Studies in Sardinian Archaeology III: Nuragic Sardinia and the Mycenaean World 9780860545002, 9781407346649

Citation preview

Studies in Sardinian Archaeology

III

Nuragic Sardinia and the Mycenaean World

edited by

Miriam S. Balmuth

BAR International Series ,3 87 1987

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Ha nds, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S387, 1987: 'Studies in Sardinian Archaeology III' © The Individual Authors, 1987 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860545002 paperback ISBN 9781407346649 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545002 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

NURAGIC SARDINIA AND T HE MYCENAEAN WORLD S tudies i n S ardinian Archaeology V olume T hree

P reface a nd A cknowledgments I N M EMORIAM F ERRUCCIO B ARRECA Raimondo Zucca

v ii

I llustrations

i x

T ables

x iii

A bbreviations

x v

L ist o f C ontributors

x ix

P ART O NE: 1 .

D EFINITIONS A ND C RITERIA A ND E XAMPLES O F C ONTACT I ntroduction M iriam S .

2 .

M inoici,

1

B almuth M icenei e C iprioti i n S ardegna n ella

s econda m et. d el

I I m illennio a .

Maria L uisa F errarese C eruti,

C .

7

L ucia V agnetti,

F ulvia L o S chiavo P ART T WO:

3 .

N URAGIC A ND M YCENAEAN A RCHITECTURE T he M echanics o f P rehistoric C orbelled B uildings W .

G .

C avanagh and R .

R .

3 9

Laxton

4 .

T he T rue D omes i n M ycenaean a nd N uragic A rchitecture B arbro S antillo Frizzell

5 .

L a f ortezza d i S u M ulinu-Villanovafranca ( CA). U n n uovo c ontributo p er l o s tudio d ella t holos i n S ardegna

5 7

7 7

G iovanni U gas 6 .

C ostruzioni c ircolari d i C reta Paolo B elli

i ii

1 29

P ART T HREE:

7 .

M ETALS:

P roducts,

T echnology,

O xhide I ngots f rom S ardinia, t he B ronze A ge C opper T rade:

A nalysis

C rete a nd C yprus a nd N ew S cientific E vidence

1 35

Noel and Z ofia-Stos G ale 8 .

I ngots a nd A rtifacts Fulvia L o S chiavo,

f rom N uragic C ontexts i n S ardinia

T amara S tech,

R obert Naddin,

1 79

and

J ames Nuhly

9 .

S fruttamento m inerario e m etallurgia n ella S ardegna p rotostorica

1 89

C laudio G iardino 1 0.

C ommentary o n M etallurgy S ession R . F . Tylecote

P ART F OUR: 1.

T RADE A ND P ROSPECTING:

B ronzi v icino-orientali e d i nflussi

2 23

M ycenaeans o r P hoenicians?

i n S ardegna:importazioni 2 25

Anna Maria B isi 1 2.

E arly P hoenician P resence i n t he W estern M editerranean Ora N egbi

2 47

1 3.

C ommentary: S ome R emarks o n A .M. F rancesca R . S erra R idgway

2 51

P ART F IVE: 1 4.

C ERAMICS:

S tyle,

B isi's P aper

A nalysis

A egean-type P ottery o n S ardinia:

I dentification o f

I mports a nd L ocal I mitations b y C hemical A nalysis R . E . J ones and P eter Day

i v

2 57

P REFACE a nd A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS T he s peed w ith w hich a rchaeology i s b ringing S ardinia i nto t he o ro f t he a ncient M editerranean w orld r equires f requent a nd a ccessible

b it

p ublication.

I t

c olloquia a t o f S ardinian

T ufts U niversity i n M edford, M assachusetts o n t he s ubject a rchaeology i n 1 979, a nd b egan t o p ublish t he p roceedings

i n

1 984.

T his

i n r oughly

i s

t hird

i n

t he

b y t he U niversity 1 986.

T he

f or

n ature

t his

v olume

s ame

r eason

o f

f ormat

S tudies o f

t he

o f M ichigan P ress o f

t he

t hat

c ontents

t he

i n

e ditor

S ardinian

f irst

t o

p resent

A rchaeology

t wo v olumes

i n A nn A rbor,

d emands

b egan

a ppears

t hat w ere i ssued

M ichigan,

a f aster a nd

i n 1 984 a nd

l ess

f ormal

t ype

o f b ook t han t he t raditional o logical R eports w as n ot m ade

o ne, h en r Pt he c hange t o B ritish A rchaeo ut o f a ny d issatisfaction, b ut r ather t o

e xpedite t he S ardinia.

n ewest

T he

r esults

o f

t he

s tated m ission o f t his

r esearches

i n

t he

a rchaeology

o f

s eries w as t o b ring t he d ynamic a rchae-

o logy o f S ardinia t o r eaders o f E nglish, a m ission t hat i s n ot w holly f ulfilled i n t his b ilingual v olume s ince t he p roceedings o f t he c olloq uium " Nuragic S ardinia a nd t he M ycenaean W orld"/"Sardegna n uragica e i i m ondo m iceneo", a nd

2 4,

1 986,

h eld a t t he A merican A cademy i n R ome o n S eptember 2 2,

m irror

t he

a ctual

c olloquium

w ere r ead e ither i n E nglish o r i n I talian. p apers o n c olloquium

t he w as

i tself,

w hich

t he

S cholars w ere i nvited

b asis o f t heir o ngoing r esearch o pen t o a ll i nterested, h owever,

i nformative d iscussion.

i n

a nd a nd

2 3

p apers t o g ive

p ublication. T he p roduced l ively,

T he d iscussion w as l ikewise b ilingual.

S ince

t he

f inal p apers w ere n ot d ue u ntil a fter s ome m onths, m ost o f t he d icussion w as i ncorporated i nto t he t exts o r r eflected i n t he I ntroduction. I n t he c ase

o f

t hose

p apers

d elivered

i n

I talian,

t he

e ditor

h as

p laced

s ummary i n E nglish, s ometimes t he w ork o f t he c ontributor(s) a nd t imes t he w ork o r t ranslation o f t he e ditor. T here i s a n I talian s unto a fter m ost o f t he E nglish c ontributions. a nd t ables a re A t

t he

A ll f igures,

m aps,

a

o ther r iasc harts

t hose s ubmitted b y t he a uthors.

c olloquium,

J ames

M elchert

a nd

Russell

T .

S cott

o f

t he

American A cademy i n R ome a nd G raeme B arker o f t he B ritish S chool a t R ome w elcomed t he a udience a ssembled t o a rgue t he p roblems, a nd t he h elp o f t hese

b ilingual

d iscussion: S .

R .

f rom

p articipants

C laudio G iardino,

R idgway,

e xpedited

t he

u nderstanding

A lessandra N ibbi,

o f

D avid R idgway,

p apers

a nd

F rancesca

a nd L ucia V agnetti.

S upport f or t he c olloquium w as m ost g enerously p rovided b y a g rant t he I nstitute f or A egean P rehistory a nd b y T ufts U niversity. T he

A merican A cademy i n R ome g raciously l ent i ts a ctual

p roceedings,

r eception.

L ikewise,

a nd

e ntertained

t he

B ritish

t he

S chool

r esources a nd s pace

w hole a t

c ompany

R ome

f or t he

l avishly

r eceived

a t

a

t he

p arti-

R obert

T ykot,

c ipants w ith g enerosity a nd w armth. T he B eth

p reparation

C ohen,

A nn

o f

t he

C lifford,

p ublication

O wen

D oonan,

w as

a ssisted

S ilvia

b y

F assi,

D avid

H ung,

a nd

A nargyros J ames S parages. Professor F erruccio b ecause h e w as a iling a t I t

w as

d edicate

c onsidered

B arreca w as u nable t o b e a t t he c olloquium t he t ime. S omewhat t hereafter h e p assed a way.

a ppropriate

b y

t he

c ontributors,

t herefore,

t hese p roceedings t o h is m emory. M iriam S .

B almuth

t o

F ERRUCCIO B ARRECA:

I N M EMORIAM

R aimondo Z ucca

P rofessor F erruccio B arreca d ied o n D ecember 2 9, o f

h is

o ngoing

a ctivity.

E ven

w hile

h is

h ealth

1 986, w as

i n t he m idst

d eteriorating,

P rofessor B arreca, i n a n e xercise o f g reat w ill-power, h eld h is l ectures f or t he u niversity c ourse i n P hoeni : 2ian-Punic A rchaeology i n t he h ospital. B orn i n R ome i n 1 923, h e g raduated S apienza" a nd s tarted, w hile s till v ery o logist t hen i n

f or v arious s oprintendenze: 1 957, S ardinia. T his l ast

t here f rom t he U niversity " La y oung, t o w ork a s a n a rchae-

A bruzzo, t he M arche, S icily, a nd b ecame h is n ew f atherland, a nd h e

n ever l eft i t. I t was i n 1 958, d uring h is B arreca m ade t he t ransition f rom t he

h itherto

a lmost-forgotten

f irst t rip t o T harros, t hat P rofessor C lassical A rchaeology t o t he s tudy o f

P hoenician-Punic

t his c ivilization t hat h e d evoted

c ivilization.

I t

w as

t o

t he r est o f h is l ife.

H is e xcavations a re c lassic: a P hoenician-Punic f ortress a nd t own a t M onte S irai; t he P unic a nd R oman t emple o f S id A ddir-Sardus P ater a t A ntas;

t he

t ophet

a t

S ulcis;

a nd

t he

t emple

a t

C apo

S an M arco

a nd

t he

n orthern f ortification a t T harros. H e was a lso a t opographer o f r are a bility. T he d iscovery o f t he C arthaginian f ortification s ystems i n S ardinia, T unisia a nd A lgeria r epresent t he p eak o f h is i ndefatigable a ctivity i n e xploring P unic c ivilization o n t wo c ontinents. W hile C agliari

h e

a nd

w as

s imultaneously

O ristano

p rovinces

S oprintendente

a nd

P rofessor

o f

A rcheologico P hoenician

o f

a nd

t he

P unic

A rchaeology a t t he U niversity o f C agliari, P rofessor B arreca n everthel ess w rote b ooks a nd a rticles o f e xtraordinary c larity o n h is P hoenic ians a nd a nd

C arthaginians.

e specially,

t he

I n t hese,

r eligion,

h e i nterpreted

w hich

n t .

c onsidered

t he h istory, s urprisingly

e conomy s imilar

t o h is C hristian f aith. The t itles C artagine o f h is

o f h is b ooks c ome t o e arlier d ays, t o t he

p unica,

C iviltä

a ble

u p

t o

t he

f enicia

m ind, f rom t he L a c iviltä d i a uspicious S ardinia f enicia e

e p unica

i n S ardegna,

t he b ook h e w as

t o c ontemplate a f ew d ays b efore h is d eath. My

l ong

f amiliarity

w ith

P rofessor

B arreca,

f irst

a s

s tudent

a nd

t hen a s a c ollaborator i n t he S oprintendenza A rcheologica a ssure m e t hat t he t ireless a nd a mbitious w ork o f t he P rofessor w ill c onstitute a b rilliant m ilestone o f a rchaeology.

v ii

F ERRUCCIO B ARRECA:

I N M EMORIAM

R aimondo Z ucca

I l

2 9

b reccia:

d icembre

1 986

n onostante

i l

P rofessor

l ' aggravarsi

F erruccio

d elle

s ue

B arreca

e c aduto

c ondizioni

d i

s ulla

s alute

i l

P rofessor B arreca c on s traordinaria f orza d 'animo c ontinuava l e l ezioni d el C orso U niversitario d i A rcheologia f enicio-punica n ell'Aula m agna d ell 'Ospedale d i C agliari. Era nato i n S apienza" a veva, p resso l e n el 1 957 ,

R oma n el 1 923; l aureatosi p resso l ' Universitä " La g iovanissimo, i ntrapreso l a c arriera d i A rcheologo

S oprintendenze. i n S ardegna. L a

F u i n A bruzzo, n eu e M arche, i n S icilia e , S ardegna f u l a s ua n uova p atria d alla q uale

n on d oveva p iü s taccarsi. I l P rofessor B arreca v eniva S ardegna, n el c orso d ella s ua p rima

d all'Archeologia C lassics m a i n e scursione a T harros, a gli a lbori

d el 1 958, s enti i l r ichiamo p rofondo d i u na c iviltä f ine a d a llora s ostanzialmente d imenticata: l a c iviltä f enicio-punica, c ui d edicö t utta l a v ita. F ondamentali f enicio-punica

s ono

e d

a bitato

i

s uoi

s cavi

c ivile),

d i

d i

A ntas

M onte ( tempi°

S irai p unico

S id A ddir-Sardus P ater), d i S ulci ( il t ofet), d i T harros C apo S . M arco e l a c inta f ortificata s ettentrionale). B arreca

e ra

u n

t opografo

d i

r ara

c apacitä:

f ortificati C artaginesi i n S ardegna, i nfatti i i f rutto m igliore d ella s ua

l a

( fortezza e r omano

d i

( il t empi° d el I l P rofessor

s coperta

d ei

s istemi

T unisia e d A lgeria c ostituiscono i ndefessa a ttivitä d i e sploratore

d ella c iviltä d i C artagine i n d ue c ontinenti. N onostante l e

p rovincie

f osse d i

c ontemporaneamente

C agliari

e

S oprintendente

O ristano

e

D ocente

A rcheologo d i

p er

A rcheologia

F enicio-Punica p resso l 'Universitä d i C agliari, i l P rofessor B arreca s crisse o pere e a rticoli d i s traordinaria l uciditä s ui s uoi F enici e C artaginesi, s oprattutto, C ristiano.

i nterpretandone l a

f ede

c he

d a

M aestro

v edeva

l a

s toria,

s orprendentemente

l ' economia

a ffine

a lla

s ua

e , d i

S corrono a lla n ostra m ente i t itoli d ei s uoi v olumi: d al g iovanile L a C iviltä d i C artagine, a lla f ortunata S ardegna f enicia e p unica, f ino a lla C iviltä f enicia e p unica i n S ardegna, p ochi

g iorni

p rima d i

c hiudere g li

o cchi

i l l ibro c he p ate c ontemplare a lla l uce

d el m ondo.

L a l unga

f amiliaritä c on i l P rofessor B arreca, d apprima c ome d iscepolo, s uccessivamente c ome c ollaboratore n ella S oprintendenza A rcheologica, m i r endono c erto c he l 'infaticabile e g randioso l avoro c ostituirä u na l uminosa p ietra m iliare d ell 'archeologia.

v iii

d el

P rofessore

L IST O F I LLUSTRATIONS

F igura 2 .1

1 -3.

M itza P ürdia.

C eramica c on d ecorazione m etopale

9

4 -7,9. S an C osimo. C eramica c on d ecorazione m etopale 8 . S an C osimo. C iotolina i n c eramica g rigio-ardesia F igura 2 .2 N uraghe D omu s 'Orku d i S arroch. C eramica g rigio-ardesia F igura 2 .2a N uraghe A ntigori d i S arroch. C eramics g rigio-ardesia

1 1

F igura 2 .3

1 5

1 -2. 3 .

M itza P ürdia. F rammento d i t estina d i g uerriero i n a vorio ( 1:1) e d 1 . potesi r icostruttiva A ntigori, v ano f . F lemerto d ecorativo c on s uperficie i nvetriata

F igura 2 .4

4 . 1 . 2 .

3 .

ano n . P erla i n q uarzo A ntigori, v 1 6 iede d i k ylix c retese ano a . P A ntigori, v A ntigori, v ano n . F rammento d i t azza m onoansata R icostruzione d i g iara a s taffa A ntigori, v ano a . d a t rasporto

4 .

A ntigori, v ano n F rammento d i p ithos c on d ecorazione a s pina d i p esce

5 .

A ntigori,

6 .

s uperficie m onocroma l ucidata A ntigori, v ano a . M otivo d ecorativo s u c eramics d ipinta l ocale:-

v ano a .

C iotolina a r uota l enta c on

F igura 2 .5

7 -8. M otivi d ecorativi s u c eramiche c retesi A ntigori, v ano p . F rammenti d i p ithos i mportato d a C ipro c on i potesi r icostruttiva

F igura 2 .6

1 -7.

.1 F igure 3 F igure 3 .2

.3 F igure 3

F igure 3 .4

A ntigori, v ano a . S celta d i c eramiche d ipinte l ocali 8 . B arumini, v ano 1 7. F rammento d i c eramics d ipinta l ocale S ketches i llustrating t he s tyles o f d ry-stone m asonry A C orbelled D ome w ith C ourses a nd B ackfill P lot o f t he L ogarithm o f t he R adium a gainst t he L ogarithm o f t he D epth b elow t he A pex - S traight L ine p lots f or t he t holos a t K arditsa a nd t he N uraghe S anta S abina a t S ilanus P lot o f t he L ogarithm o f t he R adium a gainst t he L ogarithm o f t he D epth b elow t he A pex - B roken L ine

1 8

4 3 4 6 4 9

4 9

p lots f or t he t holos a t m arathon a nd t he c entral c hamber a t N uraghe L osa F igure 4 .1 F igure 4 .2

S chematic d rawing o f a n a rch w ith a c oncentrated l oad a t t he t op A s tring f ixed a t b oth e nds a nd l oaded w ith w eights g ives t he p icture o f a n a rch t urned u pside d own

6 1 6 1

F igure 4 .3 F igure 4 .4

S chematic d rawing o f a n i deal c upola A v at t urned u pside d own h elps u s t o u nderstand t he s tructural m echanics o f t l,e c upola i n a n i ntuitive w ay

6 1 6 1

F igure 4 .5 .6 F igure 4 F igure 4 .7 .8 F igure 4 F igure 4 .9 F igure 4 .10

ods E lementary s patial s tructure d etermined b y t hree r " Il t rullaro" M aestro M ichele L isi

6 2 6 5 6 7

A t rullo c upola T he d ome o f N uraghe I s P aras a t I sili T he " tomb o f t he G enii" a t M ycenae T he t holos t omb a t T iryns i x

6 7 6 8 6 8

F igure 4 .11

R econstruction o f a h ut f rom O lduvai

F igure 4 .12

R econstruction o f a p aleolithic s helter b uilt m ammoth b one A n i gloo

F igure 4 .13

6 9 o f

F igure 4 .14 F igura 5 .1

A p otter 's k iln V illanovafranca, S u M ulinu. d ello s cavo ( veduta d a N ord)

F igura 5 .2

V illanovafranca, S u M ulinu. P lanimetria g enerale d ella f ortezza e d ell'insediamento d opo l e p rime

F igura 5 .3

V illanovafranca, S u M ulinu. e d ella c inta e sterna

F igura 5 .4

V illanovafranca,

L a f ortezza p rima

6 9 7 0 7 1 1 01 1 02

d ue c ampagne d i s cavo

S u M ulinu.

P lanimetria d el b astione B astione,

P lanimetria e s ezione c on l ivelli F igura 5 .5

V illanovafranca,

S u M ulinu.

v ano B s.

1 02 1 03

s tratigrafici

V ano B s.

C eramica d el

1 04

F igura 5 .6

V illanovafranca, S u M ulinu. V ano B s. R eperti d el B ronzo M edio: c eramics ( 1-4); i ndustria l itica

1 05

F igura 5 .7

V illanovafranca,

F igura 5 .8

V illanovafranca,

B ronzo M edio

( 5-16,

1 8-19);

p ugnale i n b ronzo ( 17) S u M ulinu.

B astione.

P iano

1 06

i nferiore e c inta e sterna d ella 1° f ase S u M ulinu.

1 ;

b autione v ano V a

1 07

d el p iano i nferiore ( planimetria e s ezione); 2 : c orridoio C i5 d ella c inta e sterna d ella 1° f ase e s ottostante v ano F 1 F igura 5 .9

V illanovafranca,

d ella c ortina C l

S u M ulinu.

c opertura a v olts g radonata;

1 :

b astione,

2 :

v ano V a,

1 08

c inta e sterna 1° f ase,

c opertura a v olta d el c orridoio C i5 F igura 5 .10

V illanovafranca, S u M ulinu. C ortina C l e C 2, T orre F 1 : t aglio p lanimetrico c on i v ani F 2 e F 4; 2 : t agli-J p lanimetrico c on l e c amere i nferiori F 1

3 : s ezione d ei v ani F 1, F 2, F 3, F 4,

1 09

e d F 3;

r accordati

d all'andito a lla T orre F e s ovrapposti a l c orridoio C i5 e a l v ano V b F igura 5 .11

V illanovafranca, S u M ulinu. T orre F : i n c orso d i s cavo. V eduta p arziale d elle f eritoie e d ell'

F igura 5 .12

V illanovafranca,

10

i ngresso 1 : F igura 5 .13

m estolo;

2 :

S u M ulinu.

R eperti d ella t orre F

c onca u mbelicata.

V illanovafranca,

S u M ulinu.

1 .

F ine s ec. V ano F 2:

10

V IIf-

p lanimetria

11

e s ezione c on l ivelli s tratigrafici; 2 . V ano F 1: p lanimetria e s ezione c on l ivelli s tratigrafici F igura 5 .14

V illanovafranca,

S u M ulinu.

V ano F 1.

V olta

12

F igura 5 .15

V illanovafranca, S u M ulinu. l ivello 4 ( Bronzo R ecente)

V ano F 1

C eramica d el

13

F igura 5 .16

V illanovafranca,

S u M ulinu.

V ano F 1

C eramica d el

14

F igura 5 .17

l ivello 4 ( Bronzo R ecente) V illanovafranca, S u M ulinu.

V ano F 1

C eramica d el

15

l ivello 4 ( Bronzo R ecente) F igura 5 .18

V illanovafranca, S u M ulinu. V ano F 1 C eramics e i ndustria l itica d el l ivello 4 ( Bronzo R ecente)

F igura 5 .19

V illanovafranca,

C opertura a

16

F igura 5 .20

p iattabanda g radonata e f ocolare i n c orso d i s cavo V illanovafranca, S u M ulinu. V ano F 3 F ocolare ( strato 50 ) , i n c orso d i s cavo

17

S u M ulinu.

V ano F 3.

15

F igura 5 .21

V illanovafranca,

F igura 5 .22

d el B ronzo F inale V illanovafranca, S u M ulinu.

c onvolti.

S u M ulinu.

S trati 4 e 5

V ano F 3.

18

C eramica d ella P rima E t äd el F erro e S trati 4 e 5

V ano F 3.

19

s convolti. C eramica d ella P rima E t äd el F erro e d el B ronzo F inale F igura 5 .23

V illanovafranca, s trato 5

S u M ulinu.

V ano F 3.

F ocolare

1 20

C eramics d ella P rima E t äd el F erro e

d el B ronzo F inale F igura 5 .24

V illanovafranca,

S u M ulinu.

V ano F 3.

F ocolare

s trato 5 R eperti d ella P rima E tä d el F erro, B ronzo R ecente e d el B ronzo F inale F igura 5 .25

F igura 5 .26

V illanovafranca,

S u M ulinu.

( Bronzo R ecente) ( Bronzo M edia)

e r eperti

S an S perate 1 .

3 . F igura 5 .27

1 .

( Cagliari),

R eperti

1 21

d el

1 -17 s trato 8

1 22

1 8-36 s trati 9 -10

S u F raigu.

T omba n uragica:

V eduta d ella s cavo; 2 . C ollana i n p asta; S igillo c ilindrico c an s cena f igurata ( calco) S anluri ( Cagliari) - C orti B eccia. N uraghe.

1 23

1 24

C opps d 'imitazione m icenea; 2 . V illanovafranca-Su M ulinu, v ano F 3: c iotola d ipinta r osso-bruno s u r osso c orallo T3.

V illanovafranca-Su M ulinu,

v ano F 3:

t azza c on a nsa s opraelevata i n c eramics g rigia; 4 . F urtei ( Cagliari) - S antu B rai, v ano q uadrangolare: p esi i n s teatite. F igura 5 .28

P orte e f inestre d i s carico: 1 . T orralba-Santu A ntine T orre c entrale ( vedute d all'esterno e d all 'interno); 2 .

F igura 5 .29

A rzachena-Malchittu.

d i A treo". P orte " a t rilite":

1 -2.

T empietto;

1 24

3 . M icene " tesoro

Q uartucciu-Is C oncias " tomba

1 25

3 . B auladu-Muraguada " tomba d i g iganti": v eduta d ell'ingresso d all'interno; 4 . M icene. C inta muraria. P orta d ei L eoni; 5 . M icene-Fonte P erseia; d i g iganti";

6 .

B ogazköy.

C inta muraria.

P orta d el R e.

F igura 5 .30

C orridoi: 1 . T orralba-Santu A ntine. B astione t rilobato. G alleria i nferiore; 2 . T irinto. C asematte

F igura 5 .31

B arumini

1 26

3 . B ogazköy. C inta muraria ( Postierla) ( Cagliari),

S u N uraxi.

i sodomi d ella c ortina f ra l e p reesistenti a l r ifascio.

Q uadrilobato C onci

t orn i E e D n ei

1 27

t errazzi

F igure 7 .1

P artially o verlapping l ead i sotope f ields f or o res f rom C yprus, K ythnos a nd L aurion, d isplayed i n t he

1 38

F igure 7 .2

S tepwise d isciminant a nalysis o f a ll t hree l ead i sotope r atios f or o res f rom C yprus, K ythnos a nd L aurion

1 38

F igure 7 .3

G eological s ketch m ap o f t he T roodos M ountain r egion i n C yprus

1 39

F igure 7 .4

L ead i sotope c ompositions f or o res a nd c opper s lags f rom C yprus.

1 41

F igure 7 .5

L ead

1 41

F igure 7 .6

L ead i sotope c ompositions f or o xhide i ngot f ragments

f irst t wo-dimensional l ead i sotope d iagram

i sotope c ompositions f or L ate C ypriot B ronzes

f ound a t M athiati a nd S kouriotissa i n C yprus

x i

1 42

F igure 7 .7

G old a nd s ilver c oncentrations f or C ypriot o xhide

1 42

i ngot f ragments c ompared w ith t hose f or L ate B ronze A ge c opper a lloy a rtefacts f rom A yios D himitrios a nd H ala S ultan T ekke F igure 7 .8

L ead i sotope c ompositions f or o xhide i ngots e xcavated 1 44 f rom H agia T riadha, C rete, c ompared w ith t he C ypriot f ield a nd w ith c opper o res

F igure

7 .9

f rom E rgani M aden,

G old a nd s ilver c oncentrations f or o xhide H agia T riadha c ompared w ith t he

' field'

T urkey

i ngots f rom 1 44

f or L ate

C ypriot c opper a nd b ronze o bjects a nd w ith C ypriot F igure 7 .10

o xhide i ngot f ragments S ketch m ap o f S ardinia s howing t he d istribution o f f ind s pots o f c opper o xhide i ngots,

F igure 7 .11

1 45

M ycenaean p ottery

a nd o f t he N uraghi A lbucciu C omparative l ead i sotope c ompositions

f or e ight

1 51

N uragic l ead o bjects a nd f or 2 7 S ardinian l ead o re F igure 7 .12

d eposits L ocations o f s ome S ardinian o re d eposits

1 51

F igure 7 .13

C omparative l ead i sotope a nalysis o f t he e ight

1 52

N uragic l ead o bjects a nd 1 9 f urther l ead o re d eposits i n t he I glesiente/Sulcis d istrict F igure 7 .14

G eological m ap o f t he

F igure 7 .15

C omparative l ead i sotope a nalyses o f t en N uragic b ronzes f rom S . M aria i n P aulis, 5 S ardinian c opper d eposits,

a nd

I glesiente-N.

S ulcis a rea

1 53 1 55

t welve S ardinian c opper o xhide i ngots

F igure 7 .16

L ead i sotope a nalyses f or t welve S ardinian c opper 1 57 o xhide i ngots c ompared w ith a nalyses o f e ight N uragic

F igure 7 .17

T he l ocation o f S ardinian c opper d eposits d ating f rom C retaceous o r y ounger t imes

1 57

F igure 7 .18

L ead i sotope a nalyses o f s ome y ounger S ardinian

1 58

l ead o bjects

c opper o re d eposits c ompared w ith i sotope a nalyses o f t he l ead i n t welve S ardinian c opper o xhide i ngots F igure 7 .19

L ead i sotope a nalyses o f t welve S ardinian o xhide

1 58

i ngots c ompared w ith t he f ield o f l ead i sotope a nalyses f or C ypriot c opper o res F igure 7 .20

G old a nd s ilver c ontents o f t wenty-two

S ardinian

c opper o xhide i ngots c ompared w ith t he S .

M aria i n

P aulis b ronzes a nd w ith t he f ield

o f L ate

t ypical

1 59

C ypriot o xhide i ngots a nd o ther L ate C ypriot c opper F igure 7 .21

a lloy a rtefacts L ead i sotope d ata f or t he c omplete o xhide i ngots

1 59

f rom S erra I lixi F igure 7 .22

N ew l ead i sotope d ata f or t en f urther S ardinian o xhide i ngots, c ompared w ith e arlier d ata f or

F igure 7 .23

N ew l ead i sotope d ata f or t hree b un i ngots f rom B accu S imeone, V illanovaforru a nd e arlier d ata f or

1 60

t welve S ardinian o xhide i ngots 1 60

a s lag f rom N uraghe N ieddiu F igura 9 .1

1 . P rincipali a ree d i i nteresse e strattivo p er m inerali d i p iombo, r ame, f erro; 2 . G rafico

1 90

p ercentuale d elle p resenze m inerarie i n S ardegna; F igura 9 .2

3 . Area mineraria d ell'Iglesiente N uraghi e l ocalitä d i i nteresse m inerario n ella N urra

x ii

1 94

F igura 9 .3

S trutture n uragiche e z one d i i nteresse m inerario n ell'

I glesiente:

1 96

l ' area s cura i ndica l e a ree d i

m ineralizzazione F igura 9 .4

1 -2.

F igura 9 .5

( da M asua) 1 -3. M acinello,

D oppie a sce

D entis); F igura 9 .6

1 .

4 .

( British M useum); p estello,

3-4 .

t esta d i m azza

L ucernette

1 98

( da P lanu

1 98

T esta d i m azza ( provenienza i gnota)

V eduta d i M onte C asula e d ella z ona m ineraria d i

M onteponi d all'altura d el B uon C amino 2 -3.

D oppie a sce

2 00

( Iglesias);

( British M useum)

F igura 9 .7

M ateriale d 'impasto e l itico d al Museo d ell'Istituto T ecnico I ndustriale M inerario d i I glesias

2 01

F igura 9 .8

D iagrammi a b locchi

2 18

d i s tagno: 4 ) F igura 9 .9

a rmi,

5 )

1 )

r elativi a l c ontenuto p ercentuale

g enerale,

u tensili,

6 )

1 4.1

o rnamenti,

3 )

b ronzetti,

l ingotti

D iagrammi a b locchi r elativi a l c ontenuto p ercentuale d i p iombo: 1 ) g enerale, 4 ) a rmi, 5 )utensili, 6 )

F igure

2 )

2 ) o rnamenti, l ingotti

3 )

D endrogram r esulting f rom W ard 's m ethod C luster a nalysis a pplied

t o

2 19

b ronzetti,

2 66

t he c ompositions o f 8 0 s amples

f rom S ardinia

L IST O F T ABLES

T able 7 .1

T race E lement C ontents o f O xhide

T able 7 .2

T race E lement C ontents o f O xhide C opper I ngots f rom H agia T riadha,

T able 7 .3

I ngots F ound i n C yprus

1 65 1 66

C rete

T race E lement C ontents o f C opper O xhide I ngots f ound

1 66

i n S ardinia T able 7 .4

C hemical a nd L ead I sotope C ompositions o f N uragic L ead M etal O bjects

1 67

T able 7 .5

L ead

1 67

T able 7 .6

a nd T in O res L ead I sotope A nalyses o f B ronzes f rom S .

I sotope C ompositions o f S ardinian l ead,

C opper

M aria i n

1 69

P aulis T able 7 .7

f S ome S ardinian C opper L ead I sotope C ompositions o O xhide I ngots

1 70

T able 7 .8

L ead

1 71

.9 T able 7

C opper O res M ean C oncentrations o f S ome T race E lements

I sotope C ompositions o f Y ounger S ardinian

1 71

.10 L ead T able 7

I sotope C ompositions o f C orroded O bjects

1 72

.11 T able 7 T able 1 4.1

I sotope C ompositions o f T hree S ardinian B un I ngots

1 72 2 67

L ead

A rchaeological D escription o f M aterial A nalysed

T able

1 4.2 C luster A nalysis a nd R elocation G roups

2 68

T able

1 4.3

2 69

C hemical C omposition D ata

A BBREVIATIONS

A A

A rchäologischer A nzeiger

A AA

A thens A nnals o f A rchaeology

A IIN

A nnali.

A JA

A merican J ournal o f A rchaeology

A rchC1

A rcheologia c lassics

A rchRep

A rchaeological R eports

A rchSarda

A rcheologia s arda

A thMitt

M itteilungen d es d eutschen A rchäologischen I nstituts,

I stituto

I taliano d i N umismatica

A thenische A bteilung B AR

B ritish A rchaeological R eports.

B AS

B ulletino A rcheologico S ardo

B ASOR

B ulletin o f t he A merican S chools o f O riental R esearch

B CH

B ulletin d e c orrespondance h ellenique

B MOP

B ritish M useum O ccasional P aper

B PI

B olletino

B SA

B ritish S chool a t A thens,

C AH

C ambridge A ncient H istory

C NRS

C entro N azionale R icerche S cientifiche

D ialArch

D ialoghi

E MC

J .D.

P aletnologia I taliano

M uhly,

I chnussa: M ilano:

A nnual

d i A rchaeologia R .

M addin a nd V .

M etallurgy i n C yprus, I chnussa

O xford

K arageorghis e ds.,

4 000-500 B .C.

N icosia:

E arly

1 982.

L a S ardegna d alle o rigini a ll'eta c lassica.

L ibri

S cheiwiller

( 198 1).

I EJ

I srael E xploration J ournal

I IPP

I stituto i taliano d i p reistoria e p rotostoria

I mports

F ulvia L o

S chiavo,

V agnetti,

" Late C ypriot

E llen M acnamara & L ucia I mports

I nfluence o n L ocal B ronzework," S chool a t R ome L II1(1985)1-71,

t o

t heir

P apers o f t he B ritish p lates

J AS

J ournal o f A rchaeological S cience

J FA

J ournal o f F ield A rchaeology

XV

I taly a nd

I -III.

K unst S ardiniens

J .

T himme e d.,

K unst u nd K ultur S ardiniens v om

N eolithikum b is

z um E nde d er N uraghenzeit.

K arlsruhe:

M üller ( 1980). M eligunis-Lip&ra

L .

B ernabi

P alermo: M elRom

B rea a nd M .

C avalier,

M eligunis L ipära.

F laccovio.

M elanges d 'archeologie e t d 'histoire d e l 'Ecole f rangaise d e R om

M emLinc

M emorie d ella A ccademia n azionale d ei L incei

M GMM

M agna G recia e m ondo m iceneo

M onAnt

M onumenti A ntichi

N BAS

N uovo B ulletino A rchaeologico S ardo

N iemeyer

H .G.

N iemeyer e d.,

P hönizier i m W esten:

D ie B eiträge

d es I nternationalen S ymposiums ü ber " Die p hönizische E xpansion i m w estlichen M ittelmeerraum" 2 4.

b is 2 7.

A pril 1 979

=M adrider B eiträge 8 ( 1982).

N Sc

N otizie d egli S cavi d i a ntichitä

N ur

N UR:

L a m isteriosa c iviltä d ei S ardi.

e d.,

M ilano:

C ariplo

i n K öln v om

D ino S anno

( 1980).

O pAth

O puscula A theniensis

O xfordJArch

O xford J ournal

P ACT

J ournal o f t he E uropean S tudy G roup o n P hysical, C hemical, A pplied

o f A rchaeology

B iological a nd M athematical T echniques

t o A rchaeology

P arPass

L a P arola d el P assato

P BF

P räistoriche B ronzefunde

P CIA

P opuli e c iviltä d ell'Italia a ntica

P PS

P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety

P Z

P räistoriche Z eitschrift

Q uaderni

O ccasional P ublications o f t he S oprintendenza a i B eni A rcheologici

p er l e p rovincie d i S assari e N uoro

R B

R evue B iblique

R DAC

R eport o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities,

R E

P auly-Wissowa,

R eal-Encyclopädia d er C lassischen

A ltertumswissenschaft. R endLinc

C yprus

S tuttgart:

F erraria.

R endiconti d ella A ccademia d ei L incei

x vi

R SF

R ivista d i S tudi F enici

R SP

R ivista d i S tudi P reistorici

S ardegna C entro-

S ardegna c entro-orientale d al n eolitico a lle f ine d el

O rientale

S ardegna p reistorica

m ondo a ntic°,

N uoro,

M useo C ivic° S peleo-

a rcheologico,

S assari:

S ardegna p reistorica.

D essi

( 1978).

N uraghi a M ilano.

1 985.

S IMA

S tudies i n M editerranean A rchaeology

S MEA

S tudi M editerraneo e d E geo-Anatolici

S SA

S tudies i n S ardinian A rchaeology , a nd R obert J .

R owland J r.

o f M ichigan P ress S SA I I

E lecta:

e ds.

M iriam S .

A nn A rbor:

U niversity

( 1984).

S tudies i n S ardinian A rchaeology I I, B almuth e d.

B almuth

A nn A rbor:

U .

M iriam S .

M ichigan P ress:

1 986.

S tEtr

S tudi E truschi

S tSar

S tudi S ardi

T APS

T ransactions o f t he A merican P hilosophical S ociety

T MM

T raffici m icenei n el M editerraneo,

M .

T usa a nd L .

1 986.

T TA

M .

G ras,

V agnetti e ds.

T aranto

M arazzi,

S .

T rafics t yrrheniens a rchaiques = B iblio-

t heques d es E ccles F rançaises d ' Athenes e t d e R ome. 1 985.

x vii

C ONTRIBUTORS

M iriam S .

B almuth ,

D epartment o f C lassics,

P aolo B elli

1 79, A nna Maria B isi

0 1000 R ome,

C avanagh

C asella P ostale

I taly

I taly

D epartment o f A rchaeology, T he U niversity, N ottingham, N G7 2 RD, E ngland

M aria Luisa F errarese C eruti I stituto S tudi S ardi, P . N .

M edford,

I stituto d i A rcheologia e S toria d ell'Arte A ntics d ell'Universitä d i U rbino, V ia d el B alestiere, 2 , 6 1029 U rbino,

V . G .

T ufts U niversity,

M assachusetts 0 2155, U .S.A. C onsiglio N azionale d elle R icerche,

P iazza C itadella

0 9100 C agliari, I taly F itch L aboratory, B ritish S chool a t A thens,

Day

S ouedias,

1 0676 A thens,

5 2 O dos

G reece

B arbro Santillo Frizell S wedish I nstitute i n R ome, R ome, I taly

V ia O mero

1 4,

0 0 197

N oel G ale

D epartment o f E arth S ciences,

Z ofia S tos—Gale

P arks R oad, O xford, OM 3 PR, E ngland D epartment o f E arth S ciences, U niversity o f O xford, P arks R oad,

C laudio G iardino R . E . J ones Laxton

F itch L aboratory,

3 PR,

N G7 2 RD,

R obert Naddin

P eabody M useum,

5 2 O dos

T he U niversity, V ia U mberto 8 9 ,

I taly H arvard U niversity,

M assachusetts 0 2138,

C ambridge,

U .S.A.

D epartment o f O riental S tudies, U niversity o f P ennsylvania, P hiladelphia, P ennsylvania 1 9104, U .S.A.

J ames Nuhly

U niversity o f T el A viv, T el A viv, I srael S erra R idgway D epartment o f A rchaeology, U niversity o f

T amara S tech

E dinburgh, 1 6-20 G eorge S quare, E dinburgh E H8 9 JZ, S cotland D epartment o f M aterials S cience a nd E ngineering, U niversity o f P ennsylvania, P ennsylvania 1 9104, U .S.A.

R . F .

I taly

E ngland

S oprintendenza A rcheologica, 0 7100 S assari,

0 0152 R ome,

G reece

D epartment o f M athematics,

F ulvia L o S chiavo

E ngland

B ritish S chool a t A thens,

1 0676 A thens,

N ottingham,

O ra Negbi F rancesca R .

OM

V ia F rancesco d ell'Ongaro 9 5, S ouedias,

R . R .

O xford,

U niversity o f O xford,

Tylecote

Y ew T ree H ouse, O X 12 O HT,

E ast H anney,

P hiladelphia, N ear W antage,

O xford

E ngland

L ucia Vagnetti

S oprintendenza A rcheologica, V ia A ngioy 1 5 , 0 9100 C agliari, I taly C onsiglio N azionale d elle R icerche, C asella P ostale

R aimondo Zucca

1 79, 0 1000 R ome, I taly S oprintendenza A rcheologica,

G iovanni Ugas

C agliari,

I taly

x ix

V ia A ngioy 1 5,

0 9100

I NTRODUCTION N iriam S .

T he B ronze t he

r elationship b etween S ardinia a nd

A ge

l ast

h as

b een

d ecade,

a nd d escribe i ts

B almuth

e xtent.

a m atter

h owever,

o f

h as

i t

t his r elationship, O ne

p urpose

o f

t he

t he

c onjecture b ecome

A egean w orld

f or

o f t he

c enturies.

p ossible

t o

L ate

O nly w ithin

a ttempt

t o

d efine

a nd a t t he s ame

t ime t o b egin t o m easure

c olloquium

p rovided

t hat

t his v olume w as

t o c atch a t t he f lood t he e vidence f or t he c onnections b etween S ardinia o f t he n uraghi a nd t he M ycenaean w orld o f G reece, C rete C yprus f rom t he

1 4th c entury B .C.

S peculations y ears

a s

n ew

o n

t hese

material

f ound

a ccount f or t he s ettlement o f c opper ' oxhide' i ngots i ncised P hoenician i ngots a lso

h ad

t owers

l etters,

f ound

i n

b ut

C rete;

c alled

t hen

s tone

c ounterparts

i n

o n.

r elationships

was

a nd

h ad

o ld

w ere

f or

a nd

I t w as

t o

c orrespond

c asting

a ncient

t he

i ncreasing r ethought:

o ver

t he

myths

t o

t he 1 9th c entury f inds o f t hat a t f irst l ooked l ike

f ound

m oulds

b een

i deas

t he i sland; w ith s igns

C rete;

' daidaleia '.

t he a nd

t ools

t o

t estimonia

l ast m entioned

i nscribed

a nd w eapons f or

a nd

t he

t hat s tone

t he a ppearance

o f A egean t holoi t hat m ade r elationships b etween t he t wo a reas, e ven d irect c ontact, s eem m ost l ikely. T he s peculations c rested w ith t he d iscovery

o f

A egean

a nd

C ypriot

m aterial

i n

1 980,

s tratified

w ithin

a

N uragic c ontext i n t he c omplex a t A ntigori i n S arroch. A ctually i t w as i n 1 976 t hat t he f irst p ottery i dentified a s Mycenaean c ame t o l ight f rom

a c landestine

s earched f or s ituations.

s ource.

w ith

f resh

S ince

e yes,

t hat

a nd

t ime,

f ound

M ycenaean

a mong

o lder

p ottery h as f inds

a nd

b een

i n

n ew

T he s peculations n ow i nvolve t he s ignificance o f t he p resence i n S ardinia o f c learly i dentifiable a nd d atable c eramics f rom L ate B ronze A ge

a s w ell a s

t he d iffer-

e nces o f a rchitectural m ining a nd w orking o f

G reece,

s tyles i n S ardinia a nd t he A egean; m etals, e specially i n S ardinia a nd

a nd o f t he C yprus. I n

a ddition,

o f

t he

s eparated t uries

C rete

o f

t hat

s hapes

t he a reas,

s econd

o f

i t u sed i n

a nd

T he

' suggestions' o f

t o

B .C.

b e

t oo

e asy

a reas

A ll

c hronology c ould

t hen

" confirmations". m ade

s ome

t o

t he

i sland

c an

n o

l onger

b e

o f

t hese

c an

n ow

b e

t reated

d eclare t hat p ottery o f m atching

s uggested

t hat

c ontact

o n

o f E ast-West a ctivity i n t he l ast c en-

f igurines

a nd

s imilarity

t hat w as u nknown i n a m ore u ncomplicated p ast.

s eparate

t hat

t he

P hoenicians

m illennium

o f p recision

t ime

c riteria

p resence

t he

f ound

c ontact.

C yprus;

f rom t he c onsiderations

w ith a k ind A t

a nd

w ere b e

c ontact

w orked

T hen

s cholars

o f

s ome

s imilar c onfirmed o ut

o n

a r ethinking m ore

k ind t he

t he b asis o f

s keptical.

t he T he

b etween

s uggested o f t hese i deas

a nd

c hronology

f or a ncient S ardinia i s s till o ne o f t he a gonizing a rchaeological l abors t hat r emains t o b e f ully w orked o ut. S ome c larification c an b e f ound i n t his v olume.

1

The title of the first part of the colloquium presentations, 'Definition and Criteria', was meant to establish a framework that would allow the subjects of the discussion to fit tidily into our outline, so that we could see which of the material or ideas were actually imported and how, and which of local origin. The innocent assumption that archae­ ological finds in Sardinia can all be so neatly grouped had to be abandoned after the first paper by the three experts who participated first hand in the discoveries and interpretation of the finds at Nuraghe Antigori: Maria Luisa Ferrarese Ceruti, the excavator; Lucia Vagnetti, long-time expert in the pottery and other Mycenaean material found in the West Mediterranean; and Fulvia Lo Schiavo, who almost singlehandedly has created the study of Sardinian metallurgy. Instead, it furnished an account of the material found in stratified contexts that suggested rather than defined. In addition to painted local imitations of the imported Aegean material, two other kinds of local pottery, j ust recently identified, appear in association with the imported ware: 'ceramica metopale', decorated with rectangular and triangular patterns filled with combed or impressed motifs, and grey burnished ware. These add other factora to an already complex equation. In fact, the ceramic and metal finds, along with architectural styles are all inextricably involved with one another, and no consideration of Nuragic Sardinia and the Mycenaean World could be complete without including them all. T h e ability to make a distinction between local pottery and imported pottery has enormously enhanced the investigations of contact among specific communities. While the perceptions made by eye can still have value, chemical analysis in which individual chemical profiles of the clay are identified, and petrographic analysis in which the geology of an area is reflected in the soils that form part of the clay, are used separately and together to confirm visual recognition and provide addi tional insights. Such is the case wi th the Late Helladic pottery from Nuraghe Antigori. R. E. Janes and Peter Day have verified both Greek and Sardinian provenance and composition, as well as documenting the unexpected Cretan and Cypriot derivation ent assumption that archaeological finds in Sardinia can all be so neatly grouped had to be abandoned after the first paper by the three experts who participated first hand in the discoveries and insistently c h a n g e d dates and sequence to accomodate new finds. Early in his work, he arranged the chronology by Nuragic plan, designating the vaulted, tholos type as an early phase and the flat-ceilinged 'corridor' type as a later degeneration. Lilliu has since responded to the results of radiocarbon dating of the different types to acknowledge the corridor as part of the earliest, proto-nuraghe type, with the vault a later addition. His most recent dates for these types take into account the Mycenaean material found in association with the structures. Once more the proposed direction for a session was leas imaginative than the work being done on the subject. The discussion on buildings and architectural techniques was designed to treat a complex of problems by presenting an analysis of building materials and techniques and then testing the meaning of the coexistence of any similarities in different areas; but actually deal t with more original ideas. The studies on structural mechanics by an archaeologist and a mathematician, W. G.

2

C avanagh a nd R . a nd

t hen

R .

L axton,

c ontinued

o n

t o

b egan e lsewhere w ith B ronze A ge A egean t holoi S ardinian

a nd w all c onstruction h ere, d ifferences a nd

t han

f unction.

s imilarities

R affaele S antillo b etween a rchitect a nd l ong-held

n ot

N evertheless,

w alls f or p rotection a nd t ectural l anguage.

n uraghi.

T heir

a nalyses

o f

c ontrasting t holoi w ith n uraghi, o nly

t hey

i n

c oncede

p restige m ay h ave

c onstruction,

b ut

t hat

o f

t he

d erived

u se

m asonry

s howed m ore i n

s iting

m onumental

f rom a c ommon a rchi-

a nd B arbro S antillo F rizell, i n a c ollaboration a rchaeologist, i ntroduced a n o bjection t o o ur

p reconception o f v aults

b y i nsisting

t hat w e

a re

d ealing h ere

w ith d omes, w hich h ad a lready b een i n e xistence f or m illennia, a nd r equire n o s pecial s ophistication t o b uild. T hey f ound t hat n o a ssocia tion b etween a reas w as r equired t o p roduce s imilar c onstructions u nder s imilar c ircumstances t o f ill s imilar n eeds. T he

t horough r eport b y G iovanni U gas o f h is e xcavation a t S u M ulinu

i n V illanovafranca a cted a s a m edium f or t he d iscussion o f t he p ossib ilities o f A egean p resence o r A egean o r A natolian i nfluence o n N uragic a rchitecture. S u M ulinu, a n uraghe w ith a c ombination o f t hose t wo a rchitectural t echniques, t he v ault a nd t he c orridor, w as o ccupied f rom t he M iddle B ronze t o t he E arly O rientalizing p eriod ( 15th t o 8 th c entury B .C.)

only

s poradically

i n

t he

7 th

and

6 th

c entury,

and

a bandoned

c ompletely b etween t he 5 th a nd 4 th c entury. A P unic o ccupation b egan i n t he l ate 4 th a nd l asted t hrough 3 rd c entury, t here w ere o ther p hases o f R oman a nd t hen M edieval p resence u ntil t he 7 th c entury A .D. B y s lecting c ertain e lements o f c orrespondence, e .g. t he g allery a t S antu A ntine a nd t he g allery a t T iryns, u sually c onceded n ow,

h e a rgued f or a c loser A egean offering a s f urther e vidence

c onnection t han t he myths t hat

i nvolved s ome A egean-originated h eroes s uch a s D aedalus w ith S ardinia. U gas p ointed o ut s ome d ifference b etween t he M ycenaean p alace-dominated s ociety a nd

t hat

o f N uragic

i n a rchitectural

t echniques.

Material

f rom

t he

S ardinia

i sland

o f

t o

e xplain

L ipari

s ome

f urnishes

o f

a n

t he d ifferences

e xcellent

e xample

o f t he s ituation i n w hich u nidentified m aterial c an b e d ated b y a ssocia tion w ith M ycenaean m aterial, s ince M ycenaean c hronology h as b een s ufficiently c ontexts a nd

r efined

i n

c opper

w hich t hat

t o

h elp

p ottery

m ay

b e

m ake

t hat

f rom

t hese

w as

d eterminations.

o riginally

' oxhide'

i ngots

T he

A usonian

a s

N uragic,

i nterpreted

w ere

f ound,

t heir a ssociation w ith t wo p hases o f M ycenaean p ottery.

w ere

d ated

b y

T he g eographical

p osition o f L ipari m akes a ll t he m ore s ignificant t he d iscovery t here o f t he t holos d escribed b y P aolo B elli a s M ycenaean i n s tyle i n a n e nvironm ent o f c onfirmed c ontact w ith t he M ycenaean w orld,

a nd a t t he s ame t ime

i n g eographical p roximity t o N uragic S ardinia. T o

many,

t he m etals

o f a ncient

S ardinia p rovide

t hree

o f

t he m ost

p rovocative a rchaeological p roblems: H ow e arly w ere t hey e xploited? W ho d irected t heir m ining, t heir s melting a nd t heir c asting? W ere a ny m etals i mported?

T he

a nswers

t o

t hese

q uestions

t ermine c hronology, t echnology a nd r ealized w ith g rowing a ccuracy.

i n

r equire

p rovenance,

t hat w e

a n a bility

b e

a ble t o d e-

t hat

i s

b eing

D rs. N o l G ale a nd Z ofia S tos-Gale h ave m ade r emarkable s uggestions t he p ast o n t he s ource o f t he c opper i n e arly b ronze o bjects i n t he

M editerranean,

o n

t ermination

p rovenance.

o f

t he

b asis

o f T he

t heir n ew

l ead

i sotope

t echnique,

3

t he

a nalyses f irst

f or t he

d eveloped

d ew ith

t his

c apacity,

w ith

t he

h as b een a pplied

r esult

t hat

w ith t he f inished m atching h ave b een n umber o f f ind

i t

h as

t o

t he m etal

b een

p ossible

p roducts t o

f ound

m atch

i n S ardinia

l ocal

o re

s ources

p roducts i n m any c ases. T hose t hat s till r esist t he c opper ' oxhide' i ngots, k nown f rom t he l argest

s pots

i n S ardinia,

b ut

i n g reater q uantity i n C yprus a nd

f rom t he t wo s hipwrecks a t C ape G elidonya a nd U lu B urun o ff t he s outhern c oast o f T urkey. T here a re, h owever, c opper d eposits i n C yprus t hat c orrespond

w ith

t he

r esults

o f

l ead

i sotope

a nalysis

o f

t he

' oxhide'

i ngots f ound i n S ardinia, p resenting t he p ossibility o f t rade i n c opper c oncurrent w ith i ts p roduction l ocally. T he c ase i s n ot w holly c losed; f urther

r esearch i s u nder w ay

t o

t est m ore

o f t he s imilarity i n c onception, t hem,

t he

c onnection

i ndisputable,

o f

w eight,

C yprus

n o m atter w here

S ardinian o res.

s hape,

w ith

O n t he b asis

a nd t he m arks i ncised o n

c opper

' oxhide'

i ngots

r emains

t he m etal p rovenance s tudies l ead.

Another k ind o f s tudy t hat i s b eing c arried o ut o n t he m etal f inds i s

t he

m etallographic

a nd

e lemental

p lano-convex a nd ' oxhide' i ngots, d eposits. T he s tudy w as d esigned

a nalyses

o f

t he

o bjects

a nd

t he

a fter a s urvey o f t he l ocal c opper o re t o e xplore t he r elationships, i f a ny,

o f t he t hree t ypes o f m etal p roducts. F ulvia L o S chiavo w as j oined b y T amara S tech, R obert M addin a nd J ames M uhly i n t his c ontinuing p roject t hat w ill a nalyze a s m any a s p ossible f or i nformation b eyond s ource.

f ocus

T he d irect a ssociation o f n uraghi w ith m etal p roduction h as b een a o f r esearch o n t he p art o f C laudio G iardino, w hose c orrelation o f

m etal

s ources

a nd

t he

d istribution o f N uragic b uildings

w as

i ngeniously

p lotted t o s uggest t heir r ole n ot o nly i n p rotecting t he a ccess t o m etal s ources, b ut a lso t he f unction o f m ineral c ollecting a nd e ven p rimary s melting. Any c onsideration o f p eople/materials/ideas W est i n t he L ate B ronze A ge c annot o verlook

a nd

p resence s poradic s till

i n

S ardinia

v isits

i s

u ndeniable,

a nd w hen t rading

u nanswered.

I t

i s

b ut

p recisely

s tations b ecame

i ronic

t hat

e xchanged b etween E ast t he P hoenicians. T heir

t he

w hen

c olonies

M ycenaean

i t

b egan

i n

a re q uestions

p ottery

t hat

i s

s o

f inely d atable s hould r emain w ithout e xplanation f or i ts m eans o f a rrival i n S ardinia, while P hoenician material, c learly p art of a s ettling

p eople

s ource c enter

a s o f

o f

i sland.

t he

s hould

r esist

n ot

o nly

p recise

d ating,

b ut

u ncertain

w ell, w ith C yprus f ound m ore a nd m ore a s t he m anufacturing t he b ronze f igurines t hat a ntedate t he P hoenician c olonizing O ra

N egbi

p ointed

o ut

t he

c ontroversy

a ccompanying

t he

d ate o f t he a rrival o f t he P hoenicians i n S ardinia. A nna

M aria

B isi

p roposed

a s tudy

o f

t he

f amilar

b ronze

f igurines

c alled ' Phoenician ', a nd o ften P hoenician f rom C yprus, b ased o n t heir p lace i n t he s ociety t hat p roduced a nd e xported t hem, a s w ell a s t he o ne r eceiving t he o bjects.

S he s howed

o f t hese f igurines, b ut o f b roken c ontinuity w ith t he w hom

C ypriots

w ere

t he

t hat t he p resence i n S srdinia n ot o nly

C ypriot m etalwork a nd i ngots, p rovided u ne arliest a rrival o f a ctual s ettlers, among

c hief

o ffered a c orrective t o o ne N uragic s ocial o rganization.

c omponent. a spect

o f

F rancesca

B isi 's

R .

p aper,

S erra t he

R idgway

c oncept

o f

A lthough s ome o f t he problems b rought o ut h ere may h ave been s uccessfully a ttacked a nd p artly r esolved, t here s till r emain s ome q uestions. W hile n ew s cientific i deas a re b eing e mployed t o d etermine w hether m etal o r c eramic m aterial i s l ocal o r i mported,

4

e nabling a f iner

u nderstanding

o f

t heir

r elationship,

t here

i s

a s

y et

n o

s olution

t o

o ther p roblems c reated b y t he a ppearance o f A egean m aterial i n S ardinia: t he p roblem o f p recisely h ow i t g ot t here, a nd w hat k ind o f r elationship i s r epresented b y i ts a ppearance. T rade w ithout p resence c an t ake o n s everal a rrangements;

a ctual p resence i s m ore d ifficult

t o d etermine.

I f t he f oreign m aterial i n S ardinia a ppears i n a n e xchange, i t m ay h ave b een a s p art o f t he m etals t rade, s ince n o m aterial r ecognizably S ard inian h as

b een c onfirmed

a ny

f urther

t han E truria a nd - p ossibly - t he

i sland o f L ipari t o d ate. T he f act t hat t here a re f ragments o f C retan a nd C ypriot p ithoi a t A ntigori m ay m ean t hat t he c ontents w ere m ore c eramics o r s ome k ind o f p erishable m aterial. There

i s

a b ook w aiting

t ionship o f N uragic S ardinia

t o t o

b e

w ritten

i n w hich

t he M ycenaean W orld

t he

w ill

p recise b e

r ela-

d efined a nd

f ully m easured a nd d escribed. U ntil t hat t ime, h owever, t hese p roc eedings must s tand a s t he s tep f rom w hich t o c limb t o t he n ext l evel o f d iscovery

a nd

i nterpretation.

A s

o f

1 987,

w e

c an

s tate

t hat

t here

w as

a ctive a nd s ystematic t rade b etween S ardinia a nd t he M ycenaean W orld o f s ome k ind, p erhaps i n e xchange f or S ardinian m etal r esources. T he c opper ' oxhide ' ' bun '

i ngots w ere s till p robably m ade i n C yprus,

i ngots

a re

m ore

t he

d etails

a re

a nd

N uragic

n uraghi

c ertainly

d ifferent, i s

t he

c learly

P hoenician f igurines f ound m ostly f rom C yprus; N uragic

o f

S ardinian

i dea

o f

v isible,

b ut t he p iano-convex

p roduction.

m onumentality b ut

o nly

W hile

i n

A egean

p ossibly

m any

o f

t holoi

r elated.

T he

o n S ardinian s oil b efore c olonization a re f igurine p roduction m ay h ave s tarted b y t he

1 0th c entury o r e ven e arlier. T he

t alents o f e xcavators,

m athematicians,

g eologists,

a rt h istorians,

a rchitects

a nd

m etallurgists,

s pecialists

i n

c hemists,

t he

a rchae-

o logy o f t he E ast M editerranean, t he A egean a nd t he W est M editerranean a reas w ere a ll c ombined t o p repare a nd p resent t hese i nterpretations. I t i s

i nstructive

t o

o bserve

t hat

t he

c ollaboration

w as

n ot

o nly

i nter-

d isciplinary b ut i nternational a s w ell, a c ombination n ecessary f or p rogress t o b e m ade i n c onfronting a nd s olving t he p roblems p osed i n a ssessing

t he

r elationships

o f

N uragic

5

S ardinia

a nd

t he

M ycenaean

W orld.

2 .

M INOICI M ICENEI

E C IPRIOTI I N S ARDEGNA A LLA L UCE

D ELLE P It r R ECENTI S COPERTE M aria L uisa F errarese C eruti L ucia V agnetti F ulvia L o S chiavo

I nt o duzione Abbiamo c utere

a ccettato

c on

i v an i p roblemi

p iacere

c onnessi

a l

l 'invito

d ella

t emo d ella

P rof.

r elazioni

B almuth

a d is-

f ra l a S ardegna

e i i m ondo m iceneo a nche s e l a p ubblicazione r ecente d i l avori s ulla a rgomento n onche i l b reve t empo t rascorso d a i ncontri d edicati a lle p rob lematiche

g enerali

d ella

p resenza

e gea

i n

O ccidente,

i n

o ccasione

q uali e s tata r esa n ota l a m aggior p arte d el m ateriale i nedito, s entono d i

p resentare g randi n ovitä

L o S chiavo e V agnetti 1 986; I noltre i i

i i

m ancato

f inanziamento

d ei

a l

p roseguimento

1 985,

( Ferrarese C eruti

L o S chiavo,

l avori

1 982a;

1 983;

M acnamara e V agnetti d a

p arte

n uraghe

d ella

A ntigori,

1 986;

1 985).

