Studies in Nuragic Archaeology: Village Excavations at Nuraghe Urpes and Nuraghe Toscono in West-Central Sardinia 9780860544814, 9781407346496

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Studies in Nuragic Archaeology: Village Excavations at Nuraghe Urpes and Nuraghe Toscono in West-Central Sardinia

edited by

Joseph W. Michels Gary S. Webster

BAR International Series 3 7 3 1987

·B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR S373,1987: 'Studies in Nuragic Archaeology'

© The Individual Authors,1987 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860544814 paperback ISBN 9781407346496 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544814 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

A ppend ix A

A ppend ix B A ppend ix C A ppend ix D

A ppend ix E

P refa ce J oseph M i che l s I n t roduc t ion G a ry W ebs t er a nd J oseph M i che l s D e ta i led D escr ip t ion o ft he E x cava t ions G a ry W ebs t er , J oseph M i che l s , C ur t i s Mar ean L i th ic I ndus t ry J oseph M i che l s C eram i cs G ar y W eb s t er , J o seph M i ch e l s , D ebra Hudak V er tebra t e F auna l R ema ins G a ry W ebs t er AP re l im ina ry R epor to n t he P lan t R ema ins f r om Nuraghe T oscono W i lma W e t t er s tr om S ummary a nd C onc lud ing R emarks G ar y W eb s t er a nd J oseph M i che l s S in tes i EC on c lus ione G a ry W eb s t er a nd J o seph M i che l s O bs id ian Hydra t ion D a t ing a nd aP roposed C hrono log ica l S cheme f o r t he Margh ine R eg ion J o seph M i che l s B ronze C o ins a nd Ma ter ia ls F ound i nT oscono F ran c e sco Gu ido C ompu ter D a ta P rocess ing C odes a nd C od ing F orms J oseph M i che l s F auna l R ema ins o fP reh is tor i c S ard in ia : T he C urren t S ta te o ft he E v idence R ober tR ow land Nuraghe T oscano : A n A r ch i tec tura l S tudy L enor e G a l l in

1 1 1 3 9 4 5 6 9 9 3 1 05 1 11

1 19 1 27 1 29

1 47 1 63

CONTR IBUTORS

JOSEPH W . M ICHELS , D epar tmen to fA n thropo logy , T he P ennsy lvan ia S ta te Un ivers i ty GARY S . WEBSTER , D epar tmen to fA n thropo logy , T he P ennsy lvan ia S ta te Un ivers i ty Mon t A l to CURT IS W . MAREAN , D epar tmen t o fA n thropo logy , Un ivers i ty o fC a l if orn ia a t B erke ley DEBRA HUDAK , f o rmer ly o ft he A r chaeo logy P rog ram a tT uf t s Un ivers i ty WILMA WETTERSTROM , B o tan i ca l Museum o f Harvard Un ivers i ty FRANCESCO GU IDO , Museo A rcheo log i co Naz iona le , S assar i , S ardegna ROBERT J . RO WLAND , D epar tmen t o fC lass i cs , Un ivers i ty o f Mary land LENORE GALL IN , D epar tmen t o fA n thropo logy , Un ivers i ty o fC a l if orn ia a tL os A nge les

1

L IST OF F IGURES

F igure 1 . 1 Map o fS a rd in ia s how ing Margh ine S tudy a rea F igure 1 . 2 S i te l o ca t ions i nt he B orore c o mmune , S ard in ia F igure 1 . 3 Nurag ic A ggrega tes o ft he Margh ine R eg ion , S ard in ia F igure 1 . 4 T he B orore Agg rega te o f Nuragh i F igure 1 . 5 L oca l h ydro logy , B orore c o mmune , S ard in ia F igure 2 . 1 Nuraghe T oscono : p lan a nd s ec t ion d raw ings F igure 2 .2 T oscono s i te map s how ing e xcava t ion u n i ts F igure 2 .3 S t ra t igraph ic s ect ion f r om Un i t 3o fT oscono F igure 2 .4 S tra t igraph ic s ect ion f r om Un i t 6o fT oscono F igure 2 .5 S tra t ig raph ic s ect ion f r om Un i t 1o fT oscono F igure 2 .6 I r on Age s t ructures f r om T oscono ; a . Un i t 1 , t ower f ounda t ion s t ones ; b . Un i t 6 , h u t 2 8 ; c . Un i t 2 , h u t 9 ;d . Un it 3 , h u t 1 5 ; e . Un it 6 , h u t 2 7 ; f . Un i t 3 , h u t 1 6 F igure 2 .7 E ar ly P un ico -Roman p hase s t ructures f r om T oscono : a . Un i t 1 , d ressed s t one p av ing ; b . Un i t 2 ,h ut 7 ;c . Un it 4 ,h u t 2 0 ; d . Un i t 2 , h u t 6 ;e . Un i t 3 , h u t 1 3 ; f . Un i t 3 ,h u t 1 4 F igure 2 .8 L a te P un ico -Roman p hase s t ructures f r om T oscono ; a . Un i t 8 , d ressed s t one ' d oub le ' wa l l ; b . Un it 9 , h u t 3 4 ; c . Un i t 2 , h u t 5 ; d . Un i t 5 , h u t 2 1 ; 2 2 n or th wa l l ; e . Un i t 6 , h u t 2 6 , 2 7 ; f . Un i t 3 , h u t 1 2 ; g . Un i t 4 , t r ench 1 ,h u t 1 9 ; h . Un i t 5 , h u t 2 1 , 2 2 F igure 2 .9 R oman p hase s t ructures f r om T oscono : a . Un i t 1 ,s t one p av ing ; b . Un i t 8 , h u t 3 0 ; c . Un i t 9 ,h u t 3 2 ; d . Un i t 3 ,h u t 1 0 ; e . Un i t 4 ,h u t 1 8 ; f . Un i t 6 ,h u t 2 4 F igure 2 . 10 R oman s t ru cture ( hu t 2 9 ) f r om T oscono , Un i t 7 F igure 2 .11 R oman P hase ' pavemen t ' s t ructure f r om T oscono , Un i t 4 F igure 2 .12 Nuraghe U rpes : p lan a nd s ect ion d raw ings F igure 2 . 13 U rpes s i te map s how ing e xcava t ion u n its F igure 2 .14 S tra t igraph ic s ec t ion f r om Un i t 1 o fU rpes F igure 2 .15 I r on Age s t ructure ( a ) a nd q uarry p i t ( b ) f r om U rpes , Un i t 1 F igure 2 .16 I r on Age s t ruc ture f r om U rpes , Un i t 1 0 F igure 2 . 17 B yzan t ine 2P hase s t ructure f r om U rpes , Un it 9 F igure 4 .1 T ypo logy o f c o mmon Nurag ic v esse l f o rms f r om T oscono a nd U rpes : G roups A -G F igure 4 .2 T ypo logy o f c o mmon Nurag ic v esse l f o rms f r om T oscono a nd U rpes : G roups H -0 F igure 4 .3 C ommon P un ic f i neware v esse l f o rms f r om T oscono a nd U rpes : A -K , p a inted b ow ls ; L , b ow l w i th r a ised -r idge d ecora t ion ; M -N u ndecora ted b ow ls ; 0 , b ow l w ith l i near a pp l iqued d ecora t ion ; P , j ar b ase ; Q -R , r i ng b ases ; S -T , c ups ; U , b ow l h and le ; V ,j ug h and le ; W-X ,j ug mou ths ; Y -Z , d i shes F igure 4 .4 C ommon R oman v esse l f o rms f r om T oscono a nd U rpes : A -B , c arena ted f i neware b ow ls ; C , t e rra s i g i l la ta D , f i neware v ase ; E , f i neware d i sh ; F -H , c oarseware s t orage j ars F igure 4 .5 M isce l laneous whee l -made v esse l f o rms f r om T oscono a nd U rpes : A , P un ico -Roman f i neware b as in ; B , ' Greek ' o r e ar ly R oman f i newa re r i ngbase ; C -D , P un ico -Roman f i neware b ow ls ; E , P un ico -Roman f i neware v ase ; F , Med ieva l U t i l itar ian ware F igure 4 .6 O ther c eram ic f i nds f r om T oscono : A , s p ind le whor l ( Pun ico -Roman p hase ) ; B -C , o i l l amps ( Roman p hase ) F igure E .1 Nuraghe T oscono , s e ct ion p lan l o ok ing s ou thwest F igure E .2 Nuraghe T oscono , g round p lan F igure E .3 Nuraghe T oscono , mezzan ine p lan

PREFACE J oseph W . M i che ls T he Margh ine R eg ion o fS ard in ia i st he f o cus o f T he P ennsy lvan ia S ta te Un ivers i ty 's r esea r ch e f f or t . O ur s urveys h ave c onv inced u s t ha t Nurag ic v i l lages a re n o t s ca t tered r andom ly o ver t he l andscape b u t t end t oo ccur i ns pa t ia l ly d i scret e a gg rega tes . O ne s uch a gg rega te i sc en tered o n t he v i l lage o f B orore , a nd i ti st ha t g roup ing o f s i tes wh i ch w e h ope t os tudy o ver t he c om ing y ears . T he 1 982 f i e ld s eason w as o ur f i rst i nvo lv ing v i l lage e x cava t ion . T he c hap ters wh ich f o l low d es cr ibe i n d e ta i l t he r esu l t s o f t hose e x cava t ions . T hey r epor t o n c hrono logy , a rch i te cture , c eram ics , l i th i cs , f auna l r e ma ins , c o ins , a nd p a leoe thnobo tan i ca l r ema ins . An umber o fh ypo theses a re p u t f o rward , a nd many q ues t ions a re r a ised . T he e x cava t ions i nvo lved t wo Nurag ic v i l lages -Nghe . T oscono a nd Nghe . U rpes . A t o ta l o f6 5 c ub i c me ters o fc u l tura l d epos i t was r emoved i n 1 0 cen t ime ter a rb i t rary l e ve ls a nd c arefu l ly s c reened d ur ing t he e x cava t ion o f o ver t hree d ozen 1 x 2 meter t r en ches . T he t r en ches r anged i n d ep th f r om 4 0 c en t ime ters t o 2 .6 me ters , d epend ing u pon t he d ep th a t wh i ch b edrock was e n countered . A pprox ima te ly 3 2 ,000 a r t ifa c t s w ere r e covered , i n c lud ing p o t t ery , o bs id ian , b ronze , i r on , g l ass , s pec imens o f b asa l t a nd c her t , aw e l l -preserved f auna l a sse mb lage , a nd p a leoe thnobo tan i ca l s amp les r e t r ieved t hrough s o i l f l o ta t ion . I n s i tu f e a tu res i n c luded h u t wa l ls , h u t f l oors , h ea r ths , r es torab le v esse ls , c o l lapsed r oof e l emen t s , a nd s uper imposed r es iden t ia l s t ru c tures . A t o ta l o f 7 3 c o mponen t a ssemb lages c ou ld b e d ef ined b ased u pon e x cava t ion u n i t l o cus a nd s t ra t ig raphy , p o t tery p has ing , o bs id ian d a tes , a nd a r ch i tec tura l t r a ces . T he 1 982 e xcava t ions w ere c arr ied o u t b y t he s tuden t s a nd s taf fo fT he P ennsy lvan ia S ta te Un ivers i ty F ie ld S choo l i n S ard in ian A rcLaeo logy . T he F ie ld S choo l i su nder t he j o in t s ponsorsh ip o f P enn S ta te 's D epar tmen t o f An thropo logy a nd t he Of f i ce o f F ore ign S tud ies . T ab le 1 g ives a l i s t ing o f t he 1 982 F ie ld S choo l p ar t i c ipan t s . Iw an t t o a cknow ledge w i th s pec ia l t hanks t he c on tr ibu t ions o fP rof essor B eno We iss . H e p layed a v i ta l r o le i n t he p lann ing a nd i mp lemen ta t ion o f t he F ie ld S choo l P rog ram . H e a l so t i re less ly e xp la ined t he p urpose a nd me thod o fo ur e xcava t ions t o a l l s i te v i s it ors , a nd t o t he c i t izens a nd mun i c ipa l l e aders o f t he c ommun i t ies af ec ted b y o ur a c t iv i t ies . Mos t i mpor tant ly , h owever , h e c onveyed t hrough h i s t ea ch ing a d eep a pprec ia t ion o f I t a l ian a nd S ard in ian c u l ture a nd o f t he I t a l ian l anguage t o a l l F ie ld S choo l p ar t i c ipan t s s tuden t a nd s taf f a l ike . I am i ndebted t o t he g radua te a ss istan t s a nd t o a l l o f t he s tuden ts who w orked s o h ard t ob r ing f o r th t he i n f orma t ion c on ta ined w i th in t h is r epor t . My h ope i st ha t t hey t o ok away w i th t he m s ome s ense o ft he mag ic o fa r chaeo logy a nd a d eep af ec t ion f o r S ard in ia a nd a l l o fi t s p eop le . T he c o mmun i t ies o f Macomer a nd B orore w ere o ur h os t s . S ignor G iorg io T ard io la o f Macomer a rranged f o r f am i l ies i n t he f o rmer c ommun i ty t o p rov ide l o dg ing f o r o ur s tuden ts . A s t he w eek s p assed a nd a s t he s tuden t s g a ined g rea ter f a c i l i ty w i th t he l a nguage , m ore a nd m ore o f t he c i t izens o f Ma comer a nd B orore c ame t o k now a nd t o o f er f r iendsh ip t o t he m embers o f o ur g roup . T he c ommun i t ies o f S i lanus , B orore a nd Macomer e a ch s ponsored t rad i t iona l f east s i n o ur h onor . T he t own o f Ma comer awarded i n d iv idua l m eda ls t o e a ch o f t he p ro ject 's p ar t ic ipan ts a nd t o T he P ennsy lvan ia S ta t e Un ivers i ty t o c o mmemora te t he c u l tura l t i es t ha t t he p ro jec t h ad e ngendered . B u t p erhaps t he mos t r evea l ing i nd ica t ion o f t he s t rong t i es t ha t d eve loped b e tween t he p ro ject a nd o ur h os t c ommun i t ies was t he ma ter ia l s uppor t t ha t t hey p rov ided . T he t own o f Macomer t u rned o ver i t s n ew mun ic ipa l l i brary b u i ld ing f o r u se a s ap ro jec t c l assroom a nd l abora tory f a c i l i ty . T he v i l lage o f B orore s upp l ied u s w i th much n eeded e xcava t ion e qu ipmen t a nd g enera l ly a t tended t o o ur n eeds a s e x cava t ion p rog ressed . Numerous

J oseph W . M icher s p ersons i n b oth c ommun i t ies d eserve o ur g ra t i tude . T he f o l low ing p ersons , h owever , h ave b een s i ng led o u t f o r s pec ia l a cknow ledgemen t : H onoreve le S a lva tore C as tagna , Mayor o f Macomer ; S ignor G iorg io T a rd io la o f Macomer ; H onoreve le P i redda Ange lo , Mayor o f B orore ; D o t t ore F ran co A tzore , V ice - Mayor o f B orore ; S ignor V irg in io P ann i , G eome t r ica o f B orore ; a nd D o t tore L iv io Mo l inas , e ng ineer w i th t he C onsorz io I ndus t r ia le . G ra tefu l a cknow ledgemen t i sa l so made t ot he many a r chaeo log i s t s a f f i l ia t ed w i th t he Of f i ce o f t he S uper in tenden t o f An t iqu i t ies f o r t he p rov in ces o f S assar i a nd Nuoro , t he Un ivers i ty o f S assar i , a nd t he Un ivers i ty o f C ag l iar i , w ho h ave c on t r ibu t ed t o o ur r e search p rogram t he ir e xper t ise a nd c oopera t ion . P rof essor A lber to Morave t t i , o f t he Un ivers i ty o f S assar i , i s a f u l l c o l labora tor . H is d ay to -day g u idan ce , h i s g rea t f am i l iar i ty w i th t he Margh ine a rea , a nd h i s a na ly t i ca l c on t r ibu t ions h ave a l l i n sured u s a m easure o f s u ccess i n r e sea rch b eyond wha t c ou ld o therw ise h ave b een e xpe ct ed . We w ish t o s i ng le o u t f o r s pec ia l t hanks D o t t oressa F u lv ia L o S ch iavo , S uper in t enden t o f A n t iqu i t ies f o r t he p rov in ces o f S assar i a nd Nuoro , f o r h er e ncouragemen t a nd a ct ive s uppor t . F ina l ly , w e t hank t he M in is t ry o f C u l ture i n R ome f o r g ran t ing u s p erm iss ion t oc ondu ct e x cava t ions a t N ghe . U rpes a nd Nghe . T oscono .

T ab le 1 T he P ar t ic ipan ts i nt he 1 982 P enn S tat e F ie ld S choo l i n S ard in ian A r chaeo logy D irec tor : D r . J oseph W . M i che ls , P rof essor o f An thropo logy F a cu l ty A ssoc ia tes :

D r . A lber to Morave t t i , P rof essor o fA r chaeo logy , U n ivers i ty o fS assar i D r . B eno We iss , A ssoc ia te P rof essor o fI t a l ian D r . R ober t L ima , P rof essor o fS pan ish

L abora tory D irect or a nd D a ta P rocess ing S pec ia l ist : G abr ie le A . M iche ls G radua te A ss is tan t s : C ur t is Marean D ebra Hudak S tuden ts : E l izabe th C ar le ton P au l D eSandre Em i l D urant e L arry G ra czyk Karen H ersher Me l issa H of fman D eborah Know les J ud i th L akomy C hr is L um ley L or i Moa ts J ane P r ice R oxanne S chma ls t ieg W i l l iam S haw D awn S nyder G era ld T oscan i J ohn W i l lower G eof f rey Zwe ig T ina R ob inson v i

C hapt er 1 I NTRODUCT ION Gary S . Webster a nd J oseph W . M i che ls " The n uragh i" o fS ard in ia h ave l o ng a t tra cted a r chaeo log is ts t ot he i s land , s pec if i ca l ly t o t he s t udy o f t he l i t t le u nders tood Nurag ic c u l ture , o f wh i ch t hese m onumen t s r ema in t he c hara c ter ist ic f ea ture . Un t i l q u i te r e cen t ly , h owever , s cho lar ly i n teres t s h ave f o cused a lmos t e xc lus ive ly u pon t he more v i s ib le a r ch i tec tura l a nd a r t is t ic Nurag ic man if es ta t ions ( c f . Gu ido 1 963 ; L i l l iu 1 982 ) . F ew s tud ies h ave a dd ressed p rob lems c oncern ing t he n a ture o f Nu rag ic s o c iety i t se lf -name ly i t s e conom ic , s o c ia l a nd p o l i t ica l f ounda t ions ( LoS ch iavo 1 981 ) . O ver t he p ast 1 0 y ears r enewed i n teres t s o n S ard in ia b y a n th ropo log ica l ly o r ien ted a r chaeo log is ts a r med w i th modern t e chn iques o fd a ta r e covery a nd a na lys is h ave r esu l ted i n n ew , a l though s t i l l l im it ed , i n f orma t ion o n Nurag ic me ta l lurgy a nd t e chno logy ( Ty lecot e e t a l 1 984 ; B a lmu th a nd T y leco te 1 976 ; B ecker 1 984 ) , c h rono logy ( M i che ls e ta l 1 984 ) , d i sease a nd d emog raphy ( Brown 1 984 ) , mor tuary p ra c t i ces a nd p o l i t i ca l o rgan iza t ion ( Becker 1 983 ) . N owhere , h owever , d oes o ur u nders tand ing o f Nurag i c s o c ie ty r e ma in more l im i ted t han i n t he a rea o f e conom ic o rgan iza t ion ( Co les a nd Hard ing 1 979 :441 ; L oSch iavo 1 981 ) . P resen t k now ledge o f Nurag ic p a leoeconom i cs i s l a rge ly s pecu la t ive a nd d er ives ma in ly f r om i mpress ion ist i c i n terpre ta t ions o f z oomorph i c b ronzes ( Cu ido 1 963 ; P esce 1 954 ; L i l l iu 1 972 ) , c l ass i ca l r ef erences t o t he P un ic a nd R oman p er iods ( c f . G u ido 1 963 ) a nd r e cen t i s land h i st or i cs ( c f . B odemann a nd A l lahar 1 980 ) ; f a r l e ss f r om s yst ema t ica l ly d er ived a r chaeo log ica l d a ta ( bu t s ee F ede le 1 980 a nd t h is r epor t ) . I n 1 980 , P ennsy lvan ia S ta te Un ivers i ty 's D epar tmen t o fA n thropo logy , i nc oopera t ion w i th t he Museo A r chaeo log i co Naz iona l i i n S assar i , a nd t he Un ivers i ty o f S assar i b egan l o ng term i nves t iga t ions o f a n c ien t Nurag ic e conom ics i n t he Margh ine r eg ion o f w es t c en t ra l S ard in ia ( F ig . 1 . 1 ) . Under t he d i rec t ion o f P rof essor J oseph W . M iche ls , a r chaeo log ica l s urveys w ere c onduct ed o n t he Margh ine P la t eau i n 1 980 a nd 1 981 , f o l lowed i n 1 982 b y t e s t e x cava t ions a t t he s i tes o f Nghe . U rpes a nd Nghe . T oscono i n B orore . Add i t iona l r e conna issance was c arr ied o u t i n B orore i n 1 984 b y Webs ter , a nd e xcava t ions w ere i n i t ia ted d ur ing t he 1 985 s eason a t t he s i t es o f D uos Nuraghes a nd Nghe . S an S erg io ( F ig . 1 . 2 ) . T he p resen t monog raph d escr ibes o ur f i nd ing s f r om t he 1 980 -1982 s easons . S in ce o ur i n t erpre tat ions a re p re l im inary a nd w i l l n o d oub t r equ ire r e th ink ing i n l i gh t o f r esu l ts f r om f u ture w ork , t h is r epor t i s mos t p roper ly v i ewed a s r epresen t ing a n e ar ly s tage i n a n o ngo ing p a leoeconom i c s tudy o f t he B orore a rea . We a n t i c ipa te s ubsequen t p ub l ica t ions o ft h is k ind t od ocumen t t he p ro jec ts f u r ther p rog ress .

R ESEARCH OBJECT IVES AND DES IGN P a leoeconom ics was d eve loped i n E urope i n t he 1 970s i n r e sponse t o t he p er ce ived i nadequac ies o f more t r ad i t iona l a r t ifa ct -f ocused a pproa ches f o r g enera t ing i n f orma t ion o n a n c ien t c u l tura l a dap ta t ions ( H iggs a nd V i ta -F in c i 1 972 :7 ; H igg s a nd J arman 1 975 :4 ) . Ab as ic a ssump t ion , s hared h ere , i st ha t a n u nders tand ing o f h uman e conom ic r e la t ions i sf undamen ta l t oa ny u nderstand ing o f s o c iopo l i t ica l o rgan iza t ion a nd i d eo logy . A l though p a leoeconom ics h as r e ce ived w ide a pp l ica t ion i n b o th O ld a nd N ew Wor lds , i t s a pp l i ca t ion t o S ard in ian Nurag i c ma ter ia ls c ons t i tu tes a d ras t ic d epar ture f r om t r ad i t iona l a r chaeo log i ca l a pproaches o n t he i s land .

1

G ary S . Webster a nd J oseph W . M iche ls

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I NTRODUCT ION

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G ary S . Webs ter a nd J oseph W . M iche ls P a leoeconom ics i mp l ies a l i ne o f s tudy r e cen t ly r e f er red t o b y B a i ley a nd S her idan ( 1984 ) a s " e conom i c a r chaeo logy" : " the b road s o c ioeconom ic s tudy o f t he e x t rac t ion , d i s t r ibu t ion , a nd u se o f r e sour ces ( i n t he b roades t s en se o f t he t e rm ) f o r s o c ia l ly a s w e l l a s b i o log i ca l ly d et erm ined p urposes ." A c cep t ing t h is a s a ma jor o b jec t ive o f o ur r e search p rogram , o ur s t udy o f t he Margh ine r eg ion w as i n i t ia ted w i th in a p rov is iona l t hree -par t r esear ch d es ign c a l l ing f o r s urvey , e x cava t ion , a na lyses , a nd a n c i l lary s tud ies . P ar t 1i sc on cerned w i th d ef in ing ( b o th s pa t ia l ly a nd c hrono log ica l ly ) a ppropr ia te u n i t s f o r a r chaeo log i ca l s tudy . We wan ted s tudy u n i t s w h i ch , o n t he o ne h and , c ou ld b e d e te c ted a r chaeo log ica l ly , w h i le , a t t he s ame t ime c ou ld b e c ons idered t o h ave , p o ten t ia l ly , s ome r ea l i ty i nt e rms o f Nurag i c s o c iopo l i t i ca l o rgan iza t ion . T hree s u ch u n i t s h ave b een h ypo the t ica l ly d ef ined t hus f a r . A t t he mu l t i -commun i ty l e ve l , t h e v i l lag e a ggr ega t e h as b een i s o la ted a s t he max ima l u n i t f o r l o ng term i n tens ive s t udy a nd t he p o ten t ia l c o rre la te o f as ub -reg iona l l e ve l p o l i ty . T en v i l lage a gg rega tes w ere i d en t if ied b y M i che ls ' s urvey i n t he Margh ine P la teau ; o ur r e sear ch h as f o cused u pon o ne s u ch a gg rega t e a t B orore ( s ee b e low ) . A t t he c ommun i ty l e ve l , t he Nurag ic v i l lag e s e t t lemen t p rov ides a n e as i ly d ef ined ( and u b iqu i tous ) u n i t f o r e xcava t ion w i th in t he a gg rega t e . O f f o r ty k nown v i l lage s i tes i nt he B orore c l us ter e x cava t ions w ere c arr ied o u t a t t wo -Nghe . U rpes a nd N ghe . T oscono i n 1 982 the r e su l t s o f wh ich c ons t i tu te t he p resen t r epor t . A t t he s ub -commun i ty l e ve l t he Nurag i c ' h u t ' h as b een w ide ly r e cogn ized o n t h e i s land . W i th s ubsequen t i nves t iga t ions a t t he s ub -v i l lage l e ve l , s pec ia l f unc t ion a rea s ( e .g . , s hops , r e s idences , c i v i co -re l ig ious s t ruc tures ) s hou ld a l so b e d e tec tab le . A s s tud ies e l sewhere h ave s hown , d e ta i led c eram ic a na lyses may p rov ide a n i mpor tan t s ou rce o f e v iden ce f o r e s tab l ish ing t he b oundar ies o f s u ch s o c ia l u n i t s ( Hayden a nd C annon 1 981 : M i che ls 1 982a ) . P ar t 2o f t he r e search d es ign i nvo lves t he r e covery o f e conom i ca l ly r e levan t r ema ins t hrough t he s ys tema t ic e x cava t ion o f v i l lage m idden d epos i t s . A l though Nurag i c v i l lages h ave b een i nves t iga ted l e ss o f t en t han a ssoc ia ted n uragh i , i nt hose i n s tances w here s uch e xp lora t ions h ave b een u nder taken , as ubs tan t ia l w ea l th o f p a leoeconom ic e v iden ce h as r esu l ted ( c f . Morave t t i p er . c omm . , M iche ls 1 982b , a nd t h is r epor t ) . A s i n o ther r eg ions b l essed w i th c ond i t ions p romo t ing t he p reserva t ion o fo rgan i c mat er ia ls , f auna l a nd f l ora l r ema in s f r om v i l lage c on tex t s p rov ide a n a bundan t s our ce o fe v idence f o r r e cons t ru c t ing Nurag i c p roduc t ion , e xchange /d is t r ibu t ion a nd c onsump t ion p a t terns . A s d i scussed i nt he a ppropr ia te c hap ters b e low a ma jor o bs tac le t os u ch c ommun i ty leve l s tud ies r ema ins t he d i ff i cu l ty o f r e cover ing s uff i c ien t ly l a rge d a ta s amp les f r om s ub -v i l lage l e ve l s t ru c tures , d esp i te t h e u se o fi n tens ive r e covery t e chn iques s uch a s f i ne s c reen ing a nd f l o ta t ion . P ar t 3 o f t he r e sear ch d es ign i nvo lves t he s tudy o f a rchaeo log ica l ly o bserved v ar iab i l i ty i n e conom i c p a t t erns a cross c o mparab le s tudy u n i t s a nd o ver t ime , w i th in a n e co log ica l f r amework . E ngendered i n s uch a n a pproach t o i n terpre ta t ion i s t he a ssump t ion t ha t t he p a t terned e conom i c r ema ins o bserved a cross u n i ts c ons t i tu t e t he r esu l t o f a dap t ive s t ra teg ies f o rmu la ted b y t he Nurag i c g roups u nder s tudy . And f ur thermore , t ha t s uch s t ra teg ies s erved a s a dap t ive s o lu t ions t ot he p rob le ms a sso c iated w i th a t ta in ing d es ired r e sources , p rodu ct s a nd s erv ices , c heap ly a nd s a f e ly u nder p ar t icu lar s e t s o f s o c ioenv ironmen ta l c ond i t ions . T he e co log i ca l a na lys is o f t h e B o rore p a leoeconom i c d a ta i s s t i l l i n i t s i n fancy . T he u l t ima te s u ccess o f t he p rog ram w i l l d epend u pon o ur a b i l i ty t o i n teg ra te d a ta f r om a r ange o f a nc i l lary s tud ies a imed a t i s o la t ing a nd d ef in ing t hose r e levan t c hara c ter is t i cs o f t he Nurag ic s oc ioenv ironmen t wh ich mus t h ave c ond it ioned e conom ic b ehav ior i n t he p as t a nd may h o ld c l ues t o a n u nders tand ing o f t he o bserved p a leoeconom ic p a t terns . T oward t h is o b ject ive , t he s t udy o fc on temporary a nd h i s tor ica l ly d o cumen ted l and -use p a t t erns i n B orore h as b egun ( s ee C hap ter V -Fauna l R ema ins ) a nd p rom ises t oy i e ld i nva luab le c on tex tua l i n f orma t ion f o r

4

I NTRODUCT ION i n terpre t ing a rchaeo log i ca l ma ter ia ls . L ikew ise , a f a ir ly s ubs tan t ia l e thnoh ist ory o f P un i c a nd R oman p resen ce o n t he i s land s hou ld l e nd i mpor tan t i n f orma t ion o n t he e f f ects o ff o re ign c o lon iza t ion u pon i n d igenous Nurag i c e conom ies ( c f . R ow land 1 984 ) .

THE MARGH INE SURVEY I n 1 980 -81 , M iche ls i n i t ia ted s urveys i n t he Margh ine r eg ion . T h is a rea o f t he i s land i s ab asa l t ic u p land p lat eau b ordered o n t he n or th a nd w es t b y m oun ta ins , o n t he s ou th b y t h e A bbasan ta P la in , a nd o n t he e as t b y t he T irso R iver V a l ley . I tc on ta ins o ne o ft he h ighes t d ens i t ies o f n uragh i , d o lmen , g a l lery g raves ( g ian t s ' t ombs ) , a nd r o ck -cu t t ombs t ob e f o und o n t he who le i s land ( L i l l iu 1 962 ; G u ido 1 963 ) . C ompr is ing a n a rea o f a bou t 4 00 s q km , i t i n c ludes t he p resen t -day c ommunes o f Ma comer , B iror i , Mur larg ia , B or t iga l i , S i lanus , L e i , B orore , D ua l ch i , a nd N orgugame—a l l w i th in t he p rov in ce o f Nuoro . W i th in t he Margh ine R eg ion t en a gg rega tes o r c l us ters o fs ome 2 20 Nurag ic s i tes c an b e d i scerned f r om t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f mapped l o ca t ions a t 1 : 25000 s ca le ( F ig . 1 . 3 ) . C lus ter d ef in i t ion i sb ased u pon a c ons idera t ion o ft he mu tua l [ s t ra igh t l ine ] p rox im i ty o f a d ja cen t s i tes , a nd n a tura l t opograph i c f ea tures t ha t c an e nhan ce p er imeter e f f ec t . A l though s uch g roup ings a re t o b e r egarded a s t en ta t ive , a s urpr is ing ly c l ose c or responden ce e x ist s b e tween t hese g roup ing s a nd t he p resen t -day b oundar ies o f t he c ommunes o f Margh ine . A l though t he a rea b ounded b y ac l ust er v ar ies b e tween 1 3 a nd 3 6 s q km , t here i s af a i r ly c ons ist en t a verage d ens i ty o f o ne Nurag i c s i t e p er s q km w i th in a ny g i ven g roup ing . I n a l l , s o me 2 30 Nurag i c s i tes w ere r e corded f o r t he Ma rgh ine R eg ion i n 1 960 ( Car ta D ' I ta l ia 1 960 ) . B u t a t t r i t ion i s d et ectab le . A 1 935 s u rvey o f t he s a me a rea b y T arame l l i ( 1935 ) i d en t if ied a n umber o f n uragh i wh i ch n o l o nger e x ist . M i che ls ' s urveys e n count ered n ew i n s tances o f n uragh i o b l i tera t ion i n c onnec t ion w i th h ighway c ons t ru c t ion . I n 1 982 t he B orore a gg regat e wa s s e lec ted f o r l o ng -t erm p a leoeconom ic i nves t iga t ions . T he B orore g roup c ons is t s o f 2 9 Nuragh i wh ich a re s t i l l p ar t ia l ly i n ta c t , 9 wh ich w ere t o ta l ly d i sman t led b e tween 1 935 a nd 1 960 , a nd o ne wh ich w as o b l i tera ted d ur ing h ighway c ons t ruc t ion b e tween 1 960 a nd 1 980 . I n most c ases , h owever , s i te l o ca t ions a re k nown a nd , m os t i mpor tan t ly , t he n u c lea ted v i l lages a nd h am le t s t ha t s urrounded e ach Nuraghe a re s t i l l l a rge ly u nd is turbed . O ur f i e ld r e conna issan ce h ad s ugges ted t ha t t he B orore g roup o f n uragh i c ompr ises t h e f u l l r ange o f a r ch i t ec tura l f o rms d ef ined b y L i l l iu ( 1982 ) f o r t he i s land , i n c lud ing c o rr idor ( 2 ) , s imp le ( 2 ) , c o mp lex ( 22 ) , mu l t i tower ( 2 ) a nd b as t ion ( 2 ) . D irec t d a tes o b ta ined f r om f our s i tes : U rpes , T oscono , S an S erg io a nd Duos Nuraghes s ugges t a n o c cupa t ion h i s tory s pann ing o ver 2 000 y ears ( 1800 BC -4 00 AD ) i n t he A gg rega te ( F ig . 1 . 4 ) . T he B orore c o mmune c ons is t s o f a n a pprox ima te ly 2 4 s q km e l l ipse o f g en t ly s l op ing f a rm land , a nd a n a dd i t iona l 1 6 s q km e x tend ing o u t o n aw est ern t angen t . D i rec t ly i n t h e c en ter o f t he e as t /wes t -or ien ted e l l ipse i s t he v i l lage o f B orore , w i th a c urren t p opu la t ion o fa bou t 2 500 ( Muron i 1 980 ) . C erea l c r ops a nd o r cha rd g roves a re g rown i n a m osa i c o fs t one -wa l led f i e lds t hroughou t t he c ommune . A l though t he c o mmune i sf l anked b y t he Mer ch is R iver t o t he s ou th a nd T oss i lo R iver t o t he n or th , n e i ther f i gures p rom inen t ly i ni t s h ydro logy . O fc ons iderab ly more i mpor tance i s as er ies o fs pr ings t ha t f a l l a l ong t he 3 50 - a nd 4 00 -me ter c ont ou r l i nes , f o rm ing a n or th /sou th -or ien ted e l l ipse c en tered o n t he v i l lage o f B orore a nd e n c los ing a n a rea o f a bou t 2 4 s q km . A l though N u rag ic s i te l o ca t ion s t ra t eg ies h ave n o t y e t b een s tud ied i n d e ta i l , when o ne e xam ines t h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f t he 3 9 B orore n uragh i ac l ose c orre la t ion b e tween t he o u ter

5

Gary S . Webster a nd J oseph W . M iche ls

F igure 1 . 3 Nurag ic Aggregates o ft he Margh ine R eg ion , S ard in ia . 6

I NTRODUCT ION

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F igure 1 . 4 T he B orore A ggrega te o f Nuragh i .

G a ry S . Webster a nd J oseph W . M iche ls p er ime t er o f t he s i te c l uster a nd t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f s pr ing s i s s uggested ( F ig s . 1 . 4 a nd 15 ) . I ti sa ssumed t ha t s o me f o rm o f c o l le c t ive t omb s t ruc ture was o r ig ina l ly a ssoc ia ted w i th e a ch Nurag ic c o mmun i ty . S even w ere r e corded b y T arame l l i i n 1 935 , b u t o n ly t wo h ave b een c onf irmed t o b e p resen t ly i n ta c t d ur ing r e cen t s urveys b y Morave t t i ( p er . c omm . ) a nd M iche ls ( 1982b ) . N one a re p resen t ly u nder s tudy .

