, 2019. After the survey, the data was collected and analyzed thoroughly by keeping in mind the desirable conditions as per the codal provisions, provided for each parameter. The following table shows the collected data and its analysis (Table 7). With reference to the data analysis done in the aforementioned table, we have identified the problems in the existing conditions of the proposed sites. We now proceed toward the proposing of the suggestions for the improvement of the existing problems of the sites.

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Table 7 Comparison of collected data as per codal provisions Parameters

Desired condition (as per pedestrian codes)

Existing condition of ISBT, Dehradun

Existing condition of railway station, Dehradun

Footpath Surface

• Smooth, even, and non-skid surface • Proper drainage

• Not all the footpaths • Footpath surface on inside ISBT have the outside of the smooth, even, and station is very uneven non-skid surface and is not even used • The footpaths outside by the people the ISBT are in bad condition with improper drainage

Footpath width

• Width between 1.8 m • Inside bus stand • Footpath width and 2.5 m footpath width:4 m to outside station: 9m 4.27 m • Outside bus stand footpath width: less than 1.8 m

Obstructions

• 4 foot through walking zone to be maintained

• Drainage chamber and electric poles in walking zone

Encroachment

• Designed away from the walking area

• Vendors have • Most of the area used blocked the footpaths for walking has been and the side of the covered by the carriageway parked taxis

Risk of pedestrian-vehicle conflict

• Footpaths need to be segregated from the roads with fast moving vehicles • Sidewalks should be guarded with barricades and railings

• No protection to • No protection against sidewalks is available vehicle traffic is • Pedestrians are seen available for walking on roads as pedestrian safety well

Continuity

• Footpaths should be leveled with constructed ramps having gradients between 1:14 and 1:20

• Irregular surface of footpaths • No ramps are available

• Foot-over bridge and escalator are available for the pedestrians inside the station • There are no ramps or facility available outside the station

Convenience

• Footpaths should act as the shortest, quickest, and safest route

• Not all footpaths have been constructed to serve as shortest, quickest, and safest routes

• Route of pedestrian is same as route of vehicles making it very unsafe for the pedestrians (continued)

• Electric poles and parked two wheelers

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Table 7 (continued) Parameters

Desired condition (as per pedestrian codes)

Existing condition of ISBT, Dehradun

Existing condition of railway station, Dehradun

Safe

• Design of pedestrian signals, lightning, and proper markings for pedestrian safety

• Reflectors are • Lack of pedestrian available at some signals and markings points on footpaths for safety of • Road markings and pedestrians pedestrian signals are missing

Accessible

• Kerb ramps and guide blocks can be used for pedestrian guidance

• Kerb ramps and guide blocks are not seen anywhere on footpaths

Allurement

• Footpaths must be clean and free from stink • Trash bins should be accessible at every point

• Inside area is clean • Inside area is clean with proper trash bins and regularly available maintained with trash • Outside area can bins placed at every sometimes get stinky point due to clogging of • Outside area is not drains in monsoon maintained properly season and people prefer to use carriageway for walking

• Pedestrians face difficulty in walking • Ramps and guide blocks are not designed

4 Proposed Suggestions Pedestrian facilities are a very important aspect for a city, especially a city like Dehradun which has a very high pedestrian traffic. Till now we have identified the problems in the existing condition of our selected locations and understand that the facilities here for the pedestrians are in dire need of improvement. Based upon the comparison done with reference to the codal provisions, we have identified the standard conditions of different parameters for pedestrian facilities and hereby suggest the improvements which can be made to the existing conditions of the pedestrian facilities in the following Table 8. The problems discussed here are based on the survey performed by us and the recommendations are made in accordance to pedestrian codes and guidelines. Above suggestions if implemented can prove productive in making these locations pedestrian-friendly.

Encroachment

Obstructions

Footpath width

• Vendors can be seen with their shops set up at the footpaths, forcing people to walk on roads

• Area to be used by pedestrians has been covered by the taxis

• ISBT

• Railway station

• Separate area should be provided for parking of taxis and vehicles nearby station (continued)

• Footpaths should be barricaded so that illegal encroachment can’t be done and law enforcement for this should be made more strict

• Electric poles and parked two wheelers in the walking • Separate parking to be provided for two wheelers area • Electric poles should be placed away from the walking zone

• Railway station

• Street corners can be made spacious to accommodate these obstructions and cross slopes must be provided for water drainage

• The width of footpath can be up to 2.5 m and the remaining area may be used for putting up the electric poles or any obstruction, so that no hindrance is created for the pedestrians

• Maximum walking area has been covered with electric poles, telecom boxes, and broken drainage chambers

• The footpath width is 4.27 m, half of which is covered by electric poles

• Railway station

• Outside bus stand, width should be between 1.8 m and 2.5 m, so that pedestrians have ample space for walking

• ISBT

• Outside bus stand, footpath width: less than 1.8 m

• ISBT

• Footpath surface must be repaired to make it even and pedestrians must be made aware of the available footpath

• Uneven surface of the footpath • Pedestrians are not aware of the availability of the footpath

• Railway station

Suggestions or recommendations

• Not all footpaths have even surface inside bus stand • Footpath surface should be repaired to make it even • The footpath surface outside bus stand is uneven with so that pedestrians can walk comfortably • Providing proper drainage area alongside the improper drainage facility sidewalk is a must

Footpath surface

Problems

Location

• ISBT

Parameters

Table 8 Proposed suggestions for ISBT and Railway Station, Dehradun

60 M. Naugain and A. K. Singh

Location

Convenience

Continuity

• Pedestrians don’t use the available footpath because of the inconvenience they feel • The footpath is located at the opposite of the entry of station. Therefore, only one-way pedestrian traffic can use it without much difficulty • Traveling through it would take more time as compared to the time taken after traveling through route of vehicles, which in every way is very unsafe

• Railway station

(continued)

• The construction of a new footpath on the other side of the divider might cost more money, therefore an isolated route from entry point to the station location without interference of vehicles can be provided by use of barricades

• Footpaths do not serve as the shortest route • Re-planned footpaths/pedestrian facilities cannot be • Pedestrians prefer crossing the roads with moving constructed due to high construction cost, therefore buses inside ISBT to reach platform instead of taking railings/crash barriers must be fixed between footpath footpaths, thus making them prone to accidents and the road to compel pedestrians to walk on footpath only

• ISBT

• Footpath should have ramps at appropriate locations in order to make it easy for the people with disabilities to commute

• Footpaths have uneven surface • No facility is provided for physically disabled people

• Railway station

• Pedestrian traffic should be separated from vehicular traffic by installing guard rails or barricades • Zebra crossing should be provided to make drivers aware of pedestrian crossing area

• Barricading sidewalks with guardrails • Placing bollards with a minimum spacing of 42 inches

Suggestions or recommendations

• No ramps are available • Ramps with gradient 1:12 should be provided • Level of footpath is not appropriate making it difficult • Maintaining constant level of footpath making it for the people on wheelchairs to commute convenient to use

• Pedestrians don’t use the footpath. Instead they use the road • There is no isolation of pedestrian traffic from vehicular traffic • Unavailability of zebra crossing

• Sidewalks protection from vehicular traffic is not available • Pedestrians are seen walking on roads as well

Problems

• ISBT

• Railway station

Risk of • ISBT pedestrian-vehicle conflict

Parameters

Table 8 (continued)

Planning for Pedestrian-Friendly Cities 61

Allurement

• Outside area becomes stinky due to the clogging of drains during monsoon season and the system for waste disposal is also improper • Public toilets are poorly maintained

• Outside area is not maintained properly. There is no availability of proper waste disposal

• ISBT

• Railway station

• Outside area should be provided with trash bins along with plantation and regular maintenance

• Providing essential utilities for waste disposal • The drains must be cleaned from time to time and cross slopes must be provided • Public toilets must be maintained by frequently cleaning them

• Difficulty faced by pedestrian with physical disability • Ramps and guide blocks should be provided both at the entry and outside stations

• Railway station

• Guide or warning blocks can be provided to guide people having any physical disability

• No pedestrian facility for people having physical disability

• Pedestrian signals and markings like zebra crossing must be provided for the safety of pedestrians • The lighting must be proper outside the station, for the safety of pedestrians at night

• Proper lights must be provided at night time for safe movement • Proper traffic signals, road markings like zebra crossing, and speed breakers must be provided to make drivers aware of pedestrians on road

Suggestions or recommendations

• ISBT

• Lack of pedestrian signals and road markings • Walking area is shared by vehicles also making pedestrian movement unsafe • The lighting outside the station is not proper

• Railway station

Accessible

• Improper lighting • Unavailability of traffic signals, road markings, and speed breakers

• ISBT

Safe

Problems

Location

Parameters

Table 8 (continued)

62 M. Naugain and A. K. Singh

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5 Conclusion All the countries of the world are adopting different plans and techniques to make their cities more pedestrian-friendly where walkability is a very important aspect. India is a country with the second highest population and second largest road network in the world which can make walkable road networks a boon for the country. In this study, we have focused on the major problems that the pedestrians had been facing at the inter-modal locations of Dehradun. The thorough study of the literature review and codal provisions, the surveys and data collection, and the analysis of collected data followed by the proposed suggestions that have been made are to the best of our knowledge, which can be offered to reinstate Dehradun as “walkable” or “pedestrian-friendly” city. Dehradun has been reeling under massive onslaughts of sudden and unplanned urbanization since last two decades. The problems of traffic congestions, over population, and indiscriminately rising pollution have battered the once beautiful landscape into an infrastructural mess. If timely intervention is not done, it may lose its unique charm forever.

References 1. Raja V (2017) Do pedestrians have any rights? [Blog] The better India. https://www.thebetter india.com/100305/pedestrians-right-road-safety-law-traffic/ 2. Shrivastava R (2020) Enforcing the ‘right to walk’ in Indian cities. [Blog] Citizen Matters. https://citizenmatters.in/the-right-to-walk-15947 3. Government of Uttarakhand (2019) Annexure 2 Dehradun Smart City Proposal. Dehradun 4. Gössling S (2013) Urban transport transitions: Copenhagen, City of Cyclists. J Transp Geogr 33:196–206. Lisbon’s Beautiful sidewalks. https://www.citylab.com/design/2018/10/lisbonsbeautiful-dangerous-sidewalks/573643/ 5. Strategy and action plan 2015–2030. Walking strategy and action plan. https://www.cityofsyd ney.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0013/233320/Walking_Strategy_FINAL_for_web.pdf, Brisbane.qld.gov.au. 2020. Accessible Streets and Footpaths. https://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/ community-and-safety/community-support/disability-access-and-inclusion/streets-footpaths 6. Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (2020) Buenos Aires. https://www.itdp.org/ city-transformations/buenos-aires/, Development Asia. n.d. A strategy for creating a bicyclefriendly city. https://development.asia/case-study/strategy-creating-bicycle-friendly-city 7. Sarvy Geranpayeh S (2020) How disabled-friendly is Dubai? Gulfnews.com. https://gulfnews. com/going-out/society/how-disabled-friendly-is-dubai-1.1655524, Ura.gov.sg. 2020. Clause 7. https://www.ura.gov.sg/Corporate/Guidelines/media/BD725DB201DB496A93569C8072D D9FD0.ashx 8. Psychological factors affecting the safety of vulnerable road users: a review of the literature Ian Walker

Spatiotemporal Variation in Surface Velocity of Glaciers, Namely, Mount Kolahoi in the Lidder Basin Between 2016 and 2019 Using Landsat 8 Imagery Ambuj Singh, Praveen K. Thakur, S. P. Aggarwal, Ram Chandra, Sudhakar Shukla, and Dhanendra K. Singh Abstract There is hard evidence of melting in Himalayan glaciers at remarkable rate in the past few decades. In the present study, the changes in Kolahoi glaciers in Himalaya are estimated. Glacier surface velocity is key constraints of the glaciers among other than main component that used to understand the glacier dynamics. In this present research abstract, surface velocity glaciers, namely, Mount Kolahoi in the Lidder Basin between 2016 and 2019 during three time span 2016–2017, 2017– 2018, and 2018–2019 are likely to explore spatiotemporal characteristics of surface velocity of these glaciers via a cross-correlation algorithm functional on Landsat 8 panchromatic images, i.e., Band 8 with a resolution of 15 m. A decrease of _29% in average annual surface velocity and 20% in average mean annual surface velocity is observed during 2016–2017 in comparison with the average annual surface velocity during 2017–2018 and _33% in average annual surface velocity and 30% in average mean annual surface velocity is observed during 2017–2018 in comparison with the average annual surface velocity during 2018–2019 for Mount Kolahoi Glaciers. The analysis of transverse and lateral velocity profile of the glaciers is also carried out to conclude the governing factor responsible for glacier dynamics. The area of the glacier and the glacier snout from 1990 to 2019 are look over. It is reported in the study that the glacier area shrunk between August 7, 1990 and September 10, 2019 was 8.5 sq. km. and 7 sq. km. and it is found in this study that the rate of recession in the glacier from 1990 to 2019 is 0.051 sq. km. per year. Reduction in the glacier snout and glacier area has resulted that the Mount Kolahoi Glacier, Jammu and Kashmir, is shrinking and dimensional changes. Keywords Kolahoi glacier · Surface velocity · Spatiotemporal · Landsat 8 · Cross-correlation

A. Singh (B) · R. Chandra · S. Shukla Remote Sensing Applications Centre-Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow 226021, India P. K. Thakur · S. P. Aggarwal · D. K. Singh Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun 248001, India D. K. Singh HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar 246174, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 V. P. Singh et al. (eds.), Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 199, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6_7

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1 Introduction Glacier dynamics play an important role in the Himalayan and Karakoram Regions after the polar ice region gets most glaciated and covering 40,800 km2 area and also plays a significant role in the hydrological development as well as cycle and source of the freshwater in addition to water resource management [5]. Glacier seasonal snow and precipitation are the main source of the freshwater in the downstream river, i.e., Lidder River. Momentous variations in Himalayan glacier are predictable with varying climatic conditions of that region and neighbors. Kolahoi is the source of the two popular river, namely, Sind and Lidder Rivers. Kolahoi Glacier lies in lat. 34°10 27.87 N long. 75° 19 34.38 E. at the elevation 14,330 ft. and the melted water tributary of glacier is known as the West Lidder River, which join the East Lidder River at Pahalgam (35 km from the snout) [1]. Mount Kolahoi Glacier is the one of the longest glaciers in the Kashmir, it is about 5 km and it flows from the northwest of the neve field covering about 35 km2 [1]. As we are familiar that the Kolahoi which is one of the biggest glaciers of the Kashmir and which feeds the valley’s main river is melting rapidly than the other glaciers among the Himalayan glaciers and may force the supply of the water of tens of thousands the civilians of their neighbor’s per year because of the warning environment as per the report of the glaciers of Kashmir. Himalayan River Basin be governed by the snowmelt water and rainy season water to withstand their source of revenue, mainly for the irrigation and public health as well as the industrialized necessity [17]. According to the expert states that the climbing of the temperature is making harshly and quickly retreating in the Himalayan glacier and according to [11] the enormous melting proportion may source the substantial flooding. A moment ago, the life-threatening flood and landslide over the Kedarnath occur because of the disproportionate snowmelt and uninterrupted dense precipitation. Many of the researchers in their studies have presented the evidence of the unprecedented and remarkable disappearance rate of the Himalayan glaciers in the current decades. Model estimates forecast that half of the glacier cover could be vanished by 2100 [4]. The growth in the universal mean temperatures by 2100 could aggregate anything as of 1.4–5.8 °C, be contingent on the climate model and greenhouse gases discharge consequence. On the Indian sub-continent ordinary temperatures are anticipated to upswing between 3.5 and 5.5 °C by 2100 [10]. A prediction was made that up to a part of the global mountain glacier mass possibly will evaporate by 2050 [4]. Model and observational evidence and documentation have been convincing enough that to make the glacier melting and significant signature of the climate modifications. Newly and latest technology have been invented and included for making the observation and continuous seeking to the glacier changes. The invented technologies include laser profiling [3], analysis of global mass balance data [7] and radar altimetry [14].

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Physically and field surveillance are very less in number and limited over the composite and complex province like Kolahoi. Remote sensing method and technique presents a distinctive prospect to monitor and get close to glacier and make the analysis in the variation with deformation in the glaciers. In this present study done and having the aim as the objective to monitor the changes in the glacier by using the remote sensing technique and methods without the field observation but making confirmation with the Google Earth imagery. Remote sensing data and satellite imagery are widely used to make assess the changes and variation in the glaciers. Over the last few decades, glaciological studies aimed to monitor the variations in the glacier with its surface deformation and their dynamics through the remote sensing method in the mountain region such as the Alaska [3], the Alps [13], Central Asia [2], and Patagonia [6]. In this study, changes in glacier magnitude have been investigated by using the satellite imagery and the Landsat data and some other data from 1990 to 2019 for the glacier extent and glacier surface velocity.

2 Study Area The extent of glacier Kolahoi is between 75°20 E and 34°10 N, and its head wall and highest peak of Kashmir Valley are held at 5425 m. It is to be found in the Anantnag District of the Jammu and Kashmir. The melted water and runoff from the Kolahoi Glacier flows in the direction from west to Lidder Valley and connected the east Lidder Valley at Pahalgam, around 35 km beginning the snout of the glacier. Distance between Pahalgam and the Anantnag is around 49 km and distance between the Pahalgam and Mount Kolahoi is around 15 km through Arial distance but total distance is about 26 km reached by the foot. Figure 1 shows the study area map of the research work, and grid shows the coordinate of the Kolahoi Glacier. As per the Global Land Ice Measurements from Space (GLIMS), the slope of the glacier is 16.5 sq. m.

3 Dataset In this study, data were acquired from the scientific agency of the United State Government, i.e., United States Geological Survey (USGS) earth explorer of the earth observation satellite Landsat 5, Landsat 8, and Sentinel 2 for the study of the glacier extent and snout extent and for the glacier surface velocity the data were used only of the satellite Landsat 8. The panchromatic data B8 of resolution (15 m) is used for the deriving the surface velocity of the Kolahoi Glacier. Table 1 is having the data information of the area extend and snout extend. Table 2 is having the data information of the glacier surface velocity Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) of the 30-m resolution.

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Fig. 1 Study area map with location of the Kolahoi glacier Table 1 Table of the satellite data used for deriving the area extent in the glacier Sensor

Date

Image ID

Landsat 5

7-Aug-1990

LT05_L1TP_149036_19900807_20170129_01_T1_BQA

Landsat 5

27-Aug-2000

LT05_L1TP_149036_20000827_20161213_01_T1_BQA

Landsat 5

17-Oct-2010

LT05_L1TP_149036_20101017_20161012_01_T1_BQA

Landsat 8

13-Sep-2015

LC08_L1TP_149036_20150913_20170404_01_T1_QB

Sentinel-2

10-Sep-2019

L1C_T43SET_A022024_20190910T053640

Table 2 Table of the panchromatic imagery for estimation of the glacier velocity Sensor

Date

Image ID

Landsat 8

1-Oct-2016

LC08_L1TP_149036_20161001_20170320_01_T1_B8

Landsat 8

4-Oct-2017

LC08_L1TP_149036_20171004_20171014_01_T1_B8

Landsat 8

4-Aug-2018

LC08_L1TP_149036_20180804_20180814_01_T1_B8

Landsat 8

24-Sep-2019

LC08_L1TP_149036_20190924_20191017_01_T1_B8

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4 Methodology In initial state of the study, satellite metaphors have been engaged to adapt the glacier which is chosen for analysis and research, summaries presented in GLIMS (Version 6.0) by plotting the glacier by means of a various principles conclusion procedure [12]. The Kolahoi Glacier is granted for the study because it is greater than the1 km2 in the area and also sufficient for obtaining the glacier velocity in the directional and having the movement. At the initial phase choose the dataset at the end of the ablation period season which is fulfilling minimum snow cover criteria, the presence of the least cloud coverage in the satellite imagery, consider to those dataset whose glacier terminus is being identifiable easily in the Landsat 8. As the author [9] most of the glacier in the Himalaya are the debris covered and therefore use of the unsupervised classification for plotting the boundaries of the glacier which may clue for uncertainties at the greatest stage. The boundary of the glacier is being recognized by the following indicators like whose snout is having the least surface velocity, stream of the glacier, or through the proglacial lakes. The methods adopted in this study for retrieving glacier surface flow velocities and glacier dynamics of Karakorum, western, and eastern Himalaya. As per the study done by [15], glacier surface velocity is obtained by image-toimage correlation at a sub-pixel level using COSI-CORR (Co-registration of Optically Sensed Images and Correlation), a module in ENVI image-processing software. The technique performs co-registration and correlates optical satellite images to calculate the resultant displacement. In the present study, I use two Landsat 8 Pan bands, with a temporal interval of 1 year to derive the surface velocity of the glaciers for the research glaciers. This method of velocity estimation yields an accuracy of 1/4 of a pixel. The approach produces N-S and E-W displacement components that are used to estimate the resultant surface movement. A signal-to-noise filter is finally applied to avoid the anomalous velocity values [15]. Here H is the ice thickness in meters, Us is the surface velocity (derived using image-to-image correlation of optical satellite image), a is the slope estimated for every 100 m interval, r is the ice density, g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 ms−1 ), and f is the shape factor, which is defined as the ratio between the driving stress and basal stress along a glacier [15]. The number of point measurements is given by n. The total offset is calculated by  a 2 + b2 Cosi-CORR: It is a product collection that has been created under IDL (interactive data language) and fully integrated under ENVI. It is a technique for locating changes in sub-pixels using a few orthoimages. In order to evaluate the exact stream speed and yielding of the PRG, the COSI-Corr device was selected after investigating the yields of

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Fig. 2 Stepladder used for originating the glacier velocity by the COSI-Corr software

the mentioned previously mechanisms. Both the removal map and the fields for the vectors were obtained using the geospatial instrument. Pictures from the pre-occasion and after-occasion were picked and orthorectified. The images were then related to each other using a search window from 256 to 256 pixels (max value) to 8 to 8 pixels (min esteem), with a stage size of 8 pixels and a veil limit of 0.9, using the recurrence correlator selection. The stream heading vector memorandum was then made using the advancement of east–west and north–south in the COSI-Corr menu with the aid of the vector field instrument. The yield includes signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) used to remove commotion from the output. The images were converted into a coherent ArcGIS configuration (.img) for removal picture and the vector for stream direction.shp for stream direction (Fig. 2).

5 Glacier Velocity Estimation Velocity of the glacier is being obtained through the correlation of the imagery to imagery at a level of numeral standards for x and y, probably the fractional pixel position is being obtained by making the correlation, through the software of imageprocessing ENVI having a module COSI-CORR (co-registration of optically sensed image and correlation).This method of co-registration of satellite imagery data is

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done to the ensuing displacement [16]. In this present study, use of the Landsat 8 panchromatic satellite imagery band data, for deriving the glacier velocity at the temporal interval of 1 year, has been done in the Kolahoi Glacier. There is yield of accuracy in 1/4 of a pixel through this procedure of velocity estimation [8]. After making the co-registration, the product approaches in the displacement component of N–S and W–E, and through this product the approach is then used to estimate the resultants of the suffice movement. To keep away the noise in the anomalous velocity values, there is a filter signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) which is finally applied. Most often there may be occurrence of the error while making the image-matching process which leads to inaccurate velocities because if the co-registration of the image is not done properly or inaccurately. The precision of the correlation method is being rectified through investigation by the RSME of the acquired displacement quantities over the established ground in the Dhauliganga Basin [15].

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• In case of Mount Kolahoi Glacier having in the above figure, mean displacement is estimated to range 2016–17 is 7.83(m/year), 2017–18 is 10.26 (m/year), and 2018– 19 is 7.06 (m/year) highest positive values are seen the length of the core trunk of glacier. By this calculation we can conclude that the velocity of the accumulation zone is decreasing yearly, which is most venerable for the neighboring species of this glacier in the future. Surface velocity (m/year) Years

High

Low

2016–2017

73.994

0.046

Mean displacement (m) 7.83

Standard deviation 6.8

2017–2018

52.793

0.035

10.26

8.48

2018–2019

35.336

0.013

7.06

5.62

Snout and Area extent: The icy mass degree examination in this investigation was done for the years 1922–2015. The icy mass region was mapped utilizing a map arranged by the college of Texas in 1922 utilizing the visual picture translation method. A storehouse of flying degree transform was then progressively mapped utilizing Landsat and supplementary accessible open-source informational collections that incorporate Google Earth scene and Bing symbolism. Practically, all the informational indexes were obtained between July 15 and November 15 to maintain a strategic distance from any commitment from a day off mists. In addition, this specific season speaks to the ice sheet surface as it were. Band proportion strategies were utilized to delineate the region of icy mass from Landsat information. The symbolism of Google Earth and the symbolism of Bing be also used to support the results of the NDSI plan. Apart from that, a field review was conducted to assess the accuracy of image translation. Trimble GPS (handheld) was used to collect the information that focuses near the icy mass’s nose. Additionally, the north-eastern area of the icy mass took a few information focuses. By designing it with the GAGAN route satellite information, GPS accuracy was upgraded to 2 m, and subsequently the information was approved with the shape documents produced from satellite data. For snout mapping, some distributed information was utilized which shows the records of nose estimation in past reaching out back to 1800. These progressions were likewise checked from other satellite informational indexes (Fig. 3).

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Fig. 3 Glacier extent changes from 1990 to 2019 using Landsat imagery

The spatial size of the Kolahoi Glacier altered from 16.06 to 09.88 Sq Km from 1990 to 2019. The area of glacier was 8.5, 7.87, 6.93, 6.91, and 7.03 sq. km in 1990, 2000, 2010, 2015, and 2019, respectively. It is also reported that the glacial flow line length of the glacier was approximately 1.4 km in the past so the glacier has retreat to about 0.83 sq. km in 2019 (Fig. 4). Year

Glacier flow line length (km)

Area (sq. km)

1990

1.4

8.504

2000

1.3

7.87

2010

1.02

6.939

2015

0.87

6.919

2019

0.83

7.035

GLIMSID

1.1

6.669

As the surface of the ice sheet is difficult to scale, the entire ice sheet area has gone beyond the degree to be illustrated. And there was more attention on the shift of nose, because it is the most fragile piece of icy ice. Changes in the nose were calculated based on research already distributed (Fig. 5).

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Fig. 4 Temporal changes in the whole area and snout in the Kolahoi Glacier by applying the shapefile

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Fig. 5 Temporal changes in the snout in the Kolahoi Glacier

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6 Conclusion In this research, variability in the spatial and temporal surface velocity of the glacier, namely, Mount Kolahoi is determined between 2016 and 2019 in three interval of 2016–2017, 2017–2018, and 2018–2019 to introduce interest to the glacier dynamics already established awareness base of this glaciers. The glacier surface velocity is estimated using COSI-Corr open-source software based on cross-correlation algorithm utilizing the panchromatic satellite imagery of the Landsat sensor. The annual surface velocity of the Kolahoi Glacier is presenting the decreasing pattern during 2016–2017 and 2018–2019, but which is also showing marginally increasing trends in the year 2017–2018. However, the position of the snout of the glacier is also sliding backward slightly and it is shown in this research between years 1990 and 2019 the snout is shifted continuously which can be concluded that the Kolahoi Glacier is retreating as the decades are passing. The effect of higher temperatures and winter slowdown precipitation appears to have contributed to the substantial retreat of the Kolahoi Glacier. If the new withdrawal situation occurs, the annual western Lidder River transitions to an ephemeral discharge, which would in turn creates water shortage areas offshore. It is clear that the Kolahoi glacier is still nowhere near equilibrium where declining cycles suggest continuing stagnation and no threshold of equilibrium can be achieved with both the present climate scenarios. Thus, the Kolahoi Glacier is unable to exist in the existing climate patterns.

References 1. Ahmad N, Hashimi NH (1974) Glacial history of Kolahoi Glacier, Kashmir India. J Glaciol 13(68):279–283. https://doi.org/10.3189/s002214300002308x 2. Aizen VB, Kuzmichenok VA, Surazakov AB, Aizen EM (2006) Glacier changes in the central and northern Tien Shan during the last 140 years based on surface and remote-sensing data. Ann Glaciol 43(May 2014):202–213. https://doi.org/10.3189/172756406781812465 3. Arendt AA, Echelmeyer KA, Harrison WD, Lingle CS, Valentine VB (2002) Rapid wastage of Alaska glaciers and their contribution to rising sea level. Science 297(5580):382–386. https:// doi.org/10.1126/science.1072497 4. Bajracharya S, Shrestha B, Much T (2016) Global climate change and melting of Himalayan glaciers Abstract : (February) 5. Bolch T, Kulkarni A, Kääb A, Huggel C, Paul F, Cogley JG, Stoffel M (2012) The state and fate of Himalayan glaciers. Science 336(6079):310–314. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.121 5828 6. Dixon L, Ambinakudige S (2015) Remote sensing study of glacial change in the Northern Patagonian icefield. Adv Remote Sens 04(04):270–279. https://doi.org/10.4236/ars.2015. 44022 7. Dyurgerov M, Mark E, Instaar M, Nsidc RA (2002) Glacier mass balance and Regime: data of measurements and analysis occasional paper no. 55, Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research. In: University of Colorado Glacier mass balance and regime: data of measurements and analysis ISSN 0069-6145. Occasionla paper no. 55, (55), pp 268

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8. Heid T, Kääb A (2012) Evaluation of existing image matching methods for deriving glacier surface displacements globally from optical satellite imagery. Remote Sens Environ 118:339– 355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2011.11.024 9. Kumar V, Mehta M, Mishra A, Trivedi A (2017) Temporal fluctuations and frontal area change of Bangni and Dunagiri glaciers from 1962 to 2013, Dhauliganga Basin, central Himalaya, India. Geomorphology 284:88–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.12.012 10. Lal R (2002) Soil carbon dynamics in cropland and rangeland. Environ Pollut 116(3):353–362. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0269-7491(01)00211-1 11. Mishra M, Kashiwazaki J, Takagi T, Srinivasan R, Huang Y, Balasubramanian MK, Mabuchi I (2013) In vitro contraction of cytokinetic ring depends on myosin II but not on actin dynamics. Nat Cell Biol 15(7):853–859. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncb2781 12. Paul F, Huggel C, Kääb A (2004) Combining satellite multispectral image data and a digital elevation model for mapping debris-covered glaciers. Remote Sens Environ 89(4):510–518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2003.11.007 13. Paul F, Käär A, Maisch M, Kellenberger T, Haeberli W (2002) The new remote-sensing-derived Swiss glacier inventory: I. Methods. Ann Glaciol 34(May 2014), 355–361. https://doi.org/10. 3189/172756402781817941 14. Rignot E, Bamber JL, Van Den Broeke MR, Davis C, Li Y, Van De Berg WJ, Van Meijgaard E (2008) Recent Antarctic ice mass loss from radar interferometry and regional climate modelling. Nat Geosci 1(2):106–110. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo102 15. Sattar A, Goswami A, Kulkarni AV, Das P (2019) Glacier-surface velocity derived ice volume and retreat assessment in the dhauliganga basin, central himalaya—a remote sensing and modeling based approach. Front Earth Sci 7(May):1–15. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2019. 00105 16. Scherler D, Leprince S, Strecker MR (2008) Glacier-surface velocities in alpine terrain from optical satellite imagery-accuracy improvement and quality assessment. Remote Sens Environ 112(10):3806–3819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2008.05.018 17. Sharma N, Kalra KL, Oberoi HS, Bansal S (2007) Optimization of fermentation parameters for production of ethanol from kinnow waste and banana peels by simultaneous saccharification and fermentation. Indian J Microbiol 47(4):310–316. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12088-007-0057-z

3D Reconstruction of Heritage Site Using Terrestrial LiDAR Scanner (Tls): A Case Study of a Section of Gulistan-E-Iram, Lucknow Aishwarya Chandel, S. K. S. Yadav, A. K. Agarwal, Sudhakar Shukla, and Joyeeta Poddar Abstract Heavy encroachment and aggressive environmental conditions can cause unexpected damage to the artefacts. Traditional condition evaluation is expensive. An alternative is terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) which is a non-contact approach that is safe, fast and applicable to all sort of weather conditions. This paper reviews the application of terrestrial LiDAR scanner on artefacts scanning involving geometric documentation, surface detect determination, corrosion evaluation and crack identification. Currently, most post-processing of terrestrial LiDAR scanner (TLS) is manual or within third-party software. This paper is the scientific approach towards the scanning of the artefacts and its storage for future execution. Keywords LiDAR · Terrestrial LiDAR scanning · Point cloud · Heritage building inspection · Surface defects · Cracks in the building · Adding of any new part in the building

1 Introduction History of India and its culture is too vibrant and colourful. Princely states developed their kingdoms and their palaces which further become artefacts for the modern period. These artefacts are too old more than the period of hundred thousand years, due to which they are been damaged or been encroached by the public (or) people nearby to the artefacts [6]. Damages which are being developed knowingly or unknowingly by the public or the environmental change, e.g. acid rain, earthquake, erosions, rainwater flow offs, are dangerous for the artefacts and the heritage buildings which are the base of our Indian culture and history [8]. So, we need to protect our Indian heritage and the artefacts which had been developed in ancient and medieval period of our history. Restoration and preservation should be performed by the institution with the help of modern technology [11]. Nowadays, we have the devices and instruments which can collect the details of the buildings/architecture and further we

A. Chandel (B) · S. K. S. Yadav · A. K. Agarwal · S. Shukla · J. Poddar Remote Sensing Applications Centre, Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 V. P. Singh et al. (eds.), Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 199, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6_8

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can store the data and could be recovered when we require for restoration purpose. We can also develop the 3D models of the artefacts in small-scale formation [10]. LiDAR, light detection and ranging, is an active remote sensing device which uses light waves for transmitting towards the object and after reflecting back it is absorbed by the scanner of the device. This whole process is used to generate the 3D data of the artefacts, which could be further manipulated or could be used for further restoration of the building with same details [1]. Gulistan-e-Iram is the building in the centre of City of Nawab, Lucknow (UP). This building was built in early nineteenth century by King Nasir-ud-Din, the second king of awadh. Nawab Nasir-ud-Din Haider took the throne at the age of 25 years after his father Nawab Ghazi-ud-Din Haider Shah died. Gulistan-e-Iram was the personal library of Nawab Nasir-ud-Din Haider with thousands of books. After the first war of independence in 1857, the British ordered the demolition of Qaiserbagh because it was the strong base of nawab/kings of awadh so at the end British government some parts of gulistan-e-Iram were demolished. With help of Remote Sensing Application centre (Lidar Department), Lucknow, (UP) we have performed a LiDAR inspection with the instrument in the complex of the Gulistan-e-Iram building and developed the 3D model of the artefact which could be further used in future for restoration purpose or adding some more details to the building [1].

Fig. 1 LiDAR used for scanning of Stonehenge, England (UK) (Photo credit: English heritage)

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2 Principal of Terrestrial Laser Scanner (TLS) Terrestrial LiDAR scanner utilizes either scanner for coverage or for triangulation. With range, the transmitter distance and this reflecting surface will either be measured as the time of movement between the signal transmission and the flight time (ToF) of the laser pulse, or as the phase difference between the transmitted and the received wave, referred to as the phase comparison method [7]. That last one uses a transmitting device and a charging-coupled device sensor to detect an object’s laser location. The (3D) three-dimensional position of the reflecting surface element could then be derived from the triangles that result. ToF scanners are chosen for artefacts and larger buildings because of their longer range [2].

The distance between the transmitter and the reflector is determined using the laser’s travel time (ToT). Distance = (Speed of light × Time elapsed)/2 The Time of Flight (ToF) scanner produces scanned points in both horizontal and vertical planes, through a sequence of range measurements with standardized angular increments. The revolving mirror and revolving head mechanisms achieve this. Laser sensor measurement can be based on four principles: time-of-flight: signals are emitted and their travel time from and to the source is determined, multiplied by light speed and separated by two phase differences: waves are modulated in width or frequency; amplitude modulation is prone to sharp discontinuities in object form or reflection, whereas frequency modulation provides accurate measurements even with low optical triangulation when returning energy, interferometry for shortrange applications and small objects offer very high precision and are used in indoor industrial metrology [9]. Utilizing time-of-flight technology, pulses can currently be digitized and thus computationally balanced between the energy produced and the energy returned. It tries to avoid setting a minimum threshold, reduces calculation time at single points and eliminates other restrictions. The Riegl VZ-400 is the first such terrestrial laser scanner, now available as VZ-1000, that digitizes the signals. The shape of the signal reconstructed from its digitalized version provides an indication as to the reflective characteristics of the surface of the object, thereby allowing determination of its morphology.

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3 Components of Terrestrial LiDAR Scanner (TLS) See Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Some important components of LiDAR

A. Chandel et al.

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4 Architecture Inspection As discrete data points, terrestrial LiDAR scanner acquires further 3D geometric data of the surface of the structures. The information can either be used to recreate the structures’ 3D models or to detect changes in the surface over time. Some of TLS’ earliest applications to the artefacts were for the acquisition of geometries in historical architecture. In some cases, mesh triangulation was then used to derive the surfaces to generate solid models and make a real record. TLS was combined with photogrammetry near range. The efforts are focussed on thirdparty tools or researcher-driven algorithms, which proposed to fit a non-parametric regression methodology based on a local bivariate kernel smoothing technique from the architecture and design point clouds [4].

5 Study Area Qaiserbagh has many grand monuments situated in the heart of the city. 26.8577° N, 80.9312° E. Gulistan-e-Eram is a prominent building. Gulistan-e-Eram was built in early nineteenth century by King Nasir-ud-Din Haider, the second king of Awadh. Nawab Nasir-ud-Din Haider ascended the throne at the age of 25 years after the death of his father Nawab Ghazi-ud-Din Haider Shah. He died on 7 July 1837 after he was poisoned by his family and a member of his court. Gulistan-e-Eram was the personal library of Nawab Nasir-ud-Din Haider with thousands of books but after his death it became the farm house of British government (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3 Gulistan-E-Iram, Qaiserbagh, Lucknow (Photo Credit: Lucknow Society)

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Uttar Pradesh

Lucknow

Gulistan-eIram 26.8577° N, 80.9312° E

6 Methodology Nowadays, photogrammetry includes post-day data collection and processing in order to cut short the delays with stand final design. Whereas the project’s final stages involve the accuracies provided by traditional photogrammetric processing. As such, the potential to use less precise LiDAR terrain data in the early stages of the point to be processed reduces the availability for more precise photometry (in later

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stages for final alignments). These LiDAR data are present in the process, allowing for alignments Instead, lower resolution images can be collected simultaneously with LiDAR and then photogrammetry aerial images taken once a final alignment is selected and environmental condition permits [5] (Fig. 4). The recently held imagery may be used as an input to the aerial triangulation process when processing LiDAR data. Instead, divided lines can be produced using triangulated images. Work on final design plans which start with the final alignment selection. The technique plays the central function of reducing energy; therefore, the energy minimization strategy is named [3] (Fig. 5 and Table 1). The methodology can be explicitly divided into six major parts: • Image is the most important aspect of the process as it affects each and every part of the process. There are two types which are basically the method of object sensitivity and the layout of an image. There are numerous remote sensing methods available that are as follows: a LiDAR, photometry, a spectrometry, If SAR and three forms of platform: airborne (from above), ground (from side) and combination.

Fig. 4 Measurement of the point from the scanning point

Fig. 5 Measurement of the features present in the building

86 Table 1 Dimension of the features present in the Building (Gulistan-e-Iram)

A. Chandel et al. S. no.

Object

Dimensions (in mtrs)

1

Door

Length = 1.873 m

2

Cornish of mirror Diameter = 0.626 m

3

Cornish of imaginary door

Length = 2.790 m

Breath = 1.281 m

4

Cornish of brick made on wall

Length = 0.263 m

Breath = 0.165 m

5

Cornish of pillar made on wall

Length = 3.700 m

–

6

Three windows placed on wall

Length = 4.347 m

Breath = 6.409 m

7

Cornish on wall

Length = 0.476 m

Another Length = 0.174 m

Breath = 0.836 m –

• Preprocessing requires two operations: filtering and transformation of the data. The filter’s purpose is to eliminate a noise, but the transformation examples can be a splitting, a smoothing, a normalization, a collection of features or an extraction of features. • Attention point allocation depending on the search objective and the classification scheme creates the different perspectives in the picture. The points of focus are closely associated with the idea of a contrast, where the contrast can be represented as the difference between two elements or as some class’ usual element member. • Clustering using minimal the other most important point of that methodology is energy. The clusters (objects) must be separated using the minimum amount of energy, in compliance with the second principle. • Cluster recognition when the boarders of the object are found, the object recognition algorithm can be applied. There we can use surface-based and edge-based algorithms. • Post-processing is the operation which must be done to present and to save the result of object recognition process.

7 Result of the Study The point cloud of Gulistan-e-Iram captures the outer feature of the Kothi to the mmlevel accuracy with exact coordinates of each cloud point. The features available on the wall of the Kothi are captured and preserved for the reconstruction of the damaged features and recreation of the same monument in future. The Cornish, walls, statues on the pillars and wall could be measured with mm-level accuracy. 3D Model of “The Gulistan-e-Iram” was produced. By this we can get the accurate and best possible images of the buildings or the portion we want to extract. As the best possible way

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Fig. 6 Intensity image (right wing) of the building

Fig. 7 Comparison between the intensity images and the RGB images of the building

which have make easy capturing of data of a building or any huge structure in the best possible way. The building is surrounded by many other huge buildings and structure but with the help of this technology we had made it to easy in collection of data of the building (Fig. 6). The intensity images could be used for other comparison purpose. The damages could be easily studied and are possibly stored further for anymore addition to the building or any further construction purpose. These data which are being stored for further could be easily extracted from the open sources and could be availed from any open media platform for anyone who is keen to work on these projects (Fig. 7).

8 Conclusions As is evident, many parts of the monuments such as Cornish, bricks, wall, design on walls, windows and doors are damaged/broken at places due to lack of maintenance,

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Fig. 8 3D model of the historical building

Fig. 9 TIN (triangulated irregular network) of the Gulistan-E-Iram

wear and tear. Some portion disappeared in the back side of the kothi, and these can be reconstructed with the help of dimensions of existing similar structure (Fig. 8). Having this photorealistic model in a 3D environment is beneficial since it would act as a guideline for the responsible authority as a reference for better documentation, planning and tourism purposes. For heritage documentation, a proper combination of close-range photogrammetry and laser scanning approach can be applied to have a more accurate 3D model of a historic building. The point clouds generated can be retrieved rapidly with ease and manipulated in a variety of ways for future visualization and decision-making. It is a preservative documentation which can be used for the reconstruction of the pillars and for future (Fig. 9).