R egione f ermi

d ei

n on c on-

S arda

p er

d all'ottobre

n on h a n eppure c onsentito l a d ocumentazione c ompleta d ei m ateriali

d i p i ür ecente s cavo. P er i c ontesti n uragici d 'altra p arte n on s i d ispone a ncora, p eriod( )

i nteressato,

d i d ati

s ufficienti

r elativi

a s cavi

p er i l

r ecenti a l d i

f uori d ell'Antigori. L a g ress"

p resente

r elazione

h a

e c ostituisce u n m omento

p ertanto d ello

u n

c arattere

s tudio

c he

d i

s tiamo

" work

i n

c onducendo,

p ros ia

i nsieme c he s eparatamente, d al 1 979-1980 o vvero d al m omento i n c ui l a s coperta d ella c eramica m icenea a ll'Antigori g iunse c ome u na c onferma, a nche

s uperiore

a lle

a spettative,

d i

a lcune

i potesi

f ormulate

a p ro-

p osito d i p ochi f rammenti m icenei r invenuti, p urtroppo i n s eguito a d a ttivitä c landestine n ella r egione d i O rosei. C ercheremo d unque d i f are i i p unto s ui d ati a quisiti t esi, u n i nquadramento e d p retazione d efinitiva.

e d a n oi a ccessibili, d i p roporne u na s inu na p roblematica m a c erto n essuna i nter-

I i d iscorso s ari a rticolato n ei s eguenti p unti: 1 .

E same

e d

i nquadramento

a lle i mportazioni 2 .

e gee

d el

c ontesto

i ndigeno

n uragico

c ontemporaneo

( M.L.F.C.)

E same d elle i mportazioni n on c eramiche

( M.L.F.C.)

3 . E same d elle c eramiche d i i mportazione e d i i mitazione e gea ( L.V.) 4 . P roduzione, ( F.L.S.)

t ecnologia

e

s cambi

n el

s ettore

d ella

m etallurgia

S i r itiene utile p remettere c he a lcuni argomenti n on v erranno t rattati i n q uanto a d e ssi s ono d edicate s pecifiche s ezioni d i q uesto c olloquio: i i p roblema d ell'architettura i n g enere e d ella t holos i n p articolare, i P opoli a rgomenti s ono s tati s intesi

( Gras

d el M are, l e a nalisi m etallurgiche. a nche r ecentemente o ggetto d i u n

1 985).

7

I p rimi d ue t entativo d i

Per

quanto

s pensabile

e he

invece

i i

c oncerne

q uadro

p renderne l o s tudio d ella m ateria.

l e

f onti

a rcheologico

c omparativo

i n

s ia

a ntiche m eglio

c i

s embra

d efinito

c ollaborazione

c on

g li

i ndi-

p er

i ntra-

s pecialisti

L a C eramica N uragica L 'imponente A ntigori

n umero

d ocuments u na

i n a ttesa e he d ella t orre c , a ntichi,

d i

r eperti

i ntensa

f ittili

d el

c omplesso

f requentazione d el

s ito

n uragico

d i

i n e t än uragica:

s iano c ompletati i l avori d i s cavo d el v ano p i üb asso q uello e he d i t utto i i m onumento e c ertamente t ra i p iü

e e he

s iano

u ltimati

i i

r estauro

e l a

s chedatura

d i

t utta

l a

c eramica d egli a mbienti g iä s cavati, s i t enter äq ui d i d are u na i llus trazione d i a lcune c lassi c eramiche s icuramente i ndividuabili n onche a lcune i ndicazioni s ulla s ituazione s tratigrafica. N el

vano

c eramica

a un

s ottile

d 'impasto

a

s traterello

s uperfici

c on p oca

n erastre

e a ssai

( strato

1 4)

f rantumata

a ttesta

l a

p iü

a ntica f requentazione d ell'ambiente p rima e he l a c olmata d i v espaio d i o ltre d ue m etri d i s pessore c ostituisse l a b ase p er i l p avimento. D al v espaio

v engono

c eramics c eramica

a bbondanti

f rammenti

d i

c eramica g rigio-ardesia m ista a

m icenea. L a c eramica g rigio-ardesia m icenea e q uella d ipinta l ocale, s ono

a nche d ei

i n a ssociazione c on l a i l t ratto c aratteristico

l ivelli s uperiori s ino a l 9 , mentre d all'8

l a s ituazione

t ende

a m odificarsi, c on l ' aumento p rogressivo d i c eramica b runa o r ossastra, e he d apprima a ppare a ncora i n a ssociazione c on l a g rigio-ardesia p er d iventare,

p oi

Anche

e sclusiva ( Ferrarese C eruti

n el

e sclusivamente p eriodo

d i

v ano n egli

v ita d el

Anche

8 ,

t orre,

i l

p avimentale

( Ferrarese C eruti

i i

4 d el

l ivello

g rigio-ardesia p iü

e n el

I f ittili m icenei,

v espaio

g rigio-ardesia

c eramica

s trati

n ella

s tante e c oevo. s uperiore

f l a

1 979).

a ntico

b attuto

i nvece, e a nche

e l ocalizzata

c orrispondente

8 a,

q uasi

a l

i mmediatamente

p rimo s otto -

s on3- p resenti s olo n el q ui

n on

m ancano

l e

l embo

c eramiche

1 983).

v ano

s uperiore

d ella

t orre

c ,

q uell°

e he

s ovrasta i mmediatamente i l p avimento, e c aratterizzato d alla c eramics g rigio-ardesia e q uesta s i r invenne a bbondante a nche t ra i f ittili e he, a ccuratamente

a ccostati

g li

u ni

a gli

a ltri,

c ostituivano

f orma l o s trato 4 ( Ferrarese C eruti

s ul q uale s i A ssai

d iversa

e i nvece

l a

s ituazione

i l

p avimento

1 986).

d ell'ambiente

q p oiche

l a

c eramica g rigio-ardesia e q ui p resente i n m isura m inima ( una d ecina c irca d i e semplari f ra t utti i l ivelli) m entre nei due s trati p iü a ntichi, i l 5 e 6 , s i r invennero d ei f rammenti c eramici, p ertinenti a d ue r ecipienti, a nche

n ello

c on d ecorazione m etopale.

s trato

7 d el v ano

d ecorazione m etopale

e he

s ono

E ' d a

A ssai t empo

p roblematica

a ppare,

a t utt'oggi,

c eramica

metopale

e he

e he

p otrebbero

a vere,

f orse,

( fig. 2 .1). a ssociazioni

t empi

d ella

i p i üa ntichi

s ito,

d ella

d ecorazioni

a i

r apportarsi

una presenza umana c ontinuativa n el e dificare l e p rime s trutture m urarie.

n el

A naloga t estimonianza s i e bbe

q uindi

q uando

u na

m ostra d ella

s i

iniziarono

p recisa d elle

c eramica

a d

d elimitazione

v arianti

v alenze

a

d ocumenti d i

n elle

c ronologiche

A t al e s ulle

f ine, a d e sempio, s i p otrebbe indagare s ulle p ercentuali d i p resenza d ei f ittili d ecorati a d

i mpressione,

s ia

o ttenuta

c ol p ettine,

o ppure d i q uelli o rnati d a c ordoni p lastici.

e ssa

c on

l a

8

s tecca e a mano

l ibera,

s ia

r esa

2

3

0 , L \

• " "

•.

-: . 1 : : " .-7g n : . „

. e... . . ..

.

.

. ...

Z .!,

\

4

9

F igura 2 .1

1 -3.

4-7 ,9 . 8 .

7

M itza P ürdia. C eramica c on d ecorazione m etopale ( da S anna 1 984) S an C osimo. C eramica c on d ecorazione m etopale ( da U gas 1 982) S an C osimo. C iotolina i n c eramica g rigio-ardesia ( da U gas 1 982)

9

G .

Ugas

( 1 982

m etopale

n ella

n e

g li

v ede

p otrebbe t empi v ede

i n

a .C.

l a

q uale

c ronologia

d ella

quale

I I"

s i

( 1982)

s vilupperä,

F adda

s trumento

c he,

c ome

t occare

a ttesterebbe

( Ugas

c he

c olloca

n ella

a .C.)

s ua

( 1984)

f issa

a p ettine"

a i

i e

" Fase

c aratteristica

d el

s ecoli

i ncludendo

d i

i mpressione,

i n

s i

e d etto,

i l imiti

n on

s olo

l a

c eramica

l a

t omba

d i

a

l a c eramica m etopale.

p i

c on i l m oltiplicarsi

d elle

r i-

q uadro d ella c eramica m etopale, s ue m anifestazioni p iü a rcaiche üt ardi

d el

B onnanaro

B o d i

T urricola ( Ferrarese C eruti 1 981) e , n elle s ue f asi f inali, g iungere s ino a gli i nizi d ella c eramica g rigio-ardesia ( fig. c ome

( 1984)

c ronologia

( 1500-1200

p ettine

" ceramica

c erche s ia p ossibile i ndividuare, n el u na s eriazione c ronologica c he, n elle b ene

" Fase

c eramica

e s ulla s ola b ase d ella t ecnica d ecorativa c he u tilizza

p robabile

p otrebbe

L illiu

l a

M oravetti

u na

I i

a

M .A.

p ettine p ropriamente d etta m a a nche E '

s ua

c eramica

I noltre,

A .

p roponendo

a lta.

n ella d al

l a

a ttribuisce

M edio m entre

A ntico,

m etopale

a .C.),

q uesta d icitura,

v olume),

B ronzo

B ronzo

d ell'isola.

p ettine

a l

l 'antecedente

( 1200-900

1 600-1300

q uesto

e ccessivamente

c eramica

q uesta

i n

n el

r ivelarsi

C entro-Nord

i i

e d

t otalitä

i nizi

d ella

I II"

s ua

g iganti

d i

S an

C osimo

d i

Sa

i nvece, 2 .1:8),

G onnosfanadiga

1 982). A ll'interno d ella f ascia c ronologica d el B ronzo M edio e ssa p otrebbe

p ertanto p rocesso m ente,

c ollocarsi, d i

a i

d iffusione

s uoi

i nizi,

t erritoriale

i n

u na

c he h a

f ase

i ntermedia,

i nteressato,

a ssai

c on

u n

p robabil-

t utta l 'isola.

In

q uei

s iti

s tratigrafiche

n ei

n on

q uali

e s tato

d isturbate

p ossible

s embrebbe

a ccertare

p otersi

s ituazioni

a ffermare

c he

l a

c eramica c on d ecorazione m etopale e p resente i n q uei c ontesti d ove l a c eramica a p ettine e r igorosamente a ssente, c ome a d e sempio a S an C osimo e a P alatu c eramica n uraghe

d i

B irori

a p ettine D on

( Ugas

c ompare

d i

P loaghe

M ichele

1 984), A lbucciu d i A rzachena r igorosamente a ssente. S i

t ratterä

1 982;

n on

q uindi

d i

M oravetti

l ä

d ove

1 984)

l a

e M onte

' Idda

( Ferrarese C eruti

d over

e ,

c eramica d i

P osada

1 962),

i ndividuare,

a nalogamente, m etopale,

( Fadda

e cc.,

p er

l a

c ome

l a a l

1 979;

e a ltretanto

S ardegna

m eri-

d ionale, q uelle m anifestazioni c eramiche c he, n el C entro-Nord d ell' i sola, c orrispondono a l m omento d ella c eramica a p ettine, e n on e i mprobabile

c he

m anifestiazioni d ove e p resente

q ueste

All'Antigori e l egata

d ipinti

( fig.

e rano

d a

m ettere

i n

d ella c eramica g rigio-ardesia, l a c eramics a p ettine.

a rdesia

p i üa ntico

s iano

e a l a i

2 .2

D omu

f ittili

e 2 .2a).

d ella

t orre

l ocalizzati

f ,

s 'Orku d i

d i

p rivo

n ello — s trato

i noltre, d i

c ontesti

s ottostante,

l a

m icenea e ra

c on

a t utt'oggi

S arroch,

i mportazione

E ssa,

r elazione

l e

p rime

n on n ota

c eramica

l ä

g rigio-

e a q uelli

l ocali

p revalente n ello s trato

m icenei, n ella

i q uali,

p arte

p i

i nvece,

üa lta

d el

v espaio d i b ase. P oiche l a t orre

t orre f e c ertamente p i ür ecente r ispetto a l v ano a ,

c n onche

a gli

s ia i n a c he i n c eramica m icenea c he

l e

d urante

c orrenti

a mbienti

e

e d

i n c onsiderazione

d el

f atto

a lla c he

c i f ittili n uragici g rigio-ardesia s i a ssociano a lla Pimportazione e d a q uella d ipinta l ocale n e c onsegue e gee

s ono

c ertamente

i l d ecorrere d ella " moda"

g iunte

n ella

S ardegna

m eridionale

d ella c eramica g rigio-ardesia. 1 0

T 57

-

9 1 "

IQ

1 2

r c l 7 14

1 3

F igura 2 .2

N uraghe D omu s 'Orku d i S arroch.

1.----'

\

C eramica g rigio-ardesia

( 1

4

2

3

6

F igura 2 .2a

N uraghe A ntigori e N uraghe D omu s 'Orku d i S arroch. 1

C eramica

C iö e c onfermato a nche d ai d ati d i s cavo c ortile

d el

D omu

s 'Orku

d i

S arroch,

l ivelli p i üa ntichi n on f urono p ossibile c rolli

i ndividuare,

r ecenti

e n on

p ositi p i üa ntichi L a

d urata

s otto

e splorati a i

i r esti

r imosso

a i

t empo

d i

t empi

( Ferrarese C eruti

n el

d ella

e mersi

s oprattutto

d urante i s aggi n el

n el

s ettore

S ud,

i c ui

t empi d i T aramelli e d ove

f u

b ancone

d a

u n

d ella

a ndato

p rima

d istrutto

e splorazione,

i d e-

1 982b).

c eramica

g rigia-ardesia

c onstituisce

a ncora un d ato c he n ecessita d i e ssere meglio p untualizzato. presenza n el v ano f d i e sclusiva c eramica g rigia-ardesia s opra l ivello a c eramica M icenea

i nfatti,

p uö

e ssere u n i ndizio

La i i

d el p erdurare

d i q uesti f ittili a nche d opo i t empi n ei q uail s i c oncentrarono a pporti e gei. E ssa p er d eve e ssere i ncominciata p rima d ell'inizio

g li d el

t raffici p iü s istematici c on i l M editerraneo O rientale. P oca

e n on

c erchielli

a d

o vunque

o cchio

d istribuita

d i

d ado,

d i

e ,

e t

a ll'Antigori,

äg eometrica.

l a

V i

c eramics

e ,

i nvece,

a

b en

d ocumentato q uel m omento c ronologico c aratterizzato d a c eramica i nornata o n ella q uale l e d ecorazioni s i l imitano a p ochi e s emplici m otivi d ecorativi.

Q uesto m omento

p recisare g li e satti p eriodo d i a bbandono ( Ferrarese

C eruti

c ulturale,

d el

q uale

n on e a ncora p ossibile

l imiti c ronologici, e s pesso s eguito, d opo u n d el s ito, d al m omento d ella c eramica g eometrica

1 983;

1 985b),

m a

p oiche

l e

q ueste e t äe sulano d all'argomento s pecifico a ltra s ede c he e sse v erranno a ffrontate.

p roblematiche

d i

q uesto

r elative

l avoro,

s arä

a i n

L e i mportazione n on c eramiche Una

p rima

s egnalazione

d i

o ggetti

m icenei

S ardegna e d ovuto a l F urtwängler c he n el 1 886 p ubblic

p rovenienti

d alla

i i d isegno d i u na

l aminetta a urea i n f orma d i f igurina f emminile s imile a d u na c oppia d i a naloghi o ggettini d alla t ombs a f ossa I II d el C erchio A d i M icene ( Furtwängler e L oeschcke

1 886:48,

f ig.

2 7).

R icerche c ondotte p resso i i

M useo B ritannico, d ove l 'oggetto e c onservato, n on n e c onfermano p er p rovenienza d alla S ardegna e d e p ertanto p rudenziale, a lmeno p er m omento,

s ospendere o gni g iudizio

Nessuna c arattere

d i

f rammento d a M itza

i ncertezza, a ssoluta

e burneo P ürdia

f rammentato

p er

i nvece,

p er

e ccezionalitä

un

e d i

a ltro

1 980).

o ggetto

i ndubbio

c he

r iveste

i nteresse.

E 'ii

d i t estina d i g uerriero c on e lmo a z anne d i c inghiale d i D ecimoputzu ( Sanna 1 984). G iunto a n oi a ssai

r otture

c ostituito d a d ue n ello s tesso v erso, r ilievo.

( Lo S chiavo e V agnetti

R esiduano

a ntiche

f ile d i s eparate i noltre

e r ecenti,

c onserva

i l

s olo

c opricapo

z anne s ovrapposte, e ntrambe c on a ndamento t ra l oro d a u na d uplice m odanatura i n f orte

l 'attacco

d el

c imiero

e p arte

d ella s te j ohane

a r icciolini ( tre r iccioli e f orse p arte d i un q uarto) m entre p resenza d i p araguancia e p aranuca e i mpossibile d a v erificare p er l arghe l acune d el b ordo i nferiore L a

t estina

( fig.

e s colpita a m edio

c he

d oveva

f issare

l 'oggetto

r ilievo e d oveva p resentare

a d

l a l e

2 .3:1-3).

s ezionato l ungo l a l inea m ediana d el n aso. L a m ostra u n f oro i mpervio c ilindrico a rrotondato p erno

l a i l

u n

i i v iso

p arte p osteriore p iana s ul f ondo, s ede d i u n

s upporto

l igneo.

I i p rofilo

e

r ivolto a d estra. D i t rova

i ndiscutibile

s ul

d iffusione.

c ontinente N on

i mportazione greco,

m ancano

p er

m icenea,

e a Micene a nche 1 2

q uesta

c lasse

in p articolare,

a lcuni

e semplari

d i

o ggetti

l a maggior

c he

s i

s ono

r invenuti

n eu e

i sole

m aggiori

d ell'Egeo,

P hylaki a C reta e d i E nkomi a C ipro L 'esiguo numero d ei t ranne

i d ue

s gabello,

e semplari

s ono

d a

u na

q uelli

d i

A rchanes

e

1 977).

r itrovamenti,

t utti a ttribuibili a m ani d iverse

d i

c he,

A rchanes,

r itenersi

d i

una

v alutazione

e satta

e lementi

s tessa

i dentificare u n c entro d i p roduzione t rovarsi s ulla t erraferma g reca. Per

q uail

( Poursat

c he

d oveva

e g lobale

i ndispensabile p oter d isporre a nche

d ecorativi

mano,

d ei

n on

p erö,

i n

c onfronti

d i

u no

c onsente

d i

o gni

m odo,

s arebbe

s tato

d elle p arti m ancanti d ell'oggettino:

i l v iso e i i r esto d ell'elmo ( cimiero, p araguancia e p aranuca); e p ertanto a l s olo e lmo c he c i r eferiremo n ell'istituzione d ei c onfronti. D ue P hylaki

r egistri

d i

z anne

d i

c inghiale

s ono

p resenti

( Catling 1 982) m entre g li a ltri e semplari

s empre a lmeno

t re o p i üd i

t re,

n el

g uerriero

d i

c onosciuti n e m ostrano

m a s olamente n el c aso d i M itza P ürdia l e

z anne n on s ono d isposte c on a ndamento a lternato v erso s inistra e v erso d estra c ome i n t utti g li a ltri e lmi d ell'Egeo, m a s ono r igorosamente o rientate d alla s tessa p arte. L a d uplice m odanatura e a ssai p hi d iffusa: d i P hylaki,

M icene

A ll'infuori h anno

s ulla

Per

n ell'area a ndata

t estina d i s uperficie, T ra i n

d i

d i

d i

P hylaki,

c ronologica

u n

a iuto

g li

e dificio d a

d el

f rammento

a l

p hi

r ettangolare

l avori

a ntichi

B ronzo M edio

a gricoli

t re

e

f rammenti

a ppartengono

a bbondanza,

f aience,

n ei

e semplari

a nche

d i

e gei

i n q uello d i

s ono

q uail

a ssai d al

n on sul

p rossimo

d i

c on

P ürdia

r invenuti

q uale u na

r estituiti

u n l a

r accolta

d i

m etopale

a naloghi

d alle

a d

p roviene

d ecorazione

a r ecipienti

s tati

s i

M itza

nuragici

a vorio: l e c eramiche i nfatti, f rutto m ostrano f orme e t ipi d i v an e e poche.

g rande

e

t utti p resente

i f ittili

T amuli d i M acomer ( Lilliu 1 982) e d i 1 98 1; 1 982), e tc. I n q uest'ultima v itrea

r itrova n eu e t estine

1 973).

m olto

d istrutta

i f ittili

a ttribuiti c he,

d efinizione

purtroppo

t erreno p ozzo,

g uerriero

s i

E nkomi e S pata ( Borchhardt 1 972).

l a s tephane a r icciolini

( Cassola G uida

u na

s ono

d el

f ronte

D ecimoputzu

c i

( Casa d egli s cudi),

a q uelli

s epolture

d i

S an C osimo d i G onnosfanadiga ( Ugas t ombs, numerosi i g rani d i p asta

s ono

v isti

p rodotti

d i

i mportazione

m icenea r iferibili a l M iceneo I II A 2. I n c oncomitanza c on l a c eramica a d ecorazione m etopale e l e p erle d i p asta v itrea, a San C osimo, a ttestata q uesta

l a

u na

p resenza

c lasse

d i

u na

c eramica

c iotolina t ipica

i n

d egli

c eramica s trati

g rigio-ardesia.

n ei

q uali

s i

c eramica m icenea s ia d ell'Antigori s ia d el D omu s 'Orku d i S arroch, a M itza P ürdia e a ttestata,

a nche s e

In

area

e gea

d elle

c ollocarsi

t ra

i i

I II B ( Micene, s ulla b ase d ei p untualizzare a ttesa

c he

l 'arco

t estine T E

I II

d i

c ronologico a vorio

c on

A ( Micene,

a M itza

n el e lmo

t omba

quale a z anne

2 7;

P ürdia

s i d i

A rchanes;

h a

s ia

l a

i c onfronti

a c ausa

d imostrabili

d ella

f rammentarietä

c ontatti

1 3

t ra

l a

massima

P hylaki)

d el

S ardegna

E '

a S an

c inghiale

C asa d egli S cudi; S pata; E nkomi). L 'esemplare d ati i n n ostro p ossesso, p er l 'impossibilitä d i

s iano

l a

e c he

i n p ercentuale p iuttosto b assa.

c omunque d a t enere p resente i i f atto c he s ia C osimo n on e s tata t rovata c eramica m icenea.

d iffusione

E '

t rova

p ezzo e i i

e d a e d

1 1

s ardo, m eglio e d

i n

m ondo

miceneo

p iü

antichi

g enericamente

r ispetto

i nquadrare

a q uelli

n ell'ambito

m omento p recedente q uello a l D omu s 'Orku d i S arroch.

d elle

s inora

d el M iceneo

i mportazioni

d i

c onosciuti, I IIA-IIIB, f ittili

s i

d eve

f orse i n un

a ll'Antigori

e

Q ualora s i p otesse d imostrare una d atazione d ella t estina piü a ntica d elle p rime i mportazioni a ll'Antigori e ssa p otrebbe r appresentare u n

m omento

t raffici

d i

c ontatto

s istematici

i mmediatamente

c on

l 'Oriente

a nteriore

a lb

m editerraneo.

os tabilirsi

S i

d eve

d i

c omunque

i potizzare c he i l p rimo p unto d i a rrivo d ell'oggettino s ia d a c ollocarsi s ulla

c osta,

m etallifero

d a

d ove

d el

p artono

b e

v ie

S ulcis-Iglesiente

d i

p enetrazione

e v erso

l a

r icca

v erso

m iniera

i l d i

b acino r ame

d i

F untana R aminosa d i G adoni-Nuoro. A ssai p iü c omplesso s i p resenta i i p roblema i nvece, l a r osetta i n t erracotta r osso-bruna,

p er q uanto f orata a l

r icoperta

n ello

d a

u na

c ompatta

i nvetriatura,

r invenuta

r iguarda, c entro e

s trato

9 d ella

t orre f d ell'Antigori, i n a ssociazione c on l e c eramiche d i i mportazione m iceneg- e q uelle d i i mitazione l ocale ( Ferrarese C eruti 1 983). L a d ecorazione

e c ostituita d a u na s erie d i i mpressioni d isposte a r aggiera

i ntorno a u n i ncavo c entrale, a s tampo

( fig.

L 'oggettino l igneo,

c ome

d ove s i t rova i i f oro,

e d e s tata o ttenuta

2 .3:4)d oveva

e ssere

e d ocumentato

a pplicato

d alla

a d u n s upporto

p resenza

d el

f aro

p resumibilmente

c entrale

e d al f atto

c he i l r etro e c ompletamente l iscio. B ench en el c onfronti,

i p i

m ondo

m iceneo

üg enerici

n on

d ei

o ro, a vorio e f aience d a M icene c olore e i l t ipo d ella c eramica, d ella

c eramica

l ocale

s ia

q uali

s tato

s ono

p ossibile

c ostituiti

r eperire

d alle

d ei

r osette

i n

( Xenaki-Sakellariou 1 985:292ss.), i i a nalogo, c ome s i e d etto, a q uello

( Ferrarese

C eruti

p rodotto d i i mitazione d i m odelli e gei i nusitata p er q ueste e poche e c ulture,

1 983),

p otrebbe

f am e

un

s e l a c ompatta i nvetriatura, n on s uggerisse d i s ospendere

p rudenzialmente o gni g uidizio. A

modelli

p roveniente

m icenei,

d al

v espaio

i noltre, n el

p uö

v ano

n ,

r apportarsi

d i

f orma

i l

b iconica

g rano

d i

q uarzo

a llungata

( fig.

2 .3:5), i rregolarmente s faccettato e f orato l ongitudinalmente ( XenakiS akellariou 1 985:297, 5 0). P oteva f ar p arte d i q ualche o ggetto d i o rnamento, ( ?)

f orse u na

d ei

c ollana,

c ome

i n umerosi

g rani

e d ello s tesso a mbiente n o i d ue

s ferici

i n c orniola

i n a mbra d el v ano

( M.L.F.C.)

L e c eramiche d i i mportazione e d i

i mitazione e gea

Un t entativo d i i nquadramento d elle i mportazioni c eramiche e gee i n S ardegna d eve n ecessariamente p artire d all'Antigori g razie a lla a bbondanza e varietä d ei r eperti, i n b uona p arte f rutto d i s cavo s istematico,

f in 'ora s enza e guali n ell'isola.

A l m omento d ella s coperta u n p rimo e same d ei m ateriali d i d all'Antigori c eramiche. u n 'indagine s tilistica

r ivelö A ccanto

i mmediatamente a d

m acroscopica a pparivano

a lcuni d elle c ome

l a

( non

m olti)

a rgille

o vvi 1 4

p resenza e

p rodotti

d i

f rammenti

c he

a ll 'analisi d i

t ipo

d iverse

c entri

e geo

c lassi

a nche

t ipologica e gei,

a d e s ia

p eloponnesiaci f rammenti

s ia

a ssai

d ecorazione.

c retesi,

p i

s i

t rovavano

üg rossolani

s ia

" micenei p rovinciali e /o

l ocali"

p roduzione

e p etrografiche e D ay 1 986). A q uesta s tudio

p ertinenti

s chiacciante

t ipo

d i

argilla

m aggioranza s ia

n ella

T ali m ateriali d efiniti i n u n p rimo m omento t entativamente

p oi d imostrati e ssere d i

d ello

i n

n el

d elle a rgille

v arietä s i

d i

d a

1 986;

m ateriali un

1 982;

F rench 1 985)

s ono s tati

l ocale i n b ase a lle a nalisi c himiche

( Jones

e a ggiunto

a v asi

( Vagnetti

c on

i l

gruppo

t rasporto

e d

V agnetti

u n

e J ones

p roseguimento

d i

f rammenti

p iccolo

1 986;

d ello

e gei

gruppo

d i

J ones

s cavo

e

i mportati f rammenti

c iprioti. I n

q uesta

b reve

d iscussione

s ulle

c eramiche

t enteremo

q uindi

d i

p roporre a lcune i ndicazioni g enerali s ulla p rovenienza e c ronologia d ei m ateriali i mportati, s ulla l oro r elazione s tratigrafica c on l e c eramiche d ipinte

l ocali e s ulle p ossibili f onti d i i spirazione d i q ueste u ltime.

C ominciando d al p rimo p unto p ossiamo p recisare c he f ra l e c eramiche f ini i mportate s ono c hiaramente d istinguibili f rammenti p eloponnesiaci e f rammenti

c retesi.

T uttavia m olti

c onsentire

u n 'attribuzione

f rammenti.

E '

p er

p ezzi

b asata

l 'inquadramento

s olo d i

s ono

t roppo m al

s ull'aspetto

q uesti

u ltimi

c onservati

p er

e steriore

d ei

c he

l e

a nalisi

d i

l aboratorio h anno d ato e d aranno u n c ontributo f ondamentale.

, a ! ib ›X

e r lY 2

2 1, . 11 0 9 . 11 1

2a

e 1p 11 1.10 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 19 1.1 1 1 1 11 1,1 i mp.i n i f

ebp lu j

2b

2b

F igura 2 .3

1 -2.

M itza P ürdia. a vorio

3 .

( 1:1)

A ntigori, i nvetriata

4 .

A ntigori,

F rammento d i e d

i potesi

v ano f .

t estina d i g uerriero i n

r icostruttiva

( non i n s cala).

E lemento d ecorativo c on s uperficie

( 2:1 7 . v ano n .

P erla i n q uarzo

1 5

( 1:1).

F ra

i m ateriali

p eloponnesiaci d ue p ezzi

s ono b en i nquadrabili n el

I II B . U n f rammento d i r hyton c onico ( FS 1 99) d ecorato c on u na f orma i brida d i f iore s u s telo c ombinata a l m otivo d el m urice ( FM 1 8 ,B+23) s econd ( ) u no s chema m olto c omune n el P eloponneso e i nquadrabile p robabilmente n el I II B 1 e t rova b uoni c onfronti i n e semplari d a M icene e d a C ipro ( Ferrarese C eruti 1 98 1b:fig. M 4; 1 982a:tay. 6 3:5; F orsdyke 1 925:fig. 2 85, 1 067:2; W ardle 1 969:fig. 7 :74; M urray e t a l. 1 900:fig. 7 5:1114). A ltri f rammenti s ono p ertinenti a d u n c raterisco b iansato ( FS 3 04) d ecorato c on s pirale c orrente d al c entro p ieno. S i t ratta d i u n t ipo a ssolutamente c onsueto d el r epertorio a rgolico d el I II B ( Ferrarese C eruti

1 982a:tay.

6 3:3;

1 985;

M ountjoy

1 986:119).

a rgolica d ei d ue p ezzi e s tata c onfermata d alle a nalisi n .97720; J ones e D ay 1 986:R.3724)-

L a

f abbricazione

( Jones 1 986:214,

U n s olo p ezzo i nvece f ra q uelli s ufficientemente c aratterizzati p er e ssere

c ronologicamente

i nquadrabili

s embra d a r iferire a l T E I IIC.

S i

t ratta d i u n f rammento d i v aso a perto c on i nterno m onocromo d al v ano n , p robabilmente r icostruibile c ome u na c oppetta c on a nsa o rizzontale F S 2 42 ( fig. 2 .4 :2). Q uesto t ipo d i v aso n on c ompare p rima d el T E I IIC m edio ( seconds m etä d el X II s ec. a .C.) e p ertanto, p er i l m oment°, r appresenta i l p i ür ecente p ezzo i mportato r invenuto a ll'Antigori ( Mountjoy 1 986:172; J ones e D ay 1 986:n .22).

2 Zr 2

a

F igura 2 .4

1 . 2 .

A ntigori, A ntigori,

3 .

A ntigori, v ano a . R icostruzione d i g iara a s taffa d a t rasporto ( non i n s cala)

4 .

A ntigori, v ano n . F rammento d i p ithos c on d ecorazione a s pina d i p esce A ntigori, v ano a . C iotolina a r uota l enta c on s uperf icie m onocro m i— l ucidata ( 1:2) A ntigori, v ano a . M otivo d ecorativo s u c eramica d ipinta

5 . 6 .

v ano a . v ano n .

P iede d i k ylix c retese ( 1:2) F rammento d i t azza m onoansata ( 1:2)

l ocale 7 -8.

M otivi d ecorativi s u c eramiche c retesi 1 6

A p roduzione c retese d el I IIB p ossono e ssere a ttribuiti a lcuni f rammenti s ia d el t ipo a p asta b ianca c he d el t ipo a p asta r ossa c aratteristici d ella r egione d i C haniä i n C reta o ccidentale. r ispettivamente d i u na c oppa o t azza c on m otivo f loreale C eruti

1 982a:tay.

6 3:1)

S i t ratta ( Ferrarese

e d i u na g iaretta a s taffa c on c orpo l enticolare

( Ferrarese C eruti 1 982a:tay .63:7-8) c he s ono a mbedue c onfrontabili c on m ateriali r invenuti a C hania-Kastelli ( PAlsson H allager 1 985; V agnetti 1 985a ;

1 985b;

M eno

J ones

1 986:214,

p recisabili

d al

n n.

9 77 13,

p unto

d i

9 7738).

v ista

c ronologico

m a

u gualmente

a scrivibili a d a mbiente c retese, a nche i n b ase a i r isultati d elle a nalisi ( Jones e D ay 1 986) s ono i n umerosi f rammenti d i u n g rande p ithos a c ordoni c on t acche o blique r invenuti p revalentemente n ello s trato 1 3 d el v ano a ( Ferrarese C eruti A ccanto

a q uesti

p ezzi

1 98 1b:fig. M 9; b en

J ones e D ay 1 986:n.35).

c aratterizzati

c i

s ono

a ltri

e sempi

d i

c eramica s emi-fine e f ine c hiaramente i mportata; f ra e ssi r icordiamo u n f rammento d i g rande v aso a perto d i c ui e c onservata p arte d ell'ansa d al v ano q ( Ferrarese C eruti 1 986:fig. 8 :5); d ue f rammenti, p resumibilmente a ppartenenti a lb os tesso v aso, d ai v ani e j ( Ferrarese C eruti 1 986:figg. 7 :3, 8 :4); u n f rammento p ertinente a d u n p iede d i k ylix a p asta c olor c rema c on p ittura r osso b rillante d al v ano a ( fig . 2 .4:1). L 'aspetto c retese d egli u ltimi t re p ezzi e s tato c oT rfermato d alle a nalisi

( Jones 1 986:2 14 ,

3 732;

J ones e D ay 1 986:nn.

U n a ltro f rammento c on m otivo c urvilineo s tilizzato p otrebbe e ssere c retese s econdo ( 1985:fig. 8 ; F errarese C eruti 1 982:tay. 6 3:4). A bbiamo a ccennato d ifficile i nquadrare s u a nalizzati s embrano d i

6 e 1 5).

f orse p arte d i p olipo B . P alsson H allager

a lla p resenza d i v asi d a t rasporto c he e b asi s tilistiche e t ipologiche. A lcuni p ezzi p rovenienza p eloponnesiaca ( Ferrarese C eruti

1 982a :tay. 6 3:10; J ones e D ay 1 986), a ltri p er l 'aspetto d ell'argilla c olor r osso a rancio p otrebbero e ssere c retesi ( Ferrarese C eruti 1 98 1b :fig. E-

M e t entativo d i r icostruzione q ui a f ig.

g iunto

s ignificativi a ll'Antigori.

q uindi

i l

m ateriali

m omento c eramici

d i

2 .4:3)-

a ccennare

c ollegabili

a i a

n on

C ipro

m olti

m a

r invenuti

D ue f rammenti s ono g ià s tati p ubblicati e s ono s tati a ttribuiti a lla c eramica c ipriota c onosciuta c ome B ase-Ring I I c aratteristica d el T C I I. S i t ratta d i u n f rammento p ertinente a l f ondo d i u n v aso p resumibilmente c hiuso e d i u n 'ansa w ish-bone.

I i p rimo n on e r iferibile

a s trato m entre l b s econdo p roviene d alla s trato 4 d ella t orre c n el q uale e s tato t rovato a nche u n f rammento d i c eramica d ipinta l ocale e d u n

f rammento

d i

f erro

( Lo

S chiavo

e t

a l.

1 985:fig.2:4-5;

F errarese

C eruti 1 986:fig.4:5). L a a ttribuzione a f abbrica c ipriota d ei d ue f rammenti n on e s tata p er o ra c onfermata d alle a nalisi, c he h anno p erö e scluso l a l oro p ertinenza a lle f abbriche l ocali d ella S ardegna o a lle c orrenti M a

f abbriche e gee i l

( Jones e D ay 1 986).

r invenimenento

p ia

i nteressante

c he

s i

p resenta

q ui

i n

d ettaglio p er l a p rima v olta e u n p ezzo d i g rande p ithos d ecorato c on f asce f ormate d a 4 -5 s canalature ( fig. 2 .5). E. - s tato r invenuto n ello s trato 7 d el v ano momenti d i u so d el

r iutilizzato n ella p avimentazione d i u no d ei v ano ( Ferrarese C eruti 1 986:187). Una f ascia 1 7

F igura 2 .5

A ntigori, v ano .E . F rammenti d i p ithos i mportato d a C ipro c on i potesi r icostruttiva

. 1 1. 1

F igura 2 .6

1 -7. A ntigori, 8 .

I»

v ano a .

B arumini, v ano 1 7.

S celta d i c eramiche d ipinte l ocali F rammento d i c eramica d ipinta l ocale 1 8

o rizzontale d ispone

d elimita

s ul

v entre

l a d el

s palla g rosso

p ithos c omune a C ipro n ella I I e d ell'inizio d el T C

1 972b :748 ;

A strom

e t

e d

u n 'altra

t arda e t äd el I II ( Astrom

1 976:35 -3 7,

a l.

c on

c ontenitore.

a ndamento

S i

t ratta

o ndulato

d i

u n

s i

t ipo

d i

b ronzo, i n p articolare n el T C 1 972a:259-64, f ig. L XXII:6;

f ig .

1;

D othan

e

B en -T or

1 983:113-115, f ig. 5 2:2) c on c onfronti a nche s ulla c osta s iro-palestinese, i n p articolare a d U garit ( Schaeffer 1 949:fig.85:21). L a c onferma i n b ase a lle a nalisi p etrografiche e c himiche d ell'attribuzione a C ipro d i q uesto d ettaglio d a J ones e D ay ( 1986).

i mportante

p ezzo

e d iscussa

i n

A ccanto a q uesti t re g ruppi d i i mportazioni m icenee c ontinentali, c retesi e c ipriote s ono s tati r invenuti n umerosissimi f rammenti d i una c lasse p asta r uota

d i

c eramics

d ipinta

p iuttosto

g rossolana,

c aratterizzata

d a

u na

c olor a rancio o n occiola, r icca d i i nclusi b iancastri, e seguita a l enta, c on s uperfici c olor c uoio p esantemente l ucidate a s tecca e

d ecorate

c on

m otivi

t racciati

v iolacea o o ccasionalmente C eruti 1 979 ; 1 98 1b ; 1 982a). s tata

c onfermata

d alle

J ones i n s tampa; La

f ine

r ossastra,

r osso-bruna,

g eneralmente o paca ( Ferrarese L 'ipotesi d ella s ua p roduzione l ocale e

a nalisi

d ella d a

d ecisamente

m olto

q uesto

d i

t ipo

p ittura

d i

l aboratorio

( Jones

1 986;

V agnetti

e

p asta

e f attura

J ones e D ay 1 986).

q ualitä

a bbastanza

i n

n erastra,

c eramica

p oter

e ssere

s cadenti.

c eramica

v aria

d a

N onostante

d eve

p ezzi

a vvicinati

e ssere

d i

a p ezzi

q uesta

t rattato

i mportati

d isparitä

c ome

a p ezzi

d i

un 'unica

l ivello

c lasse

p er

u na c erta u nit ät ipologica e s tilistica c he l e e p ropria. S e c onsideriamo l e r iferibili p er q uelle

q uelle c hiuse L a

( fig.

2 .6:6-7).

d ecorazione

o ndulate,

f orme n otiamo c he e sse s ono q uasi e sclusivamente

a c oppe p rofonde e p iccoli c rateri d erivanti d a F S 2 84-285 a perte ( fig. 2 .6:1-5) e a b rocchette ( ?) o a nforette ( ?) p er

e a nch'essa p iuttosto m onotona.

s emicerchi

c oncentrici

a lternati,

( fig. 2 .6:1-7). S olo o ccasionalmente c omplesso c ome l osanghe c ollegate p er a lternate C eruti

a s emicerchi

1 982a:tay.

Una

6 5,

c oncentrici 1 ,3 e q ui

c aratteristica

s i u n

o m otivi a s pina d i

f ig.

p ressoche

G li

e lementi

c on

l e

s ono

p er

d i

r affronto

l o

l osanghe a g raticcio

b ande

a g raticcio

p esce

( Ferrarese

4 :6).

c ostante

e q uindi

p i üg enerici.

t ratta d i

b ande

p resenta q ualche m otivo p iü a ngolo r iempite a g raticcio

d elle

c oppe

d ecorazione d ell'interno d ell'orlo c on p ennellate u na l ines o rizzontale ( fig. 2 .6:1-5).

c eramica

S i

p iccole

d i

A lcuni

s embrerebbero

p rofonde

v erticali

c ronologia

d i

p articolari

r iferibili

e l a

l imitate

q uesta c ome

d a

c lasse

i l

m otivo

a p rototipi

c omuni

a C reta n el I IIB ( Popham 1 970:fig.3:27-28 e qui f ig. 4 :7-8) e d in p articolare a d u n c ratere i nedito d agli s cavi G reco-Svedesi d i C haniä, r invenuto s u d i u n p avimento T M I IIB 1 T ali m otivi

c onfronti

d ecorativi

d ell'inizio 1 986).

d el

I IIC

a ppaiono

p i

r ilevabili i n

a mbiente

( 1).

üp untuali

i n

d ei

c eramiche

c ananeo

1 9

r iferimenti

d i

p roposti

a s imili

i mitazione

m icenea

r ecentemente

( Dothan

A nche c onfronti

i i

m ateriali f ig.2). A d

s istema

d ecorativo

d ell'interno

c onvincenti i n a mbiente m iceneo, d el

T M

o rigine

I II

( Sackett

c ontinentale

e

P opham

s embrerebbe

d ell'orlo,

p rivo

d i

p resenta q ualche a nalogia c on 1 965:fig.11f,

i nvece

1 5:P34 ;

r iferibile

l a

1 965:

s erie

d i

b ande v erticali a g raticcio ( fig. 2 .6:1) c he p otrebbe d erivare d a s istemi d ecorativi t ipici d elle c oppe p rofonde n el T E I IIB ( Mountjoy 1 986:figg.143:1, 1 60:2). Ec omuni b ande

p iü

d ifficile

a ll'Antigori o ndulate

s emplici,

s tabilire

d ecorati

( fig.

d iffusi

o rigine

c on

2 .6:2-7).

s ia

i n

S i

G recia

5 1

e ;

1 984:tay.

1 79:1)

i nduce

d ei

c oncentrici

t ratta

s ia

p ezzi

a ssai

a lternati o c on

i nfatti

c ontinentale

s oprattutto n el I IIC. M a l a l oro ( Tzedakis 1 969:tay. I II i n a lto a l t ay.

e c ronologia

s emicerchi

d i

m otivi

a C reta

e d

molto

a ltrove,

p resenza a C reta g iä n el T M I IIB c entro; P opham 1 970:fig.3, 3 6-37,

a m antenere

l a

l oro

d atazione

e ntro

t ermini p iuttosto a mpi. I n c onclusione q uests c lasse d i c eramica d i d erivazione e gea m ostra a l s uo i nterno c omponenti van e c he r iflettono i n c erto p luralitä d elle i mportazioni c ha a bbiamo d iscusso p oco s opra. A d

e ssa

f rammenti d i

i nclusi,

a lcuna

e i

c he

d eve

s uperficie

d ecorazione

c omunque

c ollegato

a ffini

p er a spetto

c lasse,

l ucidata

d ipinta.

n occiola-grigiastro Q uesta

r itenere

p ur e ssendo m olto I i

( Ferrarese

i ntermedia

f ra

a lla

s tecca,

c olore C eruti

l a

p iccolo

t ecnico

r uota

d ella

M 1 5;

d ipinta

l a

g ruppo

d i

( pasta

l enta)

r icca

n on p resenta

ageneralmente

s uperficie

1 98 1b:fig.

c eramica

u n

s enso

q ui

e l a

f ig.

2 .4:5).

c eramica

l ocale

d i i mpasto c on s uperfici l ucidate g rigio-ardesia, p otrebbe r appresentare p er l a S ardegna m eridionale q uell° c he l a c eramica g rigia d i t ecnica m inis,

d i

l 'Italia ( Bergonzi 1 985),

d erivazione

e gea

m a

m eridionale i onica e C ardarelli 1 982a;

a nche

s e

l a

d i

p roduzione

e d i n 1 982b;

e siguitä

l ocale,

d ella

p unto

d i

v ista

s tratigrafico

p ossiamo

p er

l a S ibaritide 1 984; B ergonzi

d ocumentazione

a ll'abbondanza d i q uella i taliana n on d eve e ssere Dal

r appresenta

p articolare p er 1 984; B elardelli

s arda

r ispetto

s ottaciuta.

p er

i l

m omento

r ilevare

q uanto s egue: Materiali

e gei

i mportati

e

m ateriali

d ipinti

l ocali

s ono

g eneralmente a ssociati n egli s tessi s trati. S embra quindi c he p roduzione d i c eramica d ipinta l ocale a ll'Antigori n on s opravviva

l a a l

c essare

d a

d elle

i mportazioni

e gee.

A nalogamente

d iverse a ree e gee s ono g eneralmente a ssociati I materiali s ecolo

i mportati

s ono

p er

l o

p i üd atabili

( TE/TM I IIB e p rima p arte d el I IIC;

c ronologico l ocale.

s ono

N on

r iferibili

e s tato

i m odelli

p er o ra

d ell'edizione d efinitiva d ello p resenza

d i

p ithoi

T C I I/III).

i spiratori i p recisi s tabiliti

i mportati,

c he

d ella

a bbiamo

r elitto

Ka

X III

e X II

c eramica d ipinta c ertamente p iü

l imiti c ronologici d ei s olamente n ell'ambito

a p rima

S i p uö b en s piegare a lla l uce d elle d i

n el

s cavo c he e i n p reparazione.

s orprendente, s ub

i mportati

A lb os tesso a rco

i ndividuato n essun e lemento

a ntico d ell'inizio d el I IIB a nche s e m ateriali i mportati p otranno e ssere

L a

i m ateriali

f ra l oro.

n el

q uale 2 0

v ista

p rime

I p ithoi

p uö

a pparire

i nformazioni c he

e rano

u sati

c ome

c ontenitori

d i

n ecessariamente

m erci c ome

( ceramiche,

c ontenitori

d i

p aste d errate

v itree ( Bass

e cc.)

1 986).

e

E '

n on

c omunque

i nteressante n otare e he i i f atto d i a verli r invenuti i n f rammenti r iutilizzati, n ello s trata 1 3 d el v ano a ( vespaio d i p avimentazione) e n ello s trato s iano s tati c ontenitori.

7 d el v ano ( pavimento) f a r itenere i mprobabile e he e ssi u sati a ll'Antigori c on l a l oro f unzione o riginaria d i

Non v a p er s ottaciuta l 'esistenza d i u n f rammento d i p ithos d ecorato c on u na b anda i n r ilievo c on u n m otivo i nciso a s pina d i p esce ( fig. 2 .4:4) e he s econd( ) l e a nalisi s arebbe s imile a lle c eramiche d ipinte l ocali ( Jones e D ay 1 986:n.25). Q uesto f rammento c ostituisce i i p rimo i ndizio d ella e sistenza a nche i n S ardegna d i u na p roduzione l ocale s pecializzata

d i

g randi

c ontenitori

i n

a rgilla

d epurata,

m odelli e gei e c iprioti, a nalogamente a q uanto e s tato e videnziato p er l a S ibaritide ( Bergonzi e C ardarelli 1 982a ; 1 984;

B ergonzj S embra

i spirati

a

r ecentemente 1 9821 ) ; B uffa

1 985)-

p rematuro

i n

q uesta

f ase

d ello

s tudio

t entare

d i

s tabilire

u na r elazione p ercentuale f ra l e c eramiche d i d iversa p rovenienza e gea e f ra q ueste e l e c eramiche d ipinte l ocali e he s arä p ossibile e s ignificativa s olo a d ocumentazione c ompletata. P er

d are

u n q uadro

e sauriente

p rovenienza o d i i mitazione l ocalitä d ella S ardegna. F ra l e

i mportazioni

e gea

a ccenniamo

e he

r icordiamo

s ono

a lle

s tate

i f rammenti

s carse

t rovate

c eramiche

d i

i n p oche a ltre

d ella z ona d i O rosei d i

f abbrica P eloponnesiaca d el T E I IIB ( Lo S chiavo e V agnetti 1 980; J ones 1 986:208) e a lcuni f rammenti, p urtroppo t ipologicamente i nsignificanti, d al n uraghe D omu ' s O rku ( Ferrarese C eruti 1 982b:tay. 6 4:11,12; 1 985:252) e he l e 1 986:nn.30-31).

a nalisi

a ttribuiscono

a C reta

c entrale

( Jones

e D ay

N ello s tesso n uraghe, e he d ista a ppena d ue k m. i n l inea d 'aria d all'Antigori, s ono s tati t rovati a nche a lcuni f rammenti d ipinti a ttribuibili a p roduzione l ocale ( Ferrarese C eruti 1 982b:tay. 6 4:10; J ones e D ay 1 986:n .32). U n f rammento d i q uest 'ultima c lasse e s tato i ndividuato a nche n el v ano 1 7 d i B arumini ( Ferrarese C eruti 1 98 1b:fig. M 16 e q ui f ig. 6 :8) e f orse a lla s tessa c ategoria s i p otrebbe a ttribuire l ' unico

f rammentino

r invenuto

n el

n uraghe

N astasi

d i

T ertenia

( Basoli

1 980 C ome a bbiamo d etto

i n a ltra

o ccasione

( Lo S chiavo

e V agnetti

1 986)

s ospendiamo i i g uidizio s ui f rammenti " ciprioti d i i spirazione m icenea" d i T harros ( Acquaro 1 982:tay. 2 6; 1 983:tay. 1 8:1) p er n on a verne a vuto v isione

d iretta

e p er

e ssere

a lmeno

i n

p arte

c ertamente

p iü

r ecenti

d ella f ase m icenea p ropriamente d etta. P er i l f rammento s poradico d alla G rotta S u G uanu d i P ozzomaggiore a bbiamo e spresso i n a ltra s ede l e d ifficoltä d i u n 'interpretazione s icura, s ia p er l 'ambiguitA d ella d ecorazione s ia p er l a s ituazione d el r invenimento ( Lo S chiavo e V agnetti 1 986). L 'ipotesi d i i mportazione d all'area e gea e c omunque o ra c onfortata d ai r isultati d elle a nalisi e he i ndicano i l P eloponneso c ome p robabile a rea d i p rovenienza d el p ezzo, a nche s e c ia n on o ffre o vviamente c onferme p er u na s ua c ronologia a lta ( Jones e D ay 1 986).

( L.V.) 2 1

P roduzione, I l

t ecnologia e s cambi n el s ettore d ella m etallurgia

t ema

d ella

m etallurgia

s tato

d iversi l avori a nche r ecentissimi L o S chiavo e t a l. 1 985). E- l egittimo p erciö s pazio, a d ue p rimo p iano. Ormai r apporto

t rattato 1 982a;

d iffusamente

1 983a;

1 985;

i n

1 986;

s intetizzare q ui l e c onclusioni e d are m aggiore

p unti m olto

i mportanti

i ndiscutibile

C ipro-Sardegna

o rmai

( Lo S chiavo

p er

n el

c he n on s ono

q ualitä

c ampo

s tati

e q uantitä

d i

d ella m etallurgia;

f inora p osti

d ocumenti

e sso

i n

e ii

c omprende

s ia

i mportazioni, s ia i mitazioni p rossime c ronologicamente e t ipologicamente a i m odelli, s ia p i üt arde l ibere r ielaborazioni. E- p ossibile p recisare c on s ufficiente c hiarezza l e c omponenti d i c iascuno d i q uesti t re f enomeni: l e i mportazioni c omprendono m ateriali d atabili

i n

maggioranza

a l

X II

s ec.

e c onsistono

i n

d oppie

a sce

m assicce, s trumenti d a f onditore ( martelli, p inze, p alette), e t ripodi; l e i mitazioni p rossime s eguono i mmediatamente, f orse a nche c ontemporaneamente

a d

u n

p rosieguo

d i

i mportazioni,

n ell'XI

s ec.,

c on

d oppie a sce a t agli c onvergenti, d oppie a sce a t agli o rtoganali e p icconi, c on palette e d a ltri a ttrezzi d i produzione l ocale, c on s pecchi,

a ttacchi

n el X -IX c ulturale

c alderone

s ecolo l e i n q uanto

c onsolidata, S i

d i

a s pirali,

t ripodi

i nfluenze e sotiche, o rmai d ivenute e sperienza t ecnologica e s celta

s i d istinguono s olo a l ivello d i

r icordi c he

e b ronzetti;

i nfine,

p atrimonio d i g usto

i mpronta o riginaria.

l a S ardegna n on e s tata s olo

i l p unto d i a rrivo,

m a

a nche i i t ramite t anto p assivo c he a ttivo p er i l passaggio s ia d i materiali c iprioti, c he d i p roduzione n uragica d i i mitazione o d i r ielaborazione, n ell'Italia C entrale c on l a q uale, s oprattutto a lla f ine d ell'Etä d el B ronzo F inale, E- b ene,

a c onclusione

c he n on s embra i mpossibile, c ritica, a ttribuire u na f ase s pecifica, d egli

a ltri

f ogge

s ia

d i

a ttacco

d i

q uesta

s intesi,

s ottolineare t ipologica e

a pprossimazione u n o ggetto d i b ronzo a d g razie a lle c ronologie d ei r ipostigli e

c iprioti,

i mitazione

r apidissima

m ediante u n'attenta v alutazione

c on b uona a nzitutto

c ontesti

m aggioranza d ei A d

e d ocumentato u n v ivace i nterscambio.

p oi

p rossima

g razie c he

a lle

r emota

c aratterizzazioni c he

n e

d elle

p ermettono

n ella

c asi u na c orretta i ndividuazione.

e sempio,

c ogliendo

d 'ansa b ilobato

s punto

d all'illustrazione

c on m aniglia d ecorata

v enuto i nsieme c on a ltri d ue,

d a u n

d i

u n

f iore

b acile

d i

l oto,

c on r in-

d ei q ua i l u no c on l o s tesso t ipo d i a nsa e

l 'altro c on a ttacco t rilobato c on d ecorazione a s pirale, n ella c apanna 5 o S ala d elle R iunioni d i S ardara, s i e sprime q ualche d ubbio s u d i u n s uo i nquadramento

a lla

f ine

d ell'VIII

e dizione d efinitiva d ello s cavo, I l n ella

t ipo

c onfronti

( Ugas

r ipostiglio d el

i n

1 985;

d i

c on

P alaepaphos-Skales

a ttesa 1 986a;

i l

b acile

c on

( Karageorghis

a ttacco a t riplice

d i

e d

i l

r iferimento

a diacente Bronzo

p ermanenza i n u so,

f a

a lla

r itenere

F inale,

s alva

p resenza

d i

p ia

p robabile

p oi

l a

s ec. 1 983)

c on

o ttimi

( Lo S chiavo e t d a

una

p ossibilitä

i ndiziata d a v istose r iparazioni. 2 2

s ec. m olle

u na

1 986b).

1 982;

s pirale

c iprioti e l evantini d ella f ine X III e X II

1 985:33)

n ell'Etä

p roposta,

d i a nsa e i nfatti a ttestato a C ipro a p artire d all'XI

n ecropoli

l 'associazione a l.

s ecolo

d all'Autore

f uoco

n el

i mportazione d i

una

s ua

N on

s i

p uö

d i D ecimoputzu, X -IX

s ec.

c hiaramente

i gnorare

i i

f atto

c he n el

r ipostiglio

d i M onte

S a

I dda

n el q uale s ono l argamente p resenti materiali d atabili a l

( Lilliu

1 967:225;

i spirate

a l

t ipo

1 973:294 , c ipriota

n .92),

c on

v i

f iore

s ono

d i

d ue

l oto,

c he

a nse q uindi

d oveva e ssere s tato b en c onosciuto i n p recedenza. U na o ggetto

p osizione d i

s tudio

a p arte e d i

o ccupano

a nalisi

p er

i l

m omento

s pecifiche,

i n

i . l ingotti

a ttesa

o x-hide,

p rudenziale

d ei

r isultati, a nche s e, d al p unto d i v ista a rcheologico e s torico, l a s oluzione p i üp lausibile d el p roblema e c he, a nalogamente a lla c eramica e d a t utti

g li

a ltri b ronzi,

l a

f orma o x-hide

s ia

s tata o riginariamente

i mportata n ella p i üa ntica f ase d ei c ontatti e p oi r iprodotta l ocalmente, c ome a ppare p rovato d al m oltiplicarsi d ei r invenimenti, o ra a ttestati

i n

p iü

d i

S chiavo e V agnetti I n

q uesto

v enti

1 980;

l ocalit

d istribuite

L o S chiavo e t a l.

c ontest°

s i

i nquadrano

s i i ntende a ttirare l 'attenzione: l a e l a l avorazione e l ' uso d el f erro. Per

i l

p rimo,

s i

f a

i n

d ue ‚ fatti

l 'isola

f ondamentali

t ecnica d ella

r iferimento

t utta

( Lo

1 985:10-13).

a d

s ui

q uail

f usione a c era p ersa

un' affermazione

d i

E llen

M acnamara: " It

has

b een

a rgued... t hat

s ome

C ypriot

b ronzeworkers

a lso

r eached S ardinia d uring t he e leventh a nd t enth c enturies, b ronzesmiths w orking i n S ardinia w ere f amiliar w ith t he skills

of

c asting

b ronze

by

t he

i nvestment

or

l ost-wax

t echnique. I f t he p rototypes...with t he n ecessary s kill were all present i n Sardinia a t t he end o f t he s econd m illennium

B .C.,

t hen

i t

i s

a t

l east

p ossible

t hat

s ome

S ardinian f igurines w ere m ade d uring t he I talian L ate B ronze A ge, a nd l ong b efore t he c olonising e ra." ( Lo S chiavo e t a l.

1 985:61)

E." a t utti n oto c ome l a p raticata

i n

E geo

e n el

t ecnica d ella c era p ersa f osse c onosciuta e

V icino

O riente

a p artire

d al

B ronzo

A ntico

I

( Laviosa 1 969; B ranigan 1 974; N egbi 1 976; D e J esus 1 980; B ar-Adon 1 980; V erlinden 1 986) e c he l a d ifficolta d i d atare c on s icurezza g li e semplari

p i üa ntichi

s carsamente

d erivi

d alla

d istruzione

d elle m atrici

d ' argilla,

r iconoscibili u na v olta r otte p er l 'estrazione d el p rodotto.

D 'altra

p arte

s olo

i l

r invenimento d ella m atrice

p uö g arantire,

i n

m olti c asi, c he l a f attura s ia s tata r ealizzata c on i l s istema d ella c era p ersa p iuttosto c he c on m atrici m ultiple. L a S eeden r itiene c he a lcuni

d ei

b ronzetti

d i

d ivinita d el

p rodotti i n m atrici b ivalvi L a

t ecnica

d ella

T ardo B ronzo

d a B yblos

s iano s tati

( Seeden 1 970:41).

c era

p ersa

s econd°

C atling

s arebbe

s tata

i ntrodotta a C ipro n el T CII a ttraverso i c ontatti d 'oltremare e c ertamente e ra p raticata n el T CIII

c on l e p opolazioni ( Catling 1 964:248;

C atling

s ui

1 984);

r ecenti

s tudi

d i

E llen

M acnamara

t ripodi

hanno

a ccertato c he l 'impiego d i q uesto s istema d i f abbricazione e ra p iü a mpio d i q uanto l o s tesso C atling a vesse i potizzato ( Macnamara e t a l. 1 984; L o S chiavo e t a l. I n t ecnica, a sce

1 985:38).