REFERENCES B a i ley , A . a nd S her idan , G . ( e ds . ) . 1 984 E conom i c A r cha eo logy . BAR I n terna t iona l S er ies , V o l . 9 6 . B a lmu th , M . a nd R . T y lecot e . 1 976 A n c ien t C opper a nd B ronze i n S ard in ia : E xcava t ion a nd Ana lys is . J ourna l o fF i e ld A r cha eo logy 3 (2 ) :195 -201 . B ecker , M . 1 983 S ard in ian C h ief doms i n t he B ronze A ge : I nf erences f r om T omb C ons t ruc t ion a nd Mor tuary P rograms . P aper P resen ted a t t he I nt erna t iona l C o l loqu ium o n S ard in ian A rchaeo logy . T uf t s Un ivers i ty , S ep t . 1 983 . B ecker , M . 1 984 S ard in ian S tone Mou lds : A n I nd irec t Means o fE va lua t ing B ronze A ge Meta l lurg i ca l T echno logy . I n S tud i e s i n S ard in ian A r cheo logy , e d i t ed b y M . B a lmu th a nd R . R ow land , J r . , p p . 1 63 -208 . Ann A rbor , T he Un ivers i ty o fM ich igan P ress . B odemann , Y . M . a nd A . A l laha r . 1 980 T he M icro -Organ iza t ion o f B a ckwardness i n C en t ra l S ard in ia . J ourna l o fP ea san tS tud i e s . 7 :458 -476 . B rown , P . 1 984 Ma lar ia i n Nurag i c , P un i c , a nd R oman S ard in ia : S ome Hypo theses . I n S tud i e s i nS ard in ian A r cha eo logy . T he Un ivers i ty o fM ich igan P ress , Ann A rbor . C ar ta D ' I ta l ia A l la S ca le D i 1 : 25 ,000 1 960 F og l io N o . 2 06 , Quadran te I ,O r ien tamen t i : NO ( Ma comer ) , NE ( S i lanus ) , SO ( Borore ) , S E ( Sed i lo ) . I ns t i tut e G eog raf i co M i l i tare , C ag l iar i . C o les , J . a nd A . Hard ing . 1 979 T he B r onz e A g e i n E ur ope . S t . Mar t ins P ress , N ew Y ork . F ede le , F . 1 980 I lL uogo e i lT empo d e l la V i cenda Nur : I .B osch i , g l i A na ima l i . I n Nur . L a M i s t er iosa C iv l i ta d e i S ard i ( Cur . ) D . S anna , p p . 4 4 -59 . C assa d i R i spa rm io d e l le P rov i c ie L ombarde , M i lano . G u ido , M . 1 963 S ard in ia . T hames a nd Hudson , L ondon . Hayden , B . a nd A . C annon . 1 981 T he C orpora te G roup a s a n a r chaeo log i ca l u n i t . J ourna l o f An thr opo log i ca l A r cha eo logy 1 : 132 -158 . H igg s , E . a nd M . J arman 1 975 P a leoeconomy . I n P a l eoe conomy , e d it ed b y E . H igg s , p p .1 -7 . C ambr idge Un ivers i ty P ress , L ondon . H igg s , E . a nd C . V i ta -F inz i . 1 972 P reh ist or i c E conom ies : A T err i t or ia l A pproa ch . I n P ap er s i nE conom i c P r eh i s to ry . e d i ted b y E . H igg s , p p . 2 7 -36 . C ambr idge Un ivers i ty P ress , C ambr idge . L i l l iu , G iovann i 1 962 INuragh i . E d iz ion i " La Z a t tera ," C ag l iar i . L i l l iu , G . 1 972 L a C iv i l ta d e iS ard i . L i l l iu , G . 1 982 L a C iv i l ta Nurag i ca . C ar lo D e l f ino P ub l isher , S assar i . L oSch iavo , F . 1 981 E conom ia e s oc ietä n e l l ' e ta ' d e i Nuragh i . I n I chnu ssa . L ibr i S che iw i l ler , M i lano . M i che ls , J . 1 982 C eram ic A t t r ibut e A na lys is : As t ra tegy o fC orporate Ana lys is . P aper r ead a tt he a nnua l C o l loqu ium o n S ard in ian A r chaeo logy , T uf ts Un ivers i ty , 1 982 . M i che ls , J oseph W . 1 982 R e la z ione P r e l im inar e S ug l i S cav i A r cheo log i c i Ef e t tua t i N e i Nuragh i U rpe s e T oscono S i t i n e l T er r i tor io d e l c ommune d i B or or e ( Nuoro ) . S opr int endenza A rcheo log i ca -Sassar i eNuoro , p p . 1 9 . M i che ls , J . , E . A tzen i , J . T song a nd G . Sm i th . 1 984 S ard in ian A rchaeo logy a nd O bs id ian D a t ing . I n S ard in ian A r cha eo logy , e d i ted b y M . B a lmu th a nd R . R ow land , J r . T he Un ivers i ty o fM i ch igan P ress , A nn A rbor . Muron i , A ndrea 1 980 B or or e ei Margh ine . Ed i t ed b y G . G a l l i zz i , S a ssar i . P esce , G . 1 954 Anc i en tB ronze s f r om S ard in ia . T he A r t s C ounc i l . 8

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G ary S . Webs ter a nd J oseph W . M i che ls R ow land , R . 1 984 T he c oun trys ide o f R oman S a rd in ia . I n S tud i e s i n S ard in ian A r cha eo logy , e d i ted b y M . B a lmu th a nd R . R ow land . T he Un ivers i ty o f M i ch igan P ress , A nn A rbor . T arame l l i , A n ton io . 1 980 C ar ta A r cheo log i ca D ' I ta l ia , F og l io 2 06 ( Ma comer ) . I ns t i tu to G eog ra f i eo M i l i ta re . T y lecot e , R . , M . B a lmu th a nd R . Masso l i -Nove l l i . 1 984 C opper a nd B ronze Me ta l lurgy i n S a rd in ia . I n S tud i es i n S ard in ian A r cha eo logy , e d i ted b y M . B a lmu th a nd R . R ow land , J r . , p p . 15 -162 . T he Un ivers i ty o fM i ch igan P ress , A nn A rbor .

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C hap ter 2 DETA ILED DESCR IPTION OF THE EXCAVAT IONS G ary S . Web ster , J oseph W . M i che ls , C ur t is W . Ma rean

TOSCONO : EXCAVAT ION S TRATEGY T oscono o ccup ies a p os i t ion a t t he e astern marg in o ft he c o mmune o fB orore a nd a l ong w i th n e ighbor ing Nghe . P or carzos . 75 km t o t he n or th , a l so t he e ast ern f r on t ier o f t he B orore a gg rega t e o f Nurag i c s e t t lemen t s . F rom i t s l o ca t ion o n t he e as tern s l ope o f t he l ow b a sa l t i c p la t eau u pon w h ich t he c ommune i ss i tua ted , t he s i t e p rov ides a c l ear v i ew i n to t he v a l ley o ft he R io Mu r tazzo lu s o me 6 km t ot he n or theas t . A s p resen t ly d ef ined , t h e s i te o f T oscono c o mpr ises a s i ng le c o mp lex -chambered n uraghe , ( F ig . 2 . 1 a nd A ppend ix E ) a d ja cen t r es iden t ia l d epos i t s , a nd d ef ens ive c i rcu i t wa l l e nc los ing a n e s t ima ted v i l lage a rea o f a bou t 1 0 ,000 m2 ( F ig . 2 .2 ) . L ess c l ear ly e v iden t a re t he s t one r emnan ts o f f our sma l l p er iphera l t owers wh ich w ere r evea led d ur ing t he c l ear ing o f v ege ta t ion f r om a round t he e x ter ior wa l l o f t he c en t ra l , s tand ing t ower . T he ir o r ig ina l d imen s ions c anno t a s y e t b e e s t ima ted , b u t w ere a pparen t ly n ever s ubs tan t ia l a nd t here i sn o e x tan t e v idence f o r d i rec t a ccess f r om t he ma in c hamber o f t he n u raghe ( s ee A ppend ix E ) . A s f i gure 2 r e cords , t he t ower a nd e x is t ing Nu rag ic -age wa l l h ave b een i n corpora ted i n to a c o mp lex n e twork o f c on temporary s t one f a rm f ences . S evera l s ma l l s pr ings a re f ound n ear t he s i t e wh i ch t oday a re u sed t o wa ter l i ves tock a nd w ere p robab ly i mpor tan t w a ter s our ces d ur ing a n c ien t t imes a s w e l l . E xcava t ions w ere c ondu cted f r om J une 2 5 -J u ly 2 8 , 1 982 ( J . M i che ls , D irec tor ) w i th in r es iden t ia l d epos i t s a nd t he t ower i t se lf . A n e as t -wes t /nor th -sou th c oord ina te g r id s ys tem w as l ayed o u t f r om 2d a tum p o in ts i n t he a rea i mmed ia te ly s ou th a nd e as t o ft he t ower w i th t he a id o f at heodo l i te . As er ies o fs i x u n i ts ( nos . 2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,6&7 ) was d es igna ted a t 5 me ter i n terva ls a l ong t he e as t -wes t b ase l i ne 1 0 met ers t o t he s ou th o f t he t ower e n trance wh i le t wo a dd i t iona l u n i t s ( n os . 8& 9 ) w ere d ef ined a l ong t he n or th -sou th c oord inat e r unn ing 1 0 me ters e ast o f t he n uraghe wa l l . I nves t iga t ions o f t he t ower i n ter ior w ere l im i ted t o a s i ng le e xcava t ion u n i t w i th in t he e as t n i che o f f t he n uraghe 's g round f l oor c en t ra l c hamber . A l though e x cava t ions w ere n ot u nder taken b eyond t he a rea e n c losed b y t he Nurag i c c i rcu i t wa l l , t he e x is tence o f as o -ca l led ' g ian ts t omb ' s ome 2 00 me ters t o t he n or theas t o fT os cono was n o ted . T he c l ose p rox im i ty o f t he c o l lec t ive t omb s uggests i t s l i ke ly a ssoc ia t ion w i th t he T oscono c o mmun i ty a s a p robab le r epos i tory o f mu l t ip le b ur ia ls . Unf or tuna te ly , n o te nough o ft he s i te i si n ta c t t o warran t e x cava t ion . E x cava t ions p roceeded i n a rb i t rary 1 0 cm l e ve ls w i th in 1 x 2 met er t r en ches a nd a l l ma t r ix ma ter ia l was s c reened t hrough a 7 mm x 7 mm w ire mesh t o i n sure r e covery o f a l l c u l tura l ly s i gn if i can t r ema ins . C u l tura l f ea tures s uch a s h ear ths , l i v ing f l oors , s t ru c tura l s t one o r e spec ia l ly s i gn if ican t a r t ifac t s when e ncoun tered i n s i tu w ere f u l ly d escr ibed , d rawn , a nd p ho tographed b ef ore b e ing r emoved . A t t he c o mp le t ion o f e ach t r en ch , t he s t ra i ig raph i c p rof i les w ere r e corded a nd a s er ies o f s t ra ta s o i l s amp les was r e moved f r om t he t r en ch f a ce f o r s ubsequen t f l ota t ion a na lyses ( s ee c hap ter 5 ) . T oscono d epos i ts a veraged o ver 2 meters t h ick c o mpr is ing ma in ly m idden d ebr is ( a r t ifa c t s , f auna l a nd ma crobotan ica l mat er ia ls ) a nd s t one s t ruc tura l r ema ins ( f ounda t ion a nd w a l l s t ones ) w i th in a g enera l ly s i l t loam ma t r ix . Mos t o f t he v i l lage u n i t s w ere e x cava ted d own t o t he u nder ly ing b asa l t b edrock s t ra tum ; t he e as t -n i che was e x cava ted d own t oi t s o r ig ina l f ounda t ion . At o ta l o f 7s t ra ta w ere r e cogn ized ( F igs . 2 .3 -2 .5 ) w i th in wh i ch t hree s eparat e o c cupa t iona l p hases ( c u l tura l c o mponen t s ) w ere r epresen ted . On

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DETA ILED DESCR IPT ION OF THE EXCAVAT IONS t he b a s is o f o bs id ian h ydra t ion d a t ing , w e w ere a b le t o c l ea r ly d if eren t ia te t hree o ccupa t iona l p ha ses c hrono log ica l ly ( s ee A ppend ix A ) . T he r esu l t ing c u l tura l s t ra t ig raphy i sd escr ibed b e low .

TOSCONO : CULTURAL S TRAT IGRAPHY B edro ck a nd p re -occupa t ion f i l l A B a sa l t ic b edrock s t ra tum was e ncount ered t hroughou t t he e xcava t ion u n i t s a t d ep ths r ang ing f r om 5 0 c m b e low t he p resen t s urfa ce i n Un i t 7t oo ver 2 50 c m i n Un i t 3 . T he a ngu lar , u neven a nd h eav i ly w ea thered c ond i t ion o f t he e xposed s urfa ce a ppears t o h ave b een t he r e su l t o f h uman q uarry ing a c t iv i t ies a ssoc ia t ed w i th t he i n i t ia l p hases o f c ons t ru c t ion o n s i t e . I ti sf a i r ly c l ear f r om t he n a ture o ft he o ver ly ing s t ru c tura l r ema ins t ha t b u i ld ing s t one u sed i n a t l e as t t he i n i t ia l s tages o ft ower , c i r cu i t wa l l a nd r e s iden t ia l h u t c ons t ru ct ion ( s ee b e low ) was q uarr ied o n t he s i te i t se lf . T he n uraghe , c i rcu i t wa l l a nd s ome r es iden t ia l h u ts ( un i ts 6 ,7 ,8 , a nd 9 ) w ere f ounded d i rec t ly u pon t h is mod if ied b asa l t i c s urfa ce . I n s o me u n i t s , h owever , ( 2 ,3 ,4 & 5 ) t he e ar l ies t s t ruc tura l e v idence i s u nder la in b y al ayer o f 1 0 -50 cm o f l o ose , d ark y e l low s andy l o am ( s t ra tum 7 ) . Wh i le n o t e n t ire ly d evo id o fo c cupa t iona l e v iden ce , c u l tura l d ebr is w i th in s t ra tum 7i sr e la t ive ly s par se , s uggest ing t ha t t hese e ar l iest s ed imen ts h ad e i ther n a tu ra l ly a ccumu la ted w i th in t he d epress ions o f t he e xposed b edrock s urfa ce o r a l terna t ive ly w ere d umped a s f i l l d ur ing e ar ly c ons t ru c t ion i no rder t ol e ve l t he s i t e . T he Nurag ic I r on A ge P hase C omponen t ( 900 -500 BC ) I r on A ge Nurag i c o ccupa t iona l e v iden ce o c curred i n a l l u n i ts ( i n c lud ing t he e as t -n iche ) e x cep t u n i ts 5 , 7a nd 9 . Nurag ic s ed imen t s w ere t h i ckes t t oward t he w es t e nd o f t he e x cava t ion r ang ing f r om 6 0 t o 9 0 cm . Two s t ra ta d a te t ot h is p hase -t he l ower ( s t ra tum 6 )c on ta in ing s t ru c tura l r ema ins a nd t he u pper ( s t ra tum 5 ) f i l l s ed imen ts c on ta in ing b o th c u l tura l d ebr is a s w e l l a s n a tura l s o i ls wh ich a ppa ren t ly a ccumu la ted f o l low ing t he a bandonmen t o f t he Nurag ic s t ruc tures a nd p r ior t o s ubsequen t P un i co -R oman p hase c ons t ru ct ion a c t iv i t ies . L oca l h and -made b la ck p as te Nurag i c c e ram ic w a res p redom ina te i nt h ese l e ve ls ( s ee C hap ter 4 ) . Nurag i c " hu t" S t ruc tur e s ( S tra tum 6 ) T he r e ma ins o f wha t a ppears t o h ave b een r es iden t ia l " hu t" s t ruc tures w i th d ressed b a sa l t b l ock w a l ls a nd p acked c l ay f l oors w i th s imp le p i t h ear ths w ere u n covered i n u n i t s 2 , 3 ,4 ,6 a nd 8 ( F ig . 2 .6 ) . L im i ted s pa t ia l e xposure p reven ts a f u l l r e cons t ru c t ion o f " hu t" p l ans , b ut t he ir r e s iden t ia l n a ture i s s ugges ted b y t he h igh c oncen t ra t ion o f c eram i c , l i th i c a nd m idden d ebr is c l ose ly a ssoc ia ted w i th t hese f ea tures , o f ten a c tua l ly t r amp led i n to t h e c l ay l i v ing s urface . C lay f l oors , o f t en s uper imposed i n t he s ame u n i t , w ere 5 t o 1 0 c m i n t h ickness a nd i n i t ia l ly l ayed d own d i rect ly o n b are b edrock ( hu ts 6 a nd 8 ) o r o ver f i l l ( hu t s 9 , 16 ) ( F ig . 2 .6 ) . H ear th f ea tures w ere s imp le s ha l low p i t d epress ions c on ta in ing a n a sh a nd c harcoa l f i l l . I n o ne e xamp le f r om u n i t 6( hu t 2 8 ) ( F ig . 2 .6b ) s evera l f i re c ra cked r o cks d emarked t he h ear th p er imet er . I n a no ther , ( hu t 2 7 ) a l so f r om u n i t 6 ,t he h ear th was p os i t ioned a ga ins t t he n or th w a l l ( F ig 2 .6e ) . Ab roken v es icu lar b asa l t g r ind ing s t one was l o ca ted a pprox ima te ly 1me ter s ou th o ft h is h ear th o n t he h u t f l oor . B u i ld ing s t ones w ere l a rge d ressed b asa l t b l ocks -t he s ame ma ter ia l f ound i n t ower a nd c i r cu i t w a l l s t ruc tures a nd i n t he u nder ly ing b edrock s t ra ta f r om wh i ch t hey p resumab ly w ere q uarr ied . Most w ere c rude ly d ressed t o r ough d imens ions o f 2 0x20x40 c m t o 3 0x30x50 cm . T he l a rges t a ppeared a s f ounda t ion s t ones u nder ly ing t he i n i t ia l c l ay f l oor i n u n i t 3( hu t 1 6 ) ( F ig . 2 .6f ) a nd measured o ver 6 0x60x100 c m . B locks w ere a pparent ly l ayed i n c ourses w i thou t mor tar -a l so t he me thod u sed i n t he n uraghe a nd

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F igure 2 .6 I r on Age s t ructures f r om T oscono ; a . Un it 1 ,t ower f ounda t ion s t ones ; b . Un it 6 , h u t 2 8 ; c . Un it 2 , h u t 9 , 1 0 ; d . Un it 3 , h ut 1 5 ; e . Un it 6 , h u t 2 7 ; f . Un i t 3 ,h u t 1 6 .

DETA ILED DESCR IPT ION OF THE EXCAVAT IONS c i rcu i t w a l l -a l though h u t w a l ls d o i n corpora te s ma l l s t ones i nt he i n t ers t ices . T he s hape a nd d imens ions o f t he T oscono h u ts a re u ncer ta in . We l l r e cons t ru ct ed e xamp les f r om P a lmavera , S u Nurax i a nd S erra O r ios ( L i l l iu 1 982 ) a re r ound w i th f a ir ly c ons isten t i n t e r ior d iamet ers o f a round 5 me ters a nd wa l ls 1 t o 1 . 5 m eters t h i ck . T hey may o ccur a s i n dependen t u n i ts o r a s c omponen t s o f mu l t ihu t c o mpounds c onnect ed b y c onnec t ing wa l l s u sua l ly l e ss t han a m e ter t h ick . T he T oscono h u t s a ppear l i t t le d i f f eren t , a l though o ur l i m i ted s pa t ia l s amp le p reven ts a more c onf iden t c o mpar ison w i th o ther s i t es . One o bse rva t ion o f n o te i st ha t t h e a c tua l q uan t i ty o f b u i ld ing s t one r e covered i n a ny s i ng le u n i t s e ems i n su f i c ien t t o a c coun t f o r h u ts made p r in c ipa l ly o f t hese ma ter ia ls . P erhaps h u t w a l ls w ere f i n ished t of i na l h e igh t a nd r oof ed o ver w i th p er ishab le ma ter ia ls -a s f o r e xamp le c an b e s een i n many s hepherds ' h u t s u sed i n t he r eg ion t o day ( s ee L i l l iu 1 982 : F ig . 6 2 ) . I ti sa l so l i ke ly t ha t T oscono h u ts w ere f r equen t ly r ebu i l t a nd t ha t s u ch l a ter r ebu i ld ings emp loyed ma ter ia ls f r om e ar l ier a bandoned o r r u ined s t ruc tures . T here i s e v iden ce i n t he f o rm o fs upe r imposed l i v ing s urfa ces a nd a ssoc ia ted w a l l s t ones i n Un i t s 2 ,3 a nd 6 t ha t Nurag i c h u t s h ad b een b u i l t o ver a t l e as t o n ce d ur ing t he I r on Age o ccupa t ion . T he v er t i ca l s epara t ion i n a l l t hree u n i ts i s 2 0 -30 c m o f s t ruc tura l a nd m idden d ebr is w h ich s ugges t s p oss ib ly a n i n terven ing e p isode o f l e ve l ing t he r u ined s ur fa ce w i th f i l l p r ior t on ew c ons t ruc t ion . Nurag i c w a l l Ah eavy c i rcu i t wa l l d a te s t o t h is o c cupa t ion p hase . Where v i s ib le i ts tands u p t o 2 .5 me t er s a bove t he p resen t g round s urface a l ong s ome s egmen t s ( F ig . 2 . 2 ) . I t s l ower c oa r ses wh ich r e s t d i rec t ly u pon t he b edrock a re c omposed o f s evera l c oa rses o f l a rge d ressed b asa l t b l ocks l ayed t o at o ta l wa l l t h i ckness o f a bou t 3m e t ers . Sma l ler s t ones d ressed a nd u ndressed w ere a l so emp loyed p ar t icu lar ly i n t he u pper c oarses . T he wa l ls d ef en s ive f unc t ion s eems s upported b y i t s mass ive d imens ions . G iven i t s p resen t h e igh t i t w ou ld h ave s t ood a t l e a s t 5 me ters a bove t he o r ig ina l Nurag ic s urfa ce . I f o ne i n t erpo la tes i t s o vo id c ourse i tw ou ld h ave e ncompassed a n a rea o fa bou t 1 0 ,000 m2 . Nurag i c T ower E x cava t ions i n t he e as t -n i che o f t he n uraghe i t se lf r evea led o n ly l im it ed e v idence o f I r on A ge o ccupa t iona l d ebr is wh ich was l im i ted t o modes t amoun ts o f c eram ics ( p redom inan t ly b lack i mpas to b urn ished wares ) a nd l i th ics . T hese o c curred w i th in a ma t r ix o f s of t d ark b rown l o am s ed iment s s ome 2 0 cm t h ick wh i ch o ver la in t he b ed o f ma ss ive d ressed b asa l t f ounda t ion b l ocks u pon wh ich t he t ower w as b u i l t ( F ig . 2 .6a ) . A l though s o me c har coa l a nd a sh w ere r epor ted , t here w as a c ur ious l a ck o fe v iden ce f o r c l ay l i v ing s urfa ces o r b one m idden d ebr is s o p reva len t i nt he h u t s e x cavat ed . I n l i ght o f t h is , i ts eems u n l ike ly t ha t t he t ower s erved a s ar es iden t ia l s t ru c ture o n ar egu lar b as is d u r ing t he Nurag i c o c cupa t ion o fT oscono . D epo s i t s O ver ly ing Nurag i c Hu tS t ruc tur e s ( S t ra tum 5 ) T hroughou t t he e xcava t ion , Nurag ic s ed imen t s t ended t o v ary f r om a d ark r ed -brown s i l t o r s andy l o am d i rec t ly o ver ly ing t he s t ruc tura l r ema ins o fh u t s t o ab rown o r y e l low b rown s i l t l o am t oward t he u pper p ar t o f t he I r on A ge d epos i t s ( S t ra tum 5 ) a nd i mmed iate ly u nder ly ing t he P un i co -Roman p hase s t ru c tures ( S t ra tum 4 ) . A l though c u l tu ra l r e ma ins d a teab le t o t he I r on Age a ppeared t hroughou t , t here was a n o t iceab le d ecrease i n ma ter ia ls i nt he u pper s i l t l o am d epos i t s ( S t ra tum 5 ) . T h is was p a r t icu lar ly e v iden t i n Un i t s 3a nd 4 where s o me 2 0 t o 5 0 cm . o f r e la t ive ly s t er i le ( c u l tura l ly ) d epos i ts o ver la in h u t s t ru c tura l d ebr is . Un l ike t he l ower s and ier d epos i ts o f S t ra tum 6 , t he u pper s i l t l o am may n o t i n f a ct c ons t i tu t e c u l tura l f i l l , b u t r a ther n a tura l d epos it s wh i ch h ad a ccumu la ted f o l low ing a bandonmen t o f t he s i t e b y t he Nurag i c c ommun i ty . T here i s a l so s ome e v iden ce f o r t he d eve lopmen t o f n a tura l s o i l h or izons i n S t ra tum 5

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G ary S . Webs ter , J oseph W . M iche ls , C ur t is W . Marean wh i ch w ou ld s ugges t a n e xt ended p er iod o f d i suse f o l low ing t he Nurag i c o ccupa t ion . An u pper d a te o f 5 00 BC f o r t he I r on A ge c omponen t a nd l ower d a t e o f 2 38 BC f o r t he P un i co -Roman c omponen t f ur ther s uppor t s s uch ah ia tus a t T oscono . T he P un ico -Roman P hase C omponen t ( 238 BC -4 4 BC ) F o l low ing a n a pparen t h ia tus o f s ome 2 60 y ears , T oscono i s a ga in o ccup ied d ur ing P un i co -Roman t imes . P un ico -Roman d ebr is i s g enera l ly h eav ier t han t ha t f ound i n e arl i er l e ve ls . A bundan t a rch itec tura l a nd a r t ifac tua l r ema ins w ere u n covered i n a l l t he u n i t s s amp led , e x cep t Un i t 7 , w i th in a g enera l ly s i l t loam ma t r ix r ang ing i n t h i ckness f r om 7 0 c m t owa rd t he n or theast ern e nd o f t he e x cava t ions t o 1 20 c m i n t he s ou thwes tern u n i t s . T hroughou t s t ra ta 4 a nd 3 P un ic a nd R oman c eram i c wares p redom ina ted a nd i n c luded whee l -made v esse ls a nd m o lded b u i ld ing t i l es , a l though l o ca l " Nu rag i c" wa res a re s t i l l c o mmon ly f ound . P un i co -Roman " hu t" S truc tur e s ( S t ra tum 4 ) T he r ema ins o fa pparen t r es iden t ia l s t ruc tures w ere u n covered i n Un i t s 2 , 3 ,4 ,5 ,6 a nd 9 . T he ir g enera l a ppearance i s q u ite s im i lar t o e ar l ier Nurag ic h u ts a ppear ing a s s uper imposed s e r ies o fp acked c l ay f l oors ( s ome t imes w i th a s imp le p i t h ear th ) a sso c iat ed w i th s e c t ions o fs t ra igh t o r c urved wa l ls o fd ressed s t one b l ocks ( F igs . 2 .7 -2 .8 ) . A s i nt he Nurag i c l e ve ls t here i s a l so e v idence f o r t he f r equen t r ebu i ld ing o f t hese s t ruc tures . F ur thermore , i n t he P un ico -Roman s equence t h is may h ave i nvo lved s ome d es ign c hanges a s w e l l . F or e xamp le , t he e ar l ies t P un ico -R oman h u t s ( Hu t 7 -Un i t 2 , Hu t 1 4 -Un i t 3 , Hu t 2 0 -Un i t 4 , Hu t 2 3 -Un i t 5 , Hu t 2 6 -Un i t 6 , Hu t 3 5 -Un i t 9 ) ( F ig . 2 . 7 ) wh ich w ere i n i t ia l ly f o unded o n t he p os t -Nurag ic g round s urface o f S t ra tum 5 , a l l emp loyed s t one s ub -f loor f ounda t ions u pon wh ich t he i n i t ia l c l ay f l oors w ere f o rmed w h i le l a ter P un i co -Roman h u t s d id n o t . A l though n o c ons is ten t p a t tern o f c ons t ru ct ion w a s n o ted , s ubf loors a ppear t o h ave c o mpr ised a s i ng le c ourse o f d ressed a nd u ndressed s t ones r ang ing i n s i ze u p t o 5 0x50x70 cm . A s n o ted a bove , i ti sl i ke ly t ha t e ar l ier mat er ia ls f r om t he Nurag i c f i l l w ere i n corpora ted i n t hese s ubf loors a nd p erhaps i n t h e l ower s ec t ions o f h u t w a l ls ( F ig . 2 .7 ) . Wa l l masonry a ppears n o d if eren t t han i n t he Nurag i c h u t s , a l though f ewer l a rge d ressed b l ocks w ere u sed a nd t hose wh i ch w ere o c cur i n t he e ar l ies t P un ico -Roman s t ru c tures s uch a s Hu t s 1 4 , 7a nd 6 ( F ig . 2 .7 ) . A s e ar l ier , s t ones w ere l a id w i thou t m or tar a nd sma l l c obb les w ere o f t en u sed f o r " pa ck ing" t he i n t er st ices o f t he l a rger b l ocks ( F ig . 2 .7 ) . Two t ypes o f r ebu i ld ing p rocedures a re s uggest ed . I n Un i t 5r ebu i ld ing i nvo lved o n ly t he p er iod ic r e lay ing o f c l ay f l oors ( Hu ts 2 2 -21 ) wh i le o r ig ina l h u t wa l ls w ere s imp ly e xt ended u pward w i th n ew c ourses o f s t one . S ubsequen t f l oors a ppea r n o t t o h ave u sed s t one f ounda t ions b u t w ere l a in d i rect ly u pon r ubb le f i l l 1 5 -20 c m i n t h i ckness . S im i lar r ebu i ld ing s equences o ccurred i n Un i t s 6 -Hu t s 2 6 , 2 5 a nd 9 -Hu ts 3 4 , 3 5 ) . I n c on tras t , h u t r ebu i ld ing i n Un i t s 2 , 3a nd 4 i nvo lved b o th l ay ing n ew c l ay f l oors a s w e l l a s n ew ly c ons t ruc ted w a l ls n o t c l ear ly a ssoc ia ted i n t e rms o f s t ru c ture o r o r ien ta t ion w i th e ar l ier h u t s . Two s uch c omp le te r ebu i ld ings o f H u t 7t o ok p lace i n Un i t 2-( Hu ts 6 , 5 )e ach b e ing s epara ted b y s o me 4 0 cm o ff i l l . I n Un i t 3 ,( Hu t s 1 4 ,13 ,12 ,11 ) r ebu i ld ing s w ere s eparat ed b y o n ly 2 0 cm o f f i l l . T he s i ng le r ebu i ld ing o f Hu t 2 0 i n Un i t 4o ccurred o n t op o f n ear ly 5 0 cm o f f i l l . I t i s u nc lea r f r om t he c o mpos i t ion o f t he d epos i t s b e tween b u i ld ing e p isodes whe ther n ew c ons t ru c t ion was u nder taken a f t er p er iods o fd i suse o r d ur ing more o r l e ss c on t inuous o ccupa t ion . T he f i l l b e tween f l oors i sc haract er is t ica l ly a d ark b rown , r ed -brown o r y e l low -brown s i l t l o am w i th v ar iab le amoun ts o f a rch i tec tura l a nd m idden d ebr is . T he a bsence o f a ny c l ear e v iden ce f o r n a tura l s o i l d eve lopmen t i n t hese i n t erf loor s ed imen ts w ou ld s ugges t t ha t i f t he s amp led a reas o f t he s i te w ere a bandoned b e tween b u i ld ing e p isodes , t hen s u ch p er iods mus t h ave b een b r ief .

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DETA ILED DESCR IPT ION OF THE EXCAVAT IONS

F igure 2 .7 E ar ly P un ico -Roman p hase s t ruc tures f r om T oscono : a . Un it 1 ,d ressed s t one p av ing ; b . Un i t 2 ,h u t 7 ;c . Un i t 4 , h u t 2 0 ; d . Un it 2 , h u t 6 ;e . Un i t 3 ,h ut 1 3 ; f . Un it 3 , h u t 1 4 . 2 1

G ary S . Webster , J oseph W . M iche ls , C ur t is W . Marean

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o ' . 1 . » J

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F igure 2 .8 L a te P un ico -Ro man p hase s t ructures f r om T oscono ; a . Un i t 8 , d ressed s t one " doub le" wa l l ; b . Un i t 9 ,h ut 3 4 ; c . Un it 2 ,h u t 5 ;d . Un i t 5 ,h u t 2 1 , 2 2 n or th wa l l ; e . Un i t 6 ,h u t 2 6 , 2 7 ; f . Un it 3 ,h u t 1 2 ; g . Un i t 4 ,t r ench 1 ,h u t 1 9 ; h . Un i t 5 ,h u t 2 1 , 2 2 . 2 2

DETA ILED DESCR IPT ION OF THE EXCAVAT IONS P un i co -Roman Wa l l s I n a dd i t ion t o h u t s t ruc tures , Un i t 8r evea led a u n ique masonry wa l l s t ruc ture ( F ig . 2 .8 ) . I t s l owes t c ourse w as l ayed u pon t he r u ined wa l l o f Nurag ic Hu t 3 1 , a nd i t a ppa ren t ly r e ma ined i n u se d ur ing t he e n t ire P un i co -Roman o ccupa t ion . T he u n ique c on s t ru c t ion was c omposed o ft wo ' pane ls ' o fd ry layed d ressed b a sa l t b l ocks a verag ing i n s i ze a bou t 2 0x20x40 c m , w i th s ome a s l a rge a s 4 0x40x80 cm . I t s t o ta l t h ickness i sa f a ir ly c ons isten t 8 0 c m . T he n or thern o u ter f a ce i sw e l l d ressed i ni t s u pper 1 00 cm t o a f l a t s urface a nd b ecomes m ore i r regu lar t oward t he l owes t c ourse . T he s ou thern o u ter f a ce i s l e ss e ven . I t i s u n cer ta in whe ther t h is w a l l was c ons t ruc ted a t o ne t ime o r p er iod ica l ly e x tended w i th n ew c ourses o f s t one . I ft he f o rmer i st he c ase , t hen t he wa l l w ou ld h ave s t ood a bou t 1 30 c m a bove g round d ur ing t he i n i t ia l P un ico -Roman o c cupa t ion . I t s f unc t ion i sa l so u n cer ta in . B u t t he a bsence o fa ny c l ear ly a ssoc ia ted h u t f l oo r s s ee ms t op rec lude i t s u se a s ah u t wa l l , a l though i t may h ave s erved a s ac o mmon w a l l f o r a h u t c ompound . A l terna t ive ly , i t s c ompara t ive ly h eavy c ons truc t ion a nd o r ien ta t ion s ugges ts i tw as p ar t o f ac ur ta in wa l l s t ru c ture e nc los ing c en tra l a nd c orner t owers o ft he Nuraghe a s i ne xamp les f r om S an tu A n t ine , P a lmavera a nd o ther c o mp lex t owe r a nd b as t ione t ype n uragh i ( s ee L i l l iu 1 982 ) . A l though t he c ourse o f t h is wa l l f e a tu re was n o t f o l lowed o u t d ur ing t he 1 982 s eason , i t s e as t -wes t o r ien ta t ion s ugges ts i t p robab ly i n t ersec ted t he ma in t ower a t n ear ly ar i gh t a ng le . I ti su n cer ta in whe ther t he e a r l ier Nurag ic c i r cu i t w a l l r ema ined i n u se d ur ing t he P un i co -Roman a nd l a ter R oman o c cupa t ions . H owever , t he f a ir ly f r equen t s urface f i nds o f P un i c a nd R oman c eram i cs d i s t r ibut ed w e l l o u t s ide t he p er imet er o f t he wa l l d oes s ugges t t ha t s e t t lemen t h ad e xpanded b eyond p rev ious Nurag ic b oundar ies . I n a ny c ase , i ti sc e r ta in t ha t a t l e as t s e c t ions o ft he o l d c i rcu i t w a l l w ou ld h ave s t ood n ear ly 4 me ters a bove t he e ar l ies t P un ico -Roman s urface . T h eP un i co -Roman Nuraghe O ccupa t iona l e v iden ce w i th in t he t owers e as t -n i che i ss o mewha t more f r equen t t han f o r t he e ar l ier Nurag ic o c cupa t ion , a l though f auna l a nd o ther m idden d ebr is r ema in v ery s pa rse . T he ma t er ia ls r e covered c ons ist ed o fo range a nd r ed p as te wares , i n c lud ing s o me b u i ld ing t i les a nd a f ew f r agmen t ed c eram ic o i l l amps . S ed imen t s r e ma ined a s i n e ar l ier l e v e ls , av ery d ark b rown c o lored l o am w i th o c cas iona l c ha rcoa l a nd a sh i n c lus ions a nd a r a ther l a rge n umber o fc o rk f r agmen t s -a l l d epos i ted t o at h ickness o fn ear ly 1 50 cm . I n c on t ras t t o Nurag ic l e ve ls , t he n i che r evea led e v iden ce o f t wo " f loor" s t ru c tures . T he e a r l ies t was r evea led a s a' p avemen t ' o f d ressed b asa l t b l ocks a nd sma l ler c obb les a pparen t ly l ayed i mmed ia te ly o ver e ar l ier Nurag ic d epos i t s . I t s f un c t ion i su nc lear -a s n o c oncen tra t ions o f o c cupa t iona l d ebr is w ou ld s ugges t i t s u se a s ar es iden t ia l f l oor f o unda t ion a s f ound i nt he c on t emporary v i l lage s t ru c tures o u t s ide . As econd l a ter ' f l oor ' i nt h e f o rm o f ah ard -pa cked c l ay s urfa ce o ccurred i nt he u pper p ar t o ft he P un ico -Roman d epos i t s . B u t , a ga in , t here w ere n o a ssoc ia ted c oncen t ra t ions o fm idden d ebr is s uggest ive o fr e s iden t ia l a ct iv i t ies . We mus t c onc lude , t heref ore , t ha t a l though t he P un ico -Roman c ommun i ty may h ave made m ore f r equen t u se o ft he t ower t han d id t he e ar l ier Nurag ic p opu la t ion , i t s f un c t ion a ppears n o t t o h ave b een p r imar i ly r es iden t ia l . T he a ssoc ia t ion o fc o rk w i th Nurag i c t ower d epos i ts i sc o mmon ly r epor ted o n t he i s land a nd t rad i t iona l ly i n t erpre ted a s t he r ema ins o fs ea t ing o r b edd ing mat er ia ls u sed b y t ower " guards" w i th in t h e c ont ex t o f t he n uraghe 's p resumed f unc t ion a s am i l i tary s t rongho ld o r r efuge . Our e v idence f r om t he T oscono n uraghe d oes n o t c on t rad i c t s u ch a n i n t erpre ta t ion . D epos i t s O ver ly ing P un i co -Roman Hu tS truc tur e s ( S t ra tum 3 ) I n Un it s 2 ,3 ,4 ,6 a nd 9 , af a ir ly d i s t in c t ive l ayer o f c oarse g ranu lar t ex ture d ark b rown s i l t l o am i mmed ia t e ly o ver lays t he s t ruc tura l f i l l a nd s i l t l o am ma t r ix o f s t ra tum

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G a ry S . Webst er , J oseph W . M iche ls , C ur t is W . Marean 4 . T he l ower h or izon , a t i t s i n terfa ce w i th s t ra tum 5 i sq u it e u neven , a nd a t p laces , t o ta l ly o bscured b y t he b u i ld ing r ubb le b e low a nd i sh en ce o f v ar iab le t h ickne ss u p t o a bou t 4 0 cm . A l though c u l tura l ma ter ia ls w ere p resen t , b u i ld ing d ebr is was s ca r ce a nd m idden r ema ins f a r l e ss f r equen t t han w i th in u nder ly ing s t ra tum 4 o r o ver ly ing R oman a ge s t ra tum 2 . F or t hese r easons a nd t he f a c t t ha t s ome d ecomposed r o o t s w ere r e cogn iz ed , w e h ave b een l e d t o p ropose t ha t s t ra tum 4r epresen t s a no ther o c cupa t iona l h i a tu s d ur ing wh ich t ime n a tura l s o i l h or izons b egan t o d eve lop o n t he s i te -a t l e as t w i th in t he a rea e xcava ted . At e rm ina l d a te f o r t he P un i co -R oman o ccupa t ion o f 4 4 BC a nd a n i n i t ia l d a te o f AD 2 17 f o r t he R oman c o mponen t s ugges ts t h is h ia tus s panned s ome 2 50 y ears . T he R oman C omponen t ( AD 2 17 -371 ) F o l low ing a n o ccupa t iona l h ia tus T oscono was r eo ccup ied f o r at h ird p er iod d ur ing t he R oman p hase . A s i n t he P un ico -Roman s t ra tum 4 , s t ru c tura l , a r t ifac tua l a nd m idden d ebr is w ere q u i te h eavy i n d ica t ing a s i zab le c o mmun i ty d ur ing t he f i na l c en tu ry a nd a h a lf o f T oscono 's s oc ia l e x is tence . T he s ed imen tary ma t r ix r ema ins a s i l t l o am , d ark b rown i nc o lor a nd i sf a ir ly e as i ly d i s t ingu ished f r om u nde r ly ing s t ra tum 3 o n t h e b as is o f t e x tu re a nd a ssoc ia ted s t ruc tura l r e ma ins . S t ra ta 2 a nd 1 b o th c on ta ined c u l tura l ma t er ia ls , a l though b u i ld ing d ebr is was l a rge ly c on ta ined w i th in t he l ower s t ra tum ( 2 ) . T og e ther , R oman c o mponen t s t ra ta 1 a nd 2 r anged i n t h i ckness f r om a bou t 3 0 cm i n U n i t 2t o 2 0 cm i n Un i t s 4a nd 6 . P o t t ery was o verwhe lm ing ly R oman i n s t y le a nd e xe cu t ion a nd i n c ludes a n umber o fh igh q ua l i ty t e rra s i g i l la ta v esse ls a s w e l l a s m o lded b u i ld ing t i l es . F inds o f b ronze c o ins , t oga f i bu lae , g l a ss p erfume b ot t les a nd m osa ic t e sserae , a l ong w i th t he s t ru c tura l r ema ins o f f a i r ly d i s t in c t ive r ec tangu lar o r s ubre c tangu lar h u ts c on t r ibut e t o t he i mpress ion t ha t t h is w as a p rosperous c ommun i ty w i th g ood a ccess t oR oman ma ter ia l c u l ture . R oman Hu tS truc tur e s ( S t ra tum 2 ) D ressed s t one wa l l a l ignmen ts a nd a ssoc iat ed p acked c l ay f l oors -s o me w i th ah ear th -w ere u n covered i n Un it s 3 ,4 ,6 ,7 ,8 a nd 9 a nd a ppear t ob e t he r ema ins o fr ec tangu lar o r s ub -re ctangu lar h u t s ( F ig . 2 .9 ) . T he r e ma in ing w a l l f o unda t ions a re o f d ressed s t one ma sonry s im i lar t o t ha t u sed i n e ar l ier P un i co -Roman a nd Nurag ic h ouses -a l though t hey g enera l ly emp loy mu ch s ma l ler s t ones . T he o r ig ina l h u t d imens ions a re u n c lear , a l though t he P un ico -Roman t e chn ique o fl ay ing c l ay f l oors u pon a s t one s ub -f loor a ppears n o t t o h ave b een u sed i n R oman p hase h u t s . T he a l ignmen t s o f f ounda t ion s t ones i n Un i t s 6 , 3a nd i n p ar t icu lar 7 where s evera l c on t iguou s 1 x 2 me ter t r enches w ere o pened , s eem t o i nd ica te a r e c tangu lar o r s ub -re c tangu la r f l oor p lan ( F ig . 2 . 10 ) . An a bundan ce o f b u i ld ing t i l es f ound among c o l lapsed wa l l d ebr is l e aves l i t t le d oub t o f t he t ypes o f r oof ing mat er ia l u sed . Un l ike e ar l ier P un i co -R oman a nd Nurag ic c on s t ru c t ion e p isodes , t here i s l i t t le c l ear e v idence i n t he R oman o c cupa t ion f o r h u t r ebu i ld ing . R a ther , i t s eems t ha t R oman h u ts w ere c ons t ru c ted a nd o ccup ied more o r l e ss c on t inuous ly w i th o n ly m in ima l a nd n o t e as i ly d e t ec tab le r ev is ions t o t he o r ig ina l s t ru c tures . AP oss ib l eR oman P avemen t A l though R oman h u ts may n o t h ave s een s i gn if i can t r ebu i ld ing a t T oscono , t he a rea s amp led b y Un i t 4 a ppears t o h ave u ndergone s ome a l tera t ion f r om a r es iden t ia l s t ru c ture ( Hu t 4 ) t o s o me s or t o f ap avemen t . T he f our , 1x 2 met er t r enches o pened i n Un i t 4r evea led s uch a f ea ture c omposed o f al e ve l b ed o f l a rge d ressed f l a t ish b ou lders a nd s ma l ler c obb les ( F ig . 2 . 11 ) . I t s f unc t ion i s u n cer ta in , a l though a r es iden t ia l o ne s eems u n l ike ly d ue t ot he a bsence o fa ny o ver ly ing c l ay f l oor a nd m idden a nd t he p au c i ty o fa sso c ia ted b u i ld ing t i les .

