Russian function words: meanings and use: conjunctions, interjections, parenthetical words, particles, and prepositions 9780367086909, 9780367086916, 9780429023781, 0367086905, 0429023782, 9780429654701, 0429654707, 9780429657146, 0429657145, 9780429659584, 042965958X

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RUSSIAN FUNCTION WORDS: MEANINGS AND USE

Russian Function Words: Meanings and Use is a collection of 463 prepositions, conjunctions, particles, interjections, and parenthetical words. This book provides a semantic, syntactic, and stylistic analysis of each word, accompanying the explanation with examples of the word’s usage in discourse in contemporary, everyday Russian and analogous translations into English. Consequently, it allows users to develop an understanding of contemporary grammatical, lexical, and stylistic norms, with the aim of mastering these critical words. This book also includes a multitude of idioms and sayings that users will learn to use in the appropriate context. Intermediate and advanced students, instructors, and translators will find this a useful supplement to their existing resources. It also serves as a helpful reference for independent learners at all levels. Marina Rojavin is teaching at Bryn Mawr College. She specializes in Russian language and culture, Soviet film and, in particular, character archetypes in Soviet cinema of the 1960s–1980s; Russian media studies; Russian intellectuals in Imperial Russia; and the Russian intelligentsia. Marina has published articles on the semantic category of gender in Russian and Ukrainian and on the grammatical category of gender in Russian. She and Allan Reid published A Guide to Russian Words and Expressions that Cause Difficulties in 2004. Her most recent publications are the textbook Russian for Advanced Students (2013), completed with her colleagues, and the volume Women in Soviet Film: The Thaw and Post-Thaw Periods (2017), edited together with Timothy Harte (Bryn Mawr College). Alexander Rojavin is currently in law school. A native speaker of English and Russian, he has focused his undergraduate and graduate studies on Soviet and post-Soviet media space, producing a master’s thesis on media ownership in Ukraine and on the legal framework within which the Ukrainian media operate. Alexander helped translate a series of theater treatises for Nikolai Demidov: Becoming an Actor-Creator (2016). He has also translated a series of contemporary Russian plays (forthcoming) and a work of creative nonfiction by Yevsey Tseytlin, Long Conversations in Anticipation of a Joyous Death, which grapples with the history and fate of Lithuania’s Jewry (2018).

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RUSSIAN FUNCTION WORDS: MEANINGS AND USE Conjunctions, Interjections, Parenthetical Words, Particles, and Prepositions

Marina Rojavin and Alexander Rojavin

First published 2019 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2019 Marina Rojavin and Alexander Rojavin The right of Marina Rojavin and Alexander Rojavin to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Rojavin, Marina, author. | Rojavin, Alexander, author. Title: Russian function words : meanings and use : conjunctions, interjections, parenthetical words, particles, and prepositions / Marina Rojavin and Alexander Rojavin. Description: New York : Routledge, 2019. | Includes bibliographical references. Identifiers: LCCN 2018049872| ISBN 9780367086909 (hardback : alk. paper) | ISBN 9780367086916 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN 9780429023781 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Russian language--Function words. | Russian language--Function words--Semantics. | Russian language--Function words--Glossaries, vocabularies, etc. Classification: LCC PG2321 .R65 2019 | DDC 491.75/7--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018049872 ISBN: 978-0-367-08690-9 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-367-08691-6 (pbk) ISBN: 978-0-429-02378-1 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd.

CONTENTS

Introduction Abbreviations Terminology

vi viii ix

English–Russian glossary

1

Russian–English glossary

12

Entries

23

Bibliography

270

INTRODUCTION

This book concerns itself with the semantic analysis of Russian prepositions, conjunctions, particles, interjections, and parenthetical words, and it provides explanations of their meanings with full context. The book also focuses on the roles that function words have in sentences and on the specifics of their use in discourse. Russian Function Words: Meanings and Use not only provides the meanings of words, but also briefly explains the use of words in speech based on grammar and on examples with translations into English that are not literal, but rather equivalent and appropriate to the given circumstance. This book’s features make it a helpful resource for anyone who is interested in Russian. It has been designed for learners of all levels. It can serve as a supplement to Russian textbooks for undergraduate students, yet it can equally be used as a standalone resource, or as a reference book and a guide for independent study. The latter use fits the needs of graduate students who are studying, for example, linguistics or pedagogy. It can also serve as a valuable tool for instructors, who can utilize it for methodological materials. Additionally, Russian Function Words: Meanings and Use provides information that can be helpful for translators. The primary goal of this book is to illuminate the use of prepositions, conjunctions, particles, interjections, and parenthetical words by focusing on semantics based on a comparative analysis of their meanings in Russian and English. Parallel exploration of semantic information demonstrates different usage in both languages. With this book, learners can develop skills in the command and use of Russian prepositions, conjunctions, particles, interjections, and parenthetical words through discourse, i.e. through specific verbal situations, based not only on the underlying semantic meanings, but rather on the content of extra-linguistic situations and settings. An important feature of this book is that it is grounded in contemporary Russian. The combination of content and the manner in which it synthesizes explanations of

Introduction

vii

semantics and grammar will deliver a sophisticated level of theoretical knowledge, as well as ensuring the real-life relevance of the material. This book is also designed to develop learners’ understanding of grammatical and lexical norms and peculiarities of the functional styles of the modern Russian language. Users of this book will acquire skills that allow them to use function words in typical life situations. The reader has to take into account that elements of Russian grammar are evoked by posing questions; these address the main language categories and lead to explanations of the semantic meanings of these categories. When Russians talk about the language and its grammar, they use a series of simple questions, like, for example, кто? who?, что? what? about nouns, что де́ лать? что сде́ лать? what to do? about verbs, or в связи́ с чем? in connection with what? about subordinate causal clauses. The reader should be aware that questions that are used when discussing grammar are not always used in real life. Statements such as, for instance, “These combinations respond to the question отку́ да? where from?” cannot be applied to all given examples. We can compose the question “Отку́ да вы́ рвана страни́ ца?” Where was the page torn out of? to the answer “Страни́ ца вы́ рвана из тетра́ ди” The page was torn out of a notebook. However, it is not relevant to ask a question such as “Отку́ да вы́ шло пла́ тье?” Where did the dress come out of? to a statement like “Э́ то пла́ тье уже́ давно́ вы́ шло из мо́ ды” This dress long ago went out of fashion, even though the phrase из мо́ ды out of fashion answers the question отку́ да? from where?

Overview of the content This book consists of the main part (the entries), in addition to introductory parts and a bibliography. The introductory parts include this introduction with comments on methodology and target audience, relevant abbreviations, an index of terminology, and Russian–English and English–Russian glossaries.

Structure of the main part This part contains the function words in alphabetical order with detailed semantic analyses and descriptions on a grammatical basis. Every entry includes a list of meanings, their explanation, and examples of how the function word is used in specific contexts in combination with other words. Some entries include fixed phrases, proverbs, or sayings. Many of the words or phrases can function in different capacities, e.g., а can be a conjunction, a particle, or an interjection. However, some functions of some words or phrases are not presented in the book because of the low frequency of their use in discourse or their archaism. The translation of some words in examples may not be identical to the translation given at the top of the entry and may instead be contextual synonyms. Examples from literature and media have been taken from http://www.ruscor pora.ru/.

ABBREVIATIONS

adv. arch. book. coll. conj. connect. elevat. fig. form. folk. inform. interj. lit. liter. parenth. part. prepos.

adverb archaic bookish language colloquial language conjunction connective word elevated style figuratively formal language folklore informal language interjection literally literary parenthetical particle preposition

TERMINOLOGY

Actual present tense Indicates an action that is happening at the moment of an utterance or represents an action as if it is happening at the moment of an utterance, like in interviews or headlines in newspapers or on radio and television.

Adverbial clause Adverbial clauses most often have the same meanings as adverbial modifiers in simple sentences; they answer the same questions as adverbial modifiers and are classified in the same way, i.e., they indicate a time, place, measure and degree, or purpose and cause. Adverbial clauses answer the questions когда́ ? when?, где? where?, как? how?, каки́ м о́ бразом? in what way?, ско́ лько? how many?, почему́ ? why?, заче́ м? for what purpose?, etc.

Adverbial modifier A secondary part of a sentence. It describes actions or some other feature. Adverbial modifiers indicate a time, place, measure and degree, or purpose and cause. They answer the questions когда́ ? when?, где? where?, как? how?, каки́ м о́ бразом? in what way?, ско́ лько? how many?, почему́ ? why?, заче́ м? for what purpose?. Adverbial modifiers are usually expressed by adverbs, nouns in oblique cases with or without prepositions, or verbal adverb constructions. Adverbial modifiers of purpose can be expressed by verbal infinitives.

x

Terminology

Adversative conjunction Distinguishes opposition, contradiction, or contrast between coordinate parts of a simple sentence or clauses of a compound sentence.

Appositive A nominal or a nominal phrase that clarifies and follows another nominal. (See also nominal.)

Attribute Describes an object (a noun), indicates its features, and answers the questions како́ й? what kind of? which?, чей? whose?

Attributive clause Usually refers to the part of the principal clause that is expressed by a noun or nominal phrase. Attributive clauses answer the question како́ й? what kind of? Attributive clauses that refer to a noun are always placed after the noun. Attributive clauses that refer to a pronoun can be placed before it.

Bookish language Language used in books. Literary in terms of style. It is opposed to colloquial language.

Clause of concession Points to the circumstances in spite of which the action described in the principal clause is accomplished. Тhe subordinate clauses answer the question несмотря́ на что? despite what?

Colloquial language Used in conversations in an informal way. It is opposed to formal language.

Complex sentence Includes two or more simple sentences, one of which is principal, while the others are subordinate. These sentences cannot exist separately; they depend on one another. Complex sentences can contain explanatory, attributive, and adverbial clauses.

Terminology

xi

Compound comparative degree Expressed by combining the words бо́ лее more or ме́ нее less with adverbs or adjectives in their basic form. Compound comparative forms reflect gender, number, and case. This form is formal and is used most often in books.

Compound sentence Two or more simple sentences joined together. Compound sentences can be connected with copulative, disjunctive, or adversative conjunctions.

Conditional clause (real and unreal) Indicates the circumstances of the action reflected in the principal clause. The subordinate clauses answer the questions при како́ м усло́ вии? on what condition?, в како́ м слу́ чае? in what case? A real conditional clause indicates that the actions depicted in the principal clause really take place. An unreal or contraryto-fact conditional clause indicates that the actions depicted in the principal clause could take place; the subordinate clause would then express the conditions for possible fulfillment.

Connective word As conjunctions, connective words join subordinate clauses to the principal clause. Unlike conjunctions, they function as a part of a clause.

Contemporary language The language norm accepted since the second half of the 20th century.

Coordinate parts Coordinate subjects, predicates, attributes, objects, and adverbial modifiers have the same syntactic relationship to other parts of the sentence; they answer the same questions. Usually, coordinating parts are expressed by the same part of speech.

Elevated style Used in writing and speech that is considered dignified or sophisticated.

Elliptical sentences Grammatically well-formed constructions where some parts are omitted, but understood.

xii

Terminology

Explanatory clause Usually refers to a verb, a participle, a verbal adverb, or a short adjective in a principal clause. Explanatory clauses function as subjects or objects and fill a missing gap in a principal clause; they answer the questions of cases. The words in an explanatory clause are attached to indicate speech, thoughts, feelings, perceptions, or wishes.

Formal language Used in formal situations. Utilizes proper grammar and syntax, not employing colloquialisms or slang. It is opposed to informal language.

Informal language Used in informal situations. Utilizes colloquialisms or slang. It is opposed to formal language.

Language styles Includes formal, informal, colloquial, neutral, and elevated.

Literary Used in literary writings.

Main parts of the sentences Includes the subject and the predicate.

Neutral style Without stylistic color. It is opposed to colloquial, elevated, and bookish styles.

Nominal A word or group of words that function as a noun.

Object Indicates someone or something and answers the questions of oblique cases. Objects that relate to transitive verbs are direct objects, and they are used in the accusative case.

Terminology

xiii

Parts of a sentence A subject, predicate, object, attribute, modifier.

Phrase A group of words that functions as a grammatically acceptable constituent.

Predicate Conveys what the subject does, did, will do, or would do to or with something, or what/who the subject is. The predicate is always a word or word group that acts as a verb.

Principal clause The main clause in a complex sentence that expresses the main idea.

Pronominal Functions as a pronoun.

Secondary parts of the sentence Includes attributes, objects, or adverbial modifiers.

Simple comparative degree Expressed by the suffixes -ее or -е that are added to the stems. Words with these suffixes are stylistically neutral and are used in various speech styles – in literature, journalism, scholarly writing, as well as in conversation. Simple comparative forms are almost always predicates.

Subject The main part of a sentence, connected to a predicate; it is the doer of an action in a sentence. It answers questions of the nominative case кто? who?, что? what?

Subordinate clause Depends on the principal clause.