S ardegna i n

r esta

r elazione

a m argini

u gualmente a l

r ialzati,

d ubbio

s istema l e

d i

f orme 2 3

i i

p rimo

f abbricazione,

p ia

a ntiche

i mpiego a d

d elle

d i

e sempio, q uali

q uesta d elle

r isalgono

c ertamente,

a

m otivo

a lmeno a ll'Etä p reparazione). m otivo

p er

s tagione

d ubitare

d i

d iretto F inale,

n uova

c on l a p er p oi

i mitazioni

d i

p recisi

c onfronti

c on

f ogge

c entroitaliche,

d el B ronzo M edio ( Carancini 1 982:94; L o S chiavo, i n P er , p ur l asciando a perto q uesto p roblems, n on v i e c he

l a

t ecnica

f ioritura

i n

d ella

c era

c oincidenza

p ersa

c on

l a

a bbia f ase

a vuto

d i

m etallurgia c ipriota a ll'inizio d ell'Etä t rovare l a s ua massima a pplicazione n ella

p rossime

( circa

X I

s ec.)

e d

e spandersi

u na

r apporto

d el B ronzo f ase d elle

l argamente

n el

s uccessivo p eriodo d elle l ibere r ielaborazioni a lla f ine d ell'Etä d el B ronzo F inale. I b ronzetti n ei c ontesti d atati d el I X s ecolo ( Falconi A morelli

1 966;

B artoloni

C avalupo d i V ulci, c apo-tribü d a O ssi

e D elpino

1 975)

c ome

quelli

d ella

t omba

a i q uali s i p ossono o ra a ggiungere i i b ronzetto d i ( Ferrarese C eruti 1 985b), l a p iccola c esta b ronzea

d al v ano F d el v illaggio n uragico d i S 'Urbale

( Teti)

( Fadda 1 985:123)

e d

u n f rammento d i b ronzetto d a u n r ipostiglio d i U sini ( loc. S 'Adde ' e S 'Ulumu, i nedito) v anno d unque v isti c ome u n p unto d i a rrivo d ella s perimentazione

e n on

c erto

c ome

u n

p unto

d i

p artenza:

n e

s ono p rova

t ripodi, i mportati, i mitati e r ielaborati n egli u ltimi s econdo m illennio, p rodotti t utti c on f usione a c era p ersa.

s ecoli

i

d el

L o s tesso q uadro d i r iferimento e l e s tesse c onclusioni s ono v alidi p er l a l avorazione e p er l 'impiego d egli o ggetti d i f erro. N on e c erto q uesta

l a

s ede

a datta

p er

r ipercorrere

l a

s toria

d el

f erro,

d alla

s ua

s coperta", a lla d iffusione d i o ggetti d i o rnamento e d i p restigio, f ino a lla p roduzione d i o ggetti d 'uso, n ei q uali l e p roprietä s pecifiche d i q uesto

m etallo

v enivano

e saltate m ediante

o perazioni

d i

f orgiatura e d i

t empera, a nche p erch er icerche a vanzate h anno f atto i l p unto s ulla s ituazione, i nsieme f acendo g iustizia d i m olti l uoghi c omuni ( Wertime e M uhly e d.

1 980;

S enza,

M addin 1 982;

d unque,

V aroufakis

s offermarsi

1 982;

s ulla

W aldbaum 1 982).

p reistoria

n ell'Etä d el B ronzo n el V icino O riente e i n E geo, ( in E gitto, A natolia, P alestina) s i r egistra f erro

d al

X II

a ll'XI

C reta, C ipro, u n a umento d i

s ecolo,

m entre

d ell'uso

s i

G recia, I sole E gee, p roduzione d i o ggetti

s oprattutto

a C ipro,

P alestina n ell'XI s ecolo s i a ssiste a d u na d iffusione d i f erro, in p ercentuale s empre m aggiore r ispetto b ronzo,

t anto

d a

c onsentire

d el

a lb oS nodgrass

d i

f erro

r icorda c he o vunque S iria e d 'uso d i

i n S iria e i n

d i o ggetti d 'uso a gli o ggetti d i

a ffermare

c he

C ipro,

i n

p articolare, e l a p rima r egione d el m ondo a ntico a p assare d all'Etä d el B ronzo a ll'Etä d el F erro ( Snodgrass 1 982; A ström e t a l. 1 986). I n

S ardegna

i ntroduzione d ella

d el

a bbiamo f erro,

m etallurgia:

d el v ano d i f erro

s uperiore d i f orma

a ncora

l egata

q uesta

a l

u na

v olta

d ominante

e c ostituita

d al

u na

prays

i nflusso

d i

c orroso e d o ssidato,"

r invenimento

n ello

t ipo

c on

d eposizioni

d 'ambra A llumiere

r eperti d i

" ad

c ampo

s trato

4

i n a ssociazione s tratigrafica c on l ' ansa w ish-bone

Q uesto d ocumento v iene a c onfermare u na u na d aga c on i mpugnatura d i s teatite d a

c assone" g rani

a ntica

d ella t orre C d el n uraghe A ntigori, d i " un p ezzetto s ubcircolare — , s ottile, d el d iametro d i c irca 3 cm.,

d ella q uale s i e g iä p arlato, d i i mportazione c ipriota d el p robabilmente d el X III s ecolo ( Ferrarese C eruti 1 986:185).

q uale

una

c ipriota n el

c ollettive,

a stragalo"

( Contu

1 955;

t ipo L o

n el

S chiavo

f erro r invenuti i n n uraghi,

2 4

d i

d ella q uale

T irinto"

1 982b),

I I m olto

s erie d i a ltri i ndizi, u na t omba m egalitica " a

c orredo

" Tesoro

T C

e d

e q uali

u no

f iguravano f orse

d iversi

d el

a ltri

p urtroppo g eneralmente t rascurati

i n n ome d el d iffuso p reconcetto c he s i " tardi" ( Lo S chiavo 1 981:289-291; 1 983b). P oiche s uperfluo

g ia

i n

a ltre

s edi

r ipercorrere

s i

d ovesse

e t rattato

l 'elencazione

t rattare

q uesto

d ei

s iti

d i

o ggetti

a rgomento,

n uragici

s embra

c he

h anno

r estituito m ateriali d i f erro, c oncerne i v ecchi r invenimenti

a nche p erch , s opratutto p er q uel c he q uasi m ai e s tata p osta a ttenzione a i

c ontesti

e d

s ommamente

m enzione

a lcuni

r invenuto

i r iferimenti

s ono

r itrovamenti

n ella

t omba

d i

g iganti

d i

i n

s trato

S .

d a

e ssere

c onsiderato p iü r ecente d el T ardo B ronzo" d unque

i l

p i

M eritano,

p esca

C osimo

" seppure

r isulterebbe

u no

g enerici.

U n a mo

q uale

E sso

r invenuto

r ecenti.

d i

i nvece,

f erro e s tato

G onnosfanadiga,

s convolto,

üa ntico

d i

d ifficilmente

( Ugas

1 98 1:10,

r eperto

i n

n .

f erro

i i p uö

4 5)-

d a

u na

t omba d i g iganti, e ssendo i i b raccialetto d i f erro d a B idistili ( Fonni) d atato d al L illiu a l I X s ecolo ( Lilliu 1 981:123; L illiu 1 982:102). Un

a ltro

c ostituito n ascosto d i

I due

d el s ia

d el

d i

r eperti

s trumenti c ortile

m astic )

u n

d i

b ronze

f alegname

d el n uraghe

e d i

t rovato

S a M andra

d atato

f erro n el

e

1 98 1

' e S a G iva

a ll'Eta

d el

B ronzo

1 985:53).

l avorazione

t rovato

d a

e s tate

f atti c he s ono s tati c itati,

p ersa e l a

p er a ver

d i

l a m uratura d el

l 'ampliamento

( Ferrarese C eruti

a c era

c omplesso

r ipostiglio

e ntro

O ssi;

F inale

i mportante

d al

c omune

d el

o vvero l a

f erro v anno

t erreno

d i

t ecnica d ella f usione

c onsiderati

s viluppo

n elle

a ssociati s ia

o fficine

c ipriote

T CIII d elle q uali e s tato d imostrato l ' alto s viluppo t ecnologico, p er e ssere s tate c ontemporaneamente t rasmesse a lla S ardegna,

m ediante

l a

c ircolazione

m ovimentio

d i

d el B ronzo F inale: t ecnologie

l a

P eninsulare,

d i

a rtigiani

o ggetti

e d i

s pecializzati,

n otizie

o rali

a p artire

e s olo c onsequenziale c oncludere

S ardegna c ome

e

p ossa

e ssere

s tata

d imostratamente

i l

e /o m ediante

d all'inizio

c he a nche p er q ueste

t ramite

a vvenuto

i i

d ell'Eta

p er

v erso

l 'Italia

l 'esportazione

d i

o ggetti f initi. L e

p rospettive

e normemente

s toriche

s timolanti;

p resenta a bbondanza r icchissimi

i n

f erse

m eglio,

m erce

" di

d i

e c he

p rovenienza l ungo b e

s i

a d

d i g iacimenti

S ardegna

r itorno"

c he

g iova,

d i

i i

a prono

e sempio, f erro

f erro,

o ccidentale,

a

q uesto

r icordare

c he,

i nvece,

i nsieme

p unto

c he

n on

s ono n umerosi

a lb os tagno

p otrebbe

s ono

C ipro

a ver

l ocale

c ostituito

e o ,

u na

r otte d el M editerraneo O rientale.

( F.L.S.)

C onclusioni D a q uanto

s opra

e sposto

e mergono

a lcuni

d ati

d i

f atto

e n umerosi

p roblemi a perti: 1 .

L e

p recisabili s istematico, a vorio d iretto

d i b e

u gualmente

p rime

r elazioni

f ra

c on s icurezza d al c he e sse s iano

m onde

a lmeno n el X IV s ecolo

D ecimoputzu), z one

c ome

m inerarie.

a ncora

i ncerta

e geo

e S ardegna

n on s ono

p unto d i v ista c ronologico. i niziate, p robabilmente i n

( perle d i G onnosfanadiga e t estina d i

p rime

L 'area a nche

s e

a ncora

E siste l a m odo n on

t entative d i l a

t ipico d i a mbiente m iceneo. 2 5

d i

p rovenienza t estina

d i

r aggiungere d ei

p rimi

a vorio

i n

m ode

c ontatti

e u n

e

p rodotto

2 .

Un

d ato

r appresentati n el X III p arte

s ecolo

d el

d i

d a

f atto

e n ella

I IIC).

p roporzioni

e i nvece

i mportazioni

f ra

d i

p rima

p arte

I t empi

l e

l 'esistenza

d i

c eramica m icenea,

n on

i mportazioni

d el X II

c i d i

s ecolo

s embrano d iversa

r apporti

s istematici

c retese

e c ipriota

( TE/TM I IIB e p rima

maturi

p er

p rovenienza,

s tabilire

m a

c i

p reme

s ottolineare c he e sse s embrano g iungere i n S ardegna c ontemporaneamente. N ello s tesso p eriodo s i i nquadra a nche l a p roduzione d i c eramica d ipinta l ocale c he a ll'Antigori e a l D omu s ' O rku e c ostantemente a ssociata s ia a lla c eramics d i i mportazione s ia a lla c eramica l ucidato p revalentemente i n c olor g rigio a rdesia. R esta l ocale

d a

d i

s tabilire

t ipo

c hi

e geo,

a bbia

i ndigena

m aterialmente

p roblema

c he

a ndrä

p rodotto

l a

a ffrontato

d ell'edizione s istematica e c ompleta d ei m ateriali a naloghe s oltanto

d i

i mpasto

c eramica

n ell 'ambito

e i n c onfront° c on l e

s ituazioni r ilevabili i n I talia m eridionale. R ileviamo i l f atto c he, m entre i n I talia m eridionale l a p roduzione d i

c eramica

m icenea

P rotogeometrico

l ocale

i apigio

h a

c he

s embra p er o ra a vere s carsi d alle i mportazioni ( 2).

3 .

e d

i n

c ontinuazione

p oi u n s uo

e siti

D alla d ocumentazione

m eridionale,

u na

s egue

a l

d i

n el

s viluppo,

l ä d ell'arco

c osiddetto

i n S ardegna e ssa d i

t empo

f in 'ora o fferta d all'Antigori

p articolare

i i

g olfo

d i

C agliari,

o ccupato

l a S ardegna

s i

p one

c on

c aratteristiche d i " scab oi nternazionale" a nalogamente a q uanto s i r ilevare a lle E olie e a V ivara n el X VI e X V s ecolo, a lb oS coglio T onno

n el

( 3 ) .

I n

X IV-XIII

q ueste

c ommercio d ati

c he

e n ella

l ocalitä

o rmai

e c iprioti e mergono

r egione

p ossiamo

i nternazionale

v icino-orientali n uovi

s ecolo

v edere

b en

a nche

d agli

d i

u n

d el

o ltre i n

p orto

v edere

( Watrous

4 .

p ubblicati

1 985; I l

i n

d ettaglio

p er

m a v edi a nche V agnetti

c onfronto f ra

d am e

X IV

K ommos

u na

s ecolo

r iflesso

c he

n egli

p articolare

d i

s ono s tati t rovati s ia m ateriali l evantini e c iprioti, i mpasto c he g li s cavatori d efiniscono c ome " italiani" d i

n el

p allid°

a ttestato

n ell'Egeo,

s cavi

S iracusa

l e p uö d el

d el s cali

g razie

a C reta,

a i

d ove

s ia materiali d i e c he a ttendiamo

p recisa

v alutazione

1 985b).

l a d ocumentazione s arda e l a d istribuzione

e d

i c aratteri d ei r itrovamenti e gei i n a ltre aree d el M editerraneo c entrale c i s embra c onfermare l 'ipotesi a s uo t empo a vanzata e r ibadita e sclusivamente

s ulla

b ase

d ella

d ocumentazione

m etallurgica,

a ttivazione d ella r otta m eridionale i n a lternativo a q uells l o s tretto d i M essina, a lmeno a p artire d al X III s ecolo.

5 .

U na

p rospettiva

q uella

c onnessa

a lla

v ano

e d ell'ansa

s trato 4 d el v ano Q uesti

p ochi

a ncora

p resenza

w ish-bone

p roblematica m a

d el

p ithos

a ssociata

d el

c on

u n

T C

a ltamente I I

n ello

f rammento

d i

d ella

a ttraverso

s timolante

e

s trato 7 d el f erro n ello

c d el n uraghe A ntigori. m a

p reziosi

e lementi

a ttestano

l 'esistenza

d i

una

c omponente c ipriota n ei t raffici d al M editerraneo o rientale v erso l a S ardegna f in d alle l oro p rime f asi s istematiche ( 4). C iö d eve i ndurre a c autela n ell'inquadramento c ronologico d ella p rima i ntroduzione d ella f orma d i l ingotto d i t ipo o x-hide n ell'isola, e vento c he p otrebbe e ssere p recedente a q uanto f in 'ora i potizzato ( Lo S chiavo e t a l. 1 985).

2 6

6 .

L e

c onfermano l a

e videnze

o fferte

s cenario

c he

l o

s ituazione

i ntegrarsi S ardegna

d ella

m etallurgia

i d ati

d ella

d allo

r elativi

f usione

s tudio

i n a ltra s ede s u

a d

d el

b ase

u na

b ronzo

d elle

s i

c eramiche

e t entato

t ipologica.

a ntica

a c era

A d

e sso

i ntroduzione

p ersa

i mportate

d i d escrivere p er s embrano

e p ratica

e d ella

t ecnologia

i n d el

f erro. 7 .

E '

i potesi o rmai c omunemente a ccettata c he i i p rincipale s e n on

e sclusivo

e lemento

r icchezza

m ineraria,

i ndiretta

d esta

q uindi

a ll'Antigori,

d alla

a ttrazione s ia

d ella

d iretta

S ardegna

( rame,

a ntica

a rgento,

f osse

p iombo,

l a

s ua

f erro)

s ia

( stagno).

N on e gei

d i

c osta

o sservato

a lla

c he

s ituazione

m eraviglia

p osto

c ome

z ona

l a

m ineraria

c osta

a ttuale,

l a

r icca

e s ulla d el

a ntistante

n on

p resenta

d ocumentazione

p i üd iretta

v ia

d i

d i

m ateriali

p enetrazione

S ulcis-Iglesiente. i l

l e

c omplesso

V a

p erö

n uragico,

c aratteristiche

n ella

t ipiche

c he

n ormalmente c ontraddistinguono g li a pprodi m icenei ( piccolo p romontorio c on d oppio a ncoraggio) a nche s e l a f oce d i u n c orso d 'acqua e sistente n ei

p ressi

a vrebbe

p otuto

s ervire

c ome

a ttracco.

E '

n ecessario

u n

a ccurato s tudio g eomorfologico e p aleoambientale d ella z ona p er r icostruirne l a c onfigurazione a ntica e d e ventualmente i ndividuare l e p i üv icine I n

z one o ttimali p er u no s cab .

c onclusione

a mpiezza

l o

s i

s tato

r itiene

a ttale

d a

d elle

a ver

i llustrato

c onoscenze

e

c on

d ello

s ufficente

s tudio,

b en

c onsapevoli d el f atto c he m olti a spetti s i prestano a d un'ampia e c ostruttiva d iscussione c he l 'edizione d i t anta p arte d i m ateriali a ncora i nediti e f uturi r invenimenti p otranno u lteriormente i lluminare e p arzialmente m odificare.

R ingraziamenti U n m esto e g rato r ecentemente

p ensiero

s comparso.

I i

v a

s uo

a l

c ampianto

P rof.

i ncoraggiamento

F erruccio

f attivo

B arreca

e c ostante,

s ia

c ome S oprintendente a rcheologo d elle p rovince d i C agliari e O ristano, s ia c ome s tuioso e d a mico, e s tato f ondamentale p er l o s volgimento d elle r icerche a rcheologiche a ll'Antigori. I i S ign.

n ostro

c ordiale

Antonella

c ollaborazione I d isegni s 'Orku

d i

G eom.

p restata

n ella

p reparazione

2 s ono

S tudio

S arroch,

u gualmente

v a

e a l

a f igura

T agliasacchi,

r ingraziamento

Fresi

t eniamo

d el

t ratti

d alla

m ateriale

C agliari

P inuccia T icca p er p arte d el

( di

S iamo

P aolo

Mancini

p er

d ell'apparato

t esi

d i

c eramico

1 982-83

a r ingraziare.

a ll'Arch.

Antonio

l a

a lla

f attiva

i llustrativo.

l aurea d ella D ott.

n uragico

p rossima i noltre

B elli,

d el

M .G.

n uraghe

D omu

p ubblicazione),

g rate a G iovanni

c he

A ra e

l avoro d i d attilografia.

N ote 1 .

R ingraziamo g li a mici

Y .

p er i l p ermesso d i c itare q uesto

T zedakis

e B rigitta

i mportante p ezzo

e d E rik H allager

i nedito d allo s cavo d i

C hania-Kastelli. 2 .

I n

i nteressante

q uesto c iotola

s tesso

C olloquio

c arenata

e s tata

d ipinta 2 7

c on

p resentata

m otivi

d a

l ineari,

G .

U gas

u na

c ollegabile

a lla

p roduzione

d i

c eramics

l ocale

S u Mulinu d i V illanovafranca, d el d i

B ronzo F inale . c ontesti

C i

d i

t ipo

e geo,

i n u n c ontest° c he

r invenuta n el

n uraghe

l o s cavatore d efinisce

s embra n ecessaria c omunque u na r evisione a ccurata

n uragicia

g ig

n oti

n ei

q uail

s iano

c ontenute

c eramiche

d ipinte a ttribuite g enericamente a e t gp unica p er verificare s iano p iuttosto d a a ttribuire a f abbriche 3 . area

L 'eventuale

p otrg

e ssere

d ell'abitato

p rolungamento

verificato

d i Thapsos

d el l e

solo

c he

i n

l ocali d i

d opo

c orso

d i

s e n on

i spirazione e gea.

i mportazioni i n q uest 'ultima l 'edizione u lteriore

dello

s cavo

e splorazione

e

s tudio. 4 . P er i l m omento s i p referisce n on i ncludere n el q uadro i l p roblema d el " pugnali c iprioti" d el r ipostiglio d i O ttana ( Lo S chiavo e t a l. S i

1 985) p uö

i n

a ttesa

d i

f are

a m eno

d i

u lteriori n otare

v erifiche

c he

n on

s i

a rcheologiche,

a nche

t ratta

un

p i

üd i

s e n on

e pisodio

c ompletamente i solato.

B IBLIOGRAFIA

A CQUARO,

E .

1 982

T harros,

V III.

1 983

T harros,

I X.

A STROM,

d el

1 981.

L o s cavo d el 1 982.

T he S wedish C yprus E xpedition I V B ronze A ge . R elations,

1 972b

R elative and

R SF

R SF

1 0:37-51.

1:49-70.

T he S wedish C yprus E xpedition I V

P"

D .M .

1 976

B AILEY

P .,

R .

M ADDIN,

T he L ate C ypriote

& V .

J .D.

F oreign

L und.

1 D .

T he L ate C ypriote

A rchitecture a nd P ottery.

L und.

K ARAGEORGHIS

H ala S ultan T ekke

1 986

1 C .

Absolute Chronology,

H istorical C onclusions.

B ronze A ge.

A STROM,

s cavo

P .

1 972a

A STROM,

L o

1 .

S i n 4 5:1.

M UHLY & T .

I ron A rtifacts

G oteborg.

S TECH

f rom S wedish E xcavations

i n C yprus .

O pAth

1 6:27-41. B AR-ADON,

P .

1 980

T he

C ave

M ishmar . B ARTOLONI, 1 975

G .

o f

t he T reasure :

& F . D ELPINO U n o rciolo

a l amelle

m etalliche:

p rima f ase v illanoviana. B ASOLI,

T he F inds f rom C aves i n N ahal

J erusalem .

c onsiderazioni s ulla

S tEtr 4 3:3-45.

P .

1 980

L 'architettura

e i m ateriali

d el

Nuraghe

Nastasi

d i

T ertenia ( Nuoro). A tti d ella X XII R iunione S cientifica I IPP:429-440.

2 8

B ASS,

G .F. 1 986

A B ronze A ge S hipwreck a t

U lu B urun ( Ka ):

1 984 C ampaign .

A JA 9 0:269-296. B ELARDELLI,

C .

1 984

L a c eramica g rigia.

Nuove r icerche s ul l a p rotostoria

d ella S ibaritide :124-156 . B ERGONZI,

R .

P eroni

e d .

R oma .

G .

1 985

S outhern I taly a nd E conomic

t he A egean d uring t he L ate B ronze A ge :

S trategies

and

Specialised

Products.

S 245 = P apers i n I talian A rchaeology I V, C . Malone e ds.:355-387. B ERGONZI, G . 1 982a

& A . C ARDARELLI D ue p roduzioni

d ell 'artigianato

S .

s pecializzato .

R icerche

s ulla Protostoria d ella S ibaritide 1 :94-1 03. C ahiers d u C entre 1 982b

D ue

produzioni

c eramica

J .

e i d olii

specializatto:

c ordonati.

p rotostoria d ella S ibaritide 2 :63-97 .

1 984

C entre J .

B erard 8 .

Ceramica

grigia

e d olii

R icerche N apoli:

a f asce.

C ahiers d u

sulla

P eroni

e d.

J .

1 972 B RANIGAN,

R .

la

s ulla

Ricerche

p rotostoria d ella S ibaritide 3 :101-163. R oma. B ORCHHARDT,

Napoli:

B erard 7 .

d ell'artigianato

g rigia

B AR

S toddard a nd

H omerische H elme.

M ainz.

A egean

o f

K .

19 74

M etalwork

t he E arly and

Middle

Bronze

A ge.

O xford. B UFFA,

V . I d olii

1 984

c ordonati.

Nuove

d ella S ibaritide:159-168. C ASSOLA G UIDA, 1 973 C ATLING,

P . L e a rmi

r icerche

R .

P eroni

s ulla e d.

p rotostoria

R oma.

d ifensive d ei m icenei n elle f igurazioni.

R oma.

H .W.

1 964

C ypriot B ronzework i n t he M ycenaean W orld.

1 982

A rchaeology

1 984

W orkshop a nd E ast

C ARANCINI, 1 982

i n G reece,

1 98 1-1982 .

H eirlooms:

Mediterranean .

O xford.

A rchRep :3-62 .

P rehistoric

B ronze

S tands

i n

t he

R DAC:69-91.

G .L. Metal lurgia P roblemi

e t erritorio:

t eorico-pratici.

2 9

t ipi

e c rchie

D ialAr 4 (2):92-98.

o fficinali.

C ONTU, E . 1 955

A rgomenti

d i

c ronologia

a p roposito

d elle

t ombe

a

p oliandro d i E na ' e M uros ( Ossi, S assari) e d i Motrox ' e B ois ( Usellus, C agliari). S tSar 1 4-15:129-196. D E J ESUS, P .S. 1 980

T he D evelopment o f P rehistoric M ining a nd M etallurgy i n A natolia = B AR I nternational S eries 7 4.

D OTHAN, M . 19 86 D OTHAN, T . 1 983 F ADDA, M .A. 1 979

1 984

1 985

S ardina a t A kko? & A .

O xford.

S SA I I:105-115.

B EN-TOR E xcavations a t A thienou ,

C yprus 1 97 1-72.

Q edem 1 6.

I i n uraghe D on M ichele d i P loaghe . G iovanni S pano:47-57. S assari.

C ontributi

s u

I l N uraghe M onte I dda e l a c eramics a p ettine i n S ard egna . T he D eya C onference o f P rehistory = B AR I ntern ational S eries 2 29 . W . H . W aldren e t a l . e ds . O xford . I i v illaggio . S ardegna P reistorica :111-13 1.

F ALCONI A MORELLI, M .T. 1 966 T omba v illanoviana c on b ronzetto n uragico . 1 5.

A rchC1 1 8 :1-

F ERRARESE C ERUTI, M .L. 1 962 N ota p reliminare a lla I e a lla I I c ampagna d i s cavo n el N uraghe A lbucciu ( Arzachena-Sassari). R SP 1 7:161-204. 1 979

C eramic m icenea i n S ardegna ( Notizia p reliminare) .

R SP

3 4:243-253. 1 98 1a

L a c ultura d el v aso I chnussa:LV-LXXII.

c ampaniforme .

1 98 1b

Documenti micenei I chnussa:605-612.

1 982a

I i c omplesso n uragico d i A ntigori ( Sarroch, C agliari) . M GMM . N uovi D ocumenti:167176. N apoli.

1 982b

N uraghe D omu m enti :176179 .

1 983

L a t orre f d el c omplesso n uragico d i A ntigori. N ota p reliminare . A tti d el X XII C onvegno d i S tudi s ulla M agna G recia :187-206. T aranto o ttobre 1 982.

1 985a

L a S ardegna e i i m ondo m iceneo . 2 45-254.

1 985b

U n b ronzetto n uragico d a O ssi ( Sassari) . S tudi i n O nore d i G iovanni L illiu p er i l s uo s ettantesimo c ompleanno :516 9. C agliari.

n el l a

S ardegna

' s O rku ( Sarroch). N apoli .

3 0

I l

M GMM.

p rimo

b ronzo .

m eridionale .

N uovi

D ocu-

S ardegna P reistorica :

1 986

I vani c ,p,q d el c omplesso n uragico C agliari). T MM:183-188.

F ORSDYKE,

C atalogue

o f

M useum I .1.

t he

G reek a nd

E truscan Vases i n t he B ritish

P rehistoric A egean P ottery.

L ondon.

E .

1 985

T he

Mycenaean Spectrum .

A rchaeology F URTWAENGLER, 1 886 G RAS,

( Sarroch-

E .J.

1 925

F RENCH,

d i A ntigori

A .

& G .

I V,

S .

B AR S 245

S toddard

a nd

C .

= P apers i n I talian Malone

e ds .:295-303 .

L OESCHCKE

Mykenische

Vasen .

B erlin .

M . 1 985

T TA.

J ONES, R .E. 19 86

C hemical f ound

K ARAGEORGHIS,

a nalysis

i n I taly.

o f A egean-Type

B ronze A ge P ottery

t he

1 1 th

V .

1 982

Metallurgy E MC:297-30 1.

1 983

P alaepaphos-Skales. K onstanz.

L AVIOSA,

L ate

T MM:205-214.

in

Cyprus

during

An

I ron Age

c entury

C emetery

i n

B C.

Cyprus.

C .

1 969

U na

f orma m inoica

p er

f usione a c era p erduta.

Annali

d ella S cuola I taliana d i A tene 4 5-46(1967-68):499-510. L ILLIU,

G .

1 967

L a c ivilta T orino.

1 973

Tripode b ronzeo d i t radizione P irosu-Su B enatzu d i S antadi d edicados

d ei

a l

S ardi

Prof .

d al

n eolitico

a ll 'etä

L uis P ericot:283-313 .

M onumenti a ntichi b arbaricini = Q uaderni

1 982

L a c iviltä n uragica.

1 98 1

n uraghi .

c ipriota d alla g rotta ( Cagliari). E studios

1 98 1

L O S CHIAVO,

d el

B arcelona . 1 0.

S assari.

S assari.

F . E conomia

e S ocietä

n ell'etä

d el n uraghi.

I chnussa:253-

3 47. 1 982a

C opper M etallurgy i n S ardinia d uring t he L ate B ronze A ge : N ew Prospects o n i ts A egean C onnections.

1 982b

A mbra

i n S ardegna .

V onwiller 1 :257-273.

3 1

S tudi C omo.

i n o nore

d i

E MC:271-282.

F errante R ittatore

1 983a

L e c omponenti e gea e c ipriota n ella m etallurgia d ella t arda e t äd el b ronzo i n I talia . A tti d el X XII C onvegno d i S tudi s ulla Magna Grecia:285-320 . T aranto, o ttobre 1 982.

1 983b

I i p rimo f erro i n S ardegna . A tti d el S imposio " Il P rimo F erro n el M editerraneo" . S an V incenzo-Populonia-Piombino 1 5-22 o ttobre. I n s tampa.

1 985

L a S ardegna N uragica e d p reistorica:255-284.

1 986

S ardinian M etallurgy : t he A rchaeological B ackground . 1 1:23 1-250.

f orthc oming

I l N uraghe S antu A ntine d i T orralba : c apanna 1 e g li a ltri b ronzi .

L O S CHIAVO, 1 985

F .,

E . M ACNAMARA & L . I mports.

L O S CHIAVO, 1 980

F .

& L . V AGNETTI M icenei i n S ardegna?

1 986

Frammento

d i

i i

m ondo

m editerraneo .

S ardegna

S SA

i l r ipostiglio d ella

V AGNETTI

vaso

R endLinc 3 5:37 1-39 1. m iceneo

( ?)

d a

P ozzomaggiore

( SS).

T MM :199-204. M ACNAMARA, 1 984

E .,

M ADDIN, R . 19 82 M ORAVETTI,

D . & F . R IDGWAY T he B ronze H oard B MOP 4 5. L ondon.

f rom S .

Maria

E arly I ron T echnology i n C yprus.

i n Paulis,

S ardinia =

E MC:303-312.

A . L a

19 84

t omba

d el

g iganti

d i P alatu ( Birori-Nuoro) .

B AS 1 :69-

9 6. M OUNTJOY, P .A. 1 986

Mycenaean D ecorated P ottery : S IMA

M URRAY, A .S. 1 900 N EGBI, O . 19 76

5 7 .

A G uide

G oteborg .

E T A L. E xcavations i n C yprus.

C anaanite G ods

L ondon .

i n Metal.

An A rchaeological S tudy o f

A ncient S yro-Palestinian F igurines. P ALSSON H ALLAGER, 1 985

P OPHAM ,

t o I dentification =

T el A viv.

B .

C rete a nd I taly i n t he L ate B ronze Age I II P eriod. 8 9:293-305.

A JA

M .R.

1 965

S ome L ate M inoan I II P ottery f rom C rete.

1 970

L ate M inoan I II B P ottery f rom K nossos.

3 2

B SA 6 0:3 16-342. B SA 6 5:195-202.

1 984

T he M inoan U nexplored M ansion a t K nossos.

P OURSAT, J .C. 1 977 S ACKETT,

L .H.

1 965 S ANNA,

L es

i voires m yceniens.

& M .R.

L ondon.

P aris.

P OPHAM

E xcavations

a t P alaikastro V I.

B SA 6 0:248-315.

R . Materiali n uragici.

1 984

V illa S peciosa .

L ocalitg M itza P urdia .

C ensimento A rcheologico

D ecimoputzu .

d el

t erritorio .

C agliari. S CHAEFFER, 1 949 S EEDEN,

C .F.A. U garitica I I.

P aris.

H . T he

1 980 S NODGRASS, 1 982

S tanding

A rmed

F igurines

t he

L evant

= P BF

A . C yprus

a t

t he

B eginnings

E astern M editerranean. T ZEDAKIS,

i n

o f

Iron

Technology

i n

t he

E MC:285-294.

Y . L 'atelier

1 969

d e

c eramique

p ostpalatiale

a K ydonia.

B CH

9 3:396-4 18. U GAS,

G . 1 98 1

L a

t ombs

m egalitica

( Cagliari): a ntica

a ttestazione

l iminare . 1 982

S an

A rchSarda

C osimo

I l

m ondo

San

m icenea

C osimo-Gonnosfanadiga

i n

S ardegna).

N ota

p iü p re-

7 -20 .

( Gonnosfanadiga,

D ocumenti:180-185 . 1 985

I d i

un m onumento d el Bronzo Medio ( con l a

C agliari).

MGMM.

N uovi

Napoli.

r eligioso

n uragico.

S ardegna P reistorica :209-

2 25. 1 986a

S ardara

1 986b

L a

( Cagliari).

produzione

e trusco

materiale

e g reco.

m illennio d i M editerraneo :

S tEtr 5 2:530-531.

A tti

n uragica . d el

Note

I C onvegno

s ull'apporto d i

S tudi:

Un

r elazioni f ra la S ardegna e i Paesi d el S ocietg e c ultura i n S ardegna n ei P eriodi

O rientalizzante e d A rcaico :41-43 .

S elargius 2 9 n ovembre-

1 d icembre 1 985. V AGNETTI, 1 982

L . Q uindici

a nni

d i

s tudi e r icerche

mondo e geo e l 'Italia D ocumenti:9-40. N apoli. 1 985a

C eramiche S tudi

d el

Tardo

i n o nore d i S .

3 3

Minoico M .

s ulle

protostorica.

I II

r elazioni

t ra i l

MGMM.

Nuovi

r invenute

P uglisi:825-831.

i n

R oma.

I talia.

1 985b

L ate

M inoan

I II

C rete

a nd

I taly :

a nother

v iew .

P arPass

2 20:29-33. V AGNETTI, L . f orth-

& R .E. J ONES T owards t he

c oming

I taly .

I dentification

P roceedings

P rehistory". V AROUFAKIS,

E .

o f

o f L ocal

Mycenaean

F rench e d.

T he Origin o f Mycenaean a nd G eometric I ron o n t he G reek M ainlan c

V ERLINDEN,

a nd

t he A egean I slands.

E MC:315-322.

C .

1 986

La m etallurgie m inoenne e t

l a f onte

l a c ire p erdue.

E xperimentations s ur u n p rocede a ntique.

B CH

1 0:4 1-52.

J .C.

1 982

B imetallic O bjects f rom t he E astern Mediterranean a nd t he Q uestion o f t he D issemination o f I ron.

W ATROUS,

i n G reek

1 986.

G .J.

1 982

W ALDBAUM,

P ottery i n

t he C olloquium " Problems

E MC:325-344.

V .L.

1 985

L ate

B ronze A ge K ommos:

I mported

P ottery a s

Evidence

f or

F oreign C ontact . Proceedings o f t he K ommos Symposium ( Toronto D ecember 1 984). S cripta M editerranea 6 :7-11. W ARDLE,

K .A.

1 969

W ERTIME, 1 980

A G roup C itadel T .S.

& J .D.

M UHLY E DS.

T he C oming o f t he A ge o f I ron.

X ENAKI-SAKELLARIOU, 1 985

o f L ate H elladic I II B 1 P ottery f rom w ithin t he a t Mycenae . B SA 6 4:261-297 .

O i

N ew H aven a nd L ondon.

A .

t halamotoi

t aphoi

3 4

t on M ykenon.

A tene.

M INOANS,

M YCENAEANS A ND C YPRIOTS

I N S ARDINIA

I N T HE L IGHT O F R ECENT R ESEARCH

M aria L uisa F errarese C eruti L ucia V agnetti F ulvia L o S chiavo

S ummary T he o ut,

p resent

j ointly

o r

p aper

i s

t he

s eparately,

p reliminary

b y

t he

t hree

r esult

o f

a uthors

a p roject

s ince

1 980,

c arried w hen

t he

d iscovery i n N uraghe A ntigori ( Sarroch - C A) o f p ottery i mported f rom t he A egean c onfirmed s ome h ypotheses p ut f orward i n a p revious s tudy o f s ome M ycenaean s herds f ound i n t he r egion o f O rosei T he w ork i s s till i n p rogress; 1 ) T he N uragic c ontext

t he p oints e xamined h ere a re:

( Maria L uisa F errarese C eruti),

2 )

T he n on-ceramic i mports

3 )

I mported p ottery ( Lucia V agnetti)

4 ) A spects o f m etallurgy T he

a uthors

i ntention h ere t he p roblems 1 .

T he

d o

i s

n ot

t o g ive

( Nuoro).

( Maria L uisa F errarese C eruti),

( Fulvia L o S chiavo).

s uggest a s urvey

a ny o f

f inal

t he

i nterpretation;

a vailable

t heir

d ata a nd t o d iscuss

t hat e merge f rom t hem. N uragic

C ontext.

A g eneral

e xamination

o f

t he

a vailable s uggests t hat t he b ulk o f t he A egean i mported l ocal i mitations ( LH/LM I II B -C) a re c ontemporary b urnished

h and-made

p ottery,

which

c ontinue

a t

p ottery

( ceramics

c haracterizes

A ntigori

e ven

t he

a fter

g rigia-ardesia).

l ocal t he

L ate

A egean

T his

Bronze

a nd

l ittle

d ata

p ottery a nd t he w ith t he g rey v ariety

o f

s eems

t o

Age,

A egean-type

p ottery

d isappear. T he

c hronological

d ecorated

w ith

p osition

r ectangular

i mpressed m otifs)

i s

M iddle B ronze A ge,

o r

n ot y et

o f

t he

" ceramica

t riangular p atterns e ntirely c lear.

a lthough i ts

I t

m etopale"

( pottery

f illed w ith c ombed

c ertainly s tarts

o r

i n t he

l ater d ocumentation m ay o verlap w ith t he

b eginning o f t he g rey b urnished h and-made w are. 2 . a n

Non-ceramic i mports.

i vory

h ead

o f

( Decimoputzu - C A). h elmet t ype

i s

O nly t he

p reserved;

i t

i s

m anufacture

T he

i n C yprus, a ssociation

c ollected

e nough

e arly

d ate.

S ardinia

( LH

o f

T he I II

l ittle A ?),

t he

p iece

s herds i vory

o n

t he

mainly t o L H I II B .

3 5

M itza

P ürdia

p iece

t o

a w ell

G reek m ainland,

i n

t o L H I II A -B.

" ceramica

h ead

t he

t he

f rom D ecimoputzu

o f

p receding

s ites

a t

w earing a b oar 's t usk

f or a ttributing

g enerally d atable

m aterial,

f ound

t op p art o f t he h ead,

o f w arrior h ead k nown f rom v arious

C rete a nd

t he

T he m ost i mportant p iece i s a f ragment o f

M ycenaean

m ight p hase

i ndicate o f

i s

m etopale" a n

n ot

c lear.

m ay

e arly

s ystematic

A mong

i ndicate i mport

t rade

a n t o

d atable

A f ew

b eads

f rom

A ntigori,

p ossibly

i mported

f rom

t he

A egean

o r

f rom t he e astern M editerranean a re a lso d iscussed.

3 .

I mported

p ottery.

The

main

s ource

i mported p ottery i s N uraghe A ntigori. i dentified u sing a rchaeological c riteria, a rchaeological a nalyses.

a ttributions

I mports

c ertain.

F or

p art o f I II T he

f rom

t he

m ost

h ave

t he

b een v alidated

G reek

p art

t hey

o f

information

f or

the

S everal v arieties c an b e a nd i n m ost o f t he c ases,

m ainland,

b elong t o

b y

t he

C rete

L M/LH

p hysico-chemical

a nd

C yprus

I II

B a nd

t o

n ot

i mported,

a re t he

n ow

f irst

C .

l arge

m ajority

P hysico-chemical

o f

a nalysis

p ainted

p ottery

c onfirmed

t he

i s

s uspicion

t hat

h owever.

p ainted

p ottery

i n A egean s tyle h ad b een p roduced i n S ardinia. T his c lass o f p ottery, w hose d ecoration c an m e t raced b ack t o M ycenaean a nd C retan p rototypes, i s a lways a ssociated i n t he s ame l ayers w ith t he l ocal g rey b urnished h and-made w are a nd w ith

i mported

M ycenaean p ottery.

I t

d oes

n ot

s eem t o

s urvive l ong a fter t he c essation o f A egean i mports. T here p orted

i s

s ignificant

f rom C rete a nd

4 .

A spects

o f

e vidence

i n

t he

s herds

o f

l arge

p ithoi

i m-

f rom C yprus.

m etallurgy.

T he

p roduction

o f

b ronze

o n

t he

i sland

a nd i ts C ypriot a nd A egean c onnections i n t he f orm o f i mports, c lose i mitations a nd l ocal e laboration o f C ypriot c haracteristics h as b een r eported i n d etail e lsewhere. N ew i nformation l ost-wax t echique a nd o n i ron t echnology. T he

i nvestment o r l ost-wax

i s

n ow

a vailable

o n

t he

t echnique w as i n t he A egean a nd t he N ear

E ast s ince E BA I , t hough i t i s d ifficult t o d ate t he e arliest p roducts b ecause o f t he d estruction o f t he c lay m oulds. I t i s n ot y et c ertain w hen

t his

p robable

t echnique t hat

i t

w as

f irst

u sed

t o

a n ew

f loruit

c ame

i n

S ardinia,

b ut

b y w ay o f

t he

i t

s eems

h ighly

s trong c onnection

w ith C ypriot m etallurgy i n t he L ate b ronze A ge. I n i s

a n

a ddition

t o

t he

e xtraordinary

f ew

l ocal

i mported

a nd

p roduction

o f

N ear

E astern

f igurines,

f igurines,

p robably

t here

b eginning

a round t he X I-X c entury B .C. Evidence c omes f ound

f or

a n

e arly

i ntroduction

o f

i ron

f rom N uraghi A ntigori. A s mall f ragment o f i n r oom c , i n s tratigraphic a ssociation w ith

L ate C ypriot

I I

b urials

a nd

a mber

b eads

o f

t he

g ives m ore e vidence o f e arly e xploitation o f t omb - S an C osimo, I t t he

i s

C yprus.

I t

t ransmission

i s

S ardinia

a s heet o f i ron was a w ishbone h andle o f

C ypriot

t he

i n a m egalithic t omb w ith

" Tiryns

a nd

A llumiere

i ron o n t he i sland

t ype"

( Giants'

G onnosfanadiga?).

p ossible t o s uggest t hat

g eneral

c onsideration

t o

t ype.

A n i ron d agger w ith a s teatite h ilt f ound c ollective

w ith

t echnology

v ery

a lso

i nfluence e arly

p ossible

o f s uch a t echnique

t he u se o f i ron s hould b e c onnected

o n S ardinian m etallurgy,

i ntroduction t hat t o

S ardinia t he

o f

t aking into

a t echnology

provided

I talian m ainland

o f b ronze t ypes o f S ardinian a nd/or C ypriot t ype.

3 6

s uch

t he a s

m eans

i n of

i n t he c ase

T o s um u p, w e l ogical e vidence: T he

e arliest

p ropose

i mports

s ome

f rom

p oints

t he

t hat

A egean

d erive

t o

f rom

S ardinia

t he

m ay

a rchaeo-

p erhaps

g o

b ack t o t he X IV c entury B .C. ( beads f rom S an C osimo a nd i vory h ead f rom M itza P ui -dia). T he A ntigori f inds, h owever, g ive e vidence f or s ystematic t rade i n t he X III and X II c entury B .C. I mports

f rom

t he G reek m ainland,

o n a rchaeological t he s ame t ime. T hese l ast t wo g oods,

a s

and a nalytical

C rete a nd

g rounds,

s eem

C yprus, t o

i dentified

a rrive

b oth

i n S ardinia a t

T hey i nclude f ine w ares, c oarse s tirrup j ars a nd p ithoi. s hould p robably b e c onsidered a s c ontainers f or o ther

i n t he K a es hipwreck.

I nfluence

f rom

t he

G reek

m ainland

a nd

f rom

C rete

i s

d etectable

i n

t he l ocally p roduced p ainted w ares. W e c annot y et d efine t he p ainted w ares i s

m ore

T he

E stablishing

variety a n

o f

i mports

o r

a nother

" international

o f s imilar s ites i n p arallels i n I taly. T he

a ny

o f

t he m aterial

r atio

b etween

f ound a t A ntigori

M ycenaean

a nd

C retan

s eems p remature.

c omplex

c onsidered

i dentity o f t he p otters w ho p roduced l ocal

t he o ngoing s tudy

a dvanced.

i mports a lso

Nuragic

u ntil

present

f ound

a t

o f

s ite

e mporium",

t he N ear E ast,

s tate

A ntigori

c oastal

t he

a nd

u s

t hink

t he

d oes

t his

might

b e

c haracteristics

t he A egean,

h owever,

t hat

v icinity

r eflecting

C yprus

knowledge,

m ake

i n

w ith v ery f ew

n ot

a llow

u s

t o

d efine e xactly w hence t he i nitiative o f t rade w ith S ardinia s tarted. I t i s n ecessary t o keep i n m ind, m oreover, t hat t he p attern o f t rade b etween t he A egean and t he C entral Mediterranean, a t l east a t i ts b eginning, i s c loser t o t he M ycenaean t han t o t he C retan b ackground a nd t hat

Mycenaean

e lements

are

well

r epresented

in

C rete

i n

t he

X III

l east

f rom

c entury B .C. T he t he X III a s

S ardinian

c entury B .C.

a n a lternative T he

e vidence t o

C ypriot

s eems

o f a s ea t he r oute

e lements

i n

t o

r oute

c onfirm a long

t he

t he

o pening,

s outhern c oast o f S icily

t hrough t he S traits o f M essina. S ardinia,

a lready

r ecognized

b ronzework, a re n ow a lso c onfirmed b y s ome p ottery, t he X III c entury B .C. O n t his i ntroduced t o

a t

i n

t he

L BA

p robably a s e arly a s

b asis, t he d ate a t w hich t he o xhide i ngot t ype w as t he i sland s hould p erhaps b e r econsidered; i t m ight w ell

b e s omewhat e arlier t han f ormerly s upposed. W e d o n ot k now y et w hether A ntigori i s t he m ain p oint o f a rrival o f A egean m erchants o r w hether w e s hould p lace t hat p oint i n a n a rea w here t he c oast i s m ore s uitable f or l anding a nd m ooring. I n t his r espect, a d etailed

s tudy

s titutes o ne

o f

t he

l ocal

g eomorphology

o f t he n eeds o f f uture r esearch.

3 7

a nd

p aleoenvironment

c on-

P ART T WO:

3 .

N URAGIC A ND M YCENAEAN A RCHITECTURE

N OTES O N B UILDING T ECHNIQUES I N MYCENAEAN G REECE A ND N URAGIC S ARDINIA W .G.

I .

C avanagh a nd R .R.

L axton

D RY-STONE W ALL C ONSTRUCTION

I ntroduction I t i s n ot t he i ntention o f e xhaustive c omparison b etween t he N uragic a rchitecture;

t his p aper t o m ake a s ystematic a nd f orms a nd t echniques o f M ycenaean a nd

s uch w ould l ie w ay b eyond i ts s cope.

R ather i t i s

p roposed t o c oncentrate o n d etails o f m asonry a nd w all c onstruction i n t he l ight o f o ur e arlier w ork o n t he m echanics o f v aulted b uildings ( Cavanagh t hese

a nd

L axton

q uestions

o f

1 98 1,

1 982,

d etail,

1 985a,

h owever,

1 985b).

i t

i s

B efore

p erhaps

p roceeding

w orth

p lacing

t o t he

a ccount i n a b roader f ramework. The

Bronze

Age

a rchitectures

o f

Mycenaean

G reece

and

Nuragic

S ardinia u ndoubtedly b elong t o v ery d ifferent c ivilizations. I n c hronological t erms t hese w ere c ontemporary, a nd t he r ecent a rchaeol ogical a dvances d iscussed a t t his c onference s how t hat t he t wo w ere i n c ontact, b ut t he d ifferences i n a rchitectural s tyles b etween t he t wo r eflect a g reat c ultural d ivide. T he c itadels o f M ycenaean G reece h oused a l iterate a nd c entralized I n S ardinia w e h ave n o e vidence M oreover, n uraghi,

a lthough a nd

O rroli t o s uggestion e xtensive

l arge

s torage

i ndeed L o S chiavo

b ureaucracy a s w ell o f c lay t ablets o r v essels

h as

h ave

f ound

b een

e vidence

a s t heir r ulers. w ritten r ecords.

r ecovered

a t

f rom m any

N uraghe O rrubiu i n

s uggest t hat n iches w ere u sed f or s torage, t here i s n o o f t he a massing o f p roduce i n t he m anner b etrayed b y t he s tore-rooms a t Mycenae a nd t he o ther G reek p alaces.

G ranted

t hat

t he s tructure a nd a dministration o f t he

t wo a reas w ere

d ifferent i s i t w ere e xchanged?

n evertheless p ossible t hat s pecific a rchitectural i deas P utting a side f or t he m oment t he q uestion o f c orbelled

v aulting,

a re

t here

s till

i n g eneral m ore

d ifferences

t han s imilarities

i n t he t echniques, E ven, f or e xample,

c onventions a nd d etails o f t he t wo a rchitectures. i n t he l imited f ield o f w all c onstruction r adical

d ifferences

r ecognized

c an

b e

w orld s ee L awrence 1 983; M ueller 1 930; o n M inoan M ycenaean

G reece

w ere

e rected

z ontal a nd t ransverse b eams t o N uragic a rchitecture i t w ould t hough

c onical

v illages.

a nd t he W est, r oofs

w ere

t imber

E ven i n

i n

w all

c onstruction

r oofs

w ithin g ive s eem

p robably

t his r espect w e

i n

t he

a f rame-work

o f

v ertical,

s trength t o t he r ubble t hat w ood w as n ot s o c overed

f ind

M ycenaean

1 963, 1 983; W ace 1 949 ; M ost h ouse w alls i n

t he

c ircular

a d ifference

h ori-

w alls. I n i mportant, h uts

o f

t he

b etween t he A egean

f or t he e vidence o f b oth a rt a nd e xcavation s how t hat f lat

f avoured

w idely a ttested i n t ell, o n S ardinia. f erence

( On

Wright 1 980; I akovidis w alls s ee S haw 1 973).

c limate,

i n G reece.

Mud

b rick w alling

i s

a nother

t echnique

t he Mycenaean w orld b ut l acking, s o f ar a s w e c an O f c ourse t his m ay i n p art b e a r esult o f t he d ifw ith

r elatively

g reater

r ainfall

i n

t he

W est,

b ut

t here a re m eans o f p rotecting b rick a gainst t he e ffects o f t he e lements:

3 9

l ime

p laster

p laster

i s

o r

t ecture i s c ourts a nd N uragic

n ot

a ttested

f resco.

i n B ronze A ge

A nother

S ardinia,

d istinctive

n or i ndeed p ainted

f eature

o f

M ycenaean

a rchi

t he w ooden c olumn, u sed i n p ropylaea, e ntrances, c loistered m egara. E vidence f or c olumns o f a ny s ort i s n ot c ommon i n

a rchitecture:

i t

h as

b een

s uggested

t hat

a p ost

s tood

a t

t he

c entre o f t he l arge ' Sala d el C ongresso' a t B arumini, a nd o ther s uch l arge r ound b uildings, b ut t he e vidence o f P almavera a nd o ther b uildings i s a gainst t his ( Fadda 1 985). E ven s o t here i s n o s uggestion t hat t he d istinctively w idening A egean c olumn w as e ver i mitated. A f urther e lem ent o f t he m ore e laborate Mycenaean b uildings i s t he d ecorative u se o f v eneer,

e specially

g ypsum,

c arved

m ouldings

a nd

o ccasionally

c arved

r elief. T he r ecently d iscovered l imestone f igures f rom M onte P rama a nd t hose f rom S . V ittoria d i S erri ( Tronchetti 1 986; L illiu 1 977), s how t hat

c arved

c raftsmen, w orld.

r elief

b ut

was

n ot

e mphatically

b eyond

w as

t he

n ot

t echnical

c opied

b y

r each

t hem

f rom

o f

t he

Nuragic

M ycenaean

C yclopean a nd D ry-Stone W alling I n

o rder

d ry-stone

t o

p ursue

t his

w alling c ommon

t o

p arallel

m ore

p recisely

b oth a reas w ill

b e

t he

C yclopean

c ompared.

a nd

W e s hall p ro-

c eed t o d efinitions l ater, b ut t o s tart w ith t he p roperties o f d ry-stone w alls w ill b e c onsidered a nd t he f actors i nfluencing t hem. A d ry-stone w all

i s

w ill

c onsist

n ormally o f

b uilt t wo

u p

r ubble

c ore a t t he c entre.

a m ore

s olid

c onstruction

b ond t he t wo w ithin t hese h eaders t he

a nd

f ill

t he

s tretchers t he

a s

a t

s tones

I ndeed,

( Iakovidis

m ost

f ace

o n

c ommonly a w all

e ither

a s a t G la,

1 983:96).

o f

t he

" bond

t ransferring

c urve

i s

m anner

t o

e xpression

e specially

t herefore,

a nd

m asonry;

I n s ome c ases,

T he

i ndependently a nd

w alling,

o f

a f inished

M ycenae

c ore."

a m ethod

w all.

q uite

s kins

w ith

s ide

T here

i s

n o

a ttempt

w ithin

t he i s

f acade m ore

v ague

i mportant n uraghi,

b ut

t ensile t he

l argely

d ecided

i n w hich

b y

t hey a re

t he

l aid.

s hape F or

c annot

f orces

t wo

i n o pposite d irections.

s ecurely

t his

s kins

M aterials.

s hall s ee n ot m aterial

a t o

T he

s tyle

a nd

s ize

t his

r eason

T he

t ypes

e xclusively,

r equired

f or

o f

m aterial

a re

l argely,

a m atter o f c onvenience.

m egalithic

s tructures

t o b e

a cross c an

a ct

o f t he o f

t he

I s hall

preface t his a ccount w ith a brief m ention o f t he m aterials q uarrying, s tone d ressing a nd s tructural c onsiderations. 1 .

a nd

t he i nterior i s o f

s kins t ogether, i n t he g eneral a voidance o f t ensile f orces s tructures. Mylonas ( 1964:19) h as r ecognized a s ystem o f

o f

c onceived

f rom

s kins

u sed,

t hough

a s

w e

T he l arge m asses o f

f avors

t he

u se

o f

t he

r e-

s ources c losest t o h and. I n G reece t he m aterials m ost c ommonly u sed a re l imestone, s chist, p oros, a s oft t ertiary l imestone, s andstone a nd c onglomerate.

I n

p redominate m ost c ommon

t he

a s o f

n uraghi,

o n

t he

o ther

g eology

o f

t he

i sland

v olcanic

r ocks,

h and,

v olcanic

d ictates:

t hough g ranite

h as

s tones

b asalt,

b een

b y

t end f ar

i dentified,

t o t he f or

e xample

a t

t he N uraghe M adrone,

e xample e xample

a t a t

t he N uraghe S 'Athentu, O rani ( Lilliu 1 964:67) a nd t ufa, f or t he N uraghe A lvu ( Contu 1 981:8). T he s edimentary r ocks s o

f avored

i n

G reece

a re

n ot

a s

S ilanus

( Lilliu

o verwhelmingly

1 964:70),

p redominant

t rachyte,

i n

f or

S ardinia,

t hough l imestone i s n ot u ncommon, a s a t I s P aras, I sili and P almavera, A lghero, a nd s andstone a t A bbauddi, S canu d i M ontiferro ( Lilliu 1 964:86; 7 1).

T he

u se

o f

f lint

s uch

a s

i n

t he

N uraghe

S a

P ria

d e

P erfugas

( Lo

S chiavo 1 981:345) s eems t o b e r estricted t o t his a rea, w here g ood f lint i s a bundant. T he M ycenaeans t ended t o p refer c onglomerate f or m embers, s uch a s u sed

l intels,

l ike

t he

s ubject

p rasinite

t o

t ensile

u sed

i n

s tress;

t he 4 0

l owest

s ometimes c ourses

o f

r arer s tones t holos

w ere

t omb B a t

T horikos

( Mussehe

s tructure c ase

t he

d inia

o f

r elatively

w ill

h ave

a rchitects

o f

s tone.

s ome

w ith

1 97 1).

I n a shlar

M ycenae,

P erhaps

c onglomerate

a morphous

made

b oth

f or

a reas

t holos

m asonry,

n ot

m akes t he

s ame

t o

t he

s pecial

t o

I n

t he

a nd

l ess r ocks

a esthetic

t he

d ecorated

p aid

T omb

w hich

o f

S ar-

ways

t he

q ualities

t o

o f

f acades

l aminar i n

d ifferent

a ttention w as

e laborate

o r

f racture,

v olcanic

q uality.

P eristeria

t o m ention t he

s tratified

l iable o f

s ensitive

t ombs a t

l ess

l ess

s tructure

w ere

a s

t he

i t

t he

o f

f acade,

A igisthos

a t

o f t he T reasury

o f A treus a nd t he T omb o f C lytemnestra ( v. P elon 1 976). I n S ardinia i t i s m ore t he v ariegated e ffect o f d ifferent c olored s tones w hich w as s ought

after,

a s

i n

t he

c ase

o f

t he

N uraghe

A lvu,

t rachyte, b asalt a nd l imestone i n t he N uraghe O rrubiu, C eruti 1 966; C ontu 1 98 1; L o S chiavo 1 98 1, 1 986). 2 . b uilding

3 0 -4 3;

f or

m ainland

4 7,

1 30 ,

I a m

q uarry

a t

G reece

1 37;

s ee

S chliemann

i ndebted

D worakowska 1 970, t o P rof. L o S chiavo

T innura:

M adau

p oor r esearch; l eave n o c lear b een

t he

u se

o f

( Ferrarese

Quarrying. P ublished e vidence o n Bronze Age q uarries f or s tone i s l amentably l imited ( for M inoan C rete s ee S haw 1 973:

1 949:27, S ardinia t he

and O lmedo

1 985).

T his

1 886:18;

1 888:116-117;

W ace

1 975; B oblaye 1 833:375; o n f or d rawing m y a ttention t o m ay n ot

r esult

e ntirely f rom

t he q uarrying o f s tone m ay h ave b een s o i nformal a s t o t race. S chist a nd l imestone r ubble w ould p robably h ave

f ragmented

a nd

b roken

b y

m ethods

s uch

a s

u ndercutting

a nd

f ire-

s etting. F or t he l arge m ore r egular b locks p rized b y b oth M ycenaean a nd N uragic masons i t i s p ossible t hat m ore s ophisticated m ethods u sing c hannels,

d rilled h oles,

a nd D irkin a nd L ister o ther hand v ery hard b uildings

o nly

c uts

a nd w edges w ere

u sed

( Shaw

1 973 l oc. c it.

1 983 f or a R oman e xample o f t he m ethod); o n t he m etamorphic r ocks s uch a s marble are u sed i n

r arely.

I t

s eems

m ore

p robable

t hat

n atural

b edding

p lanes w ere e xploited t o g ive s tones o f a pproximately e qual s ize.

3 .

Dressing.

O n t he d ressing o f m asonry t here i s a lso m uch b asic

r esearch n eeded. I n t he c oarsest p olygonal m asonry i t i s p robable t hat t he s tone w as s imply s elected a nd l ittle o r n o d ressing c arried o ut. H ammer

d ressing,

u ncommon p hases

i n

I and

f inished

p erhaps

M ycenaean I I

a t

s urfaces

u sing

T iryns

t he

a s tone

C yclopean

w alls;

( Mueller

s tone

w as

h ammer i t

( Wace

w as,

f or

1 930).

p robably

On

p icked

1 949:138), e xample,

t he

w ith

m ost e ver

i s

n ot

n ormal

i n

c arefully f iner

t ools

a nd t hen s moothed t o a f ine f inish. T he r ole o f t he m etal s aw i n A egean a rchitecture i s l ess c lear. I t w as a lmost c ertainly u sed f or s awing g ypsum

p aving

s labs

m asonry. T here i s r eports a n e xample

a nd

o n

h ard

s tones,

b ut

p robably

n ot

o n

a shlar

r eference t o s awn c onglomerate i n C rete a nd P etrie a t T iryns. " At T iryns t he h ard l imestone w as c ut

w ith s aws...In o ne o f t he s aw c uts I s aw a l ump o f g reen m aterial. s eemed l ikely t o b e a b it o f i n t he Mycenaean w orld a nd d ressing

h ave

b een

f ound

s aw b roken o ff..." ( Petrie 1 917:45). o n S ardinia t ools a ppropriate f or

( Deshayes

1 960;

C atling

1 964;

S haw

T his B oth s tone

1 973 :44 -7 5

a nd L o S chiavo 1 98 1). E ven w ithin t reatment h ave b een r ecognized, t hus

t he s ame n ura h e d ifferences o f P inza ( 190 1:119) c omments o n t he

N uraghe

s how

N ieddu w here

t he u pper

b locks

t races

o f w orking w hilst

t he

l ower b locks d o n ot. 4 .

Equilibrium a nd

S tructural

C onsiderations.