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G a ry S . Webs t er , J oseph W . M iche ls , C ur t is W . Marean T h eR oman P ha se Nuraghe R oman a ge d epos i ts w i th in t he e as t -n iche a re v ery s im i lar t o t hose o f t he u nder ly ing P un i co -Roman c o mponen t . Approx ima t e ly 4 0 c m o f d ark y e l low t o d ark g rey l o am s ed imen ts c on ta ined s pa rse ly s ca t tered r e ma ins o f R oman v esse ls , b u i ld ing t i l es a nd a n o c ca s iona l o i l l amp . M idden d ebr is was a l l b u t a bsen t a l though c ork f r agmen t s w ere c ommon a s i nt he l ower P un ico -Roman l e ve ls . T he n i che s eems t o h ave b een p aved o ver w i th t he i n i t ia l o ccupa t ion o f t he R oman p hase c ommun i ty . A s i n t he P un ico -Roman p av ing , as i ng le l ayer o f d ressed s t one b l ocks a nd s ma l ler c obb les w ere s imp ly l ayed d own u pon e a r l ier f i l l a nd a ga in t here i s n o a sso c iat ed c on cen tra t ion o f o ccupa t iona l d ebr is wh i ch m igh t s ugges t t he t ower c hamber s erved a r es iden t ia l f un c t ion d ur ing R oman t imes . R a ther , i n term i t ten t u se , p erhaps a s ar e fuge o r s t orage f a c i l i ty s eems m ore l i ke ly . Na tura l s o i l s o ver ly ing R oman s t ruc tura l r ema in s ( S t ra tum 1 ) O ver ly ing t he l a t es t R oman a ge s t ructures w as al ayer o f modern s o i l d ark b rown t o y e l low b rown i nc o lor a nd a verag ing s ome 1 0 -20 c m i nd ep th f r om t he p resen t g rass a nd s c rub s urfa ce . A t h in u pper o rgan ic h or izon ( 0 -1 ) o f l i ve r oo ts c an s o me t imes b e d i s t ingu ished f r om a n u nder ly ing h or izon ( 0 -2 ) o fd ead a nd d ecompos ing r oo ts . A l though S t ra tum 1w a s mos t c er ta in ly d epos i ted a f ter t he R oman o c cupa t ion a t T oscono -R oman a g e ma ter ia ls m ixed w i th modern d ebr is o ccurred t hroughou t . I n f a c t , R oman s herds a re f o und s ca t t ered w ide ly o n t he modern s urface b eyond t he Nurag ic c i rcu i t w a l l . T he c ons iderab le amoun t o fd i sp lacemen t o f t he R oman c omponen t r ema ins i mp l ied b y t h is i s n o d oub t l a rge ly t he r esu l t o f more r e cen t p l ow ing a c t iv i t ies o n t he s i t e , wh i ch h ave r epea ted ly d i s turbed S t ra tum 1d epos i t s .

URPES : EXCAVAT ION S TRATEGY U rpes s i t s a bou t 1 . 5 km t o t he w es t o f T oscono a nd o n ly . 5 km f r om t he v i l lage o f B orore . H ere , a t a n a pprox imat e e l eva t ion o f 4 00 me t res , t he t e rra in i s f l a t t er t han a round T oscono a nd o ne i s af orded h i s b est v i ew o ft he s urround ing c oun trys ide t oward t h e w es t , a cross s parse ly v ege ta ted p la teau l ands wh ich e ven tua l ly r i se t o t he f o res ted m oun ta in o f S . Ant on io s o me 1 0 km away . S evera l s ma l l s pr ings wh ich a re u sed t o w a te r s t ock a n ima ls t oday c an b e f ound w i th in 2kms o ft he s i te . A s a t T os cono , t he s i te o f U rpes c ompr ises t hree ma in f ea tures : as i ng le n uraghe , a d ja cen t r e s iden t ia l d epos i t s a nd a n e n c los ing c i rcu i t w a l l . A l though w e u ndert ook n o e x cava t ions i nt he t ower i t se lf , al o ca l amat eur g roup u nder t he s uperv is ion o f P rof essor A . Morave t t i c l eared t he r u ined s t ru c ture o f v ege ta t ive o verg row th s uf i c ien t ly t o d e te rm ine t ha t t he c en t ra l t ower h ad b een o r ig ina l ly s urrounded b y f our s ma l ler p er iphera l t owers s im i lar t ot hose i n f erred f o r T oscono ( F ig . 2 .12 ) . T he s hor t s egmen t o f N urag ic wa l l , a l so d ef ined b y Morave t t i , r an o n ly 1 5 me ters t ot he n or th o ft he Nuraghe a nd a ppea rs t oh ave e ncompassed p erhaps o n ly 2 500 m2 -a n a rea a bout 1 / 4 t he s i ze o f t he T oscono v i l lage . A s a t T oscono , Nuraghe U rpes a nd i t s Nurag ic wa l l h ave b een i n corporat ed i n to an e twork o fc on temporary s t one f arm f en ces F ig . 2 .13 ) . P enn S ta te 's e xcava t ions o f t he v i l lage d epos i t s a d ja cen t t o t he n uraghe w ere c onduc ted f r om J une 8 -J une 2 9 , 1 982 u nder J . M i che ls ' s uperv is ion . T he s t ra tegy emp loyed h ere was e ssen t ia l ly i d en t i ca l t o t ha t u sed a t T oscono . T h irteen e x cava t ion u n i t a reas w ere d ef ined w i th in a s i te w ide g r id s ys tem : f our i mmed ia te ly w es t o f t he t ower , o ne i mmed ia te ly n or th o f t he t ower a nd t he b a lan ce l o ca ted b etween 2 0 a nd 5 0 m e ters t ot he w est a nd n or theast . A s a t T oscono , 1x 2me ter t r enches w ere o pened a nd a l l s ed imen t s w ere r e moved i n 1 0 cm l e ve ls a nd r un t hrough a s c reen mesh t o r e cover a l l

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G ary S . Webs t er , J oseph W . M i che ls , C ur t is W . Marean

F igure 2 . 13 U rpes s i te map s how ing e x cava t ion u n i t s . 3 0

DETA ILED DESCR IPT ION OF THE EXCAVAT IONS a r t i fa c tua l a nd m idden d ebr is . C u l tura l f ea tures w ere f u l ly d escr ibed , mapped a nd p ho tog raphed i n s i tu , a nd t r ench wa l ls s upp l ied t he n ecessary s t ra t ig raph ic i n f orma t ion f o r e a ch u n i t ( F ig . 2 . 13 ) . I n c on t rast t o T oscono , c u l tura l d epos i ts w ere f ound t o b e q u ite t h in a t U rpes a ve rag ing o n ly a bou t 6 0 cm t ot he s ha l low b edrock wh ich a c tua l ly b roke s urface o n many p ar t s o ft he s i te . T hese t h inner d epos i ts a l so y i e lded f a r f ewer c u l tura l r ema ins : c o mpare f o r i n s tance a n a r t ifact d ens i ty a tT oscono o f 7 57 p er c ub ic me ter o fe xcava ted f i l l t oo n ly 1 44 a r t ifa c ts p er c ub i c meter a t U rpes . A l though s t ructura l r ema ins o fh u ts c o mparab le t o t h ose f ound a t T oscono w ere a l so u ncovered a t U rpes , t hese w ere f a r l e ss e x tens ive a nd g enera l ly mu ch l e ss w e l l d ef ined . I n a dd i t ion , t he s ha l low s ed imen ts h ave n o d oubt made U rpes c u l tura l d epos i t s f a r more v u lnerab le t o d i sturbance a nd c on tam ina t ion b y s ubsequen t a ct iv i t ies o n t he s i te l i ke d eep p l ow ing . Our e xcava t ions d i d r evea l p robab le i n s tan ces o f t he v er t ica l m ix ing i n t he s t rat ig raph ic d i st r ibu t ion o f d i agnost ic c eram ic wa res . N ever the less , u p t o 5s t rat ig raph ic l e ve ls c ou ld b e r e cogn ized a t U rpes ( F ig . 2 .14 ) . W i th in t hese , f our c u l tura l c o mponen ts h ave b een d ef ined a nd d a ted ( s ee Append ix A ) , wh i ch a ppear t o r epresen t f our d i st inct ive o ccupa t iona l p hases : I r on A ge Nurag ic ( 900 BC -5 00 BC ) , P un ico -Roman ( 238 BC -4 4 BC ) , Vanda l K ingdom ( 456 AD -6 00 AD ) , a nd B yzan t ine ( 750 AD -9 00 AD ) . T he r esu l t ing c u l tura l s equence i sd escr ibed b e low .

URPES : CULTURAL S TRAT IGRAPHY B edrock a nd p re -occupa t iona l f i l l ( S tra tum 5 ) A s n o ted , b edrock was e ncoun tered u nder s ha l low d epos i ts t hroughou t t he s amp led g r id f r om ad ep th o fo n ly 2 0 cm i n Un i ts 1 3 , 2a nd 6 t o 8 0 -110 cm i nu n i ts ( 10 ,11 ,12 a nd 1 ) n eares t t he t ower where s ed imen ts h ad a ccumu la ted s i nce Nurag ic t imes . T he e xposed b asa lt ic b edrock s urface was e verywhere f ound t o b e a ngu lar a nd h eav i ly w ea thered . I n s evera l u n i ts ( F ig . 2 .15 ) c i rcu lar j agged -wa l led d epress ions i n t he b asa lt w ere e xposed wh ich s eem c l ear ly t o b e t he r e ma ins o f q uarry p i ts e xcava ted i n to t he h ard b edrock s t ra ta b y t he s i te 's e ar l iest o ccupan t s d ur ing t he i n i t ia l p hasesof t ower , wa l l a nd h u t c onstruct ion . Numerous s uch b orrow p i ts must h ave b een e xcavated b y t he Nurag ic p opu la t ion , a s t he d i st inc t ive c i rcu lar o u t l ines o f an umber a re v i s ib le f r om t he p resen t s urface , a nd , i nf a ct , w ere i n i t ia l ly t aken t ob e h u t i mpress ions . A s a t T oscono , Nghe . U rpes , t he c i rcu i t wa l l a nd s evera l Nurag ic h u ts s ee m t o h ave b een f ounded u pon t he e xposed b edrock . I t s h eav i ly w ea thered c ond i t ion s uggests t h is b asa l t s t ra tum r ema ined e xposed t o t he e l e men ts f o r ac ons iderab le t ime a s t he Nurag ic l i v ing s urface . H owever , i n s o me u n i ts ( 5 ,11 ,1 ,10 ,12 ) t he e ar l ies t s t ruc tura l e v idence a ppears t o b e u nder la in b y al ayer o f b rown t o d ark b rown c l ay l o am ( s tra tum 5 ) . A s im i lar p re -occupa t ion s t ra ta was e ncountered a t T oscono , a nd i sa l so p robab ly t he r esu lt e i ther o fn a tura l s ed imen tary a ccumu la t ion o r i n ten t iona l f i l l ing a ct iv i t ies u nder taken b y t he Nurag ic p opu la t ion i na n ef or t t ol e ve l t he u neven b edrock s urface b ef ore b u i ld ing . T he I r on Age Nurag ic C omponen t ( S tra tum 4 ) ( 900 -500 BC ) E v idence f o r a n I r on Age c o mmun i ty c on temporary w ith t ha t a t T oscono i sc on ta ined i n S t ra tum 4 d epos i ts a t U rpes . T hese d ark b rown , c oarse t extured s i l t l o am s ed imen ts p roduced modest amoun ts o f c haracter ist ic b lack i mpasto ware , a l ong w i th a sma l l c o l lec t ion o f l i th i c a nd f auna l r e ma ins a nd a f ew e xamp les o f Nurag ic h u t a rch it ecture ( F igs . 2 .15 -2 .16 ) . S tra tum 4 i s 2 0 t o 4 0 cm t h ick a nd s pa t ia l ly r e str icted t o u n its ( 10 ,11 ,12 ,1 ) d i rect ly a d jacent t o t he t ower a nd w i th in t he i n terpo lated p er ime ter o f t he

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F igure 2 . 15 I r on A ge s t ructure ( a ) a nd q uarry p i t ( b ) f r om U rpes , Un i t 1 . 3 3

G ary S . Webster , J oseph W . M iche ls , C ur t is W . Marean N urag ic c i rcu i t wa l l . F rom t he f ew p reserved e xamp les o f f ounda t ions e xposed , Nu rag ic h u t s a t U rpes a ppear t o h ave b een s im i lar t o t hose f r om T oscono i n p lan a nd s t ru c tura l m e thods . I n t he e xamp le f r om Un i t 1( F ig . 2 . 15 ) , t he h ut was p os it ioned o ver a b edrock b orrow p i t . T he l a rger d ressed b asa l t f oundat ion b l ocks a nd c l ay f l oor ing a ppear t oh ave b een l a id p ar t ia l ly u pon t he b edrock a nd p ar t ia l ly u pon f i l l s ed imen ts . T he r easonab ly i n ta c t c l ay f l oor c on ta ined c on centra t ions o f c u l tura l d ebr is a nd c harcoa l wh ich h ad b een t r ead i n to t he s urface , i n a dd it ion t o af r ac tured g r ind ing s t one a nd a ssoc ia ted h and m i l l ing -s tones f ound i n s i tu o n t he s urface . A s o mewha t d i f f eren t t ype o f s t ruc ture may b e i n d icat ed i nt he u n it 1 0 t r enches ( F ig . 2 . 16 ) . H ere , s evera l v ery l a rge r ough ly d ressed b asa l t b ou lders ( 70x70x100 cm ) f o rmed r e ctangu lar a l ignmen ts w ith o ther s ma l ler d ressed a nd u ndressed s t ones . T he i d ent if ica t ion o f t he s t ruc ture i su ncerta in . B u t , t he a bsen ce o fa ssoc ia ted p reserved c l ay f l oors , a l ong w ith t he mass ive d imens ions o f s evera l b l ocks make a r e s ident ia l d es igna t ion u n l ike ly ; t hese may c ons t i tu te r u ined p ort ions o f t he o n ce s tand ing s outhwestern p er iphera l t ower o ft he n uraghe i t se lf . T he P un ico -Roman C o mponen t -l ower a nd m idd le S tra tum 3 ( 238 -44 BC ) D irec t ly o ver ly ing Nurag ic d epos i ts i n Un its 1 , 1 0 , 1 1 a nd 1 2 o ccurred 2 0 -40 c m o f b rown t o d a rk b rown s i lt l o am c on ta in ing i n i t s l ower h a lf c u l tura l r e ma ins d a teab le t o t he p er iod 2 38 -44 BC a nd c on temporary w i th t he P un ico -Roman o c cupa t ion a t T oscono . A l though o ur e xcavat ions r evea led n o n o t iceab le s t ra t ig raph ic e v idence f o r a n h ia tus b e tween t h is a nd t he e ar l ier Nurag ic o c cupa t ion l i ke t ha t f ound a t T oscono , t he d a tes f o r t h is c omponen t d o s t rong ly s uggest t hat a c o mparab le h ia tus d i d i n f a ct o ccur a t U rpes . P un ico -Roman r ema ins a re r e str icted t o t he s ame u n its a s a re e ar l ier Nurag ic ma ter ia ls ( Un it s 1 , 10 ,11 ,12 ) s ugges t ing a sma l l c o mmun ity c on ta ined w i th in t he b ounds o f t he e ar l ier Nurag ic wa l l . A rch i tectura l ly , t h is c o mponent i s i l -def ined s i nce s t ruc tura l r ema ins c o mpr ised n o more t han a f ew i s o la ted d ressed b asa l t b l ocks o ver ly ing Nu rag ic d epos i ts . O ur e xcava t ions r evea led n o c l ear ly a ssoc ia ted f l oors o r o ther c u ltura l f eatures , a l though c haracter ist ic P un ic a nd R oman s ty le c eram ics , i n c lud ing b u i ld ing t i l es w ere f a ir ly c o mmon . T he V anda l K ingdom C omponen t -u pper S tra tum 3 ( 456 AD -6 00 AD ) A l though t h is c o mponen t i sn ot c l ear ly d ef ined s t ra t igraph ica l ly , a sma l l c o l lect ion o f med ieva l r ema ins d a t ing t o t he p er iod o f t he V anda l K ingdom o c curred i n t he u pper p ar t o fS t ra tum 3w i th in s evera l u n its ( 11 ,12 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 ) . G lazed v esse ls a nd f i ber t empered r oof t i l es w ere c haracter ist ic a l though Nurag ic , P un ic a nd R oman s ty le wares a re a l so f ound . S truc tura l r ema ins w ere l im i ted t o af ew p a t ches o fp a cked c l ay s urfaces w i th e v iden ce o f f i r ing . N o s t ructura l s t one c an b e c l ear ly a ss igned t o t he c o mponen t a nd w e g uess t ha t V anda l a ge h u ts w ere c ons tructed e n t ire ly o f p er ishab le ma ter ia ls e xcep t f o r t he a pparen t t i l e r oof ing . T he w ider d i s tr ibu t ion o f Vanda l ma ter ia ls a cross e xcava t ion u n i ts s ugges t s t h is c o mmun ity h ad s pread -a l though t h in ly -b eyond t he p rev ious l im i ts s e t b y t he e ar l ier a nd p resu mab ly r u ined Nurag ic wa l l . T he d a tes f o r t he Vanda l c o mponen t ( s ee A ppend ix A ) s uggest a n e x tens ive h ia tus o f s o me 5 00 y ears b etween P un ico -Roman a nd V anda l o c cupa t ions . T he B yzan t ine C omponen t -S tra tum 2 ( AD 7 50 -900 ) A d a rk y e l low b rown s i l t l o am d epos i t 2 0 -30 cm i n t h ickness f ound t hrough t he e xcava t ion g r id r evea led e v idence f o r as econd a nd s o mewha t l a rger med ieva l c o mmun i ty a t U rpes . B yzan t ine ma ter ia ls w ere f ound i n a l l t he u n i ts b ear ing e v idence o f e a r l ier o ccupa t ions a s w e l l a s u n i ts 8 ,9 ,6 ,2 a nd 1 3 , where t hese s eem t o i nd icate n ew ly s e t t led a reas o f t he s i te w e l l away f r om t he c en tra l n uraghe . Med ieva l g lazed c eram ic v esse ls , f i ber t empered r oof t i les a nd o bs id ian ( s ee C hapter 4 ) a re f ound i n a bundance , a l ong w i th e ar l ier P un i c , R o man a nd Nurag ic ma ter ia ls . S tructura l r e ma ins a re n ot w e l l

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G ary S . Webst er , J * oseph W . M iche ls , C ur t is W . Ma rean r epresen ted a nd c ons is t o f af ew i n ta c t r emnan t s o fp a cked a nd p oss ib ly f i red c l ay f l oors w i th a ssoc ia t ed f i re c ra cked c obb les a nd m idden d ebr is . I n Un i t 1 2 , ac l ay f l oor a ppears t oh ave b een p repared o ver o l der V anda l p er iod s ed imen ts . I n Un i t 9 , h owever , t he h u t f l oor w as p u t d own o ver b edrock a nd f i l l ( F ig . 2 . 17 ) . I n n o i n s tances w ere s t ru c tura l s t ones c l ea r ly a sso c ia t ed . I ta ppears t ha t , a s i ne a r l ier Vanda l s t ructu res , B yzan t ine h u t wa l ls w ere ma in ly o f p er ishab le ma ter ia ls a nd r oof ed o ver w i th t i l es . Da t es o n t h is c omponen t ( Append ix A ) i nd ica te a g ap o f s o me 2 50 y ears b e tween e ar l ier V anda l a nd s ubsequen t B yzan t ine o ccupa t ions . Na tura l T op S o i l -S tra tum 1( r ecen t ) At h in l ayer o fr e cen t ly f o rmed t o p s o i l o ver lays mos t o ft he s i t e wherever t he b edrock h as n o t b roken s urface . A l though , c u l tura l ma t er ia ls o c curred t hroughou t t h is r e cen t d epos i t , t hese h ave n o d oub t b een b rough t u p t hrough p l ow ing a nd o ther p ost o c cupa t iona l d i s tu rbances

REFERENCE L i l l iu , G .

1 982 L a C iv i l ta Nurag i ca . C ar lo D e lf eno , S assar i .

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F igure 2 .17 B yzan t ine 2 P hase s t ructure f r om U rpes , Un it 9 . 3 7

C hap te r 3 THE L ITH IC I NDUSTRY J oseph W . M i che ls

OBS ID IAN I n t rodu c t ion A l though n o t e n coun tered i nl a rge q uan t i t ies , o bs id ian s eems t oo c cur w i th s uf i c ien t r egu la r i ty i n m idden d epos i t s o f a l l p hases i n t he Margh ine r eg ion t ha t i tc an b e r e l ied u pon t o p rov ide a c hronome tr i c d a t ing f r amework . I t s p resence i n s uch l a t e s i t es a s Nghe . U rpes a nd Nghe . T oscono i se spec ia l ly s u rpr is ing . O ne w ou ld h ave i mag ined t ha t m e ta l t e chno log ies w ere s uf f i c ien t ly a ccess ib le a nd v ersa t i le t o a ccommoda te a ny a nd a l l t a sks t r ad i t iona l ly p erf ormed w i th f l aked s t one t o o ls . An a na lys is o f t he o bs id ian i n dus t ry a tt hese s i tes w as t here f ore u nder taken w i th s pec ia l i n teres t . At o ta l o f 9 7 o bs id ian a r t ifa c t s w ere r e covered a t t he t wo s i tes - 7 9 a t Nghe . U rpes a nd 1 8 a t Nghe . T oscono . Hyd ra t ion d a t ing w as p erf ormed o n 6 1 o f t hese a r t ifa c t s -43 f r om N ghe . U rpes a nd a l l 1 8 f r om Nghe . T oscono . A l l 9 7 a r t ifa c t s f i gured i nt he s tudy o f t he i n dus t ry i t se lf , h owever . As ummary o fs ome o ft he f i nd ing s t ob e d i scussed b e low i s g i ven i nT ab le 3 . 1 . R educ t ion T echno logy T he manner i n wh i ch r aw ma ter ia l w as c onver t ed i n to u sab le i mp lemen ts r e ma ined u n if orm t hroughou t t he 1 800 y ea rs d o cumen ted i nt h is s tudy . A ppa ren t ly , s ma l l n odu les o f" f loa t" o bs id ian o r r i ver -worn p ebb les w ere o b ta ined , e i ther d i re c t ly o r i nd irec t ly , f r om M t . A r c i o r i t s v i c in i ty . M t . A r c i , s ome 4 8 km . s ou th o f t he B orore g roup o f n u rag ic v i l lages , i st he o n ly s our ce o f o bs id ian k nown f o r t he i s land ( M iche ls , e t a l , 1 984 ) . O ne u nf ra c tured o bs id ian p ebb le w as f o und i nB yzan t ine 2 l e ve ls a t Nghe . U rpes , a nd s evera l n odu la r r e s idues w ere f ound v ar ious ly a t b o th t he d eepes t a nd t he s ha l lowes t p or t ions o f t he d epos i t . V ir tua l ly a l l .a r t ifa c t s c ons is t o fi r regu lar f l akes r ang ing i n s i ze f r om 1cm t o 3c m i n max imum l e ng th . A n e xam ina t ion o ft he f l akes s uggest s , w i th o ne e x cep t ion , t he u se o f a n u n con t ro l led p ercuss ion t e chn ique . O ne f l ake , d a t ing t o t he R oman 1 / 2 p er iod a t Nghe . T oscono , i sp r isma t i c w i th a t r iangu la r c r oss -sect ion . I t may h ave b een s t ruck f r om a p repared , b lade c ore . S im i lar ly , ab l ade l ike f l ake i n c her t w as a l so r e covered f r om t he s ame c ont ex t . F lakes e xp lo it ed a s i mp lemen ts r ange f r om t h in , h inge -f rac tured d i scs t o sma l l , a ngu lar c hunks . I t s eems a pparen t t ha t t he a r t i san t o ok a r o ck a nd h ammered t he o bs id ian n odu le o r p ebb le , b reak ing i tu p i n t o n umerous , i r regu lar p i e ces . F lakes r ang ing i ns i ze f r om 1c m t o 3c m , r egard less o fs hape , w ere c o l lec ted f o r u se . A s T ab le 3 .1 i nd i ca t es , t he f r equency d i s t r ibu t ion o f v a ry ing -s ized f l akes b y p hase o r p er iod r evea ls s o me d if eren ces . D ur ing I r on 1 / 2 , R oman 1 / 2 , a nd B yzant ine 2 a pprox ima te ly h a lf o ft he a r t ifa c t s a re b e tween 1cm a nd 1 1 / 2 c m i n max imum l e ng th , wh i le t he o ther h a lf a re b etween 2c m a nd 2 1 / 2 c m i n max imum l e ng th . T hus a k ind o f n orm i ss ugges ted . E xcep t ions o c cur , h owever , d ur ing t he V anda l P hase a nd d ur ing t he P un ico -Roman 1 P hase . Dur ing t h e f o rmer , s ome 7 8% o f t he a r t i fa c t s a re 1 1 / 2 cm o r l e ss i n max imum l e ng th . Whe ther t h is i n d i ca tes a p ref orm p ref eren ce o r s o me k ind o f l im i t d ue t o t he s i ze o f a va i lab le c o re p i eces c anno t b e a nswered w i th p resen t d a ta . O f

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THE L ITH IC I NDUSTRY e ven more i n teres t i sa n a pparen t d i f f eren ce b e tween t he t wo v i l lages d ur ing t he P un ico R oman 1P hase . A t Nghe . U rpes 7 6% o f f l akes a re 1 1 / 2 cm o r l e ss i n l e ng th , wh i le a t Nghe . T oscono a n a lmos t e qu iva len t p ercen tage a re 2 c m o r l a rger . T h is d i spar i ty d oes n o tc o rre la te w i th v ar ia t ion i nt o o l u se a s i nd ica ted b y w ear p a t terns . U se Wear C u t t ing a nd s c rap ing b i ts o c cur w i th a lmost e qua l f r equency i n a l l f i ve p hases . S evera l t ypes o f s c rapers w ere r e covered , i n c lud ing r asp -end s c rapers the o n ly d emons t rab ly h af ted t o o ls i n t he o bs id ian i nven tory . C oncave ( c y l inder ) s c rapers a nd s t ra igh t -edged s c rapers make u p t he b u lk o f t he c o l lec t ion . C on cave s c raper b i ts a re u sua l ly a bou t 1c m i nl e ng th . S t ra igh t -edged s c raper b i t s r ange i nl e ng th f r om 5 mm t o 1 0 mm , w i th t he f o rmer p redom inan t . E dge r e tou ch o c curs o n ly m in ima l ly i n t he p rodu c t ion o f as c raper b i t . I n most c ases , t he a r t isan a ppears s imp ly t oh ave s e lect ed a n a tura l ly s u i tab le s egmen t o f t he f l ake e dge a nd t hen p roceeded t o u se i t . T he s c raper b i t i s t hus mere ly t he d i rect b y -produ ct o f u se w ear . U se w ea r r anged f r om l i gh t t o modera te . N o a r t ifa c t s w i th h eavy u se w ear w ere e ncoun t ered . T he o bs id ian f l ake k n ives r e covered w ere s im i lar t ot he f l ake s c rapers i nt ha t v i r tua l ly n o r e t ou ch Was i nvo lved i n b i t p roduc t ion , a nd u se w ear was l i gh t t o modera te . C u t t ing b i t s r anged i n l e ng th f r om 5 mm t o 1 5 mm . A l though many w ere s t ra igh t -edged , t he mos t d i s t inc t ive h ad " l una te -shaped" c onvex c u t t ing e dges , a pprox ima te ly 1 0 mm i n l e ng th . O n ly o ne g raver o r i n c is ing b i t was i d en t i f ied . A s i n t he c ase o fc u t t ing a nd s c rap ing b i t s , t he g raver b i t w as n o t ap roduc t o f r e touch b u t s imp ly i nvo lved u t i l iza t ion o f a n a tu ra l ly s u i tab le e dge s egmen t . T ype o fT oo l T ab le 3 .1 s ummar izes t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f t o o l t ypes b y p hase . O ne c an o bserve a p reponderance o ft o o ls e xh ib i t ing o n ly as i ng le b i t - g enera l ly e i ther s c raper o r k n if e -w i th n o i n d ica t ion o fh af t ing e l emen t . "Mu l t ip le" t o o ls , i . e . i mp lemen ts p ossess ing t wo o r more b i t s o fi d en t i ca l f unc t ion , r epresen t a nywhere f r om 1 0% t o 3 3% o ft he o bs id ian t o o l k i t o f m os t p hases . Mu l t ip le k n if e b i ts o ccur o n ly s l igh t ly more f r equen t ly t han mu l t ip le s c raper b i t s . " Compos i t e" t o o ls , i . e . i mp lemen ts w i th more t han o ne k ind o f f unc t iona l b i t , n ever e x ceed 1 5% o ft he o bs id ian i ndus t ry o f a ny p hase , a nd a re c o mp le te ly a bsen t i n t he I r on 1 / 2 a ssemb lage . O ne n otewor thy c on tras t c an b e o bserved , h owever , b e tween Nghe . U rpes a nd Nghe . T oscono d ur ing t he P un ico -Roman 1P hase . A lmos t 6 0% o ft he o bs id ian t o o ls a t Nghe . U rpes a re e i ther "mu l t ip le" o r " compos i te" whereas o n ly 1 % b e long t o t hose c a tegor ies a t Nghe . T oscono . T h is s harp c on t ras t b e tween t wo n e ighbor ing , c on t emporary s i tes i n o bs id ian u se p ract i ces s ugges ts a w or thwh i le t op ic o f e nqu iry i n s ubsequen t e xcava t ions . O ther F lake T oo ls A l though o bs id ian c ons t i tut ed t he p r inc ipa l ma ter ia l o u t o f wh i ch f l ake t o o ls w ere f a sh ioned , c her t , q uar t z i te , a nd s ch ist a r t ifac ts w ere a l so r e covered . Among t he p redom inan t ly c her t i t ems w ere 3 5 u t i l ized f l ake k n ives a nd s c rapers , 7c ore r es idues , 1 b l ade f l ake , a nd 2 b i face f r agmen t s . T he ir d i st r ibu t ion b y p hase a nd s i t e was r a ther t i gh t ly d e l im i ted . Two -th irds o f a l l n on -obs id ian f l ake t o o ls a nd c ore r e s idues , a s w e l l a s t he b lade f l ake a nd b o th b i face f r agmen ts , o ccur i n t he R oman 1 / 2 d epos i t o f Nghe . T oscono . Ano ther 1 6% o ccurs i n t he B yzan t ine 2 d epos i t o f Nghe . U rpes . T he b a lan ce

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J oseph W . M i che ls i st h in ly d i s t r ibut ed t hrough I r on 1 / 2 , P un ico -Roman 2 , a nd V anda l d epos i t s a t o ne s i te o r t he o ther . R educ t ion t e chno logy , u se w ear , a nd t o o l t ypes among t he c her t , q uar tz i t e a nd s ch is t i mp lemen t s b as i ca l ly r ep l ica te t ha t d escr ibed f o r t he o bs id ian i ndus t ry . T he o n ly e x cep t ion i st he o c curren ce o ft wo b i face f r agmen ts -a p ref orm t e chno logy n o t r epresen ted a t a l l among t he o bs id ian a r t ifac t s .

OTHER S TONE ART IFACTS I r on A ge 1 / 2 P er iod Two s imp le -s lab , o pen -ended , s ha l low t rough g r ind ing s urfa ces made f r om v es icu lar b asa l t w ere r e covered f r om Nghe . U rpes . A t Nghe . T oscono t wo h and -he ld g r ind ing mu l lers , o f a t ype c ompa t ib le w i th t he a bove -men t ioned g r ind ing s urfa ces , w ere r e covered . I n a dd i t ion , as p ind le whor l , whe ts tone , h ammer s t one , p o l ish ing p ebb le , c e l t , a nd t wo p oss ib le s l ing s t ones w ere c o l lect ed . T he i nvent ory f r om Nghe . T oscono a l so i n c luded o ne u n iden t if iab le g round a nd p o l ished s t one f r agmen t . P un ico -Roman 1P hase O n ly t wo p o l ish ing p ebb les w ere r e covered f r om Nghe . U rpes , b u t av ar ie ty o f i t ems w ere u near thed a t Nghe . T oscono , i n c lud ing o ne p o l ish ing p ebb le , t wo a brad ing p ebb les , o ne g r ind ing s l ab , ah ammer s t one , as t one p ounder , o ne s p ind le whor l , a nd a c arved s t one v esse l f r agmen t . O ne u n iden t i f iab le g round a nd p o l ished s t one f r agmen t was a l so c o l lected . R oman 1 / 2 P er iod Nghe . U rpes d i d n o t y i e ld a c o mponen t a ssemb lage f o r t h is p er iod , b u t t ha t o f Nghe . T oscono c on ta ined a v ar ie ty o fi t ems . T hese i n c luded t wo p o l ish ing p ebb les , o ne a brad ing p ebb le , ah and -he ld mu l ler , o ne h ammer s t one , as p ind le whor l , a nd a s i ng le s t one b ead . Mos t n umerous , h owever , w ere t he u n iden t if iab le g round a nd p o l ished s t one f r agmen t s ( 4 ) . Two r e c tangu lar b as ins , c arved o u t o fb asa l t o ut crop ing s a t t he s i te , a re b e l ieved t o a l so b e long t o t h is p er iod . O f s pec ia l i n teres t , p erhaps , a re t he e xo t ic s t one ma ter ia ls p resen t a t Nghe . T oscono d ur ing t h is p er iod . T hese i n c lude a q ua r tz c rys ta l , t wo p i eces o fs t ea t i t e , a nd t wo p i eces o f ma lach i te . V anda l P hase O n ly a s i ng le p o l ish ing p ebb le c an b e a t t r ibu ted t ot h is p hase ( Nghe . U rpes ) . B yzan t ine 2P hase T h is p hase i so n ly r epresen ted a t Nghe . U rpes . H owever , af a ir ly l a rge n umber ( 19 ) o fp o l ish ing p ebb les w ere r e covered , a l ong w i th o ne a brad ing p ebb le .

D ISCUSS ION D esp i te t he a va i lab i l i ty o f meta ls , ar ud imen tary f l ake s t one i ndust ry c on t inued t o s upp ly c u t t ing a nd s c rap ing t o o ls i n modes t q uan t i t ies , r i gh t u p t hrough t he B yzan t ine e ra . O bs id ian was p redom inan t e x cep t f o r t he R oman 1 / 2 p er iod , when c her t , q uar tz i t e

4 2

THE L ITH IC I NDUSTRY a nd s ch ist c ons t i tu ted a lmost 7 5% o f t he r aw ma ter ia l . S ub t le v ar ia t ions i n o bs id ian p ref orm s i ze , a s w e l l a s i n s t ra teg ies o f t o o l u se , d i s t ingu ish o ne v i l lage f r om a nother d u r ing t he P un i co -Roman 1 P hase . T he u se o f s t one f o r t a sks o ther t han c u t t ing , s c rap ing , a nd p o l ish ing s eems t o h ave d ec l ined marked ly a f t er t he e nd o f t he R oman P er iod . T hese a re s o me o ft he g enera l o bserva t ions t ha t c an b e made o n t he b as is o fo ur f i nd ing s a t Nghe . U rpes a nd Nghe . T oscono . F u ture e xcava t ions a t o ther v i l lage s i tes i n t he B orore a gg rega te w i l l f o cus o n t hese a nd o ther i s sues .

REFERENCE M i che ls , J . , E . A tzen i , J .T song a nd G . Sm i th 1 984 " Sard in ian A r chaeo logy a nd O bs id ian D a t ing" i n S ard in ian A r cha eo logy , e d i ted b y M . B a lmu th a nd R . R ow land , J r . T he Un ivers i ty o fM ich igan P ress , Ann A rbor .