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ENGLISH–RUSSIAN GLOSSARY

about accompanied by according to across across from actually additionally affiliated with after after all against ah aha ahead of alas all the best all the while all things considered almost along along with alright also although among among someone/something

за; насчёт; о (об, óбо); о́ коло; по по́ воду; про; под в сопровожде́ нии по че́ рез напро́ тив в са́ мом де́ ле кро́ ме того́ ; к тому́ же при за; по́ сле; по́ сле того́ (,) как всё же; всё-таки от (ото); поми́ мо; про́ тив а ага́ впереди́ ; пéред увы́ всего́ при э́ том впрóчем чуть не вдоль; вдоль по; по; поперёк наряду́ с хорошо́ ещё; та́ кже; то́ же впро́ чем; в то врéмя(,) как; хотя́ (хоть) среди́ в числе́

2

English–Russian glossary

and and . . . and and so and that and yet another anyway approximately around as as a consequence as a consequence of the fact that as a consequence of which as a result of as a result of the fact that as a result of which as a rule as expected as for as if as if on purpose as bad luck would have it as it turned out as long as as many as much as much as as one put it as opposed to as per as soon as as strange as it is as though as usual as well as well as ashamed to say aside from at at all at least at the expense of

а; да; и; причём и ... и отчего́ и то-то ещё что ни всё-таки́ ; и так так вокру́ г; о́ коло как; по ме́ ре; по ме́ ре того́ (,) как всле́ дствие всле́ дствие того́ (,) что всле́ дствие чего́ в результа́ те; на осно́ ве; по причи́ не; по причи́ не того́ , что в результа́ те того́ , что ввиду́ ; в результа́ те чего́ как пра́ вило как полага́ ется что (же) каса́ ется бу́ дто (бы); как бу́ дто; как бы; как е́ сли бы; то́ чно; я́ кобы как наро́ чно как назло́ как оказа́ лось до тех пор(,) пока́ ско́ лько ско́ лько наскóлько . . . настóлько дéскать; мол вопреки́ на основа́ нии как; как то́ лько; лишь; то́ лько как ни стра́ нно сло́ вно как обы́ чно ещё как гре́ шным де́ лом кро́ ме того(,) что; поми́ мо в (во); за; по; у вообще́ в конце́ концо́ в; хоть; хотя́ бы за счёт

English–Russian glossary

3

в то вре́ мя(,) как при в (во) эх eдва́ ; едвá ли исходя́ из; на осно́ ве; по исходя́ из того́ (,) что; на основа́ нии того́ (,) что basically по существу́ because ведь; в связи́ с тем(,) что; оттого(,) что; поско́ льку; потому́ (,) что because of ввиду́ ; в связи́ с; за счёт; из-за; из-за того́ (,) что; от (ото) before до; за; пе́ ред; пе́ ред тем(,) как; под; пре́ жде чем beginning with начина́ я с behind за; позади́ beneath под (пóдо) believe me пове́ рь(те) besides кро́ ме between ме́ жду between you and me ме́ жду на́ ми (говоря́ ) big whoop поду́ маешь bravo бра́ во but а; да; зато́ ; и; но; то́ лько; хотя́ (хоть) by во́ зле; к (ко); ми́ мо; о́ коло; по by any chance случа́ йно; ча́ сом by means of по; посре́ дством by the way да; к сло́ ву (сказа́ ть); кста́ ти; ме́ жду про́ чим by (way of) путём can’t say anything (bad, good, etc.) ничего́ не ска́ жешь certainly безусло́ вно clearly поня́ тно close to вблизи́ (от); о́ коло come on а ну concerning в отноше́ нии; насчёт; oтноси́ тельно; что (же) каса́ ется contrary to вопреки́ тому́ (,) что conversely наоборо́ т; напро́ тив definitely без сомнéния depending on в зависимости́ от despite невзира́ я на; несмотря́ на despite the fact that невзира́ я на то, что; несмотря́ на то, что at the same time as attached to away bah barely based on based on that fact that

4

English–Russian glossary

does it not? down due to during during the time of easy to say either . . . or else encore ergo especially even even so even though even without ew exactly exactly like excluding exclusively extra far away from finally following someone/something for for (the sake of) for example for someone’s/something’s sake for sure forgive me frankly speaking from from behind from beneath from the point of view of from which furthermore generally speaking given given that given the fact that God damn it

не так ли вдоль; вдоль по ввидý во вре́ мя; в тече́ ние; в то вре́ мя(,) как; за; на протяже́ нии при легко́ сказа́ ть и́ ли . . ., и́ ли; ли́ бо . . ., ли́ бо; не то . . ., не то; то ли . . .‚ то ли ещё бис сле́ довательно тем бо́ лее аж; да́ же; и; хоть без хотя́ (хоть) без фу и́ менно; то́ чно как . . ., так и за исключе́ нием; исключа́ я ислючи́ тельно; то́ лько сверх вдалеке́ от; вдали́ от; далеко́ от в конце́ концо́ в; наконе́ ц вслед за для; за; и́ бо; на; под; ра́ ди ра́ ди к приме́ ру; наприме́ р; ска́ жем во и́ мя то́ чно поми́ луй(те) открове́ нно говоря́ из (изо); из-за; от (ото); с (со) из-за из-под с то́ чки зре́ ния отку́ да бо́ лее (бо́ льше) того́ ; тем бо́ лее вообще́ в си́ лу так как в си́ лу того́ , что чёрт возьми́ /побери́

English–Russian glossary

God forbid good luck hardly he/she/it might be heaven forbid help hello here hey how however hurrah hurray I have to say I think so i.e. I’m ashamed to say if if not if only imagine immediately after impossible in in accordance with in all probability in case of in certain conditions in comparison with in connection with in connection with the fact that in essence in general in front of in light of in light of the fact that in order to in other words in place of in short in spite of

5

не дай бог; чего́ до́ брого счастли́ во едвá ли уж на что, а не ро́ вен час карау́ л алло́ ; здра́ вствуй(те) вот; на; тут а; алло́ ; ау́ ; ба; эй как; как же зато́ ; но; одна́ ко; так ура́ ура́ на́ до сказа́ ть ка́ жется так сты́ дно сказа́ ть е́ жели; е́ жели бы; е́ сли; е́ сли бы; ка́ бы; когда́ ; когда́ бы; ли (ль) а то лишь бы; хотя́ бы предста́ вь(те) (себе́ ) вслед за тем(,) как не мо́ жет быть в (во); за; на; спустя́ ; че́ рез в соотве́ тствие с; согла́ сно по всей вероя́ тности в слу́ чае при в сравне́ нии с в связи́ с в связи́ с тем(,) что в су́ щности; по су́ ти (де́ ла) в о́ бщем пе́ ред в све́ те ввиду́ того́ (,) что для того́ (,) что́ бы; зате́ м(,) что́ бы; ра́ ди того́ , что́ бы; с тем(,) что́ бы; что́ бы (чтоб) други́ ми слова́ ми; ина́ че говоря́ ; ины́ ми слова́ ми вме́ сто в о́ бщем; коро́ че говоря́ ; сло́ вом вопреки́ тому́ (,) что

6

English–Russian glossary

in the direction of in the meantime in the middle of in the presence of someone in your opinion incidentally including indeed indubitably inside instead of into isn’t it it goes without saying it looks like it seemed it seems it sounds like it turns out it would seem (it’s a) pity it’s not enough that it’s not that it’s strange judging by just just like less let let’s let’s go let’s say like likely likewise look at (someone) looks like luckily may maybe maybe even meanwhile more

по направле́ нию к мéжду тем посреди́ ; среди́ при по-ва́ шему ме́ жду про́ чим; слу́ чаем в том числе́ ве́ рно; в са́ мом де́ ле; действи́ тельно безусло́ вно; несомне́ нно внутри́ вме́ сто; вме́ сто того́ (,) что́ бы; чем в ведь само́ собо́ й похо́ же; ста́ ло быть; су́ дя по всему́ каза́ лось ви́ димо; ви́ дно; вро́ де; ка́ жется; по-ви́ димому; ста́ ло быть я́ кобы ока́ зывается каза́ лось бы жаль (жа́ лко) ма́ ло того́ (,) что не то что́ бы/чтоб стра́ нное де́ ло су́ дя по аж; всего́ ; лишь бы; про́ сто; то́ лько как . . ., так и ме́ нее пусть (пуска́ й) дава́ й(те) айда́ допу́ стим; поло́ жим бу́ дто; вро́ де; наподо́ бие; подо́ бно; ска́ жем вероя́ тно та́ кже ишь бу́ дто (бы) к сча́ стью пусть (пуска́ й) аво́ сь; мо́ жет/мо́ жет быть а то и ме́ жду тем бо́ лее

English–Russian glossary

more precisely moreover most importantly most likely my gosh namely naturally near nearly neither . . . nor nevertheless next to no no doubt no matter how no matter how much no matter what no small feat no way no wonder not not . . . so much as not a problem not counting not even close not far from not only not only . . . but also not only that not excluding not without nothing much nothing to be done about it nothing to laugh at obviously of of course off oh oh God oh man oh(,) right oh really?

7

верне́ е; лу́ чше сказать бо́ лее (бо́ льше) того́ гла́ вное должно́ быть; на́ до ду́ мать/на́ до полага́ ть ах и́ менно есте́ ственно; разуме́ ется вблизи́ (от); во́ зле; о́ коло едва́ не ни . . ., ни всё-таки́ ; одна́ ко; тем не ме́ нее во́ зле; ря́ дом с нет без сомне́ ния; несомне́ нно как (бы) ни ско́ лько (бы) ни что (бы) ни шу́ тка ли не мо́ жет быть то-то не; ни не сто́ лько . . ., ско́ лько не за что не счита́ я как же невдалеке́ от; недалеко́ от; неподалёку от не то́ лько не то́ лько . . ., но и ма́ ло того́ вплоть до не без так де́ лать не́ чего шу́ тка ли очеви́ дно о (об, о́ бо) а как же; есте́ ственно; коне́ чно; разуме́ ется; само́ собо́ й с (со) ай; о; ой; ox бо́ же ух ах(,) да скажи́ те пожа́ луйста

8

English–Russian glossary

okay on on account of on account of the fact that on one hand . . . on the other hand on the contrary on the eve of only or other other than other than that otherwise ouch out of outside of over owing to past perhaps phew (please,) tell me more possibly practically prior to probably rather rather than really regarding regardless from where regardless of resembling right right? right after round say what you want, but say what you will seeming(ly) shoo

ла́ дно на; о; по за счёт за счёт того́ (,) что с одно́ й . . . с друго́ й стороны́ наоборо́ т; напро́ тив накану́ не аж; всего́ ; лишь; то́ лько и́ ли (иль); ли́ бо; не то ещё кро́ ме кро́ ме того́ (,) что а то; в проти́ вном случае; ина́ че; не то ай; ой за; из (изо) вне над (на́ до); о; пове́ рх благодаря́ ми́ мо; по проше́ ствии допу́ стим; мо́ жет/мо́ жет быть уф; фу что ты говори́ шь возмо́ жно едва́ ли не; чуть ли не до того́ (,) как ве́ рно; вероя́ тно; наве́ рно(е); небо́ сь; пожа́ луй верне́ е; точне́ е (говоря́ , сказа́ ть) вме́ сто того́ (,) что́ бы в са́ мом де́ ле; да; действи́ тельно; неуже́ ли; пра́ вда; ра́ зве вокру́ г; в отноше́ нии; oтноси́ тельно; по отноше́ нию к отку́ да (бы) ни како́ й бы ни; незави́ симо от наподо́ бие да; пра́ вда; так; хорошо́ не пра́ вда ли лишь вокру́ г что-что, а; уж что-что, а что ни говори́ (те) бы́ ло кыш

English–Russian glossary

similar to how since so so that so to speak solely something like specifically starting with still straight up strictly speaking suppose sure taking into account than thank God thanks to thanks to the fact that thank you that that’s why that is the . . . the the likes of which the moment then there therefore they say though through throughout thus to to be precise to boot to one’s shame to oppose to tell the truth to the degree that

9

подо́ бно тому́ (,) как ведь; исходя́ из тогó(,) что; раз; с (со); с тех пор(,) как; так как вот; зна́ чит; и; ита́ к; поэ́ тому; так; так что для того́ (‚) что́ бы; что́ бы (чтоб) так сказа́ ть еди́ нственно вро́ де того́ (,) что и́ менно; как раз; точне́ е (говоря́ , сказа́ ть) начина́ я с всё же; всё-таки; при э́ том пря́ мо со́ бственно (говоря́ ) предполо́ жим а как же в све́ те чем сла́ ва бо́ гу/сла́ ва го́ споди благодаря́ благодаря́ тому́ (,) что спаси́ бо аж; как бы не; кото́ рый; что; что́ бы (чтоб); э́ то оттого́ и; потому́ и; поэ́ тому так, то есть чем . . ., тем како́ й как то́ лько так вон поэ́ тому говоря́ т а; пра́ вда сквозь; че́ рез в течéние; на протяжéнии таки́ м о́ бразом в (во); вплоть до; до; к (ко); на; по; под то есть и то к стыду́ своему́ напереко́ р по пра́ вде говоря́ /сказа́ ть; сказа́ ть по пра́ вде/ по со́ вести; че́ стно говоря́ посто́ льку, поско́ льку

10

English–Russian glossary

to the point too towards undeniably under understood undoubtedly unfortunately unless unlike unlikely until up to up until upwards of used to well what what a what are you talking about? what do you mean? what kind of when when compared with when suddenly whenever where whereas wherever whether which which is why which means while who whoa whoever with with your permission within without without doubt

вплоть до того́ , что ещё к (ко); навстре́ чу; по отноше́ нию к бесспо́ рно под (по́ до); при поня́ тно без сомне́ ния к несча́ стью; к сожале́ нию ра́ зве то́ лько в отли́ чие от вряд ли; едва́ ли впредь до; до; до тех пор(,) пока́ не; до того́ (,) как; пока́ не до вплоть до свы́ ше быва́ ло ну что какóй что ты/вы как; то есть како́ й в то вре́ мя(,) как; когда́ ; при по сравне́ нию с как вдруг когда́ (бы) ни где; куда́ , отку́ да в то вре́ мя(,) как; тогда́ как где (бы) ни; ку́ да (бы) ни ли (ль) кото́ рый почему́ и; отчегó и ста́ ло быть а; в то вре́ мя(,) как; и; пока́ ; при; тогда́ как кто ой кто бы ни при; с (со) с ва́ шего/твоего́ разреше́ ния в (во) без без сомне́ ния

English–Russian glossary

without question would wow yeah yes you can say you have to agree you know you see you’re welcome you won’t believe it

бесспо́ рно бы (б) ай; ого́ а да; хорошо́ мо́ жно сказа́ ть согласи́ сь зна́ ешь (ли) ви́ дишь ли; понима́ ешь/понима́ ете на здоро́ вье; пожа́ луйста не пове́ ришь

11

RUSSIAN–ENGLISH GLOSSARY

а

and, but, while, though; hey, yeah; ah

аво́ сь ага́ аж ай айда́ а как же алло́ а ну а то а то и ау́ ах aх(,) да

maybe aha even, just, only; that oh, ouch, wow let’s go of course, sure hello; hey come on otherwise, if not maybe even hey my gosh oh(,) right

ба без без сомне́ ния

hey without without doubt, no doubt, undoubtedly, definitely безусло́ вно certainly, indubitably бесспо́ рно without question, undeniably бис encore благодаря́ thanks to, owing to благодаря́ тому́ (,) что thanks to the fact that бо́ же oh God more бо́ лее бо́ лее того́ (бо́ льше furthermore, moreover того́ ) бра́ во bravo

conj.; part.; interj. part.; parenth. interj. part.; conj. interj. part. part. interj. interj. conj. conj. interj. interj. interj. interj. prepos. parenth. part.; parenth. part.; parenth. interj. prepos. conj. interj. part. parenth. interj.