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References 1. De Boer A (2005) Using pattern recognition to search LIDAR data for archeological sites. The World is in your eyes: Proceedings of the XXXIII Computer applications and quantitative methods in archaeology conference. 2. Dogon-Yaro MA, Kumar P, Abdul Rahman A, Buyuksalih G (2016) Semi-automated approach for mapping urban trees from integrated aerial lidar point cloud and digital imagery datasets. International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences—ISPRS Archives. https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLII-4-W1-127-2016 3. Dušánek P (2011) Exploitation of countrywide airborne lidar dataset for documentation of historical human activities in countryside. Geoinformatics FCE CTU. https://doi.org/10.14311/ gi.6.13 4. Fernandez-Diaz JC, Carter WE, Shrestha RL, Leisz SJ, Fisher CT, González AM, Thompson D, Elkins S (2014) Archaeological prospection of north Eastern Honduras with airborne mapping LiDAR. International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS). https://doi.org/ 10.1109/IGARSS.2014.6946571 5. Fryskowska A, Kedzierski M, Walczykowski P, Wierzbicki D, Delis P, Lada A (2017) Effective detection of sub-surface archeological features from laser scanning point clouds and imagery data. International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences—ISPRS Archives. https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLII-2-W5-245-2017 6. Gianni GB, Marzullo M, Valtolina S, Barricelli BR, Bortolotto S, Favino P, Garzulino A, Simonelli R (2012) An ecosystem of tools and methods for archeological research. Proceedings of the 2012 18th International Conference on Virtual Systems and Multimedia, VSMM 2012: Virtual Systems in the Information Society. https://doi.org/10.1109/VSMM.2012.6365917 7. Höfler V, Wessollek C, Karrasch P (2015) Modelling prehistoric terrain Models using LiDARdata: a geomorphological approach. Earth resources and environmental remote sensing/GIS applications VI. https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2194290 8. Hyyppä J, Jaakkola A, Chen Y, Kukko A, Kaartinen H (2013) Unconventional LIDAR Mapping from Air, Terrestrial and Mobile. Photogrammetric Week. 9. Kucukkaya AG (2004) Photogrammetry and remote sensing in archeology. J Quant Spectrosc Radiat Transfer. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jqsrt.2003.12.030 10. Nelson EJ, Daily GC (2010) Modelling ecosystem services in terrestrial systems. In F1000 Biology Reports. https://doi.org/10.3410/B2-53 11. Schindling J, Gibbes C (2014) LiDAR as a tool for archaeological research: a case study. Archaeol Anthropol Sci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-014-0178-3

Efficient Bus Transport System, Case Study of Dehradun Vibhor Goel and Ankur Chowdhary

Abstract Despite the prodigious growth urbanization has put forth, a tremendous demand for infrastructure and inconsistency between demand and supply of transport infrastructure arises fuel loss, pollution, and accidents along with loss of productive time and energy. All over the world, the public transport system has been playing an important role in meeting the transport demand of the cities. Recognizing the cost-effective nature and the flexibility that the bus system provides has brought in reforms to improve cities’ productivity. This paper focuses on analyzing the current situation and the condition of public transport in Dehradun. It needs the immediate requirement of an efficient public transport system integrating the bus services with IPT. It was observed that only 28.33% of commuters were captive to public transport mode and there is high private vehicle ownership, which indicates the lack of good public transport system and road congestion along with the roadside parking. The hierarchy of public transport is missing in the study area, which leads to every vehicle on the trunk route. The study provides the suggestion to assess the switch over the behavior of commuters from personalized vehicles to new innovative modes of transport as bus rapid transit system or improved city bus system. Keywords Urbanization · Traffic congestion · Public transport hierarchy · City bus system

1 Background There are tremendous changes in this world in the last few decades. One of which is an exponential increase in the urban population as compared to the population in the rural areas. Accelerated population growth puts pressure on land use and increases the risk of urban expansion inadequately connected to public transport capacity [1]. V. Goel (B) · A. Chowdhary Department of HSE, Civil Engineering, and Planning, School of Engineering, UPES, Dehradun, India A. Chowdhary e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 V. P. Singh et al. (eds.), Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 199, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6_9

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The transportation sector is a major contributor to the GDP. Currently, its share is close to 6.7%, which is expected to grow to about 12% of GDP in 2026. Currently, India has the second largest road network of 58.98 lakh KMs in the world after the United States of America which has a road network of 66.45 lakh KMs [2] and which are influenced by population growth and urbanization. Growth in urban population increases movements of passengers and freight, and urban sprawl implying longer travel distances [3]. India, with a population of 1210 million [4], is urbanizing at a very fast rate. The level of urbanization has increased from 17.97% in 1961 to 31.16% in 2011 [5]. With the increase in the level of urbanization, a much higher increase in the vehicular population is seen. With the present trend in urbanization, 40% of the population is expected to grow in urban areas along with 75% of GDP contribution by urban population only. By 2030 India will have 68 cities with more than a million population which is 42 right now and 590 million people will live in urban areas which is twice the population of the US today [6]. With the growing urbanization, it is expected that private vehicles will grow by more than three times by 2030 [6]. India has experienced tremendous growth in the total number of registered vehicles from about 0.3 million in 1951 to 253 million as of 2017. The total registered vehicles in the country grew at a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 10.11% between 2007 (96.7 million) and 2017 (253.3 million). In 10 years, 156.6 million vehicles were added on the road. Out of 253.3 million in 2017 the major share of 73.86% was two-wheelers. The combined share of cars, jeeps, and taxis in the total number of registered vehicles was 13.30% in 2017, i.e., 87.16% of the registered vehicles are private vehicles. The share of buses in total registered vehicles has declined from 11.1% as in 1951 to 0.74% as in 2017 with the 4.84% of registered goods vehicles. The share of “Other vehicles”, which include tractors, trailers, three-wheelers (passenger)/Light Motor Vehicles (LMVs), and other miscellaneous vehicles contributes to the remaining 7.27% [7]. Tremendous demand for transport infrastructure and inconsistency between demand and supply arises fuel loss, pollution, and accidents along with loss of productive time and energy. Realizing the depth of the problem, there is a sudden need to introduce better technologies and bring a shift from private vehicles to public transport. This paper focuses on analyzing the current situation and the condition of public transport in Dehradun City, the interim capital of Uttarakhand state. There are many problems faced by Dehradun in terms of transportation, as there is no organized public transport system. The Dehradun has developed as a regional service center for the entire Garhwal Region and pulled a large amount of hill population. Dehradun has a population of 5.78 lakhs [4] which is expected to increase 11.93 lakhs by 2031 with an average growth rate of 43%. This unprecedented growth of urban areas has resulted in chaos, traffic congestion, overcrowding, and mass encroachments on the drainage system of the city. Registered vehicles have also exponentially increased from 83,186 vehicles in 1995 to 1,900,962 in 2015 with 89% of private vehicles and the rest other. It influences the increased level of congestion on the roads of Dehradun City. The public transport of the city is at a very critical stage. As per observation, the city has no proper infrastructure for public transport especially for city buses with no terminals and proper bus stops. The reason for low commuter density is the

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condition of buses and poor level of services due to non-organized fleet management and scheduling. There are many transported-related studies conducted on large towns, whereas small and medium towns lack such studies and researches as the investment is comparatively low in the sector. Rail-based and road-based mass rapid transit systems (MRTS) are required to provide services for Class IA and IB cities, while city bus service for lower class cities [8], therefore Dehradun being a class II city should focus on strengthening the city bus transport.

2 Literature Study The Ministry of Housing and Urban Development (MoHUA) encourages cities to focus on the mobility of the people [9]. The targets are cost-effectiveness, affordability, and equitable public transport. Prior policies, i.e., NUTP 2006 had also acknowledged problems of road congestion and associated air pollution. Various central schemes are also focused on the improvement of public transport systems like the current scheme of Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation 2015 and the former scheme of Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission 2005, which have provisions for funding urban transport-related infrastructure [10] and through procurement of buses, respectively [11]. These policies and schemes clearly state the importance of public transport in cities and the significance of buses in urban transport. The costly mass rapid transit system such as Metro, LRT, and PRT, etc. mandates the preparation of comprehensive mobility plans that focus on the movement of people rather than vehicles. Hence, all these initiatives direct toward the dawn of public transportation in coming future.

3 Methodology The purpose of the study is to address the problem faced by public transport and how it can change the image of the city (see Fig. 1). For that, the first need of study was derived to have better clarity and accuracy in achieving the objective of the study. The whole research was divided into three steps, i.e., pre-fieldwork, fieldwork, and post-fieldwork.

3.1 Pre-fieldwork The focus was on the literature review of various trends influencing urban mobility in India through various policies and schemes. Also, get the inferences from the best practices and types of public transit systems.

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Fig. 1 Methodology

3.2 Fieldwork In this step, data collection was done through stated preference, revealed preference approach [12], and primary surveys, which include route inventory, volume count, road inventory, and commuter surveys, after which analysis of public transport system had been completed.

3.3 Post-fieldwork After gathering the data and mapping the PT infrastructure, analysis on road volume and capacity, bus infrastructure, commuter density, overlapping of routes, etc. had done. Recommendations and proposals were derived based on the preferred approach and survey analysis.

4 Road Characteristics 4.1 Road Network The city is linked to the entire state via a network of radial roads. The primary transport corridors are Rajpur Road, Haridwar Road, Saharanpur Road, and Chakrata Road, which all originate from the city center (see Map 1). Due to an uncontrolled urbanization process in Dehradun and lack of public transport, the magnitude of vehicle ownership has increased exponentially. The road density is not up to the mark compared to the increase in traffic volume, which

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Map 1 Road hierarchy

leads to congestion and encroachment. Dehradun observes mixed traffic and side friction of non-motorized vehicles, on-street parking, and pedestrians due to the non-availability of roadside infrastructure. These activities impede the movements of traffic and thereby result in a negative impact on the overall performance of the road. On-street parking reduces the road capacity by narrowing down the carriageway resulting in congestion on the roads [13]. In the case of pedestrian due to lack of footpath and foot-over bridges, pedestrians use the carriageway while walking along the road and cross at the undesignated mid-block location, as a result of which vehicles tend to shy away ensuring a safe lateral distance from the pedestrians [13]. Dehradun comprises 463 KMs of road network [14]. In Dehradun City, 28% of the roads are between 12 and 18 m in width. This is followed by 10–12 m roads, which constitute 26% of the road surveyed and only 8% of roads are 24–30 m wide and 17% are of 18–24 m. As per the function of urban road classification [15], only 8% of roads are arterial roads, 17% are sub-arterial roads, 54% are collector roads, and 21% are local roads (see Fig. 2), which is not the standard practice for designing the road hierarchy in any city. Out of the total roads, only 23% of roads are divided and 77% of roads are without dividers, which increases the chances of wrong overtaking and traffic congestion. With the undeveloped congested roads of Dehradun for a long period, there is a tremendous growth of registered vehicles, especially personal vehicles, which leads

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Fig. 2 Road network characteristics

to overflow of traffic on most of the major roads. The traffic-carrying capacities of roads are low due to limited widths, intense land use, and encroachments.

4.2 Vehicular Growth As cities become more urbanized, the demand for transportation infrastructure grows. The demand for a more efficient and secure mode of public transport is growing. Inadequacy in public transport leads to a shift toward private vehicles [14]. The city witnessed an 81% growth in vehicle registration from 2005 to 2015 with an average growth rate of 32% by 2030 (see Fig. 3). It can be seen that the private vehicles, two-wheelers and four-wheelers, have the highest share in the vehicle composition of almost 90%.

Fig. 3 Vehicle growth and vehicle composition in 2015

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The increase in vehicular population is directly influencing the capacity of the road. With the increase in traffic volume, the capacity of road overflows, which leads to traffic congestion. Almost all the arterial roads are having a volume by capacity ratio of one or more than one [14], which shows that there is a need to expand the road infrastructure or focus on other modes of transport for the public. The maximum traffic volume count can be observed at the core of the city, i.e., within the 1 km radius of clock tower. The roads developed earlier have reached a breaking point due to which the traffic is clogged on the current systems of the roads. In addition, there are various traffic segregations on the roads. All the types of vehicles commute on the same road at the same time, which makes the situation extremely chaotic and haphazard. There is mixed vehicular movement on roads. Most of the public is traveling through personalized vehicles. A very meager amount of people are using the available form of public transport which leads to vehicular overcrowding on the roads.

5 Current Posture of Public Transport Disintegration in between adequate planning and land use regulation in Dehradun City has resulted in rampant sprawled development extending rapidly in all directions, far beyond old city boundaries into the distant countryside [16], which increases the trip length and travel time. Public transport should be the primary mode of transport for majority of cities to reduce traffic congestion and conflicts. The demand for public transport infrastructure and services is increasing by around 10% per year with the current infrastructure being unable to meet the growing demand [17].

5.1 Condition of Public Transport in Dehradun The city lacks an organized public transport system. The existing private buses ply only on the profitable routes. The city needs considerable improvements in terms of supply of buses, frequency, and coverage, as many parts of the city are not served by it. The long-distance private buses do not have any authorized off-street parking or terminals facilities and as a result they occupy the carriageway, causing problems to traffic movements. Insufficient and lack of bus transport system has led to the operation of intermediate public transport, from different parts in the city. The public transport system of Dehradun consists of 273 city buses, 1570 shared autos/Vikrams, and 1700 autorickshaws. City buses and shared autos operate on a fixed route and fixed fare decided by Regional Transport Office (RTO) while autorickshaws do not have any fixed routes and fixed rate (Fig. 4). The city lacks designated stops for public transportation. At the starting point of every route, there is a toll, which maintains the register for every route. The register maintains the in time and out time of every city buses, number of buses, and its halt

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Fig. 4 Existing condition of city buses

time. The fare chart is maintained and decided by the RTO but there is no ticketing system although every bus is provided by the tickets but they do not distribute it. Hence, there is no proper data for the collected revenue and the number of commuters traveling in a city bus. They run on stage carriage in which bus operators can carry a passenger from multiple points on the entire route, but there are no fixed bus stops in the city. The bus graphics are standard for every bus. The owner of the buses has to follow that graphics only and they have to maintain them accordingly. During renew of permit, all these graphics are mandatory to renew the permit. The overall level of service for public transport facilities is 4 [14].

5.2 Existing Bus Transport Network RTO has issued permits for certain routes on which private operators run the buses for providing bus connectivity in the region. About 273 city buses operate all around the city on 10 routes. Routes providing intracity services in Dehradun are shown in Table 1. Table 1 Intra-city bus routes

Route number

Origin

Destination

1

Rajpur

Clement town

2

D L road

Navada/MDDA

3

Parade ground

Sahastradhara

4

Parade ground

Jolly Grant

5

Seemadwar

Nalapani

6

Premnagar

Gullarghati

7

Sudhowala

Raipur

8

Premnagar

Panval

9

Parade ground

Nehrugram/Garhi Cantt

10

Parade ground

Gullarghati via Raipur

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Map 2 Bus routes

Four types of ICE buses run in Dehradun, that is, 32, 26, 22, and 18 seaters. RTO permits several buses to run on various defined routes at a cost of Rs. 700,000 per permit. There is no other role of government in maintaining and running these buses. They work on gross cost contract (GCC) agreement, as a result of which bus operators run their buses on the profitable routes. This leads to service deficiency of public transport on various portions of the city (see Map 2). Unavailability of public transport accelerates the private vehicles which are putting pressure on the city road. The wear and tear of the buses is quite visible in the present times. The present condition of bus infrastructure has resulted in people skipping the means of public transport. Without any terminal, public information system, bus stoppages, and poor level of service make this system unreliable. This is not only influencing the city image but also degrading the environment through air pollution.

5.3 Existing Vikram Routes Residents in the study area rely significantly on intermediate public transportation (IPT), which is delivered by a variety of services ranging from shared auto to private

100 Table 2 Vikram routes

V. Goel and A. Chowdhary Route number

Total permits

Origin

Destination

1

84

Astley hall

Rajpur

2

300

Parade ground

Sahastradhara

3

126

Parade ground

Rispana pul

4

450

Rispana pul I.S.B.T

5

62

Clement town

Survey chowk

6

50

Connaught place

Kaulaghar

7

75

Connaught place

Prem nagar

8

90

Survey chowk

Seema dwar

9

12

Connaught place

Garhi cannt

10

67

Parade ground

Raipur

11

254

Parade ground

Miyawala

Raipur

autos and E-rickshaws. Shared auto functions as pseudo-public transportation in the absence of organized public transportation. IPT is usually permitted to operate within a 15-km radius of the starting location [14]. They operate on contact carriage in which they can pick only end-to-end commuters not in between the route but they violate the contract and halt at any undefined stoppages. There are a total 11 number of routes (see Table 2), which are functioned by the RTO. Vikram operators can get a permit from RTO to run on any particular route. The cost of the Vikram permit is Rs.10 lakh, which has to be renewed annually. Due to the minimum waiting time for commuters and low maintenance cost, operators are shifting from buses to the Vikram which is unnecessarily putting up more vehicles on the roads. Here, intermediate public transport (IPT) played inverse roles and operates on trunk routes (see Map 3), instead it should act as a feeder service to serve intracity pockets that conventional public transport systems could not reach. It is observed that the operators retrofitted the vehicles with additional seats, handrails, footboards, etc. to accommodate more passengers. The study also identified vehicles that were locally manufactured in small workshops without any type approvals or compliance with vehicle manufacturing standards and specifications [18]. It can be easily observed that most of the inner areas are not covered with these routes, the hierarchy of public transit networks [19] is missing, and all the transport services are on trunk routes only.

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Map 3 Vikram routes

6 Conclusion There is a need to control the urbanization in Dehradun. It is not only increasing the number of vehicles on roads but also having an adverse effect on the environment. The capacity of roads is very less and there is a need for either widening of roads or alternative routes as the number of vehicles has increased too much. There should be a change in people’s mindset to shift from personalized transport to public transport. The encroachment on roads and undefined stoppage of IPT and city buses leads to congestion on roads. Half of the total routes pass from those areas where demand is not adequate and where demand is high, the number of buses is not sufficient. One of the major factors of low performance, efficiency, and effectiveness of city bus service is the operation of paratransit modes, especially autos and tempos in the city. These paratransit modes create extreme losses to the city bus service due to the overlapping of routes as the nature of competition between them. Almost 89% of buses and Vikram routes are overlapped (see Map 4), i.e., all the public modes of transport are on an arterial road. This current system is not only dividing the commuters but also adds the unnecessary traffic volume on the major roads. There is no control and regulation on these modes from the side of authorities and hence the integration of paratransit modes and bus service should be there to optimize both the services and to benefit the travelers.

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Map 4 Overlapped bus and Vikram routes

7 Recommendation The city bus and tempo/auto can act as trunk and feeder system, respectively, for fulfilling the mobility/transport demand of the travelers in most of the areas. Routes should have hierarchy with the E-buses, E-mini buses, and IPT. Considerable improvement is needed in terms of supply of buses and the service coverage, as most part of city is not served by it. In addition, frequency of buses needs to be increased. The quality of buses should have the specification [20] mentioned in Urban Bus Specification–II issued by the MoUD, to have better safety features and improved accessibility for passengers. E-buses should be introduced [21] with the standardized specifications as much as possible and then give the industry the freedom to introduce innovations while manufacturing the new buses. It is recommended for creation of state-level office for transport strategy, which may be the locus for dedicated authority for urban transport, in collaboration with agencies for urban development [22]. The central government would be responsible for creating standards for urban transport performance, including safety, environmental impact, and other national goals. In Dehradun, the existing condition of essential infrastructure like terminals, bus stops, etc. is very pathetic. The operation of any public transport system depends upon these essential infrastructure facilities.

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Right now all the bus stops being encroached by the small vendors like Hawkers, shops, etc. The responsibility of Urban Local Body should be to consider all these problems and plan all these facilities according to the demand of travelers enabled with all the intelligence transport systems. Last but not the least, for optimizing the road space, priority for buses may be given by restricting access to certain areas only to buses, banning parking of vehicles on roads, and ultimately by having dedicated bus lanes.

References 1. Andersson M (2016) Chapter 5 Urban Expansion and Public Transport : Implications for Inclusive Development, 1–36 2. MORTH. Basic _Road_Statics_of_India.pdf (2019) https://morth.nic.in/basic-road-statisticsindia 3. Poumanyvonga P, Kanekoa S, Dhakalb S (2012) Impacts of urbanization on national transport and road energy use: Evidence from low, middle and high income countries. Energy Policy 46:268–77. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S03014215 12002649#:~:text=In addition to economic factors, by population growth and urbanization &text=First%2C growth in urban population, grow%2C implying longer travel distances 4. Census (2011) www.censusindia.gov.in 5. Ministry of Home Affairs G. Census (2011) www.censusindia.gov.in 6. Sankhe S, Vittal I, Dobbs R, Mohan A, Gulati A, Ablett J, et al (2010) India’s urban awakening : building inclusive cities , sustaining economic growth. McKinsey Q 2010 (April):1–33 7. Ministry of Road Transport & Highways (2019) Road Transport Year Book (2016–2017) 8. Dr. Isher Judge Ahluwalia (2011) Indian Urban Infrastructure and Services, 75–75 9. NUTP. NUTP (2006) (ii) 10. AMRUT. Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT). 2015;(June):1– 76. http://amrut.gov.in/writereaddata/AMRUTGuidelines.pdf 11. JnNURM (2005) Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission Overview. In: Indian Urban Conf. pp 1–15. http://jnnurm.nic.in/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/UIGOverview.pdf 12. Bourgeat P (2015) A revealed/stated preference approach to bus service configuration. Transp Res Procedia 6(June 2014):411–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2015.03.031 13. Biswas S, Chandra S, Ghosh I (2020) Side friction parameters and their influences on capacity of Indian undivided urban streets. Int J Transp Sci Technol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijtst.2020. 03.007 14. CMP for Dehradun - Rishikesh - Haridwar Metropolitan Area. 2019;(May). http://ukmrc.org/ pdfs/CMP25July/CMP%20Final%20July.pdf 15. IRC 86 (1983) Geometric-design-of-urban-roads-in-plain-terrain.pdf 16. Maitra B, Ghosh S, Sadhukhan S (2011) Public transport system in the context of urbanization and environment: emerging issues and research needs in India. (May 2014):1–12 17. IIR (2010) India Infrastructure Report 2010. India Infrastruct Rep 2012 18. Kumar M, Singh S, Ghate AT, Pal S, Wilson SA (2016) Informal public transport modes in India: a case study of five city regions ✩. IATSS Res 39(2):102–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. iatssr.2016.01.001 19. Gao J, Zhao P, Zhuge C, Zhang H (2012) Research on public transit network hierarchy based on residential transit trip distance. Discret Dyn Nat Soc 2012 20. Specification-II UB (2013) Urban Bus Specifications – II Ministry of Urban Development Urban Bus Specifications – II 21. FAME (2019) Fame India Scheme.pdf. Ministry of Heavy Industries & Public Enterprises

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22. MoRTH (2016) Notification_regarding_constitution_of.pdf [Internet]. Government of India. https://morth.nic.in/sites/default/files/circulars_document/Notification_regarding_con stitution_of.pdf

Snow Cover Mapping Over the Region of Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) for 2008–2018 Using Cloud Mitigated Moderate Resolution Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Snow Cover Data Nishu Bhardwaj, Bhaskar R. Nikam, S. K. S. Yadav, Sudhakar Shukla, Manaruchi Mohapatra, S. P. Aggarwal, and Joyeeta Poddar Abstract As we know that in the HKH region snow cover is an essential component because it not only balances the earth’s ecosystem but also provides the freshwater to 240 million people who live in this region. Monitoring and mapping of snow cover estimation is necessary because snow cover estimations work as an input for various Hydrological Models. We know that generation of snow cover maps using in-situ observations is an arduous task, so we use an approach of remote sensing not only for the generation of snow cover maps but also for the calculation or estimation of different parameters of snow. The present study uses the MOD10C2 and MYD10C2 MODIS 8 day snow cover products. These MODIS snow cover products (MOD10C2 and MYD10C2) are freely available at spatial resolution of 0.05° × 0.05° but the main problem in the available imagery is the availability of cloud coverage. For this, we mitigate the cloud cover using three Spatio-temporal filters. The first step (Terra and Aqua Combination) removes approximately 51.044% of the total existing cloud. This first Terra-Aqua combination filter was an effective filter for cloud mitigation. The second step (short-term temporal filter) removes approximately 36.157% clouds. 87.201% of clouds are removed by these two filters. For removing the remaining clouds, we use the nearest neighborhood filter which removes approximately 12.528% of clouds. Remaining 0.271% cloud cover exists in the imagery. For the accuracy assessment of snow products, we comprise the 8-day MODIS snow cover product with Landsat-7 ETM+ and Landsat-8 OLI snow cover products. The validation showed a strong agreement with Landsat imagery and provides an accuracy of 94%. We analyzed the total 506 images of 8-day MODIS snow products and estimated the area of snow cover, i.e., SCA. It is found that the maximum SCA is in February 2, 2008 which is equal to 1.03945 million sq. km. The minimum snow cover area is found in July 28, 2013 and which is equal to 0.293775 million sq. km. Our study estimates the SCA with the 8-day MODIS snow cover product 2008 to 2018 and found that the average snow-covered area is N. Bhardwaj (B) · S. K. S. Yadav · J. Poddar Remote Sensing Applications Center, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226021, India B. R. Nikam · S. Shukla · M. Mohapatra · S. P. Aggarwal Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun 248001, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 V. P. Singh et al. (eds.), Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 199, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6_10

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equal to 0.652 million sq.km. This enhanced product of snow cover can be used for further estimation of different snow cover studies and works as an input for different Hydrological Models. Keywords MODIS · Cloud mitigation · Snow cover mapping · The Hindu Kush Himalayan region

1 Introduction and Background From a hydrological point of view, snow cover is a predominant factor for ecosystem supply like water supply, food, and energy. Regular snow cover mapping and monitoring of permanent snow cover are essential because they provide approximately 70% freshwater on the earth’s surface [1]. On the geo-ecologist asset, the Hindu Kush Himalayan region is the origin of major 10 river basins that covers the 8 major countries in Asia. The HKH includes Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan. Optical satellites like Landsat-7, Landsat-8, and MODIS are generally utilized for snow cover mapping. Aqua and Terra satellite bearing MODIS sensors serve as an appropriate tool for snow cover monitoring: not only for global scale but also for regional scale. In the inaccessible area where measurements are difficult and may be dangerous, remote sensing is a powerful tool to examine the physical properties of snow and Ice. Snow cover plays a vital role in regional as well as global hydrology and surface energy balance. In the HKH region, snow cover provides not only a natural source of water reservoir but also a large amount of freshwater [2]. The previous studies show that there are different approaches for mapping the snow cover on a regional scale. The previous approaches include interpolation of ground-based snow depth measurements done by Dutra, [3–5] application of remote sensing techniques done by [6, 7], and a combination of these done by [8–10]. Various sensors like GOES, SPOT, AWiFS, Landsat MSS (Multispectral Scanner System), Thematic Mapper (TM) have been used for the analysis of snow cover area estimation but these sensors have few limitations related to small swath, temporal and spectral resolutions [11, 12]. For snow cover mapping of the entire High Mountain Asia (HMA), the MODIS satellite sensors are very helpful due to their temporal resolution (8 day or a day) and relatively coarser as well as the finer spatial resolution of, respectively, 0.05° (Approximately 5 km) and 500 m. Also, there are two independent sensors, respectively, Terra and Aqua in which Terra is in descending node and provides snow cover imagery at 10:30 AM local time and Aqua is in ascending node who provides snow cover imagery at 01:30 PM local time. These snow products provide global coverage and could be used in a complementary way for mapping. Currently, the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) snow products are downloaded from the National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) Distributed Active Archive Center (NSIDC-DAAC). Sets of daily and 8-day composite products are available on the NSIDC website which provide

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the global coverage. The algorithm of snow map for MODIS datasets are automated which describe that consistent datasets are required for snow cover information [13]. In the present study, the main aim is to remove cloud cover using cloud removal mitigation filters given by Gafurov and Bárdossy from available snow cover products [14]. Subsequently, this cloud-free data is used for the estimation of snow cover area and to map the snow cover. The paper is organized as follows: firstly, we describe the study area and the MODIS data products used in the present study. After that we present methodology and the cloud mitigation approach. In the result, we give the total snow cover area and evaluate their accuracy against Landsat data. Finally, we present the snow cover map for the entire area. We conclude the paper with a discussion regarding the result and present some future applications of snow cover product.

2 Study Area The high Mountain Asia region includes the eight Asian countries namely India, Pakistan, China, Bhutan, Myanmar, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan. The HKH region extends up to 3500 km region and the origin of 10 major River-Basins. The Hindu Kush Himalaya region is a vital regional lifeline of livelihoods and biodiversity because these major rivers are not only providing the freshwater but also provide the environmental services which directly affect the 240 million livelihoods. The basins of these rivers provide water to the 1.9 million peoples, a fourth of world’s population. Due to this reason, the HKH is aptly known as the “Water Tower of Asia”. It is also called the “Third Pole of the World” because it stored the highest volume of persistence and seasonal snow cover, glaciers and permafrost outside the Polar Regions. Apart from these ten major river systems, it also includes all of the parts of 4 global biodiversity spots, 330 important bird and biodiversity areas and hundreds of mountain peaks above 6,000 Above Mean Sea Level (AMSL) (Fig. 1). According to the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), in the HKH region, snow and glacial ice have stored significant amount of water for water resources. The other cryosphere components such as glacier lakes and permafrost endow different Eco services for mountains and the downstream communities. It is also found that the snow cover area varies between 951,000 km2 and 1,390,000 km2 during the winter season while 388,000 km2 to 481,000 km2 in the summer season. The approximate total glacier can be extended up to 87,340 km2.

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Fig. 1 The Hindu Kush Himalayan region

3 Datasets Used 3.1 MODIS Snow Cover Data Products MODIS stands for Moderate Imaging Spectroradiometer. It consists of two types of sun-synchronous imaging sensors. These sensors are named Terra and Aqua in which Terra generally called EOS-AM1 is in descending node and Aqua which is known as EOS-PM1 is in ascending node. MODIS snow cover data are widely used to analyze and monitor snow cover variations in terms of real-time analyses due to global coverage [15]. MODIS is a set of individual detectors viewing the entire globe who provides the imagery of earth’s surface and clouds in 36 spectral bands or group of wavelengths from 0.405 µm to 14.385 µm. MOD10C2 (Terra) and MYD10C2 (Aqua) images used in this study are downloaded from the NASA Earth Observation system website [16, 17, 20], describe that the geolocation accuracy of Terra satellite is about 45 m and that of the Aqua satellite is about 60 m. The snow cover mapping process was based on the NDSI (Normalized Difference Snow Index) band ratio technique [13, 18, 19]. For NDSI calculations, band 4 (0.55 µm) and band 7 (2.1)

Snow Cover Mapping Over the Region … Table 1 Data characteristics of MODIS snow cover data products

109

Parameters

Values

MOD10A2

Terra

MYD10A2

Aqua

Spatial coverage

N: 90, S: -90, E: 180, W: -180

Spatial resolution

500 m × 500 m

Temporal coverage

24/02/2002 to present (Terra) 04/07/2002 to present (Aqua)

Temporal resolution

8 days

Data formats

HDF-EOS

Sensors

MODIS

Projection

Equal-area sinusoidal projection

Grid

MODIS sinusoidal tile grid

Version

V6

Data contributors

Miguel Roman, Dorothy Hall, George Riggs

m) of Aqua are used while band 4 (0.55 µm) and band 6 (1.6 µm) of Terra are used. The detailed description of MODIS snow cover is presented in user guide provided by Riggs and Hall [20] (Table 1).

3.2 Landsat Data Products Our study uses Landsat-8 OLI datasets for accuracy assessment. The Landsat-8 is a sun-synchronous satellite orbiting the earth at an altitude of 705 km with an inclination of 98.2°. This satellite repeats the cycle with equatorial crossing time 10 A.M. ± 15 min in every 16 days (Table 2). The data sets acquired from the Landsat-7 satellite are based on the Worldwide Reference System-2 (WRS-2) path and row system. The Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+ ) instrument is a multispectral scanning radiometer which consists a “whiskbroom” 8 bands scanner that provides the high-resolution information of the Earth’s surface. Properties of Landsat-7 ETM + are discussed in Table 3.

4 Methodology The methodology adopted for snow cover mapping over the whole region is shown in a flow chart. For mapping the snow cover, the 8-day MODIS Collection 6 snow cover data MOD10C2 (Terra) and MYD10C2 (Aqua) data was obtained from National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) for the time period from 2008 to 2018. From

110 Table 2 Data characteristics of Landsat-8 OLI

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Description

Swath width

185 km

Scene size

170 km (N–S) × 185 km (E–W)

Spatial resolution

30 m (visible, NIR, SWIR) 15 m (Panchromatic) 100 m (TIRS)

Temporal resolution 16 days

Table 3 Data characteristics of Landsat-7 ETM+

Swath overlap

Varying from 7 to 85% 7% at Equator 85% at extreme latitude

Data format

GeoTIFF

Projection

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) map projection (Polar Stereographic for Antartica) World Geodetic System (WGS) 84 datum

Parameters

Description

Swath width

183 km

Scene size

170 km long × 183 km wide

Spatial resolution

30 m (visible, NIR, SWIR) 15 m (Panchromatic) 60 m (Thermal)

Temporal resolution 16 days Swath overlap

Varying from 7 to 85% 7% at Equator 85% at extreme latitude

Data format

GeoTIFF

Projection

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) map projection (Polar Stereographic for Antartica) World Geodetic System (WGS) 84 datum

Sensor type

Opto-mechanical

Special range

0.45 µm to 12.5 µm

IFOV

30 m × 30 m for bands 1–5 & band-7 60 m × 60 m for band-6 15 m × 15 m for band 8

the 8-day snow cover dataset, two sub-datasets Day_CMG_Snow_Cover (index: 0) and Daily_CMG_Cloud_Obscured (index: 2) were extracted in raster format for the entire HKH region. The extracted data was reclassified into three classes, namely snow, cloud, and land. For a pixel, if snow cover percentage was greater than 50% then the pixel was declared as Snow. Else if sum of snow and cloud fraction was smaller than 50% then the pixel was declared as Land. Rest of the pixels were declared as

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Fig. 2 Flow chart of adopted methodology for snow cover area mapping

Cloud [21]. The null data present inside the study area was considered as cloud pixels in which ground states would also be estimated in the further steps. In the resulting reclassified dataset, snow, land, cloud, and null pixels were assigned the value 1, 2, 3, and 0, respectively. For the mitigation of clouds, cloud cover mitigation filters are used. Cloud mitigation steps as stated by [14] was followed in order to reduce the cloud pixels to mitigate cloud obstruction. The flow chart of methodology is given in Fig. 2. The first spatio-temporal cloud mitigation filter is the combination of Terra and Aqua images. This filter was based on the assumption that in between the snow cover observations of the two sensors on the same day, no snowmelt or snowfall occurs. A pixel will be assigned as snow if the pixel shows snow in any of the sensor observations. Similarly, a pixel will be assigned as land if the pixel shows land in any of the sensor observations. The second spatio-temporal cloud mitigation filter, short-term temporal filter was based on the temporal combination of cloud-covered pixels. Eight day forward and backward data was used to estimate actual ground status of a cloud-covered pixel. In other words, for a cloud-covered pixel if the observed value for the pixel was snow for both the preceding and the succeeding days, then the cloud-covered pixel would be assigned to be snow. Similarly, if the observed value for the pixel was land for both the preceding and the succeeding days, then the cloud-covered pixel would be assigned to be land. The third spatio-temporal cloud mitigation step, neighborhood spatial filter is based on the spatial properties of the neighboring pixels in terms of ground status and

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elevation. This step combines the two spatial filters given by Gafurov and Bárdossy [14]. In the first step, if three out of the four direct side-bordering pixels of the cloudcovered pixel shows snow, the cloud pixel was declared to be snow covered. Similarly, if three of the side-bordering pixels of the cloud-covered pixel shows land, the cloud pixel was declared to be land covered. In the second step, all the 8 neighboring pixels were considered around a cloud-covered pixel called as center pixel. From the neighboring pixels, if any pixel had (a) lower elevation than the elevation of center pixel and (b) shows snow, the center pixel was declared as snow covered. This step was based on the fact that as elevation increases, the temperature required for snowmelt decreases. So, the pixels at higher elevation would melt later as compared to the pixels located at lower elevation. After applying the filters, the cloud is removed from the MODIS imagery. For the accuracy assessments, these imageries are compared with the Landsat images. After that snow cover maps are generated, which can be further used to study the climatology and cryospheric studies.

5 Results This study generated a combined Terra and Aqua 8-day snow cover map for the time range of 2008–2018. We use the existing algorithm for cloud mitigation. The aim of this study is to test the approaches for cloud removal on the MODIS 8-day snow products. Our motivation was to enable an accurate map of snow cover with a minimum percentage of the cloud. For this, we tested the cloud mitigation approach. The first step (Terra and Aqua Combination) removes approximately 51.044% of the total existing cloud. The second step (short-term temporal filter) removes approximately 36.157% clouds. 87.201% of clouds are removed by these two filters. For removing the remaining clouds, we use the nearest neighborhood filter which removes approximately 12.528% of clouds. The combination of terra and aqua was an effective filter for cloud mitigation. On average, approximately 0.271% of clouds are remaining in the final product. For accuracy assessment, we compare these MODIS cloud removed images with the Landsat imagery which shows a good percentage of a hit with an accuracy of 94.16%. The minimum snow cover area is recorded as 0.239775 million sq. km on July 28, 2013 while the maximum snow cover is recorded as 1.09435 million sq. km on 02/02/2008. It is also found that the snow cover area decreased after 2013. Our potential applications will be used for runoff forecasting, hydrological modeling, data assimilations. The percentage cloud remaining after the sequential application of spatio-temporal filters, snow cover probability maps generated using the cloud mitigated snow cover data and the time series SCA variation for the time period of 2008–2018 are shown in Figs. 3, 4, and 5, respectively. Main purpose of this probabilistic snow cover probability map is to provide a range of snow-covered area possibilities in the HKH region. Results of our ten-year analysis indicate that the satellite-based ideology of snow cover provides a much more detailed about the probability of snow cover in the whole HKH region and

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Fig. 3 Remaining percentage cloud cover after the sequential application of spatio-temporal cloud mitigation steps

Fig. 4 Snow cover probability map generated using the cloud mitigated snow cover dataset in the time period 2008–2018

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Fig. 5 Time series SCA variations over the HKH region

show that the Himalayan region has a higher probability of persistence snow cover while the eastern side of the HKH region has low probability. As compared to eastern part of HKH, central and western has higher probability of persistence snow cover.

6 Discussion and Conclusion Snow is an essential component of the cryosphere. Estimation of snow cover area in the High Mountain Asia region is very tedious and time-consuming due to high variabilities, complex topography, and different climatic conditions. Snow cover area monitoring is necessary because snow cover monitoring is an indicator of climate change and it may be used for estimation of glacier mass balance and study of various hydrological models. For this purpose, we use the MODIS 8-day snow products. The present study computes the snow cover area and discusses the probability of snow cover using MODIS data products in the entire region of the High Mountain Asia region. The present study shows that the snow cover varies during the period of ablation and accumulation period and is the indicator for the earth-atmosphere system. This MODIS snow cover data over the region can be further used to study climatology and cryospheric properties of the High Mountain Asia.

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References 1. Rodda JC (2014) “World Water Resources at the Beginning of the Twenty-First Century Edited by,” 2014. 2. Sahu R, Gupta RD (2020) Snow cover analysis in Chandra Basin of Western Himalaya from 2001 to 2016. Lect. Notes Civ. Eng. 33:557–566. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-70670_45 3. Dutra E, Boussetta S, Arduini G, Balsamo G, Rosnay P (2019) Data assimilation of in-situ snow depth and its impact on river discharge. In: Geophysical Research Abstracts, 2019, vol 21 4. López-Moreno JI, Nogués-Bravo D (2006) Interpolating local snow depth data: an evaluation of methods. Hydrol Process An Int J 20(10):2217–2232 5. Parajka J, Merz R, Blöschl G (2007) Uncertainty and multiple objective calibration in regional water balance modelling: case study in 320 Austrian catchments. Hydrol Process An Int J 21(4):435–446 6. Maskey S, Uhlenbrook S, Ojha S (2011) An analysis of snow cover changes in the Himalayan region using MODIS snow products and in-situ temperature data, 391–400. https://doi.org/10. 1007/s10584-011-0181-y. 7. Scherer (eds) (2005) Remote sensing of snow cover. In: Geophysical Monograph Series, vol 163, pp 7–38 8. Huang X, Liang T, Zhang X, Guo Z (2011) Validation of MODIS snow cover products using landsat and ground measurements during the 2001–2005 snow seasons over northern Xinjiang, China. Int J Remote Sens 32(1):133–152. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160903439924 9. Notarnicola (EDS) (2013) Remote Sensing, pp 1568–1587. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs5041568. 10. Parajka J, Blöschl G, Parajka J, Validation GB (2006) Validation of MODIS snow cover images over Austria to cite this version: HAL Id : hal-00305018 validation of MODIS snow cover images over Austria, vol 10, no. 5, pp 679–689 11. Kulkarni AV, Singh SK, Mathur P, Mishra VD (2006) Algorithm to monitor snow cover using AWiFS data of RESOURCESAT-1 for the Himalayan region. Int J Remote Sens 27(12):2449– 2457. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160500497820 12. Xiao X, Moore B, Qin X, Shen Z, Boles S (2002) Large-scale observations of alpine snow and ice cover in Asia: using multi-temporal VEGETATION sensor data. Int J Remote Sens—INT J Remote SENS 23:2213–2228. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160110076180. 13. Hall DK, Riggs GA (2011) Normalized-difference snow index (NDSI), Encycl. snow, ice glaciers, pp 779–780 14. Gafurov A, Bárdossy A (2009) Cloud removal methodology from MODIS snow cover product. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 13(7):1361–1373. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-13-1361-2009 15. Gunnarsson A, Gar\dharsson SM, Sveinsson ÓGB (2019_ “Icelandic snow cover characteristics derived from a gap-filled MODIS daily snow cover product,” Hydrol. Earth Syst Sci 23(7):3021–3036. 16. Wolfe RE, Roy DP, Vermote E (1998) MODIS Land Data Storage, Gridding, and Compositing Methodology: Level 2 Grid, 36(4):1324–1338. 17. Parajka J, Blo G (2008) Spatio-temporal combination of MODIS images—potential for snow cover mapping, vol 44, pp 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1029/2007WR006204. 18. Li X, Williams MW (2008) Snowmelt runoff modelling in an arid mountain watershed, Tarim Basin, China. Hydrol Process 22(19):3931–3940 19. Salomonson VV, Appel I (2006) Development of the Aqua MODIS NDSI fractional snow cover algorithm and validation results. IEEE Trans Geosci Remote Sens 44(7):1747–1756 20. Riggs G, Hall D (2015) MODIS snow products collection 6 user guide. Digit. Media 6(December):1–80 21. Tran H, Nguyen P, Ombadi M, Hsu KL, Sorooshian S, Qing X (2019) A cloud-free modis snow cover dataset for the contiguous United States from 2000 to 2017. Sci. Data 6:1–13. https:// doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2018.300

Methods for Vehicle Detection Using Roadside Sensors in Complex Environment Ishank Mishra, Karan Singh Dhawai, Hritik Kumar Singh, and Arjun Sharma

Abstract India is a developing country and is highly heterogeneous consisting of different vehicles having distinct static and dynamic characteristics. Due to nonuniform speed of various vehicles, road planning becomes a challenging task as it becomes difficult to count vehicles that are moving on the road. There have been specific conventional methods that are taken into consideration while counting vehicles like manual counting using tally sheets, Inductive loop method, Pneumatic tubes, Passive infrared, etc. To minimize the probable human error and unnecessary effort, there emerges a need for introducing advancement in technology in this sector, i.e. intelligent transportation system (ITS). In this paper, various sensors and methods are discussed that can be used to augment the current situation of vehicle counting to enhance road planning in complex environments. Also, a comparison is made between the old methods and new methods of vehicle counting and suitable methods are proposed for Vehicle detection. Keywords Heterogeneous traffic · Road planning · Intelligent transportation system · Sensors

1 Introduction Urban transport problems require modern and rapid solutions. This need has led to the initiation of ITS in many countries to alleviate current issues. The urban registered vehicles count has increased very rapidly over the past few years, which reflects on vehicle ownership and leading to the prosperity of the country. Sadly, it has also created a complicated problem of road congestion. One of the significant issues is the inefficiency to plan as per the situational demand. To cope up with the current system and eliminate the various predicaments, we must ensure that traffic count is appropriately done so that transport planning can be implemented effectively. Currently, different manual methods are taken into considerations that I. Mishra (B) · K. S. Dhawai · H. K. Singh · A. Sharma HSE & Civil Engineering Department, UPES, Dehradun, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 V. P. Singh et al. (eds.), Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 199, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6_11

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are quite precise, but due to probable human error chances, the system lacks. Also, this current manual counting system can be replaced by modern technologies to eliminate the unnecessary effort made by a person counting the traffic volume. Apart from these, various other methods are also used for detection of vehicles such as inductive loop system, microwave radar system, Video camera system, piezoelectric cable system and pneumatic tube system. In all these systems that are mentioned, detectors are initially either buried under the road or are installed above the way. And then the data is collected and transferred through wires to the traffic management centres. The limitations of these systems include complicated installation, limited scalability and high cost. While on the other hand, wireless sensor networks (WSNs) involve lower cost, less complicated installations, lower power consumption and is considered as self-organizing. Therefore, for such involved and longer duration tasks, sensor systems can prove to be reliable. The paper further consists of two essential sections that are Literature Review and Results and conclusions having specific subtopics as well. After this, the study is concluded based on various pros and cons of the methods that are involved for the purpose.