4 3

C hapter 4 CERAM ICS G ary S . Webster , J oseph W . M i che ls , D ebra Hudak

I NTRODUCT ION T he 1 982 s eason o f e xcava t ions i n B orore p rodu ced a t o ta l o f 2 4 ,632 c e ram i c s pec imens . T he v as t ma jor i ty c ame f r om Nghe . T oscono , s ome 2 1 ,132 i t ems . F rom Nghe . U rpes a mu ch s ma l ler s amp le o f 3 500 s pec imens was r e covered . A l l s pec imens w ere a ss igned p roven ience d es igna t ions i n t he f i e ld wh ich r e corded t he s i te , e x cava t ion u n i t , c omponen t , e xcava t ion l e ve l a nd , when a ppropr ia te , t he s ub -componen t f ea ture a ssoc ia t ion f r om wh i ch t he i t em d er ived . W i th in o ur f i e ld lab i n Ma comer , i nd iv idua l c l eaned a nd c a ta logued s pe c imens w ere s ubsequen t ly c l ass if ied i n t e rms o f av a r ie ty o f o bserved a t tr ibut es i n c lud ing ware -fabr ic ( paste , t emper , s urface t r ea tmen t ) d ecora t ive t e chn ique a nd m o t if , s herd t h ickness , v esse l p ar t a nd , when p oss ib le , v esse l t ype -fun c t ion a nd m e thod o f manufa c ture . Many s herds c ou ld b e s o r ted i n to k nown wa re g roups , o thers w ere i n c luded i n to n ew ly d ef ined g roups . A l l s uch o bserva t ions w ere t hen r e corded a s as e r ies o f 3 6 a t t r ibu te c odes f o r l a t er e n t ry a nd a na lys is o n P ennsy lvan ia S ta te Un ivers i ty 's ma inf rame c o mpu ter . A pprox ima te ly 3 700 s pec imens f r om t he 1 982 s eason a t Nghe . U rpes a nd Nghe . T oscono , wh ich c ons t i tu te a more o r l e ss r andom s amp le f r om b o th s i t es , h ave t hus f a r b een c oded a nd a na lyzed . T hese p rov ide t he d a ta b ase f o r t he p resen t r epor t . T he r ema in ing s pec imens a wa i t s im i lar p rocess ing a nd a re p resen t ly h oused i n t he Museo A r cheo log ico Naz iona le i nS assar i . T he c omputer -based mu l t ip le -a t t r ibu te a pproach w as a dopt ed o ver more t r ad i t iona l me thod s o f c e ram ic e va lua t ion b ecause o f i t s g rea ter p o ten t ia l f o r g enera t ing d e ta i led q uan t i ta t ive e v iden ce o n s o c ia l ly s i gn if ican t l a t era l a nd t empera l v ar iab i l i ty w i th in a n c ien tB orore c e ram i c i n dust r ies . T he p urpose o f t h is c hapt er i st o p rov ide a n i n t er im r epor t o f o ngo ing r e sear ch i n to c eram i c i ndust r ies o f t he B orore s i te A gg rega te w i th s pec if ic r e f erence t o t h e f i nd ing s f r om Nghe . U rpes a nd Nghe . T oscono . S evera l p re l im inary r e search p rob lems h ave b een a ddressed w i th t he U rpes a nd T oscono c eram ic s amp les : ( 1 ) t he i d en t if i ca t ion a nd d ef in i t ion o f ma jor ware g roups , ( 2 ) t he p re l im inary e va lua t ion o f v a r ia t ions i n t he c eram i c i ndust ry b e tween Nghe . U rpes a nd Nghe . T oscono a nd ( 3 ) t he p re l im inary e va lua t ion o ft empera l v ar ia t ion a tb o th s i tes . Wh i le t he f i nd ing s p resen ted h ere h ave p rov ided a v a luab le f i rs t s t ep t oward o ur b roader p a leoeconom i c r e sear ch i n teres t s a nd ab as is f o r e va lua t ing s ubsequen t f i nd ing s , t hey must b e c ons idered l a rge ly p rov is iona l -a wa i t ing r ev is ion i n l i gh t o f a dd i t iona l a na lyzed s amp les f r om t he A ggrega te . T he p o t t ery w as , f o r t he most p ar t , f r agmen tary a nd c onsequent ly c omp le te v esse l p rof i les w ere q u i te r are . T h is may p erhaps b e e xp la ined b y t he f a ct t ha t o ur s amp les w ere d er ived p r imar i ly f r om o c cupa t iona l s urfa ces ( i n mos t i n stances l i v ing f l oors ) a nd c ons t ru c t ion f i l l r a ther t han f r om i n s i tu r ubb ish d umps . T he d egree t o wh i ch t hese d epos i t s may h ave r e su l ted f r om t r anspor t ing a nd r edepos i t ing r e s iden t ia l d ebr is f r om o ther , a nd p erhaps e ar l ier r u ined a reas o f t he s i te h as n o t b een e s tab l ished . H owever , t he p o ten t ia l e f f ect s u pon t he s tudy o f c e ram ic c hange c annot b e o ver looked . A s i n a ny

4 5

G ary S . Webst er , J oseph W . M iche ls , D ebra Hudak s t ra t if ied o c cupa t ion s i te , t he l i ke l ihood o f p ostdepos i t iona l d i s turbances t o t he o r ig ina l c eram i c s equen ce i sg rea t . I ti sc er ta in t ha t b o th Nghe . U rpes a nd Nghe . T oscono h ave u ndergone s o me d i s turbance i n t he t op 2 0 c m o r s o d ue t o r e cen t p l ow ing . A t Nghe . U rpes , where s ed imen ts w ere i n s o me u n i t s t h in ly l ayed o ver s ha l low b edrock , s u ch d i s turban ces h ave n o d oub t i nvo lved s o me v er t i ca l m ix ing o f c u l tura l ma ter ia ls . W i th in t he d eeper T oscono f i l l where c o mponen t s w ere s epara ted , ( i n s o me u n i t s b y n on o c cupa t iona l d epos i ts ) v er t i ca l m ix ing p robab ly p oses l e ss o f ap rob lem t o t he c eram i c s tudy . Unf or tuna te ly , wh i le i t i s o f t en p oss ib le t o i d en t ify r e s idua l p o t tery t hrough s er ia t ion t e chn iques , t he a bsence o f aw e l l e s tab l ished c eram ic c hrono logy o n S a rd in ia makes i tp resen t ly q u i te d if i cu l t t o a ssess t he d eg ree o fv er t ica l m ix ing a t t he t wo s i tes . F or t he p resen t , o ur a pproa ch h as b een t o a ccep t t he r e covered c eram ic f r equenc ies a nd i mp l ied l i f e -spans a t f a ce -va lue w i th a c au t ious awareness o f p ot en t ia l e r rors a nd t he l i ke l ihood o ff u ture r ev is ions . I n t he r epor t t ha t f o l lows , c eram ic v esse ls , wh i ch c o mpr ise m os t o f t he s pec imens , h ave b een d i scussed s eparat e ly f r om t he f ew n on -vesse l f o rms ( i n c lud ing s evera l o i l l amps ) r e cogn ized . I n a dd i t ion , s i nce o ur f o cus i su pon t he Nurag ic a dap ta t ion , w e h ave g iven Nurag i c wares a s o mewha t more d e ta i led t r ea tmen t t han t he b et t er k nown P un i c , R oman a nd Med ieva l wares .

VESSELS An a t temp t was made t o d et erm ine t he me thod b y wh ich v esse ls w ere made . Mos t c ou ld b e s ort ed i n to o ne o f f our c a tegor ies : mode l led , c o i led , whee lmade o r m o lded . F or t h is r epor t , w e h ave d i s t ingu ished t wo ma in c l asses : h andmade ( mode l led a nd c o i led ) a nd whee l /mo ld -made wares . Handmade " Nurag ic" wares . A h and -bu i ld ing t e chn ique i s af undamen ta l c r i t er ia b y wh i ch t he t r ad i t iona l n a t ive " Nurag i c" c eram ic i ndust ry i s d i s t ingu ished f r om e xo t i c n on -Nurag i c wa res . A l though t he s ame c onven t ion h as b een u sed h ere t o d i st ingu ish t he i n d igenous i ndus t ry , t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t n a t ive Nurag i c p o t ters a l so emp loyed t he whee l o r e ven mo ld ing t e chn iques , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he l a t er p er iods o f R oman c o lon iza t ion , c anno t b e d i scoun ted ( s ee u n typed whee l -made f abr i cs ) . O ver 2 000 h andmade s herds i n av ar ie ty o f f abr i cs , v esse l f o rms a nd d ecora t ive s ty les w ere a na lyzed . Mos t c ame f r om I r on A g e l e ve ls a t b o th s i tes , a l though s ma l ler n umbers a re f ound i na l l l e ve ls . A .

" Nurag i c" F abr i c s . Ware -fabr i c was d e term ined o n t he b as is o ft ex ture , t emper s i ze , p aste c o lor a nd s urfa ce t r ea tmen t . S ee T ab le 4 .1 f o r d i st r ibu t iona l i n f orma t ion . 1 . " Nurag i c" f i ne w ar e s . T hese h ave f i ne o r med ium g ranu lar t emper a nd a v ar ie ty o fs urfa ce t r ea tmen t s a nd p as te c o lor . a .

" Nurag i c" f i ne b urn i shed w ar e s . T hese h ave o ne o r b o th s urfa ces b urn ished smoo th , i n s t reaks o r i n p a t terns . T h ir teen ware t ypes w ere r e cogn ized ( Tab le 4 .1 )

F ine b l a ck p a s t e b urn i shed w ar e . Mos t h ave smoo th b urn ished b lack s urfa ces a nd a re s im i lar t o t he T ype A wares a t B arum in i ( L i l l iu 1 982 :144 ) . A f ew h ave r ed y e l low s urfaces c o mpa rab le t o T ype B f r om B arum in i ( L i l l iu 1 982 :144 ) . O ther s urface c o lors i n c lude b rown , d ark b rown , c i nnamon , r ed -brown , b uf f , a nd g rey . S evera l s t reak b urn ished s pec imens h ad b la ck , r edbrown , c i nnamon , b rown , b uf fo r r ed -brown s urfa ces .

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C ERA M ICS F ine c i nnamon p a s t e b urn i shed w ar e . Most smoo th b urn ished s pec imens w ere w i th b rown , c i nnamon , b l a ck , g rey , r ed -brown , d ark -brown , r ed -brown , c r eam , b uf f o r r ed -brown s urfa ces . Af ew h ad s t reaked s urfaces i nc i nnamon c o lor . F ine d ark g r ey p a s t e b urn i sh ed w ar e . Smoo th b urn ished s pec imens w ere most c o mmon a nd h ad g rey , b lack , ( s ee L i l l iu 1 982 T ype A w are ) d ark b rown , c i nnamon , r ed -ye l low , b rown , r ed -brown s urfa ces . A f ew s t reaked b urn ished s pec imans h ad g rey , b l a ck , c i nnamon o r b rown s urfa ces . F ine d ark b rown p a s t e b urn i shed w ar e . T hese h ad s moo th s urfaces i nb rown , b lack , r ed -brown c o lor o r s t reaked s urfa ces i nd ark -brown , b lack o r r ed -brown c o lor . F ine r ed -br own p a s t e b urn i sh ed w ar e . Mos t h ad s moo th b urn ished s urfa ces i n r ed b rown , g rey , r ed -ye l low o r b rown c o lors . One wa s p a t tern b urn ished i nb rown . F ine c r eam p a s t e b urn i shed w ar e . A l l w ere smoo th b urn ished w i th e i ther c ream , d ark -red , r ed -brown , b l a ck , c i nnamon o r b rown s urfa ces . F ine r ed -pu rp l e p a s t e b urn i shed w ar e . S im i lar t o t he b lack p aste w are , a l l w ere b urn ished smoo th w i th b rown o r b la ck s urfa ces . F ine r ed -y e l low p a s t e b urn i shed w ar e . T hese h ad as moo th s urfa ce i nd a rk -brown o r g rey , o r ar ed -brown s t reaked s urfa ce . F ine b r own p a s t e b urn i shed w ar e . T hese h ad c i nnamon o r d ark -brown smoo th s urfaces , o r b rown o rc i nnamon s t reaked s urfaces . F ine l i gh t -orang ep a s t e b urn i sh ed w ar e . S urfa ces w ere smoo th r ed -orange , b la ck o r l i gh t -orange , o r s t reaked i nr edbrown . F ine r ed p a s t e b urn i shed w ar e . s herd w as s t reak b u rn i shed .

Two h ad s moo thed r ed o r g rey s urfa ces .

O ne r ed

F ine b uf fp a s t e b urn i sh ed w ar e . A l though a ma jor c a tegory a t B arum in i -T ype C ( L i l l iu 1 982 : 1 44 ) , o n ly t wo w ere r e cogn ized , o ne w i th b rown s moo th s urface , a no ther w i th as t reaked b uf fs urface . R ed -orang e p a s t e b urn i shed w ar e . o r g rey s urfa ces .

T hese w ere b urn ished s mooth w i th d ark -brown

b . " Nurag i c" f i n e u nburn i shed w ar e s . T hese i n c lude s pec imens w i th p la in ma t te , smoo thed , u nsmoo thed o r r oughened s urfaces . F ine b l a ck p a s t e u nburn i shed w ar e . T h is i s t he s i ng le mos t c o mmon w are t ype f ound . Mos t h ad a ma t te f i n ish w i th b lack , r ed -ye l low , r ed , r ed -brown , r ed -orange , c i nnamon , d a rk -brown , g rey , b uf f , l i gh t -orange , b rown o r c r eam s urface . Smoo thed s urface s pe c imens h ad a b la ck , r ed -ye l low , r ed -brown , c i nnamon , g rey o r b rown s urface . Un smoothed s pec imens h ad a b l a ck o r c i nnamon s urfa ce . One r uf f ened s pec imen h ad ac i nnamon s urfa ce . F ine d ark -gr ey p a s t e u nburn i shed w ar e . T hese h ad a p la in ma t te f i n ish a nd d ark g rey , c i nnamon , r ed -ye l low , r ed , r ed -brown , r ed -orange , d ark -brown , b la ck , b uf f , l i gh t -orange , b rown o r c r eam s urfa ce , as moo thed s urfa ce i nd ark g rey , l i gh t g rey , b rown o r c i nnamon o ru nsmoo thed d ark g rey s urfa ce .

4 9

G ary S . Webst er , J oseph W . M i che ls , D ebra Hudak F ine l i gh t -orang e p a s t e u nburn i shed w ar e . S ome h ad p la in ma t t e s urfa ces i n l i gh t o range , r ed -ye l low , r ed , r ed -brown , r ed -orange , b l a ck , g rey , b uf f , b rown , c r eam o r l i gh t g rey . O thers h ad l i gh t -orange smoo thed s u r fa ces o r l i gh t -orange u n s moo thed s urfa ces . F in e d ark -br own p a s t e u nburn i shed w ar e . T hese h ad p la in ma t te d ark -brown , r ed y e l low , d a rk -red , r ed -brown , r ed -orange , b la ck o r b rown s urfa ces o r s moo thed d ark b rown o r b uf fs urfa ces . F ine b uf f -pa s t e u nburn i shed w ar e . S urfa ces i n c lude p la in ma t t e w i th b uf f , r ed y e l low , d a rk b rown , g rey , l i gh t -orange , b rown o r c r eam c o lor , smoo thed i n b uf fo r c r eam c o lor , u nsmoo thed i nb uf fo r r oughened b uf f . F ine r ed -br own p a s t e u nburn i shed w ar e . S urfaces w ere p la in ma t te w i th r ed -brown , r ed -orange , c i nnamon , d ark -brown , b la ck , g rey , b rown o r c r eam c o lor , s moo thed w i th r ed -brown o r c i nnamon c o lor ; r oughened r ed -brown c o lor o r u nsmoo thed r ed b rown o r b rown . F in e c r eam p a s t e u nburn i shed w ar e . c o lored s u rface .

A l l h ad s moo thed c r eam , b uf f o r c i nnamon

F ine r ed -y e l low p a s t e u nburn i shed w ar e . S urfaces w ere p la in ma t te w i th a c r eam , r ed -ye l low , d ark -red , r ed , c i nnamon , r ed -brown , g rey , b uf f , l i gh t -orange o r b rown c o lor ; s moo thed r ed -ye l low o r u nsmoo thed r ed -ye l low . F in e r ed p a s t e u nburn i sh ed w ar e . S urfa ces w ere p l a in ma t t e r ed , r ed -brown , b la ck , g rey , b uf f , b rown o r c r eam ; s moo thed r ed , o r u nsmoo thed r ed . F ine r ed -orang e p a s t e u nburn i shed w ar e . S urfa ces w ere p la in ma t te r ed -orange , r ed -brown , c i nnamon , r ed -brown , b la ck , g rey , b uf f , l i gh t o range o r b rown , smoo thed r ed -orange , u nsmoo thed r ed -orange . F ine r ed -purp l e p a s t e u nburn i shed w ar e . s moo thed r ed -purp le o r c i nnamon . F ine l i gh t -gr ey p a s t e u nburn i shed w ar e . e i ther u nsmoo thed o r smoo thed . F ine p urp l e p a s t e u nburn i shed w ar e . ma t te g rey .

S urfa ces w ere c i nnamon p l a in ma t te ;

A l l h ad l i gh t g rey s urfaces w h ich w ere

One h ad ma t te r ed -ye l low s urfa ce , t he o ther

F ine d ark -r ed p a s t e u nburn i shed w ar e . o range ma t te .

S urfa ces w ere d ark -red ma t t e a nd r ed -

2 . " Nurag i c" c oar se w ar e s . T hese w ere d i s t ingu ished f r om t he f i ne wares o n t he b as is o f t he ir c oarse g ranu la r t emper . A w ide v a r ie ty o f p as te c o lors a nd s urfa ce t r ea tmen t s a re r epresent ed . C innamon c oar sewar e s . S urfa ces i n c lude s moo thed c i nnamon , a nd b la ck , u nsmoo thed c i nnamon , p la in ma t te c i nnamon , r ed -brown , b lack , b uf f a nd b rown a nd b urn ished d a rkbrown , g rey a nd b rown . B la ck c oar sewar e s . S urfaces w ere ma t te b la ck , c i nnamon , b uf f , b rown a nd c ream , smoo thed b lack , r ed -ye l low , c i nnamon , b uf f , b rown , u nsmoo thed b la ck , b urn ished b lack , d ark -brown , c i nnamon a nd r ed -brown .

5 0

CERA M ICS R ed -y e l low c oar sewar e s . S urfaces i n c lude u nsmoo thed r ed -ye l low , smoo thed r ed y e l low a nd ma t te r ed -ye l low , g rey , b uf fa nd b rown . B uf fc oar sewar e s . o r b uf f .

S urfa ces a re s moo thed b uf f , u nsmoo thed b uf f a nd ma t te b rown

R ed -brown c oar sewar e s . S urfa ces a re s moo thed r ed -brown , o r b rown , ma t t e r ed b rown , g rey o r b rown , u nsmoo thed r ed -brown , b lack , a nd r oughened r ed -brown . C r eam c oar sewar e s . S urfaces a re u nsmoo thed c ream , smoo thed c r eam o r b urn ished b rown , b la ck a nd d ark b rown . D ark -br own c oar sewar e s . S u rfa ces i n c lude b urn ished b rown , b la ck o r d ark -brown , ma t te b la ck o rd ark -brown a nd u nsmoo thed d ark -brown o r c i nnamon . B r own c oar sewar es . A l l h ad a p la in ma t te f i n ish i n b rown , c i nnamon , d ark -brown , b l a ck o r b uf fc o lor . G r ey c oar sewar e s . S urfa ces i n c lude l i gh t o range o r r ed -ye l low ma t t e , smoo thed g rey o r u nsmoo thed g rey o r b rown . R ed -orang e c oar sewar e s . d ark -brown .

S urfa ces i n c lude r ed o r d a rk -brown ma t te a nd b urn ished

L igh t -orang e c oar sewar es . B o th h ave s moo thed l i gh t -orange s urfa ces . B .

" Nurag i c" V e sse l F orms ( F igs . 4 .1 -4 .2 ) . T he g enera l v esse l f o rm g roup a nd when d ef ined , s ub -g roups , h ave b een d et erm ined b ased u pon v ar ia t ions i n l i p ( r im ) f o rm , l i p ( r im ) o r ien ta t ion , wa l l f o rm a nd t ype o fb ase -wa l l a r t i cu la t ion ( Tab le 4 .2 ) . G r oup A : L arg e s t ra igh t r im s t orag ej ar s . S herds t end t o b e t h i ck , c oa rse t empered a nd p redom inan t ly i n c i nnamon p ast e . A f ew a re i n c ised . Wa l ls a re s t ra igh t o r c onvex , many h ave t ubu lar h and les . G r oup B : L arg e s imp l e e v e rt ed r im s t orag e j ar s . L ike g roup A , t hese i n c lude l a rge v esse ls w i th t h i ck s t ra igh t o r c onvex w a l ls i n med ium o r c oarse f abr i cs . N one a re d eco ra ted . G r oup C : L arg e i n ver t ed l i p s t orag e j ar s . t empered p la in v esse ls .

L arge t h ick wa l led m ed ium o r c oarse

G r oup D : L arg e s hou ld er ed s t orag e j ar s . T hese h ave s hou ldered w a l ls a nd p redom inan t ly s t ra igh t s imp le r ims . Two a re d ecora t ed w i th l i near c hanne ls o n t he o u ter w a l l . T empers r ange f r om f i ne t oc oarse . G r oup E : D e cora t ed s t orag ej ar b a se s . Two l a rge b ases i n f i ne ma t t e f abr ic h ad l i near i n c is ions o n t he e x ter ior b asa l r i dge . G r oup F : S torag ej ar t o p s w i th t ubu lar h and l e s . B o th w ere f i ne b la ck ma t t e f abr i c a nd c ame f r om l a rge s t orage v esse ls . G r oup G : S ha l low h em i spher i ca l b ow l s . A c o mmon f o rm i n av ar ie ty o f f i ne o r med ium t empered f abr i cs . Wa l ls a re c onvex o r s pher ica l a nd s o me h ave t ubu lar o r l e dge h and les . S ub -gr oup G 1 h ave s imp le s t ra igh t r ims , s ub -gr oup G 2 s imp le o r b o lst ered e vert ed r ims a nd s ub -gr oup G 3 h ave s imp le o r b o ls tered i nver ted r ims .

5 1

G ary S . Webster , J oseph W . M iche ls , D ebra Hudak

F igure 4 .1 T ypo logy o fc o mmon Nurag ic v esse l f o rms f r om T oscono a nd U rpes : G roups A -G . 5 2

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5 4

CERA M ICS T h ir ty three G roup G v esse ls p un c ta t ions , r i dges , o r n o t ch ing .

w ere d ecora ted w i th c hanne ls ,

c omb ing ,

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G r oup H : C ar ena t ed b ow l s . T h is g roup i n c ludes f i ne t empered v esse ls w i th b i con ica l o r c a rena ted wa l l f o rms . S ub -gr oup H 1 h as s imp le s t ra igh t r ims a nd s ub -group H2 h as s imp le e ver ted r ims . S evera l s pec imens h ave i n c ised , p unc ta te o r c o mbed d e cora t ions . G r oup I : D e ep b ow l s . T hese a re c o mpara t ive ly t a l l s t ra igh t w a l led v esse ls i n f i ne t e x tu red f abr i cs . Wa l l d ecora t ions i n c lude c hanne ls , c omb ing , p unc ta tes a nd mode l led mama f orm b umps . One r im b ore i n c is ions . S ub -group I l h as s imp le o r b o lstered e ver t ed r ims . G r oup J : S ha l low d i she s w i th s t ra igh t a ng l ed s i d e s . T hese h ave b o ls tered o r s imp le r ims w h ich a re u sua l ly s t ra igh t o r s l igh t ly e ver ted . O ne h ad l i near c hanne l d e cora t ions . G r oup I C : S ha l low d i she s w i th c onvex s i d e s . R i ms i n c luded s imp le -s t ra igh t , b o lstered s t ra igh t t h i ckened -ever t ed a nd f l anged i nver t ed v ar ie t ies . T he a r t i cu la t ion o f wa l l t o b ase s e ems t oh ave b een s imp le o r o b tuse ly a ng led . Many h ad t ubu lar h and les o n t he s i des . Av ar ie ty o ff abr ics a re r epresen ted a nd 1 7 e xamp les w ere d ecora ted i n l i near g rooves o r c hanne ls b e low t he r im . G r oup L : D i sh e s w i th l ow e v er t ed w a l l s a nd r ims . Many h ave t ubu lar h and les u nder t he r im a nd af ew h ad l i nea r -r idge d ecora t ions b e low t he l i p . G r oup M : S trap h and l ed j ug s ( b r oche ) . T hese a re s pher ica l , g l obu lar o r p er if orm v esse ls w i th a s t rap h and le j o in ing a s l an t ing n eck b e low t he r im a nd t he b ody a t i t s w ides t p o in t . T he n eck a nd r im f o rm a s t ra igh t s pou t m ou th o r s ome t imes a f l ared o r b eaked mou th . A l l b u t t wo a re f i ne t empered a nd p as te c o lors i n c lude b lack , d ark g rey , r ed -brown , c i nnamon a nd r ed -ye l low . S ome h and les a re d ecora ted i n c hanne ls a l ong t he e x ter ior marg in , n o t ches o r g rooves , o r n ot ch ing w i th p unc ta tes ( s ee L i l l iu 1 982 : F igure 1 58 ) . T h is i s aw ide ly r e cogn ized Nurag i c f o rm r e f erred t o a s ab roc ca a sko id e ( s ee L oSch iavo 1 981 ; L i l l iu 1 982 ) . G r oup N : P er if orm v a se s . T h is i s av ery p oor ly d ef ined g roup b ased u pon b ody s herds a nd s evera l b ases . T hey g enera l ly h ave a p er if orm b ody s hape w i th c y l indr ica l c on cave n eck . Mos t r ims a re s imp le a nd e ver ted . G r oup 0 : C ups . T h is g roup r epresen ts sma l l v esse ls r esemb l ing G roup G b ow ls i n g enera l f o rm . T he wa l ls a re most ly s pher ica l o r c onvex , s ome t imes n ear ly s t ra igh t . T hey a ppear t oh ave s imp le f l a t b ases a nd s o me h ave s ma l l t ubu lar h and les u nder t he r im . S ub -gr oup 0 1 h as i nver ted r ims w i th a s imp le o rb o lstered l i p . S ub -gr oup 0 2 h as s t ra igh t r ims w i th s imp le o r t h ickened l i p . S ub -gr oup 0 3 h as e ver ted r ims w i th s imp le o rb o lst ered l i p . D ecora t ions i n c lude g rooves b e low t he r im ) , i n c ised l i nes , c hanne ls , o r n o t ches o n t he wa l l o r c omb ing . G r oup P : B a s in s . B as in s herds a re t h ick , b l ocky , c oarse ly c urved p i eces f r om l a rge t h i ck -wa l led v esse ls . Wa l l s a re s t ra ight o r c onvex . R i ms a re s t ra igh t o r e ver ted w i th s imp le o r b o ls tered l i ps . Av ar ie ty o fp as tes a re r epresen ted , b u t s urface t r ea tmen t i s u sua l ly p la in ma t te o r u nsmoo thed . I n teres t ing ly , o n ly o ne e xamp le i n c i nnamon p l a in ma t te f abr ic c o mes f r om I r on Age l e ve ls . C

" Nurag i c" D e cora t ions . S urface d ecora t ions o c curred i n f requen t ly o n h and -made " Nurag i c" v esse ls . O n ly 9 1 e xamp les w ere e n coun t ered , a l l b u t o ne o f wh i ch c ame f r om T oscono ( Tab le 4 .3 ) . 5 5

G ary S . Webs ter , J oseph W . M iche ls , D ebra Hudak

AA . I nc i sed l i ne s . T hese o c curred a s s i ng le l i nes i nc r oss -ha t ched mo t if o n t he o u ter w a l l o fs evera l b ow ls a nd j ar h and les . BB . C omb ing . T hese o c cur red a s as er ies o f n arrow , r egu lar i n c is ions o n o u ter b ow l w a l ls . CC . L inear G r oove s . T hese o c curred a s w ide i n c i s ions , c hanne ls o r r are ly f l utes , p r imar i ly o n b ow l l i ps , l i p f l ange o r r im n eck , o c cas iona l ly o n t he e x ter ior w a l l . DD . Waved r im . Af ew b ow ls h ad wavy -r im ma rg ins . EE . P un c ta t e s . T hese o c curred i n l i near o r g eome t r i c d es igns f l anges a nd w a l ls o fb ow ls .

o n s evera l l i p

FF . A pp l ique . Af ew b ow ls h ad l i near a pp l ique . GG . L in ear r i dg e s . T hese s omet imes o c curred o n e x t er ior l i p f l anges o r b e low r ims o f v esse ls . HH . Mamm if orm a pp l ique . T hree i n stances o f mode l led b reas t l ike " bumps" o c curred o n b ow l wa l ls . I . N o t ch ing . Two e xamp les a ppeared . O ne o n ab ow l r im , a no ther o n ab ow l wa l l . Whee l /mo ld -made w ares . T h is ma jor c l ass o f p o t tery v esse ls i n c ludes P un ic a nd R oman wares , many o f wh ich a re p robab ly n on lo ca l i mpor t s , a s w e l l a s Med ieva l wa res , t he l a t ter c om ing e x c lus ive ly f r om U rpes a nd p robab ly r epresen t ing i mpor ted a nd l o ca l ly p roduced v esse ls . ( Tab le 4 .4 a nd F ig s . 4 .3 -4 .5 ) P un i c f i newares . T hese a re f i ne t empered s herds i n b uf f , c r eam , l i gh t g rey o r l i gh t o range p a stes n ear ly a l l f r om P un i co -Roman a nd R oman l e ve ls a t T os cono . A p la in o r s l ipped ma t te f i n ish i s mos t c ommon . T he s i ng le mos t f r equen t ly r epresen ted f abr ic i s l i gh t -orange p la in ma t te w h i ch a ccoun ts f o r 2 1% o f t he P un ic f i neware s herds . T he mos t c ommon f o rms a re b ow ls w i th r i ng b ase a nd o ccas iona l ly h and les . B ow ls w ere o f ten d e cora ted o n e xter ior s urfa ces w i th r a ised r i dges , p a in ted z ones , o r , mos t c o mmon ly , p a in ted c oncen t r i c l i nes . S t orage j a rs , s ome w i th h and les , s pher ica l s pout ed j ug s w i th s t rap h and les , d i shes , c ups , b as ins a nd v ases w i th h and les w ere l e ss c o mmon ly e n countered a nd i n f requen t ly d ecora ted ( F ig . 4 .3 ) . P un ic c oarsewares . T hese a re c oarse t empered s pec imens i n b uf f , c r eam , l i gh t g rey o r l i gh t o rang e p aste , o f ten w i th a s l ipped ma t te f i n ish . A l l b u t o ne c ame f r om P un i co -Roman a nd R o man l e ve ls a t T oscono . A s i n t he P un i c f i newares , b ow ls a re t he mos t c o mmon f o rms . O ther v esse ls i n c lude b as ins , c ups , d i shes ,j ugs , v ases a nd s t orage j a rs , s o me w i th h and led l i ds . R oman f i newares . T hese i n c lude f i ne tempered -ware v esse ls o f R oman s ty le o r manufac ture , most o f wh ich w ere p robab ly n o t l o ca l ly made a nd many s u ch a s t he t e rra s i g i l la ta p robab ly

5 6

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Gary S . Webster , -J oseph W . M iche ls , D ebra Hudak

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F igure 4 . 3 C ommon P un ic f i neware v esse l f o rms f r om T oscono a nd U rpes : A -K , p a in ted wa re b ow ls ; L , b ow l w i th r a ised -r idge d ecora t ion ; M -N u ndecora ted b ow ls ; 0 , b ow l w i th l i near a pp l iqued d ecora t ion ; P ,j ar b ase ; Q -R , r i ng b ases ; S -T , c ups ; U , b ow l h and le ; V ,j ug h and le ; W -X ,j ug mou ths ; Y -Z , d i shes . 5 9

G a ry S . Webs ter , J oseph W . M i che ls , D ebra Hudak

F igure 4 . 4 C ommon R oman v esse l f o rms f r om T oscono a nd U rpes : A -B , c a renat ed f i neware b ow ls ; C , t e r ra s i g i l la ta ; D , f i neware v ase ; E , f i neware d i sh ; F -H , c oarseware s t orage j a rs . 6 0

CERA M ICS

F igure 4 . 5 M isce l laneous whee l -made v esse l f o rms f r om T oscono a nd U rpes : A , P un ico -Roman f i neware b as in ; B , " Greek" o r e ar ly R oman f i neware r i ngbase ; C -D , P un i co -Roman f i neware b ow ls ; E , P un i co -R oman f i neware v ase ; F , Med ieva l U t i l i tar ian w are . 6 1

G a ry S . Webs ter , J oseph W . M iche ls , D ebra Hudak i mpor ted t ot he i s land . N ear ly a l l a re f r om P un ico -Roman a nd R oman l e ve ls a t T oscono , a l though s ome o c curred i n Med ieva l d epos i ts a t U rpes . A v ar ie ty o f f o rms a re p resen t ( F ig s . 4 .4a -e ) i n c lud ing b la ck p aste p la in ma t te b ow ls , u ndecora ted v ases a nd p la in d i shes , b rown p as te b ow ls , c ups , v ases , d i shes w i th p la in ma t te f i n ish o r s l ipped i nb la ck , d a rk b rown , o r r ed -ye l low . O ne e spec ia l ly f i ne m o ld -made d i sh f r om P un ico -Roman T oscono h ad a d ark b rown s l ip o ver d ark b rown p aste a nd a s tamped d ecora t ion i n " con cen t r ic -c ir c le -w i th -eye lashes" mot if . R ed -brown p as te b ow ls , c ups a nd d i shes w ere o f ten s l ipped i ng rey , b la ck , d ark b rown , r ed , o r r ed -ye l low . R ed -orange p as te f i newares i n c luded p l a in ma t te o r s moo thed b ow ls a nd c ups , g rey a nd b uf f s l ip b ow ls a nd " red g l oss" f i n ish t e r ra s i g i l la ta b ow ls , c ups a nd j ars . T er ra s i g i l la ta ware i nl i gh t o range p aste a nd r ed -orange g l oss f i n ish i sf a ir ly c o mmon w i th 2 4 e xamp les f r om b ow ls , c ups , v ases , a nd ad i sh . F ive a dd i t iona l e xamp les o f t e rra s i g i l la ta d i shes , c ups a nd v ases o c curred i n b uf fo rc i nnamon p as tes . R oman f i neware i sg enera l ly u ndecora ted , a l though s imp le l i near c hanne ls o r r i dges r unn ing a round t he b ody c i rcumf erence a re s o met imes f ound . T er ra s i g i l la ta i s o f ten d ecora ted i n f l ora l o r g eome t r ic s tamped o r mo lded d es igns . T he " concen tr i c -c irc le -w i th e ye lashes" m o t if o c curred o n s evera l s pec imens . As i ng le r i ng -base o f aG reek -s ty le f i neware c up i nr ed -brown f abr ic w i th s tamped l e af mo t if f r om P un ico -Roman T oscono may c ons t i tu te a n e ar ly R oman f o rm ( M . S . B a lmu th p ersona l c omm . ) ( F ig . 4 .5b ) . R oman c oarsewa res . T hese a re c oarse t empered v esse ls i n b lack , b rown , d ark -brown , r ed -brown o r r ed o rang e f abr i cs . B ow ls a re mos t f r equen t , a l though s t orage j ars , d i shes , v ases a nd c ups a l so o c curred ( F ig .4 .4f -h ) . P un i co -Roman wares . An umber o f s herds r epresen ted e i ther P un ic o r R oman s ty les o r p rodu ct s a l though more s pec if i c i d en t if i ca t ions w ere n ot made . F ine t ex tured wares o ccurred i n e i ther c i nnamon o r r ed -ye l low p as te w i th p la in ma t te , s l ipped ma t te , smoo thed , o r u nsmoo thed s urfa ce . B ow ls w ere b y f a r t he most c o mmon v esse l f o rms . As l igh t ly e ver ted , b o lstered r im v ar ie ty w as c ommon , b u t s evera l s hou ldered f o rms a l so o c curred . C ups , d i shes , j ars , v ases a nd b as ins a re l e ss c ommon . A l though c oarseware f abr ics w ere n o t a s c o mmon , b ow ls w i th b o ls tered l i ps a nd s t orage j ars o c curred i n c i nnamon a nd r ed -ye l low p astes w i th p l a in ma t te o r s moo thed s urface f i n ish ( F ig .4 .5 ) . Med ieva l U t i l i tar ian w ares . T hese a re v ery f i ne t ex tured , s o met imes f i ber t empered , s herds r e covered f r om V anda l a nd B yzan t ine l e ve ls a t U rpes . T hey may r epresen t l o ca l ly p rodu ced p la in u t i l i ta r ian wares . F abr i cs i n c lude g rey p aste w i th g rey s l ip , r ed p aste u nsmoo thed , b uf f p as te w i th g rey s l ip , d ark b rown w i th b rown s l ip , d ark b rown u nsmoo thed , d ark r ed u nsmoo thed a nd r ed -brown u nsmoothed s urfa ces . L arge h and le less b ow ls w i th s t ra igh t o r c onvex wa l ls a nd e ver ted r ims w ere a l so r e cogn ized ( F ig . 4 .5f ) . Med ieva l G lazed w ares . T hese a re f i ne t ex tured , s ome t imes f i ber t empered , f abr i cs w i th a g lazed f i n ish o n o ne o r b o th s urfa ces a nd o ccas iona l d ecora t ion . T hey c ome e xc lus ive ly f r om t he V anda l a nd B yzan t ine l e ve ls a t U rpes a nd may r epresen t i mpor ted v esse ls . T he p redom inan t p ast es a re r ed o r c i nnamon , a l though e xamp les o f r ed -ye l low , l i gh t o range , d ark b rown , b lack ,

6 2

CERAM ICS a nd b uf f p ast es w ere a l so f ound . B ow ls w i th c onvex o r s t ra igh t wa l ls a nd e vert ed r ims a re t he m os t c ommon v esse ls a nd s evera l a re d ecora ted w i th p a int ed l i nes o r i n c ised g rooves . D ishes , v ases ,j ars , a nd b as ins w ere n o t w e l l r epresen ted . U n typed whee l -made f abr ics . S evera l h undred s herds f r om whee l -made v esse ls c ou ld n o t b e r ead i ly c l ass if ied i n to a ny o ft he ware g roups d escr ibed a bove . N ear ly 7 0% a ppear t o r epresen t b ow l f o rms i n aw ide r ange o f f abr ics . P aste c o lor i n c ludes b uf f , b lack , b rown , c i nnamon , d ark b rown , g rey , l i gh t o range , p urp le , r ed -brown , r ed , r ed -orange , r ed -ye l low a nd r ed -purp le . O f p ar t i cu lar i n teres t a re a n umber o f f i ne b urn ished f abr ics wh ich c l ose ly r e semb le i n t e x ture a nd s urfa ce t r ea tmen t t he h and -made Nurag ic wares , e xcep t t ha t t hey w ere a pparen t ly manufac tured o n t he whee l a nd d a te p r imar i ly t o P un ico -Roman a nd R oman t imes . T hese i n c lude p la in smooth b urn ished , p a t tern b urn ished a nd s t reak b urn ished s pec imens i n b uf f , b l a ck , b rown , c i nnamon , d ark b rown , d ark g rey , r ed -brown , r ed , r ed o range , r ed -purp le o r r ed -ye l low p as tes . V esse l f o rms a ppear c o mpa rab le t o Nurag ic v ar ie t ies . B ow ls a re c o mmon a nd i n c lude G roup G f o rms , s o me w i th l i near n o t ched , r i dged o r g rooved d ecora t ions . O ther f o rms i n c lude G roup I , o ne w i th l i near r i dge d ecora t ions a nd G roup H . D ishes , c ups ,j ars a nd v ases w ere l e ss c o mmon .

OTHER CERAM IC F INDS R oof t i l es . At o ta l o f 10 f r agmen t s o f c eram i c r oof t i l es was r e covered f r om P un ico -R oman a nd R oman l e ve ls a t T oscono a nd a nother s i x e xamp les c ame f r om t he B yzan t ine d epos i t a t U rpes . I nt eres t ing ly , n one w ere a ss ignab le t o e i ther P un ico -Roman o r V anda l l e ve ls a t U rpes . A l though a l l a ppea r t o h ave b een m o ld -made , t emper a nd p aste c o lor v ar ied c ons iderab ly . T he f ew Med ieva l s pec imens f r om U rpes h ad f i ne f i ber t emper , r ed , r ed b rown , r ed -orange o r c i nnamon p astes a nd o c cas iona l ly s and r oughened s urfaces . P un i co -Roman a nd R oman s pec imens f r om T oscono h ad modera te o r c oarse g ranu lar t emper , r ed -ye l low , r edbrown , r ed -orange , c i nnamon , b uf f , l i gh t o range o r b rown p ast es a nd s moo thed o r u nsmoo thed s urfa ces . S p ind le Whor ls ( F ig . 4 .6 ) . P i eces o ft h ree c eram i c s p ind le whor ls w ere f ound , t wo f r om B yzan t ine l e ve ls a t U rpes a nd o ne ( F ig . 4 .6a ) f r om P un ico -Roman T oscono . A l l w ere h or izon ta l -ovo id i n c r oss s e c t ion a nd w i thou t d ecora t ion . T he B yzan t ine e xamp les w ere made o f f i ne t empered b l a ck p ast e a nd h ad a b rown s l ip . T he P un i co -Roman e xamp le was med ium t empered b rown p as te w i th a r ed -ye l low s l ip . L oom w e igh t s . A s i ng le f r agmen t o f c eram ic l o om w e igh t c ame f r om P un ico -Roman T oscono . f abr i c i s amed ium t empered c i nnamon p as te w i th p a t tern b urn ished s urfa ce .