Russian–English glossary

13

бу́ дто (бы) бы (б) быва́ ло бы́ ло

as if, looks like; as if would used to seeming(ly)

conj.; part. part. parenth. part.

в (во) вблизи́ , вблизи́ от ввиду́ ввиду́ того́ (‚) что вдалеке́ от вдали́ от вдоль вдоль по ведь верне́ е ве́ рно вероя́ тно в зави́ симости от ви́ димо ви́ дишь ли ви́ дно в конце́ концо́ в вме́ сто вме́ сто того(,) что́ бы вне внутри́ в о́ бщем во вре́ мя во́ зле возмо́ жно во и́ мя вокру́ г вон вообще́ вопреки́ вопреки́ тому́ (,) что вот в отли́ чие от в отноше́ нии впереди́ вплоть до вплоть до того, что впредь до в проти́ вном слу́ чае впро́ чем в результа́ те в результа́ те того(,) что в результа́ те чего́

in, away, at; to; within; into close to, near because of, as a result of, due to in light of the fact that far away from far away from along, down along, down since, because; isn’t it rather, more precisely indeed; probably likely, probably depending on it seems you see it seems finally; at least instead of, in place of instead of, rather than outside of inside in general, in short during by, near, next to possibly for someone’s/something’s sake around, round; regarding there generally speaking, at all as opposed to in spite of, contrary to here unlike regarding, concerning ahead of up until, to; not excluding to the point until otherwise although; all things considered as a result of as a result of the fact that

prepos. prepos. prepos. conj. prepos. prepos. prepos. prepos. conj.; part. parenth. part; parenth. parenth; part. prepos. parenth. parenth. parenth. parenth. prepos. conj. prepos. prepos. parenth. prepos. prepos. parenth. prepos. prepos. part. parenth. prepos. conj. part. prepos. prepos. prepos. prepos. conj. prepos. conj. conj.; parenth. prepos. conj.

as a result of which

conj.

14

Russian–English glossary

вро́ де вро́ де того́ (,) что вря́ д ли в са́ мом де́ ле в све́ те в связи́ с в связи́ с тем(,) что всего́ всё всё же всё-таки в си́ лу в си́ лу того́ , что вслед за вслед за тем(,) как всле́ дствие всле́ дствие того́ (,) что всле́ дствие чего́ в слу́ чае в соотве́ тствии с в сопровожде́ нии в сравне́ нии с в су́ щности в тече́ ние в то вре́ мя(,) как

prepos.; part. conj. part. parenth. prepos. prepos. conj. part.; interj. part. part.; conj. part.; conj. prepos. conj. prepos. conj. prepos. conj. conj. prepos. prepos. prepos. prepos. parenth. prepos. conj.

в том числе́ в числе́

like; it seems something like unlikely actually; indeed; really in light of, taking into account in connection with; because of in connection with the fact that, because only, just; all the best [no translation] after all; still after all, nevertheless; still, anyway given given the fact that following someone/something immediately after as a consequence as a consequence of the fact that as a consequence of which in case of in accordance with accompanied by in comparison with in essence during; throughout while, during, at the same time as, when; although, whereas including among someone/something

где где (бы) ни гла́ вное говоря́ т гре́ шным де́ лом

where wherever most importantly they say ashamed to say

conj. conj. parenth. parenth. parenth.

да

yes, right; really; by the way; yes?; and; but let’s even far away from indeed, really nothing to be done about it as one put it for in order to, so that before, until; to; up to most likely let’s say; perhaps as long as

part.; conj.

дава́ й(те) да́ же далеко́ от действи́ тельно де́ лать не́ чего де́ скать для для того́ (‚) что́ бы до должно́ быть допу́ стим до тех пор(,) пока́

conj. prepos.

part. part.; conj. prepos. part.; parenth. parenth. parenth. prepos. conj. prepos. parenth. parenth.; part. conj.

Russian–English glossary

15

до тех пор(,) пока́ не до того́ (,) как други́ ми слова́ ми

until prior to, until in other words

conj. conj. parenth.

едва́ едва́ ли едва́ ли не едва́ не еди́ нственно е́ жели е́ жели бы е́ сли е́ сли бы есте́ ственно ещё

barely unlikely, hardly, barely practically nearly solely if if if if naturally; of course else, other; also, too, as well, and yet

conj. part. part. part. part. conj. conj. conj. conj.; part. parenth.; part. part.; conj.

жаль (жа́ лко) же

(it’s a) pity [no translation]

parenth. part.; conj.

за

behind; at; for; about; out of; before; during; after excluding on account of, because of, at the expense of on account of the fact that in order to however, but hello you know so

prepos.

and; so; but; while; even and . . . and for from; out of from, from behind; because of because of from beneath or either . . . or

conj.; part. conj. conj. prepos. prepos. conj. prepos. conj. conj.

specifically, exactly; namely otherwise in other words in other words excluding exclusively based on based on that fact that, since anyway

part. conj. parenth. parenth. prepos. part. prepos. conj. part.

за исключе́ нием за счёт за счёт того́ (,) что зате́ м(,) что́ бы зато́ здра́ вствуй(те) зна́ ешь (ли) зна́ чит и и ... и и́ бо из (изо) из-за из-за того́ (,) что из-под (из-по́ до) и́ ли (иль) и́ ли . . . и́ ли (иль . . . иль) и́ менно ина́ че ина́ че говоря́ ины́ ми слова́ ми исключа́ я исключи́ тельно исходя́ из исходя́ из того́ (,) что и так

prepos. prepos. conj. conj. conj. interj. parenth. parenth.; conj.

16

Russian–English glossary

ита́ к и то ишь

so to boot look at [someone]

conj. conj. part.

к (ко) ка́ бы ка́ жется каза́ лось каза́ лось бы как

towards; to; by if it seems; I think so it seemed it would seem that; as, as well as; as soon as; how, what do you mean? as if as if that no matter how when suddenly as if how; not even close as bad luck would have it as if on purpose as strange as it is as usual the likes of which; what kind of, what a regardless of as it turned out as expected as a rule specifically just likе, exactly like as soon as, the moment help unfortunately when; if if whenever of course in short which, that for example besides; other than additionally aside from, other than that by the way unfortunately by the way to one’s shame luckily who whoever

prepos. conj. parenth.; part. parenth. parenth. conj.; part.

как бу́ дто как бы как бы не как (бы) ни как вдруг как е́ сли бы как же как назло́ как наро́ чно как ни стра́ нно как обы́ чно како́ й како́ й бы ни как оказа́ лось как полага́ ется как пра́ вило как раз как . . ., так и как то́ лько карау́ л к несча́ стью когда́ когда бы когда́ (бы) ни коне́ чно коро́ че говоря́ кото́ рый к приме́ ру кро́ ме кро́ ме того́ кро́ ме того(,) что к сло́ ву (сказа́ ть) к сожале́ нию кста́ ти к стыду́ своему́ к сча́ стью кто кто бы ни

conj.; part. part. conj. conj. conj. conj. part. parenth. parenth. parenth. parenth. conj. conj. parenth. parenth. parenth. part. conj. conj. interj. parenth. conj. conj. conj. part.; parenth. parenth. conj. parenth. prepos. parenth. conj. parenth. parenth. parenth. parenth. parenth. conj. conj.

Russian–English glossary

17

к тому́ же куда́ кудá (бы) ни кыш

additionally where wherever shoo

conj. conj. conj. interj.

ла́ дно легко́ сказа́ ть ли (ль) ли́ бо ли́ бо . . ., ли́ бо лишь лишь бы лишь тóлько лу́ чше сказать

okay easy to say if, whether or either . . . or only; as soon as, right after if only; just (see лишь) more precisely

part. parenth. part.; conj. conj. conj. part.; conj. part.

ма́ ло того́ ма́ ло того́ (,) что мéжду ме́ жду на́ ми (говоря́ ) ме́ жду прочим мéжду тем ме́ нее ми́ мо мо́ жет/мо́ жет быть мо́ жно сказа́ ть мол

not only that it’s not enough that between between you and me by the way; incidentally while, in the meantime less by, past maybe, perhaps you can say as one put it

parenth. conj. prepos. parenth. parenth. conj. part. prepos. parenth. parenth. part.

на наве́ рно(е) навстре́ чу над (на́ до) на́ до ду́ мать/на́ до полага́ ть на́ до сказа́ ть на здоро́ вье на и́ мя накану́ не наконе́ ц наоборо́ т на основа́ нии на основа́ нии того́ (,) что на осно́ ве напереко́ р наподо́ бие наприме́ р напро́ тив на протяже́ нии наряду́ с

for; in; at; on; to; here probably towards over most likely

prepos.; part. parenth. prepos. prepos. parenth.

I have to say you’re welcome [no translation] on the eve of finally conversely, on the contrary as per based on the fact that

parenth. interj. prepos. prepos. parenth. parenth.; part. prepos. conj.

based on, as a result to oppose resembling, like for example across from; conversely, on the contrary during; throughout along with

prepos. prepos. prepos. parenth. prepos. prepos. prepos.

parenth.

18

Russian–English glossary

наскóлько . . . настóлько насчёт начина́ я с не не без (see без) небо́ сь невдалеке́ от невзира́ я на невзира́ я на то, что не дай бог недалеко́ от незави́ симо от не за что не мо́ жет быть не пове́ ришь неподалёку от не пра́ вда ли не ро́ вен час несмотря́ на несмотря́ на то, что несомне́ нно не сто́ лько . . ., ско́ лько не счита́ я нет не так ли не то не то́ лько не то́ лько . . ., но и не то . . ., не то не то что́ бы/чтоб неуже́ ли не́ чего де́ лать ни ни . . ., ни ничего́ не ска́ жешь но ну о (об, о́ бо) ого́ одна́ ко одни́ м сло́ вом ой ока́ зывается о́ коло от (о́ то) открове́ нно говоря́

as much as

conj.

about, concerning starting with, beginning with not not without probably not far from despite despite the fact that God forbid not far from regardless of not a problem no way, impossible you won’t believe it not far from right? heaven forbid despite despite the fact that indubitably, no doubt not . . . so much as

prepos. prepos. part. prepos. parenth. prepos. prepos. conj. parenth. prepos. prepos. interj. interj. parenth. prepos. part. parenth. prepos. conj. part.; parenth. conj.

not counting no does it not? otherwise, or not only not only . . . but also either . . . or it’s not that really (see де́ лать не́ чего) not neither . . . nor can’t say anything [bad, good, etc.] but, however well

prepos. part. part. conj. part. conj. conj. part. part. parenth. part. conj. parеnth. conj. part.; interj.

about, of; oh; on, over wow! however, nevertheless (see сло́ вом) ouch, whoa, oh it turns out by, close to, near; around, about from; because of; against frankly speaking

prepos. interj. conj.; parеnth. parenth. interj. parenth. prepos. prepos. parenth.

Russian–English glossary

отку́ да отку́ да (бы) ни oтноси́ тельно оттого́ и оттого́ (,) что отчего́ и оx очеви́ дно пе́ ред пе́ ред тем(,) как по

where, from which regardless from where regarding, concerning that’s why because which is why oh obviously

in front of, before; ahead of before along, on; to; at, in, by; according to, by (means of); based on по-вашему in your opinion пове́ рх over пове́ рь(те) believe me по-ви́ димому it seems по всей вероя́ тности/ in all probability по (всей) ви́ димости под (подо) under, for, to, beneath, before, about подо́ бно like подо́ бно тому́ (,) как similar to how поду́ маешь big whoop пожáлуй probably пожа́ луйста you’re welcome позади́ behind пока́ while пока́ не until поло́ жим let’s say по ме́ ре as по ме́ ре того́ (,) как as поми́ луй(те) forgive me поми́ мо aside from, against по-мо́ ему (see по-ва́ шему) по направле́ нию к in the direction of you see понима́ ешь/ понима́ ете поня́ тно clearly; understood по отноше́ нию к regarding, towards поперёк along по по́ воду about по пра́ вде говоря́ / to tell the truth сказа́ ть по причи́ не as a result of по причи́ не того, что as a result of по проше́ ствии past поско́ льку because по́ сле after по́ сле того́ (,) как after

19

conj. conj. prepos. conj. conj. conj. interj. parenth. prepos. conj. prepos. parenth. prepos. parenth. parenth. parenth. prepos. prepos. conj. interj. parenth.; part. part. prepos. conj. conj. parenth. prepos. conj. parenth. prepos. parenth. prepos. parenth. parenth. prepos. prepos. prepos. parenth. prepos. conj. prepos. conj. prepos. conj.

20

Russian–English glossary

по сравне́ нию с посреди́ посре́ дством посто́ льку, поско́ льку по су́ ти (де́ ла) по существу́ по-тво́ ему потому́ и потому́ (,) что похо́ же почему́ и поэ́ тому пра́ вда

when compared with in the middle of by means of to the degree that in essence basically (see по-ва́ шему) that’s why because it looks like which is why therefore, so, that’s why right, really; though

prepos. prepos. prepos. conj. parenth. parenth. parenth. conj. conj. parenth. conj. conj. parenth.; part.; conj. parenth. parenth. conj. prepos.

предполо́ жим предста́ вь(те) (себе́ ) пре́ жде чем при причём при э́ том про про́ сто про́ тив пря́ мо пусть (пуска́ й) путём

suppose imagine before attached to, affiliated with; during the time of, under; in the presence of someone, in certain conditions; with; when, while and all the while, still about just against straight up let; may by (way of)

ра́ ди ра́ ди того́ , чтобы раз ра́ зве ра́ зве то́ лько разуме́ ется ря́ дом с

for (the sake of) in order to since really? unless of course, naturally next to

prepos. conj. conj. part.; conj. conj. part.; parenth. prepos.