2 Studies and Discussion This study involves various research inputs that have proved to give satisfactory results when vehicle detection is considered as a prime objective. Some methods were quite imperative, while some could have been improved for better outputs. Before getting into many details, let us understand first why this Vehicle counting is imperative for Traffic Engineering in the following subsection.

2.1 Importance of Vehicle Count in Traffic Engineering Certain practices require precise vehicle counting, as discussed in [4]. These include Highway traffic surveillance control, management and Urban traffic Planning.

2.2 Intrusive and Non-intrusive Methods There are specific Intrusive and Non-Intrusive methods for vehicle count that are used across the globe [3]. The Intrusive Sensors involve pneumatic road tubes, piezoelectric cables, inductive loops, magnetometers, micro-loop probes and weigh-in-motion (WIM) sensors. These devices require installation either directly on the pavement, or by cutting the road by tunnelling under the surface or fastening directly to the surface of the pavement as can be observed in case of pneumatic road tubes. These technologies have the capacity of giving precise outputs that are reliable as well. They

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Fig. 1 Current methods used for counting vehicles [5]

generally represent the applications of mature technologies that are used in traffic tracking. There is an inevitable downside to their use as well that is the interference or disruption of traffic during installation, repairs and failures that are correlated with the installation of such devices or equipment. Also, resurfacing of the road will result in the emergence of the need to reinstall these types of sensors. Non-Intrusive technologies, on the other hand, do not require any kind of cutting of pavement as these are mounted either on the surface or the roadside. Microwave radar, active and passive infrared sensors, video image processor, ultrasonic sensors, passive acoustic array sensors, and magnetic field a sensor come under this category (Fig. 1). Various adopted methods for vehicle detection are discussed below.

2.2.1

Manual Counting

This method is quite a simple one as people count the traffic volume manually by using either an electronic handheld counter or using tally sheets. They observe the traffic either by the roadside or, more commonly watch the video of that particular road and count the vehicles from that. These counts are considered to be accurate, up to 99% throughout counting. The issue with this method is that the sample is collected for only a shorter duration (Less than a day) and the results that are obtained from this method are extrapolated to get value for the rest of the year. This method of extrapolation introduces errors as a small sample can barely represent the flow of the entire year or season [1].

2.2.2

Pneumatic Road Tube Counting

This method has proved to be a prevalent one for the detection of Vehicles. This method involves the use of rubber hoses that are spread across the road (One or more) and are connected to a data logger at one of the ends while the other side of the tube is sealed properly [2]. When a vehicle crosses the tube, there is a change of air

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Fig. 2 Pneumatic road tube. Source http://www.becoun ted.co.nz/products/bike-cou nters/pneumatic-tubes/

pressure inside the tube that activates the data logger which collects the event time. It can also manifest the direction of the Vehicle (When a pair of tubes is stretched on-road) by determining which tube interacted first with the vehicle (Fig. 2). This method also has a drawback that is, if a pair of vehicles are crossing the tube at the same instant, then the direction cannot be determined accurately. The count is then physically downloaded to the computer from the data logger. These road tubes prove to work well for shorter durations and lower volume roads but are not that effective on higher volume roads.

2.2.3

Vehicle Detection Using Computer Vision

With the introduction of the latest technology in the modern era, systems can detect the vehicles by themselves with similar accuracy as that of people counting the vehicles by watching the videos. It is easy to modify the various zones for enhanced precision in counting the vehicles. Also, it gives precise figures as the counting takes place continuously.

2.2.4

Piezoelectric Sensor

This system works on the principle of conversion of energy (from mechanical to electrical) (Fig. 3). It is mounted into road surface (in groove cut). When a vehicle passes over the sensor, the electric potential is generated, causing a voltage signal that is proportional to the degree of deformation. When the vehicle has passed, the sign of the voltage reverses, and this change is used to detect or count the vehicle.

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Fig. 3 Piezoelectric traffic counter by the side of the road. Source https://www.ret ailsensing.com/definition/pie zoelectric-sensor.html

2.2.5

Magnetic Sensor

In this method, vehicle detection is done by observing the change in Earth’s magnetic field when the vehicle crosses the detector. The sensor is either kept at the roadside or is buried inside the road. Though, there is a difficulty when vehicles are following each other at a very short distance.

2.2.6

Inductive Loop

In the inductive loop method, a square wire forming a loop is set into the road. It works on the principle of induction, where the introduction of a magnetic field close to an electrical conductor induces an electric current. Here, metal vehicles play the role of the magnetic field while inductive loop acts as an electric conductor. It has a drawback that the road has to be closed for installation and repair purposes (Fig. 4). The key challenges that are faced by the various vehicle detecting systems include error probability, continuous data collection, cost of system and ease of installation. With these challenges, let us move forward to results and discussion to reach to a better alternative for the problem.

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Fig. 4 Magnetic inductive loop for vehicle detection. Source https://www.ecm-fra nce.com/en/areas-of-activity/ weigh-in-motion/inductiveloop/

3 Results and Discussion On taking into account the various vital indices that are important and have to be considered while designing a system, we came across a system that had the potential to fulfil the maximum possible factors and is economical as well. This system lies under magnetic sensors and is described below. A tri-axial sensor HMC5883L is proposed in [6] for this system due to its low cost and comparatively high sensitivity. It is a digital sensor with a 12 bit built-in analogue to digital converter. The technology used along with this sensor is ZigBee due to low system requirements, and low use of overhead data transmission and these have been much better for wireless sensor networks as compared to Bluetooth or WiFi. So, CC2530 transceiver is proposed for wireless communication as it supports the ZigBee protocol. It has a communication range of 100 m and required power of 150mW along with a data transmission rate of 250 kb/s. So, a printed circuit board with an array of 3 magnetic sensors HMC5883L and a CC2530 wireless transceiver and STM32F103RBT6 microprocessor is used for the purpose. The data (Vehicle count) is transferred from one Printed circuit board to another wirelessly. It can be redesigned further as per requirements. Apart from this, there is a chance of error in the collection and transmission of data collected by the unit. To eliminate the probability of error, signal smoothing filter is required to smooth out the signal (Fig. 5). This system works in the same manner as that of any magnetic sensor which is discussed already. Almost all the systems had the capacity to give the desired results, but if cost and precision both is taken care, then this system has proved to be much more efficient in all aspects.

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Fig. 5 Developed PCB [6]

4 Conclusion As per the study, it can be concluded that the various methods that were discussed have proved to have a potential in vehicle detection with precision. Though, some of them were disrupting the structure of the road while some involved a lot of cost and human effort. As per the study, magnetic sensors proved to be much more efficient and more precise when data fusion is performed. These are quite economical as well, which serves the purpose fruitfully. Also, it is based on Earth’s magnetic field due to which it cannot be affected by the weather. For future scope, the experimental performance of the proposed sensor should be determined at different locations so that it can be standardized throughout following proper codal provisions.

References 1. Zheng P, Mike M (2012) An investigation on the manual traffic count accuracy. Procedia-Soc Behav Sci 43:226–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.04.095 2. McGowen P, Sanderson M (2011) Accuracy of pneumatic road tube counters. In: District Annual Meeting Institute of Transportation Engineers Anchorage 3. FHA (2013) Traffic monitoring guide. US Department of Transportation, Washington, DC

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4. Hadi, R. A., Sulong, G., & George, L. E. (2014). Vehicle detection and tracking techniques: a concise review. arXiv preprint at arXiv:1410.5894 5. Daubaras A, Zilys M (2012) Vehicle detection based on magneto-resistive magnetic field sensor. Elektronika ir Elektrotechnika 118(2):27–32 6. Wang Q, Zheng J, Xu H, Xu B, Chen R (2017) Roadside magnetic sensor system for vehicle detection in urban environments. IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst 19(5):1365–1374

Model-Based Evaluation and Comparative Analysis of Biological Nutrient Removal Processes Narendra Khatri , Kamal Kishore Khatri , and Abhishek Sharma

Abstract Wastewater treatment is one of the critical issues facing water utilities and has gained growing attention recently. Wastewater treatment models based on Lawrence & McCarty and Chudoba & Tucek were investigated for the effluent modelling in municipal wastewater treatment. The dataset was derived from a municipal wastewater treatment plant with interest variable for the percentage of biological nutrient removal (BNR). The proposed approach characterized the comprehensive models for biological nutrient removal. First, the activated sludge model-1 (ASM1), activated sludge model-2 (ASM-2), and activated sludge model-3 (ASM-3) were designed and simulated for the domestic wastewater treatment facility of the Vatika Township. Second, the comparative analysis of effluent quality for ASM-1, ASM-2, and ASM-3 was performed. The study reveals that the effluent quality of wastewater treatment facility was under the discharge/reuses standards of India. Simulation results help to identify optimum BNR efficiency for the provided influent quality. Keywords WWTP · Steady · ASM · Biological nutrient removal

1 Introduction Municipal wastewater treatment systems are becoming more complex and difficult to operate due to innovations and improvements in urban areas, as well as stricter quality requirements for effluent discharges to the environment [1, 2]. Such developments have rapidly increased wastewater treatment plant investment, service, and N. Khatri (B) Department of Mechatronics, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India N. Khatri · K. K. Khatri Department of Mechanical-Mechatronics Engineering, The LNM Institute of Information Technology, Jaipur 302031, Rajasthan, India A. Sharma Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, The LNM Institute of Information Technology, Jaipur 302031, Rajasthan, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 V. P. Singh et al. (eds.), Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 199, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6_12

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maintenance costs. Minimizing treatment process costs is one of the main objectives in wastewater systems planning and management [3, 4]. Activated sludge process models are the important biological process models for the treatment of domestic wastewater. The suspension of the bacterial colony is used for the removal of contaminants in the biological treatment process. The activated sludge process is not only removing the substances of organic carbon, but also biological nitrogen and phosphorous [5]. The percentage removal is depending on design, operation, and influent quality [6, 7]. Modelling and simulation are indeed prominent tools for analysing the operational performance of the designed WWTP in different working scenarios. A clean process can be interpreted as producing an effluent that meets the effluent standard for wastewater treatment. Modelling and simulation allow to evaluate the potential benefits of various control methods to be explored, with the goal of stabilizing the operation of the actual plant and further maintaining high efficiency even when major disruptions are encountered. The biological treatment process of the municipal wastewater can be modelled and simulated using ASM-1, ASM-2, and ASM-3 models [8]. The IWA designed and developed the ASM-1 model in 1983 [9]. ASM-1 model represents an influent-effluent mathematical relationship. It is able to predict practical carbon oxidation, nitrification, and denitrification values. In 1987, the final results of this mathematical model were published [10]. The ASM-2 is the expanded ASM-1 variant by incorporating biological phosphorus elimination. This records the number of separate components across separate processes. Ammonization and hydrolysis are simplified to stoichiometric terms, i.e. the rate implicit. It includes the anaerobic fermentation, uptake to acetate, formation of PHB and PHAs, and releases of the soluble phosphate from hydrolysis of polyphosphate [11]. ASM-3 adds to ASM-1 as a new process by processing the organic substrates, and instead of lysis, the endogenous respiratory cycle is applied. Compared with the ASM1, hydrolysis is less dominant with the consumption rate of oxygen and denitrification. It is independent of the source of electrons. It reduces the rate of all processes under anoxic conditions. ASM-3 takes into account the anoxic yield coefficient. The simulation of the ASM-3 predicts the effective nitrification and denitrification of wastewater with a collection of kinetic and stoichiometric parameters [12]. Thus, it is recommended that WWTPs should have the flexibility of operation mode. This is beneficial when choosing the correct operating mode, contributing to significant operating cost reductions. This paper models the design and simulation of ASM-1, ASM-2, and ASM-3 for the Vatika Township’s wastewater treatment plant. A comparative study of influents and effluents has been established.

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Fig. 1 Configuration of wastewater treatment process analysed in this study

Table 1 Sewage influent concentration Type

Flow Rate (L/s)

TBOD (mg/L)

SBOD (mg/L)

TSS (mg/L)

VSS (mg/L)

TKN (mg/L)

NH3 -N (mg/L)

Influent

12

250

75

400

320

55

25

2 Materials and Methods 2.1 WWTP The WWTP of the Vatika Township, situated in Jaipur, India, handles domestic wastewater with an average inflow of 1000 m3 /d. The WWTP has a flow capacity of 1000 m3 /d and was built for 7000 PE. The treatment train, consisting of ground and fine bar panels, removal of grit, primary sedimentation and equalization, then biological oxidation/ nitrification (secondary treatment), secondary settling, and tertiary treatment, was shown in Fig. 1. The sludge was dewatered and sent to drying beds. Table 1 shows the quality of the influent sewage.

2.2 Mathematical Model Steady was used to model the steady-state wastewater treatment plant. This software models the wastewater treatment plant in view of their steady condition and characterizes major environmental parameters (TBOD, SBOD, TSS, VSS, TKN, and NH3 -N). Once the plant model was developed, the mass balance for the complete treatment of wastewater was calculated. The scale of the plant components and MCRT can also be determined [13]. The mass balance of the plant was determined for each unit cycle.

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Fig. 2 ASM-1, design architecture in steady

2.3 Activated Sludge Model-1 The ASM-1 architecture has been shown in Fig. 2. The raw sewage has been pretreated by a coarse and fine screen and then collected into a primary tank or equalizing tank. The primary settlement role was to minimize TSS, BOD, and sludge. It has been planned with 60% removal of TSS, 30% removal of BOD, and 50,000 mg/L sludge concentration. The design parameter for modelling was an influent flow rate of 12 L/s. The dimensions of the primary settling tank were 40 m3 , with a side water depth of 4 m. Overflow of the primary settling tank was supplied for the biological treatment using the ASM-1 [14, 15]. For the discharging of the treated water into the natural body of water or for use in gardening, the effluent TBOD < 20 mg/L and TSS < 20 mg/L. The ratio of the MLVSS/MLSS was 0.75 and mg BOD/mg VSS in effluent was 0.5. Kinetic and operation parameters were based on Y = 0.65 mg VSS/mg SBOD, kd = 0.05d−1 , control variable as X = 3000 mg/L, MCRT = 8 d, and the recycle at fixed Xr = 10,000 mg/L.

2.4 Activated Sludge Model -2 ASM-2 model was developed with the performance parameters for the discharge and reuse. Solid fractions alpha 0.37, beta 0.22, f0 0.7985, and fm 0.07. Kinematic and operation parameters for the ASM-2 were Y 0.65 mg VSS/mg TBOD and kd 0.15d−1 . The control variable was MCRT 8 d and X 3000 mg/L. Recycle criteria for the process were fixed Xr 10,000 mg/L. One aeration chamber with a ratio length to width of 2 m and a side water depth of 6 m was designed. A secondary clarifier with a volume of the overflow of 25 m3 /m2 x d and a depth of side water of 3.5 m was modelled. Underflows of the primary settler and secondary settler were mixed and fed to sludge dewatering, the sludge was dewatered, and filtered one was fed back to the primary settler for processing. Dewatered sludge cake was processed for drying

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in the drying beds. The overflow of the secondary clarifier is reused for gardening or it can be discharged in the natural water body.

2.5 Activated Sludge Model-3 ASM-3 provides the additional feature of nitrification and denitrification of ammonium nitrogen (NH3 -N) 5 mg/L and TKN 5 mg/L [16]. The sludge composition was mg TKN/mg VSS 0.04 and mg BOD/mg VSS 0.5. Kinematic and operational parameters for the model was Ys 0.65 mg VSS/mg TBOD, Yn 0.2 mg, VSS/mg NH4 , and kd 0.05 d−1 . Control variables are MCRT 8 d and X 3,000 mg/L. Recycle criteria were fixed Xr 10,000 mg/L. The measurements of the aeration unit and the secondary settler remained similar to the ASM-2.

3 Result and Discussion ASM-1 model of wastewater treatment facility was designed and simulated in steady software, overflow of the secondary settler (effluent quality) was TBOD 20 mg/L, SBOD 12.5 mg/L, TSS 20 mg/L, VSS 15 mg/L, TKN 27.4 mg/L, and NH3 -N is 25 mg/L. Underflows of a secondary and primary settler were mixed, and the mixture was fed to a sludge dewatering unit at a solid capture rate of 95% and cake concentration of 20,000 mg/L. Filtrate was recycled to primary settler, and the effluent sludge composition was BOD 64,574.50 mg/L, TSS 200,000 mg/L, VSS 157,427.80 mg/L, TKN 17,443.10 mg/L, and NH3 -N 25 mg/L. ASM-2 was simulated and effluent concentration for the developed model was TBOD 20 mg/L, SBOD 15.1 mg/L, TSS 14.5 mg/L,VSS 14.5 mg/L, TKN 26.5 mg/L, and NH3 -N was 25 mg/L. Underflows of the secondary and primary settler were mixed, and the mixture was fed to the sludge dewatering unit at a solid capture rate of 95% and cake concentration of 20,000 mg/L. Filtrate was recycled to primary settler and the effluent sludge composition was BOD 56,194.00 mg/L, TSS 200,000 mg/L, VSS 154,118.30 mg/L, TKN 14,933.30 mg/L, and NH3 -N 25 mg/L. ASM-3 was simulated and found that the overflow of the secondary settler was TBOD 20 mg/L, SBOD5 16.1 mg/L, TSS 20 mg/L, VSS 7.9 mg/L, TKN 5 mg/L, and NH3 -N was 5 mg/L. Underflows of the secondary and primary settler were mixed, the mixture was fed to sludge dewatered at a solid capture rate of 95% and cake concentration of 20,000 mg/L, and the filtrate was recycled to the primary settler. Table 2 presents the effluent composition in different wastewater treatment models. Figure 3 shows the comparative analysis of wastewater influent and effluent. The prominent parameters TBOD, SBOD, TSS, VSS, TKN, and NH3 -N were calculated from the developed model and compared for wastewater influent and effluent concentration of ASM-1, ASM-2, and ASM-3 simulation models.

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Table 2 WWTP effluent concentration with ASM-1, ASM-2, and ASM-3 models Model

TBOD (mg/L)

SBOD (mg/L)

TSS (mg/L)

VSS (mg/L)

TKN (mg/L)

NH3 -N (mg/L)

ASM-1

20

12.5

20

15

27.4

25

ASM-2

20

15.1

20

14.5

26.5

25

ASM-3

20

16.1

20

7.9

5

5

Fig. 3 Comparative graphical analysis of treated water TBOD, SBOD, TSS, VSS, TKN, and NH3 -N

Table 3 represents the separated dewatered sludge composition from different

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Table 3 Dewatered sludge quality in ASM-1, ASM-2, and ASM-3 simulation model Model

TBOD (mg/L)

SBOD (mg/L)

TSS (mg/L)

VSS (mg/L)

TKN (mg/L)

NH3 -N (mg/L)

ASM-1

3,762.50

12.5

10,000.00

7,500.00

1,247.00

25

ASM-2

2,448.20

15.1

10,000.00

7,237.60

764.5

25

ASM-3

1,986.50

16.1

10,000.00

3,940.90

162.6

5

models. Figure 4 shows the sludge quality comparison in ASM-1, ASM-2, and ASM-3 models. The simulation result reveals optimum effluent quality in ASM-3 modelling.

4 Conclusions Biological treatment processes models of WWTP were designed and simulated using the steady-static modelling software. The simulation results of ASM-1, ASM-2, and ASM-3 were compared for the treatment efficiency. In ASM-2, the ammonification and hydrolysis are simplified to stoichiometric terms, i.e. the rate implicit. It also includes the anaerobic fermentation, uptake to acetate, formation of PHB and PHAs, and releases of the soluble phosphate from hydrolysis of polyphosphate. The removal of BOD was more in ASM-2 as 15.1 mg/L. ASM-3 was the advanced version of the ASM-1 model, and it reduces the dominion of hydrolysis with the rate of oxygen consumption and denitrification. It makes it independent of electron donors. As a result, the rate of all processes was reduced under anoxic. ASM-3 takes the anoxic yield coefficient into account. In ASM-3 modelling, a number of kinetic and stoichiometric parameters were predicted for effective sewage nitrification and denitrification. The effluent quality was optimum for the discharge/ reuse for non-domestic applications. The effluent concentration of the ASM-3 simulated model was TSS 7.9 mg/L, TKN 5 mg/L, and NH3 -N 5 mg/L.

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Fig. 4 Comparative presentation of dewatered cake quality for ASM-1, ASM-2, and ASM-3 models

Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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Qualitative and Comparative Assessment of Pharmaceutical Industry Effluents in Selaqui Region Ayush Sahu, Rahul Silori, and Vivek Bilouhan

Abstract During the past few decades, pharmaceutical industries have registered a quantum jump contributing to high economic growth, but on the other hand, it has led to high environmental pollution. The discharge of untreated or partially treated effluents leads to contamination of surface water, groundwater, and other environmental resources. It can lead to many water-borne diseases and also affects the agricultural field as it contains deviated levels of pH, Bio-Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), and Total Suspended Solids (TSS). In this study, effluent samples were collected from three different pharmaceutical industries located at Pharma City, Selaqui in Dehradun. The various physicochemical parameters analysed were pH, Conductivity, Bio-Chemical Oxygen Demand, and Chemical Oxygen Demand. The pH, BOD, COD, and Conductivity of the effluents were reported as (8.51 ± 0.08, 8.29 ± 0.06, and 6.81 ± 0.03); (45.3 mg/l, 51.86 mg/l, and 48.39 mg/l); (172.34 mg/l, 185.67 mg/l, and 176.42 mg/l); and (68.4 ± 1.91 µS/cm, 116.3 ± 1.17 µS/cm, and 87.76 ± 0.60 µS/cm), respectively. The observed pH and COD values were under the standard norms given by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) for effluent discharge into surface water whereas BOD values were observed slightly above the standard provided for effluent discharge into surface water. The results of the physicochemical parameters were also compared with the previous study and were found below the values obtained by previous studies. Keywords Pharmaceutical industry · Physicochemical parameters · Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) · Bio-Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) · Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

A. Sahu · R. Silori (B) · V. Bilouhan School of Engineering, University of Petroleum and Enery Studies, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 V. P. Singh et al. (eds.), Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 199, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6_13

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1 Introduction Water is remarkably in peril to pollution. It is known as a “universal solvent”, water is free to dissolve more substances than any other liquid on earth. This is the reason why water is so easily polluted. Toxic substances from farms, towns, and factories easily dissolve with riverwater nearby and mix with it, causing water pollution. Increment in worldwide interest in drugs has made the pharmaceutical industry one of the significant 26 polluters of solid wastes and effluent into the environment [1]. According to estimates, about half of the worldwide wastewater from the pharmaceutical industry is discharged without any recommended pre-processing [2, 3]. India is one of the Industrial powerhouses in the Asian area. India is among the top exporters of pharmaceutical items and a driving trendsetter in the field of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Science. In India, it is found that one-third of total water pollution comes in form of effluent discharged through industries. Industrial wastewater presents a potential hazard to the natural water system. This water contains many organic and inorganic matters, which are toxic to various life forms of the ecosystem. Worldwide growth and expeditions of industrialization have led to the recognition and increasing understanding of the interrelationship between pollution, public health, and the environment. The surface water is the main source of industries for wastewater disposal. Industrial effluents have enhanced the level of surface water pollution up to twenty times the safe level in twenty-two critical polluted areas in the country. It is found that almost all rivers are polluted in most of the stretches by some industries. Pharmaceutical industries produce effluents and discharge them into the nearby river without proper treatment. Pharmaceutical industries’ production includes raw material, antibiotics, a variety of medicines, and cosmetic products, which in turn generate the effluents containing constituents harmful to human and aquatic life. The volume of untreated pharmaceutical industry wastewater is small and it contains a high level of pollutants because of the presence of non-biodegradable organic matter. Assessment and characterization of water are important especially one near the industrial area to evaluate the quality of water in which industrial waste is discharged in the form of effluent. The focus of this study is to determine the physicochemical parameters of pharmaceutical effluent in the Selaqui region and compare it with CPCB effluent discharge standards. The current study also highlights the comparison of the results observed with the previous studies conducted in the Selaqui region. A comparative study will enable us to predict the overall current scenario of pharmaceutical industries in the region and analyse the impact of effluents in the nearby region.

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2 Literature Review 2.1 Studies on Characterization of Pharmaceutical Industry Effluents A study was conducted in the pharmaceutical industry of Lucknow region, Uttar Pradesh [4]. In this study, after the collection of effluents, the author focused the study to observe the physicochemical parameters and then defining the toxicity of the wastewater collected from pharmaceutical industries. The impacts of pharmaceutical synthetic compounds on public health and the environment are critical because of their intense toxicity, including genotoxicity and mutagenic potential. The various parameters analysed were as follows: • • • •

pH. Conductivity. Bio-chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) (Table 1).

From the results, it was observed that BOD and COD were higher than the norms provided by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). The outcome of the results proposes that the effluents contained toxic constituents, which forced cytotoxic and genotoxic risks. Dombivali is the industrial belt of the Mumbai region, India. Due to the establishment of various industries, a study was conducted in this region [5]. In this study, the author focused to observe the various physicochemical parameters. In the course of the most recent decade, more than 100 distinct medications have been found as ecological contaminants in effluents of sewage treatment plants, surface water, sediments, sludge, soils, groundwater, and drinking water sources. The various parameters analysed were as follows:• pH. • Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). • Bio-Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) (Table 2). The results of physicochemical parameters were found to be beyond the standards norms provided by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). Table 1 Results of Physicochemical parameter [4]

Parameter pH Conductivity (µS/cm)

Results 5.6 ± 0.11 156.34 ± 176

BOD (mg/l)

7253.34 ± 1022

COD (mg/l)

756.67 ± 1124

138 Table 2 Results of physicochemical parameters [5]

Table 3 Results of physicochemical parameter [6]

A. Sahu et al. Parameter

Results

pH

12.54

COD (ppm)

1271

BOD (ppm)

546

Parameter

Results

pH

5.1

COD (mg/l)

2797.3

BOD (mg/l)

1083.5

Taloja is another industrial area of Mumbai, similarly in this area also, a study was conducted [6, 7], and various physicochemical parameters of wastewater effluents from the industrial area were observed. The parameters which were analysed by the author during his study are as follows: • pH. • Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). • Bio-Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) (Table 3). The outcome of the result highlights towards the release of highly contaminated wastewater effluent from industries of Taloja Industrial zone of Mumbai. These effluents have caused the contamination of the nearby Kasardi River in this way affecting the development of vegetation and aquatic life. Since, all the physicochemical parameters were beyond the standard norms which are provided by CPCB thereby, making the effluent toxic which eventually contaminates the environment. Hence, the author suggested to take corrective treatment procedures for effluent before being disposed to the environment.

2.2 Past Studies in Pharma City, Selaqui A study was conducted at pharma city Selaqui region, Dehradun [8], and various physicochemical parameters of wastewater samples were observed. In the Dehradun area of Uttarakhand state during recent years, there is an extraordinary development enlisted in the pharmaceutical industry. This quick industrialization adds to water contamination in and around the Dehradun locale. In spite of the fact that these pharmaceutical ventures work under the norms of the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), Govt. of India, yet the circumstance is far from satisfaction. Time-to-time monitoring of pharmaceutical wastewater is important to check the degree of toxins, which helps in up-gradation and planning of legitimate treatment methodology.

Qualitative and Comparative Assessment of Pharmaceutical Industry Effluents … Table 4 Results of physicochemical parameters [8]

Parameters

Results

pH

4.66–6.95

COD (mg/l)

823–3302

BOD (mg/l)

102–390

139

The following parameters were observed by the author: • • • •

pH. Conductivity. COD. BOD (Table 4).

From the results, it was observed that the average values of COD and BOD were found to be above the norms prescribed by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) for effluent discharge into surface water. The quality of drinking water in Indian urban cities has been degraded in past years because of the release of sewage and untreated effluents of the ventures into the water bodies; keeping this aspect in mind, a study was conducted at the Dehradun region of Uttarakhand state [9]. In this study, the author collected two effluent samples from different pharmaceutical industries and named the samples as Effluent A and Effluent B. The various parameters which were observed by the author during this study are as follows: • pH. • Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). • Bio-Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) (Table 5). As on comparing the following results with CPCB standards, BOD and COD were found to be above the CPCB standards. These all result proves that the effluents collected were toxic as they contain high values of COD and BOD thereby, pharmaceutical industries are not treating the effluent before disposing it to the environment. At the industrial phase of Dehradun, Uttarakhand, one more study was conducted [10]. In this study, the author observed several parameters in which they focused most on the physicochemical parameters as these parameters predict the level of pollution in the wastewater samples. The following parameters were analysed by them:• pH. Table 5 Results of physicochemical parameters [9]

Parameter

Effluent A

Effluent B

6.56 ±

pH

6.78 ±

0.09

0.13

COD (mg/l)

327 ± 23

236 ± 26

BOD (mg/l)

56 ± 6

40 ± 6

140 Table 6 Results of physicochemical parameters [10]

A. Sahu et al. Parameter pH

Results 10.34

COD (mg/l)

698.11

BOD (mg/l)

341.11

• Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). • Bio-chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) (Table 6). Wastewater from the testing point is contaminated as can be seen from the outcomes got. From the result, it was observed that all the physicochemical parameters pH, Chemical Oxygen Demand, and Bio-Chemical Oxygen Demand were beyond the standard norms which are provided by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). Therefore, the author concluded that the effluents of the pharmaceutical industry of the Selaqui region contain high toxicity and can harm the environment if proper actions are not taken. Pharmaceutical industries should follow the norms and standards which are provided by CPCB in order to make effluent less harmful and then it can be easily discharged to the environment.

2.3 Study Area Selaqui region in Dehradun is a hub of numerous industries in which pharmaceutical industrial is the major one recognized as Pharma city, Dehradun. The area of concern for this project from where the samples have been collected is Pharma city, Selaqui region situated in Dehradun, Uttarakhand (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Selaqui location map

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Table 7 Observed value of pH for effluent samples Effluents

Observations

pH result (Avg.Value ± Std.Deviation)

Nature

1

8.60,8.52,8.41

8.51 ± 0.08

Basic

2

8.37,8.21,8.29

8.29 ± 0.06

Basic

3

6.82,6.78,6.85

6.81 ± 0.03

Acidic

Fig. 2 Graphical representation pH results

3 Results and Discussion 3.1 PH See Table 7 and Fig. 2.

3.2 Conductivity See Table 8 and Fig. 3. Table 8 Observed value of conductivity for effluent samples (measured in µS/cm)

Effluents Observations

Conductivity (AvgStd.Deviation) µS/cm 68.4 ± 1.91

1

70.2,66.4,68.6

2

115,116.8,117.2 116.3 ± 1.17

3

87.2,88.4,87.7

87.76 ± 0.60

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Fig. 3 Graphical representation of conductivity result

3.3 COD See Table 9 and Fig. 4. Table 9 Observed value of COD for effluent samples (measured in mg/l)

Effluent

COD (mg/l)

1

172.34

2

185.67

3

176.42

Fig. 4 Graphical representation of COD results

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3.4 BOD See Table 10 and Fig. 5.

4 Compliance Check with CPCB Standards Now after testing all the parameters (COD, BOD, and pH) of all effluent samples, i.e. effluent 1, effluent 2, and effluent 3, we compare the results with CPCB Standards for effluent discharge into surface water (Table 11). Table 10 Observed value of BOD for effluent samples (measured in mg/l)

Effluents

BOD (mg/l)

1

45.3

2

51.86

3

48.39

Fig. 5 Graphical Representation of BOD result

Table 11 Compliance check of effluent results with CPCB standards

Parameters

Results

CPCB standards [11]

pH

Effluent 1 = 8.51 Effluent 2 = 8.29 Effluent 3 = 6.81

6.5–8.5

COD (mg/l)

Effluent 1 = 172.34 Effluent 2 = 185.67 Effluent 3 = 176.42

Not more than 250 mg/l

BOD (mg/l)

Effluent 1 = 45.3 Effluent 2 = 51.86 Effluent 3 = 48.39

Not more than 30 mg/l

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Table 12 Comparison of the current study with the previous study S. No.

Parameters

Rana et al. (2014)

Ramola et al. (2013)

Singh et al. (2012)

Current study results

1

pH

4.66–6.95

6.56–6.78

10.34

2

COD (mg/l)

823–3302

236–327

698.11

172.34–185.67

3

BOD (mg/l)

102–390

40–56

341.11

45.3–51.86

6.81–8.51

On comparing the Effluent 1, Effluent 2, and Effluent 3 results with CPCB standards, it can be observed that pH and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) both are under the standard norms provided by CPCB for effluent discharge into surface water whereas Bio-chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) was slightly above the prescribed limit given by CPCB for surface water.

5 Comparative Study 5.1 Effluent Comparison Current study effluent sample results are compared with the previous studies that are done in Dehradun. The table below shows the overall comparison of effluent sample results with previous studies’ results (Table 12). From the above table, it was observed that the range of pH obtained from [8, 9] both was below the range of pH results obtained from the current study analysis whereas the pH result obtained from [10] was above the range of current study result. The range of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) from all the previous studies, i.e. [8–10] was found to be higher than the range which was obtained from the result of the current study. The range of Bio-Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) obtained from [8, 10] results both was higher than the range which was obtained from the result of current study data; however, the result of BOD obtained from [9] was observed to be slightly above the range of current study analysis.

6 Conclusion The analysed physicochemical parameters from effluent samples of pharmaceutical industries resulted that they were under the prescribed limit of the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) for effluent discharge into surface water whereas BOD was slightly above the standard norm provided by CPCB. Previous studies have shown drastically greater values of COD and BOD which clearly explain the high level of toxicity in effluents but according to the current study result, the values were much

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lower than the values which were obtained from previous studies. Hence, pharmaceutical industries in the Selaqui region have started opting for necessary treatment procedures for effluent before being disposed to the environment. The nearby environment of these pharmaceutical industries now poses less threat of getting polluted as compared to the earlier situation. Henceforth, the current study has been concluded that effluent treatment procedures have now been opted by pharmaceutical industries in Pharma city, Selaqui.

References 1. Anyakora C, Nwaeze K, Awodele O, Nwadike C, Arbabi M, Coker H (2011) Concentrations of heavy metals in some pharmaceutical effluents in Lagos Nigeria. J Environ Chem Ecotoxicol 3(2):25–31 2. Anetor JI, Adeniyi FA, Taylor GO (1999) Biochemical indicators of metabolic poisoning associated with lead based occupations in nutritionally disadvantaged communities. Afr J med med sci 28(1–2):9–12 3. Osaigbovo AE, Orhue ER (2006) Influence of pharmaceutical effluents on some soil chemical properties and early growth of maize (zea mays L.). Afr j Biotechnol 5(12):1612–1618 4. Kumari V, Tripathi AK (2019) Characterization of pharmaceuticals industrial effluent using GC–MS and FT-IR analyses and defining its toxicity. Appl Water Sci 9(8):185 5. Singare PU, Dhabarde SS (2014) Studies on pollution due to discharge of effluent from pharmaceutical industries of Dombivali industrial belt of Mumbai, India. Int lett chem phys astrol 3:16–23 6. Lokhande RS, Singare PU, Pimple DS (2011) Study on physicochemical parameters of waste water effluents from Taloja industrial area of Mumbai, India. Int J eco 1:1–9 7. Lokhande RS, Singare PU, Pimple DS (2011) Toxicity study of heavy metals pollutants in waste water effluent samples collected from Taloja industrial estate of Mumbai, India. Res environ 1:13–19 8. Rana RS, Singh P, Singh R, Gupta S (2014) Assessment of physico-chemical pollutants in pharmaceutical industrial wastewater of pharmacity, Selaqui. Dehradun. Int J res chem environ 4(2):136–142 9. Ramola B, Singh A (2013) Assessment of spatio-temporal changes in characteristics of industrial waste water in Dehradun region of Uttarakhand. Environ Conserv J 14(3):51–60 10. Singh SN, Srivastava G, Bhatt A (2012) Physicochemical determination of pollution in wastewater in Dehradun. Curr world environ 7:133–138 11. CPCB Standards (2009) New Delhi, India. http://www.cpcbenvis.nic.in/scanned%20reports/ pcl%204%20environmental%20standards.pdf

FPGA Implementation of Area-Efficient Binary Counter Using Xilinx IP Cores B. Khaleelu Rehman, Ramalla Isaac, K. Abdul Munaf, Salauddin Mohammad, and Mudassar Basha

Abstract The paper aims to target the Xilinx intellectual property (IP) cores and the methodology that allows in the easy way of implementing the IP cores and their functionalities and the interface with the recent Xilinx FPGAs. The proposed work is developed with Xilinx ISE 14.7 programming and the IP cores associated with it. The VHDL programming style is used to describe the hardware and its functionality. A 16-bit up-counter is designed using conventional programming and Xilinx IP core approach and implemented using the Virtex-5 XC5VXT50T device. The binary up-counter design is verified using different Xilinx FPGAs and compared with the existing method. Keywords FPGA · VHDL · Xilinx IP · Virtex-5

1 Introduction Counters in digital electronics are having a variety of applications, like timers and delays, system clocks, watches, alarms, clocks, memory addressing, frequency division, cycle controls, sequence controls, protocols, etc. The binary up-counter [1] B. K. Rehman (B) Department of ECE, Nalla Malla Reddy Engineering College, Hyderabad, India R. Isaac Department of EEE, Marri Laxman Reddy Institute of Technology & Management, Hyderabad, India e-mail: [email protected] K. A. Munaf Department of ECE, RGUKT-IIIT RK Valley, Kurnool, India e-mail: [email protected] S. Mohammad Department of ECE, J.B Institute of Engineering &Technology, Hyderabad, India M. Basha Department of ECE, B.V.R.I.T, Hyderabad, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 V. P. Singh et al. (eds.), Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 199, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6_14

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counts the number of events in the upward direction, for example, the N-bit upcounter counts the events from 0 to 2 N − 1. Similarly, the down-counter [2] counts the events in the 0 to 2 N − 1. Binary up-counter is designed using the conventional model and its RTL, simulation, and synthesis reports are tabulated below. Xilinx generates.ngr file for the RTL schematic. The RTL schematic of the 16-bit up-counter is shown in Fig. 1. The input clk and rst are the 1-bit data, and the output Q(15:0) is the 16-bit up-counter (Table 1). The Xilinx I-sim [3] waveform simulation is shown in Fig. 2. Step-1: Force reset = ‘1’, then the counter output will be zero. Step 2: Force reset = ‘0’, apply direct clk signal with a rising edge. One output q [15:0] is the counter value. The maximum value of the 16-bit up-counter is 216 = 65,535 in the unsigned decimal format [4] and in the hexadecimal format its value

Fig. 1 RTL view of 16-bit up-counter

Table 1 Pin details of 16-bit up-counter Pin

Direction Detail

clk(1-bit)

Input

The input is used to provide the rising edge of the clock signal. In the simulation, we are giving a 50% duty cycle clock signal

rst(1-bit)

Input

The input is used to keep all the output register contents as zero and synchronized with the clock signal

Q(15:0) (16-bit) Output

It is a 16-bit output up-counter used to count the events

Fig. 2 16 bit up counter simulation

FPGA Implementation of Area-Efficient Binary Counter … Table 2 Synthesis report of 16-bit up-counter

149

Device utilization summary (estimated values) Logic utilization

Used

Available

Number of slice registers

16

28,800

Number of slice LUTs

16

28,800

Number of fully used LUT-FF pairs

16

16

Number of bonded IOBs

18

480

Number of BUFG/BUFGCTRLs

1

32

is ‘ffff’. From Fig. 2, it can be observed that after the counter reaches the maximum value again it starts at 0 and it continues 0, 1, 2, …, 65,535. Table 2 shows the synthesis report of the 16-bit up-counter. The number of slice registers, slice look-up tables, fully used look-up table/flip-flop pairs, input/output blocks, and buffer memories, respectively, are 16, 16, 16, 18, and 1. In Fig. 2, the RTL view shows that there is a one-bit clock signal, one-bit reset signal, and the 16-bit output up-counter, and hence in the synthesis report total input/output blocks (IOBs) is 18. BUFG is a global clock signal. The maximum combinational path delay for the 16-bit up-counter circuit is 3.148 ns through which 2.877 ns for the logic, 0.270 ns for the routing. Total REAL time to Xst(Xilinx synthesis Technology) completion is 28.00 s and total CPU time to Xst(Xilinx Synthesis Technology) completion is 27.31 s. Total memory usage is 4518520 kilobytes. The maximum frequency is 434.608 MHz. The minimum time period is 2.370 ns. The maximum output required time after clock pulse is 3.169 ns.

2 Literature Review Many researchers used counters for counting the number of events. A counter is one of the basic components of any digital system. Cellular 1d automation technique is used for the counter and its area, a delay is optimized, Virtex-5, Spartan 3-E, and Virtex-6 FPGA hardware kits are used to compare area and delay [5], systolic binary counter using cellular-based automation technology is used and power delay product is analysed [6]. The 4-bit unsigned binary counter is performed and analysed with Xilinx ISE software [7]. 64-bit synchronous up-counter and up/down-counter is performed and the area is analysed [8].