T he

s tyles

o f

m asonry a re a lso a ffected b y s tructural c onsiderations. D ry-stone w alls g ain t heir s tablity b y m utual a butment a nd b onding: a v ertical c olumn o f s tones a re

p asses

a butted

q uite

t hey

e asily

w ill

t end

o ut

o f

t o

p rop

e quilibrium ,

4 1

e ach

o ther

w hereas

i f

u p.

t he

I f

t wo

c olumns

s tones

a re

i nterlocked t he

o r k eyed t ogether,

j oint

b etween

t wo

t hat i s

b locks

t o s ay i f t he b lock a bove b ridges

b elow,

an

e ven

m ore

s table

w all w ill

r esult. T he b onding h ere r elies o n t he f orce o f g ravity a nd f riction; s trong t ensile f orces a re n ot d eveloped i n l ine w ith t he p rinciple t hat t ensile

f orces

d o

n ot

p lay

a n

i mportant

p art

i n

d ry-stone

s tructures.

A t a ngles o r interruptions i n t he wall t his mutual s upport i s not a vailable a nd s o l arger, s quarer m ore c arefully w orked b locks t end t o b e u sed

a t

t hese

p oints.

T he

w ider

t he

s urface

o f

c ontact

b etween

t hese

b locks t he m ore e ffective t he f orce o f f riction t o p revent s liding. I n N uragic a rchitecture, o ne o f m ainly c ircular b uildings, t he i nterr uptions

a re

f eatures

s uch

a s

e ntrances,

s taircases

a nd

n iches.

T hese

a re s ometimes b uilt w ith l arger b locks o r m ore c arefully d ressed b locks, a s i n t he e ntrance t o t he m ain t ower a t B arumini. Q uoins a lso t end t o h ave

h eaders

a nd

s trechers.

N either

t echnique

i s

c onsistently a pplied,

h owever, a nd t here a re m any b uildings i n b oth G reece a nd S ardinia w here n o s pecial a ttention i s p aid t o c orners. Free-standing b astions i n t he M ycenaean c itadels a re d ressed m ore c arefully ,

a nd

o f t he o ff-sets i n Mycenaean t errace w alls; N uragic a rchitecture i s f ound i n t he nm egaron"

t he n earest p arallel in o f S erra O rrios, D orga n.

A s

f ar

e venly

a s

b edded

c oursing

f or

t wo

s table e quilibrium ,

i s

c oncerned

r easons:

i n

t he

t he

t his

s tones

f irst

n eed

p lace

t ends

t o

t hey

b e

t o b e

t rue

r easonably

n eed

t o

b e

i n

s o t hat a c hange i n t he l ine o f f orce d oes n ot c ause

t he s tones t o m ove a nd c ollapse. I n t he s econd p lace t he p acking n eeds t o s upport e nough o f t he s tone s o t hat s erious s hear o r t ensile s tresses d o

n ot

c ause

c racking r espond

i s i n

t he

s tones

t o

c rack.

A ll

n ot u nusual i n N uragic a nd t he p lastic m anner which

t he

s ame

a c ertain

a mount

o f

Mycenaean b uildings, a nd t hey m akes d ry-stone w alling s o

e ffective. S tyles

o f M asonry

A n umber

o f s tudies h ave

m asonry,

t hough

u sually

M ueller's

v ery

c oncerned

p rimarily

s ensitive t o

d istinguished v arious

w ithin s tudy

a

f airly

o f

t he

C yclopean

d istinguish

t he

v arious

T he w ork o f F elon, d eveloping t hat o f o nly i n t holos t ombs ( Mueller 1 930; w orking

h ypothesis

i t

i s

p roposed

t o

t here

are

s tyles

o f

wall

o f M ycenaean

c ontext.

w alling

p hases

o f

a t

T hus

T iryns

i s

c onstruction.

W ace, i s c oncerned w ith w alling Wace 1 925; F elon 1 976). A s a p resent

F elon's and a dapting i t t o i nclude M ycenaean d efensive a rchitcture. I n t ecture

s tyles

s pecific

a t ypology h ere

b ased

o n

t he b road c ategories f ound in N uragic a s i n M ycenaean a rchi-

c onstruction

i n

a ddition

t o

the

C yclopean and r ubble s tyles: t hus t he c arefully f inished i sodomic m asonry o f s acred w ells s uch a s S anta C ristina P aulilatino a nd S anta V ittoria w ould t ypes

S erri,

o r

f eature i n o f w alling

t he

o rthostatic

s ystematic d efinition a nd s o 1 .

P olygonal

c omposed

o f

c onstruction

o f

t he

r ough

C yclopean u nworked

t he

a r ather

T ombs

r eticulated

T he o f a

f ollowing t erms h ave b een c oined.

( fig.

3 .1:1)

b locks

o f

i s

c oined

p olygonal

t o o r

s ection. T he s tones a re n ot l aid i n r egular c ourses, s tone a bove w ill t end t o l ie i n t he t rough b etween g iving

G iants'

a b roader t ypology b ut a re n ot i ncluded h ere. f ound w ithin n uraghi h ave n ot b een t he s ubject

a ppearance.

I rregular

d escribe m asonry r oughly

c ircular

a nd g enerally t he t wo s tones b elow p acking

i s

a lso

a

f eature o f t his t ype o f m asonry, a s i t i s i mportant t hat t he s tones s hould b e evenly b edded. Examples i nclude t he C yclopean T omb at M ycenae, t he t holos t omb a t K azarma a nd M edeon. A lthough n ot v ery s uccessful

i n

t he

t holos

t ombs

i t

i s 4 2

e ncountered

i n d efensive w alls,

a s

2 a

2 b

F igure

1 . 2 .

3 .1

2 c

3

4

5

6

S ketches i llustrating t he s tyles ( not t o s cale)

o f d ry-stone m asonry

P olygonal C yclopean - N uraghe T radori, R iola S ardu ( OR) C oursed C yclopean a ) N uraghe S antu A ntine, T orralba ( SS)

3 .

b ) T iryns, t he S outh-West E xtension c ) M ycenae, t he P ostern G ate P acked C yclopean - S u N uraxi, B arumini

4 . 5 .

A shlar m asonry - T reasury o f A treus, M ycenae S chist r ubble - T he t holos t omb a t M arathon

6 .

C oursed r ubble - T he t holos

4 3

( CA)

t omb a t K ato P hournos,

M ycenae

i n

s ome

s ites

p arts

m odern

o f

t he

c ircuits

r estorations

a t

t end

M ycenae

t o

f avor

a nd

t his

T iryns, s tyle

t hough

a nd

i t

a t

i s

b oth

n ot

a s

c ommon a s f irst i mpressions m ight s uggest, and e specially i n t he A cropolis a t A thens. I n t he n uraghi e xamples i nclude t he m ain t ower a t B arumini

a nd

t he

N uraghe

T radori

R iola

r ecognized a ccording t o t he s ize o f t holos t ombs u se r ather s mall s tones. 2 .

C oursed

d ressed

t o

c ourses.

C yclo2ean

s ize,

T his

o r

i s

a t

t he

m ost

a nd i n M ycenaean d efences. f ine t he

a s

a shlar.

T his

d efensive w alls

( fig.

l east

3 .1:2) t ype

I t i s m ore

u sed,

c onsists

o f

a s

s ome

o f

r ectangular

s elected,

o f w alling

and

f ound

l aid i n

b e t he

b locks

i n

e ven

t he n uraghi

r egular t han p olygonal a nd n ot a s

o f w alling

o f b oth

A s ub-division m ight

s tones

c arefully

c ommon

t ype

S ardu.

t he

i s

c ultures.

m ost

c ommonly

I n n uraghi

t he

e ncountered

i n

l ower c ourses a re

o ften c onstructed o f l arger r ectangular b locks, whilst t he h igher c ourses are o f s maller s quarer ones, e vidently f or c onvenience of h andling.

V arious

s ub-divisions

h ave

b een

d efined,

f or

e xample

a ccor-

d ing t o t he d egree o f d ressing, b ut f or p resent p urposes w e s uggest t wo s ub-classes. I n t he f irst k ind t he s tones are r ather massive and i rregular

i n s hape,

b ut

s maller s tones a re

i rregularities

a nd

I n

s ub-class

t he

s econd

s ame h eight,

s o

p roduce

t hat

r easonably

t he

s tones

c arefuly

e ven,

t end

t o

l evel b e

f itted a nd

t o m atch t he

r egular

r ectangular

c ourses.

a nd

o f

t he

t he c ourses a re a chieved w ithout a s m uch p acking a s

t he f irst k ind. T he m ore c arefully c oursed v ariety a t Mycenae h as b een l inked w ith t he u se o f c onglomerate w hich w as q uarried i n m ore r ectangular

b locks

f rom t he s econd 3 .

( Iakovidis

1 983:34).

I n

f act

t here

i s

a c ontinuum

t hrough t he f irst t o P olygonal C yclopean.

P acked

C yclopean

( fig.

3 .1:3)

h as

b een

a dopted

a s

a t erm

t o

d escribe a v ery d istinctive t ype o f m asonry. I t i s f requently e ncountered i nside t he N uragic t owers. S ome packing i s n eeded t o m inimize

t he

d anger

o f

t he

r ough

h ewn

s tones

moving

o r

s eriously

c racking u nder s tress, b ut i n t his c ase o ne f inds a c ontinuous, v ery d ense a nd c ompacted f illing b etween t he s tones. I t i s n ot c lear h ow t his

w as

a chieved;

v esicular

s tone,

E xamples

a re

i nterior

o f

s ometimes which

u biquitous t he

f illing

h ave

i n S ardinia,

b uildings.

t he u se o f P lesia 1 983 e sp. 3 4f.).

t he

m ight

c lay

T he

i n

t he

b een b ut

c losest

c onsists c hosen

t he

w alling

i s

f ound

a nd

t heir

f aces

S ardinia; w e d istinguish C ristina S acred W ell. 5 .

S chist

t hin l ong s labs, t his

s hape;

t he

r ubble

o nly o n t he s eems

o f Mycenae

t o

b e

( Iakovidis

t o d escribe t he t ombs a t M ycenae,

a nd i n t hose p arts o f t he c ircuit w alls s uch

a s t he L ion G ate a t Mycenae. T he l aid i n a lmost p erfectly r egular m atched,

s pongy

e lasticity.

i n G reece

4 . A shlar C yclopean ( fig. 3 .1:4) i s u sed m agnificent m asonry f ound i n t he t hird g roup o f t holos a nd t he T reasury o f M inyas,

a r ather i ts

s tyle

a pproach

C yclopean

o f f or

l arge s tones, o ften c onglomerate, a re c ourses, w ith t heir j oints c arefully

s moothed. t his

f rom

w alling

( fig.

T his t he

s tyle

i s

i sodomic

3 .1:5)

i s

n ot

e ncountered

m asonry

c omposed

o f

o f

t he

i n

S anta

r elatively

u sually s chist o r l imestone w hich naturally c leave i nto b locks

a re

l aid

f lat.

T he

e ffect

i s

r egular

t hough

w ithout a s trict r egard t o c oursing. S maller s tones a re i nserted t o f ill g aps o r t o b ed t he s labs m ore e venly. T his i s t he t ype o f m asonry m ost

c ommonly

f ound

i n

t holos

t ombs,

4 4

b ut

i t

i s

r are

i n d efensive w alls

a nd

p alatial

t erraces.

I t

d oes

n ot

o ccur

i n

t he

n uraghi,

t he v ernacular a rchitecture o f t he p eriod i t i s n ot 6 .

Dressed

c arefully

r ubble

s quared

a nd

walling

l aid

i n

( fig.

3 .1:6)

r egular c ourses,

i s

s o

a nd

e ven

i n

c ommon. b uilt

a s

t o

o f

s tones

f orm a n eat a nd

e ven a ppearance. T his i s t he t ype o f w alling f ound i n W ace's g roup 2 o f t holos t ombs. A gain i t i s n ot a s tyle o f N uragic w alling. These s tyles o f w alling a re n ot n ecessarily o f c hronological s ignificance, i ndeed a ll t hree s tyles c an b e f ound, f or e xample, i n t he s ame

t ower

w ith m assive

b locks

l aid

i n

t he

p olygonal

l owest c ourses,

a nd c oursed C yclopean h igher u p,

i s

i nterior.

u sed

f ace t he

o n

i s b ack

t here

t he

o ften l ess o f

a re

t he

L ion

G ate

u ndoubtedly

w alling o f p hases

I n

c arefully

t he l aid

o r

c itadel a nd

a t

G la

c onscious

w alls

f inished

o f

G reece

t han

( Iakovidis

e ffects

a s

s tyle

t he

t he

t he

v ery

t he

t he

a s

i n

N evertheless

c ontrast

w here

i nterior

e xterior,

1 983:96).

I I a nd I II a t B arumini s hows,

i n

w hilst p acked C yclopean

b etween

t he

l ater e ntrance

s ection d iffers s o m arkedly f rom t he w alling o f t he e arlier p hase. I n t he c ase o f T iryns I I a nd T iryns I II t he d ifference m ay a rise f rom t he s heer s cale

o f t he l ater p hase:

t o h ave h ammer d ressed

g reat e xtension w ould s imply h ave A lthough s tyles i n

f ound

G reece

m asonry,

w hich

a re

r epresented t he

t hese c ategories a re q uite b road i n G reece a nd n ot

i n

t o

f avored

t here.

M ycenaean

e ither

t end O n

o r

d o n ot

s mall

o ther

a nd

h and

P olygonal

i t i s n oteworthy t hat t he

g reatly

s tones,

i n S ardinia,

t he

w orld.

G reece

S ardinia u se

t he s tones o f t he

t aken t oo l ong.

a shlar

P acked

I t

i s

a nd

T he s tyles

d ressed

C yclopean

i s

i s

o nly

n ot

i n

r ubble

a lso n ot

C yclopean i s n ot

C yclopean

i n S ardinia.

o verlap.

s chist

f ound

e specially

c oursed

i n

c ommon

C yclopean

t hat

t he t wo s tyles c ome c lose. C onclusions I n broad t erms t he r esults o f t his f urther s upport t o o ur argument

l end

s tructures

c ultures. c ultures i ndicates

E ven i n t he r ealm o f d efensive a rchitecture, w here t he t wo might b e t hought t o c ome c loser, c omparison o f t he t wo more d ifferences t han s imilarities. T he t actics o f d efence

B oes,

Mycenaean t he g reat

a re

f ound

t owers d o n ot o f l ife w ere s imple

c enters n uraghi,

i n

m ore

imitations

t o

p arallel

t hought

s ubsist

t erranean a nd

t he

H ittite m erely

n o

t end s uch

o pen

t echnical

t o a s

e xchange

e xploit n atural B arumini, L osa,

g round;

t he

e ntrance

b etween

t he

t wo

a cropolis s ites, S antu A ntine a nd s ystems

d iffer

a nd

f eature p rominently i n M ycenaean d efences. T he r ealities t oo d ifferent i n B ronze A ge G reece a nd i n S ardinia f or

f undamental t o

w as

f orms o f w alling a rchitecture o f

c orbelled

d iffer: w hereas

t here

s tudy o f t he t hat i n t he

s uch

a s

f lourish.

r emains; b etween

t he

t orre

n uraghi

o f S ardinia,

c apital

a t

a p roduct

t he o f

t he

C orsica, I t

a s imilar

m ay

c onviction

l ike

Bronze

o r b etween

B ogazkby.

o f

Y et

s omething

u nity

o f

s ome

w hich

Age

s tructures

o f

t he

t alayots

t he

t he

b e

t he

c itadels

t hat

t echnology:

t his

o nly

o f

h as t he

more b een M edi-

B alearics

o f M ycenae a nd t he u nderlying

s tone

a nd

u nity

b ronze

i s

t ools

w ere available f or q uarrying and w orking t he t ransporting t he s tone m ay a lso h ave b een s imilar.

masonry, methods o f A ll t he s ame e arlier

a rchaeologists

i n

s ymbol d irect t rade i s

m ay

n ot

h ave

b een

w rong

t o

s ee

o f t he i nternationalism o f t he p eriod. e xchange i n a rchitecture t han w e s ee i n

c ommodities;

a r ecognizable

b ut

a s

a ffinity.

a n T he

e xpression

o f

g reat n uraghi, 4 5

t hese

b uildings

a

C ertainly t here w as l ess i n m etallurgy o r i n t he p ower,

a s

a s tyle,

t here

t he Mycenaean c itadels,

a nd

t he

H ittie

c apital

o f

B ogazköy,

v ary

i n s tatus

f rom t he

c enters

o f

s mall p rincipalities t o t he c apital o f a n e mpire, b ut t he d efence w alls a t a ll t hese s ites a re i ntended n ot o nly t o p rotect t he r uler b ut a lso m agnifiy

h is

s tanding,

a nd

t hey

d o

s o

i n

t he

s ame

a rchitectural

i diom,

C yclopean M asonry.

I I.

C ORBELLED D OMES

I ntroduction A t

a bout

t he

s ame

t ime

i n

t he

M editerranean

B ronze

A ge

M ycenaean

a nd N uragic p eoples b uilt m assive s tone s tructures c ontaining c orbelled d omes o f a s imilar b eehive s hape ( fig. 3 .2): t he t holoi a nd t he n uraghi r espectively. t echnical 1 985

w here

c ontrary, e xchange. t he

T his

e xchange t he

f act

has

b etween

t he

e vidence

t wo

u sed

i n

t he

s ocieties

r eviewed).

past

W e w ill

( see

a s

e vidence

C avanagh

a rgue h ere

a nd

t hat,

of

L axton o n

t he

t he c orbelled d ome i s n ot o f i tself e vidence o f t echnical T he a rgument i s b ased o n t he p roposition t hat, a ppearances t o

c ontrary,

t he

c omparatively s imple w ho h ave t he s tone e nclosed area. I n

i s

b een

w hat

t hick w alled

b uilding

o f

e ven

l arge

c orbelled

d omes

f ollows w e d eal w ith s tructures

s uch

a s

t holoi.

O ur a rgument

c onsiderations.

I1

E i ACKF I L.L. • 1

I

D E) TH x

\ C URVE

1 R AD IUS

F igure 3 .2

a

t he t ype o f c orbelling e ncountered i n

n uraghi a nd

t wo p arts a nd b ased o n s tructural

• 1

i n

f orm o f c onstruction o pen t o a ny p rimitive p eoples r esources, and t he s ocial n eed t hus t o r oof a n

1 COURSES

A C orbelled D ome w ith C ourses a nd 4 6

B ackfill

i s i n

( A) F irstly, c onditions

s tructure i s c onditions. n o

f urther

n ormal f uture

o nce t he

w hich

w e

t ake

c orbelled d ome i s b uilt, t o

b e

r easonable

s table a nd w ill r emain T hat i s, t he s tability

knowledge

o f h ow

t he

s o i s

a re

a nd p rovided c ertain

f ulfilled,

t he

r esulting

t hereafter u nder n ormal w orking e nsured b y t he a ct o f b uilding ;

s tructure

i s

g oing

t o

r espond

t o

t hese

c hanging c onditions a fter c ompletion i s n ecessary t o e nsure s tability. B asically t he r eason w hy t his i s s o i s t hat

s tructure c an s omewhat c hange ( B)

S econdly,

f or p rimitive

i ts s hape t o k eep i tself s table.

t here i s a s imple r ule-of-thumb m ethod,

p eople

t o

u se,

t o

i s o f t he c orrect s hape t o b e l ong a s t he c onditions h old. C rudely p rocedure,

p ut,

a nd

c orbelled

o nce

p ut

u p

i ts t he

b uild

s table

a ' beehive' - a nd

' beehive' s tay

b y

d omes

c an

T his

i dea

u p!

d etail i n t he n ext t wo s ections.

s o

( A)

b e

b ut

d ome w hich

r emain

p ut

i s

V arious f acets o f

a ppeared e lsewhere i n o ur p revious a rticles, t hey h ave b een b rought t ogether a s a w hole.

s imple e nough

c orbelled

u p

s table

b y

s o

a s imple

e xplained

i n

s ome

t hese a rguments h ave

t his

i s

t he

f irst

t ime

T he S tability o f C orbelled D omes G ood a rea)

s tone

w ithout

c an

t ake

q uite

h igh

f ailing - c ertainly

c ompressive

t he u sual

s tress

a mounts

( force

p er

e ncountered

u nit

i n e ven

t he l argest o f d ry-stone b uilding. O n t he o ther h and, e ven t he b est s tone i s c omparatively w eak u nder t ension ( Morgan a nd B uckle 1 978). I n p ractice,

t his

m eans

t hat

t he

t ensile

s tresses

m ust

b e

v ery

l ow o r,

i f

t hey d evelop b y s ome m eans, t hey a re r elieved b y s mall m ovements o f t he s tones t hemselves a nd/or b y t heir c racking. M oderate m ovements a nd c racking n eed n ot

j eopardise

t he

s tability o f

t he b uilding,

r ather

t hey

c an b e t he m eans w hereby t he d ry-stone b uilding m aintains i ts s tability t hroughout i ts l ife. T he r esult o f m ovements c an b e s een, f or e xample, i n

t he

b ack

o f

s ide o f

t he

p atches

w here

s urveying

t he

T reasury

o utside w alling

i n

m ovement

m any

o f A treus o f

h as

p laces

o n

c racked c orbels c an b e e xtensive c racking n eeds

s urface

o pposite

t he

e ntrance a nd

N uraghe S anta B arbara,

t aken t he

p lace

c an

s urface

o f

b e

m ost

d etected t holoi

s tone,

s uch

a s

i s

o ne

w ithstand

t his

c ollapse. s ettle, i t r ock,

o f

e normous

t o

u sed

i n

t he

t holoi

w ill

t he g ive

s tone

g round w ay

a nd

n uraghi

s tructures b elow.

and

q uite

i s

N ow

t hat

b uilt

i t

u nless

p ossibly

t he

t he

s lippage

s o i s

i mmediately g round

b uilding

c an w ill

t he

f oundations

b ase. I f t his t he t ime s cale

w ell

a nd

t o

m inimize

t he

p ressure

b y

i s d one, t hen t he immediate c ollapse under d iscussion!) d ue t o e xtensive

c an b e a voided.

t he

d ry-stone

o n

a nd

S ince f oundations u sually t ake a bout 5 0 t o 1 00 y ears t o i s i mportant t o c hoose t he s ite c arefully, e .g. o n s ecure

having a w ide ( immediate i n

I f

i t

p repare

s ettlement

t hese m assive

s tress

a ccurate

a nd n uraghi

h as a h igh d egree o f f riction,

much s o t hat w e a re r easonably j ustified i n a ssuming u nlikely t o b e a n i mportant p roblem w ith t hem. W hen

b y

o ne

S mall

( Cavanagh a nd L axton 1 987).

a nd o ther m assive d ry-stone b uildings,

p uts

o n

S india.

s een t oo ( perhaps i t s hould b e a dded t hat t o b e a voided i n c ertain v ital p arts o f t he

b uilding s uch a s d oorways e tc. R oughly

t he

above

c onditions

b uilding w ith

r easonable,

t hen w e

c an

b e

t hick w alling,

c an a ppeal

a ssumed

t o P lastic 4 7

t o

a nd w e h ave T heory.

h old a rgued T his,

i n

a massive

t hat

t hey a re

i n a p ractical

f orm,

s ays

t hat

a p erfectly

o nce

s afe

h old g ood. d iscussion

i t

i s

e rected

s tructure

a nd

a nd

w ill

s ettled

s tay

u p

i nto u se t he b uilding i s

a s

l ong

I n e ffect, o nce u p t he b uilding l ooks o f t his t heory s ee H eyman 1 977, a nd

c ations s ee,

f or e xample,

H eyman 1 966;

a s

t he

c onditions

a fter i tself ! f or p ractical

( For a a ppli-

G ordon 1 978).

T he E rection o f C orbelled D omes W e

t urn

d ome. T he t he f orces o f

t he

t o

t he

s econd

c onsideration;

t he

e rection

o f

a c orbelled

c ourses a re l aid h orizontally a nd s o i n t he c onstruction a ll a re v ertical d ue t o g ravity ( fig. 3 .2). F rom t his t he s hape

v ertical

s ection

o f

a d ome,

w hich

i s

i n e quilibrium u nder t hese

c onsiderations, c an b e d educed. E mploying c ertain a ssumptions a bout t he s tructure o f a t holos o r n uraghe, w hich w e f eel t o b e r easonable a nd a pproximately d omes,

f ulfilled

f or

w e c an d educe t hat

t he

w hole

o r

p art

o f

t he

h eight

o ver t hese p arts t he c urvature

o f

t heir

t akes t he f orm

R adius = c X ( Depth b elow A pex) d w here

c a nd

t hereof

d a re

c onstants

t o

b e

d etermined

( Cavanagh a nd L axton 1 98 1).

f or

e ach

d ome

o r

p art

I n s ymbols,

y = c x w here

x i s

c onstant

t he

( see

l ogarithm

o f

m easurements

d epth

f ig.

a nd

y i s

3 .2).

t he

F rom

r adius

t aken

a t

K arditsa

a nd

r adius i t

a gainst

f rom a d ome,

s traight l ine ( Cavanagh and e xamples w here t his h olds t rue t holos

t he t his

t he

i s

t he

t hen

a t

t he

d epth

i mmediate

l ogarithm

t he

t heory

x a nd

c i s

a

t hat i f w e p lot t he o f

d epth

p redicts w e

f rom

t he

w ill g et

a

L axton 1 981; 1 982). Typical o f many f or t he w hole h eight o f t he d ome a re t he

N uraghe

S anta

S abina

a t

S ilanus

( fig.

3 .3).

T he b uilders c an d esign t he d ome i n m ore t han o ne p hase. F or e xample, i n t he c ase o f t he t holoi s uch a c hange i s u sually a t o r a bout t he l evel o f t he

l intel

o ver

t he

e ntrance

a nd

t he

l ower p art

i s m ore

l ike a w all

w hich t he d ome p roper i s t hen e rected ( Cavanagh a nd L axton t his h appens a ' broken l ine' r ather t han a s ingle s traight ( idem.

1 985).

t holos a t ( fig.3.4). d esign

T ypical

o f

t he

m any

e xamples

M arathon a nd t he c entral T he ' change p oint' i n t he

i n

t he

c onstruction

t holos d omes a nd t he 2 5 1 985; 1 987) a ll b ut o ne s atisfactorily.

c hanges.

I t

n uragic d omes f itted o ne o r

w here

c hamber p lot i s, h as

t his

o n

1 98 1). W hen l ine r esults i s

s o

i s

t he

i n t he N uraghe L oss p resumably , w here t he

b een

f ound

t hat

w e m easured ( idem. o ther o f t hese t wo

T he o ne e xception i s N uraghe I s P aras a t

o f

1 98 1; c ases

t he

9

1 982; q uite

I sili w hich a t

t he v ery b ottom c urves i n a gain ( idem. 1 987) a nd s o h as a s econd ' change p oint' a t t he v ery b ottom ( so i t i s h ardly a n e xception t o o ur m odel). I t p eople

i s

o f

s ome

p ossessing

m aterials r equired.

s uch

a s

i nterest o nly

r opes,

a nd

e ven

e lementary s ticks,

e tc.,

W e h ave a lready g iven o ne

o f

s ome

knowledge c ould

i mportance

t o

and

o nly

b uild

s uch m ethod

u sing a d ome

( idem.

s how

h ow

s imple

o f

t he s hape

1 98 1)

a nd o ther

p ossibly s impler o nes a re k nown. D iscussion I n s ummary w e h ave, p rovided

w e b elieve,

g iven a rguments

t he p eople h ave a g ood w orking e xperience

t o t he e ffect t hat

o f t he s tone

t hey a re

u sing a nd t he g round u nder t heir f eet, t hen t hey c an b uild s ound, s table c orbelled d omes b y s imple m eans. T hey c ertainly d o n ot n eed a ny f urther

4 8

I

1

1 1 1 1 1(

1 1 ) 1 11

0 . 1

F igure 3 .3

1

1

1

I

1 1 1 1 11

LOG . o f D EPTH ( m )

1 0

P lot o f t he L ogarithm o f t he R adius a gainst t he L ogarithm

o f t he D epth b elow t he A pex - S traight L ine p lots f or t he t holos a t K arditsa a nd t he N uraghe S anta S abina a t S ilanus

L OG . o f R AD IUS ( m )

I U

T H . MARATHON

N . LOSA

0 . 1

1

0 .1

F igure 3 .4

11 1 1 1 1

1

11 1 11 1 ____

1

1 0

L OG . o f D EPTH l t

P lot o f t he L ogarithm o f t he R adius a gainst t he L ogarithm

o f t he D epth b elow t he A pex - ' Broken L ine'

p lots f or t he t holos

a t m arathon a nd t he c entral c hamber a t N uraghe L oss. C m arks t he c hange p oint o n e ach p lot.

4 9

s ophisticated g oing

t o

k nowledge

b ehave

t herefore M ycenaean

a fter

o f i t

c onstruction m ethods i s

d emands, i f w e t o t he N uragic

b uilt.

t ombs: t he

i s

a bsence

e xchange t he

i n

L ate

q uent.

T he

t he

a bout

h alf ,

t his

p recise

t he

t echnology t holos

s ome

v alue t o

o f

t he

a nd

e xponent

t o

o f c ourse m ust a lso a ccept

b uilding

P lastic

' d'

a nd

i n

i s

T heory

t heir

i n

a r elationship

t hese

t here

1 982)

c ase a reas.

b etween

o f

t wo

O f

c ase

o f

e lo-

m uch

m ore

t he

' d '

n o

q uite

p ointed

c onfirmed b y

b oth

t he

i s

I n

w as

s imilarity

c ourse w e

d o

i s a s ufficient

c orbelled

v aults:

t he

b e a rchaeologically p lausible.

s imple

o ther c onvincing e vidence

q uarters.

t hat

c ontrast w ith

L axton

t his w as u sed

t hree

c onclude

T he

( Cavangh

e vidence

p arallel

w e

w e

t hat a s imilarity i n t he v alue

i ndicate

t he

o f

f ound i n t he t holos

o ther a bout

o f v aulting.

a rgument

I f

t he

s imilarity

r elationship,

i mply

f rom t he e xponent

a nd

t ombs

a rchaeological

t o

n ot w ish

o ne

o f

M inoan

s trongly i n

o ne

h ow

t he c orbelled d ome i tself. I t h as b een a nd L axton 1 985) t hat t his p recise s imie xponent ' d' o f o ur e xpression. W e h ave f rom 2 4 N uragic d omes a nd a ll b ut o ne o f s tanding. I n f act t he e xponent i n t he

s ignificantly d ifferent

t he

o r

a pplication

a rgue f or a n e xchange o f t echnology f rom t he e ngineers, e vidence f or a m ore p recise s imi-

l arity t han j ust t he u se o f s uggested e lsewhere ( Cavanagh l arity m ight b e s ought i n t he n ow t aken p recise m easurements t he t holos t ombs s till f ull n uraghi

T he

t o

p reconditions

t he

c ontrary,

t hen,

w e m ust

i n

t he

p roceed

a bsence

o n

o f

t he b asis

o f t he independent d iscovery and d evelopment o f t he t echnique o f b uilding c orbelled d omes. G iven t his a nd g iven t hat a s ociety n eeds f or s ome r eason o r o ther p illars a nd t he l ike,

t o e nclose a f airly l arge c ircular s pace f ree o f t hen t here a re r eally o nly a f ew p ractical w ays o f

d oing

c orbelling

t his,

o f w hich

i s

o ne

a nd

p ossibly

t he

m ost p rimitive

o f t hem a ll ( Morgan a nd B uckle 1 978). H ence a ny e xplanation, o ther t han c hance, f or t he p resence o f t hese d omes i n t wo s eparate s ocieties, a t t he

s ame

r ather

t ime,

i n

q uestion

t he a nd

d oes n eeds

n ot o f

i nvolves

l ie

t hose n ot

i n

t he

w ho

j ust

t echnique

b uilt

t holoi

i t, a nd

o f

t his

b uilding

i tself

p resumably i s

n uraghi

b ut

t he

b ut

a s ocial

o ther

s tone

s tructures o f a g rand s cale. I n

s tudying

w orthwhile

d oing.

t he

s tructure

F irstly,

n uraghi w ere b uilt f rom t he a b uilding

i n w hich

o nly

t wo

a n

f urther

p oints

f oundations u p t o t he

o ne

s ide

o f

t he

B roadly s peaking,

b e t he

e xtremely t holoi a nd

t op o f t he d ome ,

d ome h ad

a n a ttempt t o d etermine h ow s ome o f t he m any e ventually c ollapsed s ince, a s w e h ave a rgued, t o f all d own.

w ould

e xamination i n d etail h ow

c ollapsed.

u sing

S econdly

b uildings i n b oth a reas i t i s n ot e asy f or t hem

a ny e xplanation w ould s eem t o

f all i nto

o ne o f t hree c ategories. ( a)

The

b uilding f ell d own a lmost i mmediately - s ay a s a r esult o f

t he f oundations g iving w ay e xtensively. ( b) i nvalid

One - s ay

o r t he

o ther s tone

o f d id

t he

a ssumptions

i n f act

c racking o ccured a t a v ital s pot s uch a s ( c)

S ome

f or

f ail u nder

s tability

w as

o r

b ecame

c ompression o r e xtensive

t he d oorway.

o utside a gency w as i nvolved - s ay humans o r b ulldozers

o r

e arth-tremors i n t he c ase o f G reece a nd C rete. S ome a ssessment i n p articular c ases a nd t he o verall p icture f or t he r easons o f c ollapse i n b oth a reas w ould b e m ost i nteresting.

5 0

A cknowledgements We wish t o

t hank

t he m any p eople a nd

i nstitutions who h ave h elped

a nd c ontributed t owards o ur w ork. W hilst w orking i n S ardinia w e w ere m ost c ordially r eceived a nd g reatly h elped b y P rofs. F . B arreca a nd F . L o

S chiavo,

a nd

t heir

C agliari a nd O ristano,

s taffs

i n

t he

S oprintendenze

a nd S assari a nd N uoro.

A rcheologiche

o f

M ore g enerally d uring t he

c ourse o f o ur w ork i n S ardinia w e m et w ith m uch k indness a nd h ospitality w herever w e w ent. O ur r esearches i n G reece w ere g reatly h elped b y t he s taff

o f

C entral

t he and

g ratitude

E phoreias E astern

t o

P rof.

T zedakis,

P rof.

r esearch

h as

N ottingham,

o f

t he

In

a nd

f rom

B ritish

D r.

t he

Attica,

D r.

P apadakis. t he

w e

Argolid,

w ish

C rystallis,

R esearch

A cademy,

t he

p articular,

H ourmouziadis,

D avaras, c ome

Thessaly,

C rete.

P rof.

F inancial

F und

o f

B ritish

t o

Western,

r ecord

P laton,

s upport

t he

f or

U niversity

S chools

a t

R ome

o ur

P rof.

a nd

o ur o f a t

A thens, a nd t he D r. A .M. A ylwin C otton F oundation. E quipment w as p ut a t o ur d isposal b y t he D ept. o f C ivil E ngineering a t t he U niversity o f N ottingham, e xcavations. o f

t he

c onference

f urther o f

L ord W illiam T aylour, and Dr. J ohn C amp W e a re m ost g rateful t o t hese i nstitutions.

r eferences

o ur

s urveys

w e

P rofs. a nd w ere

L o

s aved

S chiavo t he

a ssisted

S teven H arrison.

W e t hank P rof.

w ho,

t o

i n

a ddition

o f s tone

b uildings,

i nspiring h as

t ext b y

and f rom

G uy

H eyman,

o ur

F errarese s ome

C eruti

e rrors.

B eattie,

s upplied

I n t he

A lfio

c ourse

M artinelli

a nd

o f t he U niversity o f C ambridge,

a pproach

a lso k indly

o f t he Agora I n t he c ourse

r ead a nd

t o

t he

s tructural

c ommented

m echanics

o n d rafts o f o ur

p apers.

R EFERENCES

C ATLING,

H .W.

1 964 C AVANAGH,

C ypriot B ronzework i n t he M ycenaean W orld. W .G.

19 81

& R .R. L AXTON The s tructural

m echanics

o f

t he

M ycenaean

O xford.

t holos

t omb.

B SA 7 6:109-140. C orbelling i n L ate M inoan

1 985

a nd C orbelled v aulting i n M ycenaean t holos t ombs I talian S ardinian N uraghi. B AR S 245 = P apers i n A rchaeology 1 V:413-433,

C AVANAGH,

W .G.,

1 985

C .

P ACT

d omes;

I .

t ombs.

M alone a nd S .

R .R. L AXTON & C .D. L ITTON A n A pplication o f C hange-point p rehistoric

C ONTU,

t holos

B SA 7 7:65 -7 7.

1 982

T he

S toddart e ds.

A nalysis

m aximum

t o

t he

s hape

l ikelihood

1(111.4)19 1-203.

E .

1 98 1. D E B OBLAYE, 1 833

L 'Architettura n uragica.

I chnussa:5-175.

E MILE L E P OUILLON E xpedition S cientifique d e M or e.

5 1

V ol.

2 .

P aris.

o f

m ethod.

D ESHAYES,

J .

19 60

L es O utils d e B ronze m illennaire). P aris.

1 960

T he R ods o f D igenis.

D WORAKOWSKA, 1 970

( IV

a u

I I

M aterialy

d o

B ibliotecha Antigua 1 4.

M .A. I i V illaggio.

S ardegna p reistorica:111-118.

J .E. S tructures.

E ngland:

P enguin B ooks.

J . E quilibrium o f S hell S tructures. L ondon : M .P. T he S tone S keleton. I nternational J ournal o f S tructures 2 :249-279.

19 77 1 966

I AKOVIDIS, 1 963

L AWRENCE,

S olids

S . I M ykinaiki A kropolis t on A thinon.

1 983

A thens.

L ate H elladic C itadels o n M ainland G reece.

L eiden .

A .W.

1 983 L ILLIU,

D anube

B SA 7 8 :69-96.

Q uarries i n A ncient G reece.

1 978. H EYMAN,

a u

S tarozytne k amienolomy P eloponezu. i nwentaryzacji. A rcheologia 2 0(1969)1.

19 85 G ORDON,

L 'Indus

A .

1 975 F ADDA,

d e

G reek A rchitecture.

H armondsworth.

G .

19 62

IN uraghi.

1 977

D al

S assari.

lb etilo'

a niconico a lla s tatuaria n uragica.

St S a r

2 4:73144. L O S CHIAVO, 1 98 1

F . Economia

e S ocietä

n ell'etä

d ei

n uraghi.

I chnussa:

2 53-347. 1 986

L ecture d elivered b efore t he S ociety o f L ondon .

M ADAU ,

1 3 M arch,

M .

1 985

M eteriali

d i

I mportazione

d alla

S ettentrionale. I n S ocietä e C ultura P eriodi O rientalizzante e A rcaico. P rovinciale d i C agliari. M ORGAN,

Anti quaries,

1 986.

W .,

1 978 M UELLER, W . 1 930

& I .G.

B UCKLE

T he E lements o f S tructure.

T iryns I II.

B erlin.

5 2

L ondon:

S ardegna

i n S ardegna N ei A mministrazione

P itman.

M YLONAS, G . 1 964 F ELON ,

M ycenae a nd t he M ycenaean A ge.

O .

19 76 P I MA,

T holoi,

t umuli e t c ercels f uneraires.

P ETRIE,

M onumenti P rimitivi d ella S ardegna.

M onAnt 1:119.

W .M.F.

1 9 17

T ools a nd W eapons i llustrated i n t he E gyptian a t U niversity C ollege.

S CHLIEMANN,

T iryns.

1 888

M ycenae.

J . 19 73

1 986.

L ondon. L ondon.

M inoan A rchitecture: M aterials a nd T echniques. Annuario d ella S cuola A rcheologica d i A tene 4 9(197 1):n.s. 3 1. C . N uragic S tatuary f rom M onte P rama.

S SA 1 1:4 1 -5 9.

A .J.B.

1 949 W RIGHT , J .C. 19 80

c ollection

L ondon .

H .

1 886

T RONCHETTI,

W ACE,

P aris.

G .

19 0 1

S HAW ,

P rinceton.

M ycenae.

P rinceton.

M ycenaean P alatial T erraces.

5 3

A thMitt 9 5:59-86.

L A M ECCANICA D ELLE S TRUTTURE A LLE F ALSE V OLTE W .G.

C avanagh a nd R .R.

L axton

R iassunto I n d iverse r elazioni a bbiamo a nalizzato

l e f alse c upole

d ei

t holoi

m icenei e m inoici e a nche d ei n uraghi s ardi. D a t empo s i s ustiene c he l e f alse c upole e l e f orme c osidette " bee-hive" d i q ueste c upole i mplicano c he

l e

c ostruzioni

n uragiche

d ate d el C 14 p ubblicate p er i n a ssoluto q uesta i potesi.

d erivano l e

N el p assato a bbiamo d iscusso, e d

i n

p i üd ettaglia,

f alse

c upole

p ietra

e l a

c he,

c oncepita g enerale

a l

d alla

s opra

e d esideriamo

c ontrario,

c ome

t ecnica

s omiglianza

t omba

m enzionate

l ' uso

p er

d elle

m icenea.

l e

n on n egano

s ottolineare n uovamente

d ella

c onstruzione

c ostruire

s tesse

I noltre,

c ostruzioni

f orme

u na d ei

d elle

c opertura

i n

" bee-hive",

i n

n essun m odo i mplica u na s tretta c onnessione f ra l e d ue s ocietä. I noltre, i nteriori c haratteristiche c omuni n ella f orma d elle c upole, d ovrebbero e ssere s coperte p rima c he s i p ossano s ostenere d elle i potesi a lb os cambio d i t ecnologia e dile f ra q ueste d ue c iviltä. L e n ostre u na u n

f orma l ivello

m odo

s ull'idea c he

' primitiva'

t ecnologico

f acilmente m andopera, i n

t esi s i b asano

r elativamente

d i

c ostruire u na f alsa c upola e

c ostruzione

e ccessivamentnte

r ispetto

i n

q uanto

s ofisticatoe

a nche

n on

e sige

p erche

e

d isponibile a q ualsiasi s ocietä c he a bbia d elle r isorse d i d i g randi q uantitä d i p ietra, e i l d esiderio d elle c operture

p ermanente.

I l

n ostro

r aggionamento

s i

b asa

s ulla

s eguente

l ogica: ( i) f inale C ia

S i

d i

v uol

p ua

u na d ire

d imostrare

f alsa c he,

c he

c upola

m entra

s otto

o ttime

e g arantita l a

f alsa

d alla

c upola

c ondizioni,

l a

s ua

c ostruzione.

a ttuale

e s tabile

d urante

s tabilitä l a

f ase

d i

c ostruzione, a llora e ssa r imane s tabile - d opo i l c ompletamento d i l avoro - s otto n ormali c ondizioni d i l avoro e d i v ita. I n p ratica, q ueste

c ondizioni

s ono

g eneralmente

v alide;

r ichiedono

s olide f ondamenta p er s ostenere l 'eccessivo c ostruzione i n p ietra d i o ttima q ualitä. ( ii) a vere

P rese

u na

r egolari

f orma c he

s ingolarmente, s pecifica;

i rregolari,

l e

p ietre

i nfatti, e p otere

n on

p eso

d ebbono

e p ossibile

a vere

u tilizzare.

d elle d i

b uone

u na

e

g rande

n ecessariamente m olte

I noltre,

f orme,

s ia

e l eggittimo

p otere s ustenere d elle f issure p er a lleviare l a s truttura d elle t ensione l ocale.

C iö

c omporta

a nche

d ei

v antaggi

f ino

a q uando

s ono e quilibratamente s parse n ella c ostruzione; u n

e ccessivo

a perture, s truttura

n umero

d i

q ueste

f issure

i nserite

( iii) m a

i n

e cc. p otrebbe f ormare u na r amificazione i n g enerale i n q ueste p ia i mportanti,

p iccole p ietre p ietre i nserite f ra q uelle m inimizzare u na s crepolamento s istematico.

e fficace

I c ostruttori m etodo

p er

p reistorici d are

u na

c osicche d urante i ntera f ase d i

d ovrebbero

f orma

a lee

5 4

z one

f issure

r ischio d i

v itali

c ome

c he i ndebolirebbe l a g eneralmente s i u sa

p hi

grandi

a ver

p areti

c ostruzione e sse

q ueste

i n e ffetti i l

a vuto d elle

i n

m odo

u n

s emplice

c upole

d i

f alse

r imanessero s tabili.

N oi

a bbiamo

m iceneo

e fficace. m etodi

m ostrato

q ui

v i

t ale

o ffriamo

O vviamente,

m etodo

i n

u n m etodo

d i

n on

s tiamo

u na

n ostra

c ostruzione

c onfermando

f ossero u sati d a q ueste d ue c iviltä;

c he l e d ue s ocieta q uesti m etodi. S econdo

n oi,

i n

q uestione

q uesti

a vevano

a rgomenti

i i

r elazione a ncora

d el

t holoi

p iü s emplice

e

c he

i

f atto

a mbedue

s tiamo s olamente c onstatando

l 'opportunita

d imostrano

c he

l a

d i

u sufruire

c opertura

d i

a f alse

v olte c on p ietra n on e u n m etodo e soteric° d i c ostruzione e n on c onferma l 'ipotesi c he e u na s ola i nvenzione d i u n d eterminato g ruppo e c he g li a ltri

v i

D i c iö d urante

s ono

e d i

g iunti

a ltre

s olamente

c onsiderazioni

m ediante

u na

r elazionate

l a n ostra d iscussione.

5 5

d iffusione a q uesto

d i

a ltro

t ipo.

t ema n e p arleremo

4 .

T HE N URAGIC D OMES - W HY F ALSE? B arbro S antillo F rizell

The

a im

q ualitative m echanics

o f

of

i ntuitive

t his

a pproach d ry

w ay

t o

p aper

i s

t owards

masonry

s how

t wofold.

t he

c upolas.

t hat

t he

F irst,

I w ill

u nderstanding T his

b asic

o f

I s hall

p rinciples

o f

present

t he t ry

a

s tructural

t o

s tatics

i n

an

i nvolved

d o

i n

d ry m asonry s tructures a re c oncepts t hat c an b e u nderstood b y a nyone w ho i s

i nterested

i n

l earning

a bout

t hem.

T he

i mportance

o f a q ualitative

u nderstanding o f s tructural c oncepts b efore a ny q uantitative a nalysis i s a imed a t,

h as b een c learly d emonstrated b y M ario S alvadori

b ook o n a rchitectural d uring h is

t his p aper w ill

s tructures

d omes a nd

In

t he

O ur

a nd

t he

m ain

a t

A ntine

grandness

t he

T orralba,

t he

m asonry c upolas

t he

a n

o f

" The

i n

h ere B oth

d omes

s ome

t he

a re,

w here

t echnical

o f

N uragic

i n

t heir

i n

b uilt

f rom

a re

s till

t hey

c ourse, h ave

t he

M ycenaean

p roduced

t heir

a t Mycenae a nd N uraghe

s kill

o utstanding

w ere

p laces

c ategories

a nd

k now-how

r eached

t heir m onumentality

s patial

c omplexity.

O ther

t he E truscan t holos

A ll t hese b uildings e ven f alse v aults.

o f

t he c upola

w hat

i s

l argest

P antheon

n ot a t rue

masonry

o n a l ess m onumental s cale a re

p rinciple

t he R oman

b etween

a nd d ry

t ombs

a re c ommonly c alled f alse F rom a t horough s tudy o f

l iterature t reating t he M ycenaean t holoi, I f ound t otal t he f ollowing m atter: t he M ycenaean a rchitects d id n ot

e xample

L arousse:

d ry

h istory;

d omes

n uraghi

a nd t he A pulian t rulli. d omes, p seudocupolas o r m ost o f t he a greement o n

r elationship

t he T reasury o f A treus

M ycenaean

and

area,

d omes.

S antu

p erfection:

t he

i nterests

N uragic

f or e xample

k now

i n h is

t ombs.

t hroughout

m asterpieces,

A s

( 1976)

t his m ethod s uccessfully

t ouch u pon t he q uestion o f t he o rigin o f

p articular

Mediterranean t imes

t oday.

t holoi

- i n

t he Mycenaean t holos

p rehistoric b uilt

H e h as u sed

l ong e xperience i n t eaching A merican u niversity s tudents.

S econdly, t hese

s tructures.

w as

a nd w ere n ot

c ommonly

v ault t he

i n

w ritten

t he

T reasury

a ble

o n

a ncient

o f A treus

a rch b ut a c orbelled v ault,

t o b uild t rue d omes.

t hese w orld

b uildings, c onstructed

a t M ycenae.

T he

I c ite b efore d ome

i s

w hich i s m ade b y l aying c onverg-

i ng c ourses o f m asonry a nd s moothing o ff t he a ngles o f t he s tones o n t he i nside."

( Larousse

1 972:263).

S imilar

a nd

r elated

s tatements

c an

b e

p icked o ut o f a lmost e very b ook o n t he h istory o f a rchitecture a nd G reek Bronze Age archaeology. J ust t o mention a f ew: " The d ome i s n ot c onstructed p roject o ne

o n t he a rcuated o r v ault p rinciple: t he c ourses s imply o ver a nother, u ncemented u ntil b y t he l essening d iameter o f

t he c oncentric c ircles, t he t op c ould b e c overed b y a s ingle s tone, h ollowed o n t he u nder s ide t o c ontinue t he c urve t o a r ound p oint." ( Dinsmoor 1 950:30); " Each c ourse o verlaps a nd c ounterweighs t he o ne b elow, i s

o n t he c antilever s ystem."

b uilt

c ourse,

u p e ach

i n

t hirty-three

r ing

o f

b locks

( Lawrence 1 983:80);

c ourses i s

o f

s tones.

c antilevered

t o

" The b eehive s hape

A bove

t he

f oundation

o verlap

t he

o ne

b elow,

u ntil f inally t he c ircular t op b lock i s s et t o c rown t he w hole a nd g ive t he i mpression o f a v ault, a f alse i mpression, s ince t he t op b lock i s n onfunctional a s a k eystone." t he

s hape

o f

a n

e normous

( MacKendrick 1 98 1:74-75);

d ome,

a bout 5 7

5 0 f eet h igh b y

" The c hamber w as 5 0

f eet w ide.

I t

w as

n ot,

h owever,

c orbelled."

b uilt

( Higgins

o n

t he

1 981:90).

p rinciple

T hese

e xemplified a bove a re p robably d ue

t o

p revious

r eflecting

s cholars

w ithout

d own.

M ore

d ealing

e specially w ith

o n

t holos

d ome

a nd

S antillo h ad

1 984).

a nd

d omes

w ith

t he

t he

t he

s tones

s cientific

t erm

i mplies

t holos

a r ound

i s

b uilding b e

n o

n ow

w ith

f ollowing ,

i nfluence

a s

c ommonly

m atter

u sed

s hould

n ot

e ither

c onstructionally

a s

c ommonly w ritten o n C ontu ( 1981:9-10):

f rom

w hat

s ystem

a t echnical o r

t o

t erm

f alse

t his i dea w as c lassify t he

t hese

u se

of

t hat

t his

t erm w ill

c ivilisation

t he

w ord

d escribe t hese b uildings t he M yceaean t holoi a nd

d ome. t o

s tatically.

c ultural

A t holos,

o f r oofing

t erm

t he

T his

( Santillo

o r l ess h orizontal.

M ycenaean

f alse

t he a rticle

w ithout

m ore

N uragic

t he

t o

a s

w riting

( 198 1).

t hat

i s m y h ope

t he

w as

t reatises

a rticle

u sed

s tones

a re i n

i n

u sing

s cholars

d ry

i t

o n

e quivalent

t hey

L axton

s cholars

o ther

a t echnical t erm t o a ssociates t hem w ith

a n

u sed

f irst o n

i s

l iterature

w hat

a nd

i n p rojecting c ourses, t he

t holos i s u sed a s s tructurally, w hich i ndirectly

t erm

o n

u pon i n a p revious

i mpact

b ut b ooks

c ontinuous c opying o f

m isconceptions

C avanagh

T he

a n

a nd

d ome, g eneral

t heir c onstruction a s

b y

c onstructed

A s w ill b e c lear f rom f inally b e a bandoned. In

a nd

w ritten

t he f rom

t he a uthors'

e rrors

t holoi

s uch

a ccepted

s tructures: m ortar,

t he

a lready b een c ommented

o bviously

g enerally

r eally

a re

c onstruction

a rticle h as F rizell

s erious

o f

q uotations

T he

i t m ay h ave h ad,

d escribe

A s

a rea. h owever,

an

t hese

e xample

i s a nd

b uildings

o f

w hat

i s

t he s tatical b ehaviour o f t he n uraghi I w ill c ite " Si p arla p erciö d i v olta o c upola o givale e a

q uesta c aratteristica e i nsieme a lla p ianta c ircolare d el v ano ( ma n on m ancano v ani f orma e llittica) b en s i a datta i l t ermine g reco d i t holos, p i üc omunemente u sato p er i ndicare q uesto t ipo d i c opertura a f alsavolta), o ttenuta d al r estringersi p rogressivo d ei o rizzontali

d ella

( alla

q uale

l a

a ltre

d ello

v olts, ( in

s tesso

e ssendo

s enso

m uratura,

u nisce

l a

f ilare.

a ppunto

p roprio).

t utti

i f ilari,

d iametro

o rizzontale

d ei c he

p o

p osata d i

p ublication: s ezione

u n

" Ci

o givale

d a

p iatto

t roviamo

( o

p erciö d al

p oche

p ietre

d i

f ronte, m a

d i

d i

v olta m a

d iametro

m esse

d unque, l a

c on

l e

q uests

A nd

d a

v olta

o ,

u na

q uando l astra

i n a m ore r ecent

a u n v ano s erie

l a

p i üp iccolo f ra

a r iscontro

f ilare."

s iccome

d i

t ermina p erciö a d a rco

d ell'ordinario,

s ull'ultimo

a t holos);

n on

s ottostante

c ontrasto

t erminale

c hiave

f ilare

s ulla

e f a

s uperiore u na

üg rande

a getta

g ravitä)

o rizzontali,

h a

p i

p ietra

d i

p arte

a pice

c ostituito

s ia

L a

s i

s uo

o gni

f orza

i f ilari

N on

s tessa e c ostituita a l i i

d ove

s ola

( detta a nche v an i f ilari

c on c opertura a

p i üo m eno

o rdinata

f ilari e c ostituita d a c erchi d i d iametro p rogressivamente s i r eggono s oli, n on e siste a ll'apice u na " chiave d i v olta"

m inore s u c ui

s i c oncentrano l e s pinte, ma l a v olts s tessa e t erminata i n a lto d all'ultimo e p ia p iccolo c erchio d i p ietre d a u na l astra d i c opertura. Q uindi s i t ratta d i u na " false v olta"; i nfatti e ssa n on e b asata s ul p rincipio

d ell'arco

d uratura,

o ltre

p reliminari

d i

a

c d

e p roprio

p oter

p er

e ssere

s ostegno."

q uesto

e dificata

( Contu

c he

e p iü

s enza

1 985:47).

H ere

r esistente

a pposite w e

h ave

e

a rmature t he

s ame

e rrors o f c oncept r egarding t erminology a nd a rchitectural p rinciples a s i n t he Mycenaean l iterature: N o d istinction b etween c upola, v ault a nd a rch i s made; an

arch

but

t he d oes

( chiave d i v olts) P erhaps

c upola i s n ot

s upposed

( "Non

t o

t ermina

i s m issing a nd

b e

c onstructed

p erciö

a d

a nd

arco");

t o f inish a s t he

k eystone

t herefore t he d ome i s f alse.

t he m ost c ommon m isconception i n t he

d ome h ave s imilar c haracteristics.

T he

5 8

f ield i s

t hat a rch a nd

l ack o f a s cientific m ethod w ith

p roper

d efinitions

s truction

have

a nd

l ed

b uilding t echnique v aults

o r

f alse

t he

t o

l ack

t his

t hat

h as

c upolas

o f

e xperience

c onfusion.

c aused

o r

I t

i n

t he

s o m any s cholars

e ven

f alse

f ield

appears

arches.

t hat

t o

o f

i t

c on-

i s

t he

t alk a bout f alse

There

i s

a g eneral

t endency t o m ix c onstruction m ethods w ith s tatic p rinciples w hich a re t wo d ifferent c oncepts. C onstruction i ncludes t he b uilding t echniques u sed t o p ut a b uilding t ogether. S tatics i nclude t he p rinciples o f e quilibrium i n b uildings and t heir p arts b uilding s tands u p a nd d oes n ot f all d own. I t i s l ess)

l aws

t ell

u s

t he m ethod o f p lacing t he s tone b locks i n h orizontal

l ayers,

s cholars

- i ts

t o

i .e. t alk

t he

b uilding

a bout

f alse

c upolas.

p laced w ith a n i ncreasing i nward wedge-shaped

s tones

i s

t echnique,

t hat

I f, t he

w hich

t he

a

( more o r

c aused

h owever,

i nclination,

c onstructed,

h as

w hy

s o

m any

s tones

w ere

i s h ow a n a rch w ith

s tructure

w ould

have

b een

a ccepted a s a t rue d ome. T he i dea t hat h orizontally p laced b locks o r b rick l ayers d isqualify t he c upola f rom b eing a t rue d ome, o n d ry m asonry d omes b ut a lso W hen D urm t hat

( 1905:28 1)

t he

h im t o d omes:

c oncrete

d escribed

l ayers

i s c urrent n ot o nly i n t he l iterature

i n t he p ublications o n R oman c onstruction.

w ere

t he

d omes

p laced

a t

B aia,

h e

h orizontally,

c orrectly o bserved

w hich,

h owever,

l ed

t he c onclusion t hat t hey d id n ot b elong t o t he c lass o f t rue " Sie g ehören a ber, s treng g enommen, n icht i n d ie K lasse d er

G ewölbe; s chnitt

d enn F orm u nd S chichtung d er S teine h aben n ichts m it z u

t un.

I hre

E rhaltung u nd F estigkeit

k raft d es M ortels a us

d er E rde

i s u sed b y D urm a s e quivalent

v on P uteoli."

t o

' Kuppel,'

d em K eil-

v erdanken w ir d er B indeT he

G erman w ord

E nglish

' cupola.'

' Gewölbe

s

A t B aia o ne

d ome, t he s o-called T empio d i D iana, h appens t o b e e asily v isible i n s ection, d ue t o i ts r uined s tate o f p reservation, b ut a s tudy o f t he a natomy o f o ther R oman c upolas w ould T he d omes

architectural

a nd

a rches

s tructures:

a nd

" The

c onstructed

l ike

h istorian M ainstone

s tates

s tone

t he

r eveal t he s ame f eature.

i n

h is

d omes,

i n

f alse a rches

c hapter

i s

e qually

o n

e arly

p articular,

d escribed

i n

w ere t he

c onfused d omes a ll

b etween

a nd

v aulted

f alse

d omes,

p revious

c hapter ,

b y

b edding e ach c ourse m ore o r l ess h orizontally b ut p rojecting a l ittle i nward f rom t he o ne b elow." ( Mainstone 1 975:113). T he h orizontal p lacing

of

t he

d isqualifies masonry

b locks

i s

o bviously

a c haracteristic

t he d ome f rom b eing a t rue o ne.

d ome

b ecomes

t rue

o nly

when

t he

b locks

i ncreasing i nward i nclination, l ike a n a rch: s tone - w ith e ach b lock b edded m ore o r l ess p rofile o f t he h is d iscussion s ome

e arly

f eature

t hat

A ccording t o M ainstone are

p laced

w ith

" The t rue d omes a t r ight a ngles

o f t o

i nner s urface .." ( Mainstone 1 975:114). F urther o n , o n R oman c oncrete d omes h e c ontradicts h imself : " As

c oncrete

b arrel

v aults,

c onsisted o f f lat s plinters o f s tone o f s maller i rregularly-shaped l umps

t he

l arger

c aementa

o r

t he a n c ut t he i n i n

a ggregate

( tufa) s et a lmost r adially, i nstead t ipped o n t he f ormwork i n m ore o r

l ess h orizontal l ayers." A nd w hen c ommenting o n t he P antheon: " The w eight o f t he u pper p arts w as f urther r educed b oth b y i ncorporating p rogressively l ighter c aementa i n t he c oncrete o f t he u pper l ayers ( the c oncrete b eing c ast i n h orizontal l ayers t hroughout) .." ( Mainstone 1 975:116). o ne

w ould

d omes t o

b e

G iven l ike

t o

t hat a sk

R oman

d omes

M ainstone

i f

f alse o nes?

5 9

a re h e

b uilt

u p

c onsiders

i n

h orizontal

e ven

t hose

l ayers,

s o-called

What t hen a re t he p roperties o f t he a rch a nd c onsists t he d ifference b etween t hese s tructures?

c upola

a nd

i n w hat

T he a rch

( fig.

T he s upports

arch i s a p lane s tructure w hich c arries t he l oad t o b oth t hrough a s tring p olygon m echanism w hich u sually h as t he f orm

o f

4 .1)

a c urve.

This

i s

c ommonly

c alled

t he

l ine

o f

pressure.

T his

m echanism i s m ost e asily u nderstood b y s tudying a s tring o r a c hain f ixed a t b oth e nds a nd l oaded w ith w eights. I t g ives a p icture o f an a rch

t urned

among

u pside

o ther

( fig.

t hings,

on

A n

w ith

d istributed. p ointed

d own

a rch

s hape.

An

4 .2).

h ow

arch

b ig

T he

t he

s hape

l oads

a c oncentrated

w ith

e venly

o f

t he

are

l oad

a rch

and

a t

h ow

t he

d istributed

d epends,

t op

l oads

t hey

are

g ets

a m ore

g ets

a m ore

r ounded o r h emispherical s hape. I n t he a rch, t he d irection o f t he p ressure l ine t o e ach v ertical s upport i s i nclined, t herefore t he a rch i s a t hrusting s tructure. A masonry a rch s upports i s

t he

o f a shlar

s tructure

u nder

b locks m ust

b e

c onstruction ,

b uilt

a t

o n a f ormwork w hich

l east

u ntil

t he

k eystone

i nserted.