T he

O i l L amps . S even e xamp les o f c eram ic o i l l amps -6 f r om R oman T oscono a nd 1 f r om P un ico R oman T oscono - made i n c l osed -mo lded R oman f o rms w ere r e covered . T he P un ico R oman l amp h as f i ne t empered b rown p as te w i th p la in ma t te f i n ish a nd s tamped c urv i l inear mo t if d ecora t ions . R oman e xamp les i n c lude o ne f i ne l i gh t o range p l a in ma t te s pec imen w i thou t d ecora t ion , 2f i ne g rey s moo thed s pec imens -o ne w i thou t d ecora t ion ,

6 3

G ary S . Webst er , J oseph W . M iche ls , D ebra Hudak

F igure 4 .6 O ther c eram ic f i nds f r om T oscono : A , s p ind le whor l ( Pun ico -R oman p hase ) ; B -C , o i l l amps ( Roman p hase ) . 6 4

CERA M ICS a no ther w i th mo lded z oomorph ic /an thropomorph ic mo t if ( F ig . 4 .6b ) , 2 f i ne b lack s pec imens w i th b rown s l ip a nd mo lded l i near a nd c urv i l inear d es igns , o ne d ark b rown p ast e s pec imen w i th r ed -brown s l ip a nd mo lded g eome tr ic d es igns ( F ig . 4 .6c ) , a nd o ne r ed -ye l low p la in ma t te s pe c imen w i th mo lded l e af mo t if d ecora t ion . G lass . 1 74 p i eces o f g lass ; s ome f r om a pparen t R oman p erfume b o t t les , a nd s evera l mosa ic t e sserae w ere f ound i n R oman d epos i t s a t T oscono . N one h ave y e t r e ce ived a dequa te a na lys is a nd a l l a re h oused i nt he Museo A rcheo log i co Naz iona le i nS assa r i .

D ISCUSS ION A l though g enera l c onc lus ions r egard ing B orore c eram ic i ndus t r ies w ou ld b e p rema ture , w e c an s ummar ize o ur o bserva t ions o n t he T oscono a nd U rpes s amp les t hus f a r a na lysed . F i rs t , av ar ie ty o f w are g roups , r epresen t ing b o th l o ca l p roduc t s a s w e l l a s f o re ign i mpor t s w ere r e cogn ized a nd w i th t he e xcept ion o f t he Med ieva l wares , c ame f r om b oth s i tes . Handmade Nurag i c w ares w ere a bundan t a nd c o mpr ised a v ar ie ty o f , p resumab ly , l o ca l ly p rodu ced f abr i cs a nd v esse l f o rms . T hese i n c luded b o th w ide ly r e cogn ized t ypes , s u ch a s t he p reva len t f i ne b l ack p as te wares f ound a t many o ther Nurag i c s i tes ( c f . L i l l iu 1 982 ; L oSch iavo 1 981 ) a nd l e ss f r equen t ly r epor ted w ares i n av ar ie ty o f l i gh ter c o lored f abr i cs . T he a rray o f b o th c oarse a nd f i ne q ua l i ty whee l -made w a res i n P un i c a nd R oman s t y les w ou ld s eem t o r epresen t ar a ther c ons iderab le i n f lux o f n on loca l ly p rodu ced i t e ms a f t er C . 5 00 BC , e spec ia l ly a t T oscono . N e i ther t he s our ces o f t hese w ares n or t he s o c ioeconom i c mechan isms b y wh ich t hey a rr ived a t t he B orore s i tes i sy e t k nown . S ome w ere d oub t less i mpor ted t o t he i s land , a s f o r e xamp le t he t e r ra s i g i l la ta v esse ls , many o f wh i ch r esemb le A f r i can R ed -S l ip Ware ( s ee Hayes 1 972 ) . O thers , h owever , a s f o r e xamp le t he p la iner c oa rsewares , may h ave b een manufa c tured i n P un ic a nd R oman w orkshops o n t he i s land -n one o f wh ich h ave b een y e t i d en t if ied a r chaeo log i ca l ly . A s im i lar i n terpre ta t ion may b e o f f ered f o r t he Med ieva l w ares f r om U rpes : wh i le t he g l azed v esse ls w ere l i ke ly i mpor ted , s ome o ft he p la iner u t i l i tar ian f abr i cs may h ave b een p roduced i nl o ca l , b u t a s y e t u n iden t if ied s hops o n t he i s land . O fp ar t i cu lar i n teres t i st he g roup o f p resen t ly u n typed whee l -made wares r esemb l ing h and -made " Nurag ic" f abr ics a nd v esse l f o rms . A s a l ready n oted , t hese may c ons t i tu te l o ca l c op ies o f t r ad i t iona l " na t ive" wa res -e spec ia l ly t hose i n f i ne b urn ished f abr i cs -b y P un ico -Roman a nd R oman p hase c o mmun i t ies i n t he B orore A ggrega te . S ubsequen t s tud ies w i l l h opefu l ly c l ar ify t h is p o ten t ia l ly i n teres t ing a nd s i gn if i can t p henomenon . D esp it e t he f a c t t ha t m ost ware g roups w ere r e cogn ized a t b o th T oscono a nd U rpes , a c ons idera t ion o f t he p ercen tage f r equenc ies f r om e a ch ( Tab le 4 . 5 ) s uggest s t ha t t he t wo n e ighbor ing s i tes w ere a c tua l ly q u i te d i st inc t w i th r egards t o c eram i c i ndus tr ies . T he s equence o f wares a t T os cono i sf a ir ly c l ear : I r on A ge d epos i t s a re d om ina ted n umer ica l ly b y Nurag i c f i newares i n a pprox ima te ly e qua l p ropor t ions o f b urn ished a nd u nburn ished v ar iet ies ; t he f ew P un ic , R oman a nd u n typed whee l -made s pec imens a re p robab ly i n t rus ive . F o l low ing a h ia tus , t he P un i co -Roman o c cupa t ion r evea ls a s i gn if i can t r ep lacemen t o ft rad i t iona l Nurag ic wares w i th whee l -made wares . I n teres t ing ly , i ti st he f i ne b urn ished v a r ie t ies t ha t h ave d im in ished , wh i le f i ne u nburn ished w ares r ema in u nd im in ished i n p opu la r i ty . T he f i na l R oman p hase o c cupa t ion a t T oscono s ees a c on t inua t ion o f t h is t r end w i th i n creas ing p ercen tages o f P un i co -Roman wares a t t he e xpense o f Nurag i c f i ne b urn ished wares . T he T oscono t r ends a ppea r most

6 5

G ary S . Webs ter , J oseph W . M i che ls , D ebra Hudak

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CERAM ICS u nders tandab le w hen o ne a ssumes a n o c cupa t ion h i st ory c hara cter ized b y i n creas ing P un i c a nd R oman e ncu l tura t ion o f a n i nd igenous Nurag ic c ommun i ty r a ther t han o ne n ecessa r i ly i nvo lv ing t he r ep lacemen t o f e ar l ier Nurag ic b y l a ter P un i c a nd R oman p opu la t ions . A l though w e c anno t a t t h is t ime s t a t e w i th mu ch c onf iden ce t he s o c ia l m echan isms b y wh ich s u ch i n f luences w ere f e l t b y t he T oscono c ommun i ty , i n creased n a t ive -co lon ia l t rade a nd market r e la t ions a s w e l l a s i n termarr iage must a l l h ave p l ayed s ome p ar t . T he r e su l t was a n e ver i n creased p resen ce o ff o re ign f o rms a nd /or s ty les a nd t e chn iques o f manufa c ture a l ong s ide o f ap ers is ten t n a t ive Nurag i c c eram i c i n dus try . C eram ic t r ends a t U rpes a re l e ss c l ear ly d ef ined -p erhaps p ar t ia l ly d ue t o t he much s ma l ler s amp le a va i lab le f o r t h is s tudy . Ag rea ter amoun t o fs t ra t ig raph i c m ix ing i sa l so l i ke ly t oh ave t aken p la ce w i th in U rpes ' t h inner d epos i t s , p ar t i cu lar ly b e tween t he u pper P un i co -Roman a nd Med ieva l l e ve ls . N ever the less , s ome o bserved d i f f eren ces b e tween t he t wo s i tes may b e r ea l . F or e xamp le , a l though a Nurag i c i ndus t ry c harac ter izes U rpes ' I r on A ge s amp le , f i ne b urn ished wares a re c ur ious ly s car ce a nd d ecora t ed s pec imens t o ta l ly a bsen t , wh ich t oge ther s eem t o i mp ly p erhaps ' a s t ronger f o cus u pon t he p roduc t ion o f p la iner u t i l i ta r ian wares t han a t n earby T oscono . F ur thermore , t he s ubsequen t P un ico -Roman o c cupa t ion , wh ich w as c ont emporary w i th t ha t a t T oscono , r evea ls o n ly a l im i ted i n f lux o fP un ic a nd R oman wa res a nd n o e v iden ce f o r t he p oss ib ly l o ca l whee lmade " Nurag i c" c op ies f ound a t T oscono . I n l a t er V anda l a nd B yzan t ine l e ve ls , al a rg er p er cen tage o f i mpor ted wa res i se v iden t , a l though p la in Nurag ic wares r ema in mos t p opu lar . Moreover , i mpor t ed P un i c a nd R oman a ssemb lages a re g enera l ly p l a iner t han t hose a t T oscono w i th n o e xamp les o fe i ther P un i c p a in ted v esse ls o r R oman t e r ra s i g i l la ta . W i thou t t hrow ing c au t ion c o mp le te ly t o t he w ind , w e may s ugges t s evera l p a t terns w h i ch h ave emerged f r om t h is i n i t ia l a na lys is o f B orore c e ram i cs . Mos t e v iden t i st he r e ten t ion o f i nd igenous Nurag ic c eram i c f abr i cs a nd f o rms a t b o th T oscono a nd U rpes , i mp ly ing a h igh d eg ree o f c on t inu i ty i n t he n a t ive i ndus t ry o ver t ime a nd t he n on l ike l ihood t ha t who lesa le p opu la t ion r ep la cemen t o c curred d esp i te l o ng p er iods o f a bandonmen t . A lso e v iden t , e spec ia l ly a t T oscono , i st he g radua l i nf i l t ra t ion o f f o re ign i n dus tr ies i n t he f o rm o f e xo t ic wares d er ived t hrough t r ade , marke t a nd o ther s o c ia l t r ansa c t ions w i th c o lon ia l s ources , a nd , a l though l e ss c l ea r , t he p oss ib le f us ion o f n ew d es ign /manufa c tur ing t e chn iques o n to t rad i t iona l Nurag ic i ndus t r ies a s e v in ced b y t he p resen ce o f whee l -made f i ne b urn ished wares . L as t ly , t he o bserva t ion t ha t t he t wo s i tes c on tras t q u it e marked ly i n t he r e la t ive a bundan ce o f t he f i ner wares -b o th n a t ive a nd i mport ed -i so f g rea t i n teres t a nd w i l l c on t inue t o r e ce ive o ur a t t en t ion i n s ubsequen t a na lyses . W i th l a rger s amp les a va i lab le f r om U rpes , w e s ha l l h opefu l ly b e a b le t o d e term ine n o t o n ly h ow w ide ly t hese s i t e i n dus tr ies v ary , b u t a l so t he d eg ree t o wh i ch t hese a re b ased i n d if eren ces o f p roduc t io r i i fun c t ion r equ iremen ts o r i nd if eren t ia l a ccess t ot r ade /marke t n e tworks .

REFERENCES Hayes , J ohn W .

1 972 L a t e R oman P o t t er y . L ondon , B r i t ish S choo l a t R ome .

L i l l iu , G iovann i . 1 982 L a C iv i l ta Nurag i ca . Monumen t i 1 . C ar lo D e lf ino e d i tore , S assar i .

S ardegna

A rchaeo log ico .

S tud i

e

L oSch iavo , F u lv io 1 981 E conom ia e S oc ie ta N e l l e ta D e i Nuragh i . I chnussa L aSardegna d e l le o r ig in i a l l 'e ta 'c lass ica . L ibr i S che iw i l ler , M i lano .

6 7

C hapt er 5 VERTEBRATE FAUNAL RE MA INS G ary S . Webst er

DESCR IPT ION OF THE SA MPLE A l though t he p resence o f f auna l mat er ia ls o n Nurag ic s i tes i s f r equen t ly r epor ted , q uan t i ta t ive s tud ies h ave b een t he e x cep t ion ( s ee A ppend ix D a nd F ede le 1 980 ) . T he c o l lec t ion u nder i nves t iga t ion i sl im i t ed t ot he v er tebra te f auna r e covered d ur ing t he 1 982 e x cava t ions b y t he P ennsy lvan ia S tat e Un ivers i ty a t t he s i tes o f T oscono a nd U rpes i n t he Margh ine R eg ion o f w est -cen t ra l S ard in ia . T he b u lk o f t he s amp le c ame f r om a s e r ies o fh ouse s t ru c tures o r " hu t s" c on ta in ing d omes t ic f o od d ebr is o f i nhab i tan t s o f t he t wo v i l lages ( n o te 1 ) . A l though o c cupa t ion o f t he t wo s i tes o ver lapped i n t ime , t he p resen t f auna l s amp le i sr e s t r ic ted t o t he I r on A ge 1 / 2 ( 900 B .C . -5 00 B .C . ) , P un i co R oman 1( 238 -4 4 B .C . ) , a nd R oman 1 / 2 ( A .D . 2 17 -A .D . 3 71 ) p hases a t T oscono a nd V anda l ( A .D . 4 56 -600 ) a nd B yzan t ine 2 ( A .D . 7 50 -9 00 ) p hases a t U rpes . T ab le 5 .1 g i ves ab reakdown o ft he f auna i d en t if ied a tb o th s i tes f o r t hese p hases . A l though b one p reserva t ion was g enera l ly g ood , s pec imens f r om U rpes w ere u sua l ly i n much p oorer c ond i t ion t han t hose f r om T oscono , h ence , t he sma l ler s amp le f r om t he f o rmer s i te . T he t o ta l c o l lec t ion c ons is t s o f 2 ,453 b one a nd a n t ler f ragmen t s o f wh ich o n ly 3 4% c ou ld b e i d en t if ied t o s ke le ta l e l emen t a nd t axonom i c c a t egory . T he l a rge n umber o f u n iden t if ied s pec imens c an b e a t tr ibu ted t o e xcava t ion p rocedures d es igned t o r ecover e ven t he s ma l les tb one s p l int er a nd t ot he h igh ly f r agment ed c ond i t ion o f mos t e l emen t s i ndeed , v i r tua l ly n o who le b ones w ere r e covered ! B o th f a ctors made i d en t if i ca t ion o f many s pec imens q u i t e d if icu l t . T he s p l in tered r ema ins o fd omes t ic s t ock -s heep ( Ov i s s p ) , g oa t ( Capra s p ) , c a t t le ( Bos t aurus ) , a nd p igs ( Sus s c r of a ) -a re mos t n umerous a nd w ere n o d oub t o r ig ina l ly d i scarded a s f o od r efuse . B ones o f l a rge d eer ( c f . C e rvus e l aphus ) a nd sma l l d eer ( c f . C apr eo lus c apr eo lu s ) w ere a l so c o mmon a t T oscono a nd s how s im i lar e v idence o f b ut cher ing ( No te 2 ) . T he r e ma in ing a n ima ls l i s ted a re s pa rse ly r epresen ted a nd w i l l b e g iven o n ly b r ief men t ion . T he e qu id i s p robab ly a sma l l w i ld h orse ( Equus c aba l lus ) wh ich b y t he b u t chered c ond i t ion o f t wo me ta tarsa ls ( c anon b ones ) f r om R oman l e ve ls was a pparen t ly e a t en . T he sma l l u n iden t if ied c an id , p robab ly a f ox , V u lpe s s p . ( two p e lv is b ones ) , t he u n iden t if ied r oden t ( o ne p e lv is b one ) , a nd t he r abb i t , ( Oryc to lagu s s p . ) o r h are ( L epus s p . ) ( mand ib le a nd r ad ius ) a re a l l w i ld mamma ls a nd may o r may n ot r epresen t f o od i t ems . On ly o ne h uman b one was r e covered - a l ower s e cond p remo lar - p oss ib ly f r om a n e x tra c t ion . B ird r ema ins , wh i ch h ave n o t y e t b een f u l ly i d en t if ied a re r epresen ted b y a c arpome tacarpus ( I ron A ge ) , c oroco id , p rox ima l f emur , t i b ia l s haf t a nd l o ng b one f r agmen t ( Pun ico -Roman ) , p rox ima l t i b ia , v er tebrae ( Roman ) , a nd t wo t a rsometa tarsus ( Byzan t ine 2 ) . S ome o f t he b i rd s pec imens f r om P un ico -R oman l e ve ls a t T oscono a nd B yzan t ine 2 l e ve ls a t U rpes a re p robab ly d omes t i c c h ickens ( Ga l lus g a l lus ) a nd a l l a ppear t o b e f o od r e fuse . D omes t i c d og r ema ins w ere s urpr is ing ly s car ce : af r a ctured c ran ium a nd l ower i s t m o la r -b o th f r om P un ico -Roman l e ve ls a t T oscono . T he b ut chered c ond i t ion o ft he d og s ku l l s uggests r emova l o ft he b ra in f o r f o od . T hree a dd i t iona l a n ima l c a tegor ies a re u sed f o r t h is s tudy . B ecause o ft he d if i cu l ty i n d i s t ingu ish ing t he o s teo log i ca l ly s im i lar t r a i t s o f s heep ( Ov i s s p . ) f r om g oa t s ( Capra s p . )

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ANALYS IS I n a dd i t ion t o i d en t ify ing t he k inds o f a n ima ls p resen t i n a n a r chaeo log ica l s i te , a r chaeofauna l s tud ies p rov ide v a luab le c l ues a bou t t he r e la t ive e conom ic i mpor tance o f d i f f eren t s t ock a nd g ame , t he s l augh ter p a t t erns u sed b y t he c ommun i ty t oh arvest t hem , a nd t he m ethods f o r b u t cher ing , d i s tr ibut ing , a nd c onsum ing a n ima l p rodu c t s . I n t he p resen t s tudy w e a re l im i ted b y t he sma l l s amp le , wh i ch g rea t ly i n creases t he c hance o f e rrors i n i n terpre ta t ion ( Grayson 1 978 ) . F or t h is r eason t he v ery s ma l l c o l lect ion f r om U rpes i sn o t i n c luded i n t he a na lyses wh ich f o l low . T he r ema in ing s amp le f r om T oscono i sl a rger , b u t s t i l l s ma l ler t han w e w ou ld l i ke . C onsequen t ly , i ti si mpor tan t t o b ear i n m ind t ha t t he c on c lus ions d rawn h ere a re s t r ic t ly t en ta t ive , a nd a wa i t r ev is ion i nl i gh t o f s ubsequen t s tud ies . P rey r a t ios . I tw as s uggested a bove , b ased u pon r aw c oun ts o f i d en t if ied b ones , t ha t s t ock r ear ing ( c apr ines , c a t t le , s w ine ) w as t he ma in s ource o f a n ima l p rodu c t s ( mea t , m i lk , h a ir , h ide , a nd b one ) a t T oscono a nd U rpes . Husbandry was , i n a dd i t ion , s upp lemen ted b y t he h un t ing o fw i ld d eer . I n T ab le 5 .2 , wh ich s hows f r equen c ies a nd p er cen tages o f t he t o ta l i d en t if ied i n e ach p hase , c apr ines a re c ons is ten t ly d om inan t a ccoun t ing f o r 4 3 t o 5 4% o f t he r e ma ins f r om d omes t i c s t ock a nd d eer . C a t t le a ccoun t f o r 2 0 t o 2 8% , a nd s w ine 9 t o 2 0% . E xcep t f o r t he I r on A ge l e ve ls , i n wh ich sma l l d eer a ccoun t f o r 2 2% , d eer r e ma ins a ccoun t f o r o n ly 1 t o 5 % . H owever , mos t r esearchers r egard t he e s t ima t ion o f t he M in imum Number o fI nd iv idua l a n ima ls ( MN I ) a s a more r e l iab le i nd i ca tor o ft he r e la t ive f r equen cy o f t he d if eren t k inds o f a n ima ls o nce p resen t a t t he s i te t han r aw c oun t s o f b one f r agmen ts . M in imum n umbers o f i nd iv idua l a n ima ls i n t he T oscono s amp le w ere e st ima ted u s ing s tandard p rocedures ( no te 4 ) ( Tab le 5 . 3 ) . T he r e su l t ing MN I e s t ima tes a nd p er cen tages o f t o ta l MN Is i n T ab le 4 , s how a r ank ing o f a n ima ls s im i lar t o t ha t b ased o n r aw c oun t s o fb one ( s ee T ab le 2 ) . C apr ines a c coun t f o r t he l a rges t p ropor t ion o f a n ima ls ( 46 -6 1% ) i na l l p hases . C a t t le a re s e cond ( 13 -2 1% ) . P ig s a ccoun t f o r o n ly 6% d ur ing I r on A ge 1 / 2 , b u t 1 7% d u r ing t he P un ico -Roman p hase . D eer a ccoun t f o r 6 -9% , e xcept d ur ing t he I r on A ge o ccupa t ion , when s ma l l d eer r ea ch 1 9% o ft he t o ta l . T he c o mb ined e v iden ce f r om T ab les 5 .2 -5 .4 , t hus s ugges t s t ha t a n ima l h usbandry a t T oscono was d om ina ted , a t l e as t n umer ica l ly , b y s heep a nd g oa t s t h roughou t t he p er iods u nder s tudy . H owever , t hese p ropor t ions a re m is lead ing i fo ne i s i n terested i n t he r e la t ive c on t r ibut ions o f t he p r inc ip le s t ock a nd g ame t o t he m ea t e conomy . A more a ccura te p i cture i so b ta ined when MN I e s t ima tes a re mu l t ip l ied b y t he w e igh t o f e d ib le mea t o n e ach a n ima l ( Tab le 5 .5 ) ( n ote 5 ) . F rom T ab le 5 . 5 i ti sc l ear t ha t c a t t le s upp l ied most o f t he mea t c onsumed f r om s t ock a nd d eer , a bou t 5 5% d ur ing t he I r on A ge . C apr ines w ere n ex t i ni mpor tance , f o l lowed b y p igs a nd d eer . S laugh ter p a t t erns . T he f auna l s amp le p rov ided o n ly 3 8 s pec imens f o r wh i ch a pprox ima te a ge -a t s l augh ter c ou ld b e d eterm ined b y e p iphysea l f us ion a nd t o o th e rup t ion s chedu les . T he s amp le w as a ged a c cord ing t o t he d en ta l a nd l o ng -bone d a ta g i ven f o r modern s t ock b y S i lver ( 1969 ) ( n ot e 6 ) . I n t he c ow s amp le , t wo o f f i ve I r on A ge me tapod ia ls a re f r om a n ima ls l e ss t han 3 y ears o l d , w i th o ne p oss ib ly a f e tus o r n ewborn c a lf . P un ico -Roman

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G ary S . Webst er p hase c a t t le a re r epresent ed b y o ne o f f our s capu la l e ss t han 1 0 mon ths o l d , a nd o ne o f s even d i s ta l m e tapod ia ls l e ss t han 3 y ears o l d . T heref ore , a ssum ing t he s amp le i s r epresen ta t ive , m os t c a t t le a t T oscono d i ed a s ma ture a n ima ls , a t l e as t 2y ea rs o f a ge . B o th c apr ine a nd s w ine s eem t o h ave d i ed a t ay ounger a ge . B o th c apr ine mand ib les ( I ron A ge ) w ere f r om a n ima ls l e ss t han 2 4 mon ths o l d , a nd o ne w as l e ss t han 6 mon ths . P un i co -R oman c apr ines may h ave b een r a ised t o al a ter a ge , o n ly 1 o f 1 mand ib les c ame f r om a n ima ls u nder 2 y ears o l d , a nd o ne o f f our d i s ta l metapod ia ls ( Roman ) r epresen ts a c apr ine l e ss t han 2 .5 y ears o l d . Most o f t he s w ine s ee m t o h ave b een s l augh t ered b y a ge t wo a s s ugges ted b y t wo o ft wo p e lves l e ss t han 7mon th s o l d a nd o ne o ft wo p ha langes l e ss t han 2y ears . B u t cher ing p a t terns . S ome c l ues r egard ing b u t cher ing p rac t ices a t T oscono a re r evea led b y as t udy o f t he r e la t ive f r equen cy o f d i f f eren t s ke le ta l e l emen t s i n t he c o l lec t ion ( Tab le 5 . 3 ) , a nd t he l o ca t ion o ff r a c tures a nd c u ts o n t he s urv iv ing b ones ( Tab le 5 .6 ) . F rom T ab le 5 . 3 w e c an s ee g rea t v ar ian ce i nt he MN Is r epresen ted b y v ar ious e l emen t s . I tc an b e a s sumed t ha t many c u l tura l a nd n a tura l f a c tors h ave o pera ted o n b one r e covery a t T oscono , wh i ch i n c luded t he d i f f eren t ia l d epos i t ion o fc er ta in p ar t s a s w as te p rodu c t s o fb u t che r ing b y t he h uman p opu la t ion , a nd t he d if eren t ia l p reserva t ion o f b ones d ue t o t he a c t ion o f p os t d epos i t iona l a gen t s o f a t t r i t ion s uch a s c hem i ca l w ea ther ing , c arn ivore s caveng ing , a nd t o o l manufa c tur ing . T he c o mp lex i ty o f t hese p rocesses , t oge ther w i th t he s ma l l s amp le o f b ones a va i lab le h ave made i n terpre t ing b one s urv iva l p a t terns a t T oscono v ery d i f f icu l t . H owever , s ome t en ta t ive i n terpre ta t ions a re o f f ered . F i rs t , t here i sl i t t le e v idence o n s urv iv ing b ones o fc arn ivore s caveng ing , b urn ing , o r t he manu fa c tur ing o f t o o ls . H ence , b one s urv iva l f r equen c ies may r ef lec t m os t h eav i ly h uman b u t cher ing a c t iv i t ies , a s w e l l a s n a tura l w ea ther ing . F or t h is a na lys is b one s urv iva l f r equen c ies f o r e a ch a n ima l a re s umma r ized i n MN Is , r epresented b y f i ve ma jor b ody p a r t s -h ead , a x ia l c o lumn ( n eck , b ackbone , r i b cage ) , f o re leg s , h ind leg s , a nd f e e t ( Tab le 5 .7 ) . T he a x ia l c o lumn i s l i t t le r epresen ted i n a ny o f t he s t ock o r d eer . S in ce mea t o r marrow c ont en t i n t hese b ones a re l ow , y e t t he ir b one d ens ity a nd t heref ore r e s is tance t o a t t r i t ion r e la t ive ly h igh , w e w ou ld e xpec t t o h ave r e covered more a x ia l b ones h ad t hese b een c ons isten t ly d epos i ted i n t he v i l lage ( no te 7 ) . S ome u nderrepresen ta t ion i sa ccoun ted f o r b ecause f r agmen ta ry s pec imens w ere n o t i d en t if ied , b u t i ti sl i ke ly t ha t c a rcasses w ere most o f ten s t r ipped o f s p ine a nd a d jo in ing a r t i cu lar r i bs b ef ore b e ing b rough t i n to t he v i l lage . D eep c u t s o n t wo l umbar v er tebrae ( Pun i co R oman ) a nd f our f r a ctured a r t icu lar r i bs f r om s ma l l u ngu la tes ( t hree u n iden t if ied u ngu la tes -I r on A ge , P un i co -Roman a nd R oman l e ve ls , a nd o ne R o man p er iod c apr ine ) s ugges t t ha t r i b s l abs o f mea t a nd t ender lo ins w ere s epara ted f r om t he s p ine u s ing a h eavy b laded t o o l . F oo t b ones w ere a l so u nderrepresen ted t hroughou t , e spec ia l ly t o es ( Pha lanx T he ir m ea t v a lue i sl ow c o mpared t ot he l e g s a nd d im in ishes , a l ong w i th b one d ens i ty t oward t he e nd o f t he f o o t . T hus f e e t w ere o f ten r emoved f r om t he c a rcass b ef ore f u r ther p rocess ing i n t he v i l lage . H owever , c annon a nd u pper t o e b ones o f c ows a nd c apr ines a re g ood s ou rces o f marrow , a nd s evera l o f t hese s how e v iden ce o f f r a c tur ing . P ropor t ions o f h ead , f o re leg , a nd h ind leg v ary b e tween p hases a nd a n ima ls , a l though t h is may b e , i n p ar t , d ue t o t he s amp le s i ze . A n a pparen t p ref erence f o r f o re leg s a nd h eads o ver h ind legs i nt he I r on a nd P t in i co -Roman c apr ines i sn o tj us t if i ed i n t e rms o ff o od v a lue s i nce h ind leg s s upp ly m ore marrow a nd mea t . Howeve r , t he h igher r e covery o fs ku l l b ones may b e ar esu l t o fs amp l ing e r ror b ecause o ft he h igh d ens i ty a nd p reservab i l i ty o ft e e th a nd mand ib les . A d if eren t p a t tern i s i nd i ca ted i n t he s ma l ler c a t t le s amp le . H ind leg s s eem t o b e f avored i n t he I r on A ge wh i le f o re a nd h ind l e g s a re a bou t e qua l ly r epresen ted d ur ing P un ico -R oman t imes . T he s amp le o f R oman p er iod e l emen t s , a nd t hose f r om t he d eer a re t o o s ma l l t o make s ta temen ts a bou t b one s urv ivorsh ip . 8 0

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F requen t e v iden ce o f f r a c tur ing a nd o ccas iona l c u t t ing o f t he h ead a nd l e g b ones o f p i g s , c apr ines , a nd c a t t le s uggest s im i lar t r ea tmen t o f t hese a n ima ls d ur ing b u t cher ing . L ower j aws ( mand ib les ) w ere o f ten b roken o pen t o e xpose marrow c av i t ies b e low t he t e e th . Sw ine max i l la w ere s im i lar ly b roken . T he n ecks o f s capu lae ( s hou lder b lades ) w ere f r equen t ly b roken t h rough p resumab ly t of a c i l i ta te t he r emova l o f t he f o re leg s f r om t h e s hou lder . H ind l imbs w ere s im i la r ly r emoved b y c hopp ing t h rough t he h ip s ocke t ( a ce tabu lum ) t o r e lease t he f emur . Most b ones o f t he e l bow j o in t ( d is ta l h umurus , p rox ima l r ad ius , a nd u lna ) w ere f r ac tured t o e xpose marrow c av i t ies a nd /or wh i le d i smember ing t he c arcass , b u t t he h ock j o in t ( d is ta l t i b ia , a s t raga lus , c a lcaneum ) was l e ss o f ten f r a ctured i nt h is w ay . C u t s o n b ones o f s t ock a re r are ; t he f ew o bserved n ear t he j o in t s o f c apr ine a nd c ow p robab ly r e su l t ed f r om d i smembermen t . I n teres t ing ly , n o c u ts r ema in f r om s k inn ing , a l though r emova l o fs k in n o d oub t o c curred , a ppa ren t ly l e av ing n o t r a ce o ft he k n if e ( n o te 8 ) D esp i te t he s ma l l s amp le , c omb ined e v idence o fb one s urv ivorsh ip a nd mod i f ica t ion a t T os cono s ugges t s t ha t s ome p re l im inary b ut cher ing was c arr ied o u t b ef ore b r ing ing c ar casses i n to t he v i l lage ( a t l e as t t ha t p ar t s amp led ) . T h is r esu l ted i n e l im ina t ing l e ss v a luab le e l emen t s u sua l ly s p ine a nd f e e t , wh i le l e av ing t he r ema in ing f o re a nd h ind l e gs a nd e ven h eads f o r f u r ther p rocess ing a nd c onsump t ion i n o r n ear t he h u t s . T h is i s s im i lar t o t he " Sh lepp E f f ec t" ( Perk ins a nd D a ly 1 968 ) r e cogn ized among many h un ters a s s e lect ive b u t cher ing o f h eavy c ar casses i n o rder t o r edu ce t r anspor t c ost s f r om k i l l l o ca t ion t o h ab i ta t ion ( Wh i te 1 952 : 3 37 -338 ; 1 954 : 2 54 -264 ; B inf ord 1 978 : 1 4 ; R ead Ma r ten a nd R ead 1 975 : 3 59 -368 ; Webs ter 1 983 : 3 34 -353 ) . B u t a t T oscono s ma l ler s t ock a n ima ls w ere s o t r ea ted a nd s l augh ter ing p robab ly o c curred n earby , h ence t r anspor t c os ts w ere n o t ap rob lem . A l terna t ive ly , t he p a t tern a t T oscono may r e f lect t he o pera t ion o fp ar t t ime b u tchers o pera t ing w i th in al o ca l marke t s e t t ing s im i lar t ot ha t r epor ted h i st or ica l ly f o r t he B erbers o f Morrocco . C oon 's d escr ipt ion o f t he mea t market i sa s f o l lows : " vendors o fd i f f eren t a r t i c les a re s egrega ted a ccord ing t ot he ir wa res . . .The b ut chers a re r e lega ted t o ap os i t ion a s f a r r emoved f r om t he r e st o f t he ma rke t a s p oss ib le , o n a ccoun t o f t he ma lodorous n a ture o f t he ir wares . . .Farmers b r ing i n c a t t le , s heep , a nd g oa t s , a nd t u rn o ver t he a n ima ls t o t he b u t chers , who a re b lacksm i ths o n o ther d ays o f t he w eek , o r a re m embers o f t he f am i l ies o f b la cksm i ths . A f t er t he b ut chers h ave s l augh tered t he a n ima ls , w ashed t he b l ood f r om t he ir t h roa t s , i nf la ted t he ir s k ins , f l ayed , a nd q ua r tered t hem , t he o wners o f t he a n ima ls h ang t he mea t o n w ooden r a cks p ermanen t ly f i xed t o t r ees o r p os ts n ea rby , where t hey a re t hus e xposed f o r s a le . . .The b u t cher i sp ayed f o r h i s w ork w i th a p or t ion o f t he m ea t , w i th m oney , o r w i th t he h ide , h ead , a nd e n t ra i ls , wh i ch a re t he most c ommon r ewa rd" . ( Coon 1 931 : 1 09 -110 ) C oon a l so n otes t ha t v i l lage d og s a ssemb led n ear t he b u t cher ing o pera t ions i n s ear ch o f f o od r e fuse . M igh t n o t as im i lar t ype o f mea t d i s t r ibu t ion h ave t aken p la ce a t T oscono r e su l t ing i n t he d e le t ion o fl e ss v a luab le e l emen t s f r om t he a verage h ouseho lds ' b one a ssemb lage? I f f u ture f auna l s tud ies s uppor t s uch a n i n terpre ta t ion w e m igh t c a l l i tt he " dreck e f ec t" a f t er t he Y idd ish e xpress ion f o r " cheap o r w or th less t r ash , j unk , g arbage" ( Rosten 1 968 : 1 02 -103 ) . R e levan t f a ctors w ou ld i n c lude t he r e la t ive v a lue ( s ubs is ten ce a nd marke t ) o f d if eren t a na tom ica l p ar t s a nd t he s pa t ia l o rgan iza t ion o f s l augh ter ing , b u t cher ing , a nd d i s t r ibu t ion a c t iv i t ies a l ong w i th t he ir a t tendan t r e fuse p roduc ts w i th in t he c o mmun i ty .

8 3

G ary S . Webs t er D ISCUSS ION T he a dm i t t ed ly s ma l l f auna l s amp les f r om T oscono a nd U rpes r a ise t he f undamen ta l q ues t ion : Wha t r o les d i d d omes t i c s t ock a nd w i ld g ame p l ay i n t he o vera l l e conom ies o f t hese t wo c ommun i t ies? I n t he p as t , a s t oday , c ons idera t ions o f t he c os ts a nd r ewards a ssoc ia ted w i th a l t erna te s t ra teg ies o fh usbandry a nd h un t ing h ave b een b as ic t of o rm ing t he w ide v ar ie ty o fl and -use p a t terns f ound i n t he Med i terranean r eg ion . A va i lab i l i ty o f n a tura l f o rage , p as ture land , a nd f o dder c rops , a s w e l l a s t he d emands o f ac ommun i ty f o r c e r ta in a n ima l p rodu c t s f o r l o ca l c onsump t ion , marke t e x change , a nd t r ibu te p aymen t s may h ave a l l f i gured i nd e term in ing l o ca l s t ra teg ies . A ma jor p rob lem t o a n ima l e conom ies i n S ard in ia , a s e l sewhere i n t he T yr rhen ian l andscape i s s easona l i ty o f p as ture . S ummer d rough t , l a s t ing f r om 3 t o 6 mon ths d im in ishes g raz ing d ur ing d ry m on ths t oc oas ta l ma rshes , p erenn ia l s pr ing -f ed m eadows , a nd t he a l t ip ian i . D ur ing a u tumn a nd w in ter r a infa l l p rov ides l e ss c ons t r ic ted g raz ing a t l ow a nd m idd le a l t i tudes , b u t a bove 7 00 met ers , l ow t empera tures a nd s now c l oses t he h igher e l eva t ions t o s u ch u se . I n B orore - Ma comer , a t t he f o o t o f t he Margh ine R ange , t he f euda l p a t tern u n t i l t he t u rn o f t h is c en tury h as b een a m ixed s t ra t egy o f s t ock k eep ing ( s heep , c a t t le , p ig s ) i n corpora ted i n to ab i enn ia l s ys tem o fr o ta t ion o fa rab le s own t oc erea ls a nd f a l lowed i n p asture -" now i n v i dazzone , n ow i n p aber i le" ( Muron i 1 980 ) . T he l ower s l opes o f Montagna d iS an A n ton io , 1 5km w es t o fB orore c ommune ( a s w e l l a s T oscono a nd U rpes ) p rov ided i mpor tan t a rab le a nd f i rs t -ra te p as ture f o r s heep a nd c a t t le ; wh i le t he o ak f o res t s h igher u p w ere a n i nd ispens ib le s our ce o fa corns f o r p ig s d ur ing f a l l ( Mu ron i 1 980 : 5 1 ) . N ear B orore a s er ies o f s pr ing s o c cur a t 3 00 t o 4 00 m e ters a l ong wh ich T oscono a nd U rpes a re s i tua ted ( n o te 9 ) . T hese a re u sed t oday t o wa ter s t ock a nd i n t he p as t p rov ided i mpor tan t marshy meadows f o r t he p as turage o f b eas t s d om i to ( c a t t le ) a s w e l l a s h orses , e spec ia l ly d ur ing t he s ummer ( n o te 1 0 ) . T he a n t iqu i ty o f t he f euda l p a t tern i sn o t k nown , b u t i tc e r ta in ly r ef lec t s t he u n ique c ond i t ions o f t he p er iod , a nd may n o t s erve a s a n a na log t o m ore a nc ien t p a t terns o f l and -use a tT oscono a nd U rpes . T oday t he p as tura l e l emen t h as l a rge ly r ep la ced t r ad i t iona l c erea l c u l t iva t ion a round B orore , w h i ch h as r e su l ted i n ah eavy f o cus u pon s heep ( 89% ) t o t he n ear e x c lus ion o f c a t t le ( 6% ) a nd s w ine ( 5% ) ( Muron i 1 980 : 4 ) . T he r e cen t c hanges r ef lec t among o ther t h ings , t he g row th o f t he m i lk i n dust ry , s hepherd c oopera t ives , a nd w or ld marke ts f o r o v i capr ine c heeses ( Muron i 1 980 : 8 3 ; L ew thwa i te 1 982 ) a s w e l l a s d ras t ic r educt ions i n t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f f o res t r esources wh i ch s urrounded B orore i n e ar l ier t imes ( Muron i 1 980 : 3 ) . S tock p ropor t ions e s t ima ted f r om T oscono f auna a l so s how a n umer ica l d om inance o f c apr ines ( 46 -61% ) , b u t f u r ther i n d ica te a h eav ier u se o f c a t t le ( 13 -20% ) , s w ine ( 6 -17% ) , a nd d eer ( 16 -25% ) t han t oday . S im i lar s t ock p ropor t ions h ave b een r epor ted b y F . F ede le f o r r e s iden t ia l d epos i t s a t T harros ( Capo S an Mar co ) a nd P a lmavera ( A lghero ) (Persona l C ommun ica t ions ) . A l l t hese w ere c onsumed f o r f o od o nce s l augh tered , a s t he b one e v idence i nd icat es , b u t s ave f o r t he d eer wh ich w ere n o d oub t h un ted f o r mea t , i t i s l e ss c e r ta in f o r wha t o ther p u rposes t he s t ock w ere i n tended ( n ote 1 ) . F igur ines r eputed ly p or tray ing l e a ther w orkers c ar ry ing s k ins wh i ch h ave b een r e covered f r om o ther s i tes ( Gu ido 1 963 : 1 76 , p l s . 5 4 -56 ) s ugges t t he o bv ious u se o f c a t t le , d eer , s heep , a nd g oa t , i fn ot s w ine f o r s k ins , a l though , a s n ot ed w e c annot c onf i rm t h is b y s urv iv ing b ones . M . Gu ido s pecu la tes t ha t s k ins w ere o ne o f s evera l i t ems t raded t o P hoen ic ian c o lon ist s ( Gu ido 1 963 : 1 98 ) . Whe ther a n ima l p rodu ct s w ere e xpor ted d ur ing R oman a dm in ist ra t ion i sn o t c l ear ( n o te 1 2 ) . E v iden ce f o r t he u se o fb one i nt o o l mak ing o r a r t is t i c e xpress ion i s c ur ious ly s carce i n b one r ema ins f r om T oscono a nd U rpes , a s e l sewhere o n t he i s land .