с (со) само́ собо́ й с ва́ шего/твоего́ разреше́ ния сверх свы́ ше ска́ жем скажи́ те пожа́ луйста сказа́ ть по пра́ вде/ по со́ вести сквозь ско́ лько

from, off; since; with it goes without saying; of course with your permission

prepos. part. parenth.

extra upwards of like, for example oh really? to tell the truth

prepos. prepos. parenth. interj. parenth.

through as much, as many

prepos. conj.

conj. conj. prepos. part. prepos. part. part.; conj. prepos.

Russian–English glossary

ско́ лько (бы) ни слава бо́ гу/сла́ ва го́ споди сле́ довательно сло́ вно сло́ вом слу́ чаем случа́ йно со́ бственно (говоря́ ) согласи́ сь согла́ сно с одно́ й . . . с друго́ й стороны́ спаси́ бо спустя́ среди́ ста́ ло быть с тем(,) что́ бы с тех пор(,) как с то́ чки зре́ ния стра́ нное де́ ло сты́ дно сказа́ ть су́ дя по су́ дя по всему́ счастли́ во так та́ кже таки́ м о́ бразом так как так сказа́ ть так что тем бо́ лее

21

no matter how much thank God

conj. parenth.

ergo as though in short incidentally by any chance strictly speaking you have to agree in accordance to/with on one hand . . . on the other hand

conj.; parenth. conj. parenth. parenth. parenth. parenth. parenth. prepos. parenth.

thank you in in the middle of; among it seems, it looks like; which means in order to since from the point of view of it’s strange I’m ashamed to say judging by it looks like good luck

part. prepos. prepos. parenth.; conj. conj. conj. parenth. parenth. parenth. prepos. parenth. interj.

nothing much; right; approximately; i.e., that is; then; so; however also, likewise thus given that, since so to speak so furthermore; especially

part.; conj.

тем не ме́ нее тогда́ как то есть то́ же то ли . . .‚ то ли то́ лько то-то точне́ е (говоря, сказать) то́ чно

nevertheless while, whereas that is, to be precise; what do you mean? also either . . . or as soon as; but; only; just, exclusively and that; no wonder specifically, rather

тут

here

as if; exactly; for sure

conj. parenth. conj. parenth. conj. part.; conj.; parenth. conj. conj. part.; conj. conj.; part. conj. conj.; part. part. parenth. conj.; part.; parenth. part.

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у увы́ уж уж на что, а уж что-что, а ура́ уф ух

at alas [no translation] he/she/it might be say what you want, but hurrah, hurray phew oh man

prepos. interj. part. part. part. interj. interj. interj.

фу

ew; phew

interj.

хорошо́ хоть хотя́ (хоть) хотя́ бы

yes; right; alright even; at least although; even though, but if only; at least

part.; parenth. part. conj. part.

ча́ сом чего́ до́ брого чем чем . . ., тем че́ рез чёрт возьми́ /побери́ че́ стно говоря́ что что́ бы (чтоб) что (бы) ни что (же) каса́ ется что ни что ни говори́ (те) что ты/вы что ты говори́ шь что . . . что что-что, а чуть ли не чуть не чуть тóлько

by any chance God forbid than; instead of the . . . the across; through; in God damn it to tell the truth that; what that; in order to; so that no matter what concerning, as for another say what you will what are you talking about? (please), tell me more [no translation] say what you want, but practically almost (see тóлько)

parenth. parenth. conj. conj. prepos. interject. parenth. conj. conj.; part. conj. conj. conj. parenth. interject. interject. conj. part. part. part. conj.

шу́ тка ли

no small feat, nothing to laugh at

parenth.

эй э́ то эх

hey that bah

interj. part. interj.

я́ кобы

as if; it sounds like

conj.; part.

ENTRIES

А Conjunction. Particle. Interjection Conjunction And, but, while Connects parts of sentences or clauses when listing facts to swing to a different object of narration or speech. Обы́ чно на зáвтрак он пьёт кóфе, а на обéд сок.

Usually, he drinks coffee for breakfast and juice for dinner.

Ты посмотри́ фильм, а пáпа покá суп свáрит.

Watch a movie, while dad prepares the soup.

But Expresses disparity. Has an adversative meaning when there is a lack of correspondence between parts of a sentence. The conjunction но but could be used in these sentences to convey negative emotion and to show the irregularity of the facts’ sequence. (See also но.) Нáшему сосéду ужé за сéмьдесят, а он всё ещё рабóтает.

Our neighbor is already 70, but he still goes to work.

Ужé дéвять часóв, а дед всё ещё смóтрит телеви́ зор.

It’s already nine, but grandpa is still watching TV.

But When following the particle не not, it is used to oppose actions, objects, features, or phenomena, implying that there is something unexpected in one of the parts or clauses of a sentence. (See also не.)

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Онá закóнчит университéт не в э́ том годý, а в бýдущем.

She’ll graduate from her university not this year, but the next.

Не прошлó и чáса, а мнóгие зри́ тели ужé ушли́ из кинозáла.

An hour hadn’t passed yet, but a lot of people had already left the movie theater.

But Connects parts or clauses that have words denoting time, when one action follows after another. If a speaker has a negative attitude towards the information, но but would be used here. (See also но.) Сначáла мы éхали пóездом, а потóм пришлóсь добирáться на такси́ .

At first we took a train, but then we had to use a taxi.

And Intensifies the focus on the topic being discussed in combination with words like крóме тогó besides, ещё in addition, etc. The stylistically neutral conjunction и and can also be used when a speaker does not express any feelings towards the information. When the utterance implies a negative overtone, the conjunction но but can be used. (See also и, но.) И́ нна рабóтает в кафé‚ а крóме тогó‚ в библиотéке.

Inna works in a cafe and also in the library.

Though In combination with particles like всё-таки still, this conjunction serves as a link between speech acts and also conveys a speaker’s attitude towards the foretold, intensifying the particle. It signals a protest towards the previous speech act. The neutral conjunction и and or the opposing conjunction но but can also be used. (See also и, но.) А всё-таки лéто бы́ ло замечáтельным, что бы кто ни говори́ л.

The summer was wonderful, though, regardless of what anyone says.

Particle [coll.] Hey! Used when repeating an address to get someone’s attention. The comma is not used after the particle. Кóля! А Кóля!? Порá домóй.

Kolia! Hey Kolia! It’s time to go home.

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Yeah, okay Used as an exclamatory interrogative or interrogative reply or at the end of sentences that require a reply. Свéта! – А?! – Ты когдá ухóдишь? Пойдём сегóдня в кинó пóсле обéда‚ а?

“Sveta!” “Yeah?” “When are you leaving? Let’s go to the movies today after dinner, okay?”

Interjection Ah Used as an exclamation to express positive or negative emotions when someone meets someone else or is talking on the phone. Also used as a response to confirm one’s understanding of something. Separated by a comma. А‚ Алексáндр Геóргиевич! Так э́ то Вы звони́ ли.

Ah, Aleksandr Georgievich! So it was you who called.

А-а‚ давнó я не ви́ дела Вас!

Ah, I haven’t seen you in a long time!

Ты так пóздно пришёл вчерá. – У меня́ бы́ ло óчень мнóго рабóты. – А-а.

“You came so late yesterday!” “I had a lot of work to do.” “Ah, [alright].”

Аhh Can also be yelled as an articulation of fear or desperation. In this case, it is pronounced prolongedly, sometimes repeatedly. А-а-a!!! Поли́ ция! Грáбят!

Ahhh! Help! I’m being mugged!

Note! А and serves as a link between speakers and starts a question or a reply. – Где Вы рабóтаете? – Я преподавáтель и рабóтаю в университéте. А Вы? – А я – в больни́ це.

“Where do you work?” “I’m a professor and work at the university. And you?” “I work at the hospital.”

Авóсь [coll.] Particle. Parenthetical word Maybe Used to express that something may happen by a coincidence of circumstances, i.e., regardless of one’s desire. Can serve as a particle or (less commonly) a

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parenthetical word, depending on its function in a sentence, much like its synonym мóжет быть maybe. If it is a parenthetical word, it is separated by commas. (See also мóжет быть.) Нéбо в тучах, но всё равнó поéдем – авóсь дождя́ не бýдет.

It’s cloudy, but we’ll go anyway; maybe there won’t be any rain.

Давáйте ещё немнóго подождём. Авóсь, он скóро придёт.

Let’s wait a bit. Maybe he’ll get here soon.

The expression дéлать на авóсь [coll.] means to do something and hope for the best and indicates a careless attitude. Ви́ ктор несерьёзно отнóсится к свои́ м обя́ занностям и всё дéлает на авóсь.

Viktor is not serious about his obligations and does everything blindly, hoping for the best.

Saying Понадéяться на авóсь.

To rely on luck.

Агá [coll.] Interjection Aha An exclamation that is pronounced triumphantly, with a raised intonation. Also used as a confirmation of understanding something. Агá! Попáлся!

Aha! I’ve got you!

Поня́ тно? – Агá.

“Understand?” “Uhuh.”

Аж [coll.] Particle. Conjunction Particle Even, just, only Emphasizes the importance or insignificance of what is described in the utterance. Can be a synonym of дáже even, тóлько just, and всегó just. (See also дáже, тóлько, всегó.) От неожи́ данности онá аж вскри́ кнула.

It was so unexpected that she even screamed.

На вечери́ нку пришли́ аж пять человéк.

Only five people came to the party.

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Conjunction That A synonym of the neutral что that. Used in complex sentences to connect the subordinate clause that implies the consequence of the actions described in the principal clause. Аж intensifies the result. Can be used with the pronominal adverb так so. (See also что.) Так потемнéло, аж стáло не по себé.

It got so dark that it became uncomfortable.

Ай [coll.] Interjection Oh, ouch Expresses pain, alarm, astonishment, pleasure, or other feelings. When it articulates displeasure, criticism, or reproach, it can be repeated: ай-ай-ай. The expressed emotions are intensified when the interjection is followed by the words как how and какóй what, which are used to elaborate the feelings. Used in the same situations as ой ouch. Separated by commas. (See also ой.) Ай! Отпусти́ – бóльно!

Ouch! Let go, it hurts!

Ай-ай-ай! Как не сты́ дно!? Такáя ýмная дéвочка и не умéет себя́ вести́ .

For shame! Such a smart girl and doesn’t know how to behave herself.

Ай, какóй день замечáтельный!

My, what a beautiful day!

Айдá [coll.] Particle Let’s go Used to urge someone to go somewhere quickly. Very informal. Закóнчили зáвтракать и айдá на рéку.

Let’s finish breakfast and go to the river.

А как же [coll.] Particle Of course, sure Used as an intensified affirmative reply. The synonymous конéчно of course, разумéется of course, безуслóвно certainly, несомнéнно indubitably, and others are utilized in various styles. (See also безуслóвно, конéчно, несомнéнно, разумéется.) Ну что, идём в фи́ тнес-клуб? – А как “Do you want go to the gym?” “Sure thing! же! Идём, конéчно. Let’s go.”

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Аллó Interjection Hello, hey Used in telephone conversations as a synonym of слýшаю speaking. Conveys discourtesy when addressing someone to catch their attention. Synonymous with the very informal эй hey, which can sound rude. (See also эй.) Аллó, слýшаю.

Hello?

Аллó! Останови́ сь, мы приéхали.

Hey, stop! We’re here!

А ну [coll.] Interjection Come on Used to force someone into doing something. Often accompanied by an imperative. Separated by a comma. А ну, перестáнь ревéть, вы́ три слёзы и умóйся.

Come on, stop bawling, wipe away the tears, and wash up.

А то [coll.] Conjunction Otherwise, if not An adversative conjunction that is used in compound sentences to indicate that the accomplishment of the action in the second clause depends on the action in the first clause. Synonymous with the informal не то otherwise, the neutral инáче otherwise, and the formal в проти́ вном слýчае otherwise. They are used less frequently than а то. (See also в проти́ вном слýчае, инáче, не то.) Нáдо поторáпливаться, а то не успéем. We have to hurry, or we won’t make it.

А то и [coll.] Conjunction Maybe even Connects a coordinate part of a sentence that designates something that is more significant, bigger, better, etc., comparing it with what was said earlier. Придý пóздно – собрáние бýдет дли́ ться два, а то и три часá.

I’ll be late; the meeting will take two, maybe even three hours.

Аý Interjection Hey An exclamation usually used when separated people are trying to find one another, for example, in the woods. Can be used in sentences

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as a subject or an object. Separated by commas or can be a separate sentence. «Аý!» – закричáл Бори́ с в надéжде, что ктó-нибудь отзовётся.

“Hey!” yelled Boris, hoping that someone would answer.

Аý, ктó-нибудь живóй здесь есть?

“Hey, is there anybody in here?”

Вдруг я услы́ шал «аý».

Suddenly, I heard “Hey!”

Ах Interjection My gosh Expresses alarm, admiration, astonishment, and other feelings. The expressed emotions are intensified when the interjection is followed by the words как how and какóй what, which are used to elaborate the feelings. Separated by commas. Can be used as a separate sentence. «Ах!» – испýганно вскри́ кнула онá и вы́ бежала из кóмнаты.

“My gosh!” she yelled in fright, and ran out of the room.

Ах, какóй талáнтливый мáльчик!

My gosh, what a talented boy!

Ах(,) да [coll.] Interjection Oh(,) right Used when one suddenly recalls something. Usually separated by commas. However, sometimes, a comma appears after ах, if the speaker makes a pause. Анатóлий Петрóвич вдруг Anatoly Petrovich suddenly stopped. “Oh останови́ лся: «Ах да, совсéм забы́ л – right, I completely forgot: Lyudmila is coЛюдми́ ла приезжáет в суббóту». ming on Saturday.” Ах, да! Я дóлжен напóмнить, что Вы дежýрите зáвтра.

Oh, right! I have to remind you that you’re on call tomorrow.

Ба [coll.] Interjection Hey An exclamation that expresses amazement or astonishment, usually when one meets someone. Separated by commas. Can be used as a separate sentence. Ба! Когó я ви́ жу?! Давнéнько мы не ви́ делись.

Hey! Look who it is! We haven’t seen one another in so long!