3 Proposed Work In the era of digital design, engineers choose the hardware description language for describing any complex logic function. For example, if the digital design engineer needs the counter, up-counter, down-counter, or an up/down-counter for designing

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the counter each time they were doing the project, they would be reinventing the wheel and wasting their time. Similarly, if the design engineer wants to re-code it continually and reuse the same code it will be very difficult and one has to end up wasting more time and money. One solution for the above problem is using the Xilinx IP (intellectual property) [9] cores. An IP is a piece of HDL code where the design engineers have already written to perform a specific task and hence saving the designer’s time. Figure 3 shows the Xilinx counter [10] 11.0 IP core. To open the IP core the following steps should be followed: Open the Xilinx ISE or Xilinx Vivado [11] suite, then click file and then click New project. Under the project give the name of the project and specify the device details. Then click IP(Core generator & architecture wizard), the window shown in Fig. 3 will appear. Many IP cores are available in it. Use the basic elements. Under the basic elements, binary counter is used in the design. (1) (2) (3) (4)

Accumulators Counters Memory elements Registers, shifters and pipelining.

Accumulators: Accumulator IP core is used to add, subtract, and add/subtract the signed and unsigned numbers of 256-bit length.

Fig. 3 Xilinx counter IP core

FPGA Implementation of Area-Efficient Binary Counter …

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Fig. 4 Binary counter IP core

Counters: Counter’s IP core is used to count the number of events in the upward direction, downward direction, and upward/downward direction. It can handle 256 bits of output data. Memory elements: Memory elements IP core is used to store the data using a block memory generator and distributed memory generator. Registers, shifters and pipelining: This IP core is used for the RAM-based shift register core which provides the efficient multi-bit wide-shift register for the FIFO applications. Figure 4 is the binary counter IP core. The IP core shown in the figure has two halves. The left side has the IP symbol which is the prototype of the RTL but not exactly the RTL. The exact RTL can be observed after writing the HDL code and after instantiating the counter IP core. q[15:0] is the 16-bit counter output, ‘clk’ is the clock input. One input and one output are enabled and remaining all the pins are disabled. ‘CE’ is the clock enable. ‘SCLR’ is the synchronous clear. ‘SSET’ is the synchronous set. ‘SSIT’ is the synchronous unit. All the inputs and outputs which are disabled are optional. The binary counter will have an up-counter, down-counter, and up/down-counter. Up-counter counts the events in the upward direction. For example, for a 4-bit counter, it will count ‘0000, 0001, 0010…, 1111’ in the binary format. The example of a down-counter is in the down direction, i.e. for a 4-bit down counter it will count ‘1111, 1110, 1101,…, 0000’. The up/down-counter will count in an upward and downward direction with the help of one bit, i.e. switch in one case it will act as an up-counter for logic level high and in another case, it will act as a down-counter for logic level low. The right side has the drop-down menu count mode. Under the count mode if the up/down counter is selected then ‘up’ will be enabled on the left side. It can count a minimum of 1 bit and a maximum of 256 bits. For example, if the output is one bit, then 21 = 2. Two events are counted 0 and 1.

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Fig. 5 RTL schematic of 16-bit up-counter IP core

2256 is the maximum counter. The increment value is used to increment the counter. For example, for the 4-bit counter if the increment value is 1, then it will count the events after leaving one value. For example, 0, 2, 4, 6, …, 14 in unsigned decimals format. Similarly the down counter and up/down counter will perform. Under the component selection implementation type has two options: one fabric and another DSP. The 16-bit counter requires 16 LUTs and 16 flip flops through Fabric, and DSP48 [12] uses one DSP. The RTL schematic of the 16-bit up-counter IP core block diagram is shown in Fig. 5. Xilinx generates a.ngr file for the RTL schematic. ‘clk’ is the clock input, q(15:0) is the output of the 16-bit up-counter. Figure 4 is the prototype of the RTL and is the exact RTL. Figure 6 shows the ISIM simulation waveform of the 16-bit up-counter. By default, Xilinx has the ISIM simulator but the third party simulator like modelsim [13], the product of Mentor graphics, will also give the same simulation waveform. One input for Fig. 6 in the simulation is ‘clk’, i.e. clk is the clock pulse of the rising edge of the input signal and output is q[15:0], which is the 16-bit up-counter. The maximum value of the 16-bit up-counter is 216 = 65,535 in the unsigned decimal format, and in the binary format its value is ‘1,111,111,111,111,111’. From Fig. 6,

Fig. 6 16 bit up a counter simulation using IP Core

FPGA Implementation of Area-Efficient Binary Counter … Table 3 16-bit up-counter IP core synthesis report for Virtex-5 FPGA hardware

153

Device utilization summary (estimated values) Logic utilization

Used

Available

Number of slice registers

16

28,800

Number of slice LUTs

15

28,800

Number of fully used LUT-FF pairs

0

31

Number of bonded IOBs

17

480

Number of BUFG/BUFGCTRLs

1

32

it can be observed that after the counter reaches the maximum value, again it starts at 0 and it continues 0, 1, 2, …, 65,535. Table 3 shows the synthesis report of the 16-bit up-counter IP core. The number of slice registers, slice look-up tables, input/output blocks, and buffer memories, respectively, are 16, 15, 17, and 1. In Fig. 5, the RTL view shows that there are a one-bit clock signal and the 16-bit output up-counter, and hence in the synthesis report, the total input/output blocks (IOBs) is 17. BUFG is a global clock signal. The maximum combinational path delay for the 16-bit up-counter circuit is 2.779 ns through which 2.540 ns for the logic, 0.239 ns for the routing. Total REAL time to Xst(Xilinx synthesis Technology) completion is 19.00 s and total CPU time to Xst(Xilinx Synthesis Technology) completion is 19.21 s. Total memory usage is 4519608 kilobytes. The maximum frequency is 564.908 MHz. The minimum time period is 1.770 ns. The maximum output required time after clock pulse is 2.779 ns. The comparative table shown in Table 3 compares the conventional method of binary up-counter and the Xilinx IP core method of the binary up-counter using Virtex-5 FPGA [14]. The comparative analysis shows that the number of fully used look-up tables, input/output blocks are minimal and timing parameters like maximum combinational path delay (MCPD) and minimum time period before the clock is 2.779 and 1.770, respectively, using the IP core approach (Table 4). Table 4 Comparison of the existing counter with Xilinx IP core method

Hardware parameters

Existing up counter

Proposed Xilinx IP core method

Number of slice registers

16

16

Number of slice LUTs

16

15

Number of fully used LUT-FFs

16

0

Input/output blocks

18

17

MCPD

3.148 ns

2.779 ns

Min time period

2.370

1.770 ns

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The hardware utilization summary of different Xilinx FPGAs comparison is shown in Table 3. Three different FPGAs are used for comparison: Spartan-3E [15] (xc3s500e-5fg320), Spartan-6 [16] (xc6slx45t-3csg324), and Virtex-5 (xc5vlx50t2ff1136). The hardware parameters and the timing parameters are tested for the binary up-counter, i.e., 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, 64-bit, and 128-bit up-counter by using Xilinx IP core is verified. Number of slices, number of look-up tables, input/output blocks, maximum frequency, minimum time period (ns) before clock pulse, and maximum time period (ns) after clock pulse. The three FPGAs—Spartan 3E, Spartan-6, and Virtex-5—works on 180 nm, 60 nm, and 45 nm technology (Table 5).

4 Comparison of Proposed and Existing Work The comparative analysis of the existing work with our work reveals that the hardware parameters utilization of our work is less in comparison to the work done by Christkis et al. (2016). The total number of slices occupied by the proposed design in Spartan 3E is optimal that is synthesized. The total power dissipation for the proposed design using Virtex-5 16-bit up-counter is 0.18 W and the existing work done by Pandey et al. [7] is 3.483 W (Table 6).

5 Conclusion The VHDL implementation of 16-bit up-counter using IP core generation and conventional approach is performed. Its device utilization summary, RTL view, simulation results, and power report have been tested with FPGA Virtex-5 XC5VXT50T device which works on 65 nm technology. The comparative analysis of the proposed work with existing work is tabulated. Three different FPGAs are used for comparison: Spartan-3E (xc3s500e-5fg320), Spartan-6(xc6slx45t-3csg324), and Virtex5(xc5vlx50t-2ff1136). The design is verified using 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, 64-bit, and 128-bit, respectively. Xilinx I-sim is used for simulation analysis. Xilinx 14.7 is used for synthesis, place, and route. The total power occupied by the design is 0.18 W.

8

9

304

3.28

4.06

Number of slice LUTs

Number of bonded IOBs

Max frequency(Mhz)

Minimum period (ns)

Time after clock (ns) (maximum)

4.06

3.69

270

17

15

4.06

4.52

221

33

32

17

32

4.06

5.12

193

65

63

31

64

128

4.06

5.32

180

129

127

63

3.64

1.83

544

9

7

8

3.63

1.18

502

17

15

16

16

3.63

2.29

436

33

31

32

32

3.63

3.12

356

63

63

64

64

8

8

16

8

4

SPARTAN-6 length (bits)

SPARTAN-3E length (bits)

Number of slices

Hardware parameter

Table 5 Area, delay comparison with different FPGAs 128

3.63

3.22

316

129

127

128

2.77

1.58

629

9

7

8

8

2.77

1.87

559

17

15

16

16

2.77

2.13

468

33

31

32

32

Virtex-5 length (bits) 64

2.77

2.98

368

65

63

64

128

2.79

3.15

320

129

127

128

FPGA Implementation of Area-Efficient Binary Counter … 155

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Table 6 Comparison with the existing work Hardware parameters

SPARTAN-3E length (bits) (area/slices) 8

16

32

64

128

Proposed

4

8

17

31

63

Christakis, Christoforos et al. [5]

8

20

43

96

174

References 1. Zungeru AM (eds) (2012) Design and implementation of a low-cost digital bus passenger counter. Innov Syst Des Eng 3(4):29–41. 2. Nagaraj HS, Hariharan R (1974) Design of a synchronous decade down counter. Int J Electron Theor Exp 36(5):601–606 3. Rani A, Grover N (2018) An enhanced FPGA based asynchronous microprocessor design using VIVADO and ISIM. Bull Electr Eng Inform 7(2):199–208 4. Li Q, Liang G, Bermak A (2010) A high-speed 32-bit signed/unsigned pipelined multiplier. In: Proceedings of 2010 fifth IEEE international symposium on electronic design, test & applications 5. Christakis C, Theodoridis G, Kakarountas A (2016) High speed binary counter based on 1D Cellular Automata. In: Proceedings of 2016 5th international conference on modern circuits and systems technologies (MOCAST). IEEE 6. Chioktour V, Spathoulas G, Kakarountas A (2017) Systolic binary counter using a cellular automaton-based prescaler. In: Proceedings of 21st Pan-Hellenic conference on informatics 7. Pandey B, Pattanaik M (2013) Low power VLSI circuit design with efficient HDL coding. In: Proceedings of 2013 International conference on communication systems and network technologies 8. Tenca AF, Ercegovac MD (1997) Synchronous up/down binary counter for LUT FPGAs with counting frequency independent of counter size. In: Proceedings of the 1997 ACM fifth international symposium on field-programmable gate arrays 9. Ferrandi F (eds) (2006) VHDL to FPGA automatic IP-Core generation: a case study on Xilinx design flow. In: Proceedings of 20th IEEE international parallel & distributed processing symposium 10. https://www.xilinx.com/support/documentation/ip_documentation/counter_ds215.pdf 11. Zamacola R (eds) (2018) Impress: automated tool for the implementation of highly flexible partial reconfigurable systems with Xilinx Vivado. In: Proceedings of 2018 international conference on ReConFigurable computing and FPGAs (ReConFig). IEEE 12. Chethan KHB, Kapre N (2016) Hoplite-DSP: harnessing the Xilinx DSP48 multiplexers to efficiently support NoCs on FPGAs. In: Proceedings of 2016 26th international conference on field programmable logic and applications (FPL). IEEE 13. Rehman BK, Kumar A, Sharma P (2018) Modeling and simulation of ECG signal for heartbeat application. In: Intelligent communication, control and devices. Springer, Singapore, pp 503– 511 14. Rehman BK (eds) (2020) Detection of DTMF by using Goertzel algorithm and optimized resource-sharing approach. In: Intelligent communication, control and devices. Springer, Singapore, pp 851–856 15. https://www.xilinx.com/support/documentation/data_sheets/ds312.pdf 16. Mahmoodi MR, Sayedi SM, Mahmoodi B (2014) Reconfigurable hardware implementation of gigabit UDP/IP stack based on spartan-6 FPGA. In: Proceedings of 2014 6th international conference on information technology and electrical engineering (ICITEE). IEEE

Impact of Non-standardized Trucks on Vehicle Fill Rate (VFR) and Cost in Indian FMCG Sector: A Study Rudrangsu Biswas and Neeraj Anand

Abstract Purpose—The purpose of this paper is to investigate how nonstandard truck impacts the vehicle fill rate (VFR) of a truck. In particular, the effect of nonstandard truck used to load is compared with the standard truck type. Design/methodology/approach—The research is based on a mixed-method research approach by applying quantitative research followed by case studies of two FMCG companies. The case study is aimed at developing the prerequisite to improve the vehicle fill rate (VFR) of a truck. Based on the size of the truck and carrying capacity, a comparison of the vehicle fill rate (VFR) of trucks characterizing two different configurations is made. The configurations studied are the standard truck size compared with the nonstandard truck size and their impact on vehicle fill rate in terms of volume-based food product and weight-based food product. Findings—The case study provides four main observations. Firstly, in a practical scenario, there is no standard truck size available in India. Secondly, other researchers considered truck size and truck carrying capacity as a constant and based on that they have shared the research observation but in the actual scenario truck size and carrying capacity of the truck are variables not a constant. Since this prerequisite is not practically viable, all the improvement theories applicable on vehicle fill rate to the Indian scenario need a relook. Thirdly, the change in vehicle dimension by a mere 5 cm will impact volumetric vehicle utilization by less than 1% but will impact the cost by 2.9%, which is significant for an LUP. Fourthly, the change in carrying capacity of 500 kg will lead to a freight cost impact in a weight-based food product by 3.4%, which is significant for any essential commodity. Research limitation/implication—Though the study may not be highly generalizable and may not be applicable to all kinds of FMCG products but the findings form a base to improve vehicle fill rate for any FMCG organization. Researchers may use this as a variable for further investigation to improve vehicle fill rate (VFR) for FMCG organizations. Originality/value—The study attempts to fill a gap by considering truck size or truck carrying capacity as a variable based on R. Biswas UPES, Prem Nagar, Dehradun, India e-mail: [email protected] N. Anand (B) Chitkara Business School, Chitkara University, Rajpura, Punjab, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 V. P. Singh et al. (eds.), Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 199, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6_15

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a real case study and by investigating the freight due to variability of truck size and carrying capacity in different configurations. Furthermore, standardization will help the logistics managers to plan efficiently in terms of dispatch. Keywords Vehicle fill rates · Truck size variability · Truck carrying capacity · Truck size standardization

1 Introduction FMCG organizations in India are currently facing challenges in terms of vehicle load optimization. Vehicle load optimization is having a direct impact on variable distribution cost. Variable distribution cost is a part of the cost of distribution. Each and every FMCG organization is having a strong focus on vehicle fill rate so that they can optimize their variable distribution cost. In India, most of the FMCG organizations are facing issues pertaining to container loading problem (CLP). Most of the review pertaining to cargo space optimization or CLP is related to the improper arrangement of cargo resulting in underutilized vehicles. Almost all reviews kept the vehicle size as constant and tried to optimize the vehicle fill rate based upon that. In a practical scenario, it is the other way round. In India, vehicle fill rate (VFR) is mostly impacted due to the nonstandardization of vehicles. Vehicle fill rate (VFR) is defined as the ratio of the actual capacity used to the total capacity available in terms of weight and volume. KPIs are in scope—weight fill rate (%), volume fill rate (%), and pallet fill rate (%). To improve vehicle fill rate each and every company is focusing on tools/software based on a certain algorithm. It is not surprising the amount of work is done to build the logic of software. But all the previous research studies are done based on a single constant, which is vehicle dimension and carrying capacity. In all the studies it was found that for the researcher all the vehicles are having standard dimensions and a standard carrying capacity. It is true for the developed county where standards are fixed. It is true for export consignments where vehicle dimension and carrying capacity are standardized. But it is not true for other trucks in the Indian context which are working for FMCG organizations. It is a unique problem in the Indian context. In the current scenario, in order to dispatch small load, shorter distance products the common vehicle used is 407. TATA 407 is a very common model in Indian Transport Industry. On Tata Motors’ website [1], currently, there are 12 models available for 407. Some old models are also available in the market. All of them have various types of specifications in terms of carrying capacity and dimension. In day-to-day operation, loading-in charges are struggling to set the definition of standard loadability in 407. It is not only applicable for manufacturers, smart transporters are purchasing chassis from the manufacturer and making the structure/container as per their wish with the fabricator. Transporter wise it is varying. During the study, it was

Impact of Non-standardized Trucks …

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observed that manufacturer-to-manufacturer standard is varying; the transporter-totransporter standard is varying resulting in complex freight structure. Most of the FMCG organizations have cost pressure due to stiff competition. Due to that, they have started measuring each and every truck dimension and carrying capacity to optimize the freight cost. Waste of man-hour and energy. Since this type of nonstandard became standard now, many tech-based companies are coming forward to give some solution through an optimizer. FMCG organizations are trying those solutions by spending money to optimize their cost. However, the industry is not trying to correct the basics like other developed countries. To have truck dimensions and material carrying capacity, this study is focusing upon secondary data, which is available at sites of major Indian OEMs. To determine the impact on vehicle fill rate (VFR) at the FMCG industry, this study is focusing upon certain assumptions, tools that are primary in nature, since limited data is readily available on VFR in the Indian context. The objective of this study is to help to identify the importance of truck standardization, to optimize the vehicle fill rate (VFR), and to set the process right. This paper establishes the need for the standardization of vehicles for FMCG organizations in India. Standardization of vehicles will help in solving the container loading problem (CLP), eventually which is directly impacting the productivity in factories/warehouses and variable distribution cost.

2 Literature Review Load factor played a vital role to reduce logistical costs. It is the ratio of load carried to the maximum load that could be carried in each load unit [2]. So, we need to optimize the load-carrying capacity of each unit to reduce transportation costs. In light to reduce transportation costs through the improvement of the load factor, some good articles are there but most of them are silent about the standardization part of the truck since it is a unique problem in India. Coordination activities within the shippers enable to load to more. Improvement of load factor helped to reduce cost. The highest load factor is achieved when vehicle transport of the goods in full (Rogerson S. and Sallnäs U., 2017) [3].To make it full they are describing various coordination categories, but they are silent about loading unit, which they have considered as fixed, variability of each loading unit is not monitored. Coordination between various functions to optimize the load factor for variability in a truck is equally important to optimize the load factor, else it will be left unattended and will incur extra cost. Santen V. and Rogerson S. [4] shared a detailed literature review on influencing load factor in ‘Influencing Load Factor in Transport Operations: A literature Review’. As per them one of the key variable to improve efficiency in freight cost for transportation system is to increase the load factor. In this paper they have shared how academic literature will help to influence the load factor from shippers point of view. they have observed that very few detailed study done of determinants of load factor. Also availability of reliable data about load factor is very minimum. Santen V [5] created a framework through which he has described way to

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increased the load factor in the freight forwarder’s system. This framework describe three level of load factor indicators, related to each other including interaction with transport buyer’s system. McKinnon [6] suggests five measures of load factor (of a truck): weight-based, volumetric, tonne-km, deck-area coverage, and level of empty running. All are based on trucks, so truck size and truck carrying capacity are playing the most significant role and variability in that is equally important. Eidhammer and Anderson [7] discussed harmonizing the dimensions of lorries and loading docks for Norwegian cities to bring cost, benefits, and logistics efficiency. They have discussed the issue of variance of lorry size but only from socio cost–benefit angle of specific cities. They have described the problem based on specific local data focused upon urban freight distribution. Their main focus was upon reducing the time spent on loading and unloading through the harmonization of lorry dimensions. Though they have touched upon the variation of dimension but focusing upon a specific truck type has not touched the variation within the specific truck type. Their data is also confined to a Norwegian city only, which is not applicable across geography. More focus study is required on vehicle dimensions in the Indian context. In the past to solve the container loading problem, researchers used many algorithms. For example Koonsintananan and Kimpan [8] in their paper ‘Applied Particle Swarm Optimization in Solving Container Loading Problem for Logistics’ suggested particle swarm optimization (PSO) to solve container loading problem. PSO is used to select the orientation of boxes to be packed into a single container to minimize the space simulated in 3D. But here also researcher took the vehicle dimension as fixed. The researcher only considered the vehicle dimension for 20 and 40 ft standard dimension and standard weight. The researcher considered 20 and 40 ft vehicles as a standard vehicle which is not applicable in India. Other than export containers rest of the containers in India have variability in terms of vehicle dimension and carrying capacity. V. J. Tom et al. [9], in their paper “Cargo Loading Using Dynamic Programming and comparative Software Study” suggested to use Dynamic programming to optimize the Vehicle Fill Rate. They have suggested to use Load Planner to optimize the load building. In ‘Optimization Solution of Equal Dimension Boxes in Container Loading Problem using a Permutation Block Algorithm’ Kanninga et al. [10] proposed to use Permutation Block Algorithm (PBA) to increase the use of space while filling the load in container. But they are also silent about multi dimension vehicle loading. Patil and Patil [11] in their paper ‘Cargo Space Optimization for container’ suggested using algorithms to utilize maximum occupancy of the container. The optimization algorithms, simple algorithm, largest area first fit (LAFF), and LAFF algorithm with weight consider the dimensions of the cargo and container. For the LAFF algorithm researcher suggested using container dimension but the paper is silent about how it was measured. For each and every vehicle the researcher has measured the vehicle dimension or the researcher has considered the standard truck dimension which is not mentioned. For the LAFF algorithm with weight the researcher took cargo weight into consideration but was silent about the vehicle carrying capacity. The

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standard carrying capacity of a particular truck type is considered or the researcher checked the carrying capacity in weight for each and every truck is not clear. The paper is silent about that aspect. Gurbuz et al. [12] also suggested to use largest area first fit (LAFF) algorithm in “An Efficient Algorithm for 3D Rectangular Box Packing”. As per them the problem of packing all boxes into a container is called 3D Packing Problem. But in this paper they have assumed that container is having unlimited height, in practicality which is not possible for Indian truck. They have considered width and depth of container while computing the size of boxes to be placed. Ramos et al. [13] proposed two algorithms in their research paper ‘A physical packing sequence algorithm for the container loading problem with static mechanical equilibrium conditions’. SSA is based on the static mechanical equilibrium conditions for rigid bodies and a PPSA is used to evaluate the feasibility of cargo arrangements generated by existing CLP algorithms. With this algorithm, the researcher tried to maximize the usage of space inside the container. But the researcher did not discuss vehicle dimensions to optimize the container loading problem (CLP). It should be noted that the literature has some limitations. None of the researchers considered vehicle size or vehicle carrying capacity as a variable while making the hypothesis. All treated it as a constant. With this change in assumption, the hypothesis will give a separate result and a new dimension on research will emerge. In this research, we attempt to bridge this gap in the literature and tried to establish vehicle size or vehicle carrying capacity as a variable, through the case study done in two FMCG organizations in the Indian context. The paper proposes the following research questions: RQ1. Are vehicle size and vehicle carrying capacity act as a variable, instead of constant while calculating VFR? RQ2. What is the impact of the variability of vehicle size and vehicle carrying capacity in vehicle fill rate and variable distribution cost (freight)? RQ3. How does this variability of truck size and truck carrying capacity bring impact on the decision-making of logistics personnel at the factory or warehouse?

3 Research Methodology To identify the variability of truck size and truck carrying capacity, primary and secondary data were collected. For primary data collection quantitative method was applied. Checklist and direct observation tool were applied to gather the data of truck size and truck carrying capacity. Truck carrying capacity was validated with the registration certificate (RC) book. The study applied the mean, median, mode, and standard deviation methods to deduce. Secondary existing data from the official internet site was also collected and used to get the details from OEMs. To study how the variability of truck size and truck carrying capacity affects the decision-making of logistics personnel at a factory or warehouse, a case study research methodology was applied. The case study followed five-stage research

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process as proposed by [14]. The case study technique helped to draw a connection between the real-life scenarios with applied theory in the field of logistics. In this research, the case study generated a deep insight with respect to the variability of a constant and the impact of that variability in terms of cost analysis and deriving a base for further research. In this five-stage research process proposed by [14], the study followed the flow of research question formation, development of an instrument, gathering data, analysis of data, and dissemination. In ‘Cost and benefits of using cross-docking in the retails supply chain’ Benrqya Y. [15], used similar type of case study technique for major French retailor in FMCG sector to develop logistics cost model but from cost docking point of view. Ellram [16], ‘The use of Case Study Method In Logistics Research’ supported the usage of case study method in many areas of Logistics function.

3.1 Case Description This research work is carried out with respect to two Indian FMCG companies that are mainly dealing with food products but are different in nature. One of them is having voluminous products with a lesser weight, which helped to draw inferences between truck volume and material volume and its impact on freight for the variation. The other one is having weight-based products with lesser volume, which helped to draw inferences between the truck carrying capacity in terms of weight and material weight and the impact on freight for the variation. As per Eisenhardt [17], there is no ideal number of cases, a number between 4 to 10 cases usually works well. In this case we have chosen two case as this two case will represent volume base product and weight based products. In Indian FMCG sector either product is volume based or weight based. As per Eisenhardt [17] Iteration should stop when incremental improvement is minimal. In his paper ‘Five Misunderstanding About Case-Study Research’ Flyvbjerg [18], cleared the misunderstanding of generalization through single case.

3.2 Case Selection An in-depth case study was conducted at two different FMCG companies operating from India. In Case 1, the company is one of the most reputed FMCG organizations in India, having a very good market presence across India with a huge volume and network. It is having a very high market share in this particular category. The logistical reach of this company is almost every pin code in India, including Andaman & Nicobar.

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For Case 2, this company is even bigger than the first one but concentrated on a specific product category. Their competitors are cooperatives, multinational companies, and big other Indian companies along with local players. Logistical reach is very high, even at difficult terrain like the Northeast. Both FMCG companies have factories and many distribution centers across India and dispatch more than 50 bigger trucks in a day. With this high number of dispatches in a day, it is easier to identify the variability of size and weight of trucks in a practical scenario.

3.3 Data Gathering In order to capture a holistic view and enhance research validity, the data collection was carried out using multiple sources. Primary data collection played a significant role here. Not only does it confine to taking onsite data at the plant and warehouses but also covers the data available at the internet site of reputed truck manufacturing companies. Open-ended in-depth interviews were also taken with the logistics manager and dispatch personnel from both organizations. The primary requirement for studying the impact of variability of vehicle size and vehicle carrying capacity on vehicle fill rate and variable distribution cost was the physical measurement at the plant/warehouse. The data has been collected by using the format shown in Fig. 1. A semi-structured questionnaire has been used for in-depth interviews at plants and warehouses of the two FMCG organizations to identify the difficulties the dispatch team or logistics team face due to variability in terms of filling the trucks. The objectives of data gathering phase are: (A) (B)

To identify the size and carrying capacity variability for a similar type of truck and develop a scenario between cost and the variables. To identify the practical difficulties the logistics team is facing in decisionmaking due to this variability.

Fig. 1 Vehicle measurement sheet

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3.4 Data Analysis The analysis of the study is based on variables and cost analysis for this purpose. Apart from the secondary data, the primary data was also collected at factories and warehouses. The study evaluates and compares the cost in two scenarios, namely in the case of 7.5 MT and 25 MT. The below-mentioned Tables 1 and 2 depict the variability for a similar type of truck and share the dimension of one medium-size truck type (7.5 MT) and one bigger size truck type (25 MT). From the above data, it is very much evident that there is a variation in terms of volumetric capacity and weight capacity. This type of variability in one category creates dispatch-planning issues at factories or warehouses. The study of truck size and carrying capacity shows that Tata Motors, Eicher Motors, Force Motors, Ashok Leyland & Mahindra, dominate the Indian trucking industry for the FMCG sector. As per the Indian Truck Industry strategy analysis report published by AGC in Feb’19 in the light duty truck segment is that Tata Motors is leading followed by Eicher and others. In a practical scenario to carry milk and milk products, one of the most used vehicles is TATA 407. Based on information received from Tata Motors website, there are 12 TATA 407 models available currently in India. Some old models are also available in the market. Table 3 depicts the same. Table 1 Carrying capacity (7.5 MT) Carrying capacity 7.5 MT Length

Breadth

Height

No of trucks

% of trucks

19–19.4

7–7.6

5–5.6

41

39

19–19.4

7–7.6

6–6.5

18

17

18–18.4

7.1–7.3

5.1–5.6

11

10

17.2–17.8

7–7.5

5.1–5.8

9

8

12.1–12.7

6.1–6.9

4–4.1

7

7

16–16.5

7.1–7.3

5.4–5.11

5

5

19–19.4

7–7.6

7.2–7.5

4

4

18.8

7.5

5.6

2

2

22.5

7.5

6.3

2

2

24.4

7.6

6

2

2

9.2

10

7.3

1

1

15.3

7.3

5.7

1

1

16.10

7.2

5.1

1

1

16.8

7.3

4.4

1

1

22.1

6.9

3.8

1

1

Total

106

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Table 2 Carrying capacity (25 MT) Carrying capacity 25 MT Length

Breadth

Height

No of trucks

% of trucks

28.1–28.5

7.4–8.2

5–6.7

9

28

28.6–28.9

7.2–7.7

4.1–6.8

7

22

27–27.4

7.1–7.6

6.1–6.6

6

19

27.7–27.9

7.2–7.6

4.6–6.1

4

13

24.4–23.8

6.9–7.5

6.11

3

9

22.6–22.8

7.4–7.8

6.5–6.8

2

6

33.2

8.3

8.3

1

3

Total

32

Due to this variability in specification sometimes factory/warehouse is able to send more stock and sometimes it is less than the average. Two theoretical studies as discussed below will help to draw an inference that how this nonstandardization impacts the vehicle fill rate.

4 Variability and Impact Analysis (In Terms of Vfr and Cost) In order to study the impact of variability of vehicle size and vehicle carrying capacity on vehicle fill rate and variable distribution cost, two cases were considered.

4.1 CASE 1: Study of Minimum Variation in Vehicle Dimension for a Similar Type of Truck and Its Effect on Vehicle Fill Rate (VFR) and Variable Distribution Cost Vehicle Direct Cost (VDC) 4.1.1

Variability Impact Analysis in Terms of Vehicle Fill Rate (VFR)

In a practical scenario, one FMCG organization has a chips factory in Pune, Maharashtra. From Pune they are catering chips across India. One of the destinations is Guwahati, Assam. They are using 32 feet multi-axle container with 15-ton capacity. In this study 32 feet container having the capacity of 15 tons only is considered, considering carrying capacity as a constant, no deviation is there. For a trial, two 32-feet containers were placed. Both have the same carrying capacity. Since chips are lighter product weight will have a lesser impact compared to volume. The volume will play a significant role in lighter product transportation.

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Table 3 Truck model specifications S. no.

Company name

Truck type

Truck name Length

Width

Height

Gross weight (GVW)

1

Tata motors

LCV

TATA RJ SFC 407 PICK UP EX

4700 mm

1980 mm

2270 mm

4450 kg

2

Tata motors

MCV

TATA LPT 407 EX FE

5195 mm

2140 mm

2379 mm

5490 kg

3

Tata motors

MCV

TATA RJ SFC 407EX/33

5020 mm

1905 mm

2330 mm

5950 kg

4

Tata motors

MCV/HCV

TATA RJ 5050 mm SFC 407EX TT

2019 mm

2257 mm

5300 kg

5

Tata motors

MCV/HCV

TATA RJ 4995 mm SFC 407EX HT

2055 mm

2260 mm

6250 kg

6

Tata motors

MCV/HCV

TATA LPT 407 EX/34 HYMILER

2140 mm

2360 mm

6250 kg

7

Tata motors

MCV/HCV

TATA LPT 6075 mm 407 EX2 38

2140 mm

2360 mm

7300 kg

8

Tata motors

MCV/HCV

TATA SFC 407 EX2

4955 mm

1906 mm

2330 mm

5950 kg

9

Tata motors

MCV/HCV

TATA SFC 5075 mm 407 EX 4*4 CLB

2100 mm

2264 mm

3800 kg

10

Tata motors

MCV/HCV

TATA LPT EX2 34

5925 mm

2140 mm

2350 mm

6250 kg

11

Tata motors

MCV/HCV

TATA SFC 407 CNG

5020 mm

1980 mm

2295 mm

5550 kg

12

Tata motors

MCV/HCV

TATA LPT 407 EX2 CNG

5929 mm

2140 mm

2350 mm

7250 kg

5995 m

Source [1] Tata Motors website

In India, most food organizations use 32-feet single-axle or double-axle containers to transport high volume and lighter weight products for long distances. Single product loaded to avoid dimension variation issue. The product dimension of a single SKU is as follows:

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Fig. 2 Loading pattern of 60 g chips in 32 feet container with 240 cm width

SKU

Length (cm)

Width (cm)

Height (cm)

Gross weight (KG)

Net weight (KG)

60 g chips

48.5

27.5

22.5

6.4

5.76

The dimension of vehicle number 1 is as follows: Length (cm)

Width (cm)

Height (cm)

Gross carrying capacity (KG)

970

240

243

15,000

In practical scenario, 1700cs was loaded in vehicle number 1, with a volume utilization of 90.2% (Fig. 2). The dimension of vehicle number 2 is as follows: Length(cm)

Width(cm)

Height(cm)

Gross Carrying capacity (KG)

970

245

243

15,000

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Fig. 3 Loading pattern of 60 g chips in 32 feet container with 245 cm width

The above table shows that it is studying a change of 5 cm only in width compared to vehicle number 1. The rest of the vehicle dimensions, carrying capacity, case dimensions, and case weight, remain constant. In this vehicle number 2, 1750 cases were loaded, 50 cases more compared to vehicle number 1 with a volume utilization of 90.9% (Fig. 3).

4.1.2

Variability Impact Analysis in Terms of Cost

The Pune to Guwahati current freight for a 32-feet multi-axle container is INR142,000. Chips manufacturing organization ordered for 32-feet standard vehicle, which is 32 × 8 × 8. But the same transporter placed two types of 32-feet multi-axle containers. As a result, for vehicle number 1, the variable distribution cost (VDC) per case will be INR 83.53. Per case VDC is = Total freight between point A and point B/Total case loaded. = 142,000/1700. = INR 83.53. For vehicle number 2 also Pune to Guwahati current freight for a 32-feet multi-axle container is INR 142,000. Per case VDC is INR 81.14. Per case VDC is = Total Freight between point A and point B/Total case loaded. = 142,000/1750. = INR 81.14. For the same destination (Pune to Guwahati), for the same vehicle (32-feet multiaxle container) to send the same stock, vehicle number 1 is having per case VDC of INR 83.53 and vehicle number 2 is having per case VDC of INR 81.14. The difference between two vehicles with 5 cm extra width is INR 2.39 per case. Vehicle number 1 is having VFR of 90.2% (volume utilization) and vehicle number 2 is having VFR of 90.9% (volume utilization). Since chips are volumetric material VFR will be calculated based on max of volume or weight. In this case, it will be volume only. Vehicle number 2 is having more VFR by 0.7%. Most of the FMCG organizations calculate their VDC based on kilogram. Per kg VDC is calculated based on total freight between point A and point B/Total net kg

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moved. For vehicle number 1, per kg VDC will be INR 14.50 and vehicle number 2 per kg VDC will be INR 14.09. Vehicle number 2 is INR 0.4/kg cheaper compared to vehicle number 1. We need to reinforce at this stage that the objective of this study is not to attain maximization of vehicle utilization, which other researchers already proposed by using various types of algorithms. The objective of the study is to check why standardization of container is required and how it is affecting the vehicle fill rate and the cost. From the above-discussed comparison, it is very much clear that due to lack of standard vehicles domestic market in India is struggling. Chips-making organization is confused about what should be the standard loadability of 32-feet multi-axle container for 60 g chips! They have ordered 32-ft multi-axle container and freight for that particular lane is fixed but per kg VDC or per case VDC is fluctuating by 3%, which is huge for a voluminous product like chips where the profitability is also depending upon VDC. In this case, the transporter purchases the cabin and chassis only from OEM and customizes the container with the help of a local fabricator. Local fabricator can change the size of the container based on the need of the transporter. In India, the transport market is very much fragmented in nature. This is one of the classic practical examples which was observed very often in the FMCG sector.

4.1.3

Ambiguity in Decision-Making for the Logistics Manager

Chips-making organization is confused while calculating the standard loadability in two vehicles. In a day they have to move 50 vehicles across India and in a month the number will be more than 1500 vehicles. It is very much difficult for them to check the loadability for 1500 vehicles. Averaging out is the only option since 1500 vehicles may have 1500 types of vehicle dimensions. In this study, it was also observed that for 5 cm only the loading pattern is changed. For a factory or warehouse, it is equally difficult to determine what should be the loading pattern and how vehicle will be optimized. Is it possible to have 1500 types of loading pattern for 1500 vehicles with various dimensions! This study is based on a single SKU only. But in a practical scenario, the FGCG companies are sending more than 20 SKUs in a truck based on demand pattern. How algorithms will help where vehicle dimension is variable, case size is variable, and weight is also variable. All the parameters are variable, nothing is constant. In this study, it is also reflecting how factory/warehouse productivity is impacted due to nonstandardized vehicle. If all the vehicles are having a standard size and the same loading pattern every time, they could have loaded the vehicle much faster compared to the current scenario. Truck turnaround time (TAT) will improve and TAT is having a direct relation with vehicle rotation. Standardized practice always helps to improve productivity (Fig. 4).

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Fig. 4 Snap changes in loading pattern

4.2 CASE 2: Study of Minimum Variation Loading Capacity for a Similar Type of Truck and Its Effect on Variable Distribution Cost (VDC) Since Pune is one of the milk-producing areas of India, many FMCG organizations are having milk factory at Pune, Maharashtra. From Pune they are catering milk across India. One of the destinations is Guwahati, Assam where the demand for milk is very high and the availability of good quality milk is very less. They are using a 32-feet multi-axle container with a 15-ton capacity. The study considered a 32-feet container having a standard dimension of 32 × 8 × 8 but there is a deviation in carrying capacity (tons) of the vehicle only. In the previous case, the dimension was the changing variable, whereas the carrying capacity was constant. In this case, the dimension is standardized whereas the carrying capacity (tons/kg) is changing. Two 32-feet containers were placed. Both are having exactly the same dimension. Since tetra pack milk is a heavy product, the volume will have a lesser impact compared to weight. Weight will play a significant role in heavy product transportation. In India, most food organizations use 32-feet double-axle containers to transport heavy-weight material. Single product loaded to avoid dimension variation issue. The product dimension of a single SKU is shown as below: SKU

Length (cm)

Width (cm)

Height (cm)

Gross weight (kg)

Net weight (kg)

Milk 1 kg pack

370

195

204

13

12.36

The dimension of vehicle number 1 is as follows: Length (cm)

Width (cm)

Height (cm)

Gross carrying capacity (kg)

970

243

243

15,000

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In a practical scenario, 1153cs was loaded in vehicle number 1, with a 100% weight utilization (Fig. 5). The dimension of vehicle number 2 is as below: Length (cm)

Width (cm)

Height (cm)

Gross carrying capacity (kg)

970

243

243

15,500

The dimensions of both the vehicles show that the study considered a change of 500 kg carrying capacity to vehicle number 2 keeping the vehicle dimension, case dimensions, and case weight unchanged. In vehicle number 2, 1192 cases were loaded; 39 cases more loaded compared to vehicle number 1 (Fig. 6).

Fig. 5 Loading pattern of 1 kg milk tetra pack in 32 feet container with 15,000 kg carrying capacity

Fig. 6 Loading pattern of 1 kg milk tetra pack in 32 feet container with 15,000 kg carrying capacity

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The results of the analysis show that Pune to Guwahati will have the same freight for a 32-feet multi-axle container which is INR 142,000. Milk manufacturing organization ordered for 32-feet standard vehicle, carrying capacity of 15 tons but the same transporter placed 32-feet multi-axle container with a different carrying capacity. As a result, vehicle number 1 variable distribution cost (VDC) per case will be INR 123.16. For vehicle number 2 also, Pune to Guwahati current freight for 32-feet multi-axle container is INR 142,000. Per case VDC is INR 119.13. For the same destination (Pune to Guwahati), for the same vehicle (32-feet multiaxle container) to send the same stock, vehicle number 1 is having per case VDC of INR 123.16 and vehicle number 2 is having per case VDC of INR 119.13. The difference between two vehicles with 500 kg extra loading capacity is INR 4.03 per case. Both vehicles have optimum vehicle utilization in terms of weight. Most of the FMCG organizations calculate their VDC based on kg. For vehicle number 1 per kg VDC will be INR 9.96 and vehicle number 2 per kg VDC will be INR 9.64. Vehicle number 2 is INR 0.33/kg cheaper compared to vehicle number 1.

4.3 Discussion The study attempts to fill a gap by considering truck size or truck carrying capacity as a variable based on a real-life case and by investigating its impact on cost due to variability of truck size and carrying capacity in different configurations. According to the result of the study, the variance of 5 cm in vehicle width there is a direct impact of 2.9% on variable distribution cost (VDC) and 0.8% on vehicle fill rate (VFR). A graphical representation as shown in Fig. 2 will help to understand it in a better manner (Fig. 7). According to the result of the study, variance of 500 kg in vehicle carrying capacity, there is a direct impact of 3.4% on variable distribution cost (VDC). A graphical representation will help to understand it in a better manner (Fig. 8). Both cases show how small variance can make a high impact on vehicle fill rate as well as on variable distribution cost.

5 Impact of Variabilty of Truck Size and Truck Carrying Capacity on Decision-Making Since there is no standard vehicle being used in Indian FMCG logistics, this variation and impact of variation are observed in almost each and every vehicle. Adjustment of load in each and every vehicle is a difficult task. Either it attracts special attention and focuses through dedicated manpower or process, or it is left unattended, resulting in low VFR and high cost.

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Fig. 7 Variance analysis (Case 1)

Fig. 8 Variance analysis (Case 2)

In order to identify the practical difficulties being faced by the logistics team while making a decision due to this variability, a case study methodology was adopted. An in-depth interview of the logistics team at the plant and warehouse helped to identify the issues, which are still unresolved, and so far, no practical solution is available. Findings from the in-depth analysis of the data gathered from the interviews from the planning to execution stage in various scenarios are shown in (Fig. 9). An in-depth interview helped in understanding all these scenarios, which are happening on a day-to-day basis and which are creating standard confusion for the logistics team. Either it is attended with special care or left as it is, unattended. Both

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Fig. 9 Barriers faced by decision-makers

the cases are attracting extra cost. Decision-making and planning are playing a crucial role here, but no standard solution is available.