8 4

VERTEBRATE FAUNAL RE MA INS C a t t le w ere t he mos t i mpor tan t mea t s our ce a t T oscono ( 42 -55% ) . H owever , a ge -a t s l augh ter e s t ima t ions s ugg es t mos t a n ima ls w ere ma ture when k i l led ( a lso r e cogn ized a t P a lmavera ) -b eyond t he a ge a t wh ich m ea t a n ima ls a re u sua l ly s l augh tered . S im i lar m or ta l i ty d a ta f r om I r on A ge a nd Med ieva l d epos i ts i n I t a ly h ave b een u sed t o a rgue t ha t a n c ien t c a t t le w ere ma in ta ined p r imar i ly f o r t rac t ion r a ther t han m i lk a nd mea t ( n o te 1 3 ) . R oman s our ces s t a te t ha t I t a l ian f a rmers c ou ld n o t a f f ord t o k eep c a t t le f o r o ther t han p l ow ing d ue t o t he l a ck o f f odder ( Wh i t e 1 970 : 2 76 -284 ) . On t he o ther h and w e t -meadow p astures a round T oscono , p oss ib ly s upp lemen ted b y l e gum inous f odder c r ops , may h ave c arr ied s ome m i lk c ows a s w e l l a s o xen ( n o te 1 4 ) . Me tr ic m easuremen t s o n P un ico -Roman c a t t le d o f a l l w i th in t he s i ze r ange o f Med ieva l T uscan ian c a t t le , wh ich a re l a rger t han B ronze A ge s t ock a nd t hough t t o r epresen t d raf t o xen s l augh tered a s b e s t i e i nu t i l es -a n ima ls u nf i t f o r w ork ( Barker 1 972 : 1 71 -208 ) . T he r i tua l i mpor tan ce o f o xen i sw e l l a t test ed i n a n c ien t a r t o f S ard in ia . Y oked d raf t o xen a re c ommon ly p or t rayed i n n a t ive b ronzes a nd f i gures f r om t he Nurag ic t o R oman p er iods . O xen may h ave b een t he o b jec t o fc u l t r i tua ls , a s w e l l a s s a cr if i ce ( Gu ido 1 963 : 1 50 , p l . 7 7 ) . T he p urpose o fr a is ing s w ine f o r f o od s eems r a ther more c l ear . O ak f o res t s p rov ided n earby s our ces o f p annage i n s eason , w i th p oss ib le s upp lemen ta t ion w i th l e gum inous c r ops a t o ther t imes . B ased o n t he f ew a geab le s pec imens , p ig s w ere s l aught ered b ef ore a ge t wo , p robab ly a f ter f a t t en ing o n a u tumn p annage , a s was a pparen t ly t he p o l i cy a t L un i a nd Nar ce i n E trur ia ( n o te 1 5 ) . T he a pparen t i n crease i n s w ine r a is ing a t T oscono d ur ing t he P un i co -Roman p er iod i sn o t y e t u nders tood . B arker h as c orre la ted l ow s w ine p er cen tages a t L un i a nd Narce w i th l im i ted a ccess t o s ummer p as ture ( Barker 1 972 : 1 88 ) . We c an o n ly s ugges t a t p resen t as im i lar c orre la t ion w i th f i nds o f l e gum inous p l an t s -p oss ib ly u sed a s p ig f o dder -i n P un ico -R oman l e ve ls a t T oscono ( s ee n ot e 1 4 ; n ot e 1 6 ) . S ows , b oars , a nd y oung p ig s a re s ome t imes p or t rayed i n f i gur ines o f t h is p er iod i nS ard in ia , a l though t he ir r i tua l s i gn i f ican ce w as p robab ly l e ss t han t ha t o f c a t t le ( Gu ido 1 963 : 1 73 , f i g . 5 4 ; 1 76 , p l s . 5 4 -56 ) . T he c apr ines p resen t a l e ss c l ear p i c ture d esp i te t he ir a bundance i n t he s t ock e conomy . O ne p rob lem r e la tes t o t he r a t io o f s heep t o g oa t s . B o th a re p resen t i n t he b one s amp le , a nd b oth a re r epresent ed i n f i gur ines f r om o ther S ard in ian s i tes o f t he p er iod ( Gu ido 1 963 : 1 76 , p l s . 5 4 -56 ) . B u t t he ir r e la t ive p ropor t ions c anno t b e e s tab l ished f r om e i ther d a ta . A s i mp l ied a bove g oa t s a re n ear ly a bsen t f r om 1 9 th a nd 2 0 th c entury B orore h i s tor ies . P erhaps t he p rob lems o f manag ing g oa t s , d esp i te t he ir v a lue a s m i lk a n ima ls l e d t he a n c ien t T oscono c o mmun i ty t ok eep o n ly sma l l n umbers f o r l e ad ing f l ocks o f s heep , a s t oday i n c en tra l I t a ly where t he r a t io i so n ly 2 -3 g oa ts p er 1 00 -200 s heep ( Barker 1 972 : 1 88 ) . T he s ma l l a ged s amp le f r om T oscono s ugges ts t ha t mos t a n ima ls w ere k i l led when ma ture -i n t he ir s e cond a nd t h ird y ear ( p erhaps s o mewha t y ounger d ur ing t he I r on A ge ) . S im i lar s l augh ter p a t terns a t I t a l ian s i tes h ave b een i n terpre ted t o m ean a s t o ck p o l icy c oncen t ra t ing o n w oo l a nd c heese ( p ecor ino a nd r i co t t o ) r a ther t han m ea t -t he s t ra tegy a l so emp loyed b y t he R omans ( n o te 1 7 ) . T he p rob lem w i th s uch a n i n terpre ta t ion f o r T oscono r e s t s o n a n u ncer ta in ty o f h ow e ar ly w oo l ly b reeds o f s heep w ere a va i lab le , p robab ly n o t b ef ore t he P un ico -Roman p er iod a nd p erhaps e ven l a t er ( Lew thwa it e 1 982 ) . P erhaps t he sma l l m or ta l i ty s amp le d oes r e f lec t t he s l augh ter o f y oung s heep f o r mea t d ur ing t he I r on A ge w i th a c hange t o w oo l p roduct ion a nd l a ter s l augh ter a g es d ur ing P un i co -Roman t imes . I n a dd i t ion , o steome t r ic d a ta d oes h in t a t a s i ze c hange d ur ing t h is t ime , i . e . , f r om l a rger ( mouf lon? ) t o sma l ler ( Roman? ) s heep . Unf or tuna te ly b o th s amp les a re i n suff i c ien t t oc l ar ify t he s i tua t ion a t t h is t ime ( n o te 1 8 ) . T he q ues t ion o f mob i l i ty i s o f ten r a ised i n s tud ies o f a nc ien t Med i terranean p ast ora l ism ( Barker 1 972 ) . T ranshuman ce , t he s easona l movemen t o ft he b e s t i e m inu t ia ( p r in c ipa l ly c apr ines ) f r om w in ter l ow lands t os ummer u p land p as ture i sw e l l d ocumen ted f o r R oman a nd p os t -Roman I t a ly ( Wh i te 1 970 : 3 06 -316 ; J ones 1 966 : 3 40 -431 ) a nd h as

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G ary S . Webs ter b een p os tu la ted a s a b as i c a dap ta t ion t o s easona l p as ture c ond i t ions , t empera ture e x t remes , a nd a l a ck o f f odder c rops a t B ronze Iron A ge a nd Med ieva l s i tes i n I t a ly ( Barker 1 972 ) . T oday s hepherds l e ave w int er p as tu re a round T oscono b y t he e nd o f J une a nd t rave l s o me 2 0 -30km w i th t he ir f l ocks t o m o is t c oa s ta l marshes i n as or t o f " i nve r ted" t r anshumance . T he p a t t ern may b e r e cen t h owever - a r esponse t o c ommer c ia l market s a nd modern t ranspor t ( Muron i 1 980 : 4 ; L ew thwa i t e 1 982 ) . O n t he o ther h and t he s hepherd d oes p lay a n i mpor tan t r o le , d i s t inc t f r om t he f a rmer i n l o ca l B orore t rad i t ions ( no te 1 9 ) . A p a t tern o f sma l l -s ca le c apr ine t ranshumance c l o se ly i n teg ra ted w i th t he s eden tary f a rm c o mmun i ty may h ave a g rea ter a n t iqu ity i n t h is r eg ion . T oscono f l ocks , a l ong w i th c a t t le p robab ly g razed o n n earby f a l low f i e lds o r s t ubb le d ur ing t he mo is t f a l l a nd w in ter . I n e ar ly s ummer t hey w ere e i ther d r iven t o h igher p asture , i . e . , Mon tagna d i S an An ton io , r e tu rn ing f o r f a l l l amb ing ; o r t o n ea rby marshes w i th t he c a t t le . Sw ine w ere p robab ly k ep t n ear t he v i l lage most o f t he t ime , p erhaps f ed o n f odder a nd d r iven i n to n earby w oods f o r p annage when a va i lab le . T h is p a t tern i ss im i lar t o t ha t p os tu la ted f o r I r on A ge N ar ce i n as im i lar s e t t ing a nd h av ing s im i lar s t ock r a t ios ( note 2 0 ) . Whe ther t he p a t t erns p os tu la ted a bove f o r a nc ien tT os cono a re i n deed a ccura te mus t awa i t t he r e su l ts o f a dd i t iona l f auna l s tud ies i n t he Ma rgh ine R eg ion .

NOTES

1 . F ie ld p roven iences o f t he s amp le a re ( un i t / componen t ) : T oscono - 1 / 1 ,1 /2 ,2 /2 ,2 /3 , 3 / 2 ,3 /3 ,4 /1 ,5 /1 ,4 /2 ,5 /2 ,5 /3 ,6 /1 ,6 /2 ,6 /3 ,7 /1 ,8 /2 ,8 /3 ,9 /2 ; U rpes - 1 / 1 ,3 /1 ,3 /2 ,4 /1 ,6 /1 ,7 /1 , 1 2 /1 . 2 .A l though t he l a rge d eer r ema ins f r om T oscono a ppear t ob e f r om t he R ed D eer ( C er vu s e l aphus ) , t he i n i t ia l i d en t if i ca t ion o f t he sma l ler d eer a s t he R oe D eer ( Capr eo lu s c apr eo lus ) ( s ee Webs ter a nd M iche ls 1 986 ) i sn ow s omewha t l e ss c er ta in a nd w e a wa i t t he r e su l t s o f a na lyses o f l a rger s ke le ta l s amp les o f t hese a n ima ls b ef ore mak ing m ore s pec if i c t axomon i c d es igna t ions . I tc an b e n oted t ha t R ed a nd F a l low d eer ( Dama d ama ) a re k nown o n t he i s land h i s tor i ca l ly . H owever , i ti sn o t y e t c l ear whe ther a ny s pe c i es o f d eer a re n a t ive t o t he T yrrhen ian I s lands o r a l terna t ive ly whe ther t hey c onst i tu te l a ter i mpor ts ( Masso l i -Nove l l i , 1 974 ; L anf ranch i a nd V igne 1 981 ) . 3 . T he S a rd in ian mouf lon ( Ov i s mu s imon ) i s p resen t ly c ons idered t o b e a f e ra l d omes t i ca te i n t roduced t o t he T yrrhen ian I s lands b y t he 6 th -5th m i l len ium B .C . ( Ryder 1 982 :40 ) . 4 . A l terna t e me thods f o r e s t ima t ing t he r e la t ive a bundance o f s pec ies i n a rchaeof auna l c o l lec t ions i sd i scussed b y A l lan S . G i lber t a nd P au l S te inf e ld , " Fauna l R ema ins f r om D inka T epe , N or thwestern I ran ," J FA 4 (1977 ) : 3 30 -351 ; R aymond E . C hap l in , T h e S tudy o f An ima l B ones F r om A r cha eo log i ca l S i t e s ( London 1 971 ) 6 7 -9 ; a nd P a t D a ly , " Approaches t o F auna l A na lys is i n A rchaeo logy ," AmAn t 3 4 (1969 ) : 1 50 . M in imum n umbers o f i nd iv idua l a n ima ls ( MN Is ) w ere e st ima ted b y d i v id ing t he t o ta l n umbers o f e a ch s ke le ta l e l e men t o bserved f o r e a ch a n ima l t ype w i th in t he p hase b y t he n umber o f t imes t he e l emen t i sk nown t oo c cur i nt he l i v ing a n ima l . T he l a rges t r esu l t ing f i gu re i s t aken t ob e t he m in imum n umber o fa n ima ls t ha t c an a ccoun t f o r a l l t he e l emen t s o ft ha t k ind o fa n ima l . F or ad escr ip t ion o ft he me thod s ee G i lber t a nd S t e inf e ld ( 1977 : 3 33 ) . 5 . T he f o l low ing r ough e s t ima tes o f u sab le mea t w e igh t s w ere u sed : Sw ine 1 00kg ; C a t t le 2 25kg ; C apr ines 3 5kg ; R ed D eer 1 00kg ; R oe D eer 2 5kg , a f t er G i lber t a nd S t e inf e ld ( 1977 : 3 34 ) .

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VERTEBRATE FAUNAL RE MA INS 6 . I .A . S i lver , " The a g ing o fd omes t ic a n ima ls ," S c i enc e i nA r chaeo logy e d . , D . B rothwe l l a nd E . H igg s ( London 1 969 ) 2 83 -302 . S ince modern b reeds p robab ly ma ture f aster t han d i d a nc ien t s t ock t he a n ima ls f r om T oscono may a c tua l ly b e o l der t han h ere e s t ima ted . 7 . R e la t ive f o od v a lue a nd b one d ens i ty / surv ivab i l i ty o f e l emen ts a re b ased o n f i e ld m ea suremen t s o f s heep a nd c ar ibou c arcasses a f ter L .R . B inf ord a nd J .B . B er tram , " Bone f r equen c ies a nd a t t r i t iona l p rocesses ," F or T h eory B u i ld ing i n A r cha eo logy , e d . , L .R . B inf ord ( A cadem i c P ress 1 978 ) a nd L .R . B inf ord , Nanam iu t E thnoar cha eo logy ( A cade m ic P ress 1 978 ) 2 0 -21 , 2 7 , 3 3 . 8 . F or d escr ip t ions o fs k inn ing p rocedures wh ich l e ave v i r tua l ly n o t ra ces o n t he s ke le ton s ee L .R . B inf ord , o p . c i t . ( i n n ot e 7 ) . T he p rocedure o f i nf la t ing t he s k in o n t he c arcass b ef o re f l ay ing f ound among c er ta in B erber t r ibes i n Morocco may h ave b een u sed a t T oscono r esu l t ing i n f ewer c u t marks o n b one t han w i th o ther me thods o f s k inn ing . S ee C . C oon , T r ibe s o f t h e R if , Harvard A f r i can S tud ies , V o l . I X , P eabody Museum o f H arvard Un ivers i ty , C ambr idge 1 931 ( K raus R epr in t 1 970 ) 10 . 9 . A ccord ing t o A . Muron i ( 1980 : 7 ) , t he n ame B orore i s p robab ly o f P hoen ic ian d e r iva t ion mean ing " p la ce o fa bundan t wa ter" . 1 0 . A ccord ing t o al and -use r epor t f o r t he B orore c ommune , c . 1 836 , r epor ted i n A . Muron i , o p . c i t . ( i n n ot e 1 4 ) 3 7 -38 , i ny ears o fg ood mas t 2 250 h a ( h ec tares ) o fo ak f o res t o n S an Ant on io S as C oas s uppor ted 4 000 p igs f r om Macomer a nd B orore ( 1 .8 p igs /ha ) . C ommuna l meadow a veraged 6 .7 c a t t le /ha . P aber i le l and a t P ioto d i T ro lo larzu s uppor ted 5 0 b eas t s d om i t o o n 5 0 s tare l l i ( 12 .5 h a ) ( 4 b eas ts /ha ) . P aber i le l and o f S an G av ino s uppor ted 5 0 c ows a nd 5 00 s heep o n 1 50 s tare l l i ( 38ha ) ( 5 c ows /ha , 1 8 s heep /ha ) . P aber i le o f" Sa l t o d iC or te" s uppor ted 5 00 c ows a nd 5 00 s heep o n 2 50 s tare l l i ( 62 .5ha ) ( 8 c ows /ha , 8s heep /ha ) . O ther a reas o f p as ture a round B orore s uppor ted 3 00 c ows o n 2 00 s tare l l i ( 50ha ) ( 6c ows /ha ) . 1 . H istor ica l ly p ig s w ere k ep t f o r s l augh ter a nd a pparen t ly e very B orore f am i ly r eared s evera l " in t he y a rd o f ap roper h ouse ." S heep w ere r a ised f o r w oo l a nd c heese . C a t t le w ere k ep t b o th a s w ork ing a n ima ls f o r p l ow a nd c ar t , a nd a s c ows , p resumab ly f o r m i lk , A . Muron i ( 1980 : 7 3 ) . 1 2 . Wr i t ten s our ces f r om t he p er iod d o n o t men t ion a n ima ls o r a n ima l p rodu ct s a s t r ibu t e p a id b y S ard in ia , a l though S i c i ly s upp l ied R ome w i th c a t t le . Whea t , s l aves , s i lver a nd c opper a ppear t o h ave b een t he ma in t r ibu tary i t ems c o l lect ed f r om S ard in ia a s a R oman p rov ince . S ee T . F rank , e d . , An E conom i c S ur vey o f Anc i en t R ome ( Ba l t imore 1 937 -44 ) V o l . 1 .9 7 , 1 59 , 1 87 , a nd W . Duran t , T he S t o ry o fC iv i l i za t ion , P ar tI I , ( S imon a nd S chuster , N ew Y ork 1 944 ) : 1 11 , 4 64 . 1 3 . A t L un i a nd Nar ce c a t t le w ere s l augh tered i n t he ir 2 nd a nd 3 rd y ears a nd a t Med ieva l T uscany a t as im i lar a ge , s ee G . B arker , " The c ond i t ion o f c u l tura l a nd e conom ic g row th i n t he B ronze Age o f c en t ra l I t a ly" PPS 3 8 ( 1972 ) : 1 71 -208 ; " The e conomy o f Med ieva l T uscan ia : t he ma ter ia l e v iden ce ," P aper s o f t h e B r i t i sh S choo l a t R om e v o l . XL I ( 1973 ) : 1 55 -177 . 1 4 . E x cava t ions a t T oscono r evea led a r e la t ive a bundan ce o fl egumes w i th in h u ts d a t ing t o t he P un ico -R oman p er iod wh i ch may i nd ica te t he s t orage o f s own l egumes f o r a n ima l f odder . P rob lems o f f e ed ing c a t t le a nd o ther s t ock i n R oman I t a ly w ere much r educed w i th t he i n trodu c t ion o f l egum inous p lan ts , e spec ia l ly l u cerne a f ter c a . 1 50 B .C . , K .D . Wh i te ( 1970 : 2 07 ; 2 82 -283 ) .

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G ary S . Webst er 1 5 . A t L un i a nd Narce 9 0% o ft he I r on A ge p igs d i ed b y a ge t wo y ears , a c cord ing t o G . B arker ( 1972 : 1 85 -187 ) . 1 6 . T he p oss ib le i mpor tance o f manag ing e verg reen o ak s tands f o r s w ine r a is ing i n a nc ien t S ard in ia a nd C ors i ca h as b een s uggested b y J . L ew thwa i t ,e ( 1982 ) b ased u pon a rchaeo log i ca l f i nds o fc harred a corns a nd a ssoc ia ted " acorn d i shes" a t Nu ragh i c s i tes i n S ard in ia . N o s im i lar e v idence o fa corn p rocess ing o r s t orage h as y e t s urfa ced a t T oscono o r U rpes , a l though t he i mpor tance o ft h is r esource f o r s w ine h erds i sn ot u nd er q ues t ion . C a ches o fa corn s , p resumab ly p ig f o dder , a re a l so r eport ed a t L un i b y G . B arker ( 1972 ) . 1 7 . A t L un i a nd Narce most c apr ines w ere d ead b y a ge 2y ears , a t med ieva l T uscany b y 3 -4 y ea rs , a ccord ing t oG . B arker ( 1972 : 1 87 -188 ; 1 973 : 1 61 ) . 1 8 . J . L ew thwa i te " P la ins T a i ls f r om t he H i l ls : T ranshumance i n Med i terranean A r chaeo logy" , e ds . A . S her idan a nd G . B a i ley , E conom i c A r cha eo logy ( Oxf ord : B r i t ish A r chaeo log i ca l R epor t s I n terna t iona l S er ies 9 6 , 1 981 ) n o ted f i nds o f " m i lk -bo i lers a nd s p ind le whor ls i nB ronze A ge S ard in ian s i t es , wh ich , i fa ccura te w ou ld i mp ly a w oo l -m i lk f o cus t ot he c apr ine e conomy b ef ore P un i c o r R oman c o lon iza t ion ." 1 9 . A ccord ing t o A . Muron i ( 1980 : 1 8 ) , " Farmers a nd s heperds f o rm n ow a nd h ave a lways f o rmed t he t wo p i l lars o n wh ich r es t t he l i f e a nd e conomy o ft he r eg ion ." 2 0 . A ccord ing t oG . B arker ( 1972 ) s t ock r a t ios a t L un i a nd Narce a re a s f o l lows : C a t t le 2 0 -30% , s w ine 2 0 -30% , C apr ines 4 5 -60% .

REFERENCES B a rker , G . 1 972 T he c ond i t ion o f c u l tu ra l a nd e conom ic g row th i n t he B ronze A ge o f c en t ra l I t a ly . PPS 3 8 : 1 71 -208 . B a rker , G . 1 973 T he e conomy o f Med ieva l T uscan ia : t he ma t er ia l e v idence . PBSR 4 1 : 1 55 -177 . B inf ord , L .R . 1 978 Nanam iu tE thnoar cha eo logy . A cadem ic P ress . B inf ord , L .R . a nd J .B . B er t ram 1 978 B one f r equenc ies a nd a t t r i t iona l p rocesses . F or T heo ry B u i ld ing i nA r cha eo logy , L .R . B inf ord e d . A cadem i c P ress . C hap l in , R aymond E . 1 971 T he S tudy o f An ima l B one s F r om A r cha eo log ica l S i t e s . L ondon . C oon , C . 1 931 T r ibe s o f t h e R if . Harvard A f r ican S tud ies I X , P eabody Museum o f Harvard Un ivers i ty , C ambr idge ( K raus r epr in t 1 970 ) . Da ly , P a t 1 969 A pproa ches t oF auna l Ana lys is i nA r chaeo logy . AmAn t 3 4 :150 . Duran t , W . 1 944 T he S t ory o fC iv i l i za t ion , P ar tI I . N ew Y ork : S imon a nd S chuster . F ede le , F . 1 980 A n thropo log ia e P a leoeco log ia D i T ha rros : r i cherche s u l T of et ( 1979 ) e s e conda c ampagna t e rr i tor ia le n e l S in is . R ev i s ta d iS tud i F en c i , V I I I , I . F rank , T . ( Ed ) 1 937 -44 An E conom i c S ur vey o f An c i en tR ome . B a l t i more . G i lber t , A l lan S . a nd P au l S te inf e ld 1 977 F auna l R ema ins f r om D inka T epe , N or thwes tern I ran . J FA 4 :330 -351 . G rayson , D ona ld 1 978 M in imum n umbers a nd S amp le S i ze i n V er tebra te F auna . AmAn t 4 3 : 5 3 -64 . Gu ido , M . 1 963 S a rd in ia . J ones , P . 1 966 I t a ly , Med i eva l Agrar ian S oc i e ty i n i t s P r ime , T he C ambr idge E conom i c H ist ory o f E urope , V o l . 1 , t he A g rar ian L if e o f t he M idd le Ages , M . P ostan e d . L ondon : C ambr idge Un ivers i ty P ress . L anf ranch i , F . d e a nd J .D . V igne 1 981 N ouve l les d onnees s ur l ' or ig ine d u c e rf d e c orse e t d e S arda igne . B u l l e t in d e l aS oc i e t e P r eh i s tor iqu eF ranca i se . P ar is 7 8 (4 ) , 1 05 -6 .

8 8

VERTEBRATE FAUNAL RE MAINS L ew thwa ite , J . 1 981 P la ins T a i ls f r om t he H i l ls : T ranshumance i n Med iterranean A r chaeo logy . E conom i c A r cha eo logy , A . S her idan a nd G . B a i ley e ds . Oxf ord : B r it ish A r chaeo log ica l R epor ts I n terna t iona l S er ies 9 6 . L ew thwa ite , J . i n p ress 1 982 A corns f o r t he Ancestors : T he P reh istor ic E xp lo i tat ion o f Wood land i nt he West Med iterranean . A r chaeo log i ca l A spec t s o f Wood land E co logy , S . L insey e d . Oxf ord : B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts . Masso l i -Nove l l i , R . 1 974 A t tua le c ons istenza d e l C er vus e l aphus c or s i canus e d e l O v i s ammon mus imon i n S ardegna . Bu l l e t ino d iZ oo log ia 4 1 , 5 03 -4 . Muron i , A . 1 980 B orore eiMargh ine . G . Ga l l iz i e d . , K . H ovde t rans . S assar i . P erk ins , D . a nd P . Da ly 1 968 A h unter 's v i l lage i nN eo l i th ic T urkey . S c iAm 2 19 . R ead - Marten , C . a nd D . R ead 1 975 Austra lop i thec ine S caveng ing a nd Human E vo lu t ion : A n Approach f r om F auna l Ana lys is . C urr en t An thropo logy 1 6 : 3 59 -368 . R os ten , L . 1 968 T he J oy s o fY idd i sh . McGraw -H i l l C o . R yder , M .L . 1 982 S heep a nd Man . Duckworth S i lver , I .A . 1 969 T he a g ing o f d o mest ic a n ima ls . S c i ence i n A r cha eo logy , D . B rothwe l l a nd E . H iggs e ds . L ondon : 2 83 -302 . Webs ter , G .S . 1 983 Nor thern I r oquo ian Hun t ing : An Op t im iza t ion Appr oa ch . P hD T hes is , D epar tmen t o f An thropo logy , T he P ennsy lvan ia S tate Un ivers ity . Webst er , G . a nd J . M i che ls 1 986 P a leoeconomy i n Wes t -Cen tra l S ard in ia . An t iqu i ty N ov . p p . 2 26 -229 . Wh i te , T .E . 1 952 /4 O bserva t ions o n t he B u t cher ing T echn iques o f s o me A bor ig ina l P eop les . AmAn t 4 (1952 ) : 3 37 -338 3 -6 (1954 ) : 2 54 -264 .

8 9

G ary S . Webs ter

APPEND IX 1 . Me t r ic d a ta o ft h ea n ima lb one sf r om T o scono s amp le . Wid th

T h ickne s s

L eng th

I r on A ge 1 / 2 C ap r ine s 1 5 .9

P . Me ta t a r sa l

1 6 .9

D . Me ta ta r sa l

1 9 .8

1 4 .4

D .H ume rus

2 7 .6

2 5 .0

2 9 .1

2 5 .3

Max i l la :

M1 3

3 9 .5

Mand ib le :

M M3 1 3 P2 -4

1 9 .2 4 4 .4 2 2 .9

C a t t le A s t raga lus Sw ine Max i l la :

3 0 .7 2 -4 p

6 1 .3 3 5 .8

P un ico -Roman 1 C apr ine s D . Me ta ta r sa l

2 1 .5

P . Me ta ca rpa l

2 6 .1

1 8 .0

D . Me tac a rpa l

2 1 .9

1 3 .5

2 1 .2

1 3 .9

D .T ib ia

1 3 .9

2 4 .0

1 7 .7

2 2 .8

1 8 .5

2 3 .6

1 7 .5

P .R ad iu s

1 4 .5

1 6 .6

D .H ume r us

2 5 .5

2 1 .7

3 0 .4

2 4 .2

2 8 .0

2 2 .0

2 5 .4

2 2 .2

3 0 .4 D .F emu r Max i l la : Mand ib le :

2 2 .7

2 0 .0

3 0 .9

3 7 .0

2 -4

2 4 .4

M M2 3

2 0 .0 2 1 .6

3

2 0 .7

M1 3

4 8 .3

C a t t le D .T ib ia

6 3 .6

4 5 .0

D . Me ta ta r sa l

5 1 .8

2 7 .4

D .H ume ru s

5 6 .6

A s traga lu s

3 7 .3

D . Me taca rpa l

4 0 .1

6 7 .4

2 5 .7

Sw ine Max i l la :

M3

2 5 .0

M3

2 1 .5

VERTEBRATE FAUNAL RE MA INS

APPEND IX 1 .( c on t inued ) Wid th

T h ickne s s

3 0 .4

1 5 .3

L eng th

R oman 1 / 2 C ap r ine s P .R ad ius Mand ib le :

M3

2 0 .8

M3

3 4 .0

S w ine Mand ib le :

9 1

C hapter 6 A PREL IM INARY REPORT ON THE PLANT RE MAINS FRO M NURAGHE TOSCONO W i lma Wet ters t rom B o tan i ca l Museum o f Harvard Un ivers i ty

T he f i rs t m i l lenn ium B .C . w as a t ime o f t u rbu len t p o l i t ica l c hange f o r t he i s land o f S a rd in ia . E ar ly d ur ing t h is p er iod t he i ndependen t Nuragh i c v i l lages o f t he p rev ious m i l len ium w ere t r ansf ormed i n t o f o r t if ied c ommun i t ies a nd p o l i t ies , f end ing o f f p ers is ten t a t ta ck . Dur ing t he 5 th c en tury B .C . t h ey l o st t he ir a u tonomy t oC ar thage , t he g rea t s ea p ower o f t he Med it erranean . A f ter C ar thage 's d em ise i n t he 3 rd c en tury B .C . , R ome i n vaded S ard in ia a nd c on t inued t he t r ad i t ion o f e xp lo i ta t ion . A l l o f t h ese p o l i t ica l c hanges u ndoub ted ly w ere r e la ted i n s ome way t o s ubs ist en ce p ra c t i ces a nd t o t he e c o logy o f t h e i s land . T he C a r thag in ians c e r ta in ly w rough t c hanges i n t he f a rm ing s y s tem i n o rder t o p rof i t f r om t h e ir c onquest a nd t hese c hanges may h ave a f ec ted t he e nv i ronmen t . S ome o ft h e e ar ly p o l i t ica l t u rbu len ce may h ave b een p romp ted i np ar t b y c ompe t it ion f o rd w ind l ing r e sour ces a s t he e xpand ing h uman p opu la t ion o verexp lo it ed t he s o i l a nd w i ld p l an t s a nd a n ima ls o ft he i s land . A ny e f or ts t o u nders tand t he p o l i t ica l c hanges a nd d eve lopmen t o f a nc ien t S ard in ia mus t c er ta in ly t ake i n to a ccoun t t hese r e la t ions among p o l i t i ca l o rgan iza t ion , e co logy , a nd s ubs is tence . T he a r chaeo log ica l r e cord f r om t he i s land o f ers a n e x ce l len t way t o i n ves t igate t he p rob lem a nd t he p lan t r ema ins i n p ar t i cu lar s hou ld b e o ne o f t he mos t p r odu c t ive l i nes o f e v idence , o f er ing c l ues t o f a rm ing p ra c t i ces , d i e t , a nd t he e nv ironmen t . F or t h is r eason p l an t r ema ins f r om Nuragh ic s i tes i n t he B orore d i s tr ic t a r e p resen t ly b e ing a na lyzed a s p ar t o f t he P ennsy lvan ia S tat e Un ivers i ty S ard in ian p r o jec t . T he p re l im inary r e su l ts s ugges t t ha t t he f l ora l ma ter ia ls c an o f er i n s igh t s i n to e c onom ic c hanges a nd p oss ib ly p rov ide e v iden ce o f a g r i cu l tura l i n tens if i ca t ion a nd e nv ironmen ta l d eg rada t ion .

PROCEDURES T h is p re l im ina ry s tudy i n c luded 3 9 f l o ta t ion s amp les , c o l lec ted d ur ing t he 1 982 f i e ld s eason a t Nghe . T oscono . D ur ing t he e xcava t ions a n a l iquo t o f2 365 gm o fs ed imen t was t aken f r om e a ch l e ve l o f e very u n i t e x cava ted a nd p rocessed b y m eans o f a wat er s epara t ion o r f l o ta t ion p ro cedure d es cr ibed i n d e ta i l e l sewhere . A f ter t he s ed imen t was i mmersed , t he f l o ta te w as c o l lec ted o n ac heesec lo th l ike f abr i c , s e cured w i th in a man i la f i l e f o lder , d r ied , a nd p a cked f o r s h ipmen t t ot he Un i ted S ta tes . T he s amp les w ere p ro cessed a t M IT d ur ing t he f a l l o f 1 982 a nd s pr ing o f 1 983 . A l l s amp les w ere f i rs t p assed t h rough a f i ne s i eve t o r emove s ed imen t s a nd l a ter w e ighed . E a ch s a mp le w as t hen e xam ined u nder a B ausch a nd L omb b i nocu lar m icroscope a t 7t o 3 0 t imes magn if i ca t ion . A l l i d en t if iab le p l an t ma t er ia ls , i n c lud ing s eeds , s e ed f r agmen t s , a nd v egeta t ive p ar ts , w ere r emoved a nd l a ter i d en t if i ed b y c ompar ison w i th r e f erence c o l lec t ions o f modern a nd a r chaeo log i ca l p lan t s pec imens . Measuremen t s w ere made w i th ac a l ipers . T he s amp les w ere r e covered f r om s even d if eren t e x cava t ion u n i t s o r t r enches w i th in t h e n u c leated v i l lage a t N ghe . T oscono a nd a re mos t l i ke ly t he r e s idues o f h ouseho ld d ebr is . Mos t o f t hese ma ter ia ls w ere p robab ly t o ssed i n to o r a cc iden ta l ly s p i l led i n

9 3

W i lma We t t ers t röm h ear ths u sed f o r c ook ing a nd h ea t ing i n t he v i l lage h ouses . S ome o f t he p lan t r ema ins may h ave a l so c ome f r om d ung u sed a s f ue l . I n t he h ear ths t he p lan t ma ter ia ls w ere p robab ly s ub jec ted t o h igh h ea t a nd e xposed t o f i re o n more t han o ne o c cas ion , wh i ch w ou ld e xp la in w hy s o many o ft hese s pec imens a re b ad ly p uf f ed a nd b ubb led . S ince t hey a re f r om a h ouseho ld c on t ex t , t he s pec imens s hou ld r ef lec t s o me a spects o f t he d i e t a nd f o od p rocess ing t e chn iques . I n a dd i t ion t hey may o f er c l ues t ot he d ebr is h arves ted w i th t he d omes t i c c r ops s uch a s t he f i e ld w eeds . Dur ing t h resh ing a nd w innow ing , w eed s eeds a re u sua l ly r emoved b u t s ome r e ma in among t he g ra ins t o b e p i cked o u t l a ter b y h and . T he Nghe . T oscono h ouseho ld d ebr is m igh t a l so i n c lude e v iden ce o f w oods u sed f o r f ue l a nd t r a ces o ff o dder f e d t os heep a nd g oa t s . T he s amp les s panned t he p er iod f r om 9 00 B .C . t o A .D . 3 71 , b u t t he ma jor ity d a te f r om a f ter 2 38 B .C . , a s s hown i nT ab le 6 .1 . O ver o ne -ha lf w ere f r om t he P un ico -Roman 1c omponen t ( 238 t o4 4 B .C . ) . B o th t he R oman 1 / 2 ( A .D . 2 17 t o 3 71 ) a nd I r on A ge ( 900 B .C . t o 5 00 B .C . ) c omponen ts w ere r epresen ted b y a bou t 2 3% o f t he s amp les . A s a r e su l t t he d a ta i sh eav i ly b iased i n f avor o ft he p er iod b etween 2 38 B .C . a nd 4 4 B .C .

TABLE 6 . 1 . D a te so fF lo ta t ion S amp le sC ole c t ed a tN u raghe T o sc ,ono

C omponen t

D a t ing

I r on A ge 1 / 2

9 00 B .C . -5 00 B .C .

P un ico -Roman 1

2 38 B .C . -4 4B .C .