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Без Preposition With the genitive case Without Phrases with this preposition answer the questions без когó? without whom?, без чегó? without what? Used in phrases to indicate minutes when naming the second half of an hour. Ю́ рий рабóтал без óтдыха и сна трóе Yuri had been working without sleep or rest сýток подря́ д. three days in a row. Когдá начинáется приём? – Без чéтверти пять.

“When does the reception begin?” “A quarter to five.”

(И) без тогó even without can be a synonym of и так, where тогó can be substituted with a noun or a pronoun, specifying the undesirable object. (See also и так.) Не поéду я к ним – им и без меня́ I won’t go to them; they have plenty to do дел хватáет. without having to worry about me. Не без (э́ того) means not without (some degree of something), не без интерéса not without interest, не без трудá not without hard work, не без егó учáстия not without his participation, не без проблéм not without problems, не без пóмощи not without help. Ви́ ктор Петрóвич получи́ л повышéние, что не без зáвисти отмéтили его сотрýдники.

Victor Petrovich received a promotion, which his colleagues noted with some degree of envy.

Phrases with без без концá

constantly, lit. endlessly

без пáмяти

to be crazy (about someone)

без спрóса

without permission

бéз толку [coll.]

it is useless to do something

без умá [coll.]

to be crazy (about something/someone)

без ýстали

constantly, lit. tirelessly

Saying Без трудá не вы́ ловишь и ры́ бку из прудá.

No pain, no gain.

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Без сомнéния Parenthetical expression. Particle Parenthetical expression Without doubt, undoubtedly, no doubt Без сомнéния without doubt or без вся́ кого сомнéния without any doubt are neutral in style. Separated by commas. Can also be used as an affirmative response or confirmation. It is the same as вне (вся́ кого) сомнéния no doubt, which can be found in literature, journalism, and formal speech. (See also безуслóвно, бесспóрно.) Без сомнéния, э́ то растéние укрáсит нáшу кóмнату.

This plant will indubitably brighten up our room.

Particle Without doubt, undoubtedly, no doubt Used as an affirmative response and confirmation. (See also безуслóвно, бесспóрно.) Ты успéешь прийти́ зáвтра к десяти́ ? – Без сомнéния.

“Will you be able to come tomorrow at ten?” “Definitely!”

Безуслóвно Particle. Parenthetical word Particle Certainly, indubitably Used as an affirmative response and confirmation. (See also без сомнéния, бесспóрно.) Смóжем ли мы рассчи́ тывать на твою́ пóмощь? – Безуслóвно.

“Can we count on your help?” “Certainly.”

Parenthetical word Certainly, indubitably Demonstrates confidence in some assertion. Separated by commas. Although it sounds formal, it is used in various styles. (See also без сомнéния, бесспóрно.) Он, безуслóвно, ничегó не знал о нáшем разговóре.

Indubitably, he knew nothing of our conversation.

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Note! Can function as an adverbial modifier. Not separated by commas. Which one is appropriate, a parenthetical word or an adverbial modifier, depends on the author’s or speaker’s perception. Он безуслóвно ничегó не знал о нáшем разговóре.

He definitely knew nothing of our conversation.

Бесспóрно Particle. Parenthetical word Particle Without question, undeniably Used as an independent sentence-reply. Кáтя никогдá не закóнчит университéт, éсли бýдет так занимáться. – Бесспóрно.

“Katya will never graduate if she continues studying like this.” “Without question.”

Parenthetical word Without question, undeniably Expresses certainty and assurance. Separated by commas. Although it sounds formal, it can be used in various styles. (See also без сомнéния, безуслóвно.) Э́ то, бесспóрно, карти́ на талáнтливого худóжника.

This is, without question, the painting of a gifted artist.

Note! Can function as an adverbial modifier. Separated by commas. Which one is appropriate, a parenthetical word or an adverbial modifier, depends on the author’s or speaker’s perception. Онá бесспóрно успéет всё сдéлать к пяти́ .

She will undeniably finish everything by five.

Бис Interjection Encore An exclamation used as a demand for an additional performance. – Пýшкина ругáет на чём свет стои́ т “He curses Pushkin up and down and keeps shouting, ‘Kurolesov, encore, encore!’” the и всё вре́ мя кричи́ т: «Куроле́ сов, бис, бис!» – говори́ л гость, тревóжно guest said, twitching nervously. (Bulgakov,

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дёргаясь. (М. Булгáков, «Мáстер и Маргари́ та»)

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Master and Margarita, translated by Pevear and Volokhonsky)

To play something на бис means to play additional pieces at the end of a musical performance. Used with the verbs сыгрáть to play, вызывáть to encore, спеть to sing, деклами́ ровать to declaim, etc. В тот вéчер Евгéния Ки́ сина вызывáли на бис семь или вóсемь раз.

Evgeny Kissin played seven or eight encores that evening.

Благодаря́ Preposition With the dative case Thanks to, owing to Indicates someone or something that is a positive and effective contributor in accomplishing something. The preposition и́ з-за because of is synonymous, but has a negative implication, while вопреки́ contrary to, despite is an antonym of благодаря́ . Phrases with this preposition answer the questions благодаря́ комý? owing to whom?, благодаря́ чемý? owing to what? It may also answer the question почемý? why? (See also и́ з-за, вопреки́ .) Тóлько благодаря́ диéте емý удалóсь похудéть на пять килогрáммов.

He managed to lose five kilograms thanks exclusively to his diet.

Благодаря́ томý(,) что Conjunction Thanks to the fact that Connects adverbial clauses, indicating the cause of the action reflected in the principal part of a sentence. May either follow or precede the principal clause. Implies positive consequences, unlike its synonym из-за тогó что due to the fact that. A comma does not split the conjunction when it starts a sentence, but it is placed before что when it follows a principal clause. Sentences with this conjunction are used to answer the question благодаря́ чемý? thanks to what? The conjunctions потомý что because, оттогó что because, так как given that, ввидý тогó что in light of the fact that, вслéдствие тогó что as a consequence of the fact that, в си́ лу тогó что given the fact that, and others are synonymous. However, they have their own nuances and are used in different styles. (See also из-за тогó что, потомý что, оттогó что, так как, ввидý тогó что, вслéдствие тогó что, в си́ лу тогó что.) Благодаря́ томý что А́ лла Семёновна Owing to the fact that Alla Semyonovna is сиди́ т с внýчкой, А́ ня мóжет рабóтать. at home with her granddaughter, Anya can work.

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Он смог найти́ нýжную информáцию He could find all the essential information тóлько благодаря́ тому, что потрáтил only because he spent a lot of time searching for it. на пóиски мнóго врéмени. Алексáндр Михáйлович, благодаря́ чемý Вы дости́ гли таки́ х результáтов в рабóте? – Благодаря́ томý что у нас былá серьёзная финáнсовая поддéржка.

“Aleksandr Mikhailovich, how did you achieve such results in your work?” “Because we had extensive financial support.”

Бóже Interjection Oh God Expresses astonishment, delight, indignation, etc. Separated by commas or is written as a separate sentence that ends with an exclamation mark. The interjections Бóже прáвый! good Lord!, Бóже (ты) мой! oh my God! are utilized in different styles, from neutral to elevated, in modern Russian. The words Бог, Бóже are often written with a capital Б. Бóже! Какóй ужáсный фильм мы смотрéли вчерá.

Oh God, we saw such a horrible movie yesterday.

Kак боли́ т ногá, бóже мой!

Oh God, my leg hurts so much!

Бóже прáвый, зачéм же так нéрвничать?

Oh my God, what’s the point of being so nervous?

Не дай бог (бóже) God forbid is a parenthetical expression, which can also mean the opposite – дай бы бог let something happen – and it is often used with a shade of sarcasm. When combined with infinitives, it is not separated by commas. May be used as a negative response. Не дай Бог, мáма её кудá-нибудь зашвырнýла. (А. Гелáсимов, «Нéжный вóзраст»)

God forbid, her mother threw her away somewhere. (Gelasimov, Delicate Age)

Не дай емý бог потеря́ ть рабóту.

God forbid he loses his job.

А éсли Ки́ ра не закóнчит университéт? – Не дай бог!

“What if Kira doesn’t finish grad school?” “God forbid!”

Ни бóже мой never that is a synonym of ни в кóем слýчае not at all. Indicates emphasized negation, objection. Separated by commas or dashes. Э́ то бы́ ло врéмя, когдá семья́ затаи́ ла мысль. Не прóтив Ми́ ти – ни Бóже мой! (Г. Щербакóва, «Ми́ тина любóвь»)

It was a time when the family had a wicked idea. Not against Mitya, never that! (Scherbakova, Mitya’s Love)

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Бóже сохрани́ (упаси́ , избáвь) God forbid can also mean ни в кóем слýчае not at all. Separated by commas or is written as a separate sentence that ends with an exclamation mark. Речь не идёт о том, бóже сохрани́ , что кто-то когó-то не уважáет.

We’re not discussing that, God forbid, somebody doesn’t respect someone.

Николáй хóчет взять дéньги в креди́ т “Does Nikolai want to take a loan and buy и купи́ ть кварти́ ру? – Бóже сохрани́ ! an apartment?” “God forbid! He wouldn’t be able to repay it.” Емý же нéчем отдавáть.

Бóлее Particle More Used together with adjectives and adverbs in their basic forms to form a compound comparative degree that is used most often in literature, while the simple comparative degree is neutral and is used in different styles, e.g., бóлее дорогóй versus дорóже. Бóлее should not be confused with бóльше, which is derived from большóй big. The former is used to form the compound comparative degree, while the latter is the comparative form of the adjective большóй. (See also мéнее.) Онá дóлго размышля́ ла над тем, как сдéлать лéкции бóлее интерéсными.

She thought for a long time how she could make her lectures more interesting.

Бóлее (бóльше) тогó Parеnthetical expression Furthermore, moreover Indicates the importance of the assertion that follows. Separated by commas. Both expressions are utilized in different styles. However, бóлее тогó tends to be neutral, while бóльше тогó is most often informal. Михаи́ л Семёныч – тóже демокрáт, Mikhail Semionych is also a democrat. бóлее тогó – ли́ дер Демократи́ ческой Furthermore, he’s the leader of the пáртии. Democratic Party. Мне бы́ ло óчень не по себé и, бóльше тогó, в какóй-то момéнт дáже стáло стрáшно.

I was very perturbed, and, moreover, I even became frightened at some point.

Брáво Interjection Bravo Expresses approval, delight, or enjoyment, especially at various performances. Separated by commas or functions as a separate sentence.

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Все бы́ ли в востóрге – отовсю́ ду раздавáлись кри́ ки «брáво».

Everybody was delighted; “bravo” could be heard from everywhere.

Бýдто Conjunction. Particle. Interjection Conjunction As if Бýдто or бýдто бы [coll.] is used in complex sentences to express doubt, supposition, or uncertainty. The verbs in the principal clause indicate speech, thought, or perception. When implying confidence or assurance, the conjunction что is used. Semantically close to the conjunction я́ кобы as though, which articulates disbelief and skepticism. The particle бы emphasizes hesitation or uncertainty. (See also что, я́ кобы.) Говоря́ т, бýдто (бы) наш дирéктор ухóдит на пéнсию.

They say it looks like our director is going to retire.

Like Expresses a comparison between objects, features, or signs. Synonymous with как as, слóвно as if, or тóчно like. Слóвно and тóчно point to a close resemblance, while бýдто implies proximity. All three conjunctions are used in different styles. At the same time, слóвно tends to be used in poetic and folk speech, тóчно is more conversational, and бýдто is neutral. (See also слóвно, тóчно.) Тишинá – бýдто в лесý.

It’s quiet, like in a forest.

As if Бýдто or бýдто бы [coll.] is the same as как бýдто as if. It connects clauses that describe the manner of the action that occurs in the principal part, implying supposition or something unreal. It can almost always be replaced with the conjunction как éсли бы as if. The conjunctions слóвно as if and тóчно like are synonyms of бýдто and как бýдто. (See also как бýдто, как éсли бы, слóвно, тóчно.) Ми́ ша с растéрянностью смотрéл по сторонáм, бýдто ничегó не узнавáл.

Misha looked around in confusion, as if he didn’t recognize anything.

Ты так о нём говори́ шь, как бýдто не знáешь, что мóжно от негó ожидáть.

You speak about him as if you don’t know what to expect.

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Particle As if Бýдто or как бýдто [coll.] is used in an utterance to express doubt, supposition, uncertainty, or hesitation. It can express assurance in the opposite. Почемý И́ ра так со мной разговáривает? Бýдто я оби́ дел её.

Why does Ira talk to me like this? As if I offended her.

Ну вот, опоздáли. – Бýдто я виновáт! “Well, look at that, we’re late.” “As if it’s my fault!”

Бы (б) Particle Would Б is the same as бы, but has a conversational shade. Used after words that end with a vowel. Expresses a wish, suggestion, doubt, or request. Used to form the conditional mood with verbs in the past tense. May be used in contexts related to present, past, or future. Бы, combined with an infinitive, expresses a desire. Сáша бы поéхал зáвтра к друзья́ м на вечери́ нку.

Sasha would like to go to his friends’ party tomorrow.

Съесть бы чегó-нибудь.

It’d be nice to eat something.

Посмотрéла б я фильм какóй-нибудь. I could really go for a movie right now. Implies warning or threat when combined with the negative particle не not. Implies a hint of discourtesy when used as an imperative. (See also не.) Не включáл бы ты так грóмко мýзыку.

It’d be better if you didn’t turn the music on so loudly.

With the conditional mood, can express a request, a piece of advice, or a suggestion. Very informal and can sound rude. Вы́ ключил бы ты компью́ тер и пошёл спать.

You should turn off the computer and go to bed.

Used with the particle ни in the following expressions: что бы ни no matter what, кто бы ни whoever, кудá бы ни wherever, где бы ни wherever‚ когдá бы ни whenever, etc. These are used in complex sentences that indicate that an action can happen under any circumstance. (See also ни.) Что бы онá ни дéлала, у неё всё получáлось.

Whatever she did, she always succeeded.

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Бывáло [coll.] Particle Used to Can be used with the simple future or the present to express sporadic repeated actions in the past. Приезжáем, бывáло, на дáчу и идём срáзу на рéку.

We used to come to the summer house and make a beeline for the river.