6 Real-Life Implication From the above-mentioned case studies, it is very much clear that due to the lack of standard vehicles domestic market in India is struggling, milk-producing organizations are confused about what should be the standard loadability of 32-feet multi-axle container for 1 kg milk! They have ordered 32-ft multi-axle container and freight for that particular lane is fixed but per kg VDC or per case VDC is fluctuating by 3.3% which is huge for a product like milk where cooperative agencies play a vital role to fix the price of milk. Similarly, LUP packs are mass selling in nature and the margin is very thin. This type of variation is having a very high impact on margin. An interesting fact to share is that some state government agencies have already taken drastic steps in passing vehicle registration, which is very much required. But we can often see too many vehicles on streets which are having certain state passing and which are diluting the whole process of standardization. In these cases, the transporter purchases the cabin and chassis only from OEM and customizes the container with the help of a local fabricator. A local fabricator uses lightweight material while making the container. Due to this only the carrying capacity is varying. Some state governments should pay attention to the same while passing the registration of the vehicle to make it standardized.

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7 Limitation and Scope of Further Research The present study is based on a case study of two FMCG organizations. This quantitative study may not be highly generalizable and applicable to all kinds of FMCG products; however, the findings form a base to improve vehicle fill rate for any FMCG organization. The study may not be applicable to odd dimensional cargo. The study may be further extended by adding more business cases to the FMCG industry. It may be extendable to other industries which are handing volumetric material or weightbased material. The study may be further generalized by undertaking a cross-sectional and cross-industry empirical investigation into the phenomenon. Apart from that, the researcher can use this variability of size and weight capacity as a variable, instead of considering it as a constant for further investigation to improve vehicle fill rate (VFR) for FMCG organizations in the current context in India.

8 Conclusion In order to examine how the nonstandardization of a truck is impacting the load in India, the study was conducted. The findings indicate the impact of nonstandardization on cost. Having all variables, no fixed parameter, no algorithms will function properly to improve load factor. Ambiguity will be there in absence of standardized vehicles and consultancy companies will try to influence FMCG organizations without correcting the basics. The first and foremost criteria to have variable distribution cost improvement for FMCG organizations in India is the standardization of vehicle. Then only rest steps will be taken to improve vehicle fill rate (VFR). All transporters and all the OEMs should come forward to make it standardized. The role of the government is vital to regularize the total process and make vehicle dimension and vehicle carrying capacity standardized. The type of vehicle also needs standardization as it is in many other developed countries.

References 1. TATA Motors, https://light-trucks.tatamotors.com/light-trucks/tata-407/specifications/tata-lpt407-ex2-cng-light-trucks-specifications.aspx 2. McKinnon AC, Ge Y (2004) Use of a synchronised vehicle audit to determine opportunities for improving transport efficiency in a supply chain. Int J Log Res Appl 7(3):219–238 3. Rogerson S, Sallnas U (2017) Internal coordination to high load factor. The International Journal of Logistics Management 28(4):1142–1167 4. Santén V, Rogerson S (2014) Influencing load factor in transport operations: a literature review. In: 19th Annual Logistics Research Network (LRN) Conference, Huddersfield, 3–5 September 5. Santén V (2012) Increased load factor and sustainable logistics. Mapping actions and effects from a transport buyer’s perspective. In: Töyli J, Johansson L, Lorentz H, Ojala L, Laari S (eds) NOFOMA 2012—Proceedings of the 24th Annual Nordic Logistics Research Network Conference, Naantali, pp 738–753

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6. McKinnon AC (2010) European freight transport statistics: limitations, misinterpretations and aspirations. Report prepared for the 15th ACEA Scientific Advisory Group meeting Brussels 7. Eidhammer O, Anderson J (2014) A socio-economic analysis of harmonizing the dimensions of lorries and loading docks in Norwegian cities—costs, benefits and logistic efficiency. Elsevier Ltd. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 151:37–47 8. Koonsintananan S, Kimpan W (2019) Applied particle swarm optimization in solving container loading problem for logistics. In: 11th International Conference on Knowledge and Smart Technology, KST 20198687817, pp 88–93 9. Tom Jose V, Sijo MT, Praveen (2013) Cargo loading using dynamic programming and comparative software study. Int J Sci Eng Technol Res (IJSETR) 2(2):1–4. ISSN: 2278, 7798 10. Kanniga E, Srikanth SMK, Sundhararajan M (2014) Optimization solution of equal dimension boxes in container loading problem using a permutation block algorithm. Indian J Sci Technol 7:22–26 11. Patil TJ, Patil EM (2016) Cargo space optimization for container. In: 2016 International Conference on Global Trends in Signal Processing, Information Computing and Communication 12. Gurbuz ZH, Akyoku S, Emiroolu Y, Guran A (2009) An efficient algorithm for 3D rectangular box packing. In: Applied Automatic Systems: Proceedings of selected AAS, Skopje, pp 131– 134 13. Ramos GA, Oliveira FJ, Lopes PM (2014) A physical packing sequence algorithm for the container loading problem with static mechanical equilibrium conditions. Int Trans Oper Res 23(2016):215–238 14. Stuart I, McCutcheon D, Handfield R, McLachlin R, Samson D (2002) Effective case research in operations management: a process perspective. J Oper Manag 20(5):419–433 15. Benrqya Y (2019) Cost and benefits of using cross-docking in the retails supply chain. Int J Retail Distrib Manag 47(4):412–432 16. Ellram LM (1996) The use of the case study method in logistics research. J Bus Logist 17(2):93– 138 17. Eisenhardt KM (1989) Building theories from case study research. Acad Manag Rev 14(4):532– 550 18. Flyvbjerg B (2006) Five misunderstandings about case-study research. Qual Inq 12(2):219–245

A Characteristic Study on the Factors Influencing Dust Explosion in Different Industrial Sectors Rishi Dewan, Ragul Aadhitya, and P. R. Sushmitha

Abstract As the technology develops day by day, the dust generated on manufacturing the products has been gradually increased and at the same time equally hazardous. In this paper, a detailed review has been made about the contributing factors that trigger the dust generation in any plant to induce damage to the equipment or even to a catastrophic event. In most scenarios, mechanical damage is the common consequence due to dust explosion as it leads to damage of vacuum pipelines or leak to high-pressure lines. Also it can lead to the displacement of equipment or rupture of the enclosed structure. A review has been made about the dust explosions that occurred in the imperial sugar factory which lead to a catastrophic fire and other incidents have also been reviewed in this paper. A detailed study has been made in the designing of the ducts and vents in the industries. A little difference in the pressure maintained inside a duct chamber can also lead to a serious event due to the leakage of dust. This is caused by the shock wave which breaks the membrane, secondary explosion occurring in the tube due to the difference of pressure and the continuous combustion which decreases with an increase in the distance. Also, a review on the suppression effect of expanding graphite which is of size 5 µm was made in this paper. This showed a huge difference in the flame propagation strategies due to the influence of graphite. Keywords Duct · Design · Factors · Dust explosion

1 Introduction There is a continuous generation of some kind of dust almost in all types of industries, process plants, reactors, paint industries etc. This can turn into a hazardous nature during the process of transportation, handling and processing of the dust to turn it into a different form. The transportation of dust particles is done with the help of ducts and vents which has been mostly set up at the top of the ceiling. The continuous accidents occurring in the last few decades reveal that it is tremendous and hazardous to human R. Dewan (B) · R. Aadhitya · P. R. Sushmitha University of Petroleum & Energy Studies, Dehradun, Uttrakhand, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 V. P. Singh et al. (eds.), Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 199, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6_16

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life. Assumptions have been made that in the textile sector the dust explosions were not common but the Harbin linen explosion in China has taken away the lives of several workers. The investigation of accidents due to dust explosion can be very difficult due to the severity of structural and mechanical damage. Understanding the movement of flame and dust particles is equally important in an industry to prevent future accidents. There are two kinds of dust produced in the textile industry, one is the flocculent nature dust and the other one is the fibrous nature dust. Not many researches have been conducted to know more about the hazardous properties of the fibres that have been generated in the textiles. In the manufacturing of clothes, the thread is used as a raw material derived from cotton plants. On processing of cotton large amount of fibrous dust of negligible sizes were produced. In all the textiles ducts and vent system has been established to collect the dust produced and dispose it safely. This will help us to review the existing design of the loopholes and can develop a more robust design to prevent such similar failures in the particular duct or vent or a process flowline. Nowadays the use of UV rays for the experimental verification of dust explosion in various industrial sectors has been increased gradually. The accidents related to coal mines have been consistently increasing nowadays due to the increased activities of mining of coal [1]. There are several types of dust particles that would enhance a fire once an ignition source is identified. The turbulent combustion of dust particles was modelled and simulated in the computational fluid dynamics.

2 Study Conducted to Understand the Dust Movement The explosion experiment was conducted in a spherical vessel at an elevated overpressure which is greater than the atmospheric pressure of 1 bar [2]. This was performed under two conditions. The first case is with a vent duct and another without the duct. The results derived from the experiments show that there has been a peak rise in the pressure inside the chamber once the duct has been attached. The entire explosion was simulated inside a modified Hartman tube. The dust explosion was carried out in a closed combustion chamber and the ignition was allowed to happen from the centre of the vessel in a series of experiments. In all the experiments the gravity acted as a factor and caused the easily settling down of the dust particles. The long tube was foiled with a mixture of suspended dust particles. Ju [3] did a detailed investigation about the zones in which the reaction of dust takes place in a duct and the path of propagation of flames in the form of stearic acid clouds. Reference [4] examined the acid dust explosions with the help of an ultraviolet radiations band. The results from the experiments revealed that the flame front was occurring continuously and is present beyond the leading flame. Also, a double flame was observed in the flame which propagates through dust cloud created by the lycopodium [5]. The lycopodium dust movement was found to be in the laminar state. The ignition first started in the individual particles and then it spread out to the separate particles in agglomerate flame formed an independent

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flame. Mono uniformed particle arrangement model has been made for the setup. The flame front behaved linearly with respect to observations, the concentration of dust and the mean distance from the flame. The laser scattering images show that the dust clouds produced have been overlapped among one another. Gao et al. [6] critically analysed the thermal characteristics possessed and the size distribution of the flames occurring in dust explosions. It is concluded from the experiment there was a transition to kinetics-controlled from the devolatilization controlled flame movement as the volatility of the dust keeps increasing. The difference between the devolatilization and the kinetic-controlled was found to be Damkohler number by the experimental results of Gao et al. [7]. Here the dust clouds of various particle sizes were taken into experimenting and identified that the kinetics-driven dust explosions were smooth similar to the explosion caused by the premixed gas. In the devitalized control regime the flame front appeared smooth and there was a blue flame. Also, some spots were appearing in the flame region. There is no unified theory been drafted to understand the behaviour of the dust flame starting from the pre-flame stage to the final stage of the resulting stages of combustion. This was due to the challenges and problems faced during the conduct of experiments for dust explosions. This forms the main reason for the industries to underestimate the hazards involved in the transportation of dust. The testing chamber for the dust explosion must be very complex which increases the cost of testing. The propagation of the flame process will be always unsteady, involving heterogeneous reactions, and the factors determining these kinds of reactions are average size, shape, and the pressure of the gas. Based on the deflagration index, a new model has been developed to find out the size of the dust particles by Di Benedetto et al. [8]. In this both internal and external heat transferring, volatile combustion process was also involved to validate the dust explosion. A double-layered stack has been developed by Slezak et al. [9] in this coal phenomenon has been described under the high concentration of fuel. In order to get detailed information regarding the uniformly distributed dust particles, Seshadri et al. [10] divided the dust zone into convention zone, preheat vaporization zone and reactive zone. The transient flame propagation theory was studied by Qiao and Flame [1]. The carbon particles that exist in the form of dust were taken into the mathematical model. It is found that due to interaction between the models, a heterogeneous reaction takes place among the carbon dust which lead to an explosion. The equations were solved by time-dependent fine discretization models. The numerical studies revealed that the flame speed changes with respect to time because of the phenomenon of flame stretch which takes place inside the explosion chamber. In a particular condition, there were no volatile particles released by the burning dust when the particle size is very large and the grid points were increased. Basically, the dust explosion takes place in two forms, namely the homogenous chemical mixture reaction. In the other type, the reaction is accompanied by volatilization or pyrolysis which most probably would result in the heterogeneous reaction of compounds [4].

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3 Combustible Property of Textile Dust All over the world, it has been assumed that the hazardous properties of fibrous dust are not known to all people in a detailed manner. Due to the very low knowledge of non-traditional dust, the accidents and fatalities that occurred by it have severely increased, as shown in Fig. 1 [11]. In the year 1997, in the USA, Connecticut, 27 people suffered injuries from a dust explosion that occurred due to the nylon dust in a textile plant. In 2002, in Biella, Italy there were three fatalities due to a spark that ignited the wool which was travelling through a burr collection system. Considering the textile industries, wool is considered to be one of the fire-retardant materials because of its relatively higher ignition temperature and very low tendency to catch fire. Therefore, the frequency of occurrence of an explosion due to wool is relatively less and the risk rating level is very low. Guidelines for safe functioning and protection against textile dust were provided in the loss prevention datasheet [12]. The protection guidelines were provided for each and every process carried out in the textile industry. Also, it contains the reports of fire ignition tests conducted by the regulatory bodies of fire. Even in this, information about the non-traditional dust generated is lacking. So it becomes the responsibility of the properties and top management to protect the workers and property from any kind of damage due to dust. Two case studies have been made to infer about the accident and recommendations have been provided to avoid further occurrence of such events.

Fig. 1 Accident data

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3.1 Case Study 1 Name of the accident: Imperial Sugar Company Dust Explosion and Fire. Place: Port Wentworth, GA. Date: 2 February 2008. Fatalities and Injuries: 14 deaths and 38 injured.

3.1.1

Description of the Accident

An industrial disaster occurred on 2 February 2008 in Georgia. The refinery produced sugar to meet the demand in US supermarket supply chains like Walmart, general mills etc. In the refinery packaging section, sugars were accumulated in huge silos. During their transportation within the premises, large amounts of sugar dust spilled across the rooms causing huge vulnerability to dust explosions. The industrial steel conveyor was buckled up with steel plates to prevent dust spillage, which in turn reduced area ventilation, creating sufficient atmosphere for a dust explosion. This explosion took the lives of 14 people, injuring 38 others. Proper standards for dust explosion were released by OSHA 2 years prior to the occurrence of the explosion, but it was ignored by the management of Imperial Mills.

3.1.2

Cause of the Accident

The machinery used to process the sugar was not well-kept and would spill sugar onto the floor and surrounding areas, often building up to knee-deep. Workers would use compressed air to clean the floors of loose sugar dust, which just caused it to accumulate in high places such as rafters, beams, and light fixtures and inside ventilation ducts. There were dust collectors, but these were not regularly cleaned and maintained and were too small to handle the amount of dust created. In a tunnel underneath the silos used to store the sugar, a steel conveyor belt was used to transport sugar. This conveyor belt regularly became blocked by clumps of sugar, which would then spill sugar dust onto the floor. In 2007, the company decided to enclose this conveyor belt in steel sheets to prevent contamination, but this took away the ventilation that cleared dangerous accumulations of sugar dust from the tunnel. The first explosion took place inside this enclosed conveyor belt when a blockage caused a buildup of sugar dust and an overheated bearing created an ignition spark. This sugar dust explosion travelled throughout the building, causing numerous other explosions as the accumulated dust became airborne and ignited. The explosion was powerful enough to buckle the building’s concrete floors, sending the accumulated dust on the floor into the air, as well as knocking high area dust down (Fig. 2). The management at Imperial Sugar knew all about the sugar dust explosion risk, yet did nothing to prevent this catastrophe from happening. Their lack of preparation has

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Fig. 2 Eruptions after the explosion

caused new legislation to be created to manage combustible dust hazards, and OSHA has labelled combustible dust as one of their top priorities in the upcoming years.

3.1.3

Recommendations

Proper removal of dust buildup with a suitable ventilation system is necessary. Dust explosion OSHA standards to be implemented on top priority. The work area should be inspected on regular basis to prevent any sudden machine malfunctions and dust spillage.

3.2 Case Study 2 Name of the accident: US Ink Fire. Place: East Rutherford, New Jersey. Date: 9 October 2012. Injuries: 7 workers.

3.2.1

Description of the Accident

The plant manufactures commercial oil-based ink. The dust explosion occurred in the pre-mix room where the ingredients for the ink production were mixed. Four days prior to the accident, a new dust collection system was installed in the pre-mix room. As part of the protocol, the workers were delivered with training to operate the dust

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collection system and the explosion suppression and isolation system alongside. The prime design intent of the DCS was automatic shut off as a reflex to the inactive tank mixers and automatic startup even if one of the three mixers get energized. Contrarily, the system failed to automatically shut off when the mixers were terminated at the end of the day. A maintenance operator noted that the DCS was running throughout the night. He then reported the same to the supervisors who left unheard. Following this, the DCS was shut down manually. A batch of ink was planned to manufacture on 9 October 2012. Forthwith the preparation for the production was carried out the previous night. The mixer tankers and the DCS was started correspondingly. On the day when the explosion happened, the pre-mix room operator commenced preparing a new batch by introducing Gilsonite in the bag dump station. The operator then heard a sudden alarming noise from an adjacent tank and checked for safe speed and temperature of the tank from the control room and witnessed a flash fire burning from the bag dump station itself. As a response to the flash, the operator went to alert the supervisor. Subsequent loud noises were heard from the pre-mix room. The workers spotted that the pipe connecting the duct system and the tank was melting and getting fluidized onto the DCS. The flames grew immensely. The melted spiral connection between the duct system and tank is shown in figure (Fig. 3). The employees observed red lights on the panel of the DCS indicating the explosion and the pressure buildup. The workers started to run away from the fire area but they were dazed by the pressure waves. The fire and the thick dark smoke cloud extended

Fig. 3 Melted spiral connection between the duct system and tank

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to the corridor. Even a few workers clothes were set on fire and some experienced third-degree burns.

3.2.2

Cause of the Accident

The management failed to recognize and isolate the generated explosion potential dust in the DCS. As a poor mitigative measure, the fire coordinator failed to act his duties and the hazard was not communicated to the other workers and hence the damage increased. The DCS was also used for vacuuming the environment which is beyond its design intent reducing its flow rate efficiency. A pre-approachable view was missing from the management to overview the hidden hazards in the new installation. Improper commissioning of the new DCS left the accumulation of the flammable mixtures undetected. Later in the investigation, it is found that the management clearance permits for the construction of the new installation.

3.2.3 1.

2.

3. 4. 5.

6.

7.

Recommendations

As per 29 CFR 1910.132 OSHA, the workers have to be provided and must be trained to wear flame-resistant clothing when and wherever there are explosion hazards. Periodical hazard and risk assessment has to be conducted whenever a new system is launched, or there is a modification to the current system to identify and eliminate the occupational hazards and risks. NFPA 2113 mandates flame-resistant clothing when flammable materials are available in the ink manufacturing process. Implementing timely corrective actions by the management will circumvent predictive and transparent hazards. Proper communication has to be established between the operators who are handing over and who is resuming the system to prevent miscommunicating and misleading information. An effective emergency response plan has to be drafted and devised. The responsibilities of the fire personnel have to be designated and emergency drills have to be performed to check the readiness of the emergency crew. Active and passive fire protection measures have to be implemented. Fire alarms, sprinklers and fire extinguishers have to be installed at the required numbers. The workers have to be trained to handle the fire equipment.

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4 Conclusion The studies from the paper show the potential dangers and hazards involved due to the traditional and unconventional dust generated in the industries. The only possible solution to root out these defects is by designing the equipment in an inherently safer design. This delivers the environment with less hazardous dust and its effects. With the most catastrophic event in mind, alternative methods of design and process have to be done. Care should be taken to properly navigate the dust particles without mixing with incompatible chemicals, e.g., if the dust is exposed to the chimney through which the soot particles are released to the atmosphere, there may be some reaction occurs between the soot and the dust which leads to a formation of harmful gas. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) also published a Bulletin where the hazards of the dust were clearly described. Ultimately lack of knowledge about the dust generation in the industry and the application of inherent safer design is the only way to prevent dust explosions.

References 1. Skjold T et al (2006) Simulation of dust explosions in complex geometries with experimental input from standardized tests. J Loss Prev Process Ind 19(2–3):210–217 2. Jian-liang, Y,. Ming-yu L (2008) Effects of vent duct on explosion venting characteristics of dust in the vessel. Chin J Ener Mater 3. 3. Ju W-J et al (1998) “Reaction zone structures and propagation mechanisms of flames in stearic acid particle clouds. J Loss Prev Process Ind 11(6):423–430 4. Dobashi R, Senda K (2002) Mechanisms of flame propagation through suspended combustible particles. J de Phys IV (Proc) 12(7):459–465 5. Han O-S et al (2001) A study of flame propagation mechanisms in lycopodium dust clouds based on dust particles’ behavior. J Loss Prev Process Ind 14(3):153–160 6. Gao W et al (2013) Effects of particle thermal characteristics on flame structures during dust explosions of three long-chain monobasic alcohols in an open-space chamber. Fuel 113:86–96 7. Gao W et al (2015) “Flame propagation mechanisms in dust explosions. J Loss Prev Process Ind 36:186–194 8. Di Benedetto A et al (2010) Modelling the effect of particle size on dust explosions. Chem Eng Sci 65(2):772–779 9. Slezak SE et al (1985) “A model of flame propagation in rich mixtures of coal dust in air. Combust Flame 59(3):251–265 10. Seshadri K et al (1992) The structure of premixed particle-cloud flames. Combust Flame 89(3–4):333–342 11. Yuan Z et al (2015) Dust explosions: A threat to the process industries. Process Safety Environ Protect 98:57–71 12. Global FM (2009) Prevention and mitigation of combustible dust explosion and fire. Loss Prev Data SheeT 7–76

Piezoelectric Materials for Sustainable Energy and Fitness Monitoring of Civil Structures Gagan Anand

Abstract Piezoelectric materials are extensively used as energy storage devices. Piezo-transducers convert mechanical energy into electric energy, because of core property these materials are extensively studied as core energy harvesting devices. These materials have smart sensor mechanisms that can be used in buildings. The elements in the Portland cement-like alumina, calcium, and silica are nonpiezoelectric in nature and cannot be utilized as competent energy harvesting devices. A number of techniques are designed and extensively studied to develop piezoelectric behavior in Portland cement. In the present study, I suggest blending cement with strontium bismuth titanate in appropriate ratio to exhibit dual nature of strength and as energy harvesting device. This technique can be adapted for developing smart cities where space is always a constraint. A detailed analysis of ratio and thermal properties lead to the development of smarter materials for buildings. Keywords Green building · Energy harvesting · Smart cities · Building monitoring

1 Introduction 1.1 Technology Development Infrastructure development and reliability are key aspects of developing nations worldwide, which includes building for commercial, residential for various activates. Infrastructure worldwide consumes 38% of the total energy. The world around is looking for alternate and renewable energy sources. Piezoelectric devices are extensively studied for the production of energy. Extensive research is going on in the fabrication of composite materials like piezo–Portland cement which can be used for the construction of building structures that are capable of producing energy. Piezoelectric ceramics mixed with Portland cement have derived considerable attention G. Anand (B) Department of Physics, SOES, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun 248007, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 V. P. Singh et al. (eds.), Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 199, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6_17

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for developing ecological building structures leading to the formation of integrated smart cities. The desirable results depend upon many factors like strength, durability, and performance of the piezoelectric ceramics under extreme conditions like pressure and temperature. PZT ceramics are excellent materials for such applications. But the question is are they environmentally friendly? NO, lead is an environmentally hazardous and has toxic impact on mankind and living organisms [1–3]. An alternative for PZT materials is Lead-Free ceramics. In our study, we have prepared strontium bismuth titanate (SBT) and strontium calcium bismuth titanate (SCBT) ceramics and studied dielectric, thermal and conductivity properties. Finally compared with PZT ceramics.

1.2 Piezoelectric Ceramics When external electric field is applied to materials, they endure a diminutive change in dimension such materials are called piezoelectric by nature. If the ensuing strain is proportionate to the square of the field, then the process is known as the electrostrictive effect. When piezoelectric crystals are subjected to stress, the crystal undergoes deformation which results in the advancement of electric polarization. This effect is called the reverse effect. These are believed to be piezoelectric. If the polarization is proportional to the stress, then the effect is said to be direct. As shown in Fig. 1d consider piezoelectric plate such that the net polarization is P = 0. There are electrodes connected on the surface of the plate. When a force is applied on the electrodes, as shown in Fig. 1a, the piezoelectric plate strains mechanically in a direction perpendicular to the direction of force and a voltage is developed. In Fig. 1b conversely, when the potential is applied on the electrodes the material experiences a strain in a direction perpendicular to the current. The strain produced is proportional to the applied voltage. When the polarity of the applied potential is reversed the direction of the stain is reversed as shown in Fig. 1d [4]. In a piezoelectric ceramic, the dipoles are randomly arranged such that the net polarization is zero. When the pressure is applied on the surface these dipoles come in close proximity and tend to align opposite to the direction of applied field. In some piezoelectric materials, the dipoles appear in favorable direction such materials are called polar dielectric A piezoelectric crystal with no applied field, the dashed rectangle is the original sample size. The piezoelectric effect is a prodigy enmeshing electromechanical phenomenon relating the electric charge and physical elongation, i.e., strain in a material. Mathematically vented on the core of the linear coupling [5].

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Fig. 1 a Direct effect. b Indirect effect. c The strain changes the direction (d) Intial condition (under no strain and no potential)

1.3 Piezoelectric Constant The piezoelectric charge constant, d, mechanical strain (S) experienced by a piezoelectric material per unit of electric field applied or, is the produced polarization per unit of mechanical stress (T) pragmatic to a piezoelectric material, is the. Let’s understand the nomenclature followed for the electromechanical coupling coefficients: Ax y where A is the piezoelectric constant, i.e.,d for Charge, g for voltage, x the polarization direction of the ceramic and .y direction of applied stress.

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2 Experiment 2.1 Electromechanical Properties When a piezoelectric ceramic is subjected to A.C field, it starts resonating when the natural frequency of the material is in accordance to the applied field. The amplitude is maximum. At maximum impedance, we find that the amplitude of oscillation is minimum, at this frequency anti-resonance occurs. A number of constants can be derived with modes of vibrations based on the axis of vibrations [6]. A resonance plot of Impedance Vs frequency for a piezoelectric ceramic is shown in Fig. 2. Here, fa is the anti-resonant frequency at the point of maximum impedance and fa is the resonant frequency at the point of minimum impedance. The behavior of the piezoelectric crystal close to its essential resonance can be epitomized by an equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 3. This circuit is recommended by the IEEE standard on piezoelectricity [IEEE standard 176–1987]. Between fr and fa the ceramic behaves inductive. However, above these two frequencies the sample behaves capacitive. This archetypal is only valid near the resonance. An important parameter of a piezoelectric specimen is the effective electromechanical coupling coefficient keff , which is defined as follows: K e2f f =

Mechanical

K e2f f =

energy conver ted to Electrical energy I nput mechanical energy

Electrical energy conver ted to Mechanical energy I nput Electrical energy

Fig. 2 Impedance vs frequency

(1) (2)

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Fig. 3 Resonant equivalent circuit of a piezoelectric ceramic

Since the conversion of mechanical to electrical energy is always incomplete, always keff < 1, hence keff < 1. Typical values of keff are 0.4 for BaTiO3 ceramic and 0.10 for quartz Jaffe et al. [7]. The coupling factors can be calculated for each individual vibration mode by using fr and fa from Capacitance Vs frequency plot and the applicable formula for ceramic disc are shown below 2 = keff

fa2 − fr2 2 f a − fr ; kp = (2.51) 2 fa fr

Coupling coefficient:   π f 2 − fr2 k31 fa − fr a = Cot 2 2 fr fr 1 − k31 Elastic compliance: SE11 =

1 1 SD 33 D E ; S = ; S = 33 33 2 1 − k33 ρ(21x fr )2 ρ(21x fa )2

where lx, ρ, keff , kp, and k31 are length of the crystal rod, density, effective electromechanical coupling coefficient, planar mode coupling coefficient, and coupling coefficient length-wise vibration respectively.

2.2 Fabrication Technique The synthesis technique is shown in Fig. 4. The ceramics samples taken in 99.9% purity (Sigma Aldrich) are mixed as per stoichiometry. The mixture is subjected to

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Fig. 4 Flowchart explaining the fabrication of Strontium bismuth titanate

grinding using mortar and pestle for a duration of 15 h. The slurry is then allowed to dry using magnetic stirrer. The power is calcined at 800 °C for 4 h, to remove the CO2 from it. The calcined sample is taken in a dye of known dimensions to prepare the pellets subjected to hydraulic pressure. Finally the pellets are sintered at 1150 °C in a programmable muffle furnace. Table 1 shows the piezoelectric coupling coefficients for SBT. The piezoelectric coefficient d33 found to be bit low compared to PZT materials but the transition temperature found was 530 °C which makes it a favorable material for high-temperature sensor applications [8]. Table 1 Shows the piezoelectric coupling coefficient for SBT

Piezoelectric coupling coefficients Strontium bismuth titanate [ × 10–12 m2 /N] Keff

0.45

k31

0.40

kp

1.63

s33 D

1.89

E

1.82

s11 E

1.54

s11 D

1.05

d33 (pC/N)

12

s33

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Fig. 5 Schematic of smart amassed sonata

2.3 Building Fitness Monitoring Implanting the piezoelectric ceramic in the observed assembly is shown in Fig. 5. The amalgamation is applied for concrete assembly. The impact of external milieu is decreased drastically as it is sandwiched between the concrete layers. The external concrete will also protect the piezoelectric ceramic physically which increases its lifetime and durability. The specimen can measure the pressure and temperature parameters. By continuously monitoring the sensor if there are changes in temperature or pressure then we can identify the cracks or deformations developed on the surface [9].

3 Conclusion In this work, I propose that lead-free piezoelectric materials are favorable to produce sustainable energy and are highly suitable materials for fitness monitoring of buildings. Based on the fact that the SBT material has high transition temperature of 530 °C, thereby it can withstand under high-temperature conditions. It is easy to manufacture and develop a smart amassed material which overcomes corrosion and has high dynamic mechanical properties.

References 1. Potong R, Rianyoi R, Ngamjarurojana A, Yimnirun R, Guo R, Bhalla AS et al (2013) Acoustic and piezoelectric properties of 0–3 barium zirconate titanate-Portland cement composites-effects of BZT content and particle size. Ferroelectrics 455:69–76 2. Li W, Xu Z, Chu R, Fu P, Zang G (2010) High piezoelectric d33 coefficient in (Ba1−x Cax )(Ti0.98 Zr0.02 )O3 lead-free ceramics with relative high Curie temperature. Mater Lett 64, 2325–2327 3. Yu Z, Ang C, Guo R, Bhalla AS (2002) Piezoelectric and strain properties of Ba(Ti1−x Zrx )O3 ceramics. J Appl Phys 92:1489–1493

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4. Ravikiran U, Zachariasa E, Anand G, Sarah P (Oct 15, 2019) Influence of Na, Sm substitution on dielectric properties of SBT ceramics. Ceramics Int 45(15):19242–19246 5. Anand G, James AR, Sarah P (2010) Dielectric and impedance spectroscopy of Ca substitution in Bi4 SrTi4 O15 ceramics. J Integr Ferroelectr 116:137–144 6. Anand G, Putier M, Sarah P (2020) Modeling of dielectric data of strontium calcium bismuth titanate using modified Lorentz equations. integrated ferroelectrics 7. Jaffe B, Cook Jr WR, Jaffe H (1971) “Piezoelectric Ceramics,” Academic Press, London and New York 8. Anand G, Krishna TR, James AR, Sarah P (2007) Synthesis and characterization of strontium bismuth titanate ceramics via high – energy mechanical milling. Def Sci J 57:29–34 9. Anand G, Kuchhal P, Sarah P (2015) AC, and DC Conductivity Studies on Lead-Free ceramics Sr1– x Cax Bi4 Ti4 O15 (x = 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8), particulate. Sci Technol 33:41–46

Study on Effectiveness of Parkinsonia Aculeate for Water Treatment: A Review R. Raja, Rahul Silori, and Vivek Kumar

Abstract The amount of potable water on earth is constrained and its accessibility per individual is diminishing day by day. The solution to satisfy the thirst of the population lies in its treatment. Treatment of polluted water is an essential requirement to make it free of contaminants and safe for drinking. The following paper reviews the work done by assorted researchers in purifying water using Parkinsonia aculeate for sustainable water supply services in areas lacking proper water treatment. The paper will also address the review of studies conducted in checking the effectiveness of crude seeds extracts (CSEs) and purified proteins of Parkinsonia aculeate (PAP) for clarification of turbid water. The studies have also shown that Parkinsonia aculeate seeds can compete with alum in drinking water treatment of surface water, reaching the same or better final results in turbidity removal with fewer sludge volumes and reduced pH value than alum. This study will not only enlighten us on the water purification by Parkinsonia aculeate but also provide an insight into the effectiveness and suitability of the same. The review study finds the results satisfactory and recommends the use of Parkinsonia aculeate seeds for the production of potable water for the general population. Keywords Potable water · Contaminants · Parkinsonia aculeate · Crude seeds extracts (CSEs) · Purified proteins of Parkinsonia aculeate (PAP)

1 Introduction Water is an essential component of our lives and of the earth. 71% of the earth is composed of water but safe drinking water is not available to all. As of 2014, the World Health Organization (WHO) has reported 842, 000 deaths per year from waterborne diseases. Clean water, sanitation, and hygiene can possibly anticipate no less than 9.1% of the global disease burden and 6.3% of all deaths. The drinking water contamination is a major problem these days. R. Raja · R. Silori (B) · V. Kumar School of Engineering, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 V. P. Singh et al. (eds.), Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 199, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6_18

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The world population is increasing with the passage of time, and this has led to the growing needs for the water. From the past few years there have been serious issues on scarcity of water and the contamination of water. There is a heavy usage of groundwater these days but is it safe? The answer is NO; because even the groundwater gets contaminated in the areas where the drainage is not made properly and even pits and latrines play a major role in water contamination [1]. The scarcity of water is a major issue that is increasing with a good rate. Recently, Cape Town in South Africa came up with the problem of water scarcity. The major problem with the water scarcity hit areas is, the population uses any type of water they get without being aware that it may be contaminated or it may be unsafe [2] and this leads to serious health problems. These all problems have triggered the need for the water purification. Water purification is a process in which all the particles that make water impure are removed. The impurity may be in the form of colloidal particles, some unwanted chemicals, etc. Water purification is done to make it fit for any desired purpose. There are various artificial methods which are widely used for purifying water. The aluminum salts and synthetic organic polymers are used as coagulants, the cost of these are high and chemicals do not have a good effect on the environment [3, 4], and therefore this gives the need for water purification through natural processes especially in economical way. This review mainly focuses on natural purification of water by using Parkinsonia aculeate seed extracts. Parkinsonia aculeate is a shrubby tree with a height of 9.8 to 10 m and is basically heat resistant. The Parkinsonia tree has multiple usages like it can be used for medical purposes, can be used as building material, gives a recovery to the land that is unfit for use in dry areas [5–7]. The seeds of Parkinsonia aculeate contain good amount of proteins and have good coagulating property. This is due to the reason that the proteins present in the seeds are basically the polymers which help in the settlement of particles by forming a bond/bridge between them [8]. This paper presents the previous studies conducted by assorted researchers to enhance the knowledge about the performance of Parkinsonia aculeate seeds and Parkinsonia aculeate purified proteins against the turbidity removal at different turbidity levels of water. It also reviews the work done by researchers on various factors like examining the efficiency of the Parkinsonia seed for using it on a large scale, effect on the coagulation by varying the property of the water (PH, conductivity, etc.), percentage removal of fluoride concentrations from the water, comparison in the coagulation property of various coagulants such as crude seed extract (CSE), defattened crude seed extract (DCSE), alum, and Parkinsonia aculeate purified proteins.

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Fig. 1 Removal of turbidity from water (initial turbidity 50 FTU) by variations in the seed extracts dosages [9]

2 Turbid Water Purification Using Parkinsonia Seeds [9] The author has mainly focused on the purification of turbid water using Parkinsonia seeds by simple technique and observing the variations in the result. The sample water for testing was collected from the Ruvu River situated in Tanzania. The sample water collected from the Ruvu River was mixed with different amount of sampled clear water to produce different turbidities. The different turbidities were produced so as to check the coagulation efficiency of Parkinsonia seeds. Crude seed extract was prepared by grounding the seeds of Parkinsonia and mixing it in distilled water by keeping w/v ratio between 1 and 5%. The coagulation experiment was performed by slow and rapid mixing of crude seed extract in the turbid water and the result obtained was noted down. After the slow and rapid mixing, the mixture was allowed to settle down. It was noted that the crude seed extract performed best by giving a turbidity removal efficiency of 92–98% in high turbidity water. This effect can be seen in Fig. 1a where variations are shown and compared with performance of other seeds. The study also described that the largest grain size particles showed their best performance in turbidity removal, this was because most of the water-soluble proteins were present in solid–liquid interface which increased the concentration of active coagulation polymer. The effect of the raw water PH on the coagulation was also noted and the variations were obtained as shown in Fig. 2.

3 Water Purification Using Purified Proteins [10] The main objective of this study was to investigate the performance of purified proteins of Parkinsonia seed. The water sample was collected from Nunguru charco dam in Singida rural district of Tanzania and then water having the desired turbidity was prepared by the use of kaolin clay. This was prepared to check the coagulating efficiency of purified proteins. The coagulant proteins were extracted first and then crude seed extract was prepared. These were then purified by the cation exchange

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Fig. 2 The effect of raw water PH on the coagulation Process and comparison with other seeds performance [9]

resin using PACE, and then the elusion of bound protein was done with 0.3 and 0.6 M NaCl. To check the efficient turbidity removal of the purified proteins, coagulant solution of alum and molinga oliefera were obtained and compared with Parkinsonia aculeate purified proteins solution. Distilled water was used as the control sample and the efficiency of the coagulation was checked by change in the optical density of initial and final turbid water. After obtaining the result, it was seen that the reduction of turbidity increases on increasing the dosage of Parkinsonia aculeate proteins and alum until optimal dosage. From Fig. 3, it can be noted that the purified Parkinsonia aculeate proteins (PAP) solution performed better than the alum solution in the turbid water as well as in the chemical oxygen demand of treated water.

Fig. 3 Effect on the turbidity and COD of treated water on variation of dosages of purified Parkinsonia aculeate and comparison with alum [10]

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Fig. 4 Variation of PH and alkalinity of the treated water with variation in the dosages of purified protein extract and comparison with alum [10]

It was also observed that on varying the dosages of the Parkinsonia aculeate purified proteins, the PH and alkalinity of the turbid water also showed the variation as shown in Fig. 4 Parkinsonia aculeate protein performed better than alum. Coagulation efficiencies of the Parkinsonia aculeate protein and alum were obtained as 99.7% and 98.5%, respectively. Good performance of Parkinsonia aculeate protein was because the coagulation potential of polyelectrolytes increases when the initial turbidity of raw material is increased [11, 12]. It was also noted that the Parkinsonia proteins are capable of removing the turbidity along with other pollutants. The purified proteins of Parkinsonia aculeate performed better against the organic compound with a removal efficiency of approximately 70%. Therefore, the water that is treated by purified proteins of Parkinsonia aculeate can be easily stored as the organic compounds that affect the water is present in very less amount. The treatment of the charco dam water was successful as the coagulants removed the pollutants that were responsible for the reddish color of charco dam water especially ferrous ions.

4 Test for the Purification on Large Scale [13] This study mainly focuses on defattening the seeds of Parkinsonia aculeate so as to increase the efficiency of the seeds when used for turbid waters. The author aims to test whether this seed can be used for the mass purification of water and if the seeds extracts of Parkinsonia aculeate can be used for fluoride removal from the normal drinking water or not. This was because maximum amount of fluoride content that could be present in the water to make it suitable for drinking is 1.5 mg/L [14, 15].

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Preparation of crude seed extract (CSE) was done by crushing the seeds of Parkinsonia aculeate. Preparation of defattened crude seed extract (DCSE) was also done by mixing the seed in the ratio of 1:4(m/v) with 70% of ethanol and then taking out the seed when the oil/ethanol phase was separated out and then grinding of seeds was done. The presence of the protein in each type of seed solution was tested with the help of the dye. The dye changed the color from red to blue upon the presence of binding with protein. Water samples of Surface water, Synthetic water, Wastewater, and water with high fluorine content were collected and all the parameters including the turbidity were checked. The sludge produced while performing the experiment was measured from the optimum dosage. For surface water the behavior of turbidity for two different solutions, CSE and DCSE with increasing dosages, is shown in Fig. 5. It was noted

Fig. 5 Surface water, initial turbidity 400 NTU. Variation of turbidity on increasing the dosages of DCSE and CSE of Parkinsonia aculeate and comparison with Vigna unguiculata seed extracts along with alum [13]

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that the defattened seed needed a higher dosage but provided better final result, for alum the turbidity does not increase much on increasing dosages after the optimum point hence the alum too performed better. For surface water at turbidity of 750 NTU, it was seen that the defattened crude seed extract (DCSE) performed better in removing turbidity than crude seed extract (CSE). When the turbidity was increased to 2000 NTU the CSE P (crude seed extract of Parkinsonia) performed better than DCSE P (defattened crude seed extract of Parkinsonia). The performance of each is shown in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. For synthetic water at turbidity of 750 NTU, it was observed that the alum had the best performance in the turbidity removal followed by CSE P and the least performance was by DCSE P as depicted in Table 3. Variation of the performance of the coagulants on variations of PH was observed, and it was noted that the performance of the coagulants reduced at lower PH. The comparison of the performance of the DCSE P and CSE P was done with alum and Vigna unguiculata seed extracts. The variation in the performance is shown in Fig. 6. The performance of seed solution was not quite good when it comes to the reduction of fluoride concentrations. The fluoride concentration was reduced up to only some extent of 5–8% by the alum, DCSE P, CSE P, and seed extract of Vigna unguiculata. Table 4 shows the performance of DCSE P and CSE P for removing fluoride content. Table 1 Surface water, initial turbidity 750 NTU: removal of turbidity Coagulants [13] Coagulant

Optimized dosage (ml)

Residual turbidity (NTU)

Increased removal (%)

No of tests

Standard deviation

CSE P DCSE P

1

14

72

1

–

2

1

80

1

–

Table 2 Surface water, initial turbidity 2000 NTU: removal of turbidity Coagulants [13] Coagulant

Optimized dosage (ml)

Residual turbidity (NTU)

Increased removal (%)

No of tests

Standard deviation

CSE P

1

14

72

1

–

DCSE P

6

1

61

2

–

Alum

7

5

53

2

–

Table 3 Synthetic water, initial turbidity 750 NTU: removal of turbidity Coagulants [13] Coagulant

Optimized dosage (ml)

Residual turbidity (NTU)

Increased removal (%)

No of tests

Standard deviation

CSE P

3

DCSE P

0.5

707

− 0.4

1

–

659

6

1

–

Alum

0.5

12

85

1

–

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Fig. 6 Surface water, initial turbidity 400 NTU: Residual turbidities after coagulation-flocculation depending on PH [13]

Table 4 Performance of DCSE, CSE (Parkinsonia aculeate and Vigna unguiculata) and alum against fluoride removal [13]

Coagulant aid

Optimized Dosage (ml)

Residual turbidity (NTU)

Increased removal (%)

CSE P

1

6.68

8

DCSE P

4

8.32

4

CSE C

0.5

6.62

7

DCSE C

1

8.32

6

Alum

2

7.14

6

For surface water, the % removal of turbidity for Parkinsonia aculeate as a coagulant aid was increased on mixing with alum. Sludge volumes that were produced after coagulation-flocculation process of 30 and 60 min for the same sample of surface water having initial turbidity 400 NTU and 2000 NTU are shown in Figs. 7 and 8. It was concluded that the sludge volumes that were produced in this natural purification process were less and could be easily removed. Wastewater contained which was taken as one of the samples contained organic compound and the result of the experiment on the wastewater concluded that the DCSE P and CSE P were not effective enough for the removal of organic compound present in that wastewater. The results after the experiments showed that natural coagulants along with the combination of alum could possibly be used for the large-scale water treatment but for the better efficiency of turbidity removal the experiments should be done on the large scale of water.