R oman 1 / 2

A .D .2 17 -3 71

N umbe ro fF lo ta t ion S amp le s 9 2 2 8

RESULTS T he p lan t r ema ins , s hown i n T ab les 6 .2 a nd 6 .3 , i n c luded a n a ssor tmen t o f c harred a nd d es icca t ed s pec imens r epresen t ing b o th d omes t ic a nd w i ld f l ora . O n ly t he c ha rred f o rms w ere c ons idered a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l s wh i le t he d es icca t ed s pe c imens w ere mos t p robab ly o f r e cen t o r ig in . I t i s u n l ike ly t ha t p lan t ma ter ia ls w ou ld p ers is t i n t hese r e la t ive ly mo is t s o i ls f o r o ver 2 000 y ea rs u n less t hey w ere c harred . T he c ha rred ma ter ia ls i n c lude a pprox imat e ly 7 0 i d en t if iab le s eeds o r s eed l ike s t ru c tures a nd a n a dd i t iona l 2 0 o r 3 0 i t ems wh i ch h ave n o t y e t b een i d en t if i ed . T he t we lve t axa i d en t if ied t hus f a r i n c lude d omes t ic whea t a nd b ar ley , w i ld f r u i ts , av ar ie ty o fw eedy p lan t s , a nd p oss ib ly t he d omes t i c v e t ch . E a ch o ft hese i sd escr ibed i nd iv idua l ly b e low : B a r ley O ne o f t he f i rs t d omes t i ca tes a nd a ma jor f o od f o r m i l lenn ia i n t he a nc ien t w or ld , b ar ley ( Hord eum v u lgar e L . ) i ss t i l l a n i mpor tan t c r op b u t i ti sn ow c u l t iva ted p r imar i ly f o r a n ima l f e ed a nd f o r ma l t wh ich i su sed i n b rew ing a nd manufac tur ing v ar ious f o od p rodu ct s ( D i ckson 1 979 : 1 36 ) . B ar ley i sa l so a n i mpor tan t h uman f o od i n af ew a reas o f t he w or ld , u sed i nt he f o rm o f p arched g ra ins , f l ou r f o r f l a t b read , a nd p ear led g ra ins i n s oup ( W iebe 1 979 : 1 ) . Dur ing p reh is tor ic a nd e ar ly h i stor i c t imes b ar ley was u sed e x tens ive ly f o r b read , b eer , a nd p orr idge . P l iny r epor ted t ha t t he G reeks p repa red a b ar ley p orr idge b y s oak ing b ar ley g ra ins , d ry ing a nd g r ind ing t hem , a nd t hen m ix ing

9 4

3c ompo s i t e , 1l e gume

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A ppend ix D FAUNAL RE MA INS OF PREH ISTOR IC SARD IN IA : THE CURRENT S TATE OF THE EV IDENCE R ober tJ .R ow land , J r . D epar tmen to fC lass ics , U n ivers i ty o f Mary land

F or s ome r eason o r r easons a bou t wh i ch i ti su se less t o s pecu la te , p reh is tor ians o f S ard in ia p ers is t i nu nders ta t ing t he amoun t o fe v idence a va i lab le f o r p reh ist or i c d i e t a nd s t ock -ra i s ing o n t ha t i s land . E ven F ede le , w hose r epor ts o n t he " an thropo logy" a nd p a laeoe co logy o f T harros ( RSF 6 ( 1978 ) 7 7 -9 ; 7( 1979 ) 6 7 -112 ; 8( 1980 ) 8 9 -98 ) a re s o v a luab le a nd i n f orma t ive , i s c on ten t ( RSF 8 . 9 3 , n . 1 ) t o c i t e L i l l iu 's s i x r e f erences ( 1972 : 2 3 , 4 6 , 1 68 , 2 14 , 2 36 , 2 43 ) , a dd ing T rump a nd L or ia 1 978 : 1 62 , b u t n o t T rump a nd L or ia 1 978 ; 1 29 , a nd t ol amen t t ha t " s i c onosce t u t tora c os i p oco d e l le f aune s arde d i e ta p re istor ica" ( 1980 : 9 3 ) . And L i l l iu ( 1982 : 1 42 ) s ummar is ing h i s o wn e x cava t ion a t B arum in i , g ross ly u nders ta tes t he e xt en t o f t he mat er ia l f ound : " l a v i ta a n ima le e p rova ta d a i r es t i d ip as to : o ssa d ib ue , e qu in i es u in i , c om a d ic ervo , m o l lusch i d i mare ." T he f a c ti st ha t mu ch more ma ter ia l h as b een r epor t ed t han s eems t oh ave b een r ea l ized ; a nd t he r epor ts o fM ir iam B a lmu th 's r e -ex cava t ion o f t he n uraghe O r tu C om idu -Sa rdara a nd o f M iche ls ' a nd Webst er 's e xcava t ions ( s ee t h is r epor t ) o f s evera l n uragh i i n t he t e rr i tory o fB orore w i l l a dd s t i l l m ore . A nd i fi tc an b e s a id o fB r i ta in t ha t " ( the a na lys is o fb one r ema ins ) i ne xcava t ion r epor t s s t i l l t ends t ob e mu ch l e ss t han a f u l l s ta temen t o f t he ma t er ia ls f r om b o th a c hrono log i ca l a nd s t ra t ig raph i c s tandpo in t" ( J ones 1 975 : 1 01 , ) i ti sa l l t he more t r ue f o r S ard in ia : wha t e x i s t s i nt he l i t era ture c an s car ce ly b e u sed f o r a ny s o r t o f s c ien t if i c d i scuss ion ; s t i l l , i t may p rove u sefu l f o r s cho lars i n t he f u ture t o h ave i ta l l g a thered t oge ther w i th ab r ief n o t i ce o fs ome o ft he i mp l i ca t ions . T he mos t c o mmon r epor t , n o t s urpr is ing ly , i so f s ea s he l ls , e i ther p rec ise ly i d en t if ied ( Card ium , P ec tuncu lus , o r t he l i ke ) o r , t o o f r equen t ly , g ener ica l ly l a be l led "mo l lusch i mar in i" o r s ome v ar ian t t hereof . I t i s n o t a lways c er ta in , b ecause s o many a re f r om s urface f i nds , t o wha t p rec ise e poch t hey b e long , n or c an w e b e c er ta in i ft hose wh ich w ere o rnamen ta l w ere d ecora ted i n s i tu a f ter t he ir c ont en ts h ad b een e a t en o r i f o rnamen ta l s he l ls a s s uch h ad b een t r aded f r om t he c oast t o t he i n ter ior . T here i s n o i n d ica t ion t ha t t he s he l ls a t T e t i ( s ome 5 0 v ery moun ta inous km . f r om t he s ea ) w ere d e cora ted , a l though o ne m igh t m ore r ead i ly b e l ieve t ha t t hey w ere o rnamen ta l r a ther t han n u t r i t iona l . N or c an w e b e c er ta in t ha t s ome o f t he s he l ls f ound i n t he C amp idano a re n o t a c tua l ly r e s idue o f q uat ernary mar ine c over . On t he o ther h and , t he r epor t s o f m o l luscs a l ong t he F lum in i Mannu i n t he C amp idano o fC ag l iar i a l low u s w i th s o me , b u t n o t f u l l , c onf iden ce t o h ypo thes ize a p reh is tor i c t rade / t ranshumance /m ig ra t ion r oute a l ong t ha t r i ver b e tween t he G u lf o f C ag l iar i a nd S err i , a bou t 5 5 km . f r om t he c oas t , a r ou te wh i ch was b l o cked b y t he C ar thag in ians f i rs t a t F ur te i , t hen a t B arum in i ( Row land i n p ress ) . S pano 's o bserva t ion t ha t t here w ere n o s ea s he l ls t o b e f ound a t t he n uraghe D on M iche le , P loaghe , i so f s o me i n teres t ; b u t t he f a c t t ha t P loaghe i so n ly s ome 2 5 km . f r om t he Gu lf o f A s inara p robab ly i nd ica tes t ha t t here mus t b e s o me o ther r eason t han d i s tance ( a s c on jectured b y S pano ) f o r t he l a ck o f mar ine r e ma ins t here . I ndeed , T h ies i , w here t here a re r epor t s o f s ea s he l ls , i sf u r ther f r om t he s ea t han P loaghe i s . Mo l luscs a t O l iena ( f or tuna te ly , r e cen t ly a nd w e l l d ef ined ) i mp ly a r e la t ionsh ip w i th t he c oas t s ome 2 0 km . away , p robab ly a l ong t he C edr ino r i ver , a nd O l iena may h ave b een a n oda l p o in t f o r ar ou te b e tween t he l ow lands n or th o f t he Gu lf o f O rose i a nd t he i n t er ior B arbag ia a round T e t i ; a l terna t ive ly , T e t i may h ave b een i n c on ta c t w i th t he Gu lf o f O r is tano b y way o f t he T irso . Many q ues t ions mus t r e ma in u nanswered p end ing a r eexam ina t ion o f s u ch ma ter ia l a s s t i l l e x is t s ( i f a ny ! ) f r om o l d e x cava t ions a nd p end ing m ore d e ta i led r epor ts o ff u ture d i scover ies . 1 47

R ober tJ .R ow land , J r .

T he f r equency w i th wh i ch o ne m ee t s b oar a nd d eer r ema ins i n t he l i t era ture i s p o ten t ia l ly o f g rea t v a lue , a l though t he o rnamen ta l q ua l i t ies o f t usks a nd a nt lers makes t h is s omewha t p rob lema t i ca l , a nd t he p resen ce o fb o th a t t he R oman v i l la r us t i ca a t B au P erda d i S o t t o , B arum in i ( NSc 1 939 : 3 80 ) - az one t ha t was h eav i ly s tudded w i th a g r icu l tura l s e t t lemen t s ( c f . RRS 1 7 -19 ) -c au t ions u s a bou t l e ap ing t o p a laeoe co log ica l c on c lus ions w i thou t mu ch more e v iden ce . S t i l l , i ti s w or th n ot ing t ha t b oar a nd d eer r ema ins h ave b een f ound a t O s i lo , A bbasan ta , A lghero , B arum in i , S es tu , D orga l i , S err ik S ue l l i , a nd A rza chena ; t ha t t he s ame f auna s eem t o h ave b een h un tab le a lmos t o n t he o u t sk ir t s o f C ag l ia r i a nd i n t he w i lds o f G a l lura ( Ses tu , A rzachena ) , f o r e xamp le , may p rove t ob e h igh ly v a luab le c l ues t o t he a n c ien t e nv i ronmen t a nd t o t he p o ten t ia l i t ies f o r s e t t lemen t s . T he p resen ce o fb ov ine r ema ins o ver w ide ly s ca t t ered r eg ions o f t he i s land i s , a t f i rs t g l ance , ab i t o f as u rpr ise . L ess s urpr is ing a re t he f r equen t r epor ts o fs heep a nd /or g oa t s a nd p ig s -a l l s how ing e ssen t ia l ly t he s ame p a t tern o fd i s t r ibu t ion . B ov ine c u l ture , a f ter ap er iod o f d ec l ine i n t h is c en tury , h as b een b ecom ing more i mpor tan t r e cen t ly a nd c e r ta in ly w as i mpo r tan t i n t he m idd le a ges ( Mor i 1 972 : 2 11 ; c f . C ar ta R asp i 1 940 : 4 7 ) . S u in i cu l ture w as v as t ly m ore i mpor tan t p r ior t o t he r e cen t d ec l ine i n f o res t c over ( c f . Mor i 1 966 : 4 13 ) . C ows a nd p i g s , t heref ore , s hou ld t ake t he ir p lace b es ide s heep a nd g oa ts ( c f . P h i l l ips 1 980 : 2 18 ) a s i mpor tan t e l emen ts i n t he p reh istor i c l andscape o f S ard in ia . Sma l l b urrow ing a n ima ls a re a t p resen t a n i mposs ib le p rob lem : i ti sn o t a t a l l c l ear i n a ny o f t h e r epor t s t ha t a n e f f or t w as made ( o r , i f made , s u ccessfu l ) t o d i s t ingu ish b e tween s uch ma ter ia l a s was p a r t o f t he a r chaeo log ica l a ssemb lage a nd t hose r ema ins w h ich m igh t h ave b een i n t rus ive . I ti sp oss ib le , e ven q u i te l i ke ly , t ha t s ome a t l e as t o f t he h are a nd r abb i t b ones a re e v iden ce f o r a n c ien t d i e t ( a s t hey w ere i n t he 1 9th c en tury ) -w e s imp ly c anno tb e c er ta in . D og a nd /or f ox r ema ins a re a l l , c ur ious ly , n ear t he c oas t , a s a re t he o n ly b ea r b ones a nd , u nderstandab ly , m os t o f t he f i sh r ema ins ( e x cep t f o r B arum in i ) . T he g enera l l a ck o f r epor t s o f l and s na i ls a nd t he a bso lu t e d ear th o f e l r ema ins i s p robab ly c aused b y f a i lure o f a r chaeo log i ca l t e chn ique a nd b y i na t ten t ion . S t i l l , d esp i te t he p reva lence o f t e rms s uch a s " e t c ." , " a l a rge q uan t i ty" , " a p rod ig ious q uan t i ty" , a nd s o f o r th , t here i s ac ons iderab le amoun t o f ma t er ia l , wh ich mus t b e b u i l t o n o ver t he n ex t g enera t ion t o p rov ide a m ore a ccura te p i c ture o f p reh is tor ic S ard in ia t han i s c urren t ly a va i lab le . D ie t a nd t r ade r ou tes , i n t era l ia , c an b e more f u l ly c omprehended o n ly b y c arefu l a t ten t ion t of auna l d e ta i l ; a nd , a t t he v ery l e ast , w e m igh t a r r ive a t ad ef in i t ive c onc lus ion a bou t t he d a te o f t he a rr iva l o ft he h orse i nS ard in ia ( c f . C on tu 1 974 : 1 89 ) : t he e v iden ce f r om Ma comer , S . B ar to lomeo -Cag l iar i , a nd ( e spec ia l ly ) P or to T orres , a bsen t a pr ior is t i c r eason ing , s hou ld c ompe l a t t he v ery l e ast , f o r t he p resen t , a n o pen m ind . I ndeed , o ne c ou ld , o n t he p resen t e v idence , s ugges t t ha t t he h orse a rr ived i n S ard in ia , n o t i n t he P un i c p er iod , b u t ( a s e l sewhere ) w i th t he b e l l b eakers . I ti s ag rea t p i ty t ha t s o mu ch ma ter ia l d i scovered i nt he p as t h as g one t o w aste , a nd i ti s as ad c o mmen ta ry o n t he s ta te o f a r chaeo log i ca l r esearch t hrough m os t o f t h is c en tury t ha t ( e xcep t f o r t he m os t r e cen t r epor t s ) f a r a nd a way t he b es t d ocument ed r epor ts a re n ear ly ac en tury o l d .

1 48

FAUNAL R EMA INS OF PREH ISTOR IC SARD IN IA

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1 .A bbasanta 2 .A lghero 3 . An tas 4 .A rzachena 5 .B arum in i 6 .B aune i 7 .C ag l iar i 8 .C ug l ier i 9 .D orga l i 1 0 . F lor inas 1 . F lum in imagg iore 1 2 . G erge i 1 3 . G onnessa 1 4 . I g les ias 1 5 . I t t ireddu 1 6 . L asp lassas 1 7 . L uogosan to 1 8 . Macomer 1 9 . Mara 2 0 . Mogoro 2 1 . Monast ir 2 2 . Muros 2 3 . Nuragus 2 4 . Nuram in is 2 5 . O lb ia 2 6 . O l iena 2 7 . O rgoso lo 2 8 . O rro l i 2 9 . O s i lo 3 0 . O ss i 3 1 . P au l i la t ino 3 2 . P irr i 3 3 . P loaghe 3 4 . P orto T orres 3 5 . Quar tu S . E lena 3 6 . S . T eres a d i Ga l lura 3 7 . S . V ero M i l is 3 8 . S antad i 3 9 . S ardara 4 0 . S arrok 4 1 . S assar i 4 2 . S ennor i 4 3 . S err i 4 4 . S estu 4 5 . S et t imo S . P ietro 4 6 . S i max is 4 7 . S in isco la 4 8 . S orso 4 9 . S ue I l i 5 0 . T emp io 5 1 . T et i 5 2 . Th ies i 5 3 . T orra lba 5 4 . U r i 5 5 . U rzu le i 5 6 . V i l lanova T ruscheddu 5 7 . B orore

R ober t J . R ow land , J r .

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FAUNAL RE MA INS OF PREHISTOR IC SARDIN IA ABBASANTA :

ALGHERO :

ANTAS :

ARZACHENA :

BARU M IN I :

Nuraghe L osa - n umerous b ones o f ` b ove , c apra , p ecora , c i ngh ia le , l e pr i ' ; a bundan t h orns o f ` c ervo ' a nd ` c erb ia t to ' ( NSc . 1 916 : 2 46 -8 , 2 50 ) . ( Nurag ic t o R o man ) . Nuraghe P a lmavera -b ones o f` an ima l i mang ia t i , v a lve d i mo l lusch i e du l i ' , a nd ` m inut i o ss ic in i d i c on ig l io e d i g i ovane l e pre ' ( MA 1 8 :112 ) ; a bundan t l o ng b ones o f ` c ervo ' a nd ` b ove ' , f r equent a n t lers o f ` c ervo ' ; n umerous b ones o f ` p ecora , c apr i ' , a nd ` c ingh ia le ' a s w e l l a s o f ` c on ig l i ' a nd ` l epr i ' . Mo l luscs s pec i f ica l ly ment ioned a re M i ty lus , P a te l la , P ectuncu lus , O s trea , C ard ium ( s ome p erf ora ted a s o rnaments ) , a s w e l l a s P inna n ob i l is a nd P urpura h aemasto ma ( MA 1 9 : 2 63 -4 , w ith f i g . 1 4 , 2 89 ) . ( Nurag ic t oe ar ly R oman ) . Anghe lu Ru ju - i n a dd i t ion t o n umerous r e f erences s imp ly t o b ones ( s ome b urned ) a nd ` c onch ig l ie ' , s pec if ic r ef erence i s made t o t e e th o r t usks o f d ogs , f oxes , b oars , a nd b ear ; a l so b ones o f ` b ove ' ( s ome p erhaps n ot a nc ien t ) , l amb a nd d eer ( d ecora ted ) ; mo l luscs men t ioned a re Na t ica , P ec tuncu lus , C ard ium , T r i ton n od if erum , P a te l la , M i ty lus , O s trea ( MA 1 9 : 4 14 -20 , 4 27 -8 , 4 44 , 4 46 5 00 , 5 12 -4 , 5 20 ; NSc . 1 904 : 3 20 , w i th f i g . 7 , 3 26 -7 , 3 34 , 3 36 , 3 40 -1 , 3 43 -5 ; S S 1 0 : 1 0 ,12 ,21 ,23 -4 , 2 9 -32 ) . ( Eneo l i th ic ) . C ugu t tu -' va lve d i mo l lusch i ed en t i d i mamm if er i ' , ` d if ese d e l c i ngh ia le , d en t i c an in i d i v o lpe ' , P ectuncu lus ( NSc . 1 909 : 1 01 -3 ) . ( Eneo l i th ic ) . G ro t ta V erd e -` p ecora , b ue , c i ngh ia le ' , ` mo l lusco ' ( RSP 1 963 : 3 27 -8 ) ; e spec ia l ly ` o v idr , ` s u in i ' a nd ` u cce l l i ' ( Tanda , c i t ing Max ia , i n A t t i x x i i n un . S c . : 5 0 ) . ( Eneo l i th ic ) . Nuraghe B u l l i ta s -3 ' va lve d i mo l lusch i ' ( one , C ard ium w i thout p erf ora t ion ) , t wo f r agmentary e l emen ts o f ` z anne d i c i ngh ia le ' o r ' d i v erro ' ( SS 1 2 /13 : 9 7 -8 ) . ( Nurag ic ) . Nurag i c v i l lage - a n ima l b ones , ' p er l o p iü b ruc ia te ' ( nurag ic ) a nd a n ima l b ones m ixed w i th n urag ic a nd R o man p ot tery ( S tud i S em i t i c i 3 0 : 1 52 , 1 54 ) . ( Nurag ic t oR o man ) . Nuraghe L a P r i sc iona -` d en t i d io v is ' a t t he s i x th l e ve l i n t he w e l l , f ragmen tary b ones o f o v is , b os , a nd o f ` v o lat i l i ' a nd ` r od i tor i ' i n t he s even th ( SS 1 9 : 1 90 , 2 02 ) . ( Nurag ic ) . P un ta C and e la -l e ve ls 3 a nd 3 b c onta ined a bundan t f auna l r ema ins , w i th ` c ingh ia le , c ervo ' a nd ` p ecora ' o r ` c apra ' ( SS 1 9 : 8 1 -2 ) . ( Nurag ic ) . Nuraghe S u Nurax i -t here a re f i f ty two s epara te r ef erences i n t he e xcava t ion r epor t t o ` o ssa d i a n ima l i ' ( o r ' d i b est ie ' o r s o me s im i lar v ar ian t ) , a nother t we lve t o sma l l b ones o r t o sma l l b ones o f ` u cce l l i ' a nd /or ` r od itorr p lus o ne r ef erence t o ` r od itor i ( c on ig l i el e pre ) ' , n ine t o ' c o ma d i c ervo ' , t wo t o ' c o ma d i c apra ' , o ne t o al a rge n u mber o f ' c o ma b ov ine ' , e i gh teen t o ' va lve d i mo l lusch i ' , e i gh t t o ' va lve d i M i ty lus ' , o ne t o ' va lve ' o f O strea , a nd

1 53

R ober tJ .R ow land , J r .

BAUNEI :

CAGL IAR I :

CUGL IER I :

DORGAL I :

o ne o ther t o ' a l tr i e l emen t i mar in i ( r i cc io , c rosta ce i ) ' . T here a re s pec if i c r ef erences t o b ones o f ` bue , c e rvo , c i ngh ia le i n g ran q uan t i tä ' , t o b ones o f ` p roco c i ngh ia le ' , t o ` p roco ' ( tw ice ) , t o ` s u in i ' , ` b ov in i ' , a nd ` c erv id i ' , a nd t o b ones o f ` g ross i a n ima l i ( e qu in i , s u in i ) ' ( SS 1 2 .13 : 2 69 -71 , 2 74 , 2 80 -1 , 2 84 , 3 00 , 3 03 , 3 07 , 3 13 , 3 30 , 3 32 , 3 34 , 3 40 -1 , 3 43 , 3 51 , 3 55 , 3 55 -6 , 3 63 , 3 69 , 3 77 , 3 80 -2 , 3 89 , 3 92 , 3 99 -400 , 4 05 , 4 13 -4 , 4 15 , 4 24 , 4 42 , 4 44 -7 , 4 56 -7 , 4 61 ) . ( Nurag ic t oR oman ) . C averna d i S u Mar ina iu - a f ew b ones o f ` c apra , c i ngh ia le , p ro lagus , s cars i r es idu i ' o f f i sh , a n e normous q uan t i ty o f ` mo l lusch i mar in i ' i n c lud ing P a te l la f e rrug inea ( L i l l iu 1 972 : 2 3 ) . ( Neo l ith ic? t o e neo l i th ic ) . S . B ar to lomeo - ` c onch ig l ie i n tag l iate e f o ra te ' , l o ng b ones ( s p l intered a nd s harpened a t o ne e nd ) , a p erf ora ted c an ine t o oth ( BP I 1 879 : 2 52f . ; MA 1 : 1 7 w ith t ay . I I , 1 2 ) . ( n eo l i th ic ) . E x traord inary a bundant r e ma ins o f ` b ove , c on ig l io , l e pre , p orco , c i ngh ia le , p ecora ' ( e spec ia l ly n u merous ) , ` c ava l lo , c ane ' , a nd t wenty -two d i f f eren t t ypes o f mo luscs ; d ecorat ive i t e ms i n c luded a ` z anna d i c i ngh ia le ' , s ea s he l ls a nd t wo v er tebrae o f ' g ross° p esce ' ( e ar r i ngs? ) ( NSc . 1 901 : 3 85 -7 ) . ( n eo l i th ic -eneo l i th ic? ) . Mon t e U rp ino -C ard ium L amarck i , O strea l ame l losa , P ectuncu lus p i losus , S pondy lus g aederops , M i ty lus ( BP I 1 903 : 4 7 ; S S 1 4 /15 : 1 23 ) . ( n eo l ith ic? ) . Mon t e d e l la p ace -l a rge n umber o f ` o ssa d i a n ima l i ' ( BP I 1 879 : 4 5 ) . ( ? ) . S a Duchessa - 3 P ectuncu lus s he l ls ` f ora te ' , 1n o t ` f ora ta ' p lus 1M ity lus s he l l ' n on f o rata ' ( SS 1 6 : 3 7 ) . ( l a te e neo l ith ic ) . C apo S . E l ia -a f ew b ones , most ly ` c apro ' o r ` p ecora ' a nd ` b ove ' w ith s o me l epr i ' o r ` c on ig l i ' ; m o l luscs p redo m ina te , e spec ia l ly O strea a nd C ard ium , a nd t wen ty -two o ther t ypes w ere f ound a l ong w i th o ne v ertebra o f a' g ross° p esce ' ( NSc . 1 904 : 2 6 -33 ; RSP 1 947 : 3 35 ; ) ( neo l i th ic t on urag ic ) . G ro t ta d e i C o lomba i -p o t tery w i th ` o ssa d i a n ima l i , v a lve d i mo l lusch i ' ( SS 8 :4 13 -4 ) . ( nurag ic? ) I s P a lmas - a p rod ig ious q uan t i ty o f ` c onch ig l ie mar ine ' ( SS 1 4 /15 : 1 23 ) . ( ? ) . C ornus , F anne Massa -t omb I i n c luded o ne C ard iu m s he l l a nd t omb I V i n c luded ` o ssame d i v o lp i ec on ig l i ' ( t hough t t o b e i n t rus ive ) ( NSc . 1 918 : 3 14 ) . ( e neo l i th ic ) . G r o t ta S u Anzu -many b ones o f ` b ove , c apra , p ecora , p orco ' ( NSc . 1 933 : 3 51 ) . ( nurag ic ) . S erra O rr ios -v ar ious h uts y ie lded r e ma ins o f ` p ast i c onsu mat i ( o ssa d i a n ima l i : b ue , p ecora , c apra , c i ngh ia le , c ervo , e cc . ; v a lve d i mo l lusch i mar in i ) ' ( L i l l iu 1 972 : 2 36 ) . ( nurag ic ) . G ro t ta A ldeborau , l o c . S os D orro l es -o ne C ard ium s he l l a nd t wo C o lumbe l la r ust ica , a l l p erforated ( RSP 1 960 : 2 39 ) . ( nurag ic ) . 1 54

FAUNAL RE MA INS OF PREH ISTOR IC SARDIN IA

FLOR INAS : FLUM IN I MAGG IORE :

GERGE I :

GONNESSA :

I GLES IAS :

I TT IREDDU : LASPLASSAS : LUOGOSANTO : MACO MER :

MARA :

MOGORO :

G a la G onone -` r est i o sse i a n ima l i ' 9 RSP 1 978 : 4 49 ) . ( eneo l ith ic ) . u nspec if i ed l o ca l i ty -t omb w i th a v ase f u l l o f ` g usc i d i l umach i ' ( BAS 3 : 1 43 ) . ( nurag ic? ) . G enna L uas -b ones o f ' Ewe , p ecora ' o r ` c apra ' , ' c ane ' o r ` v o lpe ' , ` r od itor i ' , e t c . ( L i l l iu 1 972 ; 1 68 ) . ( nurag ic ) . C averna S 'Orr er i -o ne b one , p erhaps o f ab i rd ( MA 1 1 : 2 7 -8 ) . ( eneo l ith ic? ) . S u I r iu -i n s ide a nd o u ts ide o fc apanna c ,a t ad ep th o f a bou t 3 0 cm . , b ones o f ` e qu in i , b ov i ' ( p erhaps ) , a nd ` s u in i ' ( NSc . 1 943 ; 1 69 ) . ( nurag ic ) . L oc . P r egan t i -n ear t he d eceased i n ag i an ts ' t omb , among o ther o b jects , w ere f i ve ` e lemen t i t ubo lar i d ' osso d ic o l lana ' ( SS 7 : 2 50 ) . ( nurag ic ) . S errucc i -i nt he a shes o f ah earth w ere b ones o f ' h ove , c apra , p ecora e p orco ' ( MA 2 4 : 6 46 ) . ( nurag ic t o e ar ly R oman ) . G enna L uas -` p iceo la z anna d ip orco ' ( NSc . 1 891 : 7 3 ) . ( ? ) . G ro t ta d e l B and i to - a ` d iscreta q uan t i tä d i o ssa d i Myngo lus ' a l ong w i th b ones o f ` an ima l i d omest ic i q uadruped i ' ; as pec ia l p o int i s made o ft he a bsence o f b ones o f ` v o lat i l i , p esc i e mo l lusch i ' ( NSc . 1 893 : 5 29 ) . ( n eo l i th ic? t oe neo l i th ic ) . Nuraghe F un tana - f r agmen ts o f b one ' were n ot l a ck ing ' ( RSP 1 979 : 3 42 ) . ( nurag ic ) . Nuraghe S 'Urax i -a n u ns ta ted n umber o f P ectuncu lus s he l ls ( NSc . 1 943 ; 1 74 ) . ( nurag ic ) . B a la iana -i n at omb a t af one w ere ` o ssa d 'an ima l i ' ( BP I 1 968 : 1 11 ) . ( nurag ic ) . Unspec if i ed n uraghe - ` c apro ' o r ` p ecora ' b one ( BP I 1 879 : 1 19 ) . ( nurag ic? ) . S 'Add e -a t t he f i nd -spot o f t he " Venus o f Maco mer" w ere ` d ent i d i e quus c aba l lus ' , a` z anna d i c i ngh ia le ' a nd , among t he ' f auna mar ina ' , ` d en t i d i c e taceo , p a te l l ine , mur ic i ' , a nd ` c onch ig l ie v ane ' ( SS 9 : 4 09 -10 ) . ( ? ) . B onu I gh inu - a bundan t r ema ins o f ` b ov in i , p ecora , c apra ' a nd mo l luscs ( Venus , C ard ium , M i ty lus , l and s na i ls ) ( MA 4 9 : 1 29 ) . ( n eo l ith i c ) . P resent i n g rea t q uan t it ies w ere r e ma ins o f ` o v in i ( p ecore e c apre ) ' , ` b ov in i ' a nd ` s u in i ( c ingh ia l i ) , mo l lusch i t e rrestr i , v a lve d i mo l lusch i mar in i ' ( Pectuncu lus , C ard ium , a nd M i ty lus ) ( MA 4 9 : 1 62 ) . ( e neo l i th ic ) . Enna P runa - n ine C ard ium s he l ls , o ne O strea , o ne u nspec if ied a n ima l b one , a nd a t o o th ( SS 1 6 : 1 23 ) . ( l a te e neo l ith ic ) . S u Guven tu -a bundan t b ones o f ` bue , p ecora , c apra , c ervo ' i n t he s econd s t ra tum , wh i le t he t h ird i n c luded ` o ss ic in i d i p i cco l i a n ima l i ' a nd ` mo l lusch i mar in i ' ( SS 1 6 : 1 67 , 1 77 ) . ( l a te e neo l i th ic t on urag ic ) . Mun tonax is - many P ecten s he l ls a nd s o me O strea l ame l losa ( SS 1 7 : 2 18 ) . ( ? ) . P u i s t er i s -' va lve d i mo l lusch i mar in i ' ( mos t ly P ecten ) a nd ` t errestr i ' w i th ` o ssa d i a n ima l i v an i

1 55

R ober tJ . R ow land , J r .

MONAST IR :

MUROS : NURAGUS :

NURA M IN IS :

OLBIA :

OL IENA :

i n tenz iona lmen te s pezza te e c on t ra cce d i b ruc ia tura ' ; at r ia l t r ench p roduced a g rea t q uan t i ty o f b ones o f ' an ima l i v an' a nd ' v a lve d i mo l lusch i mar in i ' ( 5 P ec ten , 2M i ty lus , 3O s trea l ame l losa ) ; a nother t r ench p roduced a bundan t b ones o f ' an ima l i v an' , w i th n umerous t e eth o f' bue ' a nd ` mo l t i o ss ic in i d i v o la t i l i ' ; s he l ls w ere e qua l ly a bundan t ( 3 M i ty lus , 2 Murex t runcu lus , 1 2 P ecten , 8T apes d ecussa tus , 1P a te l la a spera ) ; al ower s t ra tum y i e lded b ones a nd a bundan t s he l ls ( 22 P ecten , 6T apes , 1 3 Murex , 9 M i ty lus , a nd ' una g ran c op ia d i f r ammen t i d i mo l lusch i t e rres tr i ' ) ( SS 1 7 : 2 24 -8 ) . ( nurag ic ) . M . 0 1 1ad ir i -a ` d iscreta q uan t i tä d i v a lve d i c onch ig l ie mar ine ' , i n c lud ing C ard ium L amar ck i , C ard ium o b lungum , O strea l ame l losa , Murex b randar is , C er ith ium v u lga tum , C arago l is t u rb ina tus , a nd M i ty lus a l ong w i th a p i ece o f ' c om b ' ( o f ` d a ino '? ) ( BP I 1 902 : 1 99 ) ; t he s ame t ypes w ere r epor ted a s b e ing ` mo l t iss ime ' , a l ong w i th a n eo l i th ic ` mazza ' ( NSc . 1 903 : 9 8 ) . A tzen i a dds ' o ssa d i a n i ma l i ' ( SS 1 4 /15 : 7 4 ) , a nd e xcava t ion y i e lded M . C laro p o t tery , many u nspec if ied s he l ls a nd a n ima l b ones , a nd s pec if ic ment ion o f C ard ium , P ectuncu lus , ' c o ma d i c ervo ' , s wordf i sh r e ma ins , a nd T r iton n od if erus ( SS 1 7 : 1 16 -7 , 1 . 31 , 1 71 -2 ) . ( n eo l i th ic t oe neo l ith ic ) . M . Z ara -a l a rge q uant i ty o f s he l ls , mos t ly C ard ium a nd O strea ( BP I 1 905 : 8 0 ) . ( ? ) . I s S erras -` mo lt iss ime v a lve d i mo l lusch i ' ( BP I 1 905 : 8 0 ) . ( ? ) . S a T urr icu la -p ar t o f an eck lace o f ' c onch ig l ia ' ( RSP 2 7 : 4 73 ) . ( b ronze a ge ) . F orrax i N io i -p i eces o f b ronze w ere m ixed w i th a n ima l b ones ( `mon tone , p ecora , e cc . ' ) ( NSc . 1 882 : 3 09 ) . ( nurag ic ) . I s Ru ina l i s d e S egavenu S urfa ce f i nds o f a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l ( ' qua l i c onch ig l ie e cc . ' ) ( SS 1 7 : 2 09 ) . ( ? ) . V i l lagr eca , Nuraghe S a C or ona - P ec tun cu lus a nd C ard ium a l ong w i th ' o ssa d ia n ima l i ep oche v a lve d i mo l lusch i ' ( SS 1 7 : 2 11 ) . ( l a te e neo l ith ic? t on urag ic ) . Nuraghe B e lvegh i l e -sma l l b ones , p robab ly o fa n ima ls , a nd a ' c op ious ' q uan t i ty o fv ege ta l a shes ( NSc . 1 894 : 4 27 ) . ( nurag ic ) . G ro t ta s u P uzzu d e C asc ia F r i sc iada - s ome a n ima l b ones ( ` pecora e p orco ' ) a l ong w i th b ur ia ls a nd s o me me ta l ( NSc . 1 891 : 7 3 ) . ( nurag ic? ) . G ro t ta R if ug io -a f ter a s er ies o f p re l im inary n ot ices ( RSP 1 963 : 3 16 ; 1 978 : 4 54 ; 1 979 : 3 36 ; SCO : 1 1 -15 ) , a more d eta i led ( bu t s t i l l p re l im inary ) s ta temen t h as a ppeared i n R SP 1 980 : 8 9 -94 , 1 11 -3 w ith a l i st , b u t f ew s pec if i c d eta i ls ; a v ery b r ief c onc lus ion ( 112 ) n otes t ha t d omest ic a n ima ls a re n umer ica l ly i n s ign if i can t ( 4 i nd iv idua ls o f ' c apro ' o r o v is , o ne o fb os ) wh i le f o rest a n ima ls a re mu ch more n umerous , p ar t icu lar ly t he ` r od i torr , e spec ia l ly

1 56

FAUNAL RE MAINS OF PREH ISTOR IC SARDIN IA

ORGOSOLO : ORROL I : OSILO :

OSSI : PAUL ILAT INO : P IRR I :

P LOAGHE :

PORTO TORRES :

p ro lagus s ardus . T here w ere a l so t hree b race lets made o f S pondy lus o r P ectuncu lus s he l ls , w i th o ne P ate l la a nd 1 79 D en ta l ium a nd o ther o rnamen ta l o b jects o f T rocus a nd S pondy lus ( s ee a l so B iag i & C remasch i i nA t t i x x i i R iun . s c . : 1 05 -8 ) . ( n eo l i th ic ) . Two u nnamed d omus d ej anas -' va lve d iC ard ium ' a nd s o me f r agmen ts o f` z anna d ic i ngh ia le ' w ith t r aces o f d ecora t ion ( A t t i x x i i n un . s c . : 1 92 ; S CO 4 1 -6 ) . ( e neo l i th ic ) . F ra t ta l e , r i paro s o t to r o cc ia - ` p och i r est i o sse i d e a n ima l i ' i n t he f i rst s t ra tum ( Moravet t i i n A t t i x x i i n un . S c . : 2 07 ) ( ? ) . U nspec if ied s i t e ` o ssa b ov ine , s u ine , c onch ig l ie ' ( SCO 1 7 -9 ) . ( eneo l i th ic ) . O ru lu - ` mo lt i o ssam i d i a n ima l i d omes t ic i ' ( NSc . 1 933 : 5 29 ) . ( nurag ic p erhaps t oR oman ) . S u P u tz i -` o ssa d i a n ima l i ' ( s s 1 4 /15 : 2 09 -10 ) . ( nurag ic ) . U nspec if i ed l o ca t ion - s carce r e ma ins o f b ones ( ' c ingh ia le , c ervo , c apra , b ue ' ) a nd a ' p rod ig ious ' q uant i ty o f s he l ls o f C ard ium e du le ( BP I 1 875 ; 3 4 , 8 3 -4 , 8 7 ) . ( n eo l i th ic t oe neo l i th ic? ) . E na ' e Mur os -f r angmen t o f ` mand ibo la d i s u ino c on mo larr i n an urag ic t omb ( SS 1 4 /15 : 1 37 ) . ( nurag ic ) . Nuraghe L ugherra s -r e ma ins o f ` p ecora ' o r ` c apra ' a nd ` p roco ' i nt he w e l l ( MA 2 0 ; 2 27 ) . ( nurag ic ) . T errama in i -' c umu l i ' o f ' va lve d i mo l luschr ; e l sewhere i n t he z one , ' g rosse c onch ig l ie , v ane c onch ig l ie d i C ard ium , f o ra te ' ( SS 1 4 .15 : 8 9 -90 ) . (eneo l i th ic? ) . S taz ione d i V ia S ig i smondo A rguer -s o me ` c onch ig l ie f o rate ' ( SS 1 4 /15 : 9 3 ) . ( eneo l i th ic? ) . Nuraghe P er tuso -c rude p o t tery w i th o bs id ian , ` z anne d i c i ngh ia l i , c om a d i c ervo ' w i th ' a l tre o ssa d i a n ima l i ' ( SA 1 875 : 2 6 ) . ( nurag ic ) . Nuraghe A t t en tu -many b ones o f ` montone , b ue ' a nd ( ' f orse ' ) o f' c ane ' ( SA 1 874 : 3 2 ) . ( nurag ic ) . Nuraghe D on M iche l e - many b ones o f a n ima ls ( ` agne l l i , c i ngh ia l i ( z anne e d en t i ) op orco , c ava l lo ' ) ; S pano makes a s pec ia l p o in t o f n ot ing t ha t ‘ mo l lusch i , d i o str iche , e cc . ' w ere n o t f ound , f o r l as d i stanze d e l mare a vrä f a t to c he n on c onoscessero q ue l n u tr imen to ' ( SA 1 874 : 3 2 -3 ) . ( nurag ic ) . P on t e S ecco a nd Mar inaru - t ombs w i th n umerous r e ma ins : many ' va lve d i mo l lusch i ' i n c lud ing C ard ium a nd P ec tuncu lus w i th ' vane o ssa d i b ru to a nd s evera l d i f f erent r e ma ins o f b oar ; p erhaps a l so T r i ton n od if erum a nd Anom ia e ph ipp ium ( SS 1 2 /13 : 2 7 , 3 2 -3 , 3 5 , 3 7 , 3 8 , 3 9 , 4 0 , 4 1 , 4 2 , 4 8 , 4 9 , 5 0 , 5 4 , 6 3 ) . ( e neo l i th ic ) . S u C ruc if i ssu Mannu - t ombs w i th t he b est e x ist ing r epor t o n f auna l ma ter ia ls a va i lab le f r om S ard in ia ( apar t f r om t he p oss ib le a pr ior is t ic r eason ing a bout t he h orse ) ; t here w ere s evera l h undreds o f ` c onch ig l ie ' , 1' d ente d i c an ide ' , a nd v ar ious b ones o f ' bue , c apra ' , a nd ` c ingh ia le ' ; t he l and s na i ls w ere

1 57

R ober tJ . R ow land , J r .