Бывáло, гуля́ ем с отцóм по лéсу, а он My father and I used to walk in the forest истóрии рáзные расскáзывает. while he told me various stories.

Бы́ ло Particle Seeming(ly) Designates an action that started and was interrupted or not completed. Not separated by commas. Widely used in literature. Прекрати́ вшийся бы́ ло ли́ вень, пошёл с ещё бóльшей си́ лой.

The seemingly finished downpour resumed with even greater fury.

Но тут, узнáв о болéзни, реши́ тельно стал о нём забóтиться, пригласи́ л дóктора, стал бы́ ло лечи́ ть, но оказáлось, что вы́ лечить невозмóжно. (Ф. Достоéвский, «Брáтья Карамáзовы»)

But having found out about the illness, he started tending to him, sent for a doctor, started treating him, but it turned out that the illness was impossible to cure. (Dostoevsky, Karamazov Brothers)

В (во) Preposition Во is the same as в and is used before words that begin with two consonants, the first of which is either в or ф (во Фрáнции in France), or before one-syllable words (во сне sleeping, во льдах amidst the ice), or in folklore.

With the prepositional case In, away Denotes location. Indicates a measure of distance. Phrases with this preposition answer the nonspecific question где? where? (See also где.) Её роди́ тели живýт в Нóвгороде.

Her parents live in Novgorod.

Наш дом нахóдится в двух шагáх от их.

Our house is a couple of steps away from theirs.

Мы бы́ ли в пяти́ минýтах от них и разминýлись.

We were five minutes away from them, but we missed them.

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In, at Combined with the nouns начáло beginning, середи́ на middle, and конéц end, denotes a time or place in response to the nonspecific questions когдá? when? and где? where? or the more specific questions в котóром часý? at what time?, в какóм мéсте? in what place? (See also когдá, где.) В концé апрéля ещё бы́ ли зáморозки. There was still frost at the end of April. В котóром часý мы встречáемся? – В “When are we meeting?” “Just after six.” начáле седьмóго. Когдá ты закóнчишь кни́ гу? В какóм мéсте ты нахóдишься? – Скóро. Я ужé в середи́ не.

“When will you finish the book? Where are you now?” “Soon. I’m already halfway through.”

In Combines with nouns that denote the time when an action or event takes place. Combines with the nouns век century, год year, and мéсяц month, with the names of months or with nouns such as дéтство childhood, ю́ ность youth, or стáрость old age. The combination of в какóм in which with the words век century‚ год year‚ or мéсяц month forms more specific interrogative sentences than sentences with когдá when. В дéтстве Ви́ тя жил у тётки, так как егó роди́ тели мнóго врéмени проводи́ ли за грани́ цей.

In his childhood, Vitya lived with his aunt, because his parents spent a lot of time abroad.

В какóм мéсяце у тебя́ óтпуск? – В мáе и́ ли ию́ не.

“When do you have time off?” “In May or June.”

In Used with nouns that designate the condition in which someone is or does something. быть в негодовáнии

to be incredibly displeased

находи́ ться в раздýмьи

to be deep in thought

лежáть в óбмороке

to lie unconscious

быть в нереши́ тельности

to be unsure of one’s actions

находи́ ться в истéрике

to be hysterical

засты́ ть в изумлéнии

to be mesmerized

жить в стрáхе

to live in fear

состоя́ ть в перепи́ ске с кем-то

to be in correspondence with someone

быть в ýжасе

to be horrified

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With the accusative case In, within Indicates a point in time with the names of the days of the week: в пя́ тницу on Friday. Can be a synonym of за within, emphasizing – when used in the accusative – the shortness of time within which something happens: в оди́ н мéсяц within one month, в три дня in three days. The combination в какóй, with a word that denotes a unit of time, forms the interrogative sentences в какóй день? on what day?, в какóй срок? within what term? (See also за.) В понедéльник у нас конферéнция.

We have a conference on Monday.

В какóй срок должны́ быть офóрмлены докумéнты? – В шесть дней.

“By when do the documents have to be ready?” “In six days.”

В is used to express a numerical comparison with a number in the accusative case followed by the noun раз time. В also specifies quantitative attributes. Дорóга занялá в два рáза бóльше врéмени‚ чем предполагáлось.

It took them twice as long to get there than they expected.

Ры́ ба былá вéсом в пять килогрáммов.

The fish weighed five kilograms.

To Indicates direction. Responds to the nonspecific question кудá? where? or the more specific question в какýю стóрону? in what direction? Correlates with the preposition из from; in other words, any word that requires из for the meaning of from will require в for the meaning of to, and vice versa. (See also из, на.) Кудá вы направля́ етесь? – В стóрону тéннисных кóртов.

“Where are you headed?” “To the tennis courts.”

Note! Cannot be used with animate nouns, unlike the preposition к to, which implies direction to someone’s place. (See also к.)

To, into Points out an organization or institution that is the target of an action. This responds to the nonspecific question кудá? where? The same nouns with в, accompanied by different verbs, can be used in the prepositional case. (See also кудá.) внести́ в спи́ сок

to add to a list

записáться в клуб

to become a member of a club

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поступи́ ть в коллéдж

to get into college

зачи́ слить в компáнию

to hire into a company

внести́ изменéния в прогрáмму

to change the program

Они́ подадýт апелля́ цию в суд.

They will appeal to the court.

Семён Семёнович написáл письмó в газéту.

Semion Semionovich wrote a letter to the newspaper.

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Вблизи́ (от) Preposition With the genitive case Close to, near Вблизи́ or, more often, вблизи́ от, is used with nouns in the genitive. Phrases with this preposition answer the nonspecific question где? where? or the more specific question как далекó? how far? Is utilized in formal language and frequently in literature. The synonyms óколо close to, вóзле next to, недалекó от not far from, неподалёку от not very far from are more neutral. Алёша сиди́ т за стóликом вблизи́ окнá.

Alyosha is sitting at the table close to the window.

Вблизи́ от кострá станови́ лось жáрко, они́ отсéли подáльше . . . (В. Бы́ ков, «Вóлчья я́ ма» // «Дрýжба нарóдов», 1999)

It was getting hot close to the fire. They moved a bit farther away. (Bykov, Wolf Pit, 1999)

Ввидý Preposition With the genitive case Because of, as a result of, due to Used when something is happening due to a reason. Can be a synonym of в си́ лу given, в связи́ с in connection with, вслéдствие as a consequence of, or и́ з-за because of. When something is projected to happen, ввидý is used. Nouns with ввидý answer the question ввидý чегó? due to what? Constructions with ввидý can be separated by commas when they are placed in the middle of a sentence, between a subject and a predicate, or when they clarify what is said in a sentence. Ввидý is frequently used in journalism, as well as scholarly and bureaucratic language. (See also в связи́ с, в си́ лу, вслéдствие, и́ з-за.)

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Прися́ жные оправдáли Козлóва ввидý егó невменя́ емости.

The jury acquitted Kozlov due to his insanity defense.

Руковóдство завóда, ввидý нехвáтки рабóчей си́ лы, при́ няло решéние о сокращéнии произвóдства продýкции.

As a result of a shortage of employees, the factory’s management decided to cut production.

Note! Do not confuse ввидý with в видý, which is written separately. It is used in the expression имéть в видý to mean. Когдá онá говори́ т «чáсто», онá имéет в видý кáждый день.

When she says “often,” she means every single day.

Ввидý тогó(,) что Conjunction In light of the fact that Connects adverbial clauses that indicate the cause of the action reflected in the principal part of a sentence. Clauses with this conjunction answer the questions почемý? why? по какóй причи́ не? because of what? These clauses may precede the principal clause and can also open the sentence; in this case, the comma is placed only before the principal clause. They also may follow the principal clause, but the comma is placed before что in this case. It is formal. The conjunctions поскóльку because, вслéдствие тогó что as a consequence of the fact that, в си́ лу тогó что given the fact that, в связи́ с тем что in connection with can be utilized as synonyms of ввидý тогó что, and they are frequently used in scholarly language, journalism, and literature. The synonymous потомý что because is neutral, while так как given that and оттогó что because sound more bookish. (See also поскóльку, вслéдствие тогó что, в си́ лу тогó что, в связи́ с тем что, потомý что.) Ввидý тогó что показáниями свидéтелей устанóвлена в э́ том áкте егó ли́ чная вóля, решенó не отправля́ ть труп в анатоми́ ческий теáтр. (А. Купри́ н, «Гранáтовый браслéт»)

Based on evidence from witnesses, in light of the fact that his last will has been written in this letter, it has been decided not to send his corpse to the morgue. (Kuprin, The Garnet Bracelet)

Уйти́ в спаси́ тельное брéхтовское остранéние невозмóжно ввидý тогó, что отношéний актёрроль бóльше не существýет. («Неждáнные встрéчи» // «Театрáльная жизнь», 2004)

Escaping into the safe haven of Brechtian defamiliarization is impossible, in light of the fact that the actor-role relationship no longer exists. (Unexpected Meetings, 2004)

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Вдалекé от Preposition With the genitive case Far away from Phrases with this preposition answer the nonspecific question где? where? and the more specific question как далекó? how far? This preposition and its synonym вдали́ от far away from are commonly used in elevated styles, while the synonymous далекó от far from is neutral and is used in various styles. (See the antonyms невдалекé от, недалекó от.) Жилá Ангели́ на на окрáине Москвы́ , вдалекé от магази́ нов.

Angelina lived on the outskirts of Moscow, far away from stores.

Note! Do not confuse the preposition вдалекé от, which governs nouns in the genitive case, with the adverb вдалекé far away, which is used independently. Ви́ дишь там вдалекé домá?

Do you see those houses far away?

Вдали́ от Preposition With the genitive case Far away from Phrases with this preposition answer the nonspecific question где? where? and the more specific question как далекó? how far? This preposition and its synonym вдалекé от far away from are commonly used in elevated styles, while the synonymous далекó от far from is neutral and is used in various styles. (See the antonyms невдалекé от, недалекó от.) За то врéмя, что он жил вдали́ от дóма, в семьé произошлó мнóго рáзных собы́ тий.

While he was living away from his home, his family had a lot of things happen to them.

Note! Do not confuse the preposition вдали́ от, which governs nouns in the genitive case, with the adverb вдали́ far away, which is used independently. Там, вдали́ за рекóй, засверкáли огни́ . (Из пéсни)

Far away, lights started glittering. (From a song)

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Вдоль Preposition With the genitive case Along, down Indicates the direction of movement along a street, a field, a fence, etc. Phrases with this preposition answer the nonspecific question где? where? and the more specific question вдоль чегó? along what? Сначáла дорóга шла вдоль реки́ , а потóм рéзко свернýла в лес.

At first, the road went alongside the river, but later, it took a sharp turn into the forest.

Note! Do not confuse the preposition вдоль, which is combined with nouns and governs them in the genitive case, with the adverb вдоль along, which is used independently.

Sayings Вдоль и поперёк.

Completely.

Изъéздил странý вдоль и поперёк.

He has travelled through the entire country.

Вдоль по Preposition With the dative case Along, down Indicates the surface and length along which movement is occurring. Literally, вдоль по answers the question вдоль по чемý / по какóй повéрхности? along what/along what surface? Вдоль по is also synonymous with по along. По focuses on the surface, while вдоль по focuses on the length. (See also по.) Они́ дóлго броди́ ли вдоль по ýлицам, а когдá стемнéло вернýлись домóй.

They walked down the streets for a long time, but when it got dark, they returned home.

Ведь Conjunction. Particle Conjunction Since, because Connects the subordinate clause in a complex sentence with the principal clause. The subordinate clause is an explanation, a basis, or a proof for what is said in the principal clause. Usually, a subordinate clause with ведь follows the principal one.

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A comma appears between the two clauses. Ведь has a conversational shade. (See the synonyms потомý что, потомý как, так как, поскóльку.) У Пáвла припóднятое настроéние, ведь он скóро возвращáется домóй.

Pavel is happier than usual, since he’s coming home soon.

Particle Isn’t it Used to emphasize the main content or to highlight the overtone of an utterance. Can start a sentence that is a comment, a remark, or a clarification of what was said in the previous sentence. No comma is needed. Synonymous with же really, indeed. (See also же.) Ведь сейчáс мóдно носи́ ть кóжаные кýртки.

Right now, it’s stylish to wear leather jackets, isn’t it?

Почемý ты не позвони́ ла? Ты ведь должнá былá позвони́ ть ещё вчерá

Why didn’t you call? You were supposed to call me yesterday, weren’t you?

Ведь is used in interrogative sentences that imply that the speaker is anticipating a positive response. Synonymous with прáвда? right? не так ли? does it not? (See also прáвда, не так ли.) Ведь мы éдем зáвтра на пикни́ к?

Aren’t we going to have a picnic tomorrow?

Вернéе Parenthetical word Rather, more precisely Вернéе or вернéе сказáть is separated by commas. Utilized in different styles and is frequently found in journalism, literature, and scholarly language. The synonymous вернéй is colloquial, while точнéе is more formal. Can be accompanied by the conjuction а. (See also а, точнéе.) Э́ та усáдьба, вернéе, бáрский дом, былá пострóена в начáле 19-го вéка.

This estate, or rather, manor house, was built in the beginning of the 19th century.

Вéрно Particle. Parenthetical word Particle Indeed Expresses confident confirmation. Synonymous with да yes and can be combined with it. Used as a separate sentence. (See also да.)

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Как я понимáю, на завóде у Вас серьёзные неприя́ тности. – Вéрно.

“As I understand, you’ve experienced severe troubles at your plant.” “Indeed.”

Parenthetical word Probably Used less frequently in contemporary Russian as a parenthetical word. Separated by commas. The synonyms вероя́ тно evidently, возмóжно possibly, ви́ димо it seems, and others are used more commonly. (See also вероя́ тно, возмóжно, ви́ димо.) Бори́ с Михáйлович, вéрно, уéхал лечи́ ться.

Boris Mikhailovich probably left to get treatment.

Note! Вéрно can be used as an adverbial modifier. In this case, no commas are needed. (See also вероя́ тно, возмóжно, ви́ димо.) Как вéрно подмéтили нéкоторые кри́ тики,

As some critics have accurately noted,

Ренуáр в свои́ х рáнних карти́ нах был Renoir’s early works were realistic. реалисти́ чен.