T he c upola The

word

c upa-vat, w ord

' cupola'

e specially

' domus,'

i s

c omes

f or

t he

f rom

w ine).

t he

L atin word

' Dome',

c ommonly

u sed

w hich

w ord

f or

' cupola'

d erives ' cupola'

i n

t he

' dome' a nd ' cupola' I n c ontrast t o t he

c upola

t hat

i s

a s patial

s tructure.

I t hink

t he

f act

o f d omes a lways i n p lane s ections m isconceptions t hat t here s hould

of

L atin

E nglish.

s trictly t echnical l anguage, h owever, i ndifferently, a s a lso i n t his a rticle. t o s eeing d rawings g reat d eal t o t he

( dim.

f rom

In

a re u sed a rch , t he

t hat w e

a re u sed

h as c ontributed a b e a rches i n t he

d ome. f ound d omes

A n i llustrative e xample o f s uch w rong a nd m isleading d rawings i s i n a n a rticle d ealing s pecifically w ith s tructural d imensions of i n a ntiquity. T he d rawing w hich i s s upposed t o i llustrate a t rue

d ome

( in

n othing

c ontrast

t o

t hinking p lane

d o

i n

t erms

s ection,

d imensional b asic a rrows l ower

s tructure

i n

t he

r ings,

p ression

i n

s upports, t inuous

o f

o f

d rawing

o f

l ower

i n

i deal o f

b y

t he

t he

u s

( fig.

t o

4 .3).

c upola,

t he

t holoi

a t win

m echanism

i n

T his

o f

a nd

t o

i n

t he

a

t he t he c om-

c arried t o t he

n uraghi

t he

t he

d rawing ,

t raction

a

t hree

l ook a t

s ymbolize

w hich t win

a

b etter

c an

l oad i s

M ycenaean

t ogether.

w e

t he

p art

has

u sed

s tructure i nto

I n t his

s ymbolize

a nd

n ot

u nderstand

p urpose

u pper

arch

a re

r endering

o f

a ct

an

W e

a s patial

t his

c upola i n

I n

c ase

h elp

c upola

s hows

1 ).

p roper

F or

t he

r ings.

t he

A

s hould

a rrows

o ne)

f ig.

c onveying

c upola.

p art

a lways

t o

p aper

t he

t he u pper

a nd

v ersa.

a n

f oundations,

i nseparable

a nd

v ice o n

f alse

( Cowan:350,

s pace

t he

w hile

w hich

a s o-called

a d ome

a nd

mechanism

s chematic

t o

w ith

t wo

m echanism

a re

c on-

p arts w orks

a re b y

a

c ompound o f h orizontal i deal r ings, c alled p arallels b y t he t echnicians, a nd b y a c ompound o f v ertical i deal h alf r ings, c alled m eridians, w hich f ollow t he m ain c urvatures o f t he s ystem. T o u nderstand t his m echanism b etter i n a n i ntuitive w ay, w e c an s tudy a v at ( cupa) t urned u pside d own ( fig.

4 .4). A vat

s ingle

b ars

v ertical

W hat w e s ee i s a s mall c upola. i s

f ormed

c annot

p lane

o r

b e

b y i n

f ixed

a s eries

o f

e quilibrium i nto

t he

w ooden u nless

g round.

s ecure

t he

e quilibrium i s

t hree,

w hich

6 0

t hey I n

g ravity f alls o ut o f t he s upporting s urface. t o

b ars

c alled a re

f act,

s taves.

k ept

i n

t heir

t he

T wo s ame

c entre

of

T he m inimum n umber o f b ars

t ogether

c reate

a n e lementary

F igure 4 .1 S chematic d rawing o f a n a rch w ith a c oncentrated l oad a t t he t op

F igure 4 .2 A s tring f ixed a t b oth e nds a nd l oaded w ith w eights g ives t he p icture o f a n a rch t urned u pside d own

_

F igure 4 .3

S chematic d rawing o f

a n i deal c upola

F igure 4 .4 A v at t urned u pside d own h elps u s t o u nderstand t he s tructural m echanics o f t he c upola i n a n i ntuitive w ay

6 1

s patial s tructure:

t he t ripod.

T hree p encils o f t he s ame

a t able w ill h elp u s t o understand

t his s tructure

( fig.

l ength p ut o n

4 .5).

T he upper

p arts o f t he p encils a re p ressed t ogether s o t hat t he l ower p arts t end t o m ove o utwards f rom t he c enter o f g ravity of t his tripod. This s liding

of

a nything

t he

t hat

l ower

h as

p arts

t he

o f

t he

c apacity

t o

t ripod r esist,

c ould f or

b e

c ounteracted

e xample

a s tring

b y

o r

a

c hain, w hich t hen f orms a t riangle i n t he p lane. I n t his e lementary c ase, t he c ompression i s i n t he u pper p arts o f t he b ars a nd t he t raction i s

c oncentrated

s ystem i s t wo

k ept

h orizontal

T his

i s

a g reat

o n

t he

e xtremities

i n e quilibrium b y p lanes

a nd

n ot

d ifference.

o f

i n

I f,

t he

l ower

p arts.

f orces w hich w ork o ne

v ertical

i nstead o f

p lane

t hree,

T his e mbryonal

a nd

a re a s

c ontained i n i n

t he

a rch.

w e p ut many b ars a nd

a rrange t hen i n t wo c ircles, one u pper a nd one l ower, t he basic r easoning d oes n ot c hange. W e h ave o nly c onveyed t he u pper c ompression a nd l ower t raction i nto t wo

c ircles.

I f w e t hen c onnect

t hese b ars w ith

l evels,

t he c ompression a nd

t raction f orces

s ome a rtificial m eans a t a ll w ill

n ot

b e

c oncentrated

a t

t he

e xtremities

b ut

a t

e very

h orizontal

l evel i n r ings, w hich a s I s aid b efore, a re c alled p arallels o r h oops i n t echnical l anguage. A w ickerwork b asket c orresponds p erfectly t o t his e xample. I t i s o bvious t hat g lue i s n ot e nough t o s ecure t he r esistance t o t raction a nd c ontents i n t he v at. T hus b oth f unctions are s ecured b y b ands

o f

a lready t he

d ry

m etal i n

( hoops)

w hich

e quilibrium

d uring

masonry

r elation t o

d omes,

w e

t he s tructure,

p restress

t he

c onstruction.

c an

s ee

t hat

t he s tructure,

s tructure

R eturning

when

t o

w hich

t he

b locks

a re

t rulli,

t here i s n o

s ince

l ayers o f b locks i s B ut w hen t he b locks a re

b ig

i n

t he a nnular f riction

e nough t o d evelop a s mall i n c omparison t o

t he w hole s tructure h as t o b e p restressed w ith t he i nward

t hrust o f t he e arth a s i n t he Mycenaean t holos t ombs.

F igure 4 .5

w as

o ur o bjects,

a s i n t he n uraghi a nd t he

n ecessity f or a ny a rtificial h ooping m ethods, b etween t he h orizontal h orizontal r ing e ffect.

w hole

E lementary s patial s tructure d etermined b y t hree r ods

6 2

A m asonry c upola, i f d esigned a nd b uilt i n t he p roper w ay, d oes n ot d evelop t hrust o n t he s upports, w hich i s t he c ase w ith t he a rch. T his m isunderstanding

i s

a nd c upola

1 965:20-21;

e rror).

( Hart

I t

i s

c learly

e nough

t o

d ue

t he

c urrent

t he u ppermost

t hink

s upporting t he h eavy m asses t his t hrust d oes n ot e xist.

t o o f

t he

we

have

f igure

b etween

o n p age 2 1

t iny w alls

i n

a rch

s hows t his

t he A pulian t rulli

o f s tones i n t he c upola t o u nderstand t hat A m asonry c upola c an o nly b e b uilt w ithout

a ny t emporary s caffolding a nd b earing S antillo 1 984:46, n . 1 5; S antillo 1 986). A s

c onfusion

s een t here

i s

n o

r eal

f ormwork

( Santillo

F rizell

&

r elationship b etween c upolas and

a rches, a lthough b oth o ften h ave c urvilinear f orms. I t s hould b e c lear t hat t he f ollowing d efinition o f t he d ome: " An a rch r otated a bout a v ertical a xis p assing t hrough i ts c rown, o r t he h ighest p oint; i ts t hrust c an b e r esisted b y h orizontal f orces f rom t he g round o r b utt resses,

o r b y a t ension

h eading

DEFINITIONS).

r ing," The

i s w rong

h ole

i s

( Howard

a n

1 966:277ff.,

e ssential

e lement

u nder t he

i n masonry

c upolas. A rch

a nd

c upola

c onstructionally.

h ave

T here

n othing

a re

n o

i n

c ommon

a rches

i n

- n either

t he

s tatically

c upola a nd

t he

n or

c upola

b uilt r ing b y r ing a nd n ot a rch b y a rch. T here i s n o k eystone i n c upola. A ll c upolas h ave a n o pening - a n " eye." I n a f ew c upolas

i s t he t he

e ye h as b een l eft v isibly o pen, a s i n t he P antheon a nd o ther R oman d omes. Only i n a f ew c ases t he e ye s eems t o b e c oncealed. I n t he M ycenaean t holos a nd t he N uragic d ome t he e ye i s n ot o pen b ut c overed w ith a c apstone w hich w orks a s a l id. B efore

l eaving

' corbelling ' t o

t his

t he

d efinitions,

( sometimes

t erm)

u sed

i n

t he

t erm

E nglish

l et

m e

b riefly

' cantilever ' a nd

F rench

i s

m ention

u sed

a s

a n

( encorbellement)

t he

t erm

e quivalent s cientific

l iterature. I n d escriptions o f t hese b uildings c orbelling h as b een a k ey-word. I nstead o f c larifying w hat a c upola r eally i s, t he s o-called p rinciple d erives

o f

c orbelling i s

from

j utting o ut

t he

f rom t he

A c orbelled b roadly t he

f ace

m ust

in

b e

t he

w ithout

s uccess

t he o f

t hat

b uilt,

i s

t his

i s

o f

( Cavanagh

b ased

t he

e quilibrium

T he w ord

a projection

w ith c orbels. M ore a b uilding t echnique c ourses

m ore

a b uilding

c ase

of

s ince

f rom

o r

l ess

t echnique

s cholars

a s tatic

m isunderstanding a c omplete

o f

and

profile o n

t he

t he

p rofiles

t he

i s

i s

a s uperincumbent w eight.

p rojecting

c orbelling

n ot

h ave

t he

i n

p rinciple.

which

t o s upport

c orbelling"

- t herefore

w hen , i n

t hat

o f

c orbelling

s tructure,

c orbel,

a nd

T his m isunderstanding m ight a ppear p urely a s a

L axton

c urvature

b elieve

b ut

" principle

a nd

s tone

e mphasized

i ssue,

e xplain C avanagh

t erm

o f a w all

r oofing

n ot a s tatic p rinciple. s emantic

f orward a s a s tatic

s tructure i s a s tructure f urnished t erm c orbelling i s u sed t o d escribe

t hat c onsists h orizontal. I t

p ut

a rchitectural

r esearch

d ry m asonry d omes

L axton t he

c ontrary, w hatever

1 981; d ome

a ny

s hape

1 982;

affects d ome,

o r

i s

h ave

p oint

p rogramme

t o

v iew

c onceptual.

o n

-

T hus

s tudying

t he f alse c oncept

1 985). t he i t

T he

s tatic

c orrectly

c urvature

t ried

o f

a uthors i n

t he

d esigned

a nd

h as.

C omments

a nd e xplanations h ave a lready b een g iven i n a p revious a rticle a nd w ill n ot b e r epeated h ere ( Santillo F rizell a nd S antillo 1 984). B ut s ince M . G ras

i n

a

r ecent

p ublication

h as

c ited

t he

a bove

m entioned

a rticle

o bviously w ithout u nderstanding t he g reat d ifference i n a pproach b etween C avanagh a nd L axton a nd u s ( Gras 1 985:85), I w ould l ike t o s tress t hat 6 3

o ur a pproach t he

o nly

i s

t otally d ifferent.

c orrect

o ne,

o f

t he

I t

o ffers

s tructural

a n ew

i nterpretation ,

m echanics

i n

t he

a nd

d ry m asonry

d omes w hich a t horough r eading o f o ur a rticle s hould m ake c lear. The o nly t erm

p roblem

o f

t he

m eaning

o f

b een o bserved b y B esenval, se ncorbellement i i n h is

d enomination e st d istinction e ntre o euvre s ans d es

c orbelling

w ho v ery w ork o n

h as,

a s

c orrectly o riental

f ar

a s

I k now,

c omments v aults:

u pon t he " Cette

d angereuse e t ambigüe c ar e h e n 'effectue p ar l 'encorbellement e n t ant q ue t echnique d e m ise

c intrage e t

c ontraintes."

l 'encorbellement c omme t echnique d e

( Besenval

1 984:39).

B esenval

l a e n

t ransmission

d oes,

h owever ,

n ot

u nderstand

t he

d evelop t his p articular p roblem f urther. The

k ey

p rocess

o f

b uilders

t o

a re

p rocess

o f

t urned

t o

l ong

w ork o f

r ules, w as,

s till

t he

A t rullo i .e. n ot a s

t he

n eed t he

which

t oday

d o

M astro

n ot

t he

o f

c losed

t urned

M ichele

an

t o

o ur

S outh

o ut

t o

f rom

t heir

h ypothesis

I taly,

t o

w e t he

T hus a n " ethno-

b e

s trictly

L isi

f ollow

v ery

f ruitful,

b uilt a nymore a nd t he f ollow

t he

L ocorotondo

o f h aving b uilt

inner

k eeps

e xactly

d oes

- h e

i t

s caffolding

p roceeds, m aster

c upola

v erify i n

a lways

o uter p rotecting

b earing

w ork

t o

a ble

m aster-

a ncient

( fig.

4 .6)

c a 1 000 t rulli i n d ry

a n e xtremely v aluable s ource o f i nformation.

a n

W hen

a ny

o rder

S ardinian

I tria V alley i n A pulia.

t he s elf-supporting s tructure,

e xperienced o f

o f

c onsists

- a nd

a t ime.

b een

c olleagues

l ife-long e xperience

m asonry t echnique,

a t

i n

o nly

t o

a nd

t he p ure d ry m asonry t rullo i s n ot

8 7-year-old

' candela'

I n

i s

M ycenaean

h ave

l iving

t rulli

w orkers

w ith h is

w e

i nvestigation,

S ince

r estoration

d ead

a rchitecture

t he

h ypothetically .

t he

a rchaeological"

a ll

S ince

s ince

t heir

a rchitects s tarted.

u nderstanding

c onstruction.

n ot

c upola o f

( fig.

s tone

4 .7)

s labs.

i s b uilt r ing b y r ing, i tself

- h e

l ike

e ven

t rue l ayer

j ust

t he

n eed

s ights w ith h is

i n p osition. c limbs

i gloo

e yes

t he d ome i s e rected a nd f ree-standing,

t o

d oes

m aster

d oes

h igher a nd h igher u p

t o

t he

c upola,

o nly o ne r ing

T he

b uilder

a s tring

- c alled

T he

( fig.

c ontrol

r ight

4 .13).

An

t he g eometry

s hape.

O nly w hen

t he p rocedure o f c overing i t

w ith t he f latter s tone s labs s tart. T hese s labs a re t hen f astened i n t he i rregularities p rojecting f rom t he o utside o f t he s tones w hich a re d ressed o n t he i nside o nly. L ike a ll m asonry d omes, t he t rullo a lso h as a n " eye." I t i s u sually c overed w ith a c apstone b ut i n s ome c ases i t i s l eft o pen. b arn. a nd

I n a t rullo f arm h ouse o ne o f t he t wo

T he

o nly

h ay

i s

p oured

t emporarily

i n

c losed

f rom t he b y

t op.

a f lat

r ooms i s u sed a s a hay

T he c upola i s t hus l eft o pen

s tone

s lab w hich

e asily c ould

b e

r emoved a nd p ut b ack w ithout a ffecting t he s tability o f t he s tructure. T he t rulli a nd t he n uraghi a re m eant a nd

n ot

f or

M ycenaean

t he

d ead

d omes.

T he

a nd

t herefore

d omes

o f

t he

t o b e s helters,

t hey

l ack

t rulli

a re

t he

f or t he l iving

m onumentality o f

e rected

o n a s quare

t he r oom

a nd u sually d o n ot e xceed 3 .5 -4 m i n d iameter. T he t holoi are 1 3-14m and t he b iggest o f t he N uragic

l argest M ycenaean c upolas i s 6 .20m

( Isili, f ig. 4 .8) a t t he w hich i s e xtraordinary.

a s patial

T o

c onclude

d omes:

g iven

o f

t rue

t he

c upola

f rom

p roperties

b eing t he

S till,

t hey

e voke

t he d iscussion o n t he p roperties

t hat

i ts m orphology a nd

d omes,

a s

b ase.

t here

a t rue t rue

i s

n o

o ne.

d omes;

O n i t

t he

h as 6 4

o f t he s o-called f alse

f unctioning

r eason a n

t o

a re

t he

d isqualify

c ontrary, e ye a t

f eeling

i t t he

h as

s ame a s t hose

t he t he

d ry

m asonry

s ame s tatic

t op a nd n o k eystone;

F igure 4 .6

" Il t rullaro" M astro M ichele L isi

6 5

i t

i s

b uilt

w ith

h orizontal

l ayers

a nd

w ithout

b earing

f ormwork

- i n

s hort i t i s a t rue d ome.

I I T he

N uragic

d omes

O ne

( 1975:180-182,

3 00-309).

o f

i ntercultural

o f

a re

a rchitecture.

t he

o ften

h eld

k eenest H is

a pproach

r elations

t o t o

b etween

p er

d iventare

i l

r esiduo

i nfluenced o f

t he

t his

v ast

t hese

e xemplified b y h is o wn w ords: " In f ondo r idotto d i c iviltä m icenea, a nche s e i n f ini

b e

s upporters

b y

M ycenaean

t heory w as L illiu

a nd

c omplex

c ultures

c an

p roblem b est

b e

l a S ardegna d ei n uraghi f u un e ssa l a c omponente o rientale

s emplificato

e

i mbastardito

d elle

p rimitive a cquisizioni d el I I m illennio a .C., f uori dlo gni p rospettiva d i t empo c ulturale i n u n'area e he a veva p erduto i l s enso e l a d imensione d ei v alori o riginari." ( Lilliu 1 975:309). I n a L illiu ( 1982:30-32) e mphasizes i nterconnections S ardinia,

a nd

c oncedes

t he u nlikelihood o f a t otal

w ithout a n a lready-existing l ocal I n

r ecent

y ears

a rchaeologists t raditional o f R enfrew

l ater w ork, h owever, b etween t he A egean a nd

t here

t owards

h as

b een

a g eneral

i ndigenous

d iffusionist

p icture,

r egarding t he

i nfluence f rom a broad

t radition. s hift

i n

d evelopment,

i nspired

a nd

m egalithic m onuments

o pinion

a mong

q uestioning

t he

e ncouraged

( Renfrew

i mportant

c ontribution t o t he u nderstanding o f t he p rocess

e volution

i n

n uraghi

c hronologically

a rchitecture

e arlier

n ura h i

m ore d eveloped d omed n uraghi s eem s till

t o

h ave

b een

s cholars

t heories

( Gras

w idely

w ho

h as " a

S antoni

a ccepted

a ccept

t he

1 985:77-97).

b een m ade

c orridoio" 1 980).

t he

t he w orks 1 973). w ho i n

e mbryo

1 984:37-38),

f undamental

i deas

t ransforming

t ombs

i nto

t hese l ink

h ouses

a nd

p eople w ith

t he

o f

b ut

t he

t here

are

d iffusionist

t he S ardinian t holos a s

e xpressing t he n eed

e xisted, s ymbolic

t he

o f

T he n on-diffusionist i deas

( Balmuth

o f

t he

N uragic p eople

t o a cquire e lements o f p restige a nd r epresentation f rom t he w orld ( Bernardini 1 985). I f ind t his e xplanation e xtremely I f t his n eed r eally s ome m ore o bvious

An

o f a utonomous

S antoni,

s ees

B ernardini e xplains

a p henomenon o f a cculturation

b y

b y

1 967;

w ould p robably t he Mycenaean

f ortresses.

T he

M ycenaean u nlikely.

h ave c hosen w orld t han

a mbiguity p revails

i n t he m atter o f i nfluence. T hus C ontu c laims a n i ndigenous o rigin f or t he S ardinian n uraghi a nd r ejects M ycenaean i nfluence o n t his a rchit ecture

( Contu

i nfluence

o n

1 981:72)

t he

b ut

E truscan

s till

t his

r easoning.

t he

l ogic b ehind

T here

i s,

h owever ,

a s I s ee i t,

l eads

t o

s uch

h ypothesis.

t hat

t echnique

a n

s how a s triking

c omparing a s maller M ycenaean ( fig. 4 .7). W here t he l ocal a nother

e ffect

o n

t he

i nclined

( Contu

u nderstand

s tone

i s

t holoi

s tyle

t o

1 981:75).

a ccept I t

i s

S ardinian

d ifficult

t o

n othing i n t he N uragic a rchitecture M any

o f

t he

m asonry

s imilarity i n a ppearance,

w alls a s w e

o f

d ry

c an s ee

t omb ( fig. 4 .9) w ith a n Apulian t rullo l imestone i s c ut i nto s chist-like s labs

o f

t he

w alls

i s

o btained.

T he

t holos

o f

T iryns ( fig. 4 .10) a nd t he n uraghe a t I sili ( fig. 4 .8) are b uilt w ith i rregular l imestone s labs a lso o ften u sed i n t he t rulli. G iven a c ertain m aterial

t he p erformance must f ollow c ertain p atterns.

T he M ycenaean b uilding

t echnique

d ifferent). a spects

t holoi

( though

S tatically

b etween

a nd

t hese

t he

t he

t hey

d omes

c onstruction

a re

b uilding

N uragic t he

t ypes

6 6

s ame i s

s ome

p rocedure

b ut

much

s how t he

m ore

s imilarity

m ust

h ave

d ifference s triking

i n

b een

i n

o ther

t han

t heir

F igure 4 .8

T he d ome o f N uraghe I s P aras a t I sili

6 7

F igure 4 .9

T he " Tomb o f t he G enii" a t M ycenae

F igure 4 .10

T he

t holos t omb a t T iryns

6 8

s imilarity.

I t

i s

n ot

n ecessary

t o

b e

an

e xpert

i n

s tatics

t o

u nderstand t hat t o b uild t he m onumental t ombs a t Mycenae a nd O rchomenos w as a masterly a chievement. The Nuragic d omes c ertainly r equired e xtraordinary

e fforts

o f

d esired

N uragic

a rchitecture

s ince

b uilt by and f or a mazing, h owever,

a nother

t ype

b ut

h ad

q uite

W ho

t hen i nvented t he

d ome, a nd

e ffect

s ocial

w as

n ot

f unction

-

I n

d iscussing

s ucceeded

i n

c reating a h armony

c upola a nd w hy?

a ncient

a rchitecture

v iewpoint, a s S mith d oes i n h is h ave a q ualitative k nowledge

b ook o f

e ven

f rom

o n t he d ome, c onstruction

a n

i deological

i t i s n ecessary t o a nd a rchitectural

I t i s t he o nly w ay t o a void s uch m eaningless p ostulates a s f orward i n h is l engthy c hapter o n d omical o rigins: " The

b oth a s

m aterials

s imilar

a nother

s hepherds f or t he p ure n ecessity o f l ife. I t i s t o s ee h ow t he N uragic p eople w ithin t he o bvious

s tructural l imits o f t heir a rchitecture o f s pace a nd f orm.

p rinciples. S mith p uts

a

a n

u pon

t ranslated

t raditional

i dea a nd a s

a p rimitive i nto

m ore

r easons."

a m ethod

s helter

o f r oofing,

a nd

p ermanent

w as

o riginated i n p liable

l ater

m aterials,

p reserved,

l argely

f or

v enerated,

s ymbolic

a nd

( Smith 1 971:6).

O ne o f t he o ldest k nown m an-made s helters w ith a p resumably d omical s hape

i s

a p rimitive

c ircular B ut

g round

a lso

o ther

p aleolithic d omed d omes

o f

p ossible H aving

t o s now

p lan

a nd

a nimals

m ainly

a nd

i ce

i rregular

s tarts

t hen b uild

t o

c losing t heir

t he

t hem but b ecause t heir f unctional w ay t o b uild.

F igure 4 .11

( fig. 4 .

b one

l ike

f irst

h as

i n

g ather

o ut

F igure 4 .12

w as

t his

w ell t heir

t he

o nly

m aterial. - a c hild

a c ircular g round i t

s ome i s

t his

b irds

a nd

s ymbolic i s

t he

t o

m ost

R econstruction o f a

p aleolithic s helter b uilt o f mammoth b one 6 9

a a

b uild

b alls

L ikewise t hat

f rom w here

s ufficiently

w ith

b ecause

t hem

a r oughly m aterials.

R ussia,

e skimos

s now

l aying

- n ot

t ell

c an

a c upola

s helter - o r

h as

p liable

b een

T he

r ingwise.

d omes

i nstincts

w e

E recting hand

s tructure

R econstruction o f a

h ut f rom O lduvai

a t

a s

I t

o f

M ezhirich

4 .12).

13 ).

a d ome,

4 .11).

b uilt

u sed a t

p rotective

s tones

n ests

b e

o f m ammoth

a

b uild

( fig. b een

d welling

( fig.

c onstruct

h ave

c ould

r econstructed

t o

only

O lduvai

s hould

materials

b uilt

b e

w ay

i mmediately

f rom

a nd

m ammoth-hunter 's

b uilding

p reserved

h ut

p lan

F igure 4 .13

A n i gloo.

F rom U .

7 0

S teltzer ( 198 1:27)

A s imilar a pproach t o

t he p roblem o f o rigin i s a ttempted b y s ome

a nthropologists a nd a rt h istorians a dopting t heories

f rom t he

p sychoanalytic f ield o f r esearch. A ccording t o t hem r ound s tructures s ymbolize t he m other 's w omb a nd u nconsciously m an r ecalls t his a tmosphere w hen h e L illiu 1 985:16)

c hooses

t his

T he a ncient p eople d id n ot r esources.

I nstead

s o c ompletely t hat

t hey a dapted t he b uildings

t ype

o f b uilding

c hoose t heir n atural e nvironment a nd t hemselves

b ut

t he g iven c ircumstances f or t hemselves o ften s eem

T his m ay a ppear m ystifying t o

t here i s n o m ore m ystique i n b uilding a d ome t han a ny

o ther s tructure.

I n f act,

b uilding a d ome o ver a c ircular o r s quare

r oom o f r elatively m odest s ize, t o b uild. a nd s pace, u s.

t o

t hey e rected

t o b e o rganically s prung f rom t he e arth. m odern m an,

( Mumford 1 961:2 1-22;

i s

t he m ost e conomical a nd s implest w ay

T hat a ncient p eople h ad a m ore d eveloped s ense f or m aterial l iving c loser t o n ature t han m odern m an, s hould n ot s urprise

B read w as b aked ( and s till i s), c eramics w ere f ired, l ow-burning g ypsum b inders w ere o btained a nd m etal o res w ere s melted i n d omed k ilns ( fig.

4 .14).

T hese d omes

b een a c ommon s ight, T he

c ould b e

o f n otable d imensions a nd m ust h ave

e specially i n t he m anifold B ronze A ge s ocieties.

r easons w hy d omes a re b uilt a re

d omical a rchetypes

r ational,

a nd l ooking f or

( a J ungian t erm f or a ny n umber o f p rototypical

p henomena w hich a re a ssumed t o r eflect u niversal h uman t houghts f ound i n a ll c ultures) i n t he c ollective u nconscious i s o ut o f p lace i n t he f ield o f c onstruction. e xperimentation,

F igure 4 .14

P rehistoric m an w orked i ntuitively t hrough r eflecting w ith a c onscious m ind.

A p otter's k iln.

F rom R . 7 1

H ampe a nd A .

W inter

( 1962:fig.27)

N ow t hat w e h ave s een t hat d omes o r ig inate i n v ar ious c ultures a nd t hat t he b asic s tructural m echan ics a re t he s ame b ecause t hey a re b ased o n t he s ame s tatic p rinciple, a nd t hat t here i s ag reat d ifference i n t he p urely a rch itectural c onception b etween t he M ycenaean t holoi a nd t he n uraghi ( function a part), i t i s l ogical t o a ssume t hat t hey d eveloped a utonomously a nd i ndependently . I c ould n ot f ind a m ore a ppropr iate p hrase t o f inish t his p aper t han t hese w ords o f C olin R enfrew ( 1984:396): " Any f unctional i nvent ion o r i nnovation i n h uman t echnology o r c ulture w ill u ltimately o ccur a gain , a nd r ecurrently , i rrespecti ve o f t i me, s pace o r e thnic g roup, g iven t he a ppropriate c onditions."

A cknowledgements I w ould l ike t o e xpress m y t hanks t o t he F ONDAZIONE F AMIGLIA R AUSING f or t he g enerous c ontr ibution t o t his r esearch p roject w hich m ade p oss ible t he f ield c ampa igns i n A pulia i n t he s ummer o f 1 984 a nd i n S ardinia i n 1 985 .

R EFERENCES

B ALMUTH, M . 1 984

T he N uraghi

B ERNARDINI, P . 1 985

T holoi

o f S ardin ia :

A n i ntroduction.

S SA:23-52.

i n S ardegna: a lcune c onsiderazione . S tEtr 1 983:

4 3-54. B ESENVAL, R . 19 84

C AVANAGH, 1 98 1

W .

T echnolog ie d e l a v oete S ynthese n o. 1 5. P ar is. A ND B . L AXTON T he s tructural m echanics B SA 7 6:109-140.

d ans

o f

l 'or ient a ncien

t he

M ycenaean

1 -2 .

C NRS

t holos

t ombs .

1 982

C orbelled v aulting i n t he L ate M inoan t holos t ombs o f C rete. B SA 7 7:65-77.

1 985

V ault ing i n M ycenaean t holos t ombs a nd S ardin ian n uragh j. B AR

C ONTU, E . 1 98 1 1 985 C OWAN, H . 19 8 1

S 245:413-433 .

L 'arch itettura n urag ica . I l n uraghe.

I chnussa :5-175.

S ardegna p re istor jca:45-110.

A r eview o f t he s tructural d imensions o f m asonry a nd c oncrete d omes i n A ntiquity. A tti d ell'Accademia P ontaniana 3 0:349-386. N aples.

7 2

D INSMOOR, W . 1 950 D URM,

T he A rchitecture o f A ncient G reece.

J . 1 905

H andbuch

d er

A rchitektur .

I I

L ondon.

T eil:

D ie

H istorische und t echnische E ntwicklung . Baukunst d er Etrusker. D ie Baukunst

B austi le .

2 B and: D ie d er Romer .

S tuttgart. G OWLETT, J . 1 984 G RAS,

C iv ilisationens g ryn ing.

M . 1 985

T TA.

H AMPE, R . & A . W INTER 1 962 B ei T öpfern und Z ypern . M ainz. H ART,

F . 1 965

T öpferinnen

i n

K unst u nd T echnik d er W ölbung.

H IGGINS, R . 19 8 1

M inoan a nd M ycenaean A rt.

H OWARD, H .S. 1 966

S tructure.

Kreta,

Messenjen

und

M unchen.

L ondon.

2 nd e dition.

M cGraw H ill.

L AROUSSE E ncyclopedia o f A rchaeology.

1 972 L AWRENCE, A .W. 1 983

G reek A rchitecture .

L ondon.

2 nd e dition ,

r evised b y T omlinson .

L ondon. L ILLIU, G . 1 975

L a c ivilta T or ino.

d el

S ardj

1 982

L a c ivilta n uragica.

1 985

L a S ardegna n uragica.

M ACKENDRICK, 1 981 M AINSTONE, 1 975

d al

n eolitico

a ll 'eta

d ei

n uragh j.

S assar i. A rcheologia 3 .

P . T he G reek S tones S peak.

L ondon.

2 nd e dition.

R . D evelopment i n S tructural F orm .

M UMFORD, L . 1 961

T he C ity i n H istory.

R ENFREW , C . 1 967

C olon isat ion a nd m egalithismus.

L ondon.

L ondon.

7 3

A ntio luity 4 1:276-288.

1 973

B efore C i vi lisation, T he R adiocarbon R evolution a nd P rehistor ic E urope. L ondon.

1 984

A pproaches t o S ocial A rchaeology.

S ALVADORI, 1 976

M . S tructure i n A rchitecture.

S ANTILLO, R . 1 986

L e c upole a s ecco.

S ANTILLO F RIZELL, 1 984

B .

A ND R .

N ew J ersey.

E dilizia M ilitare 1 7-18:17-27.

S ANTILLO

The c onstruction a nd s tructural b ehaviour M ycenaean t holos t omb. O pAth 1 5:45-52.

S ANTONI, V . 1 980 S MITH,

E dinburgh.

I i

s egno

d el

p otere.

N UR .

B .

1 97 1 S TELTZER, 19 8 1

T he D ome.

A H istory o f I deas.

U . B u ilding a n I gloo .

7 4

P rinceton.

o f

t he

L E C UPOLE N URAGICHE,

P ERCHE F ALSE

B arbro S antillo F rizell R affaele S antillo

R iassunto G li s tudiosi d i p reistoria m editerranea e d i s toria d ell'archit ettura s ono s tati, d i s olito, n otevolmente c oncordi s u u n p articolare a rgamento: g li a rchitetti p reistorici n on c onoscevano i i p rincipio s tatico-costruttivo

d elle

c upole

e n on

e rano,

p ertanto,

c apaci

d i

c ostruirle. I " tholos" m icenei e d i n uraghi s ardi, c ome p ure a ltre c upole i n m uratura a s ecco, s ono s tate c lassificate c on t ermini c ome p seudocupole," f alse c upole o d a nche v olte f alse. Q uesto e d ovuto a l f atto c he i n q ueste c ostruzioni l e p ietre o d I b locchi s ono d isposte i n s trati a ggettanti,

s ovrapposti e p iü o m eno o rizzontali.

S e i b locchi f ossero s tati m ontati c on u na c rescente i nclinazione v erso l 'interno, c on s pigoli t raguardanti u no o d ue p unti ( cosi c ome s i c ostruisce u n a rco c on c onci a c unei, p er i ntenderci), a llora s i c he l a s truttura s arebbe s tata a ccettata c ome " vera c upola." s pesso, s i r itiene c he c upola e d a rco s iano q uasi l a

I nfatti, m olto s tessa c osa , i i

c he, i nsieme a lla c hiave d i v olts . . . c he n on s i r iesce a t rovare . . .n ella f alsa c upola, c ostituisce u no d ei p iu 'comuni c oncetti e rronei i n q uesto c ampo. Ma, c uneo,

a l

n e

c ontrario,

archi

e n e

n elle c hiavi

c upole d i

i n m uratura n on c i

v olta.

A lb

os copo

s ono n e d i

c onci

t rovare

a

una

q ualunque s pecie d i t eoria s tatica c he p otesse a dattarsi e f are d a c omplemento a lla p redetta v isione s bagliata d ella c upola-arco, e s tato i nventato ± 1 c ost c hiamato " principio d ella f alsa c upola," i l q uale n on s oddisfa n emmeno l e p iü e lementari l eggi i ntuitive d ell 'equilibrio. C ome s ono f atte, a llora, l e c upole v ere e c ome e sse f unzionano? N ella s tessa m aniera d elle c osiddette f alse. A ccenniamo q ui s olo a q ualche c aratteristica: t utte b e c upole i n m uratura s ono c ostruite a nello p er a nello e n on " arco p er a rco"; i l m eccanismo r esitente l avora p er " anelli o rizzontali"; p onteggi e f orme p ortanti, p untelli t emporanei e tc. n on s ono s olo s uperflui ma i mpossibili d a c ostruire ( centine s paziali a f orma d i p allone, p er i ntenderci). A t al p roposito b asta c itare l a c upola d i B aia, d i 2 9 m etri c irca d i d iametro, c ostruita, i n e poca A ugustea, s econdo s trati-anelli p erfettamente o rizzontali, e d P antheon , i n R oma, c he f u c ostruito p er m ezzo d i u n s istema a rticolato d i e lementi d isposti s econdo s trati a d a nello.

7 5

5 .

U N N UOVO C ONTRIBUTO P ER L O S TUDIO D ELLA T HOLOS I N S ARDEGNA L A F ORTEZZA D I S U M ULINU-VILLANOVAFRANCA G iovanni U gas

L o s cavo e i r eperti L a

f ortezza n uragica d i S u M ulinu

c ollinare e he d omina i i c orso d el f ranca,

u n

p iccolo

c entro

n ella

5 0 c hilometri d a C agliari P er

l a

s ua

( fig.

r io M annu,

r egione

5 .1)

s i

e rge s ulla d orsale

i n p rossimitä d i V illanova-

a graria

d ella M armilla,

a c irca

( Ugas e Z ucca 1 984:45).

c omplessa

s truttura

i i

b aluardo,

s ito

i n

p rossimitä

d ell'antica v ia f luviale s egnata d a v an i i nsediamenti n uragici e d i r accordo t ra l a f ertile p ianura d el C ampidano e i i g iacimento d i r ame d i F untana

R aminosa-Gadoni,

L illiu

( 1975:293,

s imbiosi

d elle

d ue

n on

p oteva

s fuggire

3 03).

N ell'edificio

a nime

d ell'architettura

c orridoi p iattabandati e l e

C omune d egna,

d i

A rcheologica

p rotonuragica

d i

r ealizzate n el

C agliari

c on

V illanovafranca d all'Assessorato

a ggiungono

a rchitettoniche u lteriore

e

n uovi d el

c ontributo

d i G iovanni

s tudioso

v ede

l a

e n uragica:

t orn i c on v olta a t holos.

L e d ue p rime c ampagne d i s cavo S oprintendenza

a ll'attenzione

l 'illustre

e lementi

r elativi s ul

p er

a l

l a

L avoro

d el

s empre

v ivo,

1 985 d alla

a ssegnati

d ella R egione

c onoscenza

c ontesti

t ema,

1 983 e n el

f inanziamenti

d elle

m onumento

a l

S ar-

s trutture

e o ffrono

d ell'origine

e

u n

d ello

s viluppo d ella t holos n ell'isola. C ome

s i

e vince

d alle

i ndagini

t opografiche

e s tratigrafiche,

a

p artire d alla m et äd el 2° M illennio a .C., a ttorno a lla f ortezza s i s viluppö u n v asto i nsediamento p erdurato s ino a ll'alto M edioevo ( fig. 5 .2). S ono g iä s ufficientemente d ocumentate l e f asi n uragiche d el B ronzo medio, r ecente e f inale n onche d el primo F erro s ino a lbo O rientalizzante a ntic° ( sulle p eriodizzazioni d ella c ultura n uragica: L illiu

1 982:9-12;

p ertinenti

a i

U gas

p eriodi

l ' assenza

d i

s ia s tato

f requentato

m ateriali

a bbandonato d el Una a lla

f ine

t utto

nuova

a bbondanza

e Z ucca

d i

p unici s olo

e a l

L a

s poradicitA

m edio-tardo

f anno

d el

p unici I II

s ec.

V II

d el

m anufatti

e " Arcaico",

r itenere

o ccasionalmente n el

o ccupazione

I V

a rcaici

t ra i l V e d i i

m anufatti

d el

1 984:58).

" Orientalizzante"

e he

n onche

l 'insediamento

e n el V I

s ec.

a .C.

e

I V s ecolo.

s ito

e i ndiziata

( monete, a .C.

c eramica,

R esti

d alla e tc.),

m urari,

c onsistente a ttribuibili

p ertinenti

a c om-

p lessi e difici p lurivani a m uri o rtogonali, e l ivelli c ulturali c on m onete, c eramica e o ggetti o rnamentali, d ocumentano a mpiamente l e v an e f asi

r omane

n ell'orbita

e a ltomedioevali d i

B isanzio

e i n

s ino

a i

t empi

p articolare

i n

s ino

a l

c ui

l a

V I-VII

S ardegna s ec.

e ntrö

d .C.

N on

s appiamo q uale f osse i l n ome a ntic° d ell'abitato d i S u M ulinu. L a p lanimetria d ella f ortezza

e s tata m eglio

e videnziata n ella

a rticolazione, m a p er l a l imitata e stensione e p rofonditA n on e a ncora p ossibile l eggerla t otalmente ( fig. 5 .3). S ono p ianto

i i

s tate

i ndividuate

nuraghe

t orn i e c ortine. i nteramente:

c onsta

d i

t re u n

L a p ianta d el

a ppare

d i

f igura

f asi

a rchitettoniche.

b astione c orpo

e d i

c entrale

t riangolare 7 7

u na

d ello

N el

l inea

s ua

s cavo

p rimo

a vanzata

i md i

n on e a ncora o sservabile

i rregolare

c on

p erimetro

s inusoidale m edia

v ertici t ratti e sempi

S ud Est

t aglia

c oncluso

2 1/22).

d a

I l obi

e S ud-Ovest,

d ecisamente 5 9:6).

a i

t ratti

l a

s inusoidale

1 982:fig.

p rimi

t re

l obi

a i

v ertici

B e C r esiduano

m entre

i l

e he

c ostruzione

c ontinuo

( es.

E- p ossibile d ue

i ntermedi

n eppure C ,

m .

l obo

A ,

( lungh.

t otalmente

a N ord,

s ui

e t agliato

d a

m urari s uccessivi ( Torre E e c ortine C l e C 6). N on m ancano d i n uraghi i n c ui l 'innesto d i u na t orre c on r accordi r ettilinei

p rofilo m ente

c oncavo-convesso,

d iagonali

e sso

e he

d a

c omporre

c oncavo

( a

S ud)

f osse

s inuositä

a

p ianta

C rastula

d i

l obo A f osse u n

t rilobata

c on

u n 'unica

c ompattezza

l inea

d el

s i

c on u no

d ei

p uö e scludere

c urva a i

l obi

B e

i n uraghi C rasta-Santu

5 9:3,

1 982:fig.

d al

L illiu

s imile p lanimetricaN on

q uali

r accolta

B onarcado:

c lassic°

c onvessi.

f rontale,

( Lilliu

e l a

a ntica

e d ue

r accordato

L ussurgiu e A ttentu-Ploaghe l a

i l

c ost

c ome n ei b astioni a d a ddizione

P er

p iü S erra

5 ).

c ontorno

i i

b astione

d i

S u

M ulinu appare c ome un p arente p rossimo d el t rilobato arcaico d el L ogomache d i F onni ( Lilliu 1 982:fig. 6 7), d el n uraghe B runku M adugui d i G esturi

( Lilliu

1 982:14,

f ig.

2 )

e d i

a ltre

f ortezze

c on

c orridoi

a

p iattabanda. M eno o vvio e il r ichiamo a i t rilobati " classici" d el L osa-Abbasanta ( Lilliu 1 982:fig. 7 4:4) e d el S antu Antine-Torralba ( Cantu 1 985:fig. 3 2), n ei quali i i p rofilo d elle t orn i s i s tacca n ettamente d a q uell° d elle c ortine. G li

a mbienti

d el

b astione

s ono

d isposti

s u

d ue

p iani

s ovrapposti.

L o s viluppo p lanimetrico d ei v ani d el p iano s uperiore s i l egge a ssai p arzialmente ( figg. 5 .2-3). S i o sservano I c ontorni, a p iani s falsati, d i

a lcune

c ellette

( As,

B s,

C s),

p recedute

p robabile area d i d isimpegno ( Ds). e llittica c on i ngresso d ecentrato, s i C ome

l 'ambiente A s,

p ure

e llittico,

d a

b revi

a nditi,

e d i

u na

D ella c elletta C s, d i p ianta i ntravvede l a s ommitä s vettata.

l a

c elletta

C s

p are

r accordarsi

c on

u n c orridoio c ollegato c on l 'area d i d isimpegno D s, d i p ianta r eniforme, r isparmiata t ra i l obi C e B . E- p ossibile e he i n c orrispondenza d ei l obi f ossero r icavati d ei v ani p i üa mpi r ispetto a q uelli i ndividuati, d isposti n ella z ona i nterna. A d e sclusione d el v ano t utti g li a mbienti s uperiori d el b astione s ono a ncora d a s cavare. v ano

B s

s ubtriangolare

( fig.

5 .4),

a v ertici

O vest

s emidistrutto,

s i

l arg.

m ax.

e p er

m .

L 'apparato

3 ,20)

m urario

l egate

c on m alts

d a

b attuto

u n

m assicciata c opertura

i n

i nferiore,

d 'argilla p ietrame

L 'unico

( figg.

d i

s olo

e

m ista

p arte

m edia

c orridoio

s ua

o d i

u na

d el

v ano

s ul

( lungh. ( m.

m .

( o

l ato 3 ,60,

0 ,20-0,60).

e p iccola

i n l astre a

p iriforme

i ngresso

l imitata

a p aglia,

t erriccio,

u n

d i

p avimento,

g ialla

i n

a ssai

c alcaree,

I l

p robabile

p ezzatura,

c alcaree a malgamate

p oggia

s u

v olta

s oprastante

c ella

u na

( I re)

l eggera

d el

l a

p iano

a ncora d a s cavare. s trato

c ulturale

d 'argilla ( str. 2 a), l 'intero b astione a l 5 .5-6)

p iatti

p ietre

i rregolarmente

c on

u n 'altezza

f ango.

a rchitravata

f orma

e c onservato

e i n

d i

d i

a rrotondati),

g iä B s,

e p ertinente

t roncoconici

5 .5:20-21);

c on

b icchieri

( str.

2 )

a ssegna i ncontestabilmente B ronzo m edio ( XV-XIV s ec. a :

v asi

l abbro

o rnati

s opra

a n ervature

a ppiattito

m iniaturistici

B s

e spanso

t roncoconici

i l

b attuto

l o s tesso a mbiente e a .C.). L a c eramica ( fig. a

5 .5:4);

t esa

e t roncoovoidi

( fig. ( fig.

t azze c arenate ( fig. 5 .5 :5); o lle g lobulari c on o rb os biecato 5 .5:9); anfore e o lle a c ollo c on o rb oa ppiattito ( fig. 5 .5:15-17)

5 .5:1-3); ( fig.

e t egami d i

t roncoconici

v imini,

s pesso

( fig.

5 .6:1-2),

provvisti

d i

t alora

grandi

7 8

a nse

c on

i mpronte

c oncentriche

irregolari

e i nsellate

s uperiormente

( fig.

5 .6:4).

F orme

e

d ecorazioni

d ella

c eramica

r ientrano n ella s tessa c ategoria d ei f ittili r invenuti i n a ltri n uraghi ( Brunku M adugui- G esturi) ( Lilliu 1 982:4, 4 3, f ig. 2 ) e i n v an e t ombe d i g iganti, i n p articolare: S an C osimo-Gonnosfanadiga ( Ugas 1 981:9-12, f oto 8 -13, f ig. 2 :3; 1 982:180-18 1, t ax. L XVII); T amuli-Macomer ( Contu 1 978 :47); S a F igu- I ttiri ( Contu 1 978 :49, T ay. X :1). I i r epertorio v ascolare d i q uesti c ontesti e c aratterizzato d all'olla b iconica a t esa i nterna, c on o rnato m etopale, a p unteggiato o a n ervature ( Contu 1 978:47-49; U gas 1 98 1:810; L illiu 1 982:43-49, f igg. 4 0-4 1). G li

a ltri m anufatti

d 'uso

r ientrano n el q uadro

c ulturale i ndicato:

s chegge, n uclei, m icroliti a c rescente i n o ssidiana ( fig. 5 .6:11-14); d ischi l itici p iatti ( fig. 5 .6:16, 1 8-19); p estelli ( fig. 5 .6:6-7); u n a ffilatoio r ettangolare p iano-conyesso ( fig. 5 .6:5). B en s i a ddicono a lla f unzione d ifensiva d ell'edificio d ue p roiettili d a f ionda g hiandiformi ( fig. 5 .6:9, 1 5), c on p rototipi d i S a C orona d i V illagreca ( Atzeni 1 966:122,

p renuragici n ell 'edificio f ig. 9 ), e u n p ugnale i n

b ronzo

( fig.

a l ama

t riangolare,

l ungo

c m.

1 8,3

5 .6:15)

c he

t rova

r iscontro i n e semplari d el B ronzo m edio p ertinenti a lle c ulture d i T hapsos, d el M ilazzese ( Tusa 1 983:figg. 2 2; 2 8-32) e d i A rgar B 1 e B 2 ( Monteagudo P i

1 977:tay.

üa vanzato

b astione,

a nche

s e

1 43:6).

e l o m olte

s tato s ue

c onoscitivo

p arti

d ebbono

d el

p iano

e ssere

i nferiore

a ncora m esse

d el

i n l uce

( fig. 5 .7). A ppare i i t racciato d i a lcuni c orridoi ( Ci1, C i2, C i3 e C i4), c he c onducono a lle c elle V c, V d e V e e c he s i s viluppano n ella z ona m ediana d el b astione. I i p assaggio C i1 c ontinua i l s uo p ercorso a ll 'esterno, c ollegandosi " a L " c on i l c orridoio C i5 ( figg. 5 .8 :2; 5 .9 :2; 5 .10:3), c he c onduce a s ua v olta a lla c elletta V a ( figg. 5 .8 :1, 5 .9 :1), e c on u n p assaggio ( Ci6) n on a ncora r ilevato, c he p orta a d u n 'altra c elletta ( Vb). L e d ue c ellette V a e V b s ono p ertinenti a d a ltrettante t orricelle d i u na c inta e sterna, f ormata d a c ortine c on c orridoi

e d a

t orricelle

( fig.

5 .7),

c he

s i

i rraggia

a pparentemente " labirintico", i n c orrispondenza s oprastante c inta a ntemurale d ella s econda f ase. c orridoi d el t riangolare c on v olta s tretta

l astra

i n u n

o rdito

p arziale

d ella

b astione s ono p iuttosto s tretti e d i a o giva g radonata, t roncata a lla s ommitä

p iattabandata.

L e

d imensioni

d ei

c orridoi

t aglio d a u na s ono

l e

s eguenti: h . ( parziale) m . 1 ,55; l argh. b ase ( parziale) m . 0 ,95. I b racci i nterni m isurano i n m edia 5 m etri. L e c ellette s ono i rregol armente c ircolari, s ubellittiche, e p resentano l 'ingresso f uori a sse r ispetti a i c orridoi. M anca i l c orridoio d 'andito. L a c opertura e r ealizzata c on u na v olta o givale g radonata, c onclusa d a u na l astra p iattabandata. I i v ano V a ( fig. 5 . )h a l e s eguenti m isure: h . m . 2 ,75, d iametri m . 3 ,05 e 2 ,54. E- p ossibile c he i n o rigine i i v ano V a e i i c orridoio d a u n

C i5

f ossero

p arapetto

i nfine, s e p rima f ase

p er

i l

s ovrastati s ervizio

d a u n p iano d i

r onda

s uperiore

d ei g uerrieri.

o s emplicemente N on s appiamo,

s ui t errazzi d elle c ortine e d elle t orricelle e sterne d ella f acessero g iä l a l oro c omparsa i b allatoi r etti d a m ensole

c he v ediamo i n o pera n el n uraghe A lbucciu-Arzachena ( Ferrarese C eruti 1 962), d atato a l C 14 a l 1 256 + /- 2 50 a .C. o 1 220 + /- 2 50 ( Lilliu 1 975:16;

C ontu 1 974:147).

A ll'originale

e

s traordinario

t essuto

i mpianto d ell'antemurale s uccede u na l izza d i c ircondano c ompletamente i i b astione, c ome n ei 7 9

" labirintico"

d el

p rimo

t orn i e c ortine c he n on n uraghi L osa-Abbasanta e

D om 'e

s 'Orcu-Domusnovas

s pazio, d elle

a mpio

o ltre

t ruppe

( Lilliu

6 00

o rdinarie

m q., d ella

1 975:301,

f ig.

5 8:4),

s ufficiente

n on

s olo

g uarnigione,

m a

a nche,

r acchiudendo

p er

i l

u no

r accogliersi

a ll'occasione,

p er

i i r ifugiarsi d ella p opolazione d ell'abitato c ircostante. Q uesta

l inea d ifensiva e sterna e f ormata d a q uattro t orn i ( E,

G ,

H ,

I ), d ai r accordi i ntermedi C 3, C 4, C 5, e d al r ifascio R 1 a l t ratto d el b astione t ra i l obi C e d A ( figg. 5 .2-3). L e t orn , n on a ncora s cavate, s ono H :

d i

p ianta

d iam.

c ircolare.

i nterno

m .

L e

3 ,40,

c elle

e st.

s ono

m .

p iuttosto

6 c a.;

T orre

p iccole

I d iam.

( Torn i G e d

e st.

m .

7 ,50

c a.). F a e ccezione l a t orre E ( diam. i n m . 4 ,00 c a.). L 'andamento r ettilineo i rregolare d elle c ortine C 3 ( lungh. m . 8 ,30, l argh. m . 1 ,70) e C 4 ( lungh. m . 1 4, l argh. m . 1 ,70), i ntermedie t ra l e t orn i G , r ichiama a lla l ontana i i c ontorno s inusoidale d el b astione. Nella

c ortina

l 'ingresso

a lla

d imensioni, o u n v ano b astione.

e p robabile

una

t erza

t orre

i ntermedia l argh.

r ettilinei

s ul

r ifascio R 1

l a

t ratto m urario

c inta

c ostruita

3 ,60/1,80)

e x

e C 2

f ib oe sterno e d 5 .10:1-2).

m ediante

c he t aglio i l

m .

2 ,40/11)

D ate

l e

s i

s ue

c omprendesse

i i

f ase

t ecnica

u n

n ovo,

e sterna

r accordate

a pre

n otevoli

u n c orridoio

m .

5 ,70,

f u

s ottoposta

a

t ra l oro m ediante l a

e i t ratti

( lungh.

m urari l argh.

C l

( lungh.

m .

m .

3 ,80/1,60),

i ncontrantisi o rtogonalmente c on l a t orre

r accordo m urario

l a

t orre

r ettilineo

E f u

C 6

c ollegata a l

( lungh.

m .

5 ,90)

b astione.

a rchitettonica

c ostruttiva

e d i

muraria

C ontemporaneamente

l obo A d el

q uesta

c ompasso

f ase

F ,

m .

5 .2-3;

n uova

l argh. a s ud.

i l

m .

L e t orn i G e d E f urono

5 ,70,

I n

c he

1 5,

o rientato

t ratto n on d ifeso d alla l izza m uraria e sterna.

r imaneggiamenti.

( figg.

( lungh. d 'armi,

d i grandi d imensioni, f orse c ollegato d irettamente c ol I i r ifascio R 1, l ungo m . 1 0,80 e l argo m ax. 2 ,40, r inforzava

i l b astione n el In

C 5

c orte

H e I ,

s istema

c he

f a

s i

l a

b asa

m etrico

c omparsa,

p alesemente,

s ull'impiego

l ineare

p er

d ella

o ttenere

f une,

t ratti

u na d el

m urari

r ettilinei e v ani c ircolari. N el F 3

c orpo

( fig.

d elle

5 .10:2-3),

C l

c ortine

a i

l ati

e C 2

f urono

d ell'andito

c he

r ealizzati d alla

d ue

c orte

v ani,

d 'armi

F 1

e d

c onduce

a lla t orre F . La m assi

t orre

d i

F ,

c alcare

c ome b e

r estanti p arti d ella f ortezza,

a f ossili

m arini.

V i

s i

a ccede

e c ostruita c on

t ramite

u n

a ndito

s ub-trapezoidale. N ell'andito, c onsiderevolmente a lto ( h. p arziale m . 4 ,50) i n r apporto a lla l arghezza ( m. 1 ,80 c a.), l e p areti s ono v erticali p er

u na

a ltezza

o givale

c on

d i

l astra

m .

2 ,70

s ino

a ll'inizio

p iattabandata.

N ella

d ell'aggetto

p orta

s opra

d ella

v olta

l 'architrave

s i

n ota u na f inestrella r ettangolare d i s carico. A d estra d i c hi e ntra s i a pre l a s cala d 'accesso d el v ano F 2, s oprastante i i v ano F l, e s ulla s inistra l 'ingresso a l v ano F 3. L a

4 ,75 , p areti

t orre F ( fig.

h a

u n

d iametro

m urarie

e levate d al p avimento 0 ,94)

) ,

e sterno

f urono

m .0,30-0,28/0,15-0,10; l argh.

5 .10:1-2

a perte

l ungh. ( f.

d i

i ndagata p er u n 'altezza p arziale d i m . i n .

9 ,30

1

m .

1 ,83),

N ord h .

1 ,15,

e l 'accesso a l v ano F l.

c orrispondenza

d i

u n

s oppalco

l igneo 8 0

e i nterno

f eritoie

( h.

d ue f inestre l argh.

m .

d i

m .

m .

5 ,60. 1 ,38;

N elle l argh.

r ettangolari s opra-

0 ,70;

f .

O vest h .1,05,

L 'ingresso a l v ano F 2 s i a priva i n d i

c ui

r imangono

i f ori

p er

l a

t ravatura

( soluzione

g iä

c onosciuta

i n

v an e

t orn i p erimetrali

d i

S u

N uraxi d i B arumini) ( Lilliu 1 975) e d i a ltri n uraghi ( Contu 1 974:155)A nche n ella v olta d ella t orre F , v ista l a v erticalitä d elle p areti, l 'aggetto L o

i niziava a d u na a ltezza p iuttosto c onsiderevole d al p avimento.

s cavo

d eposit°

d ella

c ulturale

c ostruzione

p er

m edievale,

ma

t orre

d i

s ette

s copi n on

F ( fig.

n on

h a

5 .11)

l ivelli

p iü

c he

e videnziato

d ocumenta

d ifensivi,

a ncora

ha

i n

r aggiunto

e ta

i

i i

l ivelli

t arda,

d ella

r omana

n uragici.

e

P er

l o s cavo d ei v ani

c d F 3.

A ll'interno d elle f eritoie, s ono

s pesso

r iutilizzo

p unica

l 'inquadramento c ronologico e c ulturale e f ondamentale c oevi F 1

uno

s tati

r invenuti

s ecolo V III,

v an i p ezzi

d i

v asellame

l a p rima E tä d el F erro, r isalente

a lla

f ine

d el

( lungh.

c m.

u mbilicata i n c eramica ( diam. b occa p robabilmente a d i mpiego l iturgic°.

c m I l

i n p articolare u n m estolo f ittile a l unga p resa

2 4) ( fig. 5 .12:1) e u na c onca 2 2,8) ( fig. 5 .12:2), d estinati m estolo

o ccluse d urante

h a

u n

p reciso

r iscontro

i n

u n

r eperto

f rammentario

d i

S ant'Anastasia d i S ardara, g iä r icostruito e rroneamente c ome c apeduncola d al T aramelli ( 1918:85, t ay. V III, f ig. 7 7). L a c onca c on 6 b eccucci e c on p resina

a d u ncino,

m ostra

m otivo g eometrico c omposito, m etalliche. V ittoria

S i

d i

r ichiamano

S em i

s ul

f ondo

i mitante p er

i nterno

c onfronti

( Taramelli

p rovvisto

l 'ornato d egli i d ischi

1 922:322,

4 8;

d i

u mbone,

u n

s cudi e d elle b ulle i n

b ronzo

d a

S anta

B ernardini-Tronchetti

1 985:288, 2 99, f ig. 1 2) e i n a rgento d alla T omba 3 , a p ozzetto, d i A ntas, a ssociata a u n b ronzo f igurato ( Ugas e Z ucca 1 984:75, n .3; U gas 1 986;

B arreca I l

1 985:314s.,

v ano

F 1

f ig.

( figg.

1 c).

5 .10:2-3;

5 .13:2)

e d i

p entagonale c d e c operto c on u na v olta a t holos P oggia p arzialmente d el p rimo i mpianto. m isurano 1 ,60; 3 ,60.

i rregolarmente

r ibassata ( fig.

5 .14:1).

s ul s ottostante c orridoio C i5 d ella c inta L a p orta e l arga m . 0 ,80 e d-7 — a lta m . 1 ,90.

r ispettivamente:

N ord

m .

1 , 86

e d

E st

m .

2 ,54;

e sterna I l ati

S ud 2 ,96;

O vest

N ord-Ovest 2 ,16. L e p areti s ono a lte ( dalla b ase a lla s ommitä) m . L a v olta i nizia a lla q uota d i m . 2 ,30 d al p avimento c d e a lta m .

1 ,30.

S ulle

f urono

p areti

a ddossati

m alta

d i

s edile

f ango

Nord:

r eimpiegata h .

p ianta

0 ,40;

d ue

e N ord-Ovest

s edili

c ostruiti

( sedile

O vest:

h .

0 ,30;

l argh.

0 ,44,

h .

q uale

l argh.