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Fig. 7 Surface water, 400 NTU: Comparison of sludge volume produced after t = 30 min and t = 60 min for DCSE P and CSE P along with different coagulants such as alum and Vigna unguiculata seed extracts [13]

Fig. 8 Surface water, 2000 NTU: Comparison of sludge volume produced after t = 30 min and t = 60 min for DCSE P and CSE P along with different coagulants such as alum and Vigna unguiculata seed extracts [13]

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5 Comparison of Coagulating Properties of Crude Seed Extracts and Eluted Proteins [12] The study mainly focused on developing a quick and simple method for the purification of water. He also compared the turbidity removal efficiency of proteins eluted by 0.3 M and 0.6 M of NaCl by simply varying their dosages and varying dosages along with temperature. Active coagulant proteins that are present in the crude seed extract of Parkinsonia aculeate were purified. The purification was done by IEX (Ion exchange chromatography) or Gel filtration. The purity and the molecular masses of the proteins that were purified, was analyzed by SDS-polyacrylamine gel electrophoresis. Different coagulants such as CSEs, citrus fruit juice, purified proteins, and alum were taken and were mixed individually with different dosages in turbid water to measure coagulant activity of each coagulant by measuring the difference in the optical absorbance within a particular interval. The results showed that the proteins that were present in Parkinsonia aculeate seed were found to be around 39.7%, because of which the seed behaved as effective natural coagulant. The graphs showing the variation in the absorbance of CSEs and eluted proteins on varying the dosages are shown in Fig. 9. The coagulation activity of eluted protein (0.3 M and 0.6 M) at different temperatures on varying the dosages of protein was also noted down. Figure 10 represents the coagulation activity on increasing the dosages of 0.3 M and 0.6 M NaCl eluted proteins at different temperature. The results also showed up that the dosages at which the maximum coagulation activity of purified Parkinsonia proteins (eluted by 0.3 M and 0.6 M NaCl) is 5 to 6 times less than that of crude seed extract of the same seed. Hence, the purified proteins are more economic than crude seed extract of Parkinsonia aculeate.

6 Conclusion Future advancement and technological development in water purification through natural method requires a background of previous studies. This review presents the natural method techniques and their efficiency in water purification. The rate of the need for the purification is high hence the purification process must be done at the optimum rate so that each one of us could use it wisely. Artificial method for the purification of water is expensive, hence affordability becomes difficult. Though natural method for the purification of water by using seeds and leaves hasn’t grown much, this method is economical and could be done easily, therefore this method becomes suitable for the purification. The extracts of Parkinsonia aculeate are effective coagulants. The effectiveness of the coagulants of these seeds increases when the extracts are prepared after the defattening of the seeds and even when these are mixed with other coagulants such as alum. Purification of water on the large scale by using the Parkinsonia seed extracts along with alum is possible but the extent to

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Fig. 9 Top graph shows the coagulation activity of crude seed extract of Parkinsonia aculeate and alum at different dosages and comparison done with CSEs of V.unguiculata. Bottom graph shows coagulation activity of purified protein samples of Parkinsonia aculeate and is compared to V.unguiculata [12] 40 deg. cel. - 0.3 M NaCl eluted 80 deg. cel. - 0.3 M NaCl eluted 95 deg. cel - 0.3 M NaCl eluted

40 deg. cel - 0.6 M NaCl eluted 80 deg. cel - 0.6 M NaCl eluted 95 deg. cel. - 0.6 M NaCl eluted

1 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0 0

2

4

6 8 10 12 Dosage of proteins (µl/mL)

14

16

Fig. 10 Coagulation activity of Parkinsonia aculeate eluted proteins at different temperature [12]

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which the water is purified could vary. The sludge volumes that are produced after the coagulation process by using the extracts of Parkinsonia aculeate seed are optimum and could easily be removed making the process easier. It is also seen that when the proteins that are extracted from the Parkinsonia seed are purified, the action of the removal of turbidity increases in a good amount. Hence, the required dosages of purified proteins extract of Parkinsonia aculeate for purification is less when compared to normal seed extract of PA, making the process more economical. Acknowledgements The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to all the referred research papers and a special thanks to faculty Mr. Rahul Silori for providing guidance to carry out the review.

References 1. Maganga FP, Butterworth JA, Moriarty P (2002) Domestic water supply, competition for water resources and IWRM in Tanzania: a review and discussion paper. Phys Chem Earth 27:919–926 2. Marobhe NJ (2008) Critical review of water supply services in urban and rural areas of Tanzania. Water Policy. 10(1):57–71 3. Martyn CN, Barker DPH, Osmond C, Harris EC, Edwardson JL, Lacey RF (1989) Geographical relation between Alzheimer’s disease and aluminium in drinking water. Lancet 1:59–62 4. Fatoki OS, Gunfowokan AO (2002) Effect of coagulant treatment on the metal composition of raw water. Water SA 28:293–297 5. Leite AC, Araújo TG, Carvalho BM, Silva NH, Lima VLM, Maia MBS (2007) Parkinsonia aculeata aqueous extract fraction: Biochemical studies in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Ethnopharmacology 11:547–552 6. Prakash D, Niranjan A, Tewari SK, Pushpangadan P (2001) Underutilised legumes: potential sources for low-cost protein. Food Sci Nutr 52:337–341 7. Foroughbakhch R, Háuad LA, Cespedes AE, Ponce EE, González N (2001) Evaluation of 15 indigenous and introduced species for reforestation and agroforestry in Northeastern Mexico. Agroforesry Syst. 51:213–221 8. Stumm W., Morgan, J.J., (1996). Aquatic Chemistry: Chemical Equilibria and Rates in Natural Waters, third edition. WileyInterscience. 1022 p. 9. Marobhe NJ, Renman G, Jackson M (2007) Investigation on the performance of local plant materials for coagulation of turbid river water. Institution of Engineers Tanzania 8:57–69 10. Marobhe NJ, Renman G (2013) Purification of Charco dam water by coagulation using purified proteins from Parkinsonia aculeata seed. Int J Environ Sci 3(5):1749 11. Muyibi SA, Evison LM (1995) Optimizing physical parameters affecting coagulation of turbid water with Moringa Oleifera seeds. Water Res 29:2689–2695 12. Marobhe NJ, Gunaratna KR, Dalhammar G (2007) Simple and rapid method for purification and characterization of active coagulants from the seeds of Vigna unguiculata and Parkinsonia aculeata. Environ Technol 28:671–681 13. Annika, B. (2011). Enhancing the capacity of seeds as turbidity removal agents in water treatment. A minor field study-TRITA-LWR Degree Project, 11(10). 14. World Health Organization, (2008). Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality: incorporating the first and second addenda, Volume 1, Recommendations, third edition. 515 p. 15. Tanzania Bureau of Standards, (1999). Drinking water - Specification, Part 1: The requirements for drinking water and bottled drinking water. TBS Printing. TZS 574 (Part 1). 10 p.

Floating Green Buildings and Towns Pulaparthi Tirumala Srinivas, Mukesh Kumar Dubey, and Vijay Raj

Abstract Earth is covered about 71% of water and the remaining 29% is earth surface, about 96.5% of all earth water is held by oceans. In present days, there is a lot of noticeable changes in weather and climatic conditions, Global warming is the reason for such changes. The Global Warming affecting glaciers mountains on the earth’s surface is melting and fused into regular water bodies. This results in an increase in water percentage of earth and simultaneously the percentage of living land is decreasing. Apart from this, the population of the world is increasing day to day. For human being survival existence, we should have land, in the future, the ease of access to earth will be minimal. In these typical future circumstances, the Floating Cities and Towns are being developed. The most common type of offshore platforms are fixed platforms, compliant tower, FPSO and Tension Leg Platform, VLFS, etc. The floating structures are more economical and convenient than the conventional structures. They are very economical easy to construct and repair. The main concept of these floating cities and towns is to assist humankind in future and we do know that green buildings are also being more prior in civil engineering field to diminish the effect on environment and keep a balanced ecology. In this paper, I would like to mention an ideology work that can make sustainable floating structures more sustainable and eco-friendlier by fusing the green building practices in floating buildings. Keywords Global warming · Floating structures · TLP · FPSO · VLFS · Green buildings

P. T. Srinivas M.Tech, Structure Engineering, School of Engineering, UPES, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India M. K. Dubey (B) · V. Raj School of Engineering, UPES, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 V. P. Singh et al. (eds.), Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 199, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6_19

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1 Introduction In present days, the investigation of moderation arrangements with respect to handling the rising ocean’s challenges has drastically expanded. In last few decades, concentrates on very large floating structures (VLFS) have been pulling in Architects, urban and city organizers, and structural designers as it has risen as a successful answer for handling the challenges of the rising ocean. History instructs that in earlier days there is a concept of offshore structures, through it the idea of design of floating cities and towns is carried out. Basically, offshore structures are used for Drilling or Extracting crude oil from the ocean beds, Thermal Power plants, and for Military basis. The idea of the offshore structure of submerged oil well platforms is started in 1891. The first offshore well drilling was started on September 9, 1947 in Gulf of Mexico, nearly more than 2300 offshore platforms have been erected in the Gulf of Mexico. The most common type of offshore platforms are fixed platforms, compliant tower, FPSO and Tension Leg Platform, VLFS, etc. This is part of human inventions. After passing of several years there were boathouses and restaurants later with the architect’s modification in the designs of offshore structures to meet the requirements of mankind. The ideological evolution of floating residential buildings, shopping malls, stadium, and cities are been developed later on. In earlier days, oil companies have begun to use free-floating platforms, which does not need legs and tied through tetherings. They can be dynamically positioned, with ballast and buoyancy control by numerous propellers. The same concept is being used in floating cities except for the usage of propellers in cities or residential buildings may be limited instead of propellers they’ve to use mooring lines that connect both the buoyancy chamber and seabed to make it in a constant position, so that it can hold the wave motion. Here are some Floating communities and residential buildings around the world IJburg city, built-in 2012 offers 18,000 homes in 120 floating structures for 45,0000 people and creates around 12,000 jobs. IJburg has been the first city to make the largest community of floating houses. Floating villa in Dubai is named sea horse. Dubai is one of the cities in UAE country with lot of fascinating structures to build. Venice is also one of the best examples for floating cities, in such place the people live with the presence of water 24/7. All the buildings and structures are floating on the water with the help of wooden piles up to a depth of 60 feet. Such kind of place with a rapid increase of sea rise level (SRL) can be very accommodative and reasonable.

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Source Google Images

The main part which play role in floating structure or residential buildings is the buoyancy chamber which opposes unexpected waves and moments that occurred due to waves. Mooring lines or tethers help to keep the structure at a constant place. The floating cities have different favorable circumstances and helpful results that we can state as they secure the biological system by not harming the living animals of marines, likewise making development on the ocean level is quicker and simpler. Green Buildings are also one of the precedence in civil engineering. In the floating building concept, there are lot of things that can be used as alternative which can be a substitute in the construction by meeting the required properties and allowing the structure to make more sustainable and also by using renewable energy to make it as a green building.

2 Literature Review Numerous scientists had performed experiments on various elements of Floating structures and which helped to make improvements in the floating structures. Out of which some researches I would like to include in this paper. Watanabe [1] gives a brief explanation about very large floating structures (VLFS), its application and considerations for various components like Mooring system, Breakwaters, floating body, and its working importance. Also mentioned about various load conditions, load effects, safety factors that to consider while designing the VLFS and also mentioned a few VLFS around the world which help to have a brief idea about VLFS. Wang [2] in this paper scrutinizes VLFS developments regarding Human habitation that featured and discussed the hydroelastic response, structural integrity, and steady drift forces. The technological development of tethering system is explained and technological improvements to minimize the effects due to motion are discussed. All the improvements and developments made in VLFS resulted in reducing the hydroelastic response in the VLFS.

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Kaviani [3] in this paper scrutinizes floating cities and energy supply. Various floating cities and different experimental works carried out on different countries in the world are described. And discussed various types of floating structures and suitability according to the requirement and local conditions. Authors also mention energy supply to floating cities and discussed conversational methods which help in energy supply like usage of turbines, conversion of ocean thermal energy into a potential source of energy supply. EI-Shihy [4] in this paper discusses the Architectural design concept for floating structures and proposed various solutions for sea level rise (SLR) impacts. In this paper, authors showed the importance of design in the framework of self-sustaining, also mentioned two different architectural models of interconnecting platforms.

3 Floating Cities and Residential Plots Overview The intention of designing floating living hood is been so inevitable and fascinated about it. The importance of floating structures is gradually increasing with a gradual increase in sea level, increase in population and the availability of land is fewer at a particular area. All these factors are pushing mankind to perceive an alternate to sort out the issues. The floating structures were perceived, as way out and hence adopted the design of VLFS for the residential building from earlier days [5, 6]. While looking at its working principles, the whole structure is based on a ballast and buoyancy chamber with a moored line to minimize the unwanted moments. On exploring more in history there is the free-floating platform which being begun to use by oil companies, wherein they have use propellers to avoid the legs and mooring lines, which is very helpfull in cost-cutting and work synonyms to other. The advantages of a free-floating platform are that it can run like a ship, positions themselves as off structure.

4 Methodology The main aspect that needs to be considered before the designing of floating structures is to study deeply about the sea or ocean data about waves and sea rise levels and drops for the past few years. Then on the basis of analysis of available data and understanding the client’s need, one shall go for design of residential floating building. One needs to keep in mind that VLFS design process may not be exactly applicable while designing the small structure like residential floating building. In residential floating building, the aspects to be considered are structure type, platform size and keep building closure to the shore. Also being a smaller platform the wave motion effect on the structure can be more, so its effect could be avoided by wave-motion breakwater [1].

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The main governing parts of the floating structures are pontoon, legs, and mooring lines. Some to cut the cost of the structure they used propeller as an alternative for legs. As we see some time there will be practical differences in carrying out the work according to the design, in such cases, the propeller can be used. By using propellers, the floating structure can be dynamically positioned.

5 Discussion and Future Scope of Work Floating structures are sustainable and eco-friendly structure as an offshore structure. Once we use the floating structure as residential building then there will be a lot of payout need for constructions, electricity, ventilation, etc. Since the erection of structure is carried on the sea, the cost of construction of floating buildings will be high, carrying electricity and some other necessary facilities will be a tough job and also the maintenance of it can be difficult. Hence to make floating building structure self-sustainable and eco-friendly, the inclusion of various practices of green building is helpful like utilizing the renewable power and using recycling materials in the design. There are various alternatives like using waste material which can meet the requirements in constructions of floating buildings, Eco-wave powering, rainwater harvesting, etc., which can be utilized to make floating building as sustainable structure.

References 1. E. Watanabe, Very large floating structures: applications, analysis and design. Centre for Offshore Research and Engineering National University of Singapore 2. Wang CM (2011) Very large floating structures: applications, research and development. Procedia Eng 14:62–72. 3. Kaviani SS (2016) Floating cities and how to supply the energy and welfare in them. J Arch Eng Technol 4. EI-Shihy AA (2019) Architectural design concept and guidelines for floating structures for tackling sea level rise impacts on Abu-Qir. Alex Eng J 5. Strangfeld P, Stopp H (2014) Floating houses: An adaptation strategy for flood preparedness in times of global change. WIT Trans Ecol Environ 184(10):277–286 6. Kieth KM (1977) Floating cities: A new challenge for transnational law. Marine Policy 1(3):190– 204

Integrating Vastu Shastra for Green and Energy Efficient Building Under Byelaws Vibhor Goel and Kushaan Kapur

Abstract This paper establishes an elaborate relationship between Vaastu (the ancient building science) and how it can (VAASTU) help in the construction of green energy-efficient buildings if it is included in various state byelaws. Vaastu is an ancient but effective study of weaving the natural movement of sun and wind with the designing and orientation of the structure, which makes it more sustainable. An amalgamation of Vaastu and our modern technology gives a holistic building guide. After analyzing the regional byelaws of the Mumbai region, as Mumbai is the biggest metropolitan in our country, it has been concluded that state byelaws have the scope of including certain important concepts of Vaastu, which can be presented as standards and guidelines for the construction of sustainable buildings. Keywords Vaastu planning · Sustainable · Green building · Energy efficient · Basic principles

1 Introduction Vaastu is derived from the word VASATI that means GRUHA or PLACE OF DWELLING; it is the science of structures. The land is considered to be the VASTU and the construction on this land of any worth is considered to be VASTU, e.g., temples, cities, buildings, etc. The land is considered to be MUKHYA (principal) vast, there are 2 types of Vaastu [1] shown in Fig. 1. Vaastu Shastra is the Indian heritage having the ancient understanding of building plan, interiors, neighborhoods, colonies, townships, and settlements. They define the building construction methods and principles. According to Vaastu Shastra, construction in particular direction can be favorable, auspicious, bad, or unlucky [2]. All the beings on this earth including buildings are made up of these 5 elements see Fig. 2 V. Goel (B) Department of HSE, Civil Engineering, and Planning, School of Engineering, UPES, Dehradun, India K. Kapur B.Plan, Department of Planning, School of Engineering, UPES, Dehradun, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 V. P. Singh et al. (eds.), Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 199, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6_20

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Fig. 1 Types of Vaastu

Fig. 2 Five elements of Vaastu

or the panchbutas, without them the physical being is impossible. These elements have certain characteristics that affect our lives and all the physical being [3]. The universe constitutes of various energies, the magnetic field of the celestial bodies, movement of sun and moon, wind movement, etc. Similarly, a built structure also comprises certain energies and the harmonious uninterrupted flow of energy makes a building sustainable and green. These energies have a resultant effect on human health if the harmonious flow of energy is interrupted it amounts to the creation of negative spaces in the buildings which are sunlight or wind deficient, this affects human psychology. Vaastu emphasizes placing lighter structures toward Northeast and heavier structures towards Southwest. Southeast corners are hottest and North East coolest, due to the sun path which tilts to the south. Placement of roof slopes should be from west to east or from south to north. Windows and doors should be placed in the Northwest, North, Northeast, and Southeast direction considering the prevailing wind directions which help in keeping the building hot in winters and cool in summers. Placement of water bodies like water tanks in North and Northeast directions due to the presence of the sun’s energy which has purification abilities. Uccha sthana is the benefic position, and Neecha sthana is the malefic position. The building structures and openings should be facing the benefic position, e.g., doors, windows, lighter objects, underground tanks, borewell, etc., so that the sun’s energy is captured at its best to make the structure more sustainable [4]. On the contrary Neecha sathana the malefic position in the structure should be designed for thicker walls and heavier objects can be placed there (Fig. 3). East-facing sunrises transit through the south and set towards the west. However, because the earth’s vertical axis is formed by its 23.5 inclination, the northeast is the first direction to receive the sunray and the same logic may be applied to the cardinal west as well [5].

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Fig. 3 Position of UCCHA and NEECHA STHANA

The most powerful design element in building is certainly sunlight. Sunlight adds drama to what we see. It adds emphasis and a constantly changing element of shade and shadow, which highlights the trees’ natural form and texture. However, large glass areas on the east or west should never be used unless they are protected by scientifically designed sun control devices, or else a hot box will be the result. Summer sun can easily be stopped by a roof ever hang, owning type projection, or horizontally fixed or moveable louvres which also allows winter sun to come in and help heat the interior in the ideal exposures. The methods/techniques explained above can be used to utilize the ground coverage of any resultant plot. Plot selection depends on various factors; these factors can be used to decide the most favorable land-use for a plot [6]. These include the effect of orientation, roads along with the plots, soil considerations, extension of the plot, level of land inside and outside the plot, surroundings, and the connection to the plot. The shape of the plot plays an essential role as the microlayout of the structure can be designed efficiently for the best possible and permissible ground coverage. Traditional architecture is always accompanied by a set of rules and principles that are based on environmental criteria as well as the dominant belief system of the specific culture; these two variables appear to be interconnected and, in some cases, dominating one another [7]. Many rules have been legislated in ancient Indian architecture dealing with environmental criteria that are similar to other traditional architectural sciences such as Feng shui, which also deals with principles designed to make the best use of the environment and more specifically climate as one of the sun rays, the earth’s magnetic poles, and the geopathic zones [8]. By using these techniques, we will try perfecting the byelaws for every land-use to make the document a complete and holistic building guide.

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2 Analysis of Development Control and Promotion Regulations for Regional Plans in Maharashtra The development control and Promotion regulations for regional plans in Maharashtra are divided into 12 parts. Part one talks about the applicability of regulations, the Procedure to provide development permission and commencement certificate, and the power of administrations to implement these regulations. Parts 2, 3, and 4 focused on the land-use classification, permissible uses, ground coverage, open spaces, height regulations, services and utility areas, FSI, and special requirements in various categories of buildings, settlements, and specified zones. Carrying out the additional FSI in certain categories like educational/ medical/hotels/institutional buildings and religious building, etc., in the 5th Part. Further, in part 6-fire protection requirement is regulated through construction materials, material for interior decoration, and defining the standards for fire lifts, service ducts, electrical services, gas supply, transformer, fire alarm, and so on. To have a good quality structural design, construction methods, building services, drainage, and sanitary, signage, and outdoor display structures, part 7 elaborates all the standards and regulations. Part 8 focuses on the regulation for provisions regarding facilities for physically handicapped persons, installation of solar-assisted water heating system, and rainwater harvesting, which is a concept of energy-saving and sustainability. To define the proper utilization of spaces below the flyover, commercial use of lands owned by Zilla Parishad or MSRTC and for the regulation of special activities like mining, erection of mobile tower parts 9 and 10 can be referred. In Parts 11 and 12 special schemes are introduced for special townships, tourism development, and various other supplementary provisions for clarification and appeal [9]. After analyzing the development control regulation of Maharashtra regional plans we can see that there is a very minimum description regarding green buildings concepts which can be seen through the energy-saving and water sustainability in part 8 only. There is no regulation or description regarding resource-efficient green buildings or technologies for net-zero energy building. There is a lack of basic design parameters, no understanding of the use of natural energy, waste reduction, smart growth, and sustainable development. So, this absence of green building techniques or the techniques for the construction of a more sustainable structure is important. This can potentially make the byelaws of the state a holistic building guide not just development control regulation but development promoting and regulating byelaws is the key to the future of sustainable building guide. Building climatology is the scientific study of climate in context with the built environment, which can provide natural ventilation and keep the building structure favorable for climates, which is also not described in the DCRs. If all buildings in urban areas were made to receive green Building concepts, India seems to spare more than 8400 MW of power, which is sufficient to light 5.5 lakh homes a year concurring to gauges by TERI [10].

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3 Identification of Deficiencies and Gap Analysis 3.1 Part 2—General Planning and Building Requirements Point 11.3 in the byelaws states that “The construction within blue and red flood line along the riverside may be permitted at a height of 0.50 m. above the red flood line”. This statement just gives a standard; it can be completed by the addition of the concept of ground level for plots with water bodies [11] which states that “as far as possible such plots should be avoided. In unavoidable circumstances, the pits, ponds, nallah should be filled and consolidated; rocks and boulders blasted, cut and removed and the plot leveled keeping southern and western sides of the plot higher”. Point 12.2 states that “Every person who erects a building shall not at any time erect or cause or permit to erect or re-erect any building which in any way encroaches upon or diminishes the area set apart as means of access”. If any approach roads diminish the area they can be either fenced or shut off completely by compound, walls or they can be sold to the adjacent plot owner to retain the regular shape of the plot. In addition to 13.3 which talks about open spaces or recreational spaces—as per Vaastu guidelines, open spaces toward the northeastern side of the plot are considered one of the best locations [12]. The Northeastern side is considered to be auspicious as it is a Uccha Sthana and receives the morning sun. In addition to point 15.4.1 (c) which talks about the balconies—portico, balconies, terrace, and porch should be located in North, East and Northeast sides of the building [11] to receive more sun. In addition to 15.4.1 (h) which talks about the staircase mid landing—the staircase can be built in any direction except Northeast [11]. The mid landing can be placed in the west direction, while climbing the stairs one face should face South or West to avoid contact with direct sunlight, which will, in turn, keep the staircase cool. In addition to point 15.5 which talks about the building height—keeping south, southwest, and west higher as compared to the other parts of the building controversially North, Northeast, and East should be lower in heights. This will, in turn, allow the morning sunlight to be received by neighboring structures and it will allow sunlight to enter the majority part of the building. In addition to 17.3 explains about the kitchen—provision for gas cylinder to be kept under the cooking platform. Empty or unwanted cylinders to be placed in the northwest corner [11]. To avoid direct sunlight on the cylinder, sink and wet areas to be designed toward Northeast as for the sunlight to keep the area dry. In addition to point 17.4 which elaborates upon the standards of Bathrooms—the attached bathrooms should not be facing Northeast and the pipe network should be designed in a way that the wastewater is drained in the North or Northeast direction because the sunlight works as a natural disinfectant; this helps in keeping the structure dry. In addition to point 17.6 and 17.8, which talks about cupboards and the storeroom, respectively—cupboards and other heavy objects should be placed in the Neecha Sthana of the structure which constitutes thick walls as the sunlight and wind energy should not be interrupted by heavier structures and objects.

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Point 17.14 talks about wells—the wells should be dug in the Northeast or Eastern sides preferably in between mid-North and Northeast [11]. As wells are open and the stagnant water is more susceptible to impurities, hence direct sunlight from the Northeast or Eastern direction will help to keep the water disinfected. In addition to Point 17.15 explains standards for soak pit—W.C should be constructed above the septic tank due to paucity of space. They should never be placed in the center of Northeast corners are strictly prohibited [11].

3.2 Part 3-General Guidelines for Residential Land-Use The colonies of big group housing projects should also give proper thought meticulous planning of the entire area as per Vaastu Shastra. • All roads should be laid east to west or south to north parallel so that earmarked be rectangle or square in shape. • The slopes of the area, inducing roads if possible, should be toward the east: north keeping northeast, the lowest. • Borewells, ground reservoirs, fountains, parks, etc., should be in the northeast area of the colony Area. • Overhead water tanks can be in the southwest or southern zone. • Community centers, temples, Prayer-halls, etc., should be again in north. • Rainwater should flow preferably toward east, northeast, or north. • Swimming pools should be constructed in the northeast zone. • Sufficient space should be allotted and arrangements made for common facility centers like shops, hospital, schools, banks, post office, parks, primary health centers, library, etc., within a reasonable distance • Bigger colonies should have facilities for cinema houses, Hotels, playground primary health centers, etc., within a reasonable distance. Auditorium, Marriage Halls, firefighting service, Police station, etc. [11].

3.3 Part3—General Guidelines for Commercial Complexes • A strategic or vantage location to be selected for this in the main center of the city or growth center of the city with a good approach. • For all commercial complexes, the factors mentioned for a shop equally apply to commercial also. • Care should be taken to provide for sufficient Parking space for cars, scooters, and cycles, which may be in cellars in north, northeast, and east or outside the building in front. • Generator if it is to be provided should be placed in the southeast.

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• Office rooms, cabins, etc., should be placed on the second floor onwards. A corridor should run in between, and rooms or halls placed on both sides of the corridor. • Basement, ground, and first floors are normally used exclusively for shops, restaurants, Banks, etc. • Toilets are to be provided only in the northwest or southwest portion strictly avoiding northeast. • Adequate lawns and greeneries with big trees can be developed in the south and west and only with tender flowering plants in the eastern and northern sides including fountains [11].

3.4 Part 4—Guidelines for the Construction of Spiritual Places • The spiritual institute must be built facing East or North, and it must be a regular shape building, such as a rectangle or square, but it must never be oval, circular. • More area should be left open to the east and northeast, and a meditative hall or temple should be established if possible [13]. • The spiritual institute’s toilets should be built in the west or Northwest but never in the east or northeast, and the pantry should only be built in the southeast. • Staff and administration are required to sit in the southwest section, facing north. • Electrical equipment should be located in the southeast corner of the structure. • The institute’s main entry gate should be built in the East, and it should be larger and more powerful than the other doors. • Room windows should be as large as possible on the eastern side and as small as possible on the southern side [13].

4 Conclusion Taking the regional byelaws of Maharashtra gave us a sense of what development is like in metropolitan cities, Vaastu provides a righteous and judicious sense of direction and orientation, which not only helps in the designing of the structure but also assists in the systematic development of the neighboring structures. Designing as per Vaastu allows all the structures to receive an equal and abundant amount of natural energy, which in turn makes the community more sustainable. Biology of the building is generally ignored while construction of the same, with Vaastu we realize that the buildings are to be treated as a living organism and each part of the building requires natural energy the most. Vaastu emphasizes natural energy because structures and their designs affect human minds and psychology, seeing something we define as beautiful causes us to feel pleasure. The feeling of pleasure is a result of oxytocin, endorphins, and DHEA being released inside our brain [14]. To conclude

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we would like to say that a successful amalgamation of old and new techniques is the recipe for a sustainable future as human beings are a product of constant evolution and it affects the way we design our structures, communities, and cities.

References 1. Sachdev V (2012) Paradigms for design: the Vastu Vidya codes of India. In: Urban coding plan, pp 83–100 2. Gupta R (2016) Comparison of Vastu Shastra with modern building science. Int J Res Sci Innov III(Vii):118–21. www.rsisinternational.org 3. Chaudhary AS (2017) The role of five elements of nature in temple architecture. Int J Sci Eng Res 8(7):1149–62, ISSN 2229-5518 4. Suriyanarayanan S, Muthu D, Venkatasubramanian C (2016) Application of Vasthu Sastra in modern architecture. Int J Civ Eng Technol 7(6):686–697 5. Fazeli H, Goodarzi A (2010) The principles of Vastu as a traditional architectural belief system from an environmental perspective. WIT Trans Ecol Environ 128:97–108 6. Antara N (2017) Utility of the ancient Indian science of Vaastu in modern architecture. J Civ Eng Environ Sci 3:008–012 7. Gupta AK, Maheshwari S (2020) Relevance of Vaastu principles in contemporary architecture of India, 709–15 8. Saran S, Shirodkar AD (2017) Vastu Shastra and Feng Shui the ancient sciences and their fusion in context of Indian architecture. Int J Sci Technol Res 6(11):136–144 9. Urban Development Department G (2018) Comprehensive uniform building code/building BYLAWS applicable to the state pp 2453. http://mahavastu.maharashtra.gov.in/ease_of_doing_b ussiness_pdf/Updated_PDF_Files/Uniform_byelaws_DCR.pdf 10. Gupta YP (2010) Need for developing green building concept in the country. NBM&CW (2010). https://www.nbmcw.com/tech-articles/tall-construction/15837-need-fordeveloping-green-building-concept-in-the-country.html 11. Raman VV (2000) Principles and practice of Vastu Shastra. 3rd edn. Jaipur, Vidya Bhawan, pp 176 12. Aifas (2017) Advance Vaastu. http://www.aifas.com/books/SaralVastuShastra-English.pdf 13. Smita. Vastu for religious/Spiritual Educational Institutions. Vaastu Shastra Encyclopedia. https://www.vaastu-shastra.com/spiritual-religious-institutions-vastu.html 14. Ricci N (2018) Scholarship @ Claremont the psychological impact of architectural design Claremont McKenna college the psychological impact of architectural design by 2018

Efficient Municipal Solid Waste Management: A Case Study of Dehradun City Shubham Rawat, Vibhor Goel , and Ankur Chowdhary

Abstract Sanitization having a Lion Share of Attention on a Global dais in all the three-time zone Pre-COVID, COVOID, and Post-COVID is a matter of concern, especially for countries, which in the pre-era were striving hard to achieve it. Indian Government knitting the Spheris of Central and State Government has in the recent past shown bend towards the burning issue of Municipal Solid Waste Management. The Government had launched the schemes Swatch Bharat Mission, and it has been successful but is still on the backstage of its optimal potential as the basic motor of planning, i.e., “Master Plan” is missing in tier II and III cities when it comes to execution of such schemes. An attempt has been made in this paper to prepare a comprehensive plan for Dehradun city of Uttarakhand named “Solid waste Management Master Plan for Dehradun City 2041”. The following study will provide a complete spectrum approach towards the management of each component of Municipal Solid Waste Management of the city, including Waste Generation, Collection, Transportation, Treatment, and Disposal. Also, a service Level Benchmarking of both the Existing and Proposed System has been done to quantify the Output of the proposals and recommendations in the Existing System. Software such as GIS, GPS, and Remote Sensing is used in the study and has given an extra edge of Real-time and locational management for the Waste Management system of Dehradun until 2041. Keywords Solid waste management · Swachh bharat mission · Service level benchmarking · GIS

1 Introduction The problem of improper disposal of solid waste has increased at an alarming level in developing countries during the last thirty years [1]. Indeed, industrialization, S. Rawat BPlan, Department of Planning, School of Engineering, UPES, Dehradun, India V. Goel (B) · A. Chowdhary Department of Planning, Civil and HSE, School of Engineering, UPES, Dehradun, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 V. P. Singh et al. (eds.), Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 199, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6_21

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urbanization, lack of training in modern solid waste management, lack of a master plan along with high population growth caused an adverse impact on the environment, which further added to the problem of solid waste management. India is one of the fastest urbanizing nations in the world and around 31.2% population is now living in an urban area [2]. Urbanization accounts for the generation of a huge amount of solid waste. The waste generated in India (0.5–0.99 kg per person per day) is higher than the other low-income countries (0.1–0.49) and much lower (more than 1.5 kg per day) than the developed economies of the world. The municipal authorities in India administer Solid Waste Management (SWM) in the country and ensure the cleanliness of the urban centers. The municipal laws governing the urban local bodies are not efficient enough to handle the growing problems of SWM due to the increasing population. The inefficient SWM system is having a negative impact on the public health, environment, and economy of the country [3]. The open dumps release methane gas from the decomposition of the biodegradable waste under anaerobic conditions [4], which is a major contributor to global warming and also there are additional issues related to the smell and produces leachates which pollute the soil and water [5]. Waste management is a labor-intensive activity; it helps in employment generation. The introduction of rag pickers into the formalized waste collection and segregation process is a win scenario for implementers. The government of India on October 2, 2014, launched the “Swachh Bharat Mission” and Solid Waste Management was one of its major components. To reveal the status of Municipal corporations throughout the county a National Level Ranking scheme for Cleanliness was released named Swachh Survekshan Ranking. It covers all components of Municipal Solid Waste Management and is presently used as a Service Level Benchmarking tool for Comparing different ULBs across the country [6]. Uttarakhand is a relatively new state, (formed in 2000) that has seen major urban issues with 124 urban agglomerations [7]. Solid Waste is one of them, which can be reflected in the Swachh Survekshan Ranking of its Capital City “Dehradun”. The Swatch Survekshan Ranking 2018 of Dehradun was 257 out of 471 [8] and in 2019 the Dehradun ranked 384 out of 425 [9]. Dehradun has seen an Incremental increase in terms of Municipal area and Population, which ultimately leads to an increase in the quantum of waste generated [10].

2 Study Area Dehradun, the state capital city of Uttarakhand, is nestled in the foothills of the Himalaya and attracts lots of tourists for its scenic beauty and calm weather. After being designated as the state capital in the year 2000, the city experienced a large inflow of in-migrants mainly due to economic reasons and better livelihood. Since the city offers lots of job opportunities, it has been a favorite destination for the unemployed as well as landless people of surrounding districts. In order to accommodate this large migrant population, the city has undergone a rapid expansion which leads to an increase in waste generation; therefore, Dehradun city has been taken as the

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Fig. 1 Dehradun municipal zones

study area [11]. The city is situated in the foothill of the great Himalayan range and sloping gently from north to south and southwest with a gradient of 1:37.5 [12]. It is located at an altitude of640 m above mean sea level [13]. The Municipal Area of Dehradun city comprising of 100 wards are divided into 5 Zones (see Fig. 1). The total Area of Dehradun Municipal Corporation is 196.25 km square and the total projected population in 2019 is 8.9 lakhs. The Dehradun Municipal Area has been extended from 60 to 100 Wards in the Year 2017.

3 Data Collection and Processing 3.1 Existing Situation Analysis The targeted areas considered for studying solid waste management are Waste Generation, Collection, Transportation, Treatment, and Disposal.

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Waste Generation Municipal Waste is generated from the three major waste generators, i.e., Household, Commercial Areas, and the Bulk waste generators (CPHEEO). The Table shows the total waste generated from these sources in the area under Dehradun Municipal Corporation. The total number of households and bulk waste generators identified in the city are 2.25 lakhs and 38 (1000 + Footfall), respectively. The total waste generated in the city is 390 TPD (see Table 1) out of which the waste reaching the disposal site is 250 TPD, which is 64% of the total waste only. At present no waste is segregated at source, mixed waste is being collected from Households, Markets, and Bulk Waste Generators. Almost 65% of total waste are of organic matter/bio-mass and the rest are plastic, paper, rags, rubber, glass, and metal, etc. (see Fig. 2). The following figure shows the waste composition in Dehradun wherein the organic matter/bio-mass constitutes 65% of the total waste. As there is no source segregation, waste is directly dumped at the secondary waste collection point, and the high content of organic waste results in animal scavenging which creates aesthetic nuisance [14]. Not the least is the odor emanating from the degradation of the waste which could become a disturbing issue for the surroundings [15]. Moreover, scavengers working on the dumpsites are constantly exposed to gaseous emission from wastes and obnoxious odor, overheating, and disease-carrying animals (like rats, reptiles, and insects) [16]. Table 1 Table captions should be placed above the tables S.no

Waste generator

Waste generated

1

Waste generated from households

224 TPD

2

Waste generated from public places

106 TPD

3

Quantum of waste generated by bulk waste generator

60 TPD

Total

390 TPD

Fig. 2 Waste composition

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Waste Collection Following is the system, which is functional for collection and transportation of waste from the three major waste generators, i.e., household level, commercial areas, and bulk waste generators. Household For the collection of waste at the household level, 66 TATA tippers are used each with a capacity of 1.5 cubic meters and there are 80 under/on-ground dustbins which are used as a secondary collection point located in the entire city (see Fig. 3) which are achieving 57% of door-to-door collection only with 0% on source segregation. In some areas, Dumper placer and compactor bins are also used for collecting household waste as a primary source. Commercial Areas For commercial places there are 4 means of the collection; Compactor Placer Bins which are 86 in number each with a capacity of 1.1 cubic meters placed accordingly in the entire city (see Fig. 4); Dumper Placer Bins 44 in number each with the capacity of 8.1 cubic meters located on the major commercial hub (see Fig. 5). The other two means of collection are Stainless steel twin bins and Twin plastic waste segregation bins, which are 18 and 33 in numbers, respectively, installed within the city limits. The waste from the twin bins is emptied in the nearby Compactor Placer (CP) Bins. In addition to these, two tractor-trailers have also been deployed for the waste collection of Mandi at Narendarpur and one tractor for Koalagarh.

Fig. 3 Under/on-ground bins

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Fig. 4 Location of compact placer bins

Fig. 5 Location of dumper placer bins

Bulk Waste Generators All the hoteliers, institutional, function halls, and restaurants are categorized as the bulk waste generators where waste collection service can be given on a demand basis. They are required to treat their wastes inside the premises but are not able to

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Fig. 6 Waste collection route of bulk waste generators

do that because they do not have that kind of onsite composting facility. Also, source segregation is not practiced in most places. For the collection of waste two Separate Refuse Compactor each of Capacity 7.8 cubic meters have been deployed on two routes separately (see Fig. 6). These routes are delineated as follows: Route 1: Upper Clock tower Route: Pacific mall–White house–Drishti Hospital–Black paper–Inderlok–Deepshikha–Shiva Residency–Raj Plaza–Anand Nivas–Meedo Grand–Dilaram Chowk–Madhuban–Bikaner–Time Table–Level1–99 clouds–Ajanta–Silver city–Chilli–WIC Club–Aketa–Red Fox. Route 2: Lower Clock tower Route: Tehsil–Tyagi road–Prince Chowk–ISBT– GMS Road–Graphic Era–Kargi Chowk–Rispana–Compactor. In addition to the collection of waste regular street sweeping also takes place. The Street sweepers empty their waste in the nearest present Secondary waste collection points. Nigam has also deployed one tractor-trailer for cleaning up the solid waste present at the open drains and nallas. Waste Transportation After collection of waste, it is transferred to two locations, one at Kargi and the other at Sheshambada (see Fig. 7). For the transportation of waste two Hyva Tipper trucks having the capacity of 16.83 cubic meters are deployed to empty, the compactor placer bins and further transfer the waste at the transfer station located in Kargi. The dumper placer is taken to the transfer station at Kargi to empty and placed back in its original place. Once the waste is transferred to the transfer station located at Kargi, having an area of 1240 sq. meters, the waste is transported to the waste treatment facility site

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Fig. 7 Location of transfer station and treatment facility

which is located at Sheshambada through 10 Hyva Dumper trucks having a capacity of 5 cubic meters each. On average, they make three trips per day. Two compactors of 16 tons each and two compactors of 8 tons each are deployed at Kargi waste transfer station for loading the Dumpers. Some auto tippers from the nearby wards also transfer their waste directly to the treatment site. Waste Treatment Dehradun has India’s first fully covered Solid Waste Treatment Plant at Sheshambada. The area covered by the plant is 9.57 Ha and its distance from the city is 25 km. The plant is being implemented on the Public-Private Partnership (PPP) mode with Ramky group, which provides the facility of waste compost, recycle, and refusederived fuel as well as a sanitary landfill. The Present Solid Waste Treatment facility of Dehradun has two major components, i.e., Processing and Landfilling. In the processing facility, there are two units composting plant and recycling unit, which are capable of processing 500 TPD waste but are presently processing 250 TPD waste and are running under capacity. The waste treatment technology used is aerobic digestion. In another component, i.e., sanitary landfill facility all the treated waste is dumped into that landfill. It has a capacity of 50 TPD.