Вероя́ тно Parenthetical word. Particle Parenthetical word Likely Expresses assurance or supposition. Separated by commas. Tends to be utilized in formal language. (See the synonyms возмóжно, ви́ димо, должнó быть, мóжет быть, навéрное.) Мы, вероя́ тно, зáвтра не смóжем встрéтиться.

We most likely won’t be able to meet tomorrow.

Particle Probably Expresses confirmation with a shade of doubt. Used as a separate sentence. Вы возвращáетесь в суббóту? – Вероя́ тно.

“You’re returning on Saturday?” “Probably.”

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Ви́ димо Parenthetical word It seems Articulates assurance or supposition. Separated by commas. Utilized in different styles, although it is commonly used in literature and journalism. (See the synonyms ви́ дно, по-ви́ димому, кáжется.) Нáши взгля́ ды, ви́ димо, не совпадáют.

It seems that our views do not coincide.

Ви́ дишь ли Parenthetical expression You see Ви́ дишь ли, an informal address, or ви́ дите ли, a formal address, are used to draw someone’s attention to the speaker’s utterance or to emphasize and highlight the speech. Separated by commas. (See the synonym понимáешь ли.) Ви́ дишь ли, Тáня, в том, что случи́ лось, виновáта ты самá.

You see, Tanya, what happened is your own fault.

This parenthetical expression, more commonly ви́ дите ли, can also provide a negative overtone, sarcasm, or irony regarding the statement. (See the synonym понимáешь ли.) Не мог прийти́ . Он, види́ те ли, был óчень зáнят!

(Sarcastically.) He couldn’t come. You see, he was far too busy.

Note! Ви́ дишь ли or ви́ дите ли do you see/if you see can be used as part of a sentence, usually as a predicate in interrogative sentences. In this case, no commas are needed. Ви́ дите ли вы рáдугу из окнá?

Do you see the rainbow through the window?

Ви́ дно [coll.] Parenthetical word It seems Less formal than its synonyms. Separated by commas. (See also the synonyms ви́ димо, по-ви́ димому, кáжется, вероя́ тно, сýдя по всемý.) Мы, ви́ дно, не дождёмся лýчших времён.

It seems we won’t live to see better times.

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Note! Ви́ дно it looks like can be used as a predicate. In this case, no commas are needed. В нáшем кинотеáтре хорошó ви́ дно с In our movie theater, you can see well from любóго мéста. any spot.

В зави́ симости от Preposition With the genitive case Depending on Used only with nouns, just like the phrase зави́ сит от depends on [something], e.g., зави́ сит от зарплáты it depends on the salary. Constructions with в зави́ симости от can be separated by commas when they are placed in the middle of a sentence, between a subject and a predicate, or when they clarify what is said in the sentence. Ценá на издéлия из дéрева колéблется в зави́ симости от их кáчества и дизáйна.

The price for wooden crafts varies, depending on their quality and design.

Фрýкты, в зави́ симости от их качéства, имéют рáзную цéну.

Fruits, depending on their quality, have different prices.

В концé концóв Parenthetical expression Indicates displeasure, annoyance, or impatience. In English, this is usually conveyed by intonation or by stressing certain words. Usually separated by commas. Мне э́ то всё надоéло, в концé концóв.

I’m fed up with all this!

At least Emphasizes the final argument during a discussion or is used to finalize thoughts. Synonymous with наконéц finally, which is used to put thoughts or ideas in order when listing something. Наконéц pertains to the same semantic group as во-пéрвых first of all, слéдовательно consequently, and others. (See also наконéц, слéдовательно.) Почемý ты не сообщи́ л, что приезжáешь? Ты не мог позвони́ ть? В концé концóв, послáть эсэмэ́ ску мóжно бы́ ло!

Why didn’t you inform me that you’re coming? Couldn’t you call me? You could have at least texted me!

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Finally [as a synonym of наконéц] Indicates that something is accomplished after a while. Ми́ ша рабóтал над свои́ м проéктом нéсколько мéсяцев и, в концé концóв, вчерá закóнчил егó.

Misha worked on his project for a few months and finally finished it yesterday.

Note! В концé концóв finally can be used as part of a sentence as an adverbial expression, and in that case, it is not separated by commas. Дóлгое врéмя он уговáривал её уéхать в другóй гóрод, и в концé концóв онá согласи́ лась.

He spent a long time convincing her to move to a different city, and she finally conceded.

Вмéсто Preposition With the genitive case Instead of, in place of Phrases with вмéсто answer the questions вмéсто когó? instead of whom?, вмéсто чегó? instead of what? Ктó-нибудь хóчет пойти́ вмéсто Кáти Does anyone want to go to the theater в теáтр? instead of Katya? Вмéсто сáхара возьми́ с чáем мёд.

Use honey in your tea instead of sugar.

Вмéсто тогó(,) чтóбы Conjunction Instead of, rather than Connects subordinate clauses that indicate that the action mentioned in the principal clause is more preferable than that which is mentioned in the subordinate clause. The action in the subordinate clause is expressed by an infinitive. The subordinate clause can precede or follow the principal clause. There is no comma before чтóбы when the conjunction with the subordinate clause precedes the principal clause. This conjunction is used in various styles and genres. (See the synonym чем.) Вмéсто тогó чтобы́ сидéть весь день пéред компью́ тером, ты бы пошёл поигрáл в футбóл.

Rather than sit in front of the computer all day, you should go play soccer.

Семён выхóдит в парк пройти́ сь вмéсто тогó, чтóбы рабóтать.

Semyon goes out for a walk in the park instead of working.

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Вне Preposition With the genitive case Outside of Means “outside of the boundaries of some concept or thing.”

Phrases with вне Вне (вся́ кого) сомнéния.

Without (any) doubt.

Вне закóна.

Outside the law.

Вне конкурéнции / кóнкурса.

Without competition.

Вне опáсности.

Away from danger.

Вне óчереди.

Cutting in line.

Вне прáвил.

Outside the rules.

Вне врéмени и прострáнства.

Outside of time and space/head in the clouds.

Вне себя́ (от возмущéния).

Beside oneself with anger.

Положéние вне игры́ .

(In sports) Offside.

Тепéрь мóжно с увéренностью Now, we can safely say that the patient is no сказáть, что больнóй вне опáсности. longer in danger. Среди́ своих одноклáссников Таня вне конкурéнции по умéнию игрáть в шáхматы.

Among her classmates, Tania is unrivaled in her chess-playing skills.

Внутри́ Preposition With the genitive case Inside Phrases with this preposition answer the question внутри́ чегó? inside of what?, внутри́ когó? inside of whom?, or the less specific and less used question где? where? Внутри́ дóма полицéйские не нашли́ ничегó интерéсного.

The police didn’t find anything interesting inside the house.

Note! Do not confuse the preposition внутри́ , which is combined with nouns and governs them in the genitive case, with the adverb внутри́ inside, which is used independently. Шáрф там, в шкафý – внутри́ .

The scarf is in there, inside the closet.

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В óбщем [coll.] Parenthetical expression In general, in short Separated by commas. More formal than the synonymous корóче говоря́ . (See also корóче говоря́ .) Нарóду пришлó бóльше, чем ожидáли, но, в óбщем, всё получи́ лось хорошó.

There were more people than we expected, but, in general, it turned out fine.

В óбщем, не хóчется мне тудá éхать.

In short, I don’t want to go there.

Note! Do not confuse this expression with вообщé in general, which conveys an attitude via the style of speech or the manner of narration. (See also вообщé.)

Note! В óбщем in general can be used as part of a sentence, in particular as an attribute or an adverbial modifier. Can be synonymous with вообщé, в цéлом overall. No commas are needed. На дáнном этáпе задáчи нáшего проéкта мóгут быть сформули́ рованы тóлько в óбщем ви́ де.

In this stage of the project, problems can only be formulated in general terms.

В óбщем здесь всё хорошо, и нам здесь нрáвится.

Overall, everything is fine here, and we like it.

Во врéмя Preposition With the genitive case During Phrases with во врéмя answer the question во врéмя чегó? during what time? or the less specific question когдá? when? (See also в течéние.) Во врéмя репети́ ции Кири́ лл был не внимáтелен и постоя́ нно забывáл текст.

During the rehearsal, Kirill was not focused and constantly forgot his lines.

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Note! Do not confuse the preposition во врéмя, which is combined with nouns and governs them in the genitive case, with the adverb вóвремя on time, timely, which is used independently.

Вóзле Preposition With the genitive case By, near, next to Phrases with вóзле answer the questions вóзле чегó? next to what?, вóзле когó? next to whom?, or the less specific question где? where? (See the synonyms вблизи́ , невдалекé от, óколо, ря́ дом с.) Тáнин дом нахóдится вóзле краси́ вейшего óзера.

Tanya’s house is located near a very beautiful lake.

Возмóжно Parenthetical word. Particle Parenthetical word Possibly Separated by commas. (See also the synonyms вероя́ тно, ви́ димо, мóжет быть, навéрное.) Дя́ дя приéдет, возмóжно, веснóй.

Uncle will possibly come in the spring.

Particle Can function as an independent sentence-reply. Ты смóжешь закóнчить свою́ рабóту к слéдующей недéле? – Возмóжно.

“Will you be able to finish your work by next week?” “Possibly.”

Note! Can function as a predicate, in which case it is not separated by commas. Из-за си́ льного дождя́ возмóжно наводнéние.

Because of the torrential rain, a flood is possible.

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Во и́ мя [elevat.] Preposition With the genitive case For someone’s/something’s sake Used to point out someone or something as the goal of an action. Phrases with this preposition answer the questions во и́ мя когó? / во и́ мя чегó? for the sake of whom?/ for the sake of what? Synonymous of рáди for, but is used in elevated styles. (See рáди.) Сам, небóсь, спóрит с ним, а други́ м предлагáет смири́ ться: смири́ сь во и́ мя идéи, прики́ дывайся, бýдто ничегó не произошлó. (Д. Грáнин, «Идý на грозý»)

“He himself is probably arguing with him, while offering an olive branch to others. Stop fighting, for the idea’s sake; pretend as if nothing happened.” (Granin, Into the Storm)

Saying Во и́ мя всегó святóго.

In the name of all that is holy.

Вокрýг Preposition With the genitive case Around, round Phrases with this preposition answer the questions вокрýг чегó? around what?, вокрýг когó? around whom?, or the less specific and less used question где? where? Вокрýг домóв в нáшем райóне растýт рóзы, азáлии, гортéнзии, хризантéмы.

Roses, azaleas, hydrangeas, and chrysanthemums grow around the houses in our neighborhood.

Note! Do not confuse the preposition вокрýг, which is combined with nouns in the genitive case, with the adverb вокрýг around, which is used independently.

Around, regarding Phrases with вокрýг answer the questions вокрýг чегó? concerning what?, вокрýг когó? concerning whom? The synonymous по пóводу about is more formal and is used more frequently. (See also по пóводу.)

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Вокрýг егó идéй возни́ кло мнóго спóров и ненýжный ажиотáж.

Many arguments and unnecessary commotion rose around his ideas.

Saying Вокрýг да óколо.

Beating around the bush.

Вон [coll.] Particle There The demonstrative particle вон is often used with а demonstrative gesture and makes it more precise. Commonly utilized with the demonstrative and relative pronouns тот that one, какóй such, скóлько how many, and others, including the adverbs там there and тудá there. Вон can be used in an elliptical sentencereply. (See the antonym вот.) (Покáзывая рукóй.) Положи́ кни́ ги вон тудá на вéрхнюю пóлку.

(Pointing.) Put the books over there on the top shelf.

Где мои́ очки́ ? – (Покáзывая на стол.) Вон.

“Where are my glasses?” (Pointing at the table.) “Over there.”

Вон is used to express emotions, both positive and negative, towards something. Свéта уви́ дела, скóлько óбуви у Татья́ ны и подýмала: «Вон у неё как мнóго, не то что у меня́ ».

Sveta saw how many shoes Tatyana had and thought, “Look how many she has – way more than me.”

Expressions with вон Вон (отсю́ да)! (very rude)

Get out (of here)!

Вон онó что! (a mildly surprised reaction)

Would you look at that.

Вон онó как! (an incredulous reaction) Would you look at that!

Вообщé [coll.] Parenthetical word Generally speaking, at all Used as a parenthetical word when it means вообщé говоря́ generally speaking. Both вообщé and вообщé говоря́ are separated by commas. (See the synonyms по сýти, сóбственно.) Вообщé (говоря́ ), порá бы и поéсть.

Generally speaking, it’s time to eat.

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Note! When this word means always, completely, in all circumstances, it is not a parenthetical word. Commas are not needed. В течéние трёх лет мы вообщé никудá не éздили.

Over the course of three years, we didn’t go anywhere at all.

Вопреки́ [book.] Preposition With the dative case As opposed to Phrases with this preposition answer the questions вопреки́ чемý? as opposed to what?, вопреки́ комý? as opposed to whom? Вопреки́ belongs to formal speech. (See the synonyms наперекóр, невзирáя на, несмотря́ на, прóтив.) Вопреки́ совéтам врачéй Ивáн Петрóвич поéхал на лы́ жный курóрт.

Against the doctors’ advice, Ivan Petrovich went to the ski resort.

Вопреки́ томý(,) что Conjunction In spite of, contrary to Connects the subordinate clause of concession to the principal one, pointing to the circumstances in spite of which the action described in the principal clause is accomplished. The subordinate clause with this conjunction can be placed before, in the middle of, or after the principal clause. There is no comma before чтó when the conjunction with the subordinate clause precedes the principal clause. The subordinate clause answers the question вопреки́ чемý? in spite of what? (See the synonyms несмотря́ на то что, невзирáя на то что.) Он ви́ дел всё, что со мной твори́ тся, и, вопреки́ томý, что испы́ тывал, сам побуждáл меня́ сдéлать вы́ бор. (Л. Зóрин, «Отéц» // «Нóвый Мир», 2008)

He saw everything that was happening to me, and in spite of what he was experiencing, he egged me on to make a choice. (Zorin, Father, 2008)

Вопреки́ томý что дýмают о корóвах и быкáх, э́ ти живóтные не различáют крáсный цвет.