O vest

b ancone max.

l a

1 ,80)

m .

i l

p avimento

l astre

0 ,30,

d i

l ungh.

l ungh.

s ommitä d el n ella

s opra

c on

1 ,50;

1 ,30).

c orridoio

q uale

m am a, S ul

C i5

appare

un

l astricato l egate

l argh. l ato

( lungh. grande

m .

c on

0 ,44; S ud

f u

3 ,32;

l astrone

q uadrangolare. I muri

d el

v ano

F 1,

a l astroni

d i

p ietra

c alcarea,

s i

i nnalzano

p ressoche v erticali s ino a m . 2 ,30 d i a ltezza d al p avimento e t erminano c on u na c opertura a v olts r ibassata ( rapporto h /r - 0 ,43), f ormata d al d isporsi d ei f ilari a g radini r ovesciati. Questo t ipo d i v olta e s imile, p iano-

m a t erra

n on

i dentico,

d el

a q uello

b astione.

g iä

A ll'attacco

o sservato d ella

v olta

n ella s i

c ella

V a

d el

n ota u n a ccenno

d i p ennacchio angolare c ome n elle p iü t arde ( VII s ec.) V etulonia d i i mpianto q uadrangolare ( es. t omba d el D iavolino:

t holoi d i T alocchini

1 963:435)N el q uail

c i

vano

F 1

e s tato

i nteressano,

a sportato

u n

p articolarmente,

h a r estituito m ateriali r epubblicana ( ceramica,

d eposito g li

u ltimi

c on

q uattro

d ue.

I l

s trati

t erzo

d ei

s trato

i n p revalenza d i e ta p unica t arda e r omana m onete i n b ronzo, u na m atrice p er f ocaccia 8 1

p unica),

q ualche f rammento v ascolare n uragico d ell'etä d el B ronzo f inale

e d ella p rima E t äd el F erro. I l

quarto

s trato,

c he

p oggia

d irettamente

s ul

l astricato

p avimentale d ell'ambiente, e f ormato p revalentemente d a u n d eposito c on c eneri e c arboni c he h a r estituito c opioso m ateriale s oprattutto f ittile,

d atabile

f unzione a ccesi

d el

d urante F ,

d i

c ui

( fig.

5 .15:1-14) s palla

5 .15:3);

a

( figg .

e ssere

g uardia

F l

d ai

5 .15-5.18). i n

g uerrieri

e s ussidiaria.

i nterna

c arenate

c he

A bbonda

( fig.

e s ottostante

e a s palla

5 .15:2a-4), 5 .15:7);

g rigio-ardesia

l inea

( fig.

l a

a nforette o b rocche

( fig.

i n

i f uochi

( fig.

5 .15:1-3), a g iro

t azze

c on

a nsate

e

( fig. l abbro

c on

5 .15:5a).

n umerose

l a

c eramica g rigia

5 .15:4-6); o lle

r iscontro

c on

c ontrollavano

i ncisa

e

t rovano

s pigoloso

N on e c hiara l a

c onnessione

c on c iotole a c alotta e d e misferiche

( fig.

i ngrossato

d i

c ella

g obba

c iotole

i ngrossato t azze

l a

R ecente

p otrebbe

i t urni

t orre c on

a l B ronzo

f ocolare:

l abbro

C iotole e

l ocalitä

n uragiche,

i n c ontesti d el B ronzo M edio ( S. C osimo d i G onnosfanadiga: U gas 1 98 1:fig. 3 :5), d el B ronzo R ecente e f inale ( S. G emiliano-Sestu e M . 0 11adiriM onastir: A tzeni 1 962; A ntigori-Sarroch: F errarese C eruti-Assorgia 1 982:39,

1 982:69,

t ay.

1 982:39;

X XVII,

t ay.

I s Argiddas-Samassi:

z one c ontermini: Fanno

S antoni

p arte

L XII;

7 4-81;

ancora

F errarese

1 985:247s.;

C eruti

C orti

U gas

1 981:84;

s iti

1 985:187,

1 93-194,

t avv.

d el

c ontesto:

f rammenti

d iscoidali

p ezzi

d i

( fig.

m acine

5 .18:6,

e llittiche

9 ), e

t egami

( fig.

p iano-convesse

p estelli, u n a ffilatoio ( fig. 5 .18:12), e u n b ronzo t ipo C orti B eccia ( Ugas 1 982:43, t ay.

d i

I i

v ano

R esidua 2 ,80,

F 2

( fig.

5 .1:1)

A ll'interno e s tato p er

u n'altezza

d i

e s imile

e d i

e o lle

a

a l abbro i ngrossato, f useruole s chiacciate

5 .17;

1 8:1-3,

( fig.

5 .18:15),

5 ),

p ochi a lcuni

f rammento d i p ugnale i n X XVII:90). T ali r eperti

c ompongono u n c ontesto o mogeneo d i u na f ase a ntica d el

v ano F 1.

anfore

M 12; U gas

v an i d el C ampidano

c olletto r ivers( ) ( fig. 5 .16:3-6), o lle g loboidi c operchi f ittili d iscoidali ( fig. 5 .18:10-11, 1 4), q uasi

1 98 1:605s.,

B eccia-Sanluri:

B ronzo r ecente.

p lanimetricamente

a l

s ottostante

r invenuto u n d eposito c ulturale m edioevale. i n .

0 ,85/1,43.

I l ati

i nterni

m isurano

m .

3 ,00 e 2 ,50. I l

v ano

F 3

( figg.

5 .10:2-3a;

5 .13:2)

e d i

p ianta

s ubrettangolare

( lung. i n . 6 ,00; l argh. 2 ,35 ( lato E st); e 1 ,10 ( lato O vest) c on u n a llargamento a n icchia s ull'angolo a N ord d ell'ingresso ( lungh . i n . 1 ,40; l argh. 1 ,66;

0 ,70). l argh.

L a p orta s i a pre

L 'apparato d a

a rgilla

s ull'andito c he c onduce a lla t orre F ( h.

0 ,72). m urario

g ialla.

L e

e a f ilari p areti,

d i

l astre

v erticali,

c alcaree

s ono

a lte

a ttacco d ella v olta a d o giva t ronca ( h. i n . 1 ,58). c on t re f ile d i l astroni, c ollocati u no s ull 'altro c hiusi e s ovrastati d a l arghi a rchitravi a pre

l a

s cala

d 'accesso

m onolitici

( largh.

2 5-0,26).

L a

a lb

os trato

s caletta d i N el

s cala

8 .

C iö

0 ,88,

v ano

a lzato i n .

e s opraelevata f a

p ensare

( fig.

s oprastante d i

1 ,16

a ll'impiego

s ul

a nche

a ll'

S ul l ato O vest s i

c omposta

0 ,31-0,25-0,20, i n .

l egate

f ino

L 'aggetto e o ttenuto a d a ndamento s calare

5 .19). F 4,

z eppe

2 ,26

d a 5 g radini

p edata i n .

0 ,56-0,

p avimento p ertinente d i

u na

c omplementare

l egno.

v ano

c omplessa.

m .

a l

c on

m .

F 3

l a

s uccessione

s tratigrafica

N ell'angolo N -E d el v ano, 8 2

d ei m ateriali

a d estra d ell'ingresso,

e p iuttosto v i e anche

u n d eposito o leose,

s tratificato

e videnziato

( fig. 5 .20). a rticolata.

d a

I n q uesto

d erivato u na

s ettore

l a

A u n l ivello a ltomedioevale s uccede c on

u n

b attuto

m ateriali

r eperti z one

d i

d 'argilla

d i

e t

v an e

d ell'ambiente

b attuto

f ocolare ( strata e c arboni. Al

5 )

f ocolare

p rima

E t

äd el

a nche

u n

g rosso

s ono

3 )

t arda

d eposito

d a

1

d i

e a ncor p iü

r omano

( strato 2 A),

u n d eposito

u n

s ubstrati

F inale

t azza

( strato 4 )

c on

i nclusi

s trato 4 i n a lcune

d ello

p avimento

n ell'angolo

r eperti

B ronzo

f rammento

s u

s ostanze

s ubcircolare

d eposito

e a d uno

e a ncora

m entre

p ertinenti

e a l

c ontinua d i

c inerina

e r omano-repubblicana

I i

6 -7),

e f ormato

F erro

( strato 2 )

d irettamente

( strati

e

s tratigrafia d el

n uragiche.

p oggia

d 'argilla

b ruciatura

n erastra

( strato

äp unica

f asi

d alla

c hiazza

i n

N ord

l astre

d el

p revalentemente d i

a ttribuibili ( figg.

c arenata

d ipinta

i n

i i

c eneri

s opratutto

5 .21-5.24)

c on

v ano

a lla

f ra

i q uail

r osso;

a b ande

s ulla s palla e s ulla vasca; a t ratteggi s ul l abbro i nterno ( fig. 5 .23:10; 2 6). L a t azza ( diam. b occa c m. 1 6) p resenta un 'ansetta s ulla s palla v erticale c ome a ltre t azze c arenate d 'impasto r invenute n ello s tesso

v ano

l ocale.

F 3

e n el

L 'ornato

d ipinta

d i

p rototipo Sarroch

t ipo

v ano

n ell'analogo

l o

E videntemente

r osse

s ub-miceneo,

m a

o rnato

( Ferrarese C eruti

Purtroppo

F 1.

a b ande

p uö

i l

d elle

t azze

d i

t ay.

u na

s ul

( figg.

5 .21, a i

5 .22).

b ordi

I n

d el

p rima E t äd el F erro. d ei

r eperti,

5 .22:9;

5 .23:5-7),

p asta

5 .21:15;

c aso

d el

p arte

a s palle

t alora

l e

M I II

v erticali

g rigie

5 .24:18);

f rammenti

o rnate

c on

( figg.

5 .22:7-8;

i

m otivi

5 .23:3),

( figg.

p lastiche

d i

a nfore

l e

l ucerne

g eometrici

f ittili a l

( figg.

5 .22:10;

r ichiama

s ia

una

1 982:tay.

LXII:8)

( Furumark

1 972:fig.

5 .27:3)

c iotola c he

d a

c on

d el

i i

d eposito

f inale

l a q uasi 5 .22:2;

( fig. ( figg.

( figg.

5 .23:8-10)

5 .21:11-12),

t azzine

s oprae a lla

t otalitä

e a c alotta

c arenate 5 .21:13;

s pecie ( figg.

5 .23:1),

( cerchielli);

b rocche

5 .23:12).

D al l ivello p erturbato 5° p roviene u n f rammento g rigia

c eramica a vere

a ccumulati

B ronzo

5 .21:1;

s tampigliati

( fig.

p uö

h a i mpedito l a l ettura d ei r eperti r ecuperati

e misferiche

m onocrome;

u n p rodotto

B d ell'Antigori-

c he r appresentano

c iotole

a d ecorazioni

l abbro

c onsistente

p ertinenti

F ra i f ittili,

e s uperfici

s pesso

i m ateriali

s ono

s ono p revalenti:

o r ientranti, in

o gni

f ocolare,

d i

d alla

L XVI:1,3,7).

d ei l ivelli 4 e 5 a d o pera d i s cavatori a busivi, d ella p osizione s tratigrafica d i u na b uona p arte t tutto

t ratta

d erivato

t ratteggio

1 982:172s.,

s convolgimento

s i

e ssere

a nsa

Antigori

e semplari m icenei

a d

d i

a nello

( Ferrarese

c iotola i n p asta

s opraelevato, C eruti

t ipo F urumark

c he

e A ssorgia

4 9 e Furumark 2 36

1 4).

A g iudicare d al d eposito

c inerino,

p iuttosto

" oleoso",

n el f ocolare

v enivano b ruciate s ostanze p rofumate; e sso v a c onnesso n on t anto c on u n u so d omestico ( cottura d ei c ibi), q uanto c on u n r ituale d i o fferte. p ossibile

c he

i l

v ano

F 3

s ia

s tato

r iutilizzato

c ome

a mbiente

c omplementare d i un l uogo s acra, c onsiderata l ' assenza d i r eperti l iturgici. N on s i p uö e scludere n eppure c he i r esidui d el d eposito s iano

d erivati

d egli ambienti,

d all'accensione c on

l 'impiego

d i

d i

l ampade

s ostanze

d i l entischio.

8 3

e t orce o leose,

p er

l 'illuminazione

i n p rimo

l uogo

l 'olio

N ella p rima

s uccessione

p avimento

d i

s tratigrafica,

l astre

r ecente

( fig.

s imili,

t ipologicamente,

Un

c alcaree,

5 .25:1-17).

s econdo

i i

l ivello

e s egnato

I r eperti

d ella

( strata

d alla

s trata

8 s ono

a i m ateriali d ella s trata 4

p avimento

i n

l astre

( strata

9 ),

8 )

s otto

c eramica d el

i l

B ronzo

i n g ran p arte

d el v ano F l.

a

c oevo

a ll'impianto

d ei

v ani, a s ua v olta s ovrasta u n d eposito ( strata 1 0), s aggiato m olto p arzialmente, c an c eramica d el B ronzo M edia ( fig. 5 .25:18-36), s imile i n p revalenza

a q uella

r invenuta

n el

v ano

B s

d el

b astione.

c onsiderata a nche l a p ertinenza a l B ronzo M edia c orridoi s ottostanti a lle c ortine c he c omprendono c ostruzione d el v ano F 3 v a a ttribuita a una f ase o ppure,

p i

üv erosimilmente,

q uesta

f ase

s ono

a l

B ronzo

i

r eperti

p ertinenti

C onsegue

c he,

d el b astione e d ei i v ani F 1 e d F 3, l a

t arda d el B ronzo M edia,

r ecente

i niziale,

i mmediatamente

d ata

c he

s oprastanti

a i i

p rima p avimento d ell'ambiente. I i

v ano

F 4

s tante v ano F 3.

( fig.

H .

5 .10:1-3)

r esidua i n .

e s imile

1 ,05/1,58;

p lanimetricamente

l ungh.

i n .

5 ,70,

a l

s otto -

l argh. i n .

1 ,85.

C onsiderazioni Alla

l uce

d atazione

d ell'indagine

d ella

t holos

c ronologizzazione

d ei

m iti

212).

g li

e roi

E ntrambi

c ondotta

nuragica d i

n el

a ppare

A risteo

n uraghe

s empre

e I olao

a vrebbero

d i

p ia

( Ugas

c hiamato

S u

M ulinu,

c oerente

1 98 1:12;

D edalo

i n

l a

can

l a

1 982:2 10-

S ardegna

p er

f argli e dificare s plendide a pere d i a rchitettura ( Pais 1 88 1:301s.; 3 52ss; M eloni 1 945; B erard 1 963:403s.; L illiu 1 975:162s.; M astino 1 980:261, 2 72s.; U gas 1 981:12s.; 1 985:210-212). L 'accostamento s tico

s olo

P ausania

i n

l o

p oiche

1 975 :35ss.), t radizione a ntichi

n on

i nfatti

i nizi I I

l 'accostamento q uelli

p iü

m itica

c he

r isalenti

r emota c olloca

c he

d i

a l

l e

" artefice"

p uö

b en

p erplessitä

B ronzo

m edia a lla

d i

b en n ote v icende d i

E racle,

m a

( Frontisi

D ucroux

d erivare

d a

e difici

J olao.

A risteo

e a nacroni-

e roica c olloca i i

n ipote

e sistevano

t empi

c ulturale

p er

J olao,

A risteo

e a ttribuibile l 'eroe

c ronologia

s ecolo

S ardegna

V .30.1)

g iustificabili l a

X III

a ltro

a i

( Diodoro

os tesso

c an i n

l e

c he

d el

e a lb

s ignifica

c onsapevole

d i

t ettonica l ogia

a gli

a M inosse

" daidalos"

e D edalo

n onostante

E- v ero

a rtista

l egano

A risteo

a pparenza,

( X.17.4).

l eggendario c he

f ra

Q uesta d ata

f ase

c he

f ine

u na

a ncora

p iü

a rchi-

l a

c rono-

d el X V

e a gli

i nizi d el X IV s ec. a .C., c ioe t re g enerazioni p rima d i J olao. Analog amente i i B ernabö B rea ( 1978:64), i ntravvedendo n ella f igura d i D edalo l o s pecchio d i v icende c ulturali s vincolate d a u n r igido r iferimento c ronologico, m ette i n r apporto l 'artista C astelluccio d ella p rima e t äd el B ronzo. L 'antichitä

d i

s uggellata

d a

r acconto

S imonide

d i

q uesto

D edalo, d i

r apporto

t rova C eo

u n

( in

t ra

c an

a rchitettura

s ostegno

S uda,

l 'architettura

s .v.

l ogico

d el

nuragica

p eriodo

e d

s ardanion

g elos,

f r.

2 02a),

r elativo a i ( Pallottino

S ardi r espinti d a T ab s m entre a ssediano l 'isola d i 1 952:239; V an d er K olf 1 932:2080). I l s emidio c retese

e c ollocato

d alla

g li i nizi

N el

d el X III c itato

c ronologia ( Ugas

e roica

1 980:31,

e pisodio

n .

a t empi

3 9 ;

l eggendario

e gea,

n ell 'interessante

c ompresi

f ra

i l X V

C reta T ab s s ec.

e

1 98 1:13). e i mplicita

l ' esistenza

d i

u na

m itica r otta t ra l a S ardegna e l 'Egeo. U na t appa d i q uesto p ercorso e s egnata n on m olto p iü t ardi a L ipari d al v asellame n uragico, r invenuto i n

u n

c ontesto

d ell'Ausonio

I I

( Cavalier e B ernabö 8 4

B rea

1 979 :74 ,

t avv .

4 3c e 4 5;

C ontu

m etalli

1 979).

e a ltri

b eni

V erosimilmente l a c eramica n uragica a ccompagnava d i

s cambio

d egli

I olei.

L o

s tesso

t ragitto

S ardegna-Egeo e ra g iä c onosciuto i n p recedenza d ai n avigatori p rotosardi n eolitici, c ome s uggeriscono g li i doli c ruciformi i n m armo d ei c ontesti s ardi, r isalenti a l N eolitico f inale ( Cultura O zieri), n ei q uali n on s i p uö n on r avvisare l o s tesso f ondamento d 'esperienza a rtistica e i deol ogica c omune a gli i doletti c icladici d ella f ine d el I V m illennio e e he f orse r aggiunse l a S ardegna c oi p rimi " prospectores" d i r isorse m etall ifere, p rovenienti d all'Oriente ( Ugas, L ai e U sai, i n s tampa). I i

n umero

s empre

c rescente

d ei

m anufatti

r invenuti

n ell 'isola,

p rodotti o c omunque i vi t rasferiti d ai M icenei, i nduce a r itenere e he g iä n el X V e n el X IV s ec. a .C. g li s cambi d i b eni c ommerciali f ra l e d ue r egioni d el M editerraneo s iano s tati a ffiancati d a a pporti c ulturali e stesi a nche a ll 'architettura, c ome g iä d a t empo h anno s ostenuto i l L illiu ( 1975:309) e i i C ontu ( 1979:160). I l f rammento d i s tatuetta e burnea d a M itza P ürdia d i D ecimoputzu ( Sanna 1 984:21s., 2 4, t ay. I I:1, 2 ; F errarese C eruti 1 985:247-250), r invenuto c on c eramica d el B ronzo m edio e d el B ronzo r ecente, e r iferibile a l X IV s ec. a .C., a l p iü t ardi a l X III. L e p erline i n p asta v itrea d a S an C osimo-Gonnosfanadiga ( Ugas 1 98 1:10, f ig . 1 6; 1 982 :180-185, t ay. L XVIII) s ono p ervenute n ell 'isola a ttraverso i i c ommercio c on l 'Egeo, c ome g li a naloghi e semplari i n f aience d a S alina d i P ortella e d a T hapsos, d atabili a l X IV s ec. a .C. ( Bernabö B rea 1 960:124, 1 33, t ay. 5 5; B ernabö B rea e C avalier 1 956:65, f ig . 4 2). I v aghi d i c ollana d alla t omba n uragica d i P erda

i n p asta v itrea e i n m etallo p rezioso ' e A ccuzzai d i V illa S an P ietro ( CA),

s imili a d a ltri r invenuti n eu e r egioni e gee, s ono a ttribuibili a gli i nizi d el B ronzo r ecente, c ioe a gli i nizi d el X III s ec. ( cortese i nformazione d ella D ott.ssa D onatella C occo). A ncora a l B ronzo R ecente a ppartengono a lcune c ollane c on p erline i n p asta v itrea s feriche s chiacciate, v ariegate, e a d ischetti v erdi, r invenute n el c orso d i u no s cavo i nedito, e seguito d alla S oprintendenza A rcheologica d i C agliari, n el 1 986: d a u na t omba c ollettiva n uragica, c on 2 89 i numati, s ita i n l ocalitä S u F raigu-San S perate, 1 6km a N ord d i C agliari ( fig. 5 .26:1), o ltre a lle c itate c ollane, e he t rovano p arziale r iscontro a L ipari i n a mbiti d ell'Ausonio I I - i niziale d ella n ecropoli d i P iazza M onfalcone ( Bernabö B rea e C avalier 1 979:71, f ig. 4 1:e), p rovengono f rammenti m inuti d i v asellame n uragico, u na b uona p arte d ei q uali d el t ipo g rigo-ardesia e u n s igillo c ilindrico i n o livina ( lungh. c m . 2 ,9) d i p roduzione v icino-orientale Q uesti

r eperti

( fig.

5 .26:3).

p resuppongono

r apporti

f ra

l a

S ardegna

e l 'Egeo

i n

t empi a nteriori e c oevi r ispetto a q uelli i n c ui l a c eramica c retese e p eloponnesiaca d el T E I IIB e d el T E I IIC g iunse n el c astello n uragico d i A ntigori d i S arroch ( Ferrarese C eruti 1 98 1:605ss., t avv. M :4, M :15; 1 982 :167ss,

t avv.

L XIII,

L XV).

A nche a ltri m otivi i nducono a d i potizzare u na s tretta r elazione

t ra

l a S ardegna e i l m ondo m iceneo i n t empi a nteriori a l B ronzo R ecente e F inale. L a c eramics m onocroma g rigia n uragica ( fig. 5 .27:3), e he n on p uö e ssere s eparata - c ome i l v asellame g rigio d ell'Italia M eridionale d ella c eramica " minia" m icenea ( Peroni, B ergonzi e C ardarelli 1 982:107, 13117), e g iä p resente, s ia p ure i n m isura m odesta, i n a mbiti n uragici d el B ronzo M edio ( es. S . C osimo-Gonnosfanadiga: U gas 1 98 1:11, f ig. 3 :5; 1 982:tay. L XII:2) e s i d iffonde a mpiamente n elle f asi d el B ronzo R ecente ( Ugas

1 98 1:11;

A ssorgia

1 982:39,

1 982:169-175,

t ay. t ay.

X XVII:74-78, L XII)

e d el 8 5

8 0-8 1; B ronzo

F errarese f inale,

c ome

C eruti

e

a vviene

n ell'Italia

Meridionale,

a P orto

P erone,

S atyrion

e a B roglio

d i

T rebisacce.

c oppa

A lcuni f ittili l ocali d i i mitazione m icenea, q uali d a C orti B eccia-Sanluri ( fig. 5 .27:1) ( Ugas

X XVII:82),

e he

r ichiama i t ipi F urumark 2 84 e 2 85

l a c itata c iotola d ipinta p recoce, s eppure s poradica,

i i f rammento d i 1 982a:4 1, t ay.

( Furumark

1 972:49),

e

d el v ano F 3 d i S u M ulinu, d enunciano u na p enetrazione d i m odelli c ulturali e gei a nche

i n z one o rmai i nterne d el r etroterra c agliaritano. O ggi

r iteniamo

a cquisito

u n

a ltro

r ilevante

d ato

a

s ostegno

d ell'esistenza d i r elazioni t ra l e d ue r egioni d el M editerraneo: l 'impiego d i c omuni v alori p onderali. L e u nitä d i p eso d i g r. 5 ,3/5,4 e d i g r. 6 3/65 ( fig. 5 .27:4), i ndividuate a ttraverso i c ampioni i n s teatite d i S antu B rai-Furtei, r iferibili a ll'Etä d el F erro, s ono q ui c ertamente d erivate d a u n s istema m etrologico r isalente a ll'Etä d el B ronzo ( Ugas 1 986:45-47; 1 985a). I l ingotti l ineare

A e B ,

s ardi e he

i n

b en

s i

r ame

" a

p elle

d el m etallo e d ei p esi d ue e lementi t empo r itenuti una v alida p rova d i p artire d al B ronzo R ecente ( Balmuth 1 982:116;

L o S chiavo 1 981:272-275;

Anche

a n on

v oler

d i

b ue"

c on

s igle

i nseriscono i n u n r apport°

i mitate

d i m ercato e he

d al f a

f ondamentali, s ono s tati g iä d a r elazioni d irette c on l ' Egeo a e T ylecote 1 976:198 s s; L illiu

1 986:240).

c onsiderare

i i

p roblematico

r iconoscimento

d ei

S ardi n egli S herden , u no d ei " Popoli d el M are" e he a ssalirono l 'Egitto e l e r egioni o rientali d el M editerraneo n egli u ltimi t re s ecoli d el I I M illennio a .C. ( Lilliu 1 982:11ss.; P ugliese C arratelli 1 981:XV), p rovenendo d all'Occidente ( Ugas 1 98 1:13: S herden=Iolei-Eraclidi?), n on c 'e d a s tupirsi s e d i r ecente E . C ontu ( 1981:72-73) h a p rospettato, n ell 'ambito d ell'architettura m onumentale, p ossibili i mprestiti d alle r egioni o ccidentali a q uelle o rientali d el M editerraneo, r ibaltando i i c onsueto

o rdine

n elle

d irettrici

d elle e sperienze

c ulturali a ll 'interno

d ella e stesa v ia d 'acqua. L a

d atazione

d elle

t holoi

d el

p rimo

i mpianto

d el

b astione

e d ella

c inta e sterna d ella f ortezza d i S u M ulinu a l X V-XIV s ec. f a c adere u no d ei d ubbi p iü s en is ull'esistenza d i m omenti, a lmeno p arziali, d i s incronia, t ra b e c operture a v olta n uragiche e q uelle m icenee. I nfatti

b e

m onumentali

t ombe

d el

" Tesoro

d i

A treo"

e

d i

C litennestra n on s ono p iü a ntiche d el X III s ec. a .C. C ostruite c on c onci i sodomi e sse v anno c orrelate c ronologicamente, p er a nalogia, c on l 'impianto d ells P orts d ei L eoni d i M icene e d ell° S teintor d i T irinto, a ttribuiti a l T E I IIB ( Mylonas 1 957:87s.; 1 966:16; M üller 1 930:209). A nzi l a s tessa d atazione a l 1 250 a .C. d ella P orta d ei L eoni, p roposta d al Mylonas e r ialzata d i q ualche d ecennio d all' Alin ( 1962:11s.), p otrebbe e ssere r ibassata a l T E I IIC ( fine d el X III s ec. o a gli i nizi d el X II), s ulla b ase d i u n f rammento f ittile i n " close s tyle ,", r invenuto n el l ivello i nferiore d el d eposit°, c ittadella d i M icene O ccorre

( Wace

c hiedersi

p resso i i m onumentale i ngresso d ella

1 949:89s.).

a q uesto

p unto

s e

n on

p ossa

p rospettarsi

u n

p iü

ampio p arallelismo c ronologico t ra b e r egioni e geo-elladiche e l a S ardegna p er l 'impianto d elle p rime t holoi e p er l o s viluppo d i a ltre f orme e t ecniche a rchitettoniche. I p rimi e sempi d i t ombe a t holos i n 8 6

A rgolide,

s uccessivi a ll'utilizzazione d el

d elle

t ombe

a c amera,

t empi

n on

( Levi

1 963:78),

a nteriori

1 957:98s.), ( Wace

r iportano

a l

X V

s ec.

c onsiderata

o ra

c retese

1 932:132).

a l a .C.

o ra

c ircolo

p i üp resto q ualunque

e giziana

( Evans

t ombale A d i M icene e

a gli

l a

( Persson

1 928:557),

i nizi

s ia

o ra

d el

T E

d iscussa

1 942:1655s.;

d el

c ontinente

I I,

M ylonas e lladico

A lle t ombe a t holos a rgoliche p i üa ntiche c on a pparato

r egolare d i p ietre ( lastre o e lementi p oligonali) p iuttosto p iccole, s ono r imaste l e c operture, p er c ui n on s appiamo s e q ueste f ossero m edesimo

t ipo

a

o rigine

d i

q uelle

a t aglio

o givale

d el

T esoro

d i

A treo.

n on d el

N eppure

d elle t ombe c ircolari c retesi d i P latanos e A pesokari p lanimetricamente p iuttosto d iverse d alle c lassiche t ombe a t holos, r iferite a l M edio M inoico ( intorno a l 2 000 a .C.), s i e c onservata l a c opertura ( Matz 1 951:13-22).

C erta

e i nvece

l a

v olta

a t holos

d elle

t ombe

d i

K ephala

( Hutchinson 1 956:74-80) e d i A rkhanes ( Sakellaris 1 967:276-8 1), n on l ontane d a C nossos, a ttribuite a l X V e X IV s ec. a .C. ( Hood 1 981:170), m a f orse d a

r iferire a l X III,

O ccorre

i noltre

a g iudicare d alla a vanzata t ecnica e dilizia.

c onsiderare

i i

c aso

e ccezionale

d ella

t omba

r eale

d i I sopata ( Evans 1 906), r iferita a l T M I II ( Hood 1 981:171) n ella q uale l a v olta s i i nnesta i n un v ano r ettangolare, a p areti r ettilinee: Q uesta s oluzione a rchitettonica s uggerisce c he

l a t holos c retese t ende a

c omparire, c ome s ul c ontinente, s uccessivamente a lle t ombe a c amera e n on p rima d el X V s ec. a .C. N on s i p ub, a q uesto p unto, n on r ichiamare l 'analogia

t ra

l a

t holos

d ella

t omba

a c amera

d i

I sopata

e q uella

d el

v ano F l d i S u M ulinu, p ure i nnestantesi s u p areti r ettilinee e a nch 'esso d a r iferire a u n m oment° p reparatorio d ella c upola d i t aglio o givale. M olto

s pesso

a rchitettura r eciproco g enerica d edicata, c iascuna i n c ui

t ipi

n uragica

s ulla

b ase

d elle

e

e

f orme,

d elle

f orme

area n ell'arco

v anno

i i

t ema,

r apporti

M inore s viluppi

c ompreso

t ra

t holos,

v isti

i n

o d i

d ell'

r apporto

u n 'indagine

a ttenzione

e

c ulturali

s tata

p ropri

i i X V e l ' XI

s ec.

d i

a .C.

f enomeno t holos.

c ertamente f ra

l a

s tati

l etterarie

a gli

c ronologico

s ottovalutati d i

s ono

t estimonianze

i n S ardegna s i m anifesta i i

N on

p articolare

a rchitettoniche.

n ell'affrontare

a ll'istituzione

i n

t ardo-elladica

d ue

g li

m ondi

o stacoli

c osi

e he

l ontani

s i

o ppongono

n ello

s pazio

e

d iversi p er f ondamenti c ulturali. M entre

n ei

c entri

m icenei

d omina

i i

p alazzo

d ell'acropoli

( Wace

1 949), n egli i nsediamenti n uragici l 'elemento n ucleare f ondamentale e ii c astello t urrito. N elle c ittadelle m icenee l a d ifesa s i c oncentra s oprattutto

s ulle

c inte

e sterne,

p iü e he

s ull 'edificio

p alatino.

C iö

e

p alese a d e sempio n elle m ura d i T irinto, s ia f l eh e p arti p i üa ntiche, a ttribuite a gli i nizi d el s ec. X IV, e he n ell'Unterburg d ella t erza f ase c ostruttiva, s ec.,

r iferito

a llorquando

e S chäfer P er

1 969:344-356; c ontro

a d

u n

m omento

S i a pprossimava

v a

S chnuchel

s ottolineata

l a

a vanzato f ine

d ei

d el

t erritoriali,

I IIB,

f ine

X III

( Grossman

1 980:15ss.). i nnanzitutto

l 'esistenza

t ela s trutturale s ocio-politica d elle d ue c iviltä. s ui d istretti

T E

p alazzi m icenei

d i

u na

p aren-

E ntrambe s ono f ondate

r ette d a s ovrani e he d imorano i n l uoghi

f or-

t ificati. P er i l t essuto p olitico i n e ta n uragica v ale q uanto d etto d al L illiu r iguardo a lla s truttura c antonale ( 1975:352ss.) e q uanto r iferito d a P ausania ( VII.2.2) e D iodoro ( IV.29; V .15) a p roposito d ell'esistenza d i u na d inastia m onarchica i olea-tespiade, p rima d ell'avvento d i u n s ist ema a ristocratic° i ndigeno

( Ugas e Z ucca 8 7

1 984:75,

n .

6 ).

V an i s ono g li a rgomenti p ortati d agli s tudiosi a f avore o c ontra l a r elazione t ra l e d ue e sperienze n ell 'arte d el c ostruire a ttraverso l 'esame

c omparato d i

f orme

e t ecniche

a rchitettoniche.

C ito

t ra

c oloro

e he h anno a ffrontato i i t ema c on v an i c ontributi: L illiu ( 1975:309), C ontu ( 1974:160), U gas ( 198 1), B almuth ( 1984), C avanagh e L axton ( 1984); L ewthwaite E ' p iante

( 1985).

s tata d ei

s pesso

t empli

r ichiamata

n uragici

C uccureddi-Esterzili

e l e

C ontu

( 1981:139),

l ' attenzione m egaron"

p lanimetrie

e s tata a ffrontata d a G . t empli s ardi c on i m egara E .

a

d i

d ei

s ulla

s omiglianza

S erra

O rrios-Dorgali,

t empli

m icenei.

f ra

l e d i

L a q uestione

L illiu ( 1975:309; 1 982:109), e he c onfronta i t ardo m icenei d i M icene, T irinto e P ylos e d a

e he

r ichiama

m odelli

d ell'Elladico

A ntico

e M edio

d i T roia I B , n onche g reci d el V II-VI s ec. a .C. D iversamente F . B arreca s ostiene u na p ossibile d erivazione d ell 'impianto " a m egaron" s ardo d all'architettura t emplare f enicia Uno l a

d egli

p orta.

p rospettato t ombe

" a

e lementi

I i

L illiu

u n

r apport°

t holos"

d i

( 1985:323).

a rchitettonici ( 1 975:309) f ra

l e

M icene

s pesso

e i i

f inestre

( in

r ichiamati

C antu d i

s carico

p articolare

a c onfronto

( 1 974:160)

d el

d egli

a vevano

i ngressi

" Tesoro

d i

e

g iä

d elle

A treo")

e

q uelle d elle p orte d ella t orre c entrale d el N uraghe S antu A ntine d i T orralba e d i a ltre f ortezze n uragiche. O ccorre aggiungere a lle o sservazioni t orrione c ortile,

g iä

f atte

e he

l a

f inestrella

d i

s carico

d ella

p orta

d el S antu A ntine a ppare c ome u n p iccolo r ettangolo, m a b en p i üa lta e d i f orma t rapezoidale t endente

t ronca s e o sservata d all'interno d ella d iscorso v a f atto p er l a f inestra e he

c amera ( fig. 5 .28:1). A nalogo s ovrasta l 'ingresso d ell 'atrio

d ell'edificio a bsidato d i M alchittu-Arzachena ( fig. C eruti 1 962a:11; L illiu 1 982:figg. 1 27-128), d ove s i " Tesoro

d i

A treo"

( fig.

5 .28 :3),

i l

d el

v ista d al a ll 'ogiva

c ondotto

( o

5 .28:2)(Ferrarese o sserva, c ome n el

c orridoio)

s opraelevato

r etrostante a lla f inestra d i s carico d ella p arte i nferiore, e p er q uella d ei t empli a p ozzo t ipo s u T empiesu-Orune ( Lilliu 1 982:figg. 1 88, 1 90; F adda 1 985:208). L a d elle

s omiglianza

t ombe

d i

p roporzioni, t aglio

B en f ormato v iste c on

d al

o givale

s quadrati,

d elle

M icene

d isegno e ,

p orte

e r esa

n ei

d ei

p ia

t empli

r ettangolare t empli

n uragici

e vidente,

p i

p ur

e s lanciato

ür ecenti,

c on

n ella

p iü

s uggestivo

d a d ue

p ilastri

muratura

s enza

d elle

c edimento

d all'impiego

p er

v ia

d ell'impianto

e d all'architrave,

e il

f ra

l e

d elle

a f ilari,

( Atzeni

1 967:13-15,

( Lilliu

1 982:figg.

t avv.

n esso,

c amere) q uali V II,

4 2 e 4 3;

d i I s

a lcune

p orte

" tombe

d i

d i

a l

c onci

C oncias-Quartucciu

I X,

x )

M oravetti

s omiglianza

d elle

s trutture

n uragiche

a ccentuata d alla s calinata d el p assaggio m assi p oligonali, e he r ammenta q uells d ei n uragici

p i üa ntichi,

t ipo

( fig.

e M uraguada-Bauladu

1 985:figg .

3 2 -3 4),

c on

l a

t rilitico,

( soprattutto

g iganti"

d ella P orta d ei L eoni ( fig. 5 .29:4) ( Wace 1 961:9, f igg. f onte " Perseia" d i M icene ( fig. 5 .29:5) ( Wace 1 961:fig.

a p ozzo

i ngressi

a ccuratamente s agomati.

d all'interno

L a

g li

d iversitä

d el

s e

t ipo

5 .29:12)

( fig.

5 .29:3)

e g li i ngressi

1 314-16) 1 320). f onte

e d ella

" Perseia"

e

c operto d i t aglio o givale, a c orridoi g radonati d ei t empli

S ant'Anastasia

d i S ardara

( Taramelli

1 918; U gas 1 984:134-136), F untana C oberta d i B allao ( Santoni 1 985). L a l unga s calinata ( 99 g radini) d ella c ostruzione m icenea r icorda i nfine i i t ortuoso

p assaggio

s otterraneo,

c on

d ue

8 8

r ampe

d i

4 6 gradini d el

t empio

i pogeico

d i

S a

G rutta d e

I s

C aombus-Morgongiori

( Lilliu

1 982:176,

f ig.

1 89) L a

datazione

d ei

c itati

e difici

m icenei

a l

X III

s ec.

a .C.

f a

p ensare a d u na c ontemporaneitä d i s viluppo d ell'impianto " trilitico" s ia i n G recia c he i n S ardegna. A nteriormente a ll'etä d el B ronzo R ecente n ell 'architettura

n uragica,

t rilitico,

e lementi

m a s olo

n on

e siste

p reparatori

a lcun

n ell'etä

n ell'ingresso d ella t omba m egalitica d i S .

e sempio

d el

d 'ingresso

B ronzo M edio,

C osimo-Gonnosfanadiga,

c ome

d ove

i

p ilastri s ottostanti a ll'architrave s ono p iuttosto b assi e t ozzi. L 'impianto t rilitico d egli e difici s ardi p i üa ntichi n eolitici ( dolmens) e c alcolitici

( corridoi

d olmenici)

e f ondato

n on

s u

p ilastri,

m a

s u

l astre ortostatiche. L 'idea d i una c ostruzione s u p ilastri g uida l 'artefice d ella P orta d el R e ( fig. 5 .29:6) e d i q uella d ei L eoni n elle m ura d i Hattusas ( Akurgal e H irmer 1 962:1 81, t avv. XVI, XVII:63). D iversamente a nnullarsi

p er ,

c ol

i n

q uest'ultima,

r estringersi

d ei

d ue

e a c omporre u n a rco o givale. a ttribuito a lla f ine d el X IV a nch 'esso

e ssere

l 'impiego d isegno s arde

d ei

r iferito

c onci

t rilitico, s i

s imile

o sserva,

m et.

c ome

d el

n ella

a q uello

i nvece,

X III

P orta

d ella

f onte

n ell'ingresso

I c orridoi v oltati a t aglio s pesso

m essi

i n

v erso

s ec.

d ei

t ende i l

r elazione

a .C.

L eoni

a d

c ulmine,

a l

c orridoio t ay.

c onsiderato

d i M icene.

" Perseia"

s tessa f ortezza i ttita ( Akurgal e H irmer 1 962:2,

s tati

t rilitico

l aterali

L 'ingresso m onumentale d i B uyükkale, s ec. a .C. ( Matz 1 963:222s.), p otrebbe

a lla

i sodomi,

l 'impianto

p ilastri

U n

e d elle

t ombe

c operto

d ella

7 2).

o givale d ell 'architettura n uragica s ono c on

l e

g allerie

d elle

c inte m urarie

d i

T irinto e M icene ( tra g li a ltri: L illiu 1 975:309). L a s omiglianza g iä r ilevata d al C ontu ( 1974:160) e a ccresciuta d alle l arghe f eritoie c he S i a prono

n elle

1 -5).

p areti

Occorre

r isposta v oltati

n on

d ella

r occa

c hiedersi

e s contata.

n elle

f ortezze

d i

T irinto

q ua re I nfatti

e lladiche

( Schnuchel

l 'origine n on

p i

d i

c onosciamo

üa ntiche

r egione s ec. u na

e lladica

a .C.,

c 'e

d a

m aturazione

( Lilliu

l e

D iversamente,

g allerie

v oltate

c hiedersi

a naloga

1 958:228s.,

s e

e sse

a q uella

f igg.

d ei

6 -7;

s i

M oravetti 1 985:132s., f ig. 3 8) e d elle M anca D emurtas e D emurtas 1 984:165ss.).

d i

L a

c orridoi T irinto

e

a mmettendo c he a nche n ella g iä

s iano

c orridoi

C ontu

q uelle

d i

r icerche, n e c onsegue n uragici n on p ossono

e sistessero n on

f igg.

analogie.

e sempi

d i

M icene. S e c iö n on e d ovuto a lla c arenza d elle c he i c orridoi a t aglio o givale d egli e difici d erivare d a p rototipi m icenei.

1 980:15ss.,

q ueste

n el

X V

e n el

X IV

s viluppate a ttraverso

d elle

t ombe

1 981:143s.;

m egalitiche

U gas

1 981:7s.;

f ortezze s arde ( Ugas 1 981:12; N egli e difici s ardi i c orridoi

a t aglio q uadrangolare e t rapezoidale s i e volvono v erso i t ipi a s ezione t ronco-ogivale, a o giva p iena g radonata e i nfine a o giva c ontinua. U na t appa i ntermedia d i q uesto p rocesso s i n ota n elle v olta c orsi

d i

gradini

M ulinu.

L a

r ovesci

s tessa

d ei

f ormula

c orridoi e i l

n ella

t aglio

p rima

a o giva

e ntrambe n ella c opertura d ella c itata t omba d i

p iena

i nizia

N ella n on

5 .29:2).

B en c orsi

c ollettiva

b ase,

m a

a d

d i

I s

o ltre

C oncias m eta

n uraghe

l a

i i

i l s econdo n ella

c urvatura

a ltezza

S u

r iscontrano

d ella

d ell'ogiva

p arete

( fig.

S imile d isegno d ell'aggetto s i n ota n ella g alleria d ella r occa

d i T irinto " Perseia"

t omba

d alla

d el s i

I s C oncias-Quartucciu:

p rimo n ella z ona i mmediatamente r etrostante l 'ingresso, c amera.

t ronco-ogivale a

f ase

( fig.

5 .30:2)

e n el

p assaggio

c operto

c he

c onduce

a lla f onte

d i M icene. d iverso

a p artire

e il d al

p rofilo

a o giva

p iena,

c on

p avimento,

c he

n ota

n elle

8 9

s i

a ggetto

c ontinuo

g allerie

d el

d ei

S antu

A ntine

( fig.

5 .30:1)

e n ei

c orridoi

d ' andito

s orprendente c he p er l a c ontinuitä d el d el

S antu

d ella

A ntine

c inta

9 ,

1 962:8 1s.,

e d el

L osa

" ciclopica" t ay.

d i

7 3),

Va

s ottolineato

p rospetto

i n

r ichiamino, H attusas

c ostruito

p receduto d a u n i ngresso

5 ;

t ipo

d i

d i

c amera

i sodomi,

s i

c he

c on

g iä

c on

l e

c upole

i n

m eta

n el

l a

t aglio

d i

d elle C ampu

p assaggio

m assi

v oltato e H irmer

p oligonali

e

t ombe

d i

X III

e c on

d i

o givale

v olta

a mbienti

o m eglio

o givale,

U garit

s ec.

c amere

i pogeiche

L ontanu-Florinas

c on

( Contu

2 6-28; M oravetti 1 985:165, f ig. ( Contu 1 978 :18s., t ay. V :1-2,

c onoscenza

c on

d el

m icenee

E-

l e

p orte

c he

n on p uö

ma

c ostruita

( Schaeffer

a .C.,

s e

c operti

a v olta

t ronco-ogivale. 1 939:tay.

e v alido

m onumentali

c on

I i

c onci

X VIII),

l 'accostamento

m icenee

e i ttite

a

s quadrati b en r ifiniti. A q uesto

d al

p alesa

a llungata

a lla

i i

5 .30:3)(Akurgal

i mpiego

c entinata d i

t endenzialmente

o sserva

a ttribuibili c onci

s i

t ipo

L osa.

" trilitico".

r ilievo a s tele

8 -10),

r ibassata

t orn i d el

i nvece,

( fig.

1 978:15s., f igg. 1 -4; L illiu 1 982:figg. 4 2) e , s oprattutto, d i M olafä-Sassari f igg.

d elle

t aglio o givale l e c itate g allerie

B ronzo

v an i

t ipi,

n uragico

p unto

m edio

v a d etto

e s oprattutto

f orme

e

e q uelli

n el

t ecniche

a ttestati

e ssere

B ronzo

c asuale

r ecente,

a rchitettonici

n el

m ondo

l e

c he,

a p artire

d ifferenze

d ocumentati

e lladico

e d

i n

e geo,

t ra

s iano

m eno

v istose d i q uelle c he e mergono d al c onfronto t ra l 'edilizia n uragica q uella d elle a ltre r egioni d el M editerraneo c entro-occidentale. S e c upola

s i d i

e sclude

l a

s ezione

S icilia,

o givale

n on

c onosciamo

c ontinua

a d

e st

a ltri

d ella

t holos e d ocumentata a p artire d al B ronzo m edio ( Bernabö B rea 1 958 :130; T usa 1 983:399, 4 06, f igg. i ndividuati

r ecentemente.

a ttraverso a rtistiche

i i

m ito

d i

L e

f onti

D edalo,

n ell'architettura

d all'Egeo

l a

I n

a l a

( Berard 1 963:404),

t rasmissione

a lla

c operti S icilia

e

i n i pogei s epolcrali 1 3, 1 8) e i n e difici

l etterarie a ntiche

i ndicano

e difici

G recia.

i

a mbito

d i

e sperienze

S ardegna p roprio

a ttraverso

l a S icilia. A lb os tato

d elle

c onoscenze

a ttuali

i n C orsica,

f l eh e B aleari

e i n

P antelleria n on p are s i a ttui u n 'evoluzione d alla c opertura p iattab andata o t ronco-ogivale o a nche a p ilastro c entrale a q uella a d o giva p iena

( Lilliu

8 7).

Q uesto

e S chubart f atto

a rchitettonico o ccidentale

i n

1 968;

L illiu

e s orprendente p articolare,

d urante

i l

d ato

l ega

c alcolitico

1 982:19; c he

t utte

f inale

u n l e

C ontu

1 981:72s.;

c omune

h umus

r egioni

e a gli

d el

i nizi

1 985:

c ulturale,

M editerraneo

d ella

p rima

e ta .

d el B ronzo, c ome s i e vince a nche d alla d iffusione d elle f ortezze c aratt erizzate d a c inte e b astioni p rovvisti d i t orn i c ircolari s porgenti e d i c ortine ( Los

i n P ortogallo

Millares:

( Lebous: a mbiti

C anet e gei

( Zambujal:

A rribas, e R oudil

( Contu

1 978),

c he

n on

s i

( Voza

S angmeister e S chubart

e t

c he

1 981:72s.;

S icilia a P etraro-Melilli A meno

Molina

a lii

1 979),

t rovano

L ewthwaite

1 98 1),

S pagna

F rancia m eridionale

s ignificativi 1 985:19-33),

r iscontri o ltre

c he

i n i n

1 968).

a bbassi

a l

Bronzo

m edio

l a

cronologia

d elle

c itate f ortificazioni e xtrainsulari o n on s i r etroceda l a n ascita d elle p rime t orn i n uragiche a l c alcolitico f inale e a l p rimo B ronzo, n on e p roponibile q uello

d elle

p ensare a d ue

u no

s viluppo

d elle

f ortificazioni

f ortezze

i beriche

e

n uragiche f rancesi

f iloni d ell 'architettura m ilitare

m ente e t ipologicamente d ifferenti.

9 0

i n

s incronia

c osicche

c on

d obbiamo

o ccidentale c ronologica-

P er q uanto f avore

d ella

e q uella d el

I I

d elle

c inte

r egioni

a .C.

l 'attuale

s tretto d el

s tato

l egame

t ra

M editerraneo

I nfatti,

n onostante

d egli

s tudi

d i

i mpianti

G uspini

d ifensivi

( Cagliari),

s ulla

e xtrainsulari

n on v a

a

l 'architettura n uragica

o ccidentale

l 'ipotesi

n ella

d i

b ase

d i

( Lilliu

d i

c ome q uells

c onvergenze

1 962),

2 m eta

d atazione

t urrite p rotosarde a lla c ultura d i M onte C laro,

S 'Aurrecci

c on

s orprendere,

a ltre

M illennio

a lcune d i

p ossa

p roposta d i u no

f ormali

s inora

n on

e

a ttestato a lcun e sempio p ia a ntico d el B ronzo m edio d i c inta f ortificata n uragica c on t racciato d i

t orn i s porgenti s ulle

L 'ingresso f uori a sse s ulla c amera e i i v olte n elle

t orn i d el n uraghe

S 'Aurrecci

c ortine.

t aglio

d i

t ronco-ogivale d elle

G uspini,

c ostruito

i n v an e

f asi, s imile a q uello d elle t orricelle d i S u M ulinu, m a p iü e voluto, p resuppone u na d atazione d ella f ase p i üa ntica a l B ronzo M edio F inale B ronzo R ecente i niziale. Peraltro l e r ovine v isibili a ll'interno d ella c inta d el S 'Aurrecci i ndicano l 'esistenza d i u n b astione. E sternamente, n ei p ressi d elle c ortine, r ecente

s ono

s tati

a ll'etä

p ertinente f ortezza

a l

r accolti

d el

f rammenti

F erro.

t errazzo

I c onci

f anno

r itenere

f osse d otata d i u n b astione

F inora

i c osidetti

d i

c eramica

i sodomi c he

d atabile

e u na

d urante

m ensola 1 1

d al d i

B ronzo

B ronzo

t rachite

R ecente

l a

t urrito.

p rotonuraghi

o n uraghi

a

c orridoio

n on

s ono

s tati c orrelati c on c inte m urarie e sterne p rovviste d i t orn . L a c inta a ntemurale e i nvece d ocumentata g iä n el p rimo i mpianto d i S u M ulinu, d ove p are

s i

s viluppi a ttorno

a l

n ei n uraghi p olilobati c lassici, un u nicum e n on h a p recedenti i beriche L e e ssere t inui

b astione n on i n m odo b ensi r adiale. n eppure neu e

c oncentrico,

c ome

C i r appresenta f inora f ortezze c alcolitiche

e f rancesi. r elazioni

d erivate

t ra

d a

c ollegamenti

l 'architettura

u n

p rocesso

t ra

l e

d ue

n uragica

c ulturale a ree

e q uella m icenea,

m aturato

a p artire

i n

d al

u n

p ossono

c lima

B ronzo

d i

m edio

c on-

c he

h a

d ato l uogo a p restiti e d i nflussi n on s empre n ecessariamente i n t ransito d a O riente v erso O ccidente. m edio

c ircolano

i n

S e e i nfatti p alese c he a p artire d al B ronzo

S ardegna

m icenea,

e a ltrettanto

p rodotti

s ardi.

v ero

m anufatti c he

d i

i M icenei

N ella d inamica d elle

p roduzione d ebbono

t ransazioni

o d i

a vere

i mportazione

a vuto

i n c ambio

p ossono a vere a vuto u n

r uolo anche g li s cambi d i e sperienze artigiane e artistiche, c ome i nsegna i i m ito d i D edalo, t ra l e q uali a nche i mpre- s titi r eciproci n el c ampo d ell'architettura c ol t rasferimento d i m aestranze s pecializzate. A l r iguardo n on v a t rascurato i i f atto c he, s econdo l a l eggenda, l a c ostruzione

d elle

m ura

p elasgiche

d i

A tene

s i

a ttribuisca

a i

T irreni

(H 6rard 1 963:465), c he P roitos s i s ervisse d i a rchitetti d ella L icia p er c ostruire l e m ura c iclopiche d i T irinto, e c he P erseo f acesse i nnalzare d ai C iclopi Pur

l e m ura d i M icene

n on

s posando

i n

( Brillante

t oto

l a

1 981:110s.).

t eoria

d iffusionista

s piragli a lla c reativitä p ropria d i o gni s ingola c ultura, t holos

e l a

g alleria

p ozzo

g radonato

u nica

t emperie

e l a

c operta s tessa

" artistica",

d i

t aglio

o givale,

a rchitettura s orta,

l a

c iclopica,

s viluppatasi

s enza

l asciare

r itengo c he

l a

p orta t rilitica,

i i

s iano

f igli

e s pentasi n ella

d i

u na

2 m etä

d el 2° M illennio, a ttraverso r eciproci c ontributi d alle v an e r egioni n el M editerraneo, a lla s tessa s tregua d ella m oda d ell'arco a t utto s esto n ell 'architettura

r omanica

o

d i

q uella

n ell 'architettura g otica. 9 1

s uccessiva

d ell 'arco

a cuto

V a f atta, M entre

i n

c operti

p erö,

u na c onsiderazione,

S ardegna

c on

v olta

i s ingoli ad

o giva,

s istema c ontestuale d i e t ombe;

t ecnica

am io a vviso,

e lementi p orte

a t rilite)

e i sodoma),

( tholoi,

s i

f orme e t ecniche e dilizie

" ciclopica"

n on t rascurabile.

s trutturali

c orridoi

inseriscono

i n u n

( fortificazioni,

o mogeneo,

a rmonico

t empli

e p erdurato

a l ungo; n ell'architettura m icenea l e s tesse c omponenti s trutturali s ono i nserite i n s istemi d isorganici e , a lmeno a ll'apparenza, " occasionali". C iö i ndurrebbe a p ensare c he u na s erie d i e sperienze n ell 'arte d el c ostruire

i n

m odo

c onduce v erso P ertanto, s oluzione

d i

c onoscenza

d i

v oltato

a nche u n

a bbia

s ia

m ancano

p roblemi

c hiaro p orta

propenderei

n uragiche

s e

a lcun

e d ella

C reta,

" ciclopico"

p ercorso

l a

s trada

e he

d al

T irreno

l 'Egeo.

p rocesso

e e he

a ltre

v oltato

e l 'impianto

d a

f orme

i mportanti

p rospettati,

f ormativo

f inestrata

a c redere

s caturita

m icenea

e lementi

q ui

s ia

e he

i n

l a

d ella

S ardegna

t rilitico

d elle

e he

i n

p orte,

i n

l a l a

c orridoio

E llade

e i n

d elle

t orni

d ell'architettura

p articolare

a bbiano

l uogo

d el

a ogiva

e sperienze

a rchitettoniche,

d efinire

prim°

t holos,

c opertura

p reesistenti

p er

i n

i i

c orridoio

p ercorso i i

c ammino

i nverso. L e e videnti d ifferenze s trutturali e ssere

a ltrimenti,

d i

p ertinenza.

d i

q uelle

m etodo

e he

f atto

r imarcata

a nalisi

a ddebitata t ettonico

d al

p iü

e he

c ui

i ntercorre

l e

d i

s i

e L axton

q uello

d iversa

l 'elemento

t holoi

d erivano,

e sse

d el

t holoi

( 1984),

G iarrizzo

f unzione

t holos.

nuragiche

e n on

n el

n uragiche e

a ttraverso

u n

( 1923:46),

v a

s istema

P eraltro

e quelle

l a

micenee

n ega

c retesi. n on

s olo

e ssendo

l 'interdipendenza

L a

t holos

p erch ef a i nserita

d el

v ano

p arte

i n

u n

d i

t ra F 1

u na

v ano

l e

d i

t ombe

S u

s truttura

d ella

a v olts

M ulinu

n on

c ortina

e lladiche

e d ecisamente

" arcaica", e n on

g iä

m a

e p iü

c retesi E ppure, e q uelle

r ibassata,

a nche

i n u na

a rchi-

d ifferenza

s ensibile d i q uella r iscontrata t ra q ueste u ltime e l e t holoi c on l astra d i c hiusura t erminale ( Cavanagh e L axton 1 985:421). n essuno

p oteva

a datta a l c ontest°

r apport° h /r d elle

C avanagh

a lla

e i nserito t ra

n el

d a

t ra l e s ingole c omponenti

e m icena

c iascuna d i

a vanzato

p rincipalmente i n

r iscontrano

s arda

L a d ivergenza

m icenee

d i

e he s i

d ell'architettura

p erch ,

t orre,

n on

d eve r aggiungere u n 'altezza e levata. I nvece n eu e t orn , p er f ar f ronte a lle e sigenze d ifensive, l a t holos t ende a d a ccentuare l a propria v erticalitä e a s vilupparsi i n a ltezza. E- u n f enomeno a nalog ( ) a q uell° e he s i v erifica q uando d all'arco a t utto s esto d ello s tile r omanico s i p assa a ll'arco a cuto d ella m oda g otica p er v erticalizzare e s lanciare l e s trutture.

N on e u n

c aso

e he

i i

L illiu

n uragiche p arli d i a rte g otica a nte A ll'architetto s cenografico v erticalitä. c erimonie, b astioni s caturiti

d el

T esoro

d ella s pazialitä I i m irabile

e c omparabile, d el

S antu

d a

d isegni

d i

A treo

( lungh.

e dificio

( 1975)

a p roposito d elle

t holoi

l itteram.

d ella

i pogeico

i nteressava c amera m .

p iü

1 4,50)

e n on a ereo,

l 'effetto e he

n on l a

d estinato

a lle

s ul p iano d ella e voluzione p erizia t ecnica,

A ntine

d i

o rganici

T orralba d i

e d el

a rchitetti,

S u

N uraxi

f ormatisi

d i

a u na

a i

B arumini, s cuola

d i

l unga e sperienza. R elativamente r imarcato m onumenti

a lle

t ecniche

i mpiegate

n eu e

c ostruzioni,

v a

e he l 'uso d ei c onci i sodomi e c onnesso p revalentemente c on d i c arattere r eligioso o f unerario, s ia i n S ardegna ( templi a

p ozzo

e t ombe

t ombe

a t holos m icenee

d i

g iganti)

e he

n el

e i t empli

m ondo m iceneo

( tombe

a p ozzo n uragici 9 2

a t holos).

L e

n on s olo m ostrano u n

a nalogo m a

i mpianto

a nche

i conografico

u n 'identica

r ettangolare e ntrambi

e f inestra d i

i c asi

s opportare p esi N elle

l a

( atrio

s oluzioe

s carico

c amera

c on

s oprastanti

r ettangolare

d el

p rospetto

n ell'atrio;

v olta

( Contu

e c amera e

t holos

o givale

c ircolare),

d ell'alzato: n ella

p orta

c amera.

e i nterrata

e n on

I n d eve

1 981).

f ortificazioni n uragiche,

m icenee e d a natoliche d ei s ecoli X V

e X IV, l ' apparecchiatura d elle m ura e p revalentemente p oligonale. L e m ura c iclopiche d i T irinto e d i M icene s ono r iferite r ispettivamente a gli i nizi e a lla m etä d el X IV s ec. a .C. ( Mylonas r ecchio murario a c onci i sodomi, o a m assi s quadrati s ec.

X III,

e r iservato

e sclusivamente

a lle

p arti

1 966:16). L 'appaa ccuratamente d el

m urarie

" nobili"

s ia

n ell'architettura n uragica, q uale a d e sempio g li a rchitravi d elle p orte, p iani s uperiori e i c oronamenti d ei t errazzi n el S u N uraxi d i B arumini ( Lilliu 1 955; C ontu 1 981:6, f ig. 9 ), s ia i n q uella m icenea, c ome n egli i ngressi d ella P orta N ord e d ella " Porta d ei L eoni" e n ei r ivestimenti m urari t ipo a shlar m asonry n el t ratto s ettentrionale d el m uro O vest d i M icene,

r iferite

I IIB a vanzato

d al M ylonas

( met äd el X III

C onsiderati l 'ipotesi

d i

r egioni,

t anto

t ali

u no

c he

c oevo

t errazzi d i

c ol

d el

p rimo

r ecente

i mpianto

i ntervento

d i

c ronologici,

d i

i c onci

q uadrilobato e d ei

e d all 'Alin

( 1962:11s.)

a l

T E

o p oco p rima).

r iferimenti

s viluppo p iü

( 1966:19s.) s ec.

q uesta

i sodomi

n on

t ecnica d elle

e

i mprobabile

e dilizia

c amere

n elle

d ue

s uperiori

d el

S u N uraxi d i B arumini v anno c orrelati g iä

q uadrilobato r estauro

a nteriore

e ffettuato

a l

r ifascio.

s ulle

I nfatti,

t orn i e s ulle

u n

c ortine

d el q uadrilobato h a c onsentito d i i ndividuare, a ncora i n s itu, i c onci i sodomi d el t errazzo ( fig. 5 .31) p reesistente a l r ifascio d el b astione, a s ua

v olta

c eramics

n on

p iü

r ecente

r invenuta n elle

d el

I X-VIII

c ellette

s ec.

s uperiori

a .C.