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4 Result and Conclusion Dehradun city witnessed a large scale of urban expansion. The municipal area in recent times has gone an extension in its constituent area. The total number of wards has been increased from 60 to 100, which accounts for the increment of the area from 175 to 65 sq. km., with this, the Municipal authority has undergone severe pressure to provide services including Municipal Solid Waste Management to the previous and recently added wards. The Municipal Corporation is unable to handle this increased quantum of waste generated from 100 wards, thus there is a need to inculcate the whole system of Municipal Solid Waste Management. Collection of waste at the household level only achieved 57% of the door-todoor collection; there is a gap of 43%, which needs to be improved. The collected waste, which was collected in small heaps, was loaded manually or mechanically on the Solid waste vehicles for onwards transportation to the disposal sites. In private disposal, the collected waste was dumped or thrown to the nearest drain or nallahs. The river passing through these areas is substantially obstructed and silted due to this waste deposition. There were many issues with the initial approach of solid waste management, which included Macro levels environmental issues such as the conversion of rivers like Bindal into filthy nallahs full of plastic, pigs, and other types of waste materials. Diseases such as dengue and Chikungunya spread in the entire city of Dehradun due to multiple dumping points. There is no formal involvement of the informal sector in practicing at any stage of waste management.

5 Recommendation The Municipal Corporation needs to improve its door-to-door collection. The routing and loading plan has to be reworked for optimal use of the transfer station. Stringent monitoring can be deployed by using technological options like a global positioning system for vehicular movement, a radio frequency-based system for effective door-to-door garbage collection, and the use of Geographical Information System (GIS) remote sensing for future proposals [17]. For better management system Rag pickers may also be encouraged to form cooperatives, and provide training and employing them for door-to-door collection of waste through the involvement of local NGOs/Self-Help Groups (SHGs). In order to accomplish the orders of NGT for Legacy, waste Management needs to scientifically close the old dumping site through biomining or capping. Extended Producer Responsibility should be encouraged in which a producer is held responsible for the post-consumer stage of waste generated, typically for defined tasks of the separate collection (e.g., for e-waste or hazardous waste components), reuse (e.g., disposal-refund systems for bottles), recycling (e.g., used cars), and storage and treatment (e.g., batteries). E- Challan should be done for anti-littering and fine collection using Advance Data Base Management System.

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References 1. Ahsan A, Alamgir M, Shams S, Rowshon MK, Daud NNN (2014) Assessment of municipal solid waste management system in a developing country, vol. 2014 2. Vij D (2012) Urbanization and solid waste management in India: present practices and future challenges, vol. 37, pp. 437–447. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.03.309 3. Kanti A, Kumar S, Babu SS, Kumar J, Chakrabarti T (2010) Resources, conservation and recycling studies on environmental quality in and around municipal solid waste dumpsite. Res ources Conserv Recycl 55(2):129–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2010.08.003 4. Srivastava R, Krishna V, Sonkar I (2014) Characterization and management of municipal solid waste : a case study of Varanasi city, India Characterization and management of municipal solid waste : a case study of Varanasi city , India Introduction The waste quantity is increasing at an, no. April 2017 5. Sridevi V, Modi M, Lakshmi MVVC, Kesavarao L (2012) A review on integrated solid waste management, no. 5, pp. 1491–1499 6. Minsitry of Housing and Urban Affairs (2020) Swachh Survekshan-2019 7. U. G. Directorate Of Economics and Statistics (2012) Directorate of economics & statistics, Uttarakhand 8. MoHUA (2018) Swachh Survekshan Survey Toolkit 2019. Toolkit 9. MoHUA (2020) Swachh Survekshan-2020. [Online]. Available: https://www.swachhsurvek shan2019.org/Images/Survekshan Survey 2019 Toolkit.pdf 10. Ahluwalia IJ (2014) Transforming our cities: postcard of change 11. Dutta D, Rahman A, Kundu A (2015) Growth of Dehradun city: an application of linear spectral unmixing ( LSU ) technique using multi-temporal landsat satellite data sets remote sensing applications : society and environment growth of Dehradun city : an application of linear spectral unmixing ( LSU ) technique using multi-temporal landsat satellite data sets. Remote Sens Appl Soc Environ 1(July):98–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsase.2015.07.001 12. Rajeshwari D (2017, August) Management of the urban environment using remote sensing and geographical information systems management of the urban environment using remote sensing and geographical information systems. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/09709274.2006.11905938 13. Jain S, Jain RK (2006, Jul) A remote sensing approach to establish relationships among different land covers at the micro level. Int J Remote Sens 27(13):2667–2682. doi: https://doi.org/10. 1080/01431160500491765 14. Abah SO, Elijah I Ohimain (2010) Assessment of Dumpsite Rehabilitation Potential Using the Integrated Risk Based Approach: a Case Study of Eneka, Nigeria 8(4):436–442 15. Bonoli A, Zanni S, Awere E (2019) Organic waste composting and sustainability in low income communities in Palestine: lessons from a pilot project in the village of Al Jalameh, Jenin. Int J Recycl Org Waste Agric 8(3):253–262. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40093-019-0264-8 16. Phiman Thirarattanasunthon, Siriwong W, Robson M, Borjan M (2012) Health risk reduction behaviors model for scavengers exposed to solid waste in municipal dump sites in Nakhon Ratchasima Province, Thailand, pp. 97–104 17. Bharti VSO, Singh A, Singh DP (2014) Effective municipal solid waste management practices: a case study of Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India. Waste Manag Res Uti 1(December):173–182

A Study on Alternative Strategies for Public Transportation in Dehradun City Yatin Arora and Harshingar Patel

Abstract The quality of urban life is highly determined by the grade of intracity mobility. This paper presents a study analysis and recommends the measures needed to optimise and improve the efficiency of Dehradun intra-city transit, by mainly focusing on the three main modes of public transportation, the primary being Dehradun Bus Transit, followed by the para-transits, Vikram and Tracker. The motivation behind publishing this paper was to help the government agencies in strategizing and implementing the engineering solutions to digitally modernise and automate the public transit fleet, to eventually get the people to move from private transport to public modes. The report progresses by firstly presenting the facts pertaining to the current workings of the Bus Service. After presenting the facts, the paper then conducts a literature review, by comparing Dehradun to seven other cities which were selected on the grounds of Land Distribution, Population and availability of resources. To help the readers determine the objectives, the paper mentions the Key Performance Indicators and the methodology used. The paper then moves on to analysing the data like boarding and alighting data points and passenger perspective, average fare for different perimeters, which were collected over a span of six months. Bringing it all together, the paper then tries to recommend four alternative engineering solutions, each of which varies in moderation with regard to the involvement of the Public Sector Undertaking and the Private Sector ownership after analysing the data presented. Keywords Transit · Reliability · Intermodal connectivity · Service area · Alternative strategies

Y. Arora School of Engineering, Adani Institute of Infrastructure, Ahmedabad, India H. Patel (B) Associate Professor, Civil and Infrastructure Engineering, Adani Institute of Infrastructure, Shantigram, Ahmedabad, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 V. P. Singh et al. (eds.), Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 199, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6_22

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1 Introduction India is a developing economy growing at roughly 6%. With many people still plunged into poverty, every penny counts. A round trip from Prem Nagar to ISBT, an average distance in the city’s parameters, costs Rs 28. With an average per capita of Rs. 12,500, and a 24-day work month, transportation alone eats into 6% of an earner’s monthly income [1]. The Bus service covers an average of 65% of the city parameters and the rest of the rural area such as Bidholi, Naugaon and Kisali are covered by the paratransit modes, i.e. Vikram and Tracker. Further, keeping in mind that all the routes of the city are basically connected through three main locations, the areas of our study are 1. 2. 3.

Prem Nagar Tracker Stand ISBT Bus Stand Railway Station

Dehradun is a tier-2 Indian city, comparably less developed than other tier-2 cities. The existing intra-city public transport system is being operated by private operators through minibuses, trackers, Vikrams, etc. The route and fare structure is fixed by transport authorities for all three modes of transport (Bus, Tracker and Vikram) under our surveillance. Total 319 buses in 16 routes and 794 Vikrams within a radius of

Fig. 1 Bus service area of Dehradun

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25 km from city center (Clock Tower) are permitted by the transport authority for service providers in Dehradun city.

1.1 Research Objectives (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

To study all parallel transportation modes, routes and fares in Dehradun. To collect data such as boarding and alighting data, passengers perspective and fare distribution data for all modes of public transit in the city. To perceive passenger capacity and demand on each route for all public transits. Performing various surveys at the areas of study. To develop strategies and engineering solutions for improvement of reliability of bus service in Dehradun.

1.2 Methodology The methodology proposes a framework for reliability and serviceability of bus service schedules in Dehradun (Fig. 2). General Framework The goal of the proposed study is to improve the existing situation of the bus service transit system in Dehradun city by the following methodology.

2 Literature Review The literature review concentrates on reviewing the existing literature on the various factors and processes. The findings are summarised and presented following the order based on the fact that the chosen cities have gone through the same phase of intra-city transit as Dehradun over the past few decades (Tables 1 and 2) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Bus service in Delhi and Lucknow Chicago Transit Authority Bus service Bus service in New York BART in San Francisco Bus service in Europe (London and Paris) Bus service in China (Beijing and Hong Kong) Bus service in South Korea.

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Fig. 2 Methodology used

3 Data Collection and Analysis See Figs. 3, 4, 5 and Tables 3, 4.

3.1 Boarding and Alighting Data Collected on Field See Tables 5, 6 and 7.

4 Results and Discussion—Alternate Strategies This research further provides four alternative solutions characterised on the basis of control and management of the bus service organisation.

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Table 1 Comparison of parameters of different bus transport systems in Asia Parameter

Lucknow [3]

South Korea—Seoul City [4]

China

Delhi [2]

Beijing [5]

Hong Kong [6]

1,484 Km2

269 Km2

494 Km2

11,243 Km2

1,108 Km2

2. Number of 1044 routes

52

400

1200

700

3. Number of 3781 buses

260

850

24,347

981

1. Service area

India

4. Average fare

| 2/km

| 2/km

1500 KRW

¥11

HK$5

5. Average frequency

8 buses/hour

6 buses/hour

7 buses/hour

5 buses/hour

6 buses/hour

6. Bus capacity

60

60

45

40

25

7. Ridership

41.90 L/day

55,000/day

39 L/day

684,931/day

647,500/day

8. Duration of run

24 h/day

18 h/day

20 h/day

24 h/day

24 h/day

9. Non-user friendly service

Poor

Moderate

Good

Good

Good

10. Mobile application

DTC

CHALO

Kakao

Beijing transport

City bus NWFB

4.1 Bus Transportation Completely Operated By Government According to this alternative solution, our recommendation is that all the modes be under the government, and for this to be successful we have mapped all the organisations that are needed and what purpose they will solve in the puzzle to ensure smooth functioning. The outcome of CTA study is that the transport system in the city should be vast and spread to all localities so that each and every citizen irrespective of the gender, class and work is travelling through that system for convenient and easy travel. Some of the technical points to be noted are (a)

(b)

Increasing the rolling stock according to the vast area of Dehradun, i.e. for an average route like prem nagar to ISBT, 12 buses should be set particularly for a two-way travel (prem nagar to ISBT and ISBT to prem nagar) which will ensure a frequency of 6 buses per hour keeping in mind the boarding and alighting data of that route. Providing the facilities with minimum investment such as cycle stands, comfortable seats, automatic doors and emergency requirements provision.

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Table 2 Comparison of parameters of bus transport system of USA and Europe Parameter

Europe

United States of America

London [7]

Paris [8]

San Francisco [9]

Chicago [10]

New York [11]

1. Service area

1572 Km2

105.4 Km2

121.4 Km2

281 Km2

780 Km2

2. Number of routes

400

268

7

140

234

3. Number of buses

8600

87

679

1800

5725

4. Average fare

£1.5

e2

$2.25

$2.25

$2.75

5. Average frequency

12 buses/hour 12 buses/hour

4 buses/hour

4 buses/hour

2 buses/hour

6. Capacity of 132 a regular bus

40

200

74

56

7. Ridership

4.5 M/day

423,395/day

67,666/day

2.12 M/day

8. Duration of 24 h/day run

6 M/day

14 h/day

21 h/day

24 h/day

18 h/day

9. Non-user friendly service

Moderate

Good

Good

Good

Good

10. Mobile application

London live bus countdown

Next stop Paris

BART official

Transit app

My transit NYC

4.2 Both Transit and Paratransit Help the City to Turn Out Into a Smart City One of the cinch alternatives for the control is going to be to have the bus transit system and paratransit both fully operational by the government. This will ensure the diversification of initial investment and further maintenance and the running and operating cost. Also, will ensure employability through both transit and paratransit modes. Some Essential services: (a) (b) (c)

Staff Scheduling Intelligent Transport System (ITS) Fare Collection.

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Fig. 3 A typical tempo (Vikram) in Dehradun

Fig. 4 A typical minibus in Dehradun

4.3 Both Bus Transit and Paratransit Serve the City of Dehradun Simultaneously Under the Government Supervision The city bus service provides a basic travel at economical fare between two main locations in the city whereas the paratransit system provides the basic intermodal

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Fig. 5 A typical tracker in Dehradun

Table 3 Vikram public transit routes [12]

Vikram number

Route structure

1

Astley Hall to Rajpur

3

Parade ground to Rispana Pull

4

Rispana Pull to I.S.B.T

5

Clement Town to Survey Chowk

6

Cannaught palace to Kaulagarh

7

Cannaught palace to Prem Nagar

8

Survey Chowk to Seema Dwar

9

Cannaught palace to Garhi cantt

connectivity between the bus service and the final destination and thus avoiding the traffic congestion in crowded and narrow sections of the city where it is difficult and inefficient for a bus to travel. The bus transit system is further in total authorization of the government and an organisation will be formed and made responsible for the decisions regarding fleet management, staff recruitment, fare management system and regular maintenance check. Keeping in mind that the bus service should be an affordable way to travel in the city, a subsidised fare system should be adopted by the authority. The bus service will run on a distance-based fare system and will be subsidised by the government for an economical travel for all passengers. Special discounts on fairs should be applicable for (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

70% of the actual fair for Students as Dehradun is an education hub. 50% of the actual fair for old-age citizens of the city. 50% of the actual fair for the differently abled citizens of the city. 60% of the actual fair for all women to promote women empowerment. 5–11 years age-group: half ticket to provide a cinch transit system. Below 5 years age-group: Free travel.

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Table 4 Bus public transit routes [13] Route number Route structure

Operational bus fleet

1

Rajpur Road–Clement Town Via Clement Town Majra, Saharanpur Chawk, Gandhi Road, Parade, Subhash Road, Dillaram Balar, (Shabanshai Ashram) Extended Routes: Char Khamba Subash Nagar Bharu Wala

24

2

D.L. Road–Defence Colony Via Police Chauki, Dillaram Bazar, Clock Tower Prince Chawk, Haridwar Road, Defence Colony Extended Routes: Defence Colony–Nabada Nabada–Majri Defence Colony–Kedar Puram Shiv Nagar–Gaurakhpur Rispana Rao–Jogiwala

12

3

Parade–Sahastradhara Via Parade Ground

14

4

Prem Nagar–Gular Ghati Via Bhaliwala Chowk, Prince Chawk, Jogiwala, Harawala, Baller Wala, Gular Ghati Extended Routes: Prem Nagar–Panda–Bhawal

18

6

Purkal Gaon–Mathura Via Chand Roti, Anarwala (Surdly Depot), Hathi Badkala, Dillram Bazar, Globe Chawk, Pavillion, Subash Depot, Harampur, Azabpur, Mathura Wala

9

7

Parade Ground–Parwal Via Darshan Lal Chawk, Cannaught Place, Prem Nagar Parwal

8

8

Thana Central–Ballupur Via, GMS Road, Sabzi Mandi, Majra, By pass–Rispana Rao–Subash Road–Pande

1

9

Nabada Majra–Rispanapur Via, Subhash Marg, Parade Ground, Majra, By pass–Rispanapur

1

10

Prem Nagar–Dhonlas ki Chakkl Via Nanda Chawk, Phulsoni, Amwala

1

Total

97

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Table 5 Bus service Boarding station

Alighting station

No. of passengers boarding

No. of passengers alighting

Rate (in Rs.)

Weekdays

Weekend

Weekdays

Weekend

Prem nagar Ballupur

24

30

9

15

08

Ballupur

Balliwala

12

17

7

10

05

Balliwala

Railway station

3

10

10

10

05

Railway station

ISBT

7

10

13

10

05

Prem nagar Clock tower

22

30

22

30

17

Prem nagar ISBT

25

30

25

30

14

Prem nagar Railway station

20

25

20

25

13

Table 6 Vikram service Boarding station

Alighting station

No. of passengers boarding

No. of passengers alighting

Rate (in Rs.)

Prem nagar

Ballupur

09

05

10

Ballupur

Balliwala

03

03

05

Balliwala

Clock tower

05

09

07

ISBT

Clock tower

09

09

12

Prem nagar

Clock tower

09

09

12

Prem nagar

Railway station

09

09

15

Prem nagar

ISBT

09

09

20

No. of passengers alighting

Rate (in Rs)

Table 7 Tracker service Boarding station

Alighting station

No. of passengers boarding

Prem nagar

Pondha

12

12

12

Prem nagar

Kandoli

12

05

15

Kandoli

Bidholi

03

10

05

Prem nagar

Bidholi

12

12

18

Prem nagar

ISBT

12

12

20

Prem nagar

Sudhowala

12

04

15

Sudhowala

Bhauwala

02

10

05

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The above-mentioned alternative provides one of the best and smooth functioning systems which will lead to the ultimate attraction of all types of gentry to the public transit for daily travel. Enough revenue will be generated in the long term working of this alternative and will be able to run itself.

4.4 Privatisation Privatisation refers to selling or legally transferring public or government-owned service (business) to some private operating body. The case in today’s world is that the paratransit is owned by the government and thus services are provided accordingly. The problem it causes is that it gives a sense of pseudo control over the vehicles to the drivers and conductors which results in misuse of the service and a chance for potential corruption. With the implementation of this alternative, the current scenario and potential threats can be eliminated. The alternative focuses on providing the service in a comfortable, safe and economical manner. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Benefits of privatisation Improved efficiency Lack of political interference Shareholder Increased competition.

5 Conclusion To sum up, our research backed by the Data collected from the stakeholders including Vikram, Tracker and Dehradun Bus Service, our findings suggest that despite the four alternative solutions provided, the method most suitable to optimise and make the system more efficient will involve going with: • Having both the Paratransit and Dehradun Bus service under the government supervision. The reason we feel this is the best route to repair the dilapidated system is that it is essential that being an essential service we cannot totally leave it up to the private sector else it can have severe consequences on the livelihood of people. Our recommendations suggest that the provincial oversight on the operations and major decisions including pricing, route mapping, human resourcing be done or controlled by the government in a major way.

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References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Trading Economics Homepage. www.tradingeconomics.com DTC Homepage. www.dtc.nic.in Lucknow City Transport Service Limited. lctsl.org/Service.aspx Seoul City Tour Bus. www.seoulcitybus.com en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing_Bus Hong Kong Bus Service Homepage. http://www.nwstbus.com.hk/ Transport for London. tfl.gov.uk Official website of the Convention and Visitors Bureau. en.parisinfo.com BART official Website. www.bart.gov/ Chicago Transit Authority Website www.transitchicago.com/ New York City Bus Service. web.mta.info/ Doon Today Planning of public transport system for dehradun - IIT Roorkee, CDEG 14058

Sustainability Assessment Need for Construction Phase in Construction Project Mukesh Kumar Dubey and Vijay Raj

Abstract Construction industry plays a major role in the economy of any country specifically for developing countries. But on other hand it depletes the resources by consumption or utilization of them, hence impacts on environment and social surrounding. So, the need of the measurement of the sustainability impact is evolved and a significance work is done in the last few decades. Various sustainability assessment systems have been evolved by different organization like USGBC (LEED, USA), IGBC (India), BREEM (U.K.), CII (PDRI), etc., for measuring the sustainability. These sustainable systems consider six domains, namely Sustainable Site, Energy and Atmosphere, Water Efficiency, Materials and Resources, Indoor environment quality, and waste and pollution. But measuring sustainability at the construction phase is not considered in any of the sustainability assessment system but considered as a prerequisite. This paper is designed to understand the need of the sustainability system in the construction phase. Keywords Construction · Sustainability · Construction sustainability · Sustainability assessment

1 Introduction Environment has changed drastically in the last few decades. This environmental change has evolved problem like global warming, ozone depletion, waste accumulation, etc. CO2 emission is being increased with increase in consumption of energy and resources [1]. In developing countries, environment changes due to rapid urbanization and increase in the building construction [2]. In the whole life cycle of any building, there is huge consumption of energy to satisfy the inhabitant’s need. Also the building sector significantly influence depletion of overall natural resource. It can be observed that energy is being consumed or used in building from its construction to its demolition. M. K. Dubey (B) · V. Raj UPES, School of Engineering, Dehradun, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 V. P. Singh et al. (eds.), Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 199, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6_23

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The construction in developing country is inevitable. One side where construction industry majorly participates in GDP another side it influences environment by depletion of resource. It is depicted in one of the study in 2010, there is 45% energy and water consumption of the world, respectively, by buildings. It is found in study that building contributes 23% of air pollution, 50% of greenhouse gas production, 40% of water pollution, and 40% of solid waste in cities for environment pollution [3]. Hence, one can understand that directly or indirectly construction industry adversely impacts the sustainability and there is a need for the mensuration and monitoring of sustainability assessment. There is lot of work carried out on the sustainability assessment process and sustainability measurement system. Also various sustainability rating system for building has been developed and implemented. In construction, sustainability assessment revolves around environmental, social, and economic perspective. The major focus is given on initial phase of the design, serviceability duration, and operation maintenance. There is not much attention in the construction phase sustainability except a few like soil erosion, sustainable material use, etc. But Construction phase is very responsible for the adverse impact of environment pollution whether it is noise pollution, excess energy consumption, safety and health of workers, affecting neighboring environment or vice versa. For sustainability rating system various framework has been developed by different organization in the recent decades. The sustainability rating system is also called with name of Green Building rating. This work is aimed to understand the need for construction phase-based factors identification in sustainability assessment rating system.

2 Construction Site & Pollution Construction industry is always criticized for intensive pollution like noise, soil, air, hazardous substances, etc., specifically during the construction phase of the project. As per one of study construction projects created a good amount of pollution in air, water, noise, light, and land due to the exposure of Construction process [4] . Few of these pollution and its impact are listed as follows: Air Pollution by Construction Machines: Various transport vehicles and different construction equipments used during construction consume fuels, hence emit harmful substances into atmosphere. Pollutants majorly are carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, hydrocarbons, and sulfur dioxide [5]. All these pollutants do air pollution and do adversely impact social and environment sustainability. Construction Dust Pollution: Construction Industry is responsible for generating dust and causing air pollution. This industry emits huge particles in the environment which are very much harmful to workers and neighboring habitants [6]. Construction is workforce-oriented industry therefore occupational health major issue makes this hazardous.

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Noise Pollution by Construction Machine: Construction site use construction machine (devices for the breaking concrete), pile drivers, DG set, earth moving equipment, pneumatically driven devices, and engine-driven equipment. These machineries and equipments generate noise which not only cause noise pollution but are also harmful to humankind.

3 Construction Site Sustainability The initial thought and work on the sustainability in construction evolved in the early 1980s when the sustainable development growth evolved in the world. In 1994, Sustainability in construction was discussed at first conference on sustainable construction in Tamba, Florida, US [7]. After that various works have been done like Hill and Bowen [8] principles and conceptual framework for attaining sustainable construction. Fernández-Sánchez and Rodríguez-López [9] sustainability indicators for construction project management a methodological review. Different agencies and organisation worked on the sustainability measurement in recent decades. Few of the known sustainability rating system are Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design (LEED), United State; Building Research Establishment Assessment Method (BREEAM), United Kingdom; Comprehensive Assessment System for Built Environment Efficiency (CASBEE), Japan; SBTool, international; also other country-specific rating systems are Deutsche Gesellschaft für Nachhaltiges Bauen (DGNB), Germany; Haute Qualité Environnementale (HQETM), France; IGBC for India [10–12]. The points on which these rating systems have been focused are around Suitable Site location for sustainable preview, Water conservation and efficiency, Indoor environment quality, energy and atmosphere efficiency, use of sustainable resources and material and pollution due to waste by inhabitants/users. The weightage of the factors associated with construction phase is not being accentuated. In general, Construction is accounted as a prerequisite in assessment rating system. The absence of the measuring parament of the construction site on sustainability makes the construction industry vulnerable to the social and environment depletion. Non-availability of direct sustainability measuring parameter, the contractor, builder, construction firms, associated subcontractor, other associated bodies may misuse and make condition worst. There is an urgent need to identify various parameters relevant to the construction site sustainability rating.

4 Conclusion There is huge work going on the sustainability assessment in construction industry and sustainability rating system has also been developed. Still the one of the important

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phases of civil project, construction phase, which produce adverse impact on environment, safety and health of workforce or neighboring habitant, has been disregarded in this assessment system. Absence of the direct sustainability measurement parameter, abscond various directly involved stakeholders like civil contractors, material suppliers, machinery suppliers, and construction vehicle transporters, etc., to affectively contribute to sustainable development. Hence, the identification of different factors on sustainability measurement or construction phase is of utmost important to robust the safe, healthy and ecological construction site.

References 1. Nejat P, Jomehzadeh F, Taheri MM, Gohari M, Majid MZAA. global (2015) A global review of energy consumption, CO2 emissions and policy in the residential sector (with an overview of the top ten CO2 emitting countries). Renew Sust Energy Rev Elsevier 43(C):843–862 2. Martínez-Zarzoso, Inmaculad, Maruotti, Antonello (2011, May) The impact of urbanization on CO2 emissions: evidence from developing countries. Ecol Econ Elsevier 70(7):1344–1353 3. Dixon, Willmot (2010) The impacts of construction and the built environment, briefing notes, Willmott- Dixon Group 4. Hendrickson C, Horvath A (2000) Resource use and environmental emissions of US construction sectors. J Construct Eng Manag 126(1):38e44. https:// doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1061/(asc e)0733-9364(2000)126:1(38) 5. Liliya Pakhomova, Moiseeva Svetlana, Tereshina Ksenia, Russia (2018) Air Pollution by Construction Vehicles, Materials Science and Engineering 463:042041. doi:https://doi.org/ 10.1088/1757-899X/463/4/042041 6. Daniel Cheriyan, Jae-ho Choi (2020) A review of research on particulate matter pollution in the construction industry. J Clean Product 254:120077 7. Edwards S, Bennett P (2003) Construction products and life-cycle thinking. UNEP Ind Environ, Apr–Sep, 57–61 8. Forsberg A, von Malmborg F (2004) Tools for environmental assessment of the built environment. Bldg Environ 39:223–228 9. Hill RC, Bowen P (1997) Sustainable construction: principles and a framework for attainment. Constr Manag Econ 15:223–239 10. IGBC (2019) Indian green building council. Available online: https://igbc.in/igbc/ (accessed on 03 Jun 2019) 11. LEED (2019) for residential & Multi family homes, updated on april-2019 12. BREEAM, CEEQUAL Version 6 - International Projects - Technical Manual https://www.cee qual.com/version-6/ (accessed on 03 Jan-2020)

Suitable Urban Land Development Model for Uttarakhand Siddhant Raturi, Ankur Chowdhary, and Vibhor Goel

Abstract With the adamant increase in population, the availability of land per capita is continuously decreasing especially in urban areas of Uttarakhand, posing extra pressure over remaining land, making it unaffordable. Infrastructure provision improves the utility, productivity, desirability of a parcel of land but for the provision of infrastructure, the land itself is an essential input. Hence, Urban Infrastructure projects are becoming more capital intensive resulting in a decreased supply of serviced plots. This triggered the need for this study to devise a model for the state to develop its land for meeting the requirements of the increased population, such that the whole process becomes affordable for the Government and at the same time inclusive [1] also. The Urban agglomeration in Uttarakhand experiences all major urban problems including slums, insufficient road widths, ribbon growth along all highways, and haphazard development, which further deteriorates any development possibilities in these cities. The study reviews the existing scenario in various states and provides a cross-cutting study of land development practices such as Town Planning Schemes, Land Pooling through state-specific policies, Transferrable Development Rights, and Accommodation Reservation principle. The purpose of these schemes, their suitability, legislative form, and their implementation mechanism are analyzed, from which a comprehensive Land Development Model for the state is derived which includes provision for all different methods and their different purpose to which they could be applied. The study further suggests necessary amendments and institutional reforms that are needed for the purpose. Keywords Land development · Land assembly · Town planning schemes · Land pooling · Transferrable development rights · Accommodation reservation principle

S. Raturi Urban Planning & Civil Engineer, INI Design Studio Pvt. Ltd, Dehradun, India A. Chowdhary · V. Goel (B) Department of HSE, Civil Engineering, and Planning, School of Engineering, UPES, Dehradun, India A. Chowdhary e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 V. P. Singh et al. (eds.), Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 199, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6_24

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1 Introduction India is the second-most populous country in the world after China, accounts for nearly 17% of the world population, and experiencing rapid changes in demographic composition. India is the seventh-largest country by area and with more than 1.3 billion people that indicates a high population density. The growth and size of the population in any country directly influence the condition of the economy, development, and education of the country [2]. It is also estimated that most of the population increase in India between 2011 and 2030 will take place in urban areas, during which it will add 16.50 crores to its urban base of existing 37.70 crores. Moreover, an estimated 18.0 crores of rural people live near India’s 70 largest urban centers, a number that will increase to 210.0 crores by 2030 [3]. In terms of land cover, India ranks seventh largest in the world having about 32.8 lakh square kilometers of land, while in terms of population it ranks the second highest. As the land resource is limited, the land-man ratio in India has dropped rapidly from 1.28 hectare per capita in 1901 to 0.36 in 1991, while the corresponding figure for China is 0.81. The projection for India for land-man ratio in 2051 [2] is 0.17 hectare per capita and for China, it will be 0.66 (see Fig. 1). Thus, in terms of the area, India has the most discouraging land-man ratio, which becomes more acute as 10% of this available land being topographically unusable. This scenario indicates that land in the context of India is a very finite and scarce resource, therefore, the land is not only required to be used judiciously but it uses needs to be exploited to the fullest extent. The increasing population is accommodated in two ‘Areas’ in cities. First, most Indian cities have grown organically and through accretion over time, often growing 1.28

1.21 1.21

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0.84

0.8

0.69

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Fig. 1 Land-man ratio in India

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Land - Man rao (Hect/Head)

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out of the merger of smaller unplanned settlements [4]. Older markets, residential, and institutional areas have become city centers, densified over time, and are being put to modern and often incompatible uses, without adequate up-gradation of requisite infrastructure or public facilities. This has led to congested inner-city areas and a reduction in the availability of road space, public spaces, etc. Second, the everincreasing demand for urban land to meet the needs of the growing urban population has led to the expansion of cities on their peripheries. This horizontal expansion of cities has largely been ‘unplanned’. These two ‘Areas’ which have accommodated the growing population can be called brownfield and greenfield areas, respectively. In a city, the land is divided into that held in public and private domains. Land held in the public domain primarily caters to the uses like roads, community purposes, e.g., market, rail/bus station, etc., or open spaces, parks, and playgrounds that provide recreation; whereas, in the case of land held in the private domain, the right of exclusive use is exercised. The land held under the public domain and its development for infrastructure increases the value of land in the private domain and conversely, the inadequacy of land in the public domain also reduces the value of land in the private domain. Thus, while considering land as a resource for city development, the increased value of land in the private domain can be seen as an opportunity to mobilize financial resources for providing public goods and services. Urban land value arises largely due to two factors: (i) the scarcity of land for economic use, and (ii) the provision of public goods and services. Urban land has both horizontal and vertical dimensions due to the built space on it. The City Governments struggle to provide and maintain the city’s physical and social infrastructure, whereas private landowners and developers in the real estate sector encash on increased land values due to infrastructure. Usually in Indian Cities, ‘Citizens are rich and City Governments are poor’ [5]. The standard practice for the development of urban areas in Uttarakhand [6] is to prepare a Master Plan (MP) which designates particular parcels of land for public purposes [7], which can then be compulsorily acquired (Reserved Land). In this process, landowners who lose their land bear the cost, and the benefits accrue to others. The Development Plan typically does not attempt to capture such benefits. The funds for implementing MP have to come from general revenues of local authorities, mainly property taxes and fees. Due to paucity of funds, cumbersome procedures, delays, high cost, and stiff resistance to acquisition of reserved land, the implementation of development plans has been dismal. With land acquisition becoming very difficult, nay impossible for urban projects, alternative land assemblage techniques are being explored and practiced to make planned development meaningful. Therefore, over a period, it is experienced that Plans cannot be successfully implemented unless efforts to mobilize resources for plan implementation are not brought into operation. Besides, the cost for urban infrastructure and amenities must be financed through Value Capture Financing (VCF) tools such as betterment charges and the sale of reserved plots. For this, while States like Gujarat [8] and Maharashtra have been successfully practicing planned development through Town Planning Schemes

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[9], other States till now have mainly followed the Delhi model of large-scale land acquisition. Uttarakhand as such had to face a lot of resentment against the land acquisition and the implementation of the plans had faced rare setbacks in major urban areas. Hence, struggles in catering to the challenges of Rapid urbanization and implementation of MP in different notified development areas are majorly due to its do-little approach in the field of land development. Presently government assembles land through development authorities via acquisition as per the Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation, and Resettlement Act, 2013 (LARR 2013) which seek 80% prior consent of the affected family for the requirement of Land for Private purpose or even Public–Private Partnership (PPP) projects and 70% for Public Works [10]. The Uttarakhand Government also have a stalled Uttarakhand Land Pooling Scheme, 2015, under which a Development Authority is authorized to develop a scheme for an area in which it offers 20–27% of Residential and 4–7% of the commercial area along with a compensation of 150% of the land value (circle rate) [11]. Just six years for remaining for Master Plan 2005–2025 to reach its horizon for the capital city Dehradun, Uttarakhand and most of its development proposals are yet to be started which comprise rehabilitation of slums, new expressways, logistic hub at Harrawala, etc., majorly due to unavailability and difficulties in Land Procurement. Currently, the major challenges arising due to the lack of implementation of the masterplans plans in the largest city of Uttarakhand are as follows: Urban Sprawl With the increasing population and shortage of affordable housing inside the Dehradun city, people coming from across the state are settling in the plotted development at the periphery of the city boundary [12]. These plots are generally subdivided from the agricultural land and because subdivision of land doesn’t require any approval by the authority, it generally doesn’t comply with the prevailing building byelaws. In addition, the gap in the building permit process in the development doesn’t have sufficient road widths, amenities, and other social infrastructure. Such development happens in patches, far from each other, for which to provide basic physical infrastructure such as Roads and Water supply, the government has to spend more capital than required. Also, if any Master Plan proposals pass over such development, it becomes impossible for the government to implement as it causes major displacement of the affected people. Ribbon Growth In small cities such as Dehradun, where the Government had been in ‘do-little approach’ since long, commercial activities come up along all major corridors. These spaces generally consist of several small shops with maximum ground plus one floor, right at the edge of the road leaving no setbacks or spaces for parking [13]. As the city grows and traffic level on roads increases many folds, such kind of development along corridors, called ribbon development, not only contributes to the increasing congestion level on roads due to lack of parking spaces but also proves to be a major hindrance in Road widening if required. This also results in encroaching of footpaths which further reduce the walkability of the city. And with such low development which might have been enough during the earlier time, generally fails to draw the exact land potential to the current situation.

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Slums As per the Master Plan there are 79 notified slums with a total population of 1.85 lacs calculated in 2001 and covering an area of 280 hectares [14]. Most of this population is situated on the banks of river Bindal and Rispana which are nonperennial rivers. The condition they are living in is vulnerable with no facilities at all and the risk of flooding is present too. The major challenge that the government is facing is due to the unavailability of land for their resettlement and that too near to their present location. Has it been a case of encroachment of government land, it would have been easier to develop housing for the inhabitants. As urban land development is the cause of all ills mentioned above, a cross-cutting study is conducted across various states and union territories of India to understand the Urban Land Development Mechanism. A broad framework is suggested which can be referred for Uttarakhand to draft these policies/acts to implement planned development.

2 Literature Review 2.1 Land Acquisition With its time-consuming and cumbersome nature, still, Land Acquisition is suitable for certain reasons where the need is inevitable and the state has the resource to bear its cost [15]. For the implementation of development plan proposals or any development in the city core or already built-up area, the method not just requires huge capital but also is politically unwanted. And this is the reason many proposals never get implemented for many years. But for development at the periphery and where the Land is of agriculture in nature, i.e., has low cost, Land Acquisition can be done especially in the development of expressways and ring roads.

2.2 Land Pooling A participative method, which not just requires voluntarily surrender of land from the landowners in return for lesser but developed land, with complete infrastructure and amenities as required. This method is highly suitable for satisfying housing needs as per the demand arising from the increasing population. It can also be used for providing public housing and extracting the Land potential and thus making, the development vertical compared to horizontal sprawl. Although as it is a voluntary process, it may not be helpful in the implementation of development proposals as it doesn’t guarantee to get contiguous land in the first place and also at any specific or desired location [15].

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2.3 Town Planning Schemes (TPS) Similar to the process of Land Pooling, Town Planning Schemes also reconstitute the land and in return appreciate the value of the plot [16]. However, TPS is a compulsory mechanism and goes within the framework of its superior plans and can be used for the implementation of development plan proposals, which also make it most suitable for city expansion in a planned manner [17].

2.4 Transferable Development Rights (TDR) Firstly, the methods of TDR are only effective when land prices are very high in the area, there is no scope of expansion and the Floor Space Index (FSI) permitted is comparatively low. This generally is present in the city core and therefore TDR is applicable not only for development plan proposals, rehabilitation of slums at the city core but also is useful for planning of cities according to the modern city planning concepts such as Transit-Oriented Development.

2.5 Accommodation and Reservation Principle This method is only applicable to reserved plots in the city core. Similar to the TDR method for it to be viable the Land availability has to be limited and its value is very high. If such is the case, then Accommodation Reservation can be used for the development of amenities at the required area. In Gujarat and Maharashtra, a land pooling mechanism is adopted for urban land development. Under this, Town Planning (TP) Schemes are prepared for lands that are not acquired by the government agency. It is reshaped, readjusted, and returned to the original owner. Generally, when a TP Scheme is laid in an area, about 40% of the land is utilized in providing common infrastructure and facilities like roads, gardens, playgrounds, etc. This proportion of the land area is deducted from each of the individual landowners’ original land. Land parcels retained by the planning authority are then used for ‘public purposes’. In Maharashtra, the TP Schemes are prepared and implemented under Maharashtra Regional and Town Planning Act, 1966; and in Gujarat, Gujarat Town Planning and Urban Development Act (GTPUD), 1976. A major difference between the land pooling mechanism (TP Scheme) and the land acquisition mechanism is that under the land pooling, the benefit of urban development is realized by the original owner of the land, whereas in the acquisition model, the planning agency benefits and not the original owner [18].

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3 Methodology The methodology adopted is of Applied research, aims to devise an appropriate Land Development Mechanism for Uttarakhand that facilitates the Government to assemble land with no delay for any infrastructure project and also move toward a self-financing mechanism. The study consists of three stages: 1. 2. 3.

An assessment of the existing scenario of the Land Development Mechanism its outcome in Uttarakhand. To Review the basic models that are practiced in various other states of India through Literature. Through field visits and interviews highlight the outcome of Land Development Mechanism in the State of Gujarat and Maharashtra and Union Territory of Delhi.

Based on the suitability for various purposes, a broad framework is suggested which can be referred for Uttarakhand to draft these policies/acts to implement planned development.

4 Assessment of Urban Land Development Mechanism in Different States of India This part of the study has given utmost importance and in which several field visits across different states have been conducted to various cities and authorities including AUDA in Ahmedabad, CIDCO in Navi Mumbai, MCGM in Greater Mumbai, and PMRDA in Pune and Delhi. The purpose of these visits was to understand the various practices for Land Development which these Authorities have been practicing for years and different challenges that they face and also to understand its implementation procedure and legislative provisions. The findings of the interviews and meetings conducted have been attached to the Annexure and the inferences through them and concerning literature are elaborated below.