QUARTU S . ELENA :

S . TERESA D I GALLURA :

S . VERO M IL IS :

SANTAD I : SARDARA :

SARROK :

SASSAR I :

t hough t t o b e i n t rus ive a nd t he s i ng le ' d en te d i c ava l lo ' i sc a l led a cc iden ta l , p robab ly b ecause h orses a re n o t g enera l ly t hough t t o h ave b een i n t rodu ced i n to S ard in ia t h is e ar ly ( BP I 1 972 /4 : 1 64 , 1 66 -9 , 3 10 -7 ) . ( e neo l i th i c ) . Mon t e d 'Ac codd i -a l though a f u l l r epor t i s s t i l l a wa i ted , p re l im inary n ot i ces r ecord many ` p endag l i d i v a lve d i mo l lus ch i ' ( BP I 1 952 : 1 75 ; R SP 1 974 : 2 66 ) , v ar ious s he l ls ( Pectuncu lus , P a t e l la , C ard ium ) , a n ima l b ones , a nd ` d en t i d ic an ide ' ( NTASCA ; 4 1 -2 ) . ( e neo l i th ic ) . V ia B o i t o ( now V ia C o lombo ) -M i ty lus e du l is , O s t rea l ame l losa , O st rea e du l is , a nd ` o ssa d i a n ima l ' ( SS 1 4 /15 : 1 13 ) . ( e neo l i th ic? ) . F ox i -' va lve d i mo l lusch i ' ( I b id : 1 15 ) . ( e neo l i th ic? ) . B iv io d iP erd ina s -` c onch ig l ie ' ( I b id : 17 ) . ( e neo l i th i c? ) . Nuraghe F or t e B e c c iu -O s trea , M i ty lus , a nd C ard ium ( I b id ) . ( nurag ic ) . B randa l i -` z anne d i p orco ' , a nd ` c an in i d i v o lpe i n n umero i mprec isa to ' p lus 4 ' va lve d i P a t e l la f e rrug inea ' , i n at omb ( BP I 1 968 : 1 45 ) ( nu rag ic ) . Nuragh e S 'U rak i -` o ssa d i a n ima l i ' a nd ' va lve d i m o l lusch i ' a l ong w i th s o me ` o ss ic in i ' ( SS 9 : 4 00 -1 ) . ( nurag ic t oe ar ly R oman? ) . U nspe c if i ed l o ca l e -` a vanz i d i p as to ' ( RSP 1 958 : 2 14 ) .

( ? )

S . Ana s ta s ia -` mo l te o ssa d ia n ima l i d omes t i c i ( p ecora , b ove , p or co ) ' a nd ` z anne d i c i ngh ia le ' ( MA 2 5 : 6 9 ) . ( nurag ic ) . O r tu C om idu - ` una c e r ta q uan t i tä d i o s sa d i b ove , p ecora , p or co e c h igh ia le , c o ma d i c e rvo e d i c apr io lo ' , t oge ther w i th n urag i c p o t tery ( MA 2 5 : 1 22 ) . ( nurag i c ) . Nuraghe S a D omu ' eS 'Or cu -a t l e ve l 2a l ong w i th n urag i c a nd R o man p o t tery w ere ‘ o ssa d i b ove e d i p ecora , o ssa l unghe , musce l le e d en t i eq ua lche f r ust o lo d ic o ma d ic ervo e d i c apr io lo ' a nd ' v a lve d i m o l lusch i c o mmes t ib i l i ' s uch a s C ard ium , P a t e l la , O s t rea ; a t l e ve l 3w ere ` o ssa b ru c ia te d ib ove , p or co ep ecora ' ; e l sewhe re a t t he s i t e , w i th e x c lus ive ly n urag i c p o t tery , w ere ` o ssa d ip ecora , p or co eb ov in i ' ; a t al ower l e ve l ` a bbondavano v a lve d i m o l lusch i ' ( a lso C a rd ium , O st rea , a nd P a te l la ) a l ong w i th b ones o f ' l ove , c ava l lo , p e cora e p or co ' t oge ther w i th n urag ic p ot tery a nd p a r t o f o ne a r cha ic P un i c v esse l ( MA 3 1 : 4 37 -8 , 4 39 , 4 41 -2 ) . ( nurag i c t o e ar ly R oman ) . M . A r rub iu -` p och i r e st i d i o ssa d i a n ima l i , a vanz i d i p asto ' ( MA 3 1 : 4 56 ) , ( nurag ic ) . S os L a c cheddos -l a rge q uan t i ty o f ' v a lve d ic on ch ig l ie ' a nd g ragmen t s o f ` o ssa d i d ivers i a n ima l i ' ( NSc . 1 886 : 4 67 ) . ( n eo l i th i c? ) . C avern n ear t h e c i ty - a f ew C ard ium e du le a nd a mo la r o f a ` c apra ' ( BP I 1 876 : 1 99 , 2 01 , 2 04 ) . ( n eo l i th i c? ) .

1 58

FAUNAL RE MA INS OF PREH ISTOR IC SARD IN IA

S ENNOR I : S ERR I :

S ESTU :

S ETT IMO S . P IETRO :

S I MAX IS :

V ia l e Umber t o -p ar t o f ap robab le P ro lagus s ardus a l ong w i th M . C laro p o t tery a nd h uman s ke letons ( RSP 1 971 : 4 79 ) . ( l a te e neo l i th ic ) . O r idda -i n ag i an ts ' t omb , o ne s ea s he l l ( Or ig in i 3 : 1 78 ) . ( nurag i c ) . S . V i t t or ia -u ndernea th t he n urag ic ' t emp i° i p e t ra le ' w ere ` r es t i d i p as to ( s opra tu t to c i ngh ia le ) ' ( RSP 1 963 : 3 27 ) ; T arame l l i 's e x cava t ions r evea led a n ima l r ema ins i n v a r ious p l a ces ; ` r es t i d i o ssa d i a n ima l i p er l o p iü c on t r a cc ia d i u s t iona tura ' ( NSc . 1 911 : 3 04 ) ; ' c o ma d ib ove d ic apra , d i f es i d ic i ngh ia l i p er t o p iü c on t r a cc ie d ia bbra cc ia tura ' ( MA 1 915 /15 : 4 17 ) ; v ar ious f r agmen t s o f ' p a lm d ic e rvo ' a t t he w e l l a nd among t he r ema ins o f s a cr i f i ces a t t he ' t emp le ' ( ` pa lch i d ic erv i ec e rb ia t t i , c ran i i s pa cca t i d ia gne l l i e d ic apre t t i , d ef ese d ic i ngh ia le i ng rande c i p ia e d o ssa n on d e term inab i l i i n m odo e sa t tamen te s c ien t i f ic° , ma c he p ure s id ebbono r i conoscere d i b ue , p ecora , v i te l lo , ma ia le ' ) ( MA 1 915 /16 : 3 83 ) ; many ' va lve d i mo l lusch i mangerecc i ' s u ch a s O s t rea , C ard ium , V enus ( I b id : 3 87 ) ; a no ther s a cr if i c ia l d epos i t i n c luded ` b ov in i ' ( w i th ` o ssa l unghe e d en t i ' ) , ` o v in i ( c on o ssa f emora l i , d e l c ran io c on v ane mand ibo le ' ) a nd ` s u in i ( c on o ssa v ane e s pec ia lmen te masce l le e o ssa l unghe ' ) ; ' va lve d i m o l lusch i n on mancavano ' ( NSc . 1 922 : 3 09 ) ; a nd b ones , e spec ia l ly ` s u in i ' , w ere f ound w i th n urag i c p o t tery a t t he a t r ium o f t he ' t emp le ' ( NSc . 1 922 : 3 23 ) . ( nurag ic ) . S . G em i l iano -g rea t q uan t i t ies o f mo l luscs ( men t ion b e ing made o f P ec tun cu lus a nd C ard ium ) ( SS 1 4 /15 : 7 7 , 8 7 -8 ) ; a t t he v i l lage h ab i ta t ion s i tes w ere o bserved ` c h iazze g r ig ie ' , u sua l ly a bou t 5 m . i n d iame ter , w i th p o t tery , o bs id ian , ` o ssa d i p i cco l i e g rand i a n ima l i s e lva t i c i e d omest ic i ' , o f t en w i th t ra ces o f b urn ing , a nd n umerous ` mo l lusch i mar in i ( gast eropod i eb i va lve ) ' ; A tzen i g ives a l i s t o f 1 7 d i f f eren t mo l luscs , b u t l amen t s t ha t ' n on è s tat e a n cora p oss ib le f a r c l ass if icare g l i a bbondan t i r e s idu i . . .de l le o ssa d i a n ima l i d omest ic i es e lva t ic i ' , t hough h e w as a b le t o r e cogn ize o n h i s o wn ' c on c er tezza , p ecora , b ue , ma ia le , c ervo , c i ngh ia le ' ( SS 1 7 : 7 , 1 0 , 1 6 , 9 3 , 9 5 , 1 02 , 1 04 ) . O f p ar t i cu lar i n teres t i sA tzen i 's o bserva t ion t ha t t he l a ter n urag ic v i l lage c on ta ined a lmost e x c lus ive ly O s t rea a nd C ard ium s he l ls a nd t ha t a n ima l b ones w ere much more s car ce i n t ha t l e ve l t han i n t he p rev ious e neo l i th i c l e ve ls a nd w ere mos t ly o f s heep ( I b id : 1 06 ) . ( e neo l i th i c t on urag i c ) . C uc curu s u Nurax i -a bundan t r ema ins o f ' va lve d i mo l lus ch i ' a nd l a rge b ones o f a n ima ls ( SS 1 4 /15 : 9 6 , 1 00 -1 , 1 05 ) . ( nurag ic ) . S u C ung iau d e i sF undamen ta s -` o ssa ' a nd ' c o ma ' o f ' b i le ' a bounded a l ong w i th o ther a n ima l b ones a nd ' va lve d i mo l lusch i ' ; s heep w ere a l so n umerous ; o ne d ecora ted l o ng b one o f ` c ervo ' ( SS 1 6 : 2 69 ) . ( nurag ic? ) . 1 59

R ober tJ . R ow land , J r .

S IN ISCOLA : SORSO :

SUELL I :

TE MP IO :

TET I :

TH IES I :

TORRALBA :

UR I :

V ILLANOVA TRUSCHEDDU :

C ampu ' e C r e s ia - a f ew ' va lve a nd ` c onch ig l ie ' ; n umerous ` o ssa d ia n ima l i ' ( SS 1 6 : 2 84 ) . ( nurag i c ) . Duar V a cca s -r e s t i o s se i a n ima l i ' ( NS c . 1 943 : 9 7 ) . ( nurag ic ) . n ear L 'Abb iu -i n ad omus d e j anas , o ne ' d en te c an ino l avora to ' w i th ` p endag l ie t t i d i v a lve d i mo l lusch i ' ; a nother ' va lve ' w as f ound i n a no ther p ar t o f t he c hamber ( SS 7 :2 35 -6 ) . ( e neo l i th i c? ) Nuraghe P i scu -i n t he c en t ra l c hamber , many ` gusc i d i o s t r iche , b ranch d i c o ma d i c ervo ' w i th s o me ' g rosse z anne d i c i ngh ia l i ' a nd ` o ssam i d i a n ima l i ' , p erhaps ' d i c apre ' ; i n t he e as tern c hamber , ap i le o f c arbon ized g ra in w i th o ther ` gusc i d i o s t r iche ' a nd ` z anne d i p or co ' i n t he e n t rance way ( BAS 1 862 : 1 97 ) . ( nurag ic ) . Nuraghe Mura c c iu -i n t he c en t ra l c hamber , av esse l w i th a g rea t q uan t i ty o f ` c enere v ege ta le . . .var ie o ssa , s pec ia lmen te c o st o le s pezza te d i v ar ia g randezza e u n d en te , f o rse d i c ava l lo ' ( NSc . 1 894 : 3 28 ) . ( nu rag ic ) . Nurag i c V i l lag e A b in i -a t o ne s i te o f as ma l l h u t , s o me n urag i c p o t tery w as f ound w i th [ o ss d ia n ima l i , b ove , p ecora ec apra f r a c ener i ec arbon i d if o co lar i e u na f r ammen ta r ia a nf ore t ta d i e ta r omana ' ( NSc . 1 931 : 6 3 ) . ( nurag ic t oe ar ly R oman ) . I n t er ro jos -much m e ta l , s ome b ones , a nd ` a l cune v a lve d ic onch ig l ie ' ( NSc . 1 882 ; 3 78 ) . ( nurag i c ) . G r o t ta d i M . Ma ior e -a bundan t ` avanz i d i p as t i c onsuma t i ; o ssa d ' an ima l i ( b ov in i , o v in i es u in i ) ' a nd ` mo l lusch i t e rres t r i ' a s w e l l a s s ea s he l ls ( e spec ia l ly C ard ium a nd M i ty lus ) ( L i l l iu 1 972 : 4 6 ) ; t here w ere a l so t wo f r agmen t s o f ` ane l lone d i S pondy lus ' ( NTASCS : 2 5 , n r . 6 3 -4 ) . ( n eo l i th i c ) . Nuraghe S . An t in e -i nc l ear ing t he n urag ic f l oor % I -a l e c ener i e d ic arbon i ' w ere f ound ` o ssa d i a n ima l i d a p asto , b ov i , p ecore , c apre , p or c i ' a l ong w i th n urag ic p o t tery ( MA 3 8 : 5 4 ) . ( nurag i c ) . Nuraghe P eppe G a l lu - s ome b ones o f s us a nd o v is a l ong w i th o ne p oss ib le b one o f ` c on ig l io ' ( RSP 1 959 : 9 0 ) ( nurag ic ) . Nuraghe S . B arbara - t owers T a nd T1 c on ta ined masses o f ` c ener i ' a nd o f ` c a rbon i‚ ( more a bundan t a round t he t wo h ear ths , b u t e verywhere ) a l ong w i th ` o ssa d i mamm if er i ed i a n ima l i d omes t i c i ' ( NSc . 1 915 : 3 12 ) . ( nurag i c ) .

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FAUNAL REMA INS OF PREH ISTOR IC SARD IN IA

ABBREV IAT IONS A t t i x x i i n un . s c . BAS BP I MA NSc . NTSCS RRS R SF R SP SA S CO S S

A t t i d e l l x x i i r i un ione s c ien t i f i ca l d e l l ' is t i tu to i t a l iano d i P re is tor ia eP rotos tor ia ( F irenze : 1 980 ) . B o l let t ino A rchaeo log ico S ardo B o l let t ino d iP re is tor ia I t a l ian° Monumen t i a n t i ch i d e l l 'Accadem ia d e i L in ce i N o t iz ie d eg l i S cav i Nuove t e s t imon ianze a r cheo log i che d e l la S ardegna c en t ro s e t ten t r iona le ( Sassar i : 1 976 ) R . J . R ow land , J r . , Ir i t rovamen t i r oman i i n S ardegna ( R ome : 1 981 ) R iv is ta d iS tud i F en ic i R iv is ta d iS c ienze P re istor i c i G . S pano , S coper te a r cheo log iche f a t tes i i n t u t ta l ' i so la p er l ' anno . . . (Cag l iar i ) S ardegna c en t ro -or ien ta le ( Sassar i : 1 978 ) S tud i S ard i

REFERENCES C ar ta R asp i , R . 1 940 L 'econom ia d e l la S ardegna m ed ioeva le : S camb i ep rezz i ( Cag l iar i ) C on tu , E . 1 974 L as S ardegna d e l l 'e ta n urag i ca , i n P opo l i ec i v i l tä d e l l ' I ta l ia a n t ica ( Rome ) J ones , B . 1 975 T he N or th - Wes tern I n terface , i n P . J . F ow ler ( e d . ) , R ecen t Work i n R ura l A r chaeo logy ( To towa , N .J . ) L i l l iu , G . 1 972 L a C iv i l tä d e i S ard i d a l n eo l i t i co a l l 'e tä d e i n uragh i ( Tur in ) L i l l iu , G . 1 982 L a c i v i l tä n urag ica ( Sassar i ) . Mor i , A . 1 966 Memor ia i lus t ra t iva d e l la c ar ta d e l la u t i l izzaz ione d e l s uo lo d e l la S a rdegna ( Rome ) . Mor i , A . 1 972 S ardegna , L e r eg ion i d ' I ta l ia v o l . 1 8 ( Tur in ) . P h i l l ips , P . 1 980 T he P reh istory o fE urope ( B loom ing ton a nd L ondon ) . R ow land . R . J . J r . , i n p ress B eyond t he P un ic F ron t ier i n S ard in ia , i n T he Amer ican J ourna l o fA n c ien t H is tory T rump , D . H . a nd L or ia , R . 1 978 L e s c oper te a " ' u cca d e s u t i n t irr io lu" e i ln eo l i t ico s a rdo ( R ome ) .

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A ppend ix E NURAGHE TOSCONO : AN ARCH ITECTURAL S TUDY L enore G a l l in N uraghe T oscono l a t B orore was o ne o f 1 05 n uragh i s urveyed a nd measured b y t he Un iver s i ty o f C a l if orn ia S ard in ian Nuragh i P ro jec t f r om 1 982 -85 . T h is r esearch e x t end ing o ver f our y ears h as s ough t t o u nder s tand t he p reh ist or ic c ons t ru c t ion t e chn iques w h i ch r e su l t ed i n t he s i gn if i can t s t ru c tura l d urab i l i ty o f 7 000 m onumenta l s t one t owers . As e cond g oa l o ft he p ro ject was t he i d en t if i ca t ion a nd c l ass i f ica t ion o f t he f un c t iona l a nd s ty l is t i c c ha ra cter ist ics o f t he n uragh i , a nd t he d eve lopmen t o f c h rono log ica l a nd r eg iona l t ypo log ies o f Nurag ic b u i ld ing s . T o b eg in t he r e search , as a mp le o f w e l l p reserved n uragh i w ere s e lect ed f r om f our c on t iguous g eog raph ica l z ones i n West cen t ra l S a rd in ia , a n a rea o f h ighes t Nurag ic c oncen tra t ions . T o a na lyze t he s t ruc ture o f t he t owers , t eams o f a r ch i tec ts a nd t ra ined v o lunt eers t o ok h undreds o f measuremen t s a nd s ys t ema t ica l ly r e corded e ach i d en t if iab le d e ta i l f o r a l l t he n uragh i i nt he s amp le . Ad e ta i led p hot og raph i c r e cord was c omp i led f o r e a ch s t ru c ture a nd a g eo log i ca l a na lys is o f i t s r e la ted s i te w as a l so c omp le ted . S pec ia l a t t en t ion was g i ven t ot he e x ter ior f o rm o fe a ch b u i ld ing a nd t he c urva ture o ft he i n ter ior c o rbe l led d omes w as a l so c a refu l ly r e corded . T o o vercome t he i nheren t d if i cu l t ies o f m easur ing c rude s t one b u i ld ing s o f v ar ious s t ages o fp reserva t ion a nd b ur ied t ov ary ing d eg rees , i tw as n ecessary t od ev ise methods b y wh ich t o g enera te u n if orm s e t s o f i n f orma t ion o ver t he e n t ire ty o f t he s amp le . One s u ch me thod w as t he e s tab l ishmen t o f as tandard ized r e f eren ce p o in t t ha t was a lmost a lways e xposed i n e ach n uraghe . T h is p o in t w as i d en t if ied a s t he b o t tom o f t he l i n te l o ver t he ma in o u ter e n t ryway ( BEL ) , a nd measuremen t s w ere a lways t aken f r om t h is l e ve 1 2. H igh ly s ens i t ive i n s t rumen t s w ere u sed t o p roduce t he m os t a ccurat e m easuremen t s p oss ib le , i n c lud ing a t r ans i t -moun ted l a ser t o r e cord t he p ropor t ions a nd c u rva ture o f t he d ome . Two s e c t ions a nd a p lan o f e very l e ve l was p rodu ced f o r e ach n u raghe . T o u nders tand h ow t he n uragh i w ere p u t t oge ther w e l i t era l ly t o ok t hem a par t p i ece b y p i ece o n t he d raw ing b oard a nd s tandard ized c od ing t e chn iques f a c i l itat ed c o mpu ter a ss ist ed mu l t i -var ia te s t a t is t ica l a na lys is . I n t h is w ay a rch i tec tura l f ea tures , s t ruc tura l c ons idera t ions a nd s ty l is t ic p a t terns c ou ld b e d i s t ingu ished a nd r e la ted t o a h ost o f r eg iona l , d emog raph i c , e co log ica l , a nd c hrono log i ca l f a c tors . Nuraghe T oscono , o w ing t o i t s r e la t ive ly c omp le te s t a te o f p reserva t ion , p rov ided a n e x ce l len t s e t o f d a ta b y wh ich t o s tudy s u ccessfu l Nurag i c c ons t ruc t ion a nd t o c o mpare a nd c on tras t t he n uraghe w i th o ther b u i ld ings i n o ur s amp le . C ons truc ted a s as i ng le t ower o f l o ca l b asa l t , T oscono o u tward ly a ppears r epresen ta t ive o f mos t o f t he n uragh i c ompr is ing t he s amp le 3.T he o u ter e n t ry , o r ien ted 1 40 d eg rees s ou theas t ( a s a re 5 0% o f t he s tud ied n uragh i ) , i s a lmos t c omp let e ly b ur ied . A ccess t o t he t ower i s f a c i l i ta t ed t h rough a n o pen ing i n t he l ower s outhwes t w a l l l e ad ing d i rec t ly i n to t he m idd le o f t he s ta irway c o rr idor . T he f a c t t ha t t he s t ruc ture h as n o t f a i led d esp i te t h is t unne l ing i n to t he o ut er s he l l o f t he n uraghe i lust ra tes t he r obus t a nd s tab le n a ture o f t hese b u i ld ing s ( F igs . E .1 -3 ) . T oscono p resen t s as t andard ized p lan w i th a r e cessed n i che - t he " guard c hamber" t o t he r i gh t o f t he e n t ry c orr idor ; t he s ta irway t o t he l e f t ; a nd w i th t hree n i ches i n a c ruc if orm p os i t ion w i th in t he c en t ra l c hamber . O n c l ose e xam ina t ion o f t he b u i ld ing a nd

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Figure E. l Nuraghe Toscono, section plan looking southwest. 164

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F igure E .2 Nuraghe T oscono , g round p lan . 1 65

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F igure E .3 Nuraghe T oscono , mezzan ine p lan . 1 66

MEZZANINE

NURAGHE TOSCONO i t s m easured d raw ings , h owever , Nuraghe T oscono i sd i scovered t o b e o ne o f t he l a rges t s i ng le t owers i n t he s amp le . T oscono 's e xa ct ly ma t ched n or th -sou th a nd e as t -wes t d i amet ers o f 1 3 .20 me ters n o t o n ly makes i tt he o n ly p erf ec t ly r ound n uraghe t ower i n t he s t udy , b u t a l so d i s t ingu ishes i ta s a pprox ima te ly o ne me ter l a rger t han t he a verage s i zed t ower . T he c en t ra l c hamber i s a l so o ne o f t he l a rges t , w i th a d iame ter o f 5 . 20 meters , c ompared t o a n a verage c hamber d iameter o f 4 .44 m e ters . T he d ome , a l though l a ck ing i t s u ppermos t c ou rses , i st he t h ird h ighes t i n o ur s amp le -7 . 15 m et ers f r om t he BEL . A no ther d i s t inc t ive f ea ture i s t he r a t io o f wa l l t h i ckness t o t ower h e igh t , wh i ch a t T oscono i sc ons iderab ly s ma l ler t han t he s amp le a verage ( 4 .50 m e ters a t t he f r on t , 3 .90 me t ers a t t he r ear , a nd 4 . 15 a nd 4 .04 a t t he s i des ) . T h is r a t io s uggest s t ha t T oscono 's b u i lders may h ave b een s en s i t ive t o t he m in imum w a l l t h i ckness r equ ired t o s usta in t he g rea t d ownward t h rus t o f aw ide a nd h igh s t one d ome . A ssum ing e xper ien ced b u i lders w ere s uff i c ien t ly k now ledgeab le r ega rd ing m in imum s t ress r equ iremen ts , t hey c ou ld t heore t ica l ly c hoose t oc onserve l a bor a nd ma ter ia l , a nd g a in a dd i t iona l i n ter ior s pace b y d e creas ing t he t h i ckness o f t he w a l ls . S uch s oph is t i ca t ion may h ave b een emp loyed i n t he d es ign o f Nuraghe T oscono wh ich f r om c u l tura l r ema ins , a ppears t o d a te f r om t he I r on A ge ( c . 9 00 B .C . ) .c u lm ina t ing a lmos t am i l lenn ium o f Nu rag i c b u i ld ing a c t iv i ty . I n c on t ras t t oi t s e xemp lary s i ze , T oscono d oes n o t d i sp lay p ar t icu lar ly f i ne s t onework i ni t s c ons t ru c t ion . A s t he n uraghe i sp ar t ia l ly b ur ied , t he l owes t e xposed p or t ion o f t he o u ter wa l ls a re t he c ourses d i rec t ly a bove t he o u ter e n t ry . T he f i rs t t wo c ourses a re c omposed o f l a rge r ounded b ou lders , a bove w h i ch a re f ound r e c tangu lar s haped b l ocks w h i ch g radua l ly d im in ish i n s i ze t oward t he t op o f t he s t ru c ture . T he o vera l l e f f ec t i s r a ther c rude o w ing t o t he many g aps b e tween b l ocks a nd c ours ing i r regu lar i t ies where s hor tc ourses emerge a nd d i sappear b e tween o ther c omp le te c i rcu lar c ourses . T he b rea ch i nt he s ou thwes t w a l l p erm i t s i n spe c t ion o f t he o ut er l ayer o ne b l o ck t h ick , i n f i l led w i th s t one r ubb le . T he masonry i n s ide t he t ower i s a l so c rude , w i th u nworked b l ocks s eem ing ly r andom ly c hosen a nd a rranged s o t ha t t hey g radua l ly d im in ish i n s i ze t oward t he v au l t . A s i n t he o u ts ide w a l l , c ours ing , c o mposed o f u neven ly s i zed s t ones , i s n o t c ons ist en t . A pprox ima te ly 1 / 3 o ft he b l ocks a re c ra cked , s ome t imes i nt wo p la ces . Ac e r ta in amoun t o f r andom c rack ing , e spec ia l ly a s t he b u i ld ing s e t t les , i s a lmos t u navo idab le i n t he n uragh i . S u ch c ra ck ing , s eem ing ly , d oes n o t af ec t t he s tab i l i ty o ft he s t ru c ture p rov ided i td oes n o t o c cur a t v i ta l p laces s u ch a s a round o pen ing s a nd e n t ryways . I n t he c ase o f T oscono , s ma l l s t one c h ink ing - i n f i l l ing s ma l ler s t ones i n s pa ces b e tween b l ocks - i s u sed a bundan t ly t os t ab i l ize t he u nworked b l ocks i nt he ir b edd ing , c r ea t ing b a lance a nd a f o rm o f mechan ica l b ond ing . T h is c h ink ing i sp a cked b e tween t he u neven s urfa ces a nd w edged i n to t he i n t ers t i ces b e tween t he b l ocks s o t ha t i n many c ases t he s t ruc tured b l ocks h ard ly t ou ch o ne a no ther . A t T oscono , t he g rea t w e igh t o f t he masonry , t hough c aus ing s u ch mass ive c rack ing , h as b een s a t isfa ct or i ly c oun tered b y t he d i s t r ibu t ion a nd r ed i rect ion o ft he p ressure o n t he l ower b l ocks a t o n ly c e r ta in k ey p o in ts . One p ar t i cu lar ly v u lnerab le p lace i n a l l t he n uragh i a re t he e n t ryways a nd t he h or izon ta l s t one o r l i n te l o ver t he o pen ing wh ich c arr ies t he w e igh t o f t he s t ruc ture a bove . T hese s t one b l ocks a re u sua l ly l a rger a nd more c arefu l ly d ressed t han t he o ther b l ocks i nt he n uragh i . T he p resen ce o f as o -ca l led " r e l iev ing s pa ce" o ver t he c ent er o ft he l i n te l i n t hough t t or ed irec t t he s t ress f r om t h is u nsuppor ted a rea t o t he j ambs o n e i ther s i de o f t he e n t ry . T he r esea rch , h owever , r a ises q ues t ions a bou t t he f unc t iona l i n terpreta t ion o ft h is s pace , a s n o c ons is ten t r e la t ionsh ip i se v iden t b e tween t he p resence o r a bsen ce o f a" re l iev ing s pa ce" a nd t he c ond i t ion o ft he l i nt e l s t one , i . e . whe ther o r n ot i ti sc ra cked o r u nf rac tured .

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L enore G a l l in I n t he c ase o fT os cono , t here a re n o r e l iev ing s pa ces o ver t hree o f t he f our e n t ryways c ons t ru c ted w i th l i n te ls ; 1 ) o u t er e n t ry , 2 ) g uard c hamber , a nd 3 ) e as t n i che . O f t he t h ree , o n ly t he l i n te l i n t he e as t n i che i sc ra cked . T he l i n te l i n t he ma in e n try s uppor ts a n e qua l ly l a rge b l ock where a " r e l iev ing s pa ce" w ou ld n orma l ly b e . T h is b l ock i sp la ced s o t ha t i t s l e ng th i st u rned i nward a nd t he w e igh t o ft he s t one r es ts e n t ire ly o n t he l i n te l b e low . T he l i n te l s hows n o s i gn o f f r ac ture d esp i te t he g rea t w e igh t f r om a bove . T he o n ly e n t ry w i th b o th a l i n te l a nd a s pace a bove i ti st he e n t ry t o t he c en t ra l c hamber . H ere t he s pa ce i sl a rger t han t he u sua l " re l iev ing s pa ce" a nd may h ave a c tua l ly s e rved a no ther p urpose s u ch a s ap assage t o a no ther p ar t o f t he b u i ld ing o r a s au t i l i ta r ian c ubbyho le . T he e n t r ies t o t he s t a irway a nd t he o ther t wo n i ches a re c o rbe l led a nd t hus d o n o t h ave l i nt e ls . T he l i n te l o ver t he o ut er e n try t o t he t ower i so f f u r ther i n teres t i n t ha t as quare s pace , a pprox ima t e ly 5 0 c en t ime ters w ide , i sc u t i n to i t s u nders ide . T h is s pace i ss im i lar t o t hose f ound c u t i n t o t he e n t ry l i n te ls o f ag roup o f s tud ied n uragh i i n t he c o mune o f S ed i lo , a bou t t en k i lome ters f r om T oscono . E xa c t ly when t he l i n te ls w ere c u t i s i mposs ib le t o t e l l , b u t l o ca l r e s iden ts s ugges t t ha t t he mod if i ca t ions a re r e cen t , c on jec tur ing t ha t s hepherds a nd f a rmers a t temp t ed t o h e igh ten t he o pen ings t o t he n uragh i t o make t hem m ore a ccess ib le t o a n ima ls , a nd /or more s u i tab le f o r t he m ovemen t o f ma ter ia ls i na nd o u t o ft he b u i ld ing . T he e n t ry c or r idor o f T oscono i su nusua l ly h igh a nd s hor t , r i s ing s ha rp ly f r om t he o u t er e n t ry 3me ters b e low , a nd e x tend ing f o r o n ly 4meters i nl e ng th b ef ore i te n ters t he c en t ra l c hamber . T he s p ira l s t a irway b eg ins i mmed ia te ly t o t he l e f t o f t he o u ter e n try , u s ing t he o u ter w a l l o f t he t ower a s i t s i nner w a l l . T he p la cemen t o f t he s ta irway , s o c l ose t o av ery t h in o ut er wa l l , mus t h ave b een c arefu l ly e ng ineered i n as t ru cture l i ke T oscono where a n e x t reme ly l a rge , h igh d ome e xer t s g rea t d ownward f o r ce o n t he l ower p ar t o ft he b u i ld ing . O ff u r ther n o te i st ha t f a c t t ha t t he s ta irway i su nusua l ly w ide a nd h igh ( averag ing 1 . 12 m e ters w ide x 3 meters h igh ) . T here i sn o e v iden ce o f s t eps o r w indows i nt he p or t ion t ha t i sp ar t ia l ly i n tac t . T he s t a irway i sn ow c o l lapsed w e l l b ef ore t he p o in t where i tw ou ld h ave r eached t he u pper f l oor o r t e rra ce , a nd t he u pper o pen ing t o t he s ta irway i sn ow f ound i n t he r ubb le o f t he r oof o n t he s ou thwes t s i de . I n t he c en tra l c hamber t he w es t n i che i st he l owes t o f t he t h ree r ooms , p robab ly o w ing t o t he f a c t t ha t i ti sb u i l t i n t o t he w a l lj us t u nder t he r i s ing s t a irway . T he a typ i ca l ly l o ng g uard c hamber ( 2 .6 m et ers ) , l i ke t he s t a irway , a l so b eg ins j us t i n s ide t he e n t ry c o rr idor o n t he r i gh t . I n t h is c ase , h owever , i tc urves t oward t he i n ter ior o ft he t ower p erm i t t ing g rea ter t h i ckness i nt he o u ter wa l l e as t o ft he o u ter e n t ry . A no ther d i s t in c t ive f ea ture a t Nuraghe T oscono i st he p resence o f a sma l l r oom a bove t he e n t ry c o rr idor , b e tween t he o u ter n uraghe wa l l a nd t he s he l l o f t he d ome . T h is c hamber i se n t ered b y ap assage w i th c orbe l led v au l t , wh i ch d escends f r om t he r oof o r u pper l e ve l o f t he n uraghe . A t p resen t t he e x tan t p or t ion o f t h is p assage e x tends f o r o n ly 2 me ters , e x i t ing i n t he r oof r ubb le t o t he s ou th . T here i sn o e v iden ce o f s t eps a nd t he r ema in ing r amp i sq u i te s t eep . T he r oom i t se lf i sr ound , w i th a c orbe l led c e i l ing a nd as ma l l o pen ing o r w indow i nt he o u ter wa l l d i rec t ly o ver t he ma in o uter e n t ry b e low . T h is t ype o fr oom , f ound i n o ther n uragh i , i sa lmos t a lways a ssoc ia ted w i th b u i ld ings i n w h i ch t here i s as e cond f l oor . T he e n t r ies t o t hese r ooms a re mos t o f ten f ound i n t he s i de w a l l o f t he w es t n i che i n t he c en tra l c hamber ; o c cas iona l ly i n t he u pper s he l l o f t he d ome . T he p la cemen t o f t he p assage a t T oscono , l e ad ing f r om t he u pper l e ve l , a nd n o t i n t er -connect ed w i th t he f i rs t f l oor c en t ra l c hamber , i si n t eres t ing i n t ha t i td escends o n t op o ft he ma in s ta irway . T he s oph is t ica ted e ng ineer ing r epresen ted i n Nuraghe T oscono i su nderscored i n t he o vera l l s tab i l i ty o f t he s t ru c ture d esp i te r e la t ive ly t h in wa l ls a nd t he p resence o fc ons t ru c ted s paces w i th in t he wa l ls .

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NURAGHE TOSCONO I ti su nc lear where t he p a ssage t o t he mezzan ine c hamber o r ig inates . E xam ina t ion o f o ther n uragh i s uggests s ome p oss ib i l i t ies . One l i ke l ihood i st ha t t he mezzan ine c hamber o r ig inates i n an i che o n t h e s ou thwes t s i de o f as econd f l oor c ent ra l c hamber . S u ch a n a rrange men t i ss een a t Nu raghe Madrone a t S i lanus ( NU ) ( L i l l iu 1 962 ) . I ft h is w as t he c ase a t T oscono , t he p assage w ou ld h ave t o c l imb v ery s t eep ly t o t he l e ve l o f t h e n ow c o l lapsed s econd f l oor . As e cond p oss ib i l i ty i st ha t t he p assage s o mehow c onnec ts w i th t he ma in s ta irway , a s i st h e c ase a t Nuraghe L osa a t A bbasan ta ( OR ) ( L i l l iu 1 962 ; T a rame l l i 1 901 ) . T he p resen t h e igh t o f t he mezzan ine c hamber i s 2 .3 meters . A ccord ing t o measuremen ts , h owever , t h ere i ss pa ce w ith in t he s t ructure f o r t he c hamber t oe xtend d ownward a lmost a nother 1 . 5 meters . T h is w ou ld b e c ons is ten t w i th t wo o ther f i nd ings r e la ted t o t he a rrangemen t o fs pace w i th in t he n uraghe . I n m ost c ases o f n uragh i w i th sma l l r ooms b u i lt o ver t h e e n try c o rr idor s im i lar t o T oscono , t he r ooms a re f ound i mmed ia te ly a bove t he c o rr idor v au l t w i th a t l e ast o ne c hanne l c o mmun ica t ing w i th t he i n ter ior g round f l oor o ft he b u i ld ing . F requent ly t h is t akes t he f o rm o f at r ap d oor i n t he f l oor o f t he mezzan ine r o om t ha t o pens i n to t he c e i l ing o f t he c orr idor . S uch a t r apdoor c an b e f ound a t Nuraghe T i t t ir io la a t B or t iga l i ( NU ) . S omet imes t h is t ype o f c hamber h a s aw indow wh ich o pen s d i rect ly i n to t he c en tra l c hamber o ver t he e nt ryway , a s i s f o und a t Nuraghe Ne la a t S ed i lo ( OR ) . T he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t t he o r ig ina l f l oor o f t he c hamber a t T oscono may h ave b een l ower i s s uppor ted b y t he p roc l iv i ty o f Nurag ic b u i lders t o f i t c ont iguous s paces w i th in t he t h ickness o f t he wa l ls o f t he n u raghe . S uper imposed c orbe l led c hambers i n mu lt i leve l n uragh i a re s epara ted b y o n ly a f ew c en t ime ters . F ina l ly , t he c onf igura t ion o ft he j unc ture o ft he e ntry c orr idor a nd t he b eg inn ing o ft he d ome o f f ers a p oss ib le c l u e t o t he o r ig ina l p lan . I n t he e n try c orr idor t he v ery h igh c e i l ing d rops d own o ne c ou rse a t t he e n t ry t o t he c entra l c hamber . J us t a bove t h is l i nt e l i s ar e la t ive ly d eep s pace , t wo c ourses h igh wh ich i s b l ocked a t t he r ear b y r ubb le . P erhaps t h is s pace o r ig ina l ly s erved a s ac o mmun icat ion c hanne l b e tween t he ma in g round f l oor c hamber a nd t h e sma l l r oom o n t he mezzan ine .

NOTES 1 .A f u l l d i scuss ion o fT os cono 's c u l tura l s t ra t ig raphy a ppears i nC hapter 1o ft h is r epor t . ( Eds . ) 2 .F or p urpose o fc o mpar ison , t he BEL p o int measured a pprox ima te ly t wo meters a bove t he o r ig ina l f l oor . 3 . A s d i scussed i n C hap ter 1 o ur f i e ld o bserva t ions h ave r evea led a dd i t iona l s t ru ctura l e v idence a t T oscono f o r t h e e x istence o f f our sma l l t owers -n ow d i sman t led -wh ich o r ig ina l ly a bu t ted t he p er iphery o ft he ma in c en tra l -tower d escr ibed h ere . ( Eds . )

REFERENCES L i l l iu , G .

1 962 INuragh i L a V et tera , V erona . P p 1 01 -105

T a rame l l i , A . 1 901 S cav i eS coper ta I , 1 911-1917 . D e lf ino , S assar i . p p 3 39 -368 .

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