( Ugas

1 986a).

D alla

( sili)

d elle

t orn i E ,

C ,

D ,

c ostruite a c onci r egolari i n c alcare, a ppare c hiaro c he l a t ecnica a c onci i sodomi c ompare a B arumini a lmeno a i t empi d el B ronzo f inale ( XII-X s ec. Anche s agomati

I n

s e n on p rima.

v an e

( es.

c iviltä a ntichi

a .C.)

t ombe

d i

g iganti

B iristeddi-Dorgali),

nuragica,

o ra

( Bronzo f inale, c onclusione

s ono

F ase I II

c on

c onci

a ttribuite

r iportate

e sistono

a rchitettonici s ardi e voluzione s pecifica

c ostruite g iä

a ccuratamente

a f asi

f inali

c ronologicamente

1 200-900 a .C.:

d ifferenze

L illiu

d ella

a t empi

p iü

1 982:97).

s ostanziali

t ra

i c ontesti

e q uelli d ella r egione e lladica d eterminate d alla e a utonoma d elle r ispettive c ulture. L a s ocietä

p alatina m icenea e ra d iversa s ul p iano s trutturale d a q uella n uragica. I l c he t uttavia n on b asta p er n egare l a p ossibilitä d i r eciproche i nterferenze. N el n uraghe A ntigori p erviene l a c eramica m icenea, m a t roviamo e vidente

i l c astello t urrito e n on g i i i p alazzo d i t ipo m iceneo. E ' c he l 'architettura m icenea n on s ovrasta n e s travolge q uella

n uragica,

m a

p uö

a verla

a rricchita

e a s ua

v olta

p uö

e sserne

s tata

i nfluenzata. I n u na s truttura s ocioeconomica i n c ui i i c astello h a u na f unzione b asilare p er u n p eriodo d i t empo c onsiderevolmente l ungo, e p robabile

c he

p lasmarsi

e d i

o riginali.

s vilupparsi

T uttavia,

a d ifferenza n uragica

l 'architettura f ortificatoria n uragica a bbia a vuto m odo d i

d elle

e splode

a ltre n ella

M illennio.

C ia

l e

e sperienze,

a ntiche

n el

c orso

d ei

c ome g ia o sservato, a rchitetture 2 met

s ignifica m a

c he

s viluppo

i nflussi 9 3

a nche

m egalitiche

äe s oprattutto

a t ale

a nche

s ecoli

c on

c ontributi

n onostante l e p remesse c omuni, o ccidentali,

n el

3° q uarto

p ossono

e sterni.

a ver U na

q uella d el

I I

c ontribuito

s ocietä

c osi

t emprata d ei

d al

s uo

s ecoli,

e ssere

n on

" isola",

p u. ö a vere

q uale

e q uella

a ccettato

l e

s arda,

e sperienze

i i

c orso

d 'oltremare

l ungo

s enza

a verle a dattate a lle p roprie e sigenze e conomiche e s ociali. R ingraziamenti L e c on

c ampagne

d i

f inanziamenti

s ensi

d ella

s cavo

n el

n uraghe

d ell'Assessorato

L .R.

1 0/1965),

a l

S u

M ulinu

s ono

s tate

L avoro d ella R egione

i ntegrati

c on

u n

r ealizzate

S ardegna

s upport°

f inanziario

c ompianto

p rof.

( al d el

c omune d i V illanovafranca. E '

d overoso

B arreca

r ivolgere

p er a vermi

i i m io

a ffidato

l a

p ensiero a l

d irezione

d ello

s cavo

d i

F erruccio

S u M ulinu,

r eso

n ecessario p er f renare g li i nterventi a busivi e p er c reare l e p remesse p er i l r estauro d ella f ortezza, i n s pecie d el b astione e d elle c ortine s ettentrionali. z ione

p er

l a

M i

c ura

e d ' obbligo

c itare

e v alorizzazion

l a

d el

g rande

s ensibilite

p atrimonio

e a tten-

a rcheologico m ostrate

d ell'Amministrazione c omunale e i n p articolare d el s indaco d i V illanovaf ranca, g rande

s ignor

S alvatore

i mpegno

p rofuso

l a d irezione d el g eom. A rcheologica P ilia, d ei

r eperti

a lla u n

p er

i i

l a

M iriam

L e

n ella

L e

s tampe

S oprintendenza

s cavo

r iprese s ono

n onch

d i

i l

S u

e i i

s tate

Archeologica

M ulinu

e siguite d i

n el

C agliari

p er

s cavo

d isegnatore g rafica

i l

s otto

L uciano

e f otografica

r ingraziamento v a r ivolto

p remuroso

f otografiche

l o

i c omponenti d ella " Societä

d ocumentazione p er

s entitamente

e ffettuato

I nfine u n s entito

B almuth

d ello

a ncora

c he h anno

V illanovafranca,

e d el m onument°.

2 2-24.IX.1 986. s crive.

d i

c ollaborazione

r esoconto

R ingrazio

o perai

C laudio P orta,

C occio"

p rofessoressa

p rimo

C ortis.

d agli

a l

s ono

i nvito

a p resentare

c olloquio s tate

g abinetto ( Roberto

d i

R oma

e seguite

d a

f otografico S essi

e

d el c hi

d ella

L eonardo

C orpino). L e f oto d elle f igure 2 8, 2 9, 3 0 s ono r iprodotte d ai l avori d i C . Z ervos, C ivilisation d e l a S ardaigne, 1 954; E . A kurgal-M. H irmer, 1 962; 1 982;

E . P .

A tzeni,

1 962;

D emargne,

F .

M atz,

A rte e gea,

1 963;

M .S.F.

H ood,

1 961;

G .

L illiu,

M ilano 1 964.

B IBLIOGRAFIA

A KURGAL,

E .

1 962 A LIN,

& M .

H IRMER

L 'arte d egli I ttiti

P . 1 962

D as

Ende

d er

( Die K unst d er H ethieter).

m ykenischen

F undstätten

a uf

d em

F irenze.

F estland

=

S IMA I . A RRIBAS,

A .,

1 979

F .

M OLINA E T A LII

Excavaciones

e n

L os

M illares

( Santa

F e,

A lmeria.

C uadernos d e P rehistoria d e l a u niversidad d e G ranada I V. A TZENI,

E .

1 962

I v illaggi 0 11adiri

f acies d i M . 1 966

L 'abri

p reistorici

d i

S .

G emiliano

d i M onastir p resso C agliari

s ous

C laro. r oche D '

d i

e l e

S estu

e d i

c eramiche

M .

d ella

S tSar 1 5-17(1959-61). d u v illage p rehistorique

( Sollacaro-Corse). 9 4

d e F ilitosa

1 967

I l d olmens V III:4,

B ALMUTH,

" Sa C oveccada u d i M ores.

I X,

S tSar 2 0 :13-15,

t avv.

X .

M .S.

1 984

T he N uraghi o f S ardinia:

.F. T YLECOTE B ALMUTH, M .S. & R A ncient C opper a nd B ronze i n S ardinia. 1 976 B ARRECA,

S SA:23-52.

A n I ntroduction.

J FA 3 :2,

1 95-201.

F .

1 985

S ardegna

n uragica

e

m ondo

f enicio-punico.

S ardegna

p reistorica:308-328. B ERARD,

J . L a M agna G recia.

1 963

M eridionale. B ERNABO

B REA,

S toria d elle

L .

1 960

L a S icilia p rima d ei G reci.

1 978

E olie, S icilia 1 976-77.

B ERNABO - B REA, 1 956

c olonie g reche d ell'Italia

R oma.

L .

& M .

e Malta

M ilano.

n ell'etä

d el

B ronzo.

K okalos

C AVALIER

C iviltä p reistoriche d elle I sole E olie e d el t erritorio d i M ilazzo.

1 979

I l

B PI 6 5.

C astello

d i

L ipari

e i i

m useo

a rcheologico

e oliano.

P alermo. B ERNARDINI, 1 985

P .

& C . T RONCHETTI L a S ardegna, g li

E truschi

i

G reci.

S ardegna

p reistorica:285-307. B RILLANTE, 1 98 1

C . L a l eggenda e roica e l a c iviltä m icenea.

C ANET, H . & J .L. R OUDIL 1 978 L e v illage c halcolithique d e C ambous ( Herault). G allia P rehistoire 2 1. C AVANAGH, 1 985

C ONTU, E . 1 974 1 978

W .G.

& R .R.

R oma .

ä

V ials-en-Laval

L AXTON

C orbelled v aulting i n M ycenaean t holos t ombs a nd S ardinian N uraghi. B AR S 245:413-433 - P apers i n I talian A rchaeology I V, C . M alone a nd S . S toddart e ds.

L a S ardegna d ell 'etä n uragica.

P CIA I II.

I i

n eu e

s ignificato

d ella

s tele

t ombe

d i

g iganti.

Q uaderni 8 . 1 979

C eramica s arda d i

e t än uragica a L ipari.

I V. 1 981

L 'architettura n uragica.

9 5

I chnussa:5-178.

M eligunis L i _para

1 985 E VANS,

I i n uraghe.

S ardegna p reistorica:45-110.

A .

1 906

T he Prehistoric T ombs o f K nossos.

1 928

T he P alace o f M inos a t K nossos I I.

F ADDA,

L ondon. L ondon.

M .L.

1 985

T empio

a p ozzo

d i

S u

T empiesu-Orune

( Nuoro).

S ardeena

p reistorica. F ERRARESE C ERUTI,

M .L.

1 962

N ota p reliminare a lla I e I I c ampagna d i s cavo n el n uraghe A lbucciu. R SP 1 7.

1 962a

U n s ingolare m onumento M alchittu). P adova.

d ella

D ocumenti

n ella

S ardegna

m eridionale.

m ondo

m iceneo.

S ardegna

1 98 1

m icenei

G allura

t em2ietto

d i

I chnussa:

6 05-612. 1 985

L a

S ardegna

e i l

p reistorica:

2 45-254. F ERRARESE C ERUTI, 1 982

M .L.

F RONTISI D UCROUX,

1 975

A SSORGIA d i

A ntigori.

M GMM.

N uovi

F .

D edale.

M ythologie

P aris. F URUMARK,

& R .

I l c omplesso n uragico D ocumenti. N apoli.

d e

l ' artisan

e n

Grace

a ncienne.

E dition M aspero.

A .

1 972

Mycenaean

P ottery

S tockholm, G IARRIZZO,

I ,

Analysis

a nd

C lassification.

o riginally i ssued i n 1 941.

F .

1 923

S ulla

t ecnica

c ostruttiva

d egli

e difizi

n uragici.

B PI

4 3(1):46-57. G ROSSMAN,

P .

1 969 G UILAINE,

& J .

S CHAEFER

T iryns

1 968 u nd

L 'age

d i

J .

1 972

Ariege. H OOD,

A AA 3 .

1 969.

b ronze

e n

L anguedoc

O ccidental,

S . 1 961

L 'alba d ella c iviltä.

M ilano.

1 981

L a c iviltä d i C reta.

R oma.

H UTCHINSON, 1 956

R .W. A t holos

R oussilon,

M emoires d e l a S ociete P rehistorique f rangaise.

t omb o n t he K ephala.

9 6

B SA 5 1.

L EWTHWAITE,

J .

1 98 1-82

L a c ulture d es C astelli d e l a C orse: d ernier g enre d e v ie O uest-Mediterraneen d 'autrefois? C orse,

1 985

E tudes e t m emoires 6 -7.

C olonialism a nd n uraghismus. I talian A rchaeology S toddart e ds..

L ILLIU,

I V,

B AR S 245:220-251 P art

i i.

C .

- P apers i n

M alone

a nd

S .

G .

1 955

I i n uraghe 1 2-13(1).

d i

1 962

I n uraghi,

t orn i p reistoriche d ella S ardegna.

1 975

L a C iviltä d el S ardi.

1 982

C iviltä n uragica.

1 984

L ILLIU,

t emoin d 'un A rcheologia

G .

e l a s tratigrafia n uragica.

V erona.

T orino.

B arumini

( Cagliari). d al

L oc.

P aleolitico

S erras a ll'etä

S u

N uraxi.

r omana,

I S ardi:

E .

A nati

L a e d.

S CHUBART

C iviltä M editerranee.

L O S CHIAVO, 1 98 1

S tSar

S assari.

S ardegna & H .

1 968

B arumini

M ilano.

F . E conomia

e

S ocietä

n ell'etä

d ei

n uraghi.

I chnussa:

2 55-350. 1 986

S ardinian M etallurgy:

T he A rchaeological B ackground.

S SA

1 1:231-250. M ANCA D EMURTAS, 1 984

M ASTINO, A . 1 980 M ATZ,

L .

& S .

D EMURTAS

O bservaciones s obre l os p rotosnuraghes T rabajos d e P rehistoria 4 1:165-185.

L a v oce d egli a ntichi.

N UR.

F . 1 951

F orschungen a uf C reta.

M ainz.

1 963

C reta e l a G recia p reistorica.

M ELONI,

d e

C erde l la.

M ilano.

P .

1 945

G il

M ONTEAGUDO,

D ie B eile a uf d er I berischen H albinsel.

M ORAVETTI, 1 985

1 930

S tSar 6 .

L .

1 977

M UELLER,

I olei e i i m ito d i I olao i n S ardegna.

M ünchen.

A . L e t ombe 1 32-180.

e l 'ideologia

K . T iryns I II.

A ugsburg.

9 7

f uneraria.

S ardegna

p reistorica:

M YLONAS, G .E. 1 957 A ncient M ycenae. 1 966

T he C apital C ity o f A gamemnon .

M ycenae a nd t he M ycenaean A ge.

P rinceton .

P AIS, E .

•

1 879-80

I i s ardanion g elos. R eale A ccademia d ei L incei.

1 88 1

S ardegna p rimo d el d ominio r omano.

P ALLOTTINO,

A tlantide.

P ERONI, R ., 1 982

C .

A rchC1 4 .

B ERGONZI & A . C ARDARELLI L a C alabria. B roglio d i N uovi D ocumenti. N apoli.

P ERSSON , A .W. 1 942 N ew T ombs a t D endra, P INZA, G . 1 90 1

T rebisacce

n ear M idea.

1 98 1

E . & H . S CHUBART Z ambujal. D ie G rabungen.

S ANNA, R . 1 984

M onAnt 1.

I chnussa:XIII-XX.

T .A. M inoan C emeteries a t A rkhanes.

S ANGMEISTER, 1 98 1

M GMM .

G .

I ntroduzione.

S AKELLARIS, 1 976

( Cosenza).

L und.

M onumenti p rimitivi d ella S ardegna.

P UGLIESE C ARRATELLI,

A rchaeology 2 0.

M ainz.

M ateriali n uragici. L ocalitä M itza P ürdia-Decimoputzu. A A.VV. V illaspeciosa. C ensimento a rcheologico d el t erritorio. V .

1 985

I t empli d i e t än uragica.

S CHAEFFER, 1 939

C .F.A. U a ritica I .

S CHNUCHEL ,

W .

1 980

T ALOCCHINI, 1 963

T ARAMELLI, 1 9 18

R oma.

M .

1 952

S ANTONI,

L ondon .

S ardegna p reistorica:18 1-208 .

P aris.

B eobachtungen a n d er U nterburgmauer i n T iryns. B ericht U berdie 3 1. T agung f ür A usgrabungswissenschaft u nd B auforschung 1 4-18(V). O snabrück. M . L a c ittä e l a n ecropoli s cavi. S tEtr 3 1.

d i

V etulonia

s econdo

i n uovi

A . I l t empi° n uragico d i S ant'Anastasia.

9 8

M onAnt 2 5:5130.

1 922

S erri.

1 931

N uovi

c hiesa

d i

G iara.

N Sc.

Nuove

S .

s cavi M aria

r icerche

n el

n el

s antuario

d ella

V ittoria

s antuario

d i

n uragico

presso

s ull'altopiano

S anta

V ittoria

d i

l a

d ella

S erri.

M onAnt 3 4:1-122. T USA ,

S . 1 983

U GAS,

L a S icilia n ella preistoria.

P alermo.

G . 1 980

C astello n uragico d i s chema t riolobato e f igura i n r ilievo s u a ltare d al S inis d i C abras

1 981

L a

t omba

m egalitica

m onument° d el

I S an

1 981a

N otiziario.

1 982

S an

s .v.

C orti n el

1 984

c on

A rgiddas.

I l

n uraghe

p roduzione e

f ra

I r apporti d i a lla e trusco,

i n

Interventi a spetti

A A.VV.

R icerche

L a

N ote

C onvegno

U n

e i P aesi

d el

1e d ic.

d al

s ull'apporto M illennio

C onsiderazioni

i ndagini

I I

d i

M editerraneo.

1 985.

e S ardi.

n uove d el

S ardegna

C ongresso

a

S antu

I nternazionale

3 0.X.1985.

r estauro

A tti s tatici

S ardi:

t ra E truschi

A tti

d i

I

2 9-30 n ov.,

d elle

F irenze,

B arumini.

( b)

N uovi

A nati e d.

n uragica.

S ardegna

s cambio

l uce

E .

A tti

l a

B rai-Furtei.

s tampa

M GMM.

e i r eperti.

I

m ateriale

g reco.

S elargius-Cagliari,

( a)

A S I I.

( Cagliari).

S ant'Anastasia.

r elazioni

i n

u n

t erritorio d i S anluri.

e trusco

s tampa

G onnosfanadiga:

p iü a ntica a ttestazione

N apoli.

B eccia.

S ardara,

L a

d i

I .

A S I I.

P aleolitico a ll'Eta R omana, 1 986

l a

A S

N otizia p reliminare.

C osimo-Gonnosfandiga

D ocumenti. 1 982a

C osimo

B ronzo m edio

m icenea i n S ardegna.

( Oristano).

n ella

C onvegno

f ortezza

d ella

e funzionali

" Su

t utela

d el

Nuraxi"

a mbientale

r estauro.

d i e d

C agliari

1 3-14.XI.1986. i n

N ota

s tampa ( c)

s ulla

m etallurgia

C atalogo M ostra t riennale L 'uomo e l e m iniere i n

d el

p iombo

" Il l uogo S ardegna,

e

d ell'argento.

d el l avoro". 2 0.VII-28.IX

S ez. 1 986.

M ilano. UGAS,

G .,

G .

i n

U SAI

S elargius-Su C oddu.

s tampa UGAS,

L AI & L .

G . 1 984

s cavo 1 98 1-1984. & R .

N otizia p reliminare s ulle c ampagne d i

B AS.

Z UCCA I l c ommercio a rcaico g reche

i n S ardegna.

( 620-480 a .C.).

9 9

C agliari.

I mportazioni e trusche

e

V ERDHELIS, 1 962 V OZA,

N .M. S anctuary a t S olygeia.

G . 1 968

A rchaeology 1 5.

V illaggio f ortificato d ell 'etä d el B ronzo i n P etraco d i M elilli ( Siracusa). A tti X -XII S cientifica I IPP.

C ontrada R iunione

W ACE, A .J .B . 1 932

C hamber t ombs a t M ycenae. A rcheologia 8 2.

1 949

M ycenae.

A n A rchaeological H istory a nd G uide.

1 00

P rinceton .

F igura

5 .1

V illanovafranca,

S u

M ulinu.

L a

( veduta d a N ord) 1 01

f ortezza

p rima

d ello

s cavo

F igura 5 .2 V illanovafranca, S u M ulinu. P lanimetria g enerale d ella f ortezza e d ell 'insediamento d opo l e p rime d ue c ampagne d i s cavo.

F igura 5 .3

V illanovafranca,

S u M ulinu .

P lanimetria d el b astione

e d ella c inta e sterna

1 02

r - • --7 • • i " N77

— , . -i

t' . ;, ' 5

C , -

c .

• . .7 —

/ 1 o ,0 0

F igura 5 .4 V illanovafranca, S u M ulinu. B astione, v ano B e. P lanimetria e s ezione c on l ivelli s tratigrafici 1 03

L J , C L

1 0

1 2 1

1 4 1 5 1 3 1 8

C= D

1 6 1 7

1 8

1 9

2 0

2 3

2 2

F igura 5 .5

V illanovafranca, S u M ulinu. C eramica d el B ronzo M edic ) 1 04

I

V ano B s.

(

4

5

6

7

8

0 1 0

1 5 1 2 .

1 6 1 4

r "- = 1 9

1 8

1 7

F igura 5 .6 V illanovafranca, S u M ulinu. V ano B s. R eperti d el B ronzo M edio: c eramica ( 1-4); i ndustria l itica ( 516, 1 819); p ugnale i n b ronzo ( 17) 1 05

i _

1 4 .

▪

\

.

▪

• ••

e. "

. -

.

. '• V e

\ \ . . . . . • . .. , •— — . s, . . — .— — -

0

F igura 5 .7

1

5m t .

V illanovafranca, S u M ulinu. B astione. P iano i nferiore e c inta e sterna d ella 1° f ase 1 06

S.! P I ANTI

AS

V ASCOVI

VANS V.

2

S A ! Al SA W P I M ANT A

\ MVO P I

F igura 5 .8 V illanovafranca, S u M ulinu. 1 : b astione v ano V a d el p iano i nferiore ( planimetria e s ezione); 2 : c orridoio C i5 d ella c inta e sterna d ella 1° f ase e s ottostante v ano F 1 d ella c ortina C l 1 07

1

2

F igura 5 .9

V illanovafranca,

S u M ulinu.

1 :

b astione,

a v olta g radonata; 2 : c inta e sterna 1° f ase, a v olta d el c orridoio C i5 1 08

v ano V a, c opertura

c opertura

MA I M 1 1 1 1, 101 104

F igura 5 .10

V illanovafranca, S u M ulinu .

1 : 2 :

C ortina C l

e C 2

T orre F

t aglio p lanimetrico c on i v ani F 2 eF 4; t aglio p lanimetrico c on l e c amere i nferiori F 1 e d F 3; 3 : s ezione d ei v ani F 1, F 2, F 3, F 4, r accordati d all 'andito a lla T orre F e s ovrapposti a l c orridoio C i5 e a l v ano V b 1 09

F igura

5 .11

V illanovafranca,

S u

M ulinu.

T orre

F :

i n

c orso

d i

s cavo.

V eduta p arziale d elle f eritoie e d ell T i ngresso

1

F igura 5 .12 1 :

2

V illanovafranca, m estolo,

2 :

S u M ulinu. R eperti d ella t orre F

c onca u mbelicata. 10

F ine s ec.

V III

SU . Sb

•

F 3

Awl»

•

F igura

5 .13

V illanovafranca,

S u

M ulinu.

1 .

V ano

F 2:

p lanimetria

s ezione c on l ivelli s tratigrafici; 2 . V ano F 1: p lanimetria e s ezione c on l ivelli s tratigrafici. 11

e

F igura 5 .14

V illanovafranca,

12

S u M ulinu.

V ano F 1.

V olta

5 -

8

6

1 5

1 7

1 9

F igura 5 .15

V illanovafranca,

S u M ulinu. V ano F 1

C eramica d el l ivello 4 ( Bronzo R ecente) 13

4

5

3

7

9

F igura 5 .16 V illanovafranca, S u M ulinu. V ano F 1 C eramica d el l ivello 4 ( Bronzo R ecente) 114

6

2

3

F igura 5 .17 V illanovafranca, S u M ulinu. V ano F 1 C eramica d el l ivello 4 ( Bronzo R ecente)

1 4

1 5

F igura 5 .18 V illanovafranca, S u M ulinu. V ano F 1 C eramics e i ndustria l itica d el l ivello 4 ( Bronzo R ecente) 115

F igura 5 .19

V illanovafranca,

S u M ulinu.

V ano F 3.

C opertura

a p iattabanda g radonata e f ocolare i n c orso d i s cavo 16

F igura 5 .20 F ocolare

V illanovafranca, ( strata 50 ) ,

117

S u M ulinu.

V ano F 3

i n c orso d i s cavo.

2

3

6

5 4

a

1 2

1

1 3

1 5

k U3 2 0

1 9

•

•

•

F igura 5 .2 1 V illanovafranca, S u M ulinu . V ano F 3. S trati 4 e 5 s convolti. C eramica d ella P rima E ta d el F erro e d el B ronzo F inale 18

2

6

7

1 2 1 4

1 5

1 7

F igura 5 .22 s convolti.

V illanovafranca,

S u M ulinu . V ano F 3.

S trati 4 e 5

C eramica d ella P rima E ta d el F erro e d el B ronzo F inale 19

3 .

4

6

8

9

1 2

1

1 3

1 4

1 5

F igura 5 .23 V illanovafranca, S u M ulinu. V ano F 3. F ocolare s trato 5 C eramica d ella P rima E ti t d el F erro e d el B ronzo F inale 1 20

2

5

6

1 2

1 3

1 6

1 5

( : Z 7

1 7

1 9

2 1

2 3

2 2

2 5

F igura 5 .24

2 7

2 6

V illanovafranca,

S u M ulinu .

V ano F 3.

F ocolare s trato 5

R eperti d ella P rima E t äd el F erro, d el B ronzo R ecente e d el B ronzo F inale 1 21

1 3 2

6

LT h 8

1 3 1

( D )

1 0

5 I ZZ3

1 6 1 7

1 4

,

F

G

2 V1

-

2 3

2 2

2 1

2 0

C ‚

2 7

r 1 ) 2 8

30 2 9

1

1

F igura 5 .25

3 2

3 3

V illanovafranca,

( Bronzo R ecente)

e r eperti

3 4

S u M ulinu.

35

R eperti

1 8-36 s trati 9 -10 12 2

3 6

1 -17 s trato 8

( Bronzo M edio)

2

1

3

F igura 5 .26

S an S perate

( Cagliari),

1 .

V eduta d ello s cavo;

2 .

C ollana i n p asta;

S u F raigu .

T omba n uragica:

3 . S igillo c ilindrico c on s cena f igurata ( calco)

1 23

1

2

F igura 5 .27

1 .

S anluri

( Cagliari)

- C orti B eccia.

N uraghe.

C opps

d 'imitazione m icenea; 2 .

V illanovafranca-Su M ulinu ,

3 .

r osso-bruno s u r osso c orallo; V illanovafranca-Su M ulinu , v ano F 3:

v ano F 3:

c iotola d ipinta t azza c on a nsa

s opraelevata i n c eramics g rigia; 4 .

F urtei ( Cagliari) p esi i n s teatite.

- S antu B rai,

uadrangolare: v ano q

1

3

2

F igura 5 .28

P orte e f inestre d i s carico:

1 .

T orralba-Santu A ntine.

2 .

d all'interno); A rzachena-Malchittu.

T orre c entrale ( vedute d all 'esterno

3 .

M icene " tesoro d i A treo".

T empietto;

1 24

1

2

3

5 6

F igura 5 .29

P orte

" a t rilite":

1 -2.

Q uartucciu-Is C oncias

3 .

B auladu-Muraguada " tomba d i g iganti": v eduta d ell'ingresso d all'interno; M icene. C inta m uraria. P orta d ei L eoni M icene-Fonte P erseia; B ogazköy. C inta m uraria. P orta d el R e.

4 .

5 . 6 .

" tombs d i g iganti"

1 25

1

2

3

F igura 5 .30 1 .

T orralba-Santu A ntine.

2 .

T irinto. C asematte B ogazköy. C inta m uraria

3 .

C orridoi:

B astione t rilobata. ( Postierla) 1 26

G alleria i nferiore

F igura 5 .31

B arumini

( Cagliari),

S u N uraxi.

Q uadrilobato

C onci i sodomi d ella c ortina f ra l e t orn i E e D n ei t errazzi p reesistenti a l r ifascio: 1 27

A N EW C ONTRIBUTION T O T HE S TUDY O F T HE " THOLOS" I N S ARDINIA: T HE F ORTRESS A T S U M ULINU-VILLANOVAFRANCA ( CA) G iovanni U gas

S ummary I n t he

t he

l abor

i nvestigations

o f S isyphus,

a ppreciable

s trides

o f t he

t he

m ade

g oal

It holos'

f orm i n S ardinia,

c ontinually

r ecently

i n

t his

e ludes a rea

u s.

o f

j ust a s

i n

I n s pite o f t he

s tudy ,

t he

r esults

h ave p roduced m ore i n g ood i ntentions t han i n a ctual i nformation. I t

i s

my

b elief

i nvestigations p ursue

t he

i s

t he

t hat

c aused

t he

b y

d isappointment

t he

e stablished

l ack o f t he

g oal:

e nough n umber o f e xcavations

t hat

i s,

i n

t he

p rogress

f undamental b y

t he

i n E arly a nd M iddle

t ools

a bsence

o f

n eeded

o f

B ronze A ge

t hese t o

a g reat

s ettlements

a nd f ortresses t hat w ould a llow u s t o c omprehend i n d epth t he v arious s tages o f t he d evelopment o f v aulting, b oth i n f orm a nd i n a rchitectural t echnique

i n

c ontexts

t hat

c orrespond

t o

t hose

i n

w hich

m aterial

i s

f ound. T he p resent r egion

f ortified s ettlement o f S u M ulinu i s l ocated o n t he w est o f t he d ay

o f

h abitation

t hose

o f

s plendid

V illanovafranca

e xemplars

a nd

o f n uragic

i n

t he

s ame

g eographical

a rchtitecture,

S u N uraxi-

B arumini a nd G enna M aria-Villanovaforru.

F rom t he e xcavation h ere w e a re

g leaning

d evelopment

i mportant

i nformation

o n

t he

o f

n uragic

a rchi-

t ecture i n t he M iddle B ronze A ge.

W hat i s b eing e xtracted f rom t he w ork

d one

b asic

a t

r espect

S u t o

M ulinu

a )

d evelopment,

b )

c hronology,

c )

f unction. A t

l east

t he

t he

c oncerns

t hree

a nd

i nterdependent

p oints

w ith

t he p roblem o f n uragic v aults:

a nd

s ite o f S u M ulinu,

m iddle

o f

d efensive

c omplex,

i dentified

a nd

t he

s imilar

p artially

s tratigraphically

w here

s econd t o

t here w as h uman o ccupation f rom a t

m illennium t hat

e xcavated.

s uperimposed,

B .

C .

t o

M edieval

t imes,

a t

N uraghe

B runku Madugui,

I t

h as

o uter

t wo

t hat w ere p rovided

w ith

c ircuit t owers

a

was

w alls,

a nd w ith

c urtain w alls w ith c orridors w ithin. T he

t wo

o uter w alls

a nd

t he

c entral

b astion,

w ith w hich

t hey

are

c losely c onnected, m ake u p a c ombined d efensive s ystem t hat d evelops f irst i n a t entacle-like p lan, " Daedalic", a nd t hen a ssumes a f ormal s cheme t hat i s a rranged m ore c losely a round t he b astion, t he " Geometric." T he

t wo

l ines

i n

f ront

o f

t he

w all

d erive

r espectively

f rom

t he

f ull M iddle B ronze A ge ( 15th c ent. B .C.) a nd t he m oment o f t ransition t o t he L ate B ronze A ge ( 14th c ent. B .C.) a nd t hey d ocument t he p reliminary t echnical c ontinuous

s olutions o gival

t o

t he

s ection,

a nd g alleries o f t he s ame

c onstruction s imilar

t o

o f a v ault

t hat

u sed

i n

t hat h as t he

t ype a s S u N uraxi a t B arumini.

1 28

a f ull

t radional

a nd

t owers

6 .

L 'ARCHITETTURA N URAGICA E D E GEA P aolo B elli

V orrei q uesto q uesta

i nnanzitutto

l 'occasione d a

r ingraziare

g uida

d i

p iü

p er

d i

l o

u no

s punto

s viluppo

S ono g li

o rmai

Studi

p recisamente c onsapevole v oltate d opo

d a

v an i a nni

M icenei

e d

P rof.

B almuth,

d ell'importanza

aver

m editazione

m ie

i p romotori

d i

una

m i

f ar äc ertamente

o ltre

c he

f ornirmi

c omunicazione. a rchitetto-ricercatore

e gea d el

d el

d ell'etä

d ibattito

i ndagine

' sul

C NR

d el

s u:

n ell'area m editerranea p re-

s volto

c he

r icerche,

Egeo-Anatolici

" Architettura

e n on"

d i

d elle

l 'argomento d i q uesta m ia b reve

p er

l a

c ongresso, t utti i p artecipanti, e d i n p articolare i r elatori d i m attinata d i a rchitettura " nuragico-micenea" p er a vermi o fferto

p resso d i

l 'Istituto

R oma,

bronzo"

" costruzioni

e p roto-storica,

c ampo'

p er

s ul

e s ono

t ema m olto

c ircolari, s oprattutto

l ' arricchimento

d el

c atalogo e d ella d ocumentazione d i u na d elle p i üa ntiche s erie d i q uesti m onumenti: i ntendo d ire l e t ombe c ircolari d ella M essar ä ( Belli 1 984). Q ueste

s trutture

c ircolari

m illennio a .C.

( Lebena,

I ,

T riada

V orou,

A g.

s orsero

Y erokambos, B )

i n

C reta

T rypiti)

d all'inizio

d el

e r imasero i n u so

a pprossimativamente

f ino

a ll'epoca

I II

( Kamilari d i

c ui

S i

t ratta i n q uesto c onvegno,

e c ioe f ino a ll'inizio d ell'etä n eopalaziale,

e d unque

d ei

c irca

o ccidente.

a ll'inizio

S i

c ontatti-scambio

t ratta s enza d ubbio

s idtematici

d i u n e norme

p eriodo

t ra

d i

E geo

t empo,

d ibattito i ntrinseco a q uesti m onumenti, d ella l oro d urata, s ignificato e d ella l oro n atura e ndemica - o n on - i n u na r egione a ppartata c he

e p eculiare

e d i

p er

s e

f alsa-volta, E '

d ella

c ruciale

s uggestione,

o pportuno

f ondamentali

d i

A lcuni

s tudiosi

a perti

a d

u n

p iü

d i

c omprende d i

o ggi:

r eminiscenza,

p roposito

d ibattito:

r ecentemente

v entaglio

m eridionale,

a rgomentazioni

i nfluenza,

a q uesto

q uesto

C reta

n eu e

r ifarci

q uelle

d i

( Branigan

p ossibilitä

u n

a due

t ra

H ood

1 970;

P elon

a deguato

a lla

v olta,

c opia.

l e

e d i

d el c osi

a rgomento

c upola,

i mitazione,

S .

e d

e d i i

o pinioni

P .

W arren.

1 976)

S i

s ono

d imensione,

a lla

d ata e d a l t ipo c ostruttivo d ei v an i m onumenti ( falsa v olta i n p ietra s u z occolo l itico p er u na d imensione c ontenuta e ntro i 7 -8 m . d i d iametro i nterno;

c upola

m aggiori,

i n

1 0-12

m attoni m .,

i ntelaiature

l ignee

c arbonizzati,

i nterpretabili

T riadha A ,

c rudi

f ino

a

- d elle

e t ecniche

a ffini

c omprendere

q uali p er

r imarrebbero

i n

a K amilari e d a P latanos B

v an i

p er

c operture m odi,

g iungendo

d imensioni

l eggere

t racce p er

l e d i

c on

e lementi

e sempio

a d

A g.

f ino a ll'ammissione d i

c operture p iatte). Warren

( 1 973)

d al c anto s uo a ccenna e d i nsiste

s u d i u n s istema d i

c operture c he g rosso m odo a vvicinerebbe q uesti m onumenti s ia a s trutture r ecenti ( i ' mitati' e l e ' tirospitia' d el M onte I da) m a t estimoniabili a lmeno f in d all'epoca b izantina, c ome anche i n un c erto s enso, a i n uraghi. S i t ratterebbe c ioe s empre d i u na c amera g rosso m odo c onics, c on s emmai u na l eggera c urvatura i nterna, e r obusta m uraglia e sterna a tta a c ontenere l a c ontrospinta d ei f ilari d i p ietre a ggettanti, e q uindi c reanti u na s pecie d i t errazza, ' pianerottoli c orrispondenza p iuttosto

a rticolati' d ell 'attacco

c he

r itroviamo

d ella

v olta

s pesso v era

s chiacciata e c operta d a u n l astrone. 1 29

e

n ei

o l astre a naloga a i n uraghi,

p ropria,

c he

i n e ra

L 'idea d i S . d el

b ronzo

n oi

n otevolmente p roprio f osse

p er

q uesta i n

p articolare

( 1960)

e c he,

u na

d ifferenziati

s tato

S olo

H ood

t roviamo

p roprio p erche n ella C reta d ell'eta

g rande

e s calati

r agione

q ualche

c osi v i

d obbiamo

m odo

i i

m escolanza

l ungo

u n

d i

f orme

n otevole

s corgere

" laboratorio

e d i

a rco

d i

l 'indicazione

s perimentale"

t ipi

t empo, e he

d i

qui

q uesta

f orma a rchitettonica. i n

u n

( carpentieri,

s econdo

t empo

s calpellini

e d

q uesto

a ltro)

g rande

a vrebbe

p atrimonio u nito

i i

d i

m aestranze

p rogetto

d i

una

t holos f uori t erra, p ropria a nche d i c ase, a bitazioni e f orse s antuari, n elle c ulture o rientali ( Cipro, V icino O riente, M esopotamia), c on l 'idea d i

u na

c amera

i pogeica

c ostruita

s otto

u n

s tico d i a ltre c ulture e d i a ltre g enti, maniera

p erfetta

s olo

n ei

p ochi

t umulo

e he p er

e semplari

d i

t erra,

c aratteri-

v enne i ntegrato i n u na

f inora

n oti

d elle

t ombe

d inastiche d i M icene e p eloponnesiache. S chematizzando r iguardo

a

c onsiderazioni l 'altra d i 1 )

l e

q uesto e he

m i

s eguito,

N elle

a rgomentazioni

d ibattito s embra

s i

v olta

i n

i nsieme

d i

c retesi

n oi

un

a ggettanti)

p i

l egante

s tatica s ia

p oter

t roviamo,

a d

q ui

u ltimi

u na

a nni

s erie

p roporre

u na

d i d opo

t erra,

( contrastare

p er

l a

d i

l 'interno

c iottoli

f ango

a lla

f unzione

e

d i

K amilari

I ,

l 'ipotesi d i u na c amera c on

v erso

üi ncoerente

d i

n ell'esempio

( 1976),

p ietra p i ür egolari

p ietrame

d a

n ecessita

d i

q uesti

p er p oi v erificarne l 'eventuale c onnessione:

t ombe

c onci

i n

a rrivare

i nteressante

c ome c i v iene d escritto d a D oro L evi m antello

a ddotte

p uö

e r icoperti d a un

a ll'esterno,

o a rgilla:

s pinta

v erso

p roteggere

c iö

s ia

l 'interno

e r iparare

t enuto p er

d ei

una

b locchi

l a m uratura

a

c onci d ell'anello e d ella v olts, e he - a vendo s empre c ome l egante p ietre m inute e f ango- n on a vrebbe r etto a l d ilavamento. I n a lcuni c asi, n elle t ombe e d E ,

d i d imensioni m aggiori ( Ag. T riada A , P latanos A e B , K oumassa B e cc.; v . X anthoudides 1 924) n oi p ossiamo s upporre e he l a s tessa

c osa a vvenisse i nterpretata p rimi

f ilari

c antiere.

p er u na v olta

l a

f unzione

d elle

Q uesto

t umulo

v ero

t holoi

m icenee,

a mmorsamento

c ostruzioni, p ert

s enza

e p roprio. d ove

o ltre

E bbene

n oi

c rudi.

d elle

a d

d i

a ggettanti

i mpianto

a mmettere

d obbiamo

e b en

C osi v iene a nche

p ietre

a q uella

a rrivare

o sservabile

r icopriva e ra c ostituito, c oltri c amera

i n p is e o m attoni

d i

l a

p resenza

c onsiderare

c onservato,

i l

f isso

c ome

t umulo

n egli s trati a derenti a lla v olta,

d i

n ei d i un

n elle e he

l e

d i u no o due

d i a rgilla e he s icuramente a vevano l o s copo d i p roteggere l a ( questa v olta i pogeica, a lmeno i n p arte). A nche q ui a bbiamo p oi

d el m ateriale m olto m inuto e d i ncoerente e he e ra a ccumulato a ll'esterno. 2 )

N elle

o sservabile, t umulo

t holoi

n oi

d i

c ui

m icenee,

v ediamo s i

u n

s empre

d ove

e sistente,

r ecinto

d estinato

a c ontenere

s opra,

e q uesto

r ecinto

p arlava

c onservato

e d

e d elimitare

a v olte

( Micene,

t ombe d i A treo e C litennestra, T horikos B , P eristeria 2 ) a ssume uno s viluppo a rchitettonico m aggiore d i q uello c onnesso a lla s ua s emplice f unzione. s trutture

A C reta s orte

n oi

p ossiamo,

a ttorno

K yriaki)

e c hiamate

a q uelle

( Matz

1 951:13-22;

N elle

t ombe

3 )

a lle

' periboli'

o

L evi

c retesi,

d estinazione

e he

s i

due

1 976;

q uando

o t re

( Apesokari

er ecinti i

a ggregano a f ormare u n c omplesso c amere r ettangolari a ffiancare l a u na

i n

t ombe

c asi, I ,

v edere

Kamilari

d elle I ,

Ag.

e he a ssumono u n v alore a ffine

B lackman e B ranigan 1 982). ( molto

s ovente)

p i üc ostruzioni

s i

c imiteriale, S i s ono o sservate d elle ' classica l c ostruzione c ircolare, c on

d ifferenziava 1 30

i n

q uella

d i

o ssuario,

o s imile

( Porti,

K oumasa).

m odello

d ella

c amera

N el

t ipo

c amera

r ettangolare

e voluto

c ircolare

c olla

d ella

t holos

a c upola

c reazione

m icenea

a ssorbire

d elle

c amere

n oi v ediamo

a nche

i i

q uell°

d ella

p oste

s ugli

l aterali,

a ssi p erpendicolari a l d romos. 4 )

Ponendoci

i n

u na

p rospettiva

p iü

a mpia

n oi

o sserviamo

c he

l a

l ocalizzazione d i q uesti g ruppi d i e difici a C reta a vviene p er l o p iü i n a ree p edemontane e m ontane c he g ravitano a ttorno a ll'unico m assiccio m ontuoso ( gli A sterousi) c he s ia s tato d etto d i i nteresse m inerario, s ia p ure n on d i p rimissimo o rdine r ispetto a d a ltre a ree n ell'Egeo e n ella s tessa e poca ( Faure 1 966). Q uest ( ) h a f atto p ensare a d u na c orrelazione d i

q ualche

r isorse

t ipo

t ra

a rchitettoniche, f orse

g enti

m inerarie

a vuto

i ntente

( specie

d i c ui

t roppi

a lb os fruttamento

i l

r ame)

e

a ppunto s tiamo o ccupandoci:

s ostenitori

p er

l a

e d

a lla r icerca

d eterminate

r elativa

e u n d iscorso c he h a

g enericitä

d i

r isultati

c he e sso r iesca a d a pportare. E sso e s tato r ipreso r ecentemente P elon ( 1976), i nserendovi l e a ree o ccidentali ( Iberia; v . B lance d el

M editerraneo

t holos'

e d

s truttura C ipro). f are

p are

q uesto

q uesta s erie I n

m odo

s pero

d i

l e

p er

q uasi

s trutture

' a

c onosciuto

d i

S ultan

T ekke

d i

c ronologiche

d a

o vvio

a ggiungere

e

in

a rgomenti

a

d i

e t

r ammarico

s olamente m odelli

d i

c he

s ono

f ornire a u n s imile

s tati

- a nche

q ueste,

e d

i n

c lassi

äm icenea

e c he f inora

p er

i l

a ltre

proff. t re,

s e

m onumenti:

( o

l e

i n uraghi

n on

p er

p er

c alcolo

s trutture.

d ella

d isponiamo

t utti

i nvocati

r apido

d ue

d i

e d

a ncora

matematici

d ei

v olta n oi d isponiamo

s cientifici

t ardo-minoiche)

c retesi

p erch en o

s pinte

c on

m etodologico

p er l a p rima

p oco)

p ossibili

p rovasse a a tlantica!)

( Hala

c onsiderazioni

s embra

1 985),

t holoi

quelle

L 'unico

c ostruzione d elle

m i

d i

e sempio

a ll' approccio

1 982;

c onfrontare

micenee, ancora

grazie

( 198 1;

i ncludere

c ircolari,

s orgere

o rientale

m olte

e t uttavia

s enso,

o ra

S ardegna.

s arebbero

s enso,

e L axton

t holoi

M editerraneo

c i

i l

e

d a 0 . 1 961)

l 'esempio d ella S ardegna.

questo

v ogliamo

p arallelamente

d elle m iniere,

d el

c he

C avanagh d el

v idero

m egalitica M i

i n

c he

u tilizzazione

d i

p ratiche'

b e

d i

s trutture

d ei

P enso

( ma

i m odi c arichi

c he

c hi

e s i

t utti g li s tudiosi d ell'area m editerranea ( ed p rezioso s trumento d i l avoro, p otrebbe e ssere

c onsiderato v eramente b enemerito. I n r ealtä m eno

i i m odello a rchitettonico

r iusciti,

a mbizioso

e

s orpassare,

c on

i ndizi

p erenne

c on

i l imiti d elle

e l a

s olo

s corgere

c on

q uell°,

t holos,

s icuri

( progetto,

t ecnica

i n

p aziente

i n e sso,

a ltrettanto

c on e sempi

r appresenta u n

u n

c erto

c apacitä

r isorse m ateriali,

d i u n d eterminato s pazio d a c oprire: ( forse

d ella

o m eno

t entativo

l ' abilitä

d el l avoro manuale,

p iü

d el

o

s enso)

d i

o rganizzativa

a vendo i l p roblema

i nsieme a p ochi a ltri

g rande,

p iü

g rande,

m egaron)

n oi

t emi

p ossiamo

l ' apporto p iü o riginale d elle g enti e gee d ell'Etä d el B ronzo i n

c amp° p ropriamente a rchitettonico. Un 'ultima d etto m eglio

s opra

i n

s arebbe

c osa,

c he

m aniera d ire

l a

v orrebbe f in

e ssere

t roppo

r iscoperta)

u n

a pporto

a stratta,

t angibile

r iguarda

r ecentissima

e d

l a

a ncora

a q uanto

s coperta i n

a ttesa

( o d i

u na g iusta v alutazione d ei f atti o bbiettivi, d i u n p iccolo m onument° ' termale t a L ipari, n elle i sole E olie, a d o pera d el P rof. B ernabö B rea e d ella d ottoressa M adeleine C avalier, d ai q uali m i e s tata a ffidato i l r ilievo e l o s tudio d ella p arte s trutturale e t ecnica. L a t holos d i S . C alogero i nfatti ( presentata i n v ia p reliminare i n o ccasione d i un c onvegno a ll'Accademia B elgica a R oma n el 1 31

1 985)

p resenta c aratteristiche

d i d ei

s piccata

a ffinitä

b locchi

e he

c on

l e

t holoi

l a c ostituiscono,

c onservata

d ella

c upola e p er

u n t umulo,

m a

s orprende

ambiente

d i

c i

c omprovato

g eograficamente

a ltresi

m icenee

p er

p er

l 'andamento

l 'essere

s oprattutto

l avorazione

' ogivale'

d ella p arte

s tata p robabilmente p er l 'essere

c ontatto

c on

i l

a l

d ei

n uraghi,

m ondo

l ' accurata

m ondo

s tata

r icoperta e levata

miceneo,

c osi

d a

i n un

v icino

e p robabilmente

p rima

a ncora d ei p ozzi s acri d ella S ardegna. P ur e ssendo a ncora d a p rovare l a s ua p ertinenza a ll'epoca d i c ui i potizza

l ' appartenenza,

c ontenute

( m.

d iametro,

e sso

2 ,80 d i a ltezza,

c irca),

l a

p rova

c ostituirebbe a l

p ur

c on

l e

s ue

l ivello a ttuale d el s uolo,

t angibile

d i

u n

c ammino

e he

s i

d imensioni p er 4 ,50 d i a rcheologi,

s torici e s cienziati s tanno t entando o gni g iorno m eglio e s empre p iü i n d ettaglio d i m ettere a lla l uce, c ome a nche q ui i n q uesto C onvegno s i s ta f acendo.

B IBLIOGRAFIA

B ELLI,

P .

1 984

N uovi

d ocumenti

c retesi. B LACKMAN,

D .

& K .

1 982

T he

l o

s tudio

d elle

t ombe

c ircolari

S MEA 2 5:91-143.

B RANIGAN e xcavation

K yriaki, B LANCE,

p er

o f

a n

A yofarango,

E arly

M inoan

t holos

S outhern C rete.

t omb

a t

Ayia

B SA 7 7:1-57.

B .

1 961

E arly

B ronze

A ge

C olonists

i n

I beria.

A ntiquity

3 5:192-202. B RANIGAN,

K .

1 970 C AVANAGH,

T he T ombs o f M esara. W .G.

1 981

& R .R. T he

L ondon.

L AXTON

s tructural

m echanics

o f

t he

M ycenaean

t holos

t omb.

B SA 7 6:109-140. 1 982

C orbelled C rete.

1 985

v aulting

t holos

t ombs

t holos

B AR

I talian A rchaeology

S 245

= P apers

i n

t ombs

a nd

I V:413-432.

S toddart e ds.

l a C rete a ntique.

A A:45-78.

T holos T ombs o f t he A egean.

A ntiquity 3 4:166-176.

D .

F . 1 951

o f

S ardinian n uraghi.

S .

1 976 M ATZ,

M inoan

V aulting i n M ycenaean

L es m inerais d e

1 960 L EVI,

L ate

P .

1 966 H OOD,

t he

B SA 7 7:65 -7 7.

M alone a nd S . F AURE,

i n

F est s e l a c iviltä m inoica 1 :703-743.

R oma.

( ED.) F orschungen a uf Kreta

1 942. 1 32

B erlin:

d e G ruyter.

C .

F ELON, O . 1 976 W ARREN,

T holoi,

T umuli e t C ercles F uneraires.

P aris.

P .

1 973

T he

M itata

o f

N idha

a nd

E arly

M inoan

T holos

T ombs.

A AA

6 :449-456. X ANTHOUDIDES,

S .

1 924

T he V aulted T ombs

o f M esarä.

L iverpool.

N URAGIC A ND A EGEAN A RCHITECTURE P aolo B elli

S ummary C ircular b uildings w ere b uilt o n C rete a t t he b eginning o f t he 3 rd m illennium B .C. a nd t hey w ere u sed a pproximately u ntil t he b eginning o f t he C retan N eopalatial A ge,

t hat i s,

u ntil t he b eginning o f t he c ontacts

a nd e xchanges b etween t he A egean a nd t he W est i n t he L ate B ronze A ge. U ndoubtedly t hey w ere o f l ong d uration, b ut a d ebate c oncerns p recisely h ow l ong a nd w hen t hese m onuments e xisted, a nd t he p roblem o f w hether o r n ot t hey a re a l ocal p henomenon i n a r egion o f s outhern C rete t hat i s s o r emote a nd u ncharacteristic. i s

t reated

w hether

i n a rguments

t hese

a re

t he

o n

A m atter t hat i s o f c rucial i mportance h ere t he

r esult

d ome, o f

t he v ault

a h int,

a nd

t he f alse v ault,

i nfluence,

a nd

a r eminiscence,

a n

i mitation o r a n o utright c opy . I t

i s a ppropriate t o

o pinions r ecently l ities a nd

of

t his

B ranigan

w ith

t ake i nto c onsideration t wo o f t he f undamental

d ebate: a nd

r espect

t o

t hose

o f

h ave

a lso

P elon t heir

s ize,

S .

H ood

and

s uggested

d ate

a nd

t he

o f

P .

Warren.

a v ariety

o f

M ore

p ossibi-

m anner o f c onstruction

t he m aterials u sed i n t he v arious m onuments. W arren p roposes a s ystem o f r oofing t hat w ould

s tructures,

d ocumentable

f rom

a t

l east

B yzantine

r esemble m ore r ecent

t imes:

t he

m itati

a nd

t he t irospitia o f M ount I da. I n a c ertain w ay, t he n uraghi a lso c orres pond t o t his w ay o f b uilding: a c onical c hamber w ith a s light i nternal c urve a nd a s trong e xternal w all t hat c an s upport t he c ounterthrust. H ood,

o n

h is

p art,

s ees

e xperimentation

o n

p rompted

e xistence

a nd

b y

t ypes,

a bundance s uitable

t he b uilt

o f f or

t his

o f

o ver a l ong

a rtisans h ouses

f used

a nd

Bronze

p articular s uch

a g reat

p eriod t he

Age

C rete

a s

a rchitectural o f

t ime.

c oncept

s anctuaries

m ixture

( Near

o f

I t a n

E ast,

w as

a l aboratory f orm.

o f

H is

i dea

d ifferent

o nly l ater

a bove C yprus,

g round

f or i s

s hapes t hat

a n

t holos,

M esopotamia),

w ith t he e xpression o f a n u nderground c hamber, hypogeum, c overed w ith a m ound, t umulus. A lthough t his w as c haracteristic o f t he c ulture o f o ther p eople, t he i dea l ent i tself s o w ell, t hat i t w as u ltimately i ntegrated p erfectly i n t he d ynastic t ombs o f M ycenae a nd t he P eloponnesus. 1 33

The

o pinions

o f

t he

l ast

f ew y ears

c an b e a rranged

t o

d emonstrate

s ome k ind o f e volution o f i deas: 1 )

I n

o f s tone w ho

t he

b locks

e xplained

C retan c overed

t he

t ombs,

t he

o ver b y

d ouble

h ypothesis

s tone

n eed:

o f a c hamber w ith a v ault

r ubble w as

s tatic

p ut

n ecessity

f orth b y D oro L evi

( thrust

t owards

t he

i nside o f t he b locks), a nd p rotection o f t he s tone w all a nd v ault. I n t he l arger t ombs, t he s ame t hing m ight h ave o ccurred f or a v ault o f p ise o r

o f

r ough

b rick

w ith

t he

f unction

o f

h olding

f ast

t he

p rojecting

s tones i n t he f irst r ows o f t he b uilding. 2 ) t o

I n t he M ycenaean t holoi

s ee

a n

e nclosure

m eant

t o

t hat a re s till s tanding,

d efine

t here a re a f ew s tructures a round

a nd

t ombs,

p rotect

t he

i t i s p ossible

t umulus.

c alled Teriboli,

O n C rete,

t hat a re c lose

i n t ype. 3 ) f orm

I n

t he

C retan

a c emetery,

t he

t ombs,

w hen m any b uildings

r ectangular

c hambers

f ound

w ere

n ext

p ut t o

t ogether

t he

t o

' typical'

r ound b uilding f unctioned a s o ssuaries. W hen t holoi, t he c ircular , d omed c hambers a bsorbed

t ranslated i nto M ycenaean t he r ectangular r ooms a nd

t hey

p erpendicular

a ppeared

i nternally,

a s

l ateral

n iches,

t o

t he

a xis

o f t he d romos. 4 ) o f

In

t hese

a w ider p erspective,

b uildings

o n C rete

i t i s p ossible

l ie m ay r e-

e specially r evived

w as

c opper,

r ecently

n ow t here i s o ne e xample t o a dd S ardinia t o T hanks

t o

a nd

w ith

t he

f oothills

s ee t hat t he l ocation t hat

i dea

i n

t o

a round t he o nly m assif ( Asterousi) o f m ineral s ignificance. T his s uggest s ome k ind o f c orrelation b etween e xploiters o f m ineral s ources,

i s

e xperience r espect

t o

i n t he

a nd m ountains

t his

b uilding

W est

t ype.

M editerranean ,

i n t he E ast M editerranean o n C yprus.

I t i s

T his a nd t ime

t he l ist o f t hese a reas.

t he

a pproach

o f

C avanagh

a nd

L axton,

w e

c an,

f or

t he

f irst t ime, c ompare t he t hree c lasses o f m onuments: t he Mycenaean t holoi, t he C retan t holoi o f t he M ycenaean a ge, a nd t he n uraghi o f S ardinia. I t i s u nfortunate t hat w e l ack m athematical m odels f or e very k ind o f s tructure s uch a s w e h ave f or c ircular b uildings, a bility t o m ake r apid c alculations o f l oads a nd t hrusts. I n

r eality,

r epresents

a n

t he

c reation

a mbitious

o f

p roject

a n

a rchitectural

t hat

w ould

r equire

c onsiderations, a s m any, p erhaps, a s t he m egaron. s ense t he p rofundity o f t he o riginal a rchitectural

m odel m any

a long w ith t he

o f

t he

t holos

r esources,

a nd

O nly t hen c ould w e c ontribution o f t he

B ronze A ge A egean. Finally,

t here

i s

a r ecent

d iscovery

t hat

may

b e

a t angible

r ealization o f w hat h as b een d iscussed o nly i n a bstraction : a s mall ' thermal' m onument o n t he i sland o f L ipari, t he t holos o f S an C alogero.. w hich p resents c haracteristics o f c lear a ffinity t o t he M ycenaean t holoi b y w ay o f t he p recise w orking o f t he b locks, f or t he o gival s hape o f t he p reserved p art o f t he v ault,

a nd

t he

l ikelihood

t hat i t w as c overed b y a

t umulus. I t was e xcavated by Prof. L uigi B ernabö Brea and Dr.ssa M adeleine C avalier; t hey a ssigned t he s tudy o f i ts a rchitectural a spects t o

m e.

I t

i s

i n M ycenaean

s tyle

i n

a n e nvironment

o f c onfirmed

c ontact

w ith t he M ycenaean w orld a nd g eographical p roximity t o N uragic S ardinia. T his provides a p erfect e xample o f w hat w e are a ddressing i n t his m eeting.

1 34

P ART T HREE:

7 .

M ETALS: P RODUCTS,

O XHIDE I NGOTS F ROM

T ECHNOLOGY,

S ARDINIA, C RETE A ND

A NALYSIS

C YPRUS

A ND T HE B RONZE A GE C OPPER T RADE : N EW S CIENTIFIC E VIDENCE N oäl H . G ale a nd Z ofia A . S toaGale

I ntroduction S tudies o f i n m etals a re

t he d evelopment o f a ncient m etallurgy a nd o f t he t rade c entral i n varying d egrees t o t he s tudy o f L ate

C halcolithic a nd B ronze A ge a rchaeology . R eal p rogress i n t hese s tudies c an b e a chieved o nly f rom a n i ntegrated a pproach i nvolving a rchaeology , m etallurgy ,

g eology a nd o re m ineralogy ,

m ining s tudies,

t he a nalyses o f

s tratified m etal o bjects a nd t he a nalysis a nd d ating o f t he r emains o f a ncient m ining a nd m etal s melting . T he d evelopment i n r ecent y ears o f t he l ead i sotope t echnique f or a nalysis o f a rchaeological m etal a rtefacts h as provided f or t he f irst t ime i n t he h istory of a rchaeometallurgy a d irect a nalytical m ethod f or l inking a rtefacts w ith o re d eposits . U se o f t he l ead i sotope m ethod i s c learly v ery i mportant i n e stablishing t he c hanging p atterns o f t rade i n c opper i n t he B ronze A ge ; n owhere i s i ts p otential more c learly t o b e s een t han i n t he d etermination o f t he s ources o f c opper f or t he o xhide c opper i ngots . W e a re a ctively i nvestigating t his p roblem f or o xhide i ngots f rom C rete, C yprus, Greece, A natolia, B ulgaria, Syria a nd I srael. T he c orpus o f i ngots f ound i n S ardinia i s v ery i mportant f or s uch a s tudy . T his c onsideration g ave t he i mpetus, i n 1 983, f or t he i nitiation o f a s tudy o f p rehistoric m ining a nd m etallurgy i n S ardinia, i n w hich D r . F ulvia L o S chiavo has p layed a k ey p art i n arranging p ermits a nd g iving a dvice. V ital t o t he s uccess o f t his s tudy h as b een t he e nthusiastic i nvolvement o f t he g eologists Marisa A rca a nd C aterinella T uveri, t he a ssistance o f o ther I talian g eologists a nd t he g enerosity o f P rofessor M .L . F errareseC eruti a nd P rofessor M . A tzeni i n a llowing s ampling o f a rtefacts f rom t heir

e xcavations .

T wo f ield s urveys i n S ardinia h ave b een m ade, i n J anuary a nd S eptember 1 984, d uring w hich e xtensive c ollections o f l ead, t in a nd c opper o res w ere m ade a nd 8 1 d ifferent f ragments o f m ore t han 1 2 f indspots w ere s ampled. Many m ore

c opper i ngots f rom o re s amples were

p ersonally c ollected f or t his p rogramme b y C aterinella T uveri a nd M arisa A rca , w hilst s ome c ritical o re s amples w ere p rovided b y o ther S ardinian g eologists a nd b y P rofessor U . Z wicker . O xhide I ngots T his p aper

i s

l argely d evoted

t he o xhide c opper i ngots d ominant, f orm i n w hich

t o t he c opper o xhide i ngots .