4.1 Maharashtra Urban Land Development in NAINA by CIDCO Development of Navi Mumbai was with the concept to develop a counter magnet twin city of Mumbai across the harbor to reduce the existing pressure from the South Mumbai and for which City and Industrial Development Corporation Limited

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(CIDCO) was incorporated and appointed as New Town Development Authority in 1970. For Navi Mumbai, CIDCO has adopted the mass acquisition method and acquired land under the Land Acquisition Act 1894. In the later stage of Land Acquisition, the State government approved different incentive schemes such as. Gaothan (village) Expansion Scheme in which CIDCO also gave 5% of developed land along with the compensation. Land Acquisition and 12.5% Developed plot allotment, out of which 30% of the land was deducted for provision of physical and social infrastructure. For Navi Mumbai International Airport, the government came up with a new package, in which along with 12.5% land, instead of compensation government offered 10% more land, thus making the total developed land percentage to 22.5%. Along with this Government offered rehabilitation of Project-Affected People (PAP) and social protection by providing education to the children and the provision of jobs. Development of NAINA The Maharashtra Government in 2013 notified an area at a radius of 25 km around NMIA as Navi Mumbai Airport Influence Area (NAINA) having an area of 560 sq. km. and appointed CIDCO as SPA for ensuring its planned development. CIDCO based on the development potential further divided the total area into Phase I and Phase II. And according to the provision in the Act, prepared Interim Development Plan (IDP) for Phase I (36.83 sq.km.), i.e., the area near Panvel. And for the implementation of the IDP, CIDCO prepared a NAINA scheme for the respective area. NAINA Scheme The scheme was a voluntary land pooling scheme which was prepared for easier assembling of land required for infrastructure and amenities purposes. In this 40% of the land has to be surrendered to the authority and in return, 60% of the land the FSI permitted would be 1.7 as compared to basic FSI of 1.0 in that area. The internal roads have to be developed by the owner, but without compromising in the FSI. And an additional 20% BUA is to be provided for the provision of EWS housing to be surrendered to the Authority at a decided rate. But recently and also because of the voluntary nature of the scheme, instead it was decided to go with the provision of Town Planning Scheme as per the Act provision. Currently in Maharashtra TP Schemes are being prepared in Nagpur, Navi Mumbai, and Pune. In Navi Mumbai for NAINA, three draft TPS have been prepared for areas within IDP-I. Out of 3, TPS 1 draft has been sanctioned by the VC/MD of CIDCO and the government has appointed the Arbitrator which then has started with the hearing and rest proceedings. The CIDCO, in the TPS so prepared plans out giving 50%–60% of the land back to the owner and also to levy 50% of the contribution amount if comes out to be any. To speed up the whole process, it also amended the provision for sanction of the draft scheme which earlier was to be done through the government, now could be done by the VC/MD of the Planning Authority. It is interesting to observe how, after

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discontinuation of the DP-TP model in Maharashtra, the government is returning to it realizing the difficulties in Acquisition since after the new act of 2013. Land Development in Greater Mumbai, MCGM In the greater Mumbai area, the land development and planning are done by the Brihan Mumbai Municipal Corporation or Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai (MCGM). With a population of 1.84 crores, the existing scenario of Greater Mumbai is such that there is no scope for expansion left, and has humongous pressure over the existing resources. Keeping this in mind the earlier development plan 1991 fixed the FSI at 1.0, over which a transferrable development right of maximum 1.0 can be availed and another FSI of 1.0 can be purchased through the corporation as Premium FSI. The concept of TDR was first introduced in the 1991 DP. The price of land in the greater Mumbai has been continuously skyrocketing even after the development of Navi Mumbai. As such, it is expected, if it is to implement the proposals of DP 2034, through the acquisition of reserved land, the cost will be 13 lacs crores compared to the total MCGM budget of 30,000 crores. For this purpose, the Government has brought in a policy for Accommodation Reservation principle and TDR method in compliance with the Development Control and Promotion Regulations 2034 (DCPR) which lists the different purposes for which the AR principle can be applied and respective incentives in development permission the owner will get in return. It also defines a TDR of a minimum of 2 times the surrendered land in case the land comes under reservation of Road or other purpose and also an increase by 25% in value in the total TDR generated if the owner also develops the plot as required. And therefore, the high rate of land like Mumbai, limited FSI, and no scope of expansion is one of the key parameters for the successful implementation of the methods such as mentioned before. Land Development in Pune, PMRDA PMRDA has been recently appointed as the Regional Planning and Development Authority for the Pune region, i.e., area surrounding Pune Municipal Corporation and Pimpri Chinchwad Municipal Corporation. For which the Regional Plan of this area is still in preparation. But for the decongestion of the two municipal corporations, PMRDA has come up with a proposal of a Ring Road 128 km in length and 110 m wide, which will cover 29 villages and require a land area of 1430 hectares. For this purpose, citing limited resources with the government, the authority has come up with the intent to develop the land required through the TPS method. Town Planning Scheme in Pune. The major part of the Pune ring road is to be developed through contiguous 50 + TP schemes out of which 6 are being prepared to start with. In these 6 TP schemes, 3 draft schemes have been prepared and 1 out of this is already sanctioned and an Arbitrator has been appointed by the Maharashtra Government. The Authority as per these schemes will be returning 50% of the land to the owner and to compensate for the land deduction will be giving FSI of 2.0 which if combined with TDR and premium FSI can result in a maximum of 4.0. Out of the retained land,

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10% would be reserved for the EWS housing. The minimum plot size shall be 1000 sq.m. and if falling short the owner can aggregate it with surrounding plots by an application to the authority. To start with the TP schemes once again, the authority is laying off the contribution amount and the compensation to be given would be for the demolition of the structure if any.

4.2 Gujarat Land Development Mechanism in Ahmedabad The Planning process in Ahmedabad is a two-step process, i.e., DP-TP mechanism in which firstly a development plan is prepared by the Local Development Authority, i.e., AUDA in Ahmedabad for the said development area as notified by the State Government which time to time can also be revised. This Development Plan describes the area into different Land Uses and consists of City level reservations and Proposals. For the Implementation of Development Plan several area level plans of the area, 100 hectares to 200 hectares area are prepared and an area called as ‘Town Planning Schemes’ which are based on the concept of reconstitution and Land Pooling. In Ahmedabad, there are 231 TPS prepared which covers more than 95% of the entire AMC and AUDA limits of about 467 sq km of area. The process began as early as 1915 when the Bombay Town Planning Act was enacted and introduced the concept of Town Planning Schemes. The Act was revised in 1954 which then introduced the preparation of Development Plans along with Town Planning Schemes. And later The Gujarat Town Planning and Urban Development Act (GTPUD Act) was enacted in 1976 which then added one more level to this mechanism which was of preparation of preliminary and final scheme after a draft scheme by a quasi-judicial officer appointed by the Government. In Ahmedabad, the first TP Scheme was taken up for Jamalpur in 1917. The mechanism of TPS has not been changed to a great extent to date. From 1978 to 1999 (20 years), 76 TPS of a total area of 12,724 ha were implemented and from 1999 till date 83 TPS has been completed. And currently, another 48 new TP schemes are under preparation. Role of Town Planning Officer. Local Development Authority after the declaration of intent prepares a draft scheme and gets it sanctioned by the State Government. As soon as the sanction from the Government within one month, the Government appoints a Town Planning Officer with appropriate qualification and position not less than divisional town planner. The Town Planning Officer has a quasi-judicial power, whose decisions can be challenged only in higher courts. After his appointment, he prescribes individual notice to the landowners inviting suggestions and objections. After which he is supposed to prepare the Preliminary scheme which contains the physical planning part, i.e., reconstitution of plots, land reservations, and road layouts. This part is final and cannot be challenged on the bench. After preparation and sanction of the Preliminary scheme, the TPO starts

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with the evaluation part and prepares a Final Scheme within 30 days that can be challenged in the hearing bench constituted by the district judge. And thus, the TPO which acts as a link between the Government and the public in this compulsory process has the most important role to play in the successful preparation of the Town Planning Scheme. Prahaladnagar TPS. Prahaladnagar which is branded as ‘Model Town Panning Scheme’ by AUDA, comprises 4 TP schemes no. 23, 24, 25, and 26. The scheme is considered as the most successful one as the total collection in Prahaladnagar TPS is known to be eight times higher compared to the expenditure in infrastructure development. And now after when it is almost developed to its extent, the Infrastructure and Amenities present have been shown in the photographs below. In the aerial image, the area lying on the eastern side of the SG highway is Prahaladnagar which Hosts excellent Hotels, Market, Group Housing, Park, Lake, and a great number of EWS housing. Once an undeveloped area like the one on the western side of the SG highway, now from the aerial photographs looks well planned with discrete road hierarchy and amenities strategically placed, Land potential used to its maximum limit with high rise towers and open spaces left around it and sufficient amount of EWS housing. The scheme was able to not just achieve land for sufficient EWS housing, but also to gather finance for its other amenities and infrastructure through the selling of Authority Plots. At the center of the area, Prahaladnagar park gives easy accessibility to everybody and proves to be the most used amenity in that particular area and also the scheme was successful in preserving a water body which was then developed in the form of a lake, and thus environment cannot only be preserved and but also be turned into recreational area thorough this method. Preparation of New Local Area Plans. AUDA’s Comprehensive Development Plan 2021 focuses on compact and sustainable development and for which they have identified 200 m on each side of the public transit corridor as Transit-Oriented Zone (TOZ). For this purpose, they have appointed a company name HCP to prepare TOZ Plans or Local Area Plans for six corridors covering about 51 km length along the existing BRTs and proposed metro line. The LAPs are to transform the development within the TOZ corridors by incentivizing redevelopment and encouraging compact development by increasing the FSI from 1.8 to 4.0. At the same time, they also identify additional land to be taken into public ROW to add new streets, to improve pedestrian connectivity, and at the same time, increase the green cover. This will not only enhance accessibility through direct connectivity with BRTS and upcoming Metro but also make it possible to assemble land free of cost in the already built up but low developed area. Redevelopment of Slums. Currently, AUDA has started to develop slums situated at Vaduz through the TDR method. The Vaduz slum has about 8000 dwelling units and 40,000 people living in it and is the biggest slum in Ahmedabad situated just next to the river Sabarmati. For its redevelopment tender has been released by the Authority for both its redevelopment design and construction. The model for the

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redevelopment is rather unique in which the Government has decided to gather the finance from the project itself. In the RFP, the developer is asked for the price for the number of units needed to resettle the current inhabitants and which to be transferred to AUDA which is component ‘A’ of the project and the developer is also asked to bid for the remaining land which is component ‘B’ of the project. For example, if 30% of land gets free after the resettlement of individuals as per the design, then the developer is asked to bid for this remaining land. And, this way the government aspires the whole project to be self-financed.

4.3 Delhi The capital city Delhi from the beginning has been using an instrument for inflexible land use planning with detailed development coding for premise-b-premise land and building uses. DDA prepares not only perspective plans of twenty years’ horizon but also detailed plans for the individual zones of the city outlined in the master plan. It is supposed to monitor all land developments in the city to the satisfaction of the prescribed codes including the task of extending approvals of layouts plans and buildings across individual sites. Further, the DDA is the prime agency for carrying out all public land developments and redevelopment works by its master plan. DDA follows the large-scale or bulk public acquisition of peripheral agricultural land for planned development, using the Indian Land Acquisition Act [19]. Land acquisition and planned development in Delhi has not kept pace with the increasing demands of urbanization during the last five decades. Land Pooling is a new paradigm for the urban development of Delhi, wherein the private sector will play an active role in assembling land and developing physical and social infrastructure [20].

5 Concluding Remarks An analysis is done based on the findings of the literature review and personal interviews conducted with different personals of Authorities in Ahmedabad, Mumbai, Navi Mumbai, and Pune to find out the suitability of different Land development methods for various purposes of development as per the scope of this study which includes 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Implementation of Development Plan Proposals. Development of Expressways and Ring Roads. To fulfill the housing needs arising from the increasing population. Slum rehabilitation and EWS housing. Development of amenities both in the city core and outside. Development according to the concept of Transit-Oriented Development. Expansion of City in a planned way.

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Each development method has been described below with its suitability and shortcomings for solving the above different purposes. Thus, all these methods and their purpose are summed up in a Matrix with Land development methods running on the horizontal axis and their purposes on the vertical axis.

6 Recommended Framework Based upon the above Table 1 for the promotion of Planned Urban Development, selffinancing of the development projects, and to keep original landowners within the Table 1 Table captions should be placed above the tables Land acquisition Development Politically plan unwanted implementation

Land pooling

Town planning Transferable schemes development right

Accommodation reservation

Voluntarily process

Self-financing, Suitable for compulsory road method widening

Applicable in the city core

Ring road/express highway

Expressway – through agricultural land

Piecemeal approach

Passing through a developed area

–

Housing needs

Capital intensive

Highly suitable

Self-financing mechanism

In achieving greater housing density

–

Additional BUA for EWS housing

Land reserved for EWS housing

TDR of equal Additional amount to be building provided permission in return

Slum – rehabilitation & EWS housing Amenities development

Suitable but Maybe part capital of DP intensive

Amenities as per DP can be developed

Land Prices must be high to benefit

If Land availability is less

Compact city/TOD

–

–

Greater development along transit

–

City expansion

Suitable but Not Highly capital according to suitable intensive the development plan

–

–

Development Politically Plan unwanted implementation

–

Voluntarily process

Self-financing, Suitable for compulsory road method widening

Applicable in the city core

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benefit of the Land Development, it is suggested, the Government to come up with Policies/Acts for Land Development comprising of Composite tools for different purpose of development. Such policy consists of the following land development methods/tools as proposed in this section.

6.1 Land Pooling The State Development Authority or the Local Development Authority may develop a Land Pooling Scheme for any area falling under their jurisdiction in which they shall guarantee the return of reconstituted developed land at the original location or to its proximity. Such land should minimum be 70% contiguous and the minimum plot area of an individual should be 500 sq.m. The Government is also to exempt any kind of registration charges, stamp duties, and any other such charges associated with the land transfer, division, and reconstitution. Stages of Land Pooling Scheme. Declaration of LPS area. After declaring its intent for preparation of LPS for an area, the authority shall invite objections and suggestions, after which if found suitable, the authority may notify the Final LPS area. The suggestions are to be heard within 45 days of the declaration of intent and further, the Final LPS area is to be notified within 15 days. After which an individual letter is to be sent to each landowner, asking them for ownership rights certificate, mutation, and other related documents within 30 days and which are then to be verified by the district collector in another 30 days. Preparation of LPS • Since after the notification of the area, the authority has to prepare a draft scheme within 180 days. • The base map for the scheme has to be made by overlapping digitized revenue maps and electronic survey maps and verified by both the owner and the authority. • After laying out of roads, making a reservation for the amenities, and reconstitution of the plots, the draft scheme has to be consulted by the owners and then to be approved by the Vice Chairman of the Authority. • After approval of the draft scheme, it is to be published and objections are to be taken within 30 days. • Within the next 30 days, the final scheme has to be decided after modifying according to the objections received and is to be approved by the Vice Chairman of the authority. Reconstitution of Plots. Within 12 months, the Authority should be able to hand over the reconstituted plots back to the owner along with the Ownership Certificate

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Table 2 Return of developed land to the owner S. no

Category

Surrendered land area (sq. M.)

Residential

Commercial

PSP

1

Category I

500 to 9,999

35%

5%

NIL

2

Category II

10,000 and above

53%

5%

2%

and shall submit the entire documents to the District Collector for updating and mutation of land records. Implementation of the Final Scheme. • The Authority shall complete the basic form of LPS roads and Public utilities within 12 months of the sanction of the Final Scheme. • Within 36 months from the date of final LPS, the authority shall complete all the development works. However, this period can be extended only by permission from the government. Return of Developed Land. The minimum land area required for being a part of the Land Pooling Scheme shall be 500 sq.m. Those owners having land less than 500 sq.m. can aggregate their land falling in the LPS area through a registered Land aggregator or they can avail compensation as per the LARR act (Table 2). As in category I as above, the total percentage of the land returned shall be 45% including 35% residential and 5% commercial. While in category II as above, the total percentage of land returned shall be 60% in which the internal sector roads shall be developed by the owner itself. Also, 15% of the Built-Up Area (BUA) shall be developed by the owner in this particular category. This area shall be above the FAR provided and has to be surrendered to the government at decided rates. Incentives. The owner in the second category will also get an incentive over permissible FAR of 20% than the existing FAR of that particular Land Use. Land Pooling through Land Aggregator. Landowners having land less than 500 sq.m. can aggregate their land through Land Aggregator with a commission of 2% of the circle rate of that land. Also, if landowners want to aggregate their land to more than 10,000 sq.m., even in that case they this process can be availed. Land Aggregator shall be subject to the following conditions: 1. 2.

The land aggregator shall be registered Estate Agent under RERA. The Aggregator must have Special Power of Attorney from the owners of the land which he offers to the development authority for this scheme.

6.2 TPS Mechanism For a planned city expansion and implementation of Master Plan and Zonal Plan proposals, urban planning in Uttarakhand has to be a three-step process and which is

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to be prescribed in Urban and Country Planning and Development (Amendment) Act, 2013, through another amendment. This is to be based on the Macro and Microplanning approach in which the first step would be the preparation of a Master Plan which will broadly define the various Zones and different land uses in each such Zones. It may also contain major proposals at the regional and city level. In the second step, Zonal Plans are to be made within the framework of the Master Plan having detailed descriptions of plots, reservation of land for roads, open spaces, schools, markets, etc., and specify the standards of population density and other categories. In the third step, for those areas in which the authority plans to be urbanized, Town Planning Schemes are to be made in phases and to be implemented accordingly. While the first two steps are already part of the state Act, the provision for Town Planning Schemes is to be added as proposed later. In this section, the form of such Town Planning Schemes and their salient features to be adopted in the state is explained in detail. The Town Planning Scheme is to be carried in three stages which consists of. 1. 2. 3.

Preparation of Draft scheme by the Authority, Followed by Preparation of Preliminary Scheme by the Arbitrator, and Finally, the preparation of the Final Scheme by the Arbitrator.

The content of the Town Planning Scheme shall be as per the following provision. It should necessarily contain the Area statement which has to be done in a prescribed format similar to FORM I [21] which contains the detail of the owner including the area of the original plot, tenure, value of the undeveloped plot, details of final plot and its value, both developed and undeveloped, compensation to be paid to the owner, contribution amount for the scheme to be paid by the owner and the net compensation/ contribution to be paid. The estimation of the scheme is to be summarized in a prescribed format similar to FORM II [21] which includes the heads for the amount needed for development work, for preparation of scheme, salaries of the officials and other expenses, the total amount to be paid as a contribution, the total amount levied as contribution chargers and the net amount that to be bearded by the Authority. Salient Features of the Scheme Allotment of Final Plot. The reconstitution of the Original Plot (OP) to be made to the Final Plots should be within the OP boundary or nearby as far as possible. About 50 percent of the area of the OP is to be deducted for the scheme purposes, while the remaining 50% of the original Plot area will be allotted as the Final Plot (FP) to the concerned owner in the Scheme. FP for different public uses such as gardens, open space, plots for educational use, plots for public utility and services, plots for EWS and Authority plots, etc. are proposed at the appropriate places and allotted to the Authority. Thus, the whole of the Scheme area is laid out into FP of different sizes and uses with suitable road network proposed in the Scheme. The break-up of the total area for various uses is as per Table 3.

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Table 3 Proposed division of land area under TPS S. no

Particular

Area percentage

1

FP area allotted to owners

≥50

2

The area under economically weaker section/lower income group/dispossessed

10

3

The area under proposed master plan roads + TPS roads

15 to 25

4

Recreational area (Gardens, playground, open spaces, etc.)

10

5

The area under public amenities and public utilities

5−10

6

The area under authority plots

5

Valuation in Town Planning Scheme. The value of OP has to be estimated based on the instances of sales of land available in the area suitably of 5 years and last 3 transactions and comparing them with the plots in the Scheme area with regard to its size, shape, location, potential, etc. Value of FP in undeveloped condition (Semi-final Value) is to be estimated considering the changes in the reconstituted shape, location, etc. The Final value of the plot is to be estimated based on the final output of the scheme, i.e., with new roads, amenities, and public buildings. Incentives in building permission. The landowners are to get an additional 20% FSI, i.e., amounting to almost 10% more land that returned, over the already permitted FSI as per the building permissions. To support such incentives the Scheme may have a separate Development Control Regulation which may also specify Facades of Public and Commercial building for City Aesthetics. Exemption of Contribution Amount. Given the state circumstances, the contribution amount should be levied by the state government and which could be partially compensated by selling of authority plots which are to be kept up to an extent of 5%. These Authority Plots could be sold as commercial/ mixed-use plots or even by the partnership with developers for maximizing the benefits. Compensation. The compensation amount for the plot area is to be calculated based on the sales available before 5 years from the declaration of intention of the scheme. Also, because of the exemption of contribution amount, the compensation is to be adjusted if in case the contribution comes more than the compensation of land value. In case of compensation for the demolition of the structure, if the demolished part is less than 50% and habitable, then the plot owner will get the compensation based on the government schedule, and in case of demolition more than 50%, the plot owner will get full compensation along with the housing space at dispossessed hosing. Minimum Plot Size. Given full utilization of land potential and the incentives provided, the minimum OP size to be considered would be 1000 sq.m. and the FP size awarded to be 500 sq.m. For landowners having land less than 1000 sq.m.

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can aggregate their land with adjacent landowners or opt for receiving compensation along with housing space at dispossessed housing. Implementation of Scheme. The Scheme has to be implemented in a time-bound manner and the arbitrator has to declare the time estimated for the completion of the scheme which could then only be extended with the permission of the government. The TPS can also be able to split into two or more parts by Arbitrator if the need arises for immediate public infrastructure and other public utilities. The Authority should be able to take grants and advances from the government and can also borrow if needed at the interest rate approved by the government for time-bound implementation of the scheme. Consent for the Scheme. Following the LARR, consent from at least 70% of the landowners has to be taken before submission of the Draft Scheme to make the whole process democratic and people-oriented. For this, the Authority may appoint a communication team which has to consist of locally nominated people also Authority has to involve a local representative for the purpose.

6.3 Transferrable Development Rights and Accommodation Reservation For the redevelopment, implementation of master plan proposal especially in the city core area where much of the development has already been taken and the scope for undeveloped land is least, TDR and AR may be adopted to avoid the displacement of the landowners, providing the benefits of the development to the landowners and empowering authority with the self-financing and least cumbersome process for land development. There is also a requirement for development along the corridors of the transit route. For this, transferring the development potential of the land that will come under the transit to the adjoining land seems to be most feasible for unlocking market potential. Transferrable Development Rights In place of handing over of areas falling under the reservations as made in any development plan, i.e., Master Plan or Zonal Plan, the development potential of land may be separated and made available to the owner in form of Transferrable Development Rights. TDR is compensation in the form of Floor Space Index (FSI) or Development Rights (DR) which shall entitle the owner for construction of the built-up area. This FSI credit shall be issued in a certificate which shall be called Development Rights Certificate (DRC). After the necessary amendment of the relevant sections of Uttarakhand Urban and Country Planning and Development (Amendment) Act, 2013, or through government order the TDR and AR can be implemented. These Rights may be made available and be subject to the Regulations as Table 4.

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Table 4 Proposed TDR under TDR scheme S. No

Purpose

Extent of TDR

1

(a) If the entire plot falling under the Reservation is handed over to the Authority

BUA as per the Zonal plan or the basic FSI of that area (if any) or as general plus BUA equal to the Plot area that is transferred

(b) If a part of Landfalling under Road widening, new road layout, etc., is transferred

BUA as per the Zonal plan or the basic FSI of that are (if any) or as general

Construction of the amenity on the reserved land

(Cost of construction/ Market rate of Land) × 1.25

2

Utilization of TDR. The DRC holder, if he wants additional FSI, can utilize the DRC by attaching it during seeking development permission. The permission would be granted by the Vice Chairman to the extent permissible and also specify the remaining DRC if any. The Development Right Certificates (DRCs) can be used entirely or in parts at any location within the Authority limits. The TDR at the receiving plots shall be calculated as followed: TDRr = TDRo × (CRLo/CRLr) where TDRr = Transferable Development Rights on the receiving plot TDRo = Transferable Development Rights on the originating plot CRLo = Circle rate of the land as on the date of being utilized of the originating plot CRLr = Circle rate of the land as on the date of being utilized of the receiving plot. Transfer of DRC. The Vice Chairman of the Authority shall allow the transfer of DRC in case 1.

2.

If a holder of DRC intends to transfer it to any other person, he shall submit the original DRC to the Vice Chairman with an application along with relevant documents as may be prescribed and a registered agreement which is duly signed by both the parties, for seeking the endorsement of the new holder’s name, i.e., the transferee, on the said certificate. In case of death of the DRC holder, it shall be transferred to the person nominated by him before, after the due verification regarding the title and the legal successor.

Accommodation Reservation Principle The authority only for the development of reserved plots in the Master Plan or Zonal Plan may ask the owner to develop it and in return give compensation in terms of additional development permission, along with the development permission equal

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Table 5 Proposed TDR under accommodation reservation S. No

Purpose

Extent of TDR

1

(a) For PSP buildings such as Hospitals, Schools, Colleges, etc (b) For a recreational area like Garden, Playground, Open Space, Park, etc (c) For EWS housing and slum rehabilitation

The Authority may allow the owner to develop over the reserved land and after handing over it to the authority free of cost, then remaining land may be allowed to be developed for the uses permissible, with full FSI permissible of the entire plot plus (cost of construction/ market rate of land) × 1.25

2

For parking

For parking in general the additional FSI generated would be the same as above but also development permission shall be given for above the Parking Area. Parking could be at Basement, Stilt, first floor, or second floor but with separate entry and has to be handed over to the Authority

of that entire plot, to cover the remaining area of the plot. If the additional FSI couldn’t be used in the remaining plot area, then the authority may issue DRC for the remaining unused BUA Table 5. Also, the unutilized permitted BUA, if any, shall be converted to DRC by the Authority. The cost of construction shall be calculated as per the schedule of rates as prescribed by the State Government, in advance before starting the project. Thus, this policy facilitates owners, not only permitting development permission over reserved plots but also to assign them the opportunity to construct and do business. The recommended framework will ensure the development of the core and the periphery in a timely and cost-effective manner. With the course of time and experience, the authorities and other agencies can modify these methods to suit their needs. The advanced cities of India had reaped the benefits from the innovative approaches and now it’s the newly formed states that need to institutionalize the change.

References 1. Beltr G (2013) Asia development bank’ s report India: promoting inclusive urban development in Indian cities urban planning and land management for promoting inclusive-cities, no. February, pp. 2–30 2. Tiwari AK, Singh BP, Patel V (2020) Population projection of India: an application of dynamic demographic projection model. J Crit Rev 7(7):547–555. https://doi.org/10.31838/jcr.07.07.97 3. MGI (2010) India ’ s urban awakening: building inclusive cities, sustaining economic growth. McKinsey Q, no. April, pp. 1–33 4. MoHUA (2018) Pilot on formulation of local area plan (LAP) & town planning scheme (TPS) For selected Cities, no. July, pp. 1–20 5. Phadke RS (2019) Urban land policies and city planning. ITPI J. no. December 6. Government of Uttarakhand (1973) Uttarakhand Town & Country Planning (Amended) Act 2013 7. G. of U. (2018) Department of Planning. Uttarakhand Vision 2030

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8. Mathur S (2013) Self-financing urbanization: insights from the use of town planning schemes in Ahmadabad, India. Cities 31:308–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2012.09.004 9. Mahadevia D, Pai M, Mahendra A (2018) Ahmedabad: town planning schemes for equitable development-glass half full or half empty? no. August, p 24. doi: https://doi.org/10.13140/RG. 2.2.12683.75040 10. Srivastava DAK (2018) The right to fair compensation under ‘the right to fair compensation and transparency in land acquisition, rehabilitation and resettlement act, 2013.’ Law Rev 38(1):1– 46. https://doi.org/10.29320/jnpglr.38.1.4 11. Government of Uttarakhand (2015) Uttarakhand Land Pooling Policy 2015.pdf 12. Deep S, Kushwaha SPS (2020) Urbanization, Urban Sprawl and Environment in Dehradun. Energy, Environ Glob. no. January. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9310-5 13. Urban Development Department - Government of Uttarakhand (2007) City development plan : Dehradun revised, no. May, pp 1–244. [Online]. Available: http://udd.uk.gov.in/files/CDP_ DDUN.PDF 14. Habeeb R, Javaid S (2019) Social inclusion of marginal in the great climate change debate: case of slums in Dehradun, India. SAGE Open 9(1). doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/215824401 9835924 15. ASCI and NHB (2016) Study on Land Acquisition V/s Land Pooling 16. Ballaney S, Patel B (2008) Using the ‘development plan—town planning scheme’ mechanism to appropriate land and build urban infrastructure. India Infrastruct Rep 2009:190 17. Chandan D (2012) A better way to grow ? land readjustment through town planning schemes in Ahmedabad. Value Capture L. Policies, pp 149–186 18. Joshi R (2004) Land reservations for the urban poor : the case of town planning schemes in Ahmedabad, no. December 2009 19. Joardar SD (2006) Development mechanism in spatial integration of cities, pp. 1–15 20. DDA (2018) Land Pooling Policy,” vol. 50, no. D, pp. 1–5 21. M. TCPD. TPS Rules

Evacuation Methods During Fire in High-Rise Buildings: A Review Rishi Dewan

Abstract High-rise buildings possess many unique challenges when compared with other low-rise buildings like complexity in evacuation, smoke movement, fire controlling, etc., because of its structure and population density. The literature review of the fire evacuation occurring in the high-rise buildings is being done with the objective to determine behavioral patterns and different aspects that affect the efficiency of the evacuation process. Current methods and strategies, which are currently in use, are comprehensively analyzed. Both the human behavioral patterns and strategic techniques put into practice are included. Various categories of building types are being considered, namely health care facilities, residential buildings, and office buildings. The analysis of egress elements includes the use of elevators, stairs, and other aids of escape like sky bridges, choppers, etc. The use of building and the population residing within the building affects the effectiveness of the egress elements. The effectiveness of various evacuation strategies, which are put into practice, depends on the flexibility of different egress components. The study also involves the effects of fatigues during evacuation and effects of building height increase. The evacuation strategies impact on the staff response, group response and how the physically disabled persons are taken into consideration. Keywords High-rise building · Evacuation · Fire · Safety

1 Introduction According to “National Fire Protection Association” buildings which are greater than 75 feet are considered as high-rise buildings. High-rise buildings can be categorized based on infrastructure and population as office, residential, and health care facility buildings. Building type and its use is essential for the prediction of possible behavior of the people during the fire so that adequate fire safety design can be provided [1]. Evacuation dynamics study requires detailed investigation on infrastructure of the building and also the occupants of the building should be considered, e.g., physical R. Dewan (B) University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 V. P. Singh et al. (eds.), Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 199, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6647-6_25

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capacity of the population under consideration, number of children, familiarity of occupants with the environment, etc. High-rise buildings have several issues during evacuation, rescue, and fire-fighting operations due to its complexity. In order to mitigate these issues additional life safety measures are needed along with the bare minimum requirements by the existing building codes [2]. International guidance such as NFPA101 (US) gives adequate data for the designing of the egress elements for applications in high-rise buildings. But information regarding behavioral issues during the evacuation process is also needed. Recommendations specific to the type, use, and occupancy of the building are necessary. National committees such as Bureau of Indian Standards (Chapter 7: Fire and Life Safety of National Building Code 2005, India) and also many international committees have given dedicated recommendations [3]. Researchers are giving more importance to fires in high-rise buildings than others because by virtue of the size, population, and other characteristics the number of fatalities can be very high for a fire emergency in high-rise building. High-rise building fires were a concern for the safety committees from 1960s itself. Those committees discussed majorly about basics of evacuation strategies, exit stair width, Evacuation time, etc. The need of providing efficient access and egress, need of studying the relationship between infrastructure and human behavior, etc., came into limelight after the World Trade Centre attack in 2001 [4, 5]. Also several other questions regarding the use of egress components, design of buildings according to the emergencies, emergencies to be considered during the design phase, etc., came along. The main difficulty in answering these questions is unpredictable nature of human behavior. Also every aspect of the evacuation process has to be studied for giving specific recommendations [6]. So study is being done on different types of egress components and egress strategies. Special emphasis is given to vertical transport and use of elevators for evacuation procedure [7].

2 Objectives The study involves not only human behavior but also the egress methods used in building, i.e., both horizontal and vertical egress constituents by the use of egress strategies. The main objectives are: • To determine the important aspects that affect the behavior of residents during the occurrence of fire in the high-rise building and scope areas for further research. • To assess the existing procedures and methodologies being adopted in the evacuation procedures in high-rise buildings. The targeted audience of this review will include all the members who are part of the design planning and efficient functioning of the evacuation systems like architects,

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fire, and safety engineers along with safety officers. This review involves the study of human behavior along with evacuation models based on the type of building [3, 6, 8].

3 Methodology The study data was retrieved from various journals and publications and the data analyzed could be divided into two groups [9]: (i) (ii)

Behavior of humans during fire evacuations in high-rise buildings. Egress elements and action plan taken during evacuation.

4 Limitations The review paper mainly mentions the issues regarding evacuation and human behavior during the fire. Study involves mainly the buildings like office, health care, and residential buildings. Majority of the fires that occur are of high-rise buildings even though other structures like ware house, assembly halls, recreational buildings also possess the same type of issues [4].

5 Outline Current problem and objectives are described in the initial part. Key factors in the succeeding part are regarding the various uses of high-rise building are found out, and thirdly it represents the issue regarding the usage of different egress components. The egress components constitute elevators used for evacuation during emergency, sky bridges, and other methods like chopper evacuation. The next part involves the analysis of the methods used in evacuation of high-rise buildings. Evacuation lifts and staircases should be used along with egress systems. The action plan suggested are complete evacuation, staged evacuation, retarded evacuation and defend in place. Partial evacuation can be considered as the subcategory of complete evacuation. The problems regarding the evacuation of disabled people are also explained. Further, the paper provides the areas for future research and the topics for investigation [6, 7].

6 Behavioral Problems Regarding the Building Using The group of building types that have been discussed are Health care buildings, Residential buildings, and Office type buildings. The type of building and its use has

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a major effect on the egress capability during the emergency such as occupancy in the building, training received by the population, the number of staff present and the type and number of firefighting systems installed in the building. It is also important to study about various egress methods to be put into practice. For example, any person with physical disability may take more to evacuate with intermediate breaks in between hence increasing the evacuation time needed [4].

6.1 Office Building Considering the design aspect of office floors, the method of compartmentalization for controlling the fire is limited. The occupants are often trained and made prepared to evacuate through mock drills. The occupants must be liable to themselves. The evacuees sometimes will be more accustomed to use the emergency elevators if they are in place. Those firefighting systems, which are properly maintained, might be some time equipped with fire alarms. Sometimes those staff members who are specially trained in firefighting may facilitate in evacuation [10].

6.2 Residential Building The characteristics associated with these types of buildings are completely different from design aspect and the number of occupants within the building. The occupants may not be always alert, they might be sleeping or not in dressed up state thus delaying the process of evacuation. As per NFPA the pre-evacuation time required in such buildings are usually higher than other types of buildings. Reasons that delay the evacuation may be emotionality to the structure and the components within the building may cause the person to reenter. The information about the emergency may be communicated slowly due to compartmentalization and communication systems available [4]. The occupants within the buildings may be familiar to their home surroundings but not to the hotels in which they will be staying for short terms. The number of occupants in the buildings may be transient that may lead to difficulty in adaption of escape routes during fire. The compartmentalization may provide defend in place method and the safety officers may consider those options also [11].

6.3 Health Care Building These buildings should be given proper importance as it involves people with permanent/temporary disabilities and mobility impairments. Even though there are number of staffs in such facilities considering the number ratios with respect to patients due

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to which they are not able to perform the rescue operations very efficiently. The factors to consider will mainly include the long distance for traveling, fatigue, path findings, and evacuations vertically. These factors demand the need for further need in more effective egressing strategy. Hence, the training of the staff for the emergency procedure becomes very important [12]. To summarize the effect of building design types on behaviors of people: • Office Building: Represent large open floorings where compartmentalization possibility is very less, the people present should be prepared to undergo evacuation. Firefighting should be properly maintained and adequate staff should be available. • Residential Building: Needs longer pre-evacuation durations and sometimes compartmentalization might be present. • Health care Building: People with disabilities are present, training of staff members is important, and compartmentalization of the area might be available.

6.4 Egress Components The evacuation from high-rise buildings during fire emergency can be a complicated process and it depends upon the features of vertical egress components. The designing of egress components must consider the factors such as size and type of the population in the buildings, also their possible behavior. The main issues regarding the use of stairs, elevators, and sky bridges during evacuation are discussed here [13, 14].

6.5 Stairs The primary and traditional method used for the evacuation process is stairs. The general factors such as length and width of stairs, no of stairs, specific features such as the slope, impact of behavior of the people are investigated to provide various methods for stair design. Stairs can be designed considering safe evacuation calculations for the largest occupied floor or as in case of Staged evacuation it can be designed for the simultaneous evacuation of predetermined number of floors. Structural design recommendations for the egress design of stairs are given in the building codes such as International building code (2009). Even though the structural criteria are fulfilled, behavioral-related matters such as behavior in group, behavior of people in panic situation, motivational levels, etc., should also be considered. Gender, type of people, etc., influence the evacuation. Experimental studies were noted, in those cases women and children were given the priority while evacuation, by the male groups [15]. One of the important factors to be considered during the evacuation through staircase is the stream of flow from different floors that might meet each other at some stage. The impact of these merging can affect the total evacuation time, number of

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casualties, etc. To enhance the efficiency of flow during the evacuation, floors must be connected to the base of the facing side of the incoming stair. An extra delay of evacuation process can happen due to fatigue of the people during the process. The people rushing for evacuation may slow down due to the stress and fatigue and they might take rest for some time. This factor depends upon the physical ability of the people. As the physical ability of people is decreasing gradually, this problem can become more evident in the near future [16]. People who are physically challenged have to be considered separately. They might take extra time, as they possess various difficulties in using the stairs. These people may require aids and assistance for safe evacuation. So the time required for the reach of assistance also has to be considered. The disability can vary from person to person so the time required also varies. Suitable design considerations have to be taken initially itself for the safe evacuation of these people. Other factors such as counter flows, lag in initiation of the evacuation process, the firefighters who might intervene the evacuation process need to be considered [10].

6.6 Elevators Researches from 1930 have itself studied the usage of elevators for evacuation process. There were always contradictory opinions about the usage of elevators for evacuation. The old concept of avoiding the usage of elevators for emergency evacuations is now a day discarded because of the need for faster evacuation in tall buildings. The elevators are also extremely helpful to people who are physically challenged as the use of stairs is challenging for them [4]. From the design point of view, there are many problems in using elevators as evacuation media. As the space available in the elevators is limited when several people try to evacuate simultaneously it may create congestion. When the elevator moves suction of smoke is an issue as negative pressure is created. The smoke, flames, etc., entering the elevator is extremely dangerous. The special requirements of the evacuation elevators such as emergency communication system, earthquake protection, water resistivity, and emergency power must be implemented. Special care must be taken while setting the pickup area. Pick up floor should have enough space to accommodate large number of population to reduce the rush [17]. The ASME which has the responsibility of elevator codes studied about the effectiveness in usage of elevators for evacuation. In this study, special emphasis was

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given to human behavior. While designing the egress strategy involving the elevators, behavioral factors should also be considered. Factors such as the promptness of people to use elevators during the high-pressure situation should be taken into account [6, 17].

6.7 Sky Bridges Sky bridges are horizontal evacuation technique. Sky bridges can be used as evacuation strategy if the building consists of at least two towers. The towers can be interconnected aerially for evacuation from the fire area. This system is now used as evacuation strategy in many parts of the world. A good example is Petronas towers in Malaysia [18, 19]. The effectiveness of the sky bridges depends upon several factors such as the type of construction, height of the building, etc. But still it has benefits such as decreasing the rush for vertical evacuation, reduction in travel distance, etc. Evacuation strategy adopted also plays a role in the effectiveness of the sky bridge. The sky bridge must be located such that the people from both top and bottom floors have easy access towards it. The population of each floor also can be considered for deciding the position of Sky Bridge. Studies are going on about using the sky bridge as a combination strategy with other egress components [18].

6.8 Refugee Floor These are floors to hold the occupants of the building during the emergency. It has several uses such as. • • • • •

Evacuees can take rest at the refugee floor to avoid fatigue It can serve as command point for rescue team and a firefighting base. It can be used as pick-up floors. Physically challenged people can get adequate assistance. Injured people can be given with first aid facilities.

Overcrowding, fear of people to stay in the affected structure for longer time, Behavioral issues of evacuees, under-utilization, cost effectiveness, etc., are the factors that can lead to the failure of refugee floor concept [20, 21]. Alternative means of escape such as use of helicopters for evacuation can be considered. International regulations such as Indian Fire and Life Safety Code (BIS 2005) give the mandatory requirement of helipads in high-rise buildings. Air turbulence, thermal updrafts, etc., make this type of evacuation too dangerous. Other alternative means are the use of parachutes, ropes, transferrable temporary elevators, etc. [20].

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6.9 Egress Methods Firstly, the proper design of the egress structures should be done so as to attain adequate safety level in high-rise buildings. Relocation methodologies have a major role in the designing of safety systems. Efficiency of evacuation depends on moderate density and speed. While an emergency has occurred in high-rise building mostly the evacuation happens downward but there will be situations in which it won’t be possible due to unfavorable situations in lower floors, in such cases evacuation from the top or roof floors would be required [22]. But there are many difficulties in such rescue operations of the occupants which might require choppers and other extra occupants help to move up the ladders. This method of helicopter evacuations is very rarely put into practice because of the air turbulence that gets developed which affects the smoke generation within the building. Secondly, the people who could be evacuated by a single process is very less compared to the total people present on the roof and lastly issues regarding the mobility of people like fatigue and disability [23]. Egress strategies used in such buildings can be groups mainly into complete evacuation, staged evacuation, defend in place, and retarded evacuation. These strategies mainly depend upon the number of people living, staff/members present, expected scenario, and hazards that occurred.

6.9.1

Complete Evacuation:

In this method, all occupants present in the building are immediately evacuated to the assembly area of safety. As per the case study of WTC attack where the complete evacuation had occurred. The huge number of residents present in high-rise building can cause large density at the path of escape. It will be mainly depended on the type of building. Complete vacation may be initiated either by fire service dept. or due to spontaneous behavior of the people. Various case studies and data have been analyzed in order to understand the human behavior during fire [23]. The spontaneous behavior often leads to the avoiding of defending in place strategy due to the frustration developed in high-rise buildings due to lengthy walking distance to assembly area. Next problem airing in high-rise buildings is that sometimes the population living may not be directly exposed to the hazard. This may be because of compartmentalization vertically and structural size. Increase in time during evacuation may be due to the merging of the escaping people’s pathways. As a result, faster evacuation will happen when the time needed for evacuation is reduced and the merging of pathways doesn’t happen [10].

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Staged Evacuation

These methods are used when the single-stage complete evacuation cannot be done practically. In the method of staged complete evacuation, people will be instructed to stay within the building for specified time to make the evacuation optimized. This strategy is considering the concept that the people in the important critical floor levels and nearby areas will be given more priority. This method is used to decrease the congestion that will happen in the egress systems during evacuation. The compartmentalization of buildings do play an important role in controlling the fire emergency situation [24]. The people within the compartment of fire need to undergo evacuation while the remaining people need to undergo evacuation only if necessary. The efficiency of these strategies will depend upon the firefighting systems installed within the building, training level of the staff members, and the communications means available within the building. While an emergency of fire has occurred on a floor people living within the floors above and below including the one under fire should be relocated. And also they should empty that floor and move to three or four floors below and wait for further instructions [25].

6.9.3

Defend in Place

In this method, the occupants residing in the building are supposed to stay inside, shut the door, and wait for rescue members to arrive. This strategy has been initially adopted for the rescue of physically disabled people due to their mobility issues. According to studies, this method is the best approach during fire emergencies in high-rise buildings. The characteristics and conditions of building design and people that affect the effectiveness include: • Building floor levels, if it is above 6 floors then time needed for low-rise buildings is less. • Residential buildings should have firefighting systems available. • The buildings that are made of non-combustible substances. • All the alarms and monitoring systems are in places. • Effectiveness of communication systems. 6.9.4

Delayed Evacuation

This kind of evacuation occurs when the people who are ready to evacuate are temporarily awaiting the refuge area. It’s mainly adopted to evacuate people with physical and permanent disabilities since they need an aid of external person to reach the safe area. Another consideration to be taken is that these people cannot use the stairs properly so further need will be required where there is escape through the stair or egress systems [26].

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R. Dewan

Hence considering these aspects this strategy can be mainly used in high-rise buildings with majority of such people like health care buildings. Space constraint also comes as an important factor for evacuation. In order for the evacuation to be mostly successful, there should be intermediate refugee floors for providing safe areas for people with disability where the temporary refuge areas provide a sense of comfort. Hence, temporary refuge areas are necessary for specific building which involve people with physical disabilities [26].

7 Conclusion This paper is a literature review on high-rise fire evacuation techniques, egress components that can be used at the time of emergency and the human behavior with its impacts on fire evacuation. Three types of high-rise buildings were considered—Office, residential, and health care facility buildings. Human behavior has a major role to play in the effectiveness of egress strategies and proper usage of egress components. Further studies in the field of fire evacuation should include the effect of fatigue of people, dynamic behavior of groups, faster evacuation techniques, improving the use of refugee area, etc., in fire evacuation.

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