T hough

w ere n ot t he o nly, p ossibly n ot even t he c opper w as t raded i n t he L ate B ronze Age

M editerranean ( 1), t hey a re n evertheless v ery i mportant i n u nderstanding t he s eaborne m etal t rade i n t his p eriod. A s d iscussed b y n umerous s cholars ( e.g . B uchholz 1 959; B ass 1 967; Muhly e t al. 1 980; G ale a nd S tos-Gale 1 985; 1 987) t hese i ngots h ave a w ide d istribution i n t he Mediterranean r egion . T hey a re f ound i n c orpore f rom S ardinia and S icily

i n

t he W est,

t hrough C rete

a nd m ainland

1 35

G reece

t o B ulgaria,

C yprus a nd A natolia i n t he E ast ; t hey a re d epicted a lso i n a n i mportant s eries o f t omb p aintings i n E gypt. T hey h ave b een r ecovered f rom t he s ea a t A ntalya o ff t he c oast o f T urkey, K yme o ff t he c oast o f E uboea, S ozopol o ff t he c oast o f B ulgaria a nd o ff t he c oast o f I srael. T heir i mportance i n r econstructing t he a ncient t rade i n t he M editerranean w as d ramatised b y t he d iscovery o ff t he c oast o f T urkey o f t he C ape G elidonya B ronze A ge s hipwreck w hich h ad o n b oard 3 9 s uch i ngots a nd h as r ecently b een h ighlighted b y t he s pectacular d iscovery o f t he s hipwreck a t Ulu B urun, n ear K a §( Bass 1 986). Am ould f or c asting o xhide i ngots w as r ecently f ound a t R as i bn H ani i n S yria . A ll e xtant o xhide i ngots a ppear t o b elong t o t he s econd m illennium B .C. a nd m ost t o i ts s econd h alf ; t hey c learly r epresent a n i mportant f orm i n w hich r aw c opper w as t ransported i n t he L ate B ronze A ge . B y a nd l arge o xhide i ngots d isplay a m easure i ntended

o f s tandardisation o f s hape a nd w eight w hich w as p robably

t o

g uarantee

M editerranean

t heir n ature

a nd

v alue

t o

b uyers

t hroughout

t he

a rea .

O xhide i ngots a re d epicted i n E gyptian p aintings a s b eing c arried o n t he s houlders o f K eftiu o r S yrians. W hen i t w as r equired t o u se c opper f rom a n o xhide i ngot, t he i ngot w as b roken i nto p ieces o f a s ize s uitable f or m elting d own i n a c rucible . T he b reaking o f a c opper i ngot i nto p ieces t o m ake d ifferent o bjects i s d escribed i n t he H ittite t ext K UB X L 9 5 ( Kempinski a nd K aak 1 977) a nd a rchaeological e xcavations h ave t urned u p m any s uch i ngot

f ragments

i n G reece,

C yprus a nd S ardinia .

I t i s w ell k nown t hat o xhide i ngots a re f ound i n g reatest n umbers i n t he e astern M editerranean , w here t hey d ate t o t he p eriod f rom a bout 1 550 B .C. t o 1 00 B .C. I n t he l atter p art o f t his p eriod t he a rchaeol ogical evidence t ends t o s how t hat t he o xhide i ngots h ave a s pecial c onnection w ith C yprus ( Buchholz 1 959 ; G ale a nd S tos-Gale 1 985); i ndeed m any e xamples, i ncluding s ome f rom S ardinia ( Pigorini 1 904) b ear s igns w hich s eem t o b e i n t he s o-called C ypro-Minoan s cript ( 2) i n u se o n C yprus a nd a t Ugarit over t his p eriod. A gainst t his b ackground i t i s p erhaps s urprising t o f ind t hat t here a re i n S ardinia m ore f indspots o f o xhide c opper i ngots, o r f ragments t hereof, t han i n a ny o ther p art o f t he m ainland i n t he Mediterranean r egion . Moreover , C ontu ( 1980) h as r eported

i ngot

f ragments,

i nterpreted a s

o f o xhide

t ype,

i n a n A usonian

c ontext o n t he i sland o f L ipari, w hilst i n S icily a n i solated o xhide i ngot f ragment h as b een r eported f rom C annatello ( Agrigento) ( Mosso 1 907 :524 ; L o S chiavo e t a l. 1 985;13) . T hese o xhide i ngots i n S ardinia , S icily a nd L ipari a re o n t he e xtreme w estern f ringe o f t he d istribution o f s uch i ngots i n t he M editerranean . F or a n u nderstanding o f t he L ate B ronze A ge c opper t rade i t i s c learly v ital t o d etermine w hether t hese i ngots w ere i mports f rom t he A egean o r t he e astern Mediterranean, o r w hether t hey w ere p roduced i n S ardinia i n a n i nternationally r ecognised f orm f or e xport t o , s ay , t he M inoan o r M ycenaean p eoples . T he s olution t o t his p roblem i s l ikely t o c ome o nly f rom a pplication o f t he l ead i sotope m ethod, a pplied t o d etermine t he p rovenance o f t he c opper u sed t o m ake t he o xhide i ngots f ound i n S ardinia ( see G ale and S tos-Gale 1 982 ;

B ranigan

1 982) .

P rovenance S tudies O ne o f t he m ost c hallenging a rchaeological p roblems c oncerning t he o xhide i ngots i s: w hich c opper o re d eposits p rovided t he c opper m etal o f w hich t hey a re c omposed? I t i s t his t opic t o w hich o ur p aper i s l argely d evoted. A s w e have s een, b oth m etallographic a nd c hemical a nalyses h ave c onspicuously f ailed t o a nswer t his q uestion . O n t he o ther h and

1 36

t he m ethod o f l ead i sotope a nalysis s eems t o h old g reat p romise f or t his e nquiry . F or a l engthier d iscussion o f t his t echnique t han c an b e p ublished h ere s ee, i nter a lia , G ale ( 1978 ; 1 987) a nd G ale a nd S tos-Gale ( 1985). L ead I sotope A nalyses L ead i sotope a nalysis

i s n ot a c hemical

e lemental a nalysis .

I t i s

a p hysical m ethod t hat d epends o n t he variability o f t he i sotopic c omposition o f l ead i n m etal o re s ources a nd o n c omparative a nalyses o f t he

l ead i sotope c omposition i n m etal

a rtefacts

a nd o re s ources .

I t

i s

f ree f rom m ost o f t he l imitations o f c hemical a nalysis, i n t hat t he i sotopic c omposition o f l ead u sually v aries o nly w ithin n arrow l imits i n a g iven o re b ody a nd i n t hat t he l ead i sotopic c omposition i n t he o re p asses u nchanged t hrough t he s melting p rocess i nto t he m etal . N aturally o ccurring l ead i s m ade u p o f f our i sotopes ( atoms o f l ead o f d ifferent m ass) i n v arying p roportions . A ccording t o t heir a tomic m ass, m easured i n a tomic m ass u nits, t hey a re c alled l ead 2 04, 2 06, 2 07 a nd 2 08 . T he i sotope o f l ead 2 04 i s n on-radiogenic i n o rigin . T he o ther t hree i sotopes o f l ead d erive f rom t he r adioactive d ecay o f u ranium and t horium . I n a g iven o re b ody t he p roportion o f t hese i sotopes w ill v ary d epending m ainly o n t he g eological a ge o f t he o re . I n 1 982 w e p ioneered t he a pplication o f t he l ead i sotope m ethod f or p rovenancing c opper-based a rtefacts i n t he M editerranean r egion ( Gale a nd S tos-Gale 1 982). F rom t he o utset o f t his w ork w e h ave e mphasised t he i mportance o f t aking i nto a ccount a lso m etallurgical a nd g eological i nformation. Apart f rom d irect s tudies o f a ncient m ining o r m etallurgical r emains, e xtensive f ieldwork i s n eeded a lso t o b e a ble t o e stablish t he l ead i sotope c haracteristics o f k nown c opper a nd/or l ead-silver d eposits w hich c ould h ave, o r h ave b een w orked i n t he B ronze A ge . I n t he p ast e ight y ears w e h ave e xplored o re d eposits i n G reece, C rete, t he C yclades, T hasos , C yprus, S ardinia a nd t he S inai . O ur f ieldwork h as t wo m ain o bjectives : i )

i i)

t o c ollect o res a nd s lags f or a nd l ead i sotope a nalyses ; a nd

c hemical,

m ineralogical

t o e stablish i f t here i s a ny a rchaeological o r o ther evidence, l ike p ottery , t ools, t ool m arks , c haracter o f m ining, C -14 a nd t hermoluminescence d ating e tc" w hich c an p oint t o t he B ronze A ge e xploitation o f t he

T o

e stablish

t he

r ange

o f

l ead

i sotope c ompositions

d eposit . c haracteristic

f or a g iven o re d eposit i t i s d esirable t o a nalyse a bout f ifty s amples o f o res, o r o res a nd s lags f rom t hat d eposit. F or e ach o re d eposit u nder i nvestigation d ifferent t ypes o f o res are c ollected f or l ead i sotope a nalyses f rom various p arts o f t he d eposit, t o c heck t he uniformity o f t he c haracteristic l ead i sotope c omposition w ithin t he d eposit a nd f or d ifferent o re t ypes . From t he f our i sotopes o f l ead m easured f or e ach s ample a s et o f t hree l ead i sotope r atios c an b e c alculated .

137

T hus t he f inal r esult o f t he d etermination o f t he lead c omposition c haracteristic o f a g iven o re d eposit c onsists o f , s ets

e ach

o f

t hree

a pproximately d imensional

l ead

p resentation

s eparate d iagrams . i s

i t

p ossible

w ith

e ach

d iagram , t he

o f

t o

d ecide

o ther .

I t

t he

i f

o ther a nd

t hey

l ead

c ommon

d ata

T herefore r equires

t he

o f

t wo

' fields '

o verlap

t wo f ields overlap i n o ne o ther ,

t hese

r eal

a t wo-

u se

l ead i sotope r atios

c haracteristic t hat

s eparated o n i s n o

a t hree-dimensional,

s pace.

t hree m easured

r epresentation

t here

f orm

i n

i sotope

p articular

i s q uite

b ut a re q uite w ell t he

r atios;

d istribution

O nly b y u sing a ll

t hree-dimensional

b ehind

i sotope

e gg-shaped,

i sotope s ay , 5 0

w hich m eans

t hat

i n

t wo d istributions a re o ne

overlap of t he c haracteristic

r atios a t a ll. A b etter ' fingerprint ' a nalysis .

r epresentation o f t he t hree-dimensional i s afforded b y u se o f a multivariate

F igure

7 . 1

g ives

t he

c haracteristic

l ead

l ead i sotope d iscriminant

i sotope

c omposition

o f t hree o re d eposits f rom t he L editerranean w hich p artly o verlap i n t he t wo-dimensional p lots . U sing s uch a s tatistical a nalysis ( Pollard f igure 7 .2 s hows t hat t he d eposits a re c learly s eparated . T he

c onstruction o f l ead

i sotope f ields f or C yprus,

K ythnos h as b een i llustrated b y G ale a nd S tos-Gale a l.

( 1986)

1 986)

L aurion a nd

a nd b y G ale e t

( 1986).

2 080 _

6 COPPER ORE DEPOS ITS

CAN ON ICAL VAR IABLE

4

2 .070

2

0

0 0

0 0 0 0 COOD 0 0 0o, 00 0 CO 00 0 00

o oo o 000 c o C o 0 00 o 0 0 o o o o o oo o 0 o o o

0

LAVR ION

KYTHNOS

-2

A LL THREE L EAD I SOT OPE RAT IOS : S TEP W ISE D ISCR IM INANT ANALYS IS ( M . POLLARD)

8 .4

7 .0

5 .6

4 .2

2 .8

1 .4

0 . 0

1 . 4

2 .8

CANON ICAL VAR IABLE

0 03

0. ' 0' Pb/

F igure 7 .1

08

Pb

F igure 7 .2 S tepwise

P artially o verlapping

d iscriminant

l ead i sotope f ields f or o res f rom C yprus, K ythnos a nd L aurion, d is-

a nalysis ( by M . P ollard) o f a ll t hree l ead i sotope r atios f or

p layed i n t he

o res

a l

l ead

f irst

t wo-dimension-

i sotope d iagram.

f rom C yprus,

L aurion .

K ythnos a nd

T he d iagram s hows g ood

s eparation o f t he l ead i sotope f ields f or t hese t hree o re d eposits.

1 38

4 .2

5 .6

70

C yprus Archaeological i nformation s uggests t hat C yprus w as c losely i nvolved w ith t he o xhide i ngots a t l east f or t he l atter p art o f t he L ate Bronze A ge. C yprus w as c ertainly t hen a m ajor u ser o f c opper i n t he e astern Mediterranean . A n i mportant t est o f a ny s cientific m ethod o f e stablishing p rovenance i s t o u se i t t o s ee w hether i t c an p rove t hat o xhide i ngots f ound o n C yprus w ere m ade o f c opper f rom C ypriot c opper d eposits. F irst i t w as n ecessary t o e stablish t he l ead i sotope f ield c haracteristic o f C ypriot c opper o res . C ypriot o res a re l ocated c hiefly i n t he f oothills o f t he Troodos m ountain r ange. W e c ollected o re s amples o f various t ypes , a nd c opper s lag s amples , f rom t he l ocalities s hown i n f igure 7 .3 . F igure 74 s hows t he r esulting l ead i sotope f ield f or t he C ypriot q uite d ifferent

c opper o res a nd s lags . I t i s c lear f rom f igure 74 t hat C ypriot c opper o re t ypes, r anging f rom p yrite/ c halco-

p yrite o res c ontaining o nly a f ew p ercent o f c opper t hrough r ich s ulp hidic o res t o r ich o xidised o res a ll c ontain l ead h aving i sotopic c ompositions f alling i nto t he s ame f ield. T he f ew ' ancient ' c opper s lags s o f ar a nalysed a lso f all i nto t he s ame f ield. p resent t o b e n o evidence t hat i t w ill b e p ossible,

T here s eems a t f rom t he l ead

i sotope c omposition, t o d ifferentiate d ifferent c opper o re d eposits w ithin C yprus, b ut t he g eneral f ield f or t he C ypriot c opper o res a s a w hole s eems w ell e stablished . L ate C ypriot B ronzes I t w as n ext n ecessary t o s ee w hether l ead i sotope a nalyses o f L ate C ypriot b ronzes f ell i nto t he f ield e stablished f or C ypriot c opper o res, s o p roving t he b ronzes t o b e m ade o f C ypriot c opper . T hough w e m ay e xpect a f ew m etal artefacts f rom L ate C ypriot s ites t o b e o f f oreign o rigin t he m ajority m ust s urely b e m ade f rom C ypriot c opper , i n v iew o f t he e xtensive e vidence f or e xtractive a nd c asting m etallurgy a t s ites s uch a s E nkomi, K ition, H ala S ultan T ekke a nd A yios D himitrios ( Karageorghis 1 982; S tech 1 982; Tylecote 1 982; B achmann 1 982; Z wicker 1 982). MAVROVOUN I S KOU

I OT ISSA M ITSERO

P ER ISTERKA ( NE W KAMB IA)

AGROK IP IA KAMB IA K ala l iondas MATH IAT I

VV V

L IMN I VV V V V V VV V V V VV

P ERAVASA P ERAPEDH I A Y IOS MAMAS

r i

S ed imen tary r ocks

"

P i l low l a ves

• • • I)

Y ERASA

D raP is MOUSOULOS a nd

VV ‘ S V V V V ' V VV V V V VV V V V V VV V V V

B asa l g roup S hee ted D yke c omp lex

2 0km

! , Gabb ro a nd T rondh lem i le U l trama l ic r ocks a nd S erpen l in I tes

F igure 7 .3

G eological

s ketch m ap o f t he Troodos

M ountain r egion i n

C yprus. T he l ocalities a re s hown f rom which o re o r s lag s amples w ere o btained f or a nalysis t o e stablish t he l ead i sotope

f ield f or C ypriot o res.

1 39

I n f act a nalyses o f a f ew b ronzes f rom P yla , A yios D himitrios a nd H ala S ultan T ekke s how t hem a ll t o h ave l ead i sotope c ompositions w hich a re c onsistent w ith d erivation o f t heir c opper f rom C ypriot c opper o res ( see f ig . 7 .5). C ypriot O xhide I ngots T he c opper o xhide i ngots f ound o n C yprus a t E nkomi, Mathiati a nd S kouriotissa p rovide a n i deal t est f or s cientific m ethods d esigned t o s tudy p rovenance. T hese i ngots m ust h ave b een c ast f rom r aw c opper ; p revious c hemical a nalyses ( Muhly e t a l. 1 980) s how t hem t o b e m ade o f v ery p ure c opper a nd c ertainly n ot t o c ontain a ny a dded t in o r a rsenic . T he o xhide i ngots a s a w hole a re m ost p robably f ree t he m ixing t ogether o f b atches o f c opper c oming s ources.

f rom t he p roblem o f f rom d ifferent o re

W e h ave m ade l ead i sotope a nalyses o f s even o xhide i ngot f ragments f ound i n Cyprus, f our from t he Mathiati hoard and t hree from S kouriotissa. F igure 7 .6 s hows t hat a ll t he a nalyses f all i nto t he f ield d efined b y t he C ypriot o res . A ll t he i ngot f ragments a re c onsist ent w ith h aving b een m ade f rom c opper s melted f rom C ypriot c opper o res . T he n eutron a ctivation t race e lement a nalyses ( table 7 .1) s how t hat a ll o f t hese C ypriot o xhide i ngot f ragments a re o f r ather p ure c opper , w ith a c opper c ontent g reater t han 9 9 p ercent i n e ach c ase. T aken t og ether t he C ypriot b ronzes a nd i ngots c ome f rom q uite d ifferent p arts o f C yprus, a nd p resumably w ere m ade f rom c opper o res f rom s everal g eog raphical l ocalities o n C yprus, y et t hey a re r emarkably s imilar i n t he l evels o f t he t race e lements a rsenic, a ntimony a nd s ilver w hich t hey c ontain. W e p articularly d raw a ttention t o t heir g old a nd s ilver c ontents . T ylecote a nd h is c olleagues , a s a r esult o f t heir e xperimental c opper s melting s tudies, h ad a lready s uggested t hat g old a nd s ilver m ight b e g ood t race e lement i ndicators o f p rovenance .

I t i s c lear f rom f igure

7 .7 t hat a ll t he L ate C ypriot c opper-alloy o r c opper a rtefacts s o f ar a nalysed

c luster

t ogether i n a w ell

d efined

r egion o f

t he

g old-silver

d iagram . T his s eems t o p rovide a nother c haracteristic f or r ecognising L ate C ypriot c opper , w hether a s r aw c opper i n o xhide i ngots o r a lloyed w ith b ronze . C rete H aving

s uccessfully

g rouped

t ogether

t he

C ypriot

i ngots

a nd

s hown

t hem t o b e o f C ypriot c opper w e t urned t o i ngots f rom Crete. N ineteen o xhide i ngots w ere f ound t ogether i n t he I talian e xcavations a t H agia T riadha . T hey a re o f t he e arly T ype 1 a nd d ate a pproximately t o l ate MM I II o r e arly LM I A; t hey a re s ome 3 00 y ears e arlier t han t he C ypriot e xamples. S ixteen a re o n d isplay i n t he H erakleion Museum ; h ere w e r eport t he a nalyses o f n ine o f t hose . F igure 7 .8 g ives a g raphical p lot o f t he l ead i sotope d ata i n r elation t o t he l ead i sotope f ields f or C ypriot c opper o res a nd i n r elation t o p reliminary l ead i sotope d ata f or t he E rgani M aden c opper m ine i n T urkey . T he d ashed c urves o n t his g roup a re i ntended m erely t o g uide t he e ye t o s imilar i sotope c ompositions; p resent t hey h ave n o o ther s ignificance .

a t

T he l ead i sotope d ata a t o nce p roves t hat t he H agia T riadha i ngots a re n ot m ade o f C ypriot c opper, n or a re t hey m ade o f c opper f rom t he E rgani Maden m ines. T he s ymbols " Tm" g ive l ead i sotope m odel ages

1 40

- 2 . 08

Fi e ld

2"

Pb/

na

P t ' " ' " "

Cy priot

— 2 . 07

— 2 . 08

A

A le

AO

AGR OKIP IA

AL

A lm ,

AM

Ay la Manna

AP

AD

C I

M

O rio le

K

K

KA

K L Its 1 1

K I

K Il lon

L .

L Inu i l

M

MATM IAT I

P

P•f 1 1 111 1

Pt

P( (

•

8KOL /R IOT I88A

5 1 4

SMA

T I L

TR OU 1 . 1 . 1

•

Our lte/a lm IceMyr IM

I 3

f i lch L u 108 10 14 Cu on .

•

OLI L IM •4 Cl /e gos

•

U MW .

•

Ga le .

X

t I ranve

•

.04 1. 1 10 . 1 1.

Mat

•

20 Tpb / 208

0 . 83

%

0 ,84

F igure 7 .4 L ead i sotope c ompositions f or o res a nd s lags f rom C yprus. N ote t hat c opper o res , u mbers, g alena a nd c opper s lags h ave l ead i sotope c ompositions f alling i nto t he s ame f ield . E rror b ars a t t he 9 5% l evel f or t he l ead i sotope r atios a re s hown o n t his a nd s ubsequent f igures .

F igure 7 .5

L ead i sotope c ompositions f or L ate C ypriot B ronzes

1 41

2 09

C Y PRIOT O XHIDE I N GOTS

N A T H IAT I •S X O UR IOT ISSA

2 .08

A3

.70

•7e Oa"

2 A

2

A

CY PR I OT

F IELD

2 .07

0 .83

0 .85

0 .84

" 'Pb/ 2"Pb

F igure 7 .6 L ead i sotope c ompositions f or a t M athiati a nd S kouriotissa i n C yprus

o xhide

i ngot

f ragments

f ound

1 000

•

7. 4 : // ' /

°

AAA

/

« ;

/

IA

A

A

,/

0 X ,

1 ‘ . 9 .

A

0

C YPRIOT O XHIDE I NGOTS A . D RIMITRIOS L C I I

• H .S . T EXXE L C I I

__ L

I

I

I

I

Pm A u

. 1 1 0

1 00

F igure 7 .7 G old a nd s ilver c oncentrations f or C ypriot o xhide i ngot f ragments c ompared w ith t hose f or L ate B ronze A ge c opper a lloy a rtefacts f rom A yios D himitrios a nd H ala S ultan T ekke

14 2

c omputed t heoretically . T hese m odel a ges s hould c orrespond a pproxim ately w ith t he g eological a ges o f t he o re d eposits w hich p rovided t he c opper f or t hese i ngots, a nd f or t he o re d eposits i nvestigated . The m odel a ge f or t he E rgani M aden c opper d eposit i s a bout 3 6 M a , w hilst f or t he C ypriot c opper o re d eposits t he m odel a ge i s a bout 1 00 M a . I n c ontrast t he m odel a ge c alculation s uggests t hat e ight o f t he H agia T riadha i ngots w ere m ade o f c opper c oming f rom a P recambrian o re d eposit o f a bout 6 40 M a a ge w hilst t he n inth i ngot c ame f rom a d ifferent o re d eposit w ith a m odel a ge o f a bout 3 70 M a . T he i sotopic c omposition o f t he l ead i n t he p atch i s i dentical, w ithin e rrors, w ith t hat i n t he m ain b ody o f t his i ngot, s uggesting t hat t he p atch w as p ut i n p lace v ery s oon a fter t he i ngot w as m ade, u sing c opper f rom t he s ame b atch . T hese n ine o xhide i ngots f rom H agia T riadha w ere c learly n ot m ade f rom c opper f rom C yprus, E rgani M aden o r , f or t hat m atter , f rom L aurion . A lso t hey h ave n ot b een m ade f rom C retan c opper o res. L ead i sotope a nalyses o f C retan c opper o res p lot i n t he g eneral r egion o f , a nd p artly o verlap , t he C ypriot c opper d eposits . T he

t race

e lement

a nalyses

o f

t he H agia T riadha

i ngots

( table 7 .2)

s how c onsiderable d ifferences f rom t hose f or t he C ypriot i ngots, e specially f or t he e lements a rsenic, a ntimony , s ilver a nd z inc . T his d ifference e xtends a lso t o t he g old-silver d iagram . F igure 7 . 9 shows t hat i n t his d iagram t he H aghia T riadha i ngots d o n ot p lot i n t he s ame r egion a s t he C ypriot o xhide i ngots. N ote, h owever , t hat t he H agia T riadha i ngots C , F a nd P , w hich a ll h ave h igher c oncentrations o f a rsenic a nd g old, n evertheless p lot i n t he s ame i sotopic f ield a s i ngots E , H , I , J a nd O . T he i ndividual t race e lement c ompositions s eem c learl y t o b e a l ess r eliable g uide t o p rovenance t han a re t he l ead i sotope c ompositions. W e c annot y et i dentify t he c opper s ources u sed t o m ake t he H agia T riadha i ngots , b ut t hey m ay h ave b een l ocated i n A natolia . W e c an s ay t hat o ur l ead i sotope a nd n eutron a ctivation a nalyses h ave f or t he f irst t ime c learly d ifferentiated b etween t wo g roups o f o xhide i ngots . T he C ypriot e xamples f rom M athiati a nd S kouriotissa w ere c learly m ade f rom c opper s melted f rom C ypriot o re d eposits ; e qually c learly , t he e arlier i ngots f rom H agia T riadha w ere n ot m ade f rom C ypriot c opper . T he S ardinian O xhide I ngots C opper i ngots o f t he o xhide t ype, n ow k nown t hroughout t hat p art o f t he Mediterranean l ying t o t he e ast o f S ardinia, w ere i n f act f irst f ound i n 1 857 i n S ardinia. T hey c omprised t hree c omplete i ngots f rom S erra I lixi ( Nuragus) ( Spano 1 858). T wo c omplete i ngots w ere l ater e xcavated f rom u nder t he p avement o f a N uragic t ower a t B isarcio ( Ozieri - S S)

( Lilliu 1 958 ;

A madu 1 978),

b ut f or t he m ost p art o xhide i ngots a re

f ound i n S ardinia a s f ragments. L o S chiavo ( 1 980; 1 985) h as r eviewed t he p resent s tatus o f f inds o f o xhide i ngots , o r f ragments t hereof , i n S ardinia . A part f rom m ore t han t wenty f ragments w ithout a ssociation o r f indspot i n t he museums a t C agliari a nd N uoro, f igure 7 .10 s hows t hat t here a re n ow a t l east 1 5 s ites w here o xhide i ngots o r f ragments h ave b een f ound, a f igure w hich e xceeds t he n umber o f o xhide i ngot f ind s ites o n C rete and C yprus t ogether . U nfortunately t here a re n o d irect a rchaeological

a ssociations

t he S ardinian o xhide i ngots.

t o

s olve

t he

p roblem

o f

t he

c hronology

o f

A ssociations a t A rzachena, T ertenia a nd

1 43

2 .14

» L.

JA ' ,

2 .13

COPPER OXH IDE I NGOTS /

/ 2 .12 FA

2 .10

CA

/

/ / T m.es ma

T rw.37SM1

F

1 3 0 mch

2 .04

,

A/

•

•

OXH IDE I NGOTS . HAG IA TR IADHA . CRETE

•

OXH IDE I NGOTS . CYPRUS

•

COPPER

ORES

Tm•3 1 316 i i ERGAN I MADEN

•

2 .00 0 .82

, 1

0 .63

0 .64

0 .88

0 .86

2 03

0 .87

0 .88

b /" Pb

F igure 7 .8 L ead i sotope c ompositions f or o xhide i ngots e xcavated f rom H agia T riadha, C rete, c ompared w ith t he C Ypriot f ield a nd w ith c opper o res f rom E rgani M aden, T urkey 1 000

1 00

AC yp r io t O xh ide I n go ts 1 0

OA .D h im i t r ios L C I •H .S . T o kke

L C I

2 .

2

I

2

F igure

7 . 9

G old

a nd

s ilver c oncentrations

T riadha c ompared w ith t he ' field '

•• •

1 •

21 1

1 0

P Pm A u

1 00

f or o xhide

i ngots f rom H agia

f or L ate C ypriot c opper a nd bronze

o bjects a nd w ith C ypriot o xhide i ngot

f ragments.

144

T eti

s uggest

I ron A ge, i ngots. S erra

t hat

f ragments o f i ngots w ere s till

a bout 9 00 B .C.,

i n u se u ntil

t he

E arly

b ut t his d oes n ot d ate t he p roduction of t he

The f orm o f t hose f rom O zieri a nd o f t wo o f t he i ngots

I lixi

( 3)

c lassifies

t hem a s

o f B uchholz '

T ype

2 ,

a t ype

f rom

k nown

i n

Mycenae i n t he 1 4th a nd 1 3th c enturies B .C. Elsewhere o xhide i ngots b elong t o t he s econd m illennium B C a nd m ost t o i ts s econd h alf; b y a ssociation w e w ould e xpect t he S ardinian e xamples t o h ave a s imilar c hronology. I f w e o xhide

l ook a t

i ngots w e

t he

n ote

d istribution w ithin f irst

t hat

S ardinia

t hey h ave

b een

o f t he

f indspots

f ound m ore

o r

l ess

o f

a ll

o ver t he i sland . T here i s s omething o f a c oncentration o f f indspots i n t he c entral p art o f S ardinia, s uggesting t o s ome ( Tylecote e t al. 1 984:143; L o S chiavo e t al. 1 985:13) t hat t hey may h ave b een m ade o f c opper f rom i nternal m ining a reas w ithin S ardinia, r ather t han b eing i mports

t hrough

c oastal

d epots.

W e

d o

n ot

f ind

t his

a rgument

very

p ersuasive; a s B uchholz ( 1 959:2) h as n oted, t he o xhide i ngot s hape i s n ot o nly c onvenient f or c arrying o n a m an 's s houlders ( 4) but i s also i deally

s uited

f or

l oading

o n

p ack

animals,

b y

which

m eans

i ngots

a rriving a t c oastal p orts c ould e asily h ave b een t ransported t o a ny p art o f S ardinia. 22 L2 2, her

NA gg _g h e

.

,.

AI b u c Qiu

c 2 ,z ,

o s ,e A

2

zi er i

3 I ttir e d du

9M a r a

O rose ie 2 2 19 2 1 A N u or o

A

7

a

O rt u er

A

Tet i

10 A t2 e lv i

L anuse i

12

T harros

A 13 N ura g us T 4

•

A

1 5

7 :2 1r 1

B aru m i ni

M 1i2 4 17

18 i l l a n ov at orr u

" A ss e m i ni A ,. -

" L a_g l u t

C ap o terra k 20 S arr o c h N ur a g h e

o2

A ntig pri

F igure 7 .1 0 S ketch m ap o f S ardinia s howing t he d istribution of f ind s pots o f c opper o xhide i ngots ( triangles), Mycenaean p ottery ( circles) and o f t he Nuraghi Albucciu ( Arzachena) and Antigori ( Sarroch). s ymbols d enote r ecent d iscoveries .

O pen

I n o rder t o e nsure a ccuracy t his m ap

c opies e xactly F igure 3 o f L o S chiavo ( 1985). A nalysis t he u nderlined f indspots a re r eported i n t his p aper.

1 45

o f

i ngots

f rom

A rchaeological E vidence f or t he O rigin o f S ardinian O xhide I ngots T he e arliest v iew w as t hat t he S ardinian o xhide i ngots c ame f rom t he e astern M editerranean . F or i nstance L uigi P igorini ( 1904) c ompared t he c opper o xhide i ngots e xcavated i n 1 903 a t H agia Triadha(Paribeni 1 903 :334) i n C rete w ith t hose f ound i n 1 857 a t S erra I lixi i n S ardinia . N oting n ot o nly t he s hape, c ommon t o t he t hen k nown C ypriot, Cretan, Mycenaean a nd S ardinian e xamples, b ut a lso t he s igns c ommonly a ccepted a s C ypro-Minoan ( e.g . B uchholz 1 959; L o S chiavo e t al. 1 985:13), i mpressed u pon t hem, P igorini ( 1904) w as l ed t o s uggest a s tory o f e astern t rade. F or h im, t he i ngots f ound i n S ardinia c ame f rom a n o rigin

i n

t he A egean a nd w ere

p robably

p roduced

b y

t he

Mycenaeans .

I n

f act o ne o f t he S erra I lixi i ngots i s c losely c omparable w ith t he e arlier H agia T riadha i ngots, b ut t he o ther t wo a re very l ike l ater e xamples f rom Mycenae a nd C yprus. L ater f inds h ave s hown t hat t he o xhide i ngot i s v ery m uch a f eature o f t he e astern M editerranean . T he e xamples i n S ardinia a re n ot o nly v ery m uch o n t he w estern f ringes o f t he d istribution , b ut t heir n umbers a re n ot s o l arge t hat t hey c ould n ot i n p rinciple b e a ccounted f or a s t he c argo o f a s ingle s hip l ike t hose o f t he C ape G elidonya o r U lu B urun s hipwrecks ( Bass 1 967 ; 1 986), b oth o f w hich w ere a lmost c ertainly s ailing f rom t he e astern Mediterranean t owards t he w est . T hat t he o xhide i ngots i n S ardinia m ay h ave c ome f rom t he e astern M editerranean , p erhaps e ven f rom C yprus, i s a n h ypothesis n ot w eakened b y t he d iscovery o f L ate C ypriot I I p ottery i n S ardinia ( Lo S chiavo

e t

a l.

1 985:4-9)

o r

b y

t he

t ypological

e xamination

b y

L o

S chiavo, Macnamara a nd Vagnetti ( 1985:9-46) o f b ronze d ouble-axes, s mithing t ools, b asins a nd t ripod-stands f ound i n S ardinia w hich s uggest t hat C ypriot i mports i n S ardinia s tarted i n t he t hirteenth c entury B . C . a nd c ontinued i nto t he f irst h alf o f t he e leventh c entury . N evertheless i n r ecent t imes s cholars , a mongst t hem B ass ( 1967:77 ; 1 986:294) a nd Muhly ( 1982:261), h ave t ended t o a rgue t hat t he o xhide i ngots f ound i n S ardinia w ere a lso m ade t here, f rom S ardinian c opper o res. T heir a rguments h ave e ssentially d epended o n t wo u ndeniable f acts. T he f irst i s t hat S ardinia i s r elatively r ich i n c opper o res ( Del C aldo e t a l. 1 973:182-188); t he s econd i s t hat t he evidence f or a l ocal, N uragic, c opper i ndustry i s m ost i mpressive . L arge n umbers o f c opper b un i ngots a nd c haracteristic b ronze a rtefacts h ave b een f ound , t ogether w ith m any m oulds t o c ast o bjects o f a d istinctive S ardinian t ype ( 5 ) . I ndications o f e xploitation o f S ardinian o res h ave c ome f rom t he d iscovery o f c opper s lags w ith N uragic a ssociations ( Zwicker e t a l . 1 980 ; T ylecote e t a l . 1 984) . T here

i s

h owever

a b asic

f law

i n

t he

a rguments

b ased

o n

t hese

f acts; a s f ar a s w e k now t here i s n o f irm e vidence a bout t he r elative c hronology o f t he S ardinian o xhide i ngots a nd t he N uragic m etal i ndust ry . W e h ave s ome e vidence t o p lace t he P rotonuragic p eriod f rom a bout 1 500-1200 B .C., t he b eginning o f n uraghi w ith c omplex p lans ( Middle N uragic I ) f rom a bout 1 200 -9 00 B .C. a nd M iddle N uragic I I f rom a bout

9 00 -7 00 B .C. ( Lo S chiavo 1 985:5), b ut a lmost n o evidence t o p lace a ny i tem o f N uragic m etal w ork w ithin t his c hronological f ramework ( 6) . T hus t here i s a t p resent n o f irm e vidence w hich f orces u s t o p lace t he b eginning o f t he N uragic m etal i ndustry e arlier t han a bout 1 1 00 B C, w hereas t he t ypology o f t he S ardinian o xhide i ngots s uggests t hat t hey b elong r ather t o t he 1 4th a nd 1 3th c enturies B .C. I n p rinciple t he o xhide i ngots c ould h ave c ome f rom o utside t o S ardinia a nd t he e xploitat ion of S ardinian c opper o res t ogether w ith t he f lourishing o f t he N uragic c opper i ndustry c ould h ave p ostdated t hat e vent ( Gale a nd S tos-

1 46

G ale 1 986), a s also n oted b y B uchholz ( 1959:18).

I t i s even r emotely

p ossible, p artly f ollowing B ass ( 1967 :77), t hat t he i mpetus f or f inding a nd m ining c opper i n S ardinia c ame f rom p eople e xperienced i n t hose a rts f rom t he e astern M editerranean, w ho b rought t he i nitial s upplies o f c opper w ith t hem i n t he

f orm o f o xhide

i ngots .

B ass, w riting b efore t he e xciting d iscoveries o f t he p ast d ecade , d escribed S ardinia a s a r emote a nd o bscure l and . H e c ould c onceive o f n o a lternative s olution t o t he p roblem o f w hy h oards o f c opper o xhide i ngots have b een f ound i n S ardinia o ther e xploitation o f S ardinian c opper o res,

t han a s t he r esult o f b oth t he m ining a nd

t he t he

p roduction o f t he i ngots b eing under t he c ontrol o f p eople f rom t he e astern Mediterranean, m ost p robably S yrians ( Bass 1 967:77). D irect a rchaeological e vidence o f a S yrian p resence i n S ardinia i n t he B ronze A ge r emains s canty i n t he e xtreme, b ut r ecent d iscoveries p oint very s trongly t o Mycenaean ,

C ypriot a nd Minoan c ontacts w ith t he i sland.

Mycenaean s herds h ave b een f ound a t a number o f s ites i n S ardinia a nd r eported i n a n umber o f p apers b y L ucia Vagnetti ( 1980 ; 1 982), F ulvia L o S chiavo a nd Maria L uisa F errarese C eruti ( 1979; 1 980; 1 981). T he s ituation a s i t w as i n 1 982, a nd m any n ewer d iscoveries h ave s ince b een m ade, w as s ummarised b y D r . L o S chiavo i n h er Munro l ectures a t t he U niversity o f E dinburgh ( Lo S chiavo 1 985). Mycenaean s herds w ere f irst f ound s omewhere i n t he v icinity o f O rosei o n t he e ast c oast o f S ardinia , m ore w ere e xcavated i n t he N uragic v illage o f B arumini, a c onsiderable q uantity w as e xcavated a t t he N uraghe A ntigori a nd b y 1 982 Mycenaean s herds , t he e arliest d ating f rom L H I II B -C t imes, h ad b een d iscovered a t s ix d ifferent s ites a ll o ver S ardinia ( fig . 7 .10). T he n umber o f s uch s ites w as i ncreased y et a gain i n Dr . L o S chiavo 's l ecture a t t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries i n 1 985. I n h er Munro l ectures Dr . L o S chiavo s uggested t hat t here m ay h ave b een a s pecial r elation b etween C yprus a nd S ardinia. L eaving a side t he p ossible C ypriot o rigin o f s ome o f t he d ecorated Mycenaean p ottery f ound i n S ardinia, D r . L o S chiavo f ound p ositive e vidence o f s uch a l ink i n t ypological s imilarities b etween C ypriot bronze o bjects a nd b ronzes f ound i n S ardinia . S he w as l ed t o p ostulate a p eak p eriod o f c ontact b etween S ardinia a nd C yprus i n t he t welfth c entury B .C . , c ontinuing i nto t he e leventh c entury ( Lo S chiavo 1 985:9). S ince t hen a n i mportant p aper p ublished b y L o S chiavo, Macn amara and Vagnetti ( 1985) h as s urveyed afresh t he q uestion o f L ate C ypriot i mports t o I taly . F or S ardinia, C ypriot B ase-ring I I s herds b elonging t o t he t hirteenth c entury B .C. ( LC I I) h ave b een f ound a t A ntigori . F urther , a M ycenaean r hyton o f L H I IIB 1 p eriod f rom N uraghe A ntigori ( Ferrarese C eruti 1 98 1:fig . M 4) h as c onvincing p arallels o nly a mongst Mycenaean p ottery f ound i n C yprus; i n t his c ase t here i s a n e xact p arallel i n a r hyton f rom E nkomi t omb 7 0 ( Lo S chiavo e t al. 1 985:7). T ypological a nalyses o f b ronze d ouble-axes, s mithing t ools, d aggers, b asins a nd t ripod-stands s uggest C ypriot i mports i n S ardinia s tarting i n t he t hirteenth c entury B C a nd c easing d uring t he f irst h alf o f t he eleventh c entury . T he White-shaved C ypriot p ottery f ound a t T hapsos s eems t o i ndicate t hat C ypriot i mports i nto S icily s tarted e ven e arlier , W hat

i n

t he

c ould

f ourteenth

c entury B .C .

t his a pparent C ypriot i nterest i n S ardinia s ignify?

S ardinia i s r ich i n c opper a nd l ead-silver o res ,

b ut t he C ypriots s urely

h ad n o n eed t o l ook f or c opper . N or i ndeed d id t he S yrians n eed t o l ook f urther a field f or c opper t han C yprus o r A natolia . F or l ead o r s ilver , p olitical f actors a part, t he r ich l ead-silver o res o f L aurion o r

1 47

Anatolia w ould s urely h ave b een m ore a ccessible t o t he C ypriots ( 1). S ome o ther c ommodity m ust h ave b een i n q uestion . A f ew M inoan s herds h ave a lso b een f ound i n S ardinia , n one d ating e arlier t han LM I IIB ( PAIsson H allager 1 985; Vagnetti 1 985b), t hough s herds d ating b oth t o LM I IIA a nd LM I IIB h ave b een f ound i n m ainland I taly ( Vagnetti 1 985a ; 1 985b). C rete i tself s eems t o h ave l ittle i n t he w ay o f c opper o re d eposits ( Gale a nd S tos-Gale 1 985; B ecker 1 976; W heeler e t a l. 1 975), s o t hat a Minoan i nterest i n S ardinian c opper i s c onceivable . H owever , r ecent s cientific e vidence ( Gale a nd S tos-Gale 1 986) d oes n ot s upport t he h ypothesis t hat S ardinian c opper c ame i nto Minoan h ands i n t he L ate B ronze A ge . I n s ummary w e f ind t he p urely a rchaeological

e vidence a mbiguous i n i ts i mplications f or t he s ource o f

c opper used t o make t he o xhide ingots f ound o n Sardinia. The a rchaeological e vidence m ay i ndicate a n e astern i nterest i n t he w estern M editerranean f or a nother c ommodity r ather t han c opper ; p erhaps t in , o re d eposits o f w hich d o n ot o ccur a t a ll i n G reece, C rete o r C yprus . C hemical A nalysis a nd M etallographic

I nvestigations o f

t he S ardinian

O xhide I ngots T he e arliest c hemical a nalysis o f S ardinian o xhide i ngots s eems t o h ave b een t hat o f C usmano ( 7), r eported b y B uchholz ( 1959 :38), o f o ne o f t he t hree i ngots f rom S erra I lixi; w e a re t old m erely t hat t he i ngot i s o f c opper w ith a l ittle i ron a nd s ulphur a s i mpurities. T he f irst m odern a nalyses w ere t hose r eported b y B almuth a nd T ylecote ( 1976:199), by q uantitative e mission s pectrography o f t he t hree c omplete o xhide i ngots f rom S erra I lixi a nd t he f ragment f rom T eti ( NU) ( Abini?). The a nalyses ( which d id n ot i nclude s ulphur ) s howed a ll f our i ngots t o b e o f h igh p urity c opper w ith a rsenic ( 0 .02 t o 0 .04 p ercent) a nd i ron ( less t han 0 .02 p ercent) a s t he p rinciple i mpurities. Metallographic e xaminations ( Balmuth a nd T ylecote 1 976:199) s howed t he i ngots t o h ave v arying a mounts o f c uprous s ulphide a nd o xide s pheroidal p articles ; t he T eti f ragment s howed p articularly s trong b listering d ue t o g as e volution d uring c ooling . I t w as c oncluded t hat t he i ngots are o f t ypical " blister" c opper w hich h ave e volved d issolved g as d uring s olidification ; m ostly s ulphur d ioxide b ut a lso h ydrogen o r w ater v apour . T he s ulphidic i nclusions w ere a ll o f c uprous s ulphide , n ot m atte a nd i t w as n oted t hat t he e vidence d id n ot n ecessarily m ean t hat t he c opper f or t he i ngots w as s melted f rom s ulphide o res, s ince i t h as b een s hown t hat o xide o res c ontaining o nly 0 .5 p ercent s ulphur c an p roduce c opper c ontaining 1 .3 p ercent s ulphur , m ore t han e nough t o a ccount f or t he i nclusions s een i n t he f our i ngots e xamined. N either t he t race e lement d ata n or t he m etallographic e xaminations g ave a ny f irm e vidence a bo ut t he p rovenance o f

t he

c opper .

F urther s emiquantitative a nalyses o f s even d ifferent S ardinian o xhide i ngots o r f ragments , i ncluding t he t hree f rom S erra I lixi a nd o ne f rom T eti, w ere p ublished b y Z wicker, V irdis a nd C eruti ( 1980). Metallographic i nvestigations s howed t hat t he i ngots C A3 ( using t he c onvention o f B almuth a nd T ylecote

1 976) f rom S erra I lixi a nd t he i ngot

f ragment f rom T eti b oth c ontained e ither c uprous-oxide/copper e utectic o r c uprous-oxide i nclusions b ut n o s ulphide i nclusions a nd w ere m ade o f " blister" c opper w hich h ad b een s ubjected t o a n o xidising a tmosphere d uring s melting . T he o ther f ive i ngots c ontained s ulphide i nclusions w hich c ommonly c ontained c obalt . N o c obalt w as d etected i n t he m atrix c opper o f t he t wo s ulphide-free i ngots c ontaining c uprous-oxide, b ut c obalt w as p resent i n s lag i nclusions i n t hese i ngots . I t w as c oncluded

148

t hat c obalt w as t ransferred f rom t he m etal t o t he slag d uring a f inal o xidising s melting p rocess a nd t hat t he s ame o re may g ive a d ifferent i mpurity p attern of N i a nd C o i f t he c onditions o f t he f inal s melting p rocess a re a ltered . N o c lear o r w ell-based c onclusions c ould b e d rawn a bout t he p rovenance o f t he c opper u sed t o m ake t he i ngots . W e h ave n ow m ade a nalyses b y i nstrumental n eutron a ctivation ( 8) o f s ixteen S ardinian o xhide i ngots f or 1 4

t race

e lements;

t he a nalyses

a re

r ecorded i n t able 7 .3 . A mongst t he i ngots w hich w e h ave a nalysed a re f our a nalysed a lso b y B almuth a nd Tylecote ( 1976:199), viz, t he t hree w hole i ngots f rom S erra I lixi ( CA1, C A2, C A3) and t he f ragment ( CA4) f rom T eti . I n e ach c ase o ur s amples w ere t aken a djacent t o t he s amples r emoved b y B almuth a nd T ylecote ( 1976:197-198) . I n o rder o f m agnitude o ur d ata i s i n g eneral a greement w ith t he e arlier o ptical s pectrographic d ata e xcept f or a rsenic, w here t he d ata o f B almuth a nd T ylecote a re a n o rder o f magnitude t oo l ow . s ets o f d ata i s n ot s o g ood,

I n d etail t he a greement b etween t he t wo b ut w e m ust r emember t hat a t t hese c oncen-

t ration l evels t he o ptical e mission t echnique u sed b y B almuth a nd T ylec ote ( 1 976:198) i s w orking v ery n ear i ts d etection l imit, u nlike t he c ase f or t he m uch m ore s ensitive m ethod o f i nstrumental n eutron a ctivat ion a nalysis . F or r easons o f p ossible m icrosegregation w e d o n ot c laim o ur t race e lement a nalyses t o r epresent t he a verage c omposition o f t he i ngots a t t he s ampling p osition t o a n a ccuracy b etter t han + /- 2 0 p erc ent ( 8). W ithin t hose l imits t he d ata p resented i n t able 7 .1 must b e a ccepted a s d efinitive . A ll b ut o ne o f t he S ardinian o xhide i ngots s o f ar a nalysed a re o f b etter t han 9 9 .3 p ercent p ure c opper , n one c ontain a ny a ppreciable a mount o f t in a nd, i n a greement w ith t he f indings o f Z wicker e t al. ( 1 980), t he f ragment f rom T eti ( Abini) i s u nusually l ow i n c obalt . F urther d iscussion o f t he c hemical a nalyses i s r eserved f or a l ater s ection . P rovenance o f t he S ardinian O xhide I ngots: P reamble W e a pproach t he p roblem o f t he p rovenance o f t he S ardinian o xhide i ngots b y f irst e xamining o ur e vidence f or u se o f S ardinian m etal o res f or t he p roduction o f t ruly N uragic m etal a rtefacts,

b oth o f l ead a nd o f

b ronze . I n t he c ontext o f t he o xhide i ngot p roblem t he r eason f or i nterest i n t he s ource o f s upply o f N uragic l ead i s e asy t o e xplain . I t i s t hat m ost S ardinian c opper d eposits a lso c ontain l ead o re - t his i s, f or e xample, t rue o f t he w ell known o re d eposit a t F untana R aminosa . I ndeed m any S ardinian d eposits k nown c hiefly f or l ead-zinc a lso c ontain c opper ( 9); i n m any c ases w e d o n ot know e nough i n d etail a bout t hese d eposits a t p resent t o a ssess w hether t he c opper m inerals w ere p resent i n a f orm which c ould h ave b een e xploited b y prehistoric m iners a nd m etallurgists. N evertheless i t i s n ot i nconceivable, i ndeed i t i s r ather p robable , t hat i n p rehistoric t imes t he s ame o re d eposit m ay h ave b een e xploited b oth f or l ead a nd c opper . S tudies w hich e stablish t he N uragic s ources o f l ead m ay t herefore a lso h ave a b earing o n t he s ource o f c opper , t hough o f c ourse c omparative l ead i sotope a nalyses o f c opper b ased a rtefacts m ust b e c ompared w ith s imilar a nalyses o f c opper o res i f N uragic

c opper s ources a re

t o b e e stablished w ith a ny c ertainty .

T he e xamination t o d etermine w hether t ruly N uragic bronzes were m ade o f c opper f rom S ardinian o re d eposits a nd, i f s o, t he i dentificat ion o f which S ardinian c opper o re d eposits w ere e xploited b y t he N uragic p eople, i s o f c lear i mportance t o s olving t he o xhide i ngot p rovenance p roblem , w ith t he c aveat a bout r elative c hronology m entioned a bove.

149

M etal O re D eposits i n S ardinia F irst S ardinia . d eposits,

l et

u s

s urvey b riefly

t he

d istribution o f m etal

o res

i n

C ompared w ith C rete, w hich h as v irtually n o m etal ore o r C yprus, w hich h as m uch c opper b ut v irtually n o l ead o r

s ilver , S ardinia h as a g reat w ealth o f o re d eposits o f c opper , l ead and s ilver a nd a lso a l ittle t in ( 10) t hough l ead i s b y f ar t he m ost a bundant . T he i sland 's g eology i s a lso q uite c omplex ( Garbarino e t a l. 1 980 ; P adalino e t a l . 1 973), w ith r ock u nits r anging i n g eological a ge f rom t he Q uaternary t o t he C ambrian , t hat i s f rom a bout 1 t o 5 00 m illion y ears i n a ge . Metal o re d eposits c ertainly a re p resent i n r ock u nits r anging i n a ge f rom t he C retaceous t o t he C ambrian . T he m etallogenetic m ap o f S ardinia ( 11) g ives a g eneral i mpression o f t he w ealth o f m etal o re d eposits o n t he i sland . I t s hows t hat b y f ar t he g reatest c oncentration o f o re d eposits l ies i n t he s outhwest o f t he i sland, i n t he I glesiente-Sulcis m ining d istrict . M ore t han 3 0 m ajor l ead-zinc d eposits a nd t hree m ajor c opper d eposits l ie i n t his d istrict . T hese d eposits r epresent t he p roducts o f s everal o re f orming p rocesses i n C ambrian, S iluro-Ordovician a nd P ermo-Triassic t imes . F urther l eadz inc a nd c opper d eposits a lso o ccur i n o ther p arts o f t he i sland, f or i nstance i n t he m ountainous B arbagia r egion w here l ies t he w ell k nown F untana R aminosa l ead-copper m ine ( Garbarino e t a l. 1 980), b ut also s cattered u p t he e astern p arts o f t he i sland a nd i n n orthwestern S ardinia w here d eposits l ie i n T ertiary r ock u nits . T he s heer a bundance o f o re d eposits m akes i t i mpossible f or t his r eason a lone t o h ave any c hance o f r elating p rehistoric m etal o bjects t o p articular o re d eposits b y c hemical a nalysis. I n c ontrast o ne c ould h ave s ome h ope o f u sing l ead i sotopes f or s uch p rovenancing s tudies j ust b ecause t he l ead i sotope c omposition f or a n o re d eposit i s r oughly g overned b y t he g eological a ge o f t hat d eposit . T herefore , o nce o ne h as d etermined t he l ead i sotope c omposition o f a m etal a rtefact o ne i mmediately h as a r ough g uide t o t he g eological a ge o f t he o re d eposits which m ight h ave s upplied i ts m etal. N uragic L ead O bjects T he m etal l ead w as c ertainly u sed b y t he N uragic p eoples . A mongst t he p ublished e xamples a re a l ead b oat m odel a nd l ead p ottery r epair o n a M ycenaean s herd, b oth e xcavated i n t he N uraghe A ntigori ( FerrareseC eruti 1 98 1:605-612, p lates M 1 a nd M 7) . I f t he M ycenaean s herd w ith t he l ead c lamp f rom N uraghe A ntigori i s a ccepted a s L H I II B -C, t hen l ead w as b eing u sed i n t his n uraghe a t a bout s omewhere b etween 1 300 a nd 1 200 B .C.

t he

E ight l ead o bjects f rom N uraghe A ntigori w ere a nalysed, i ncluding l ead b oat m odel a nd l ead c lamp a lready m entioned , t ogether w ith o ne

d ating f rom t he t hirteenth c entury B .C. f rom t he N uraghe Albucciu i n N orth S ardinia . T heir l ead i sotope c ompositions ( see t able 7 .4) g roup t ogether ( fig . 7 .11) s uggesting t hat t hey w ere m ade o f l ead c oming f rom o ne o re d eposit, o r s everal d eposits o f s imilar a ge a nd m etallogenesis . Also p lotted o n t his d iagram a re t he l ead i sotope c ompositions f or 2 7 S ardinian l ead o re d eposits ( see t able 7 .5). These i nclude F untana R aminosa w hich , t hough i t h as b een m uch d iscussed a s a p ossible s ource o f c opper i n a ncient t imes ( e.g . T ylecote e t a l. 1 984:121; Z wicker e t a l. 1 980:141), i s a lso a s ource o f z inc a nd l ead ( Del C aldo e t al. 1 974 :188 ;

G arbarino

e t

a l.

1 980 :254-257) .

15 0

"Pb/ ' °Pb . 85 NUR A G IC -2 1 2

•

. 88

L EAD O BJECT

NU ( 8Qh1 1 1 A lbucc iu , Arzachena (S A)

1 31h C . B .C .

• Nuraghe AnI lgor l , Sarroch (C A)

. 1 0

-2 .11

5ARD IN IAN L EAD DEPOS IT§ 0-Arp•nt ler. ( SA) 0 -6. 1 1 1s ( CA) 4-1•I• 0.1 1 1 10 ( CA)

( T IN .Z INC)

4 1-Can. l• ear lson l ( I OU)

-2 .1 0

0 -P r•nu • S anoun i ( CA) 6-Pred• 60 1 Iu ( CA) 0 -A rcu Corr•bo l (5 (J) 9 -W e T s rugua ( CA) 1 2 )-Car , ,,,, ( CA) 0Is LA .. ( CA) 6-6.0 A rens. ( •6 2)

2 .105 -2 .09

. F .Ran s iooss

A - Guszu rs ( MU)

+ 5• • March..

A -1 . 4on it ivecch lo (CA) •- So. Eo.1106 ( NU) •- Genns Old . 1 •- 5 G lorson 4 ( CA ,1 . 1on 150on 4 ( CA o-5 1 1 1u. ( CA) •- C. mou SO MA ( CA) 6-1.tau• ( CA)

2 .035. ;

• -Sa D t ioh o ste. ( CA)

. 065

( coer €8 .ze oc i

. -1 . 1. 1sc• It•It• ( CA)

2 .08

*1 . 4 i• ta i l ( CA) o-LSAtz•-S .Crocs ( CA) 6 -60... ( CA)

( C OPPER .Z INC)

F igure 7 .11

C omparative l ead i sotope c ompositions f or e ight N uragic

l ead

a nd

o bjects

f or 2 7 S ardinian

l ead

o re d eposits .

d eposits c ontain also z inc and/or b arium,

M any o f t hese o re

f luorite a nd s ilver .

S ome

c ontain also s ignificant q uantities o f c opper ( e.g . F untana R aminosa, R osas, S a Marchesa , S a D uchessa) . F rom t his d iagram w e c an e xclude, a s s ources o f l ead f or t he N uragic l ead o bjects, a ll t he p lotted d eposits e xcept Sa D uchessa, Masua, C ampu Spina, C arreras a nd Monteponi. l ocations o f t he o re d eposits a re i ndicated i n F igure 7 .5 . SOME SARD IN IAN ORE DEP OS ITS o Copper/Lead ( z inc) • L ead o

A r

T in ( l ead . z inc)

gentlera

. SASSAR I _Cana le B ar ison s

. (S .Mar ia i n P au l is ) oM ie .S iss in i

Guzzu ra. S os E na i tos. .NUORO

A rcu Co r rebo i • Genna O l idon i ,Fun tana R arn inosa B au A renas. .Mon levecch io

Gut

• Car reras S . Govann i

S i l ius • s a ! A la •

P erda s 'O l iu • 0M te .Mannu

• P ranu e S angun i

Osa Duchessa • Mon tep _en i nosas,

%Ta mara

CAGL IAR I

,

s a Mä rchesa . is L uas

F igure 7 .12

L ocations

o f s ome S ardinian o re d eposits

1 51

The

T he

i sotope d ata

f or t he o res

e xhibit a c onsiderable s pread and

a llow o ne t o e xclude, a s a s ource o f l ead t o A ntigori o r A lbucciu , n ot o nly F untana R aminosa b ut also 2 1 o ther d eposits. T he o nly d eposits p lotted

i n f igure

7 .11

w hich

c ould

h ave

s upplied

l ead

t o

t hese

t wo

n uraghi a re t he C ambrian d eposits o f S a D uchessa, Masua, C ampu S pina, C arreras a nd Monteponi, w hich a re a ll l ocated q uite c lose t ogether i n t he

I glesiente

( fig .

7 .12).

o re d eposits

L ead

i sotope

d ata

i s

a lso

a vailable

i n t he I glesiente/Sulcis d istrict

f or

( see

2 2

o ther

l ead

f ig .

7 .13);

i t p rovides evidence f or r ejecting 1 8 m ore d eposits a nd a dding

t he l ead d eposits S an G iovanni I dina, P ira-Roma, Monte S 'Orcu and C andiazzus t o t he l ist o f t hese w hich m ay h ave s upplied l ead t o A ntigori a nd Albucciu . More r ecent d ata ( table 7 .3) a dds t he m ines A cquaresi, M ontevecchio S anna a nd N ebida t o t his l ist . T hese f urther d eposits a re a gain a ll i n t he I glesiente/Sulcis d istrict; g eologically t hey a re all i n C ambrian h ost r ocks ( fig . 7 .14). C ambrian r ocks o utcrop o nly i n s outhwestern

S ardinia

( Vardabasso

1 950 ;

G arbarino

e t

a l.

1 980 :252 ,

f ig .

1 29; C herchi e t a l. 1 982), s o t he s ource o f t he l ead t o t he t wo n uraghi i nvestigated c an o nly b e i n t he I glesiente/Sulcis d istrict, A lbucciu i s i n t he f ar n orth o f t he i sland. T his m ay

e ven t hough n ot b e t oo

s urprising s ince i t i s i n l ine w ith what w e are f inding i n t he A egean. P rehistoric l ead

p eople,

h aving

o r c opper d eposit,

f ound

w ould

o ne c onvenient a nd r elatively l arge

t end

t o

c oncentrate

o n e xploiting

i t

r ather t han i nvesting t ime i n s eeking o ut a nother ( Gale a nd S tos-Gale 1 985:90-91). O ur present i nvestigations p rove t hat l ead ores i n t he I glesiente/Sulcis d istrict t hirteenth c entury B .C . F rom

o f S ardinia w ere a lready e xploited i n t he t his e vidence a lone, b earing i n m ind t hat

i n S ardinia c opper a nd l ead o res o ften o ccur t ogether i n t he s ame d eposit, i t i s c onceivable t hat c opper c ould a lso h ave b een p roduced a s e arly a s

t his .

" 'Pb/

P b

2 °

87

86

. 88

2 .1 2

ORE bEPOS ITS . I GLES IENTE/SULC IS Merku r ( CA) hen l eve l Pb-Zn-Ag d beo$4 . e ik lel lon z one • Magma Mar. ( CA) does Pb-Zn deg roan • A lalecar retla

• a ronteoon 1 ( CA)

SA

a .

( CA)

Carnou So lna (CA) g alena bou lde r

_

• Carr

A l .9

( CA)

o Si Duche

m ( CA)

• Pea Fa m ,- si ira i ( CA) 2 .11

• 1 A .S ' Oreu ( CA) 0

Further o re c l opea lls wh ich p lot I n t he r i ig lon def ined b y . 873 4

U )

> 1