Contrary to what many people believe about cows and bulls, they cannot see the color red.

Вот Particle Here The demonstrative particle вот is often used with a demonstrative gesture and makes it more precise. It is commonly utilized with the demonstrative and determinative pronouns э́ тот that one, такóй such, and others, the adverbs

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здесь here, сюдá here, and makes the statement more convincing. Вот can function as an independent sentence-reply. (See the antonym вон.) Вот здесь мы посáдим я́ блоню, а вон We’ll plant the apple tree right here, and the там, за дóмом, клён. maple will go over there behind the house. Где рубáшка, котóрую ты купи́ л? – Вот онá.

“Where’s the shirt that you bought?” “Here it is.”

Used to emphasize the starting point of а connecting assertion – to draw someone’s attention to something. Translations of this word may vary depending on the specific situation. Вот с вопрóсов мы и начнём.

And we’ll start with the questions.

Вот прочитáй э́ ту замéтку, а потóм продóлжим разговóр.

First, read this note; then we’ll continue this conversation.

So Conveys the trouble that a speaker experiences in trying to articulate a point. Вот зашлá к вам поговори́ ть – давнó не ви́ делись.

So I stopped by just to, you know, chat; we haven’t seen one another in a long time.

Combines with the relative and interrogative pronouns где where, что what, как how, скóлько how many, and others to emphasize edification. Translations of this word may vary depending on the specific situation. Вот где мой кошелёк.

Oh, here’s my wallet!

Вот что ты хотéл сказáть?

So this is what you wanted to say?

Вот какóй он взрóслый!

Look at how mature he is!

Used to describe a sequence of actions that is happening as if right in front of the speaker. Вот пришлá Ли́ ля, вот онá взялá книгý, вот онá пошлá в свою́ кóмнату, сéла в крéсло óколо окнá и читáет.

In comes Lilya, picks up a book, enters her room, sits down in the armchair next to the window, and reads the book.

Used in short exclamatory sentences. Вот красотá!

It’s so beautiful!

Вот здóрово!

It’s so awesome!

Phrases and expressions with вот Вот бы . . . (implies a desire)

If only . . .

Вот что . . . (precedes a conclusive idea) Here’s what (I’ll tell you) . . .

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Вот так. (thoughtfully)

Just like that.

Вот тебé! (threatening, rudely)

Take this!

Вот и́ менно. (with conviction)

Exactly.

Вот как?! (incredulous)

So that’s how it is!?

Вот те раз! (unpleasantly surprised)

Get a load of this!

Вот э́ то да! (pleasantly surprised)

Would you look at that!/Wow!

Вот то-то. (with satisfaction)

That’s what I thought.

Вот бы брóсить всё и поéхать кудá-нибудь.

If only I could drop everything and go somewhere.

Вот что я тебé скажý – закáнчивай свою́ прáктику быстрéе и возвращáйся домóй.

Here’s what I’ll say: finish your internship quickly and come back home.

В отли́ чие от Preposition With the genitive case Unlike Phrases with this preposition answer the questions в отли́ чие от когó? unlike whom?, в отличие от чегó? unlike what? Constructions with в отли́ чие от can be separated by commas when they are placed in the middle of a sentence and contain the explanation of what is said in the sentence. В отли́ чие от Бори́ са Ки́ ра всегдá всё Unlike Boris, Kira always manages to do успевáет дéлать вóвремя. everything on time. В Ки́ еве, в отли́ чие от Филадéльфии, Kiev, unlike Philadelphia, is experiencing a зимá в э́ том годý холóдная. cold winter this year.

В отношéнии Preposition With the genitive case Regarding, concerning Phrases with this preposition answer the questions в отношéнии когó? regarding whom?, в отношéнии чегó? regarding what? Frequently used in journalism and scholarly literature. (See the synonyms относи́ тельно, по пóводу.) В результáте изменéния госудáрственной поли́ тики в отношéнии культýрных цéнностей создаю́ тся предпосы́ лки для

As a result of the changes in the federal politics concerning cultural artifacts, preconditions are being made for the

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разви́ тия антиквáрного ры́ нка. (Л. Шпакóвская, «Стáрые вéщи» // «Неприкосновéнный запáс», 2004)

development of the antiquary market. (Shpakovskaya, Old Things, 2004)

Note! Do not confuse в отношéнии with по отношéнию, which means to convey an attitude towards someone or something. (See also по отношéнию.)

Впереди́ Preposition With the genitive case Ahead of Frequently, впереди́ is used with collective nouns, e.g., колóнна column, вóйско troop, отря́ д detachment, грýппа group, комáнда team. Phrases with this preposition answer the nonspecific question где? where?, and the more specific questions впереди́ когó? ahead of whom?, впереди́ чегó? ahead of what? Какóе э́ то счáстье – стоя́ ть впереди́ всех и петь . . . (В. Тóкарева, «Своя́ прáвда»)

What a blessing it is to stand in front of everyone and sing . . . (Tokareva, Its Own Truth)

Note! Do not confuse the preposition впереди́ , which is combined with nouns and governs them in the genitive case, with the adverb впереди́ , which is used independently. Далекó впереди́ зеленéл лес.

Far ahead, there was a verdant forest.

Вплоть до Preposition With the genitive case Up until, to Indicates the line of space or time up to which the action is extended. A construction with вплоть до can be separated by commas when it is placed in the middle of the sentence and contains the explanation of what is said in the sentence. Друзья́ сопровождáли их всю дорóгу, Their friends accompanied them all the way вплоть до сáмой стáнции. to the station itself.

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Вплоть до послéднего врéмени инститýт хи́ мии оставáлся закры́ той организáцией.

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The institute of chemistry remained a closed organization up until very recently.

Not excluding В отношéнии Петрóва бýдут при́ няты сáмые серьёзные мéры, вплоть до исключéния из лицéя.

The most serious measures will be taken with regard to Petrov, not excluding expulsion from the lyceum.

Вплоть до тогó, что Conjunction To the point Connects a subordinate clause with the principal clause and clarifies the content of the principal clause by pointing out the extent of the action in the principal clause. In literature, commas can be placed before вплоть and after тогó, if the construction вплоть до тогó, что is placed in the middle of a sentence. Всё бы́ ло чрезвычáйно естéственно, вплоть до тогó, что Её Вели́ чество чуть не свали́ лось с носи́ лок, привéтствуя толпý. (В. Аксёнов, «Крýглые сýтки нон-стоп» // «Нóвый мир», 1976)

Everything was incredibly natural, to the point that Her Majesty almost fell off her stretcher while greeting the masses. (Aksenov, 24 Hours Non-Stop, 1976)

Впредь до [form.] Preposition With the genitive case Until Designates the point in time up to which an action is committed. Phrases with this preposition answer the question впредь до чегó? until what time/ occasion? Впредь до осóбого распоряжéния не слéдует вноси́ ть каки́ е-либо попрáвки в текст.

From this point on, you should not make any changes to the text until you get special orders.

Note! Do not confuse the preposition впредь, which is combined with nouns and governs them in the genitive case, with the adverb впредь, which is used independently.

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В проти́ вном слýчае [form.] Conjunction Otherwise An adversative conjunction that is used in compound sentences to indicate that the accomplishment of the action in the second clause depends on the action in the first clause. Synonymous with the neutral инáче otherwise, the colloquial а то otherwise, and не то otherwise, and is commonly used in journalism, business, and politics. (See also а то, инáче, не то.) Вы обя́ заны внести́ плáту за прошéдшие полгóда – в проти́ вном слýчае у вас отклю́ чат во́ ду.

You are obliged to make your payments for the past six months. Otherwise, they’ll turn off your water.

Впрóчем Conjunction. Parenthetical word Conjunction Although An adversative conjunction that connects clauses of compound sentences and parts, indicating that the information in the first clause is not categorical or uncompromising, and clarifies this information. (See also the synonyms однáко, тем не мéнее.) И́ горь не поступи́ л в коллéдж, в котóрый хотéл, впрóчем э́ то к лýчшему – емý не придётся уезжáть из дóма.

Igor didn’t get into the college he wanted. Although, this is for the best; he won’t have to leave home this way.

Parenthetical word All things considered Used to point out the shift from one thought to another and designates the author’s hesitation or doubt. Separated by commas. Андрéя нéкому встрéтить. Он, впрóчем, мóжет взять такси́ .

Nobody can pick up Andrey. All things considered, he can take a taxi.

В результáте Preposition With the genitive case As a result of Phrases with this preposition answer the question в результáте чегó? as a result of what? В результáте is synonymous with the preposition вслéдствие as a

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consequence, although it is more neutral in terms of style and is utilized in various styles and genres. (See also вслéдствие.) В результáте провéрки дéятельности бáнка заблоки́ рованы нéкоторые счетá.

As a result of the revision of the bank’s activities, some accounts have been frozen.

Note! Do not confuse the preposition в результáте, which is combined with nouns and governs them in the genitive case, with the adverb в результáте, which is used independently.

В результáте того(,) что [form.] Conjunction As a result of the fact that Connects adverbial clauses that imply a consequence or a result. These clauses may either follow or precede the principal clause. When a clause with this conjunction opens the sentence, a comma appears between the clauses; when it follows the principal clause, the comma is placed before что. В результáте тогó что is frequently used in scholarly language and journalism. (See also вслéдствие тогó что, ввидý тогó что, из-за тогó что.) В результáте тогó что цéны на нефть из СССР значи́ тельно сни́ зились по сравнéнию с прогнóзом, уменьшéние валю́ тных средств от э́ кспорта э́ той продýкции состáвило óколо 2,1 млрд. рублей. (Е. Гайдáр, «Ги́ бель импéрии»)

As a result of the fact that prices for oil drastically went down when compared with the prognosis, the decrease in foreign exchange reserves from the export of this product constituted about 2.1 billion rubles. (Gaydar, The Death of an Empire)

В результáте чегó Conjunction As a result of which Connects adverbial clauses that imply a consequence or a result. It follows the principal clause. Semantically close to поэ́ тому that’s why, отчегó (и) and so, потомý и, почемý (и) which is why. Synonymous with вслéдствие чегó as a consequence of which, which is more formal than в результáте чегó. (See also вслéдствие чегó, отчегó (и), потомý и, почемý (и), поэ́ тому.) Джон не вы́ шел на связь, в результáте чегó мы перенесли́ встрéчу на нéсколько часóв.

John didn’t show up, as a result of which we put the meeting off by a few hours.

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Врóде [coll.] Preposition. Particle Preposition. With the genitive case Like Implies uncertainty or supposition. Phrases with this preposition answer the question врóде когó? like whom?, врóде чегó? like what? Can be used with the demonstrative word тот that. Врóде is used in informal speech, unlike the synonymous наподóбие resembling, which is more literary. (See also наподóбие.) Марýся спеклá пирóг, врóде тогó пирогá, котóрый пеклá когдá-то бáбушка.

Marusya baked a cake, just like the one that Granny used to bake.

Particle It seems Врóде or врóде бы, like the preposition, expresses an assumption or a guess, and is not separated by commas. Врóде бы can be used as a sentence reply. (See also the synonym кáжется.) Всё, о чём ты расскáзываешь, я врóде (бы) ужé слы́ шал где-то.

It seems that everything you’re saying I’ve already heard somewhere.

Мáма сказáла, что придёт пóздно? – Врóде бы.

“Did mom say that she’ll be late?” “Seems like it.”

Врóде тогó(,) что [coll.] Conjunction Something like Used with a subordinate clause that expresses a supposition about what is said in the principal clause. A subordinate clause with this conjunction follows the principal clause, and the comma can appear before врóде тогó, что. Николáй сказáл Натáше что-то врóде Nikolai told Natasha something like he couldn’t meet with her until Tuesday, seeing тогó, что он не смóжет с ней встрéтиться до втóрника, поскóльку as he had too much going on at work. у негó мнóго дел на рабóте.

Вряд ли Particle Unlikely Articulates doubt and is placed immediately before the object of said doubt. Often used as a sentence-reply. (See also the synonym едвá ли.) Мы вряд ли успéем на слéдующий сеáнс – ужé пóздно.

It’s unlikely that we’ll make the next showing – it’s already late.

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Зáвтра поéдем на пляж? – Вряд ли.

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“Will we go to the beach tomorrow?” “Unlikely.”

В сáмом дéле Parenthetical expression Actually, indeed As a parenthetical expression, is separated by commas and verifies what was uttered previously. Can play an emphatic role, in which case it is pronounced with intensity, and no commas are needed. (See also the synonym действи́ тельно.) Их отношéния, в сáмом дéле, удивля́ ют.

Their relationship is actually surprising.

Мáша в сáмом дéле былá довóльна поéздкой.

Masha actually was happy with the trip.

Really? Can be used as an interrogative sentence-reply implying surprise or uncertainty. Решéтников реши́ л всё брóсить и уéхать подáльше от Москвы́ . – В сáмом дéле?

“Reshetnikov decided to leave everything and go far away from Moscow.” “Really?”

В свéте [form.] Preposition With the genitive case In light of, taking into account Phrases with this preposition answer the question в свéте чегó? in light of what? Unlike the synonymous с тóчки зрéния from the point of view, which is neutral in terms of style, в свéте is commonly used in journalism, politics, and bureaucratic language. (See с тóчки зрéния.) В свéте излóженного не вызывáет сомнéния актуáльность дáнной тéмы.

In light of the expressed, the timeliness of the given topic is not subject to doubt.

В связи́ с [form.] Preposition With the instrumental case In connection with, because of Points at something that is a cause or a reason for further action. Phrases with this preposition answer the question в связи́ с чем? in connection with what? A

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construction with в связи́ с can be separated by commas when the preposition is placed in the middle of the sentence and contains the explanation of what is said. Although в связи́ с belongs to formal speech, it is utilized in various styles and genres. (See the synonyms ввидý, из-за.) Ивáн Петрóв приéхал в Самáру в связи́ с откры́ тием музыкáльного фестивáля.

Ivan Petrov came to Samara because of the opening of the music festival.

Заня́ тия в коллéдже, в связи́ с невероя́ тной жарóй, отмени́ ли.

Classes were cancelled because of the unbelievable heat.

В связи́ с тем(,) что [form.] Conjunction In connection with the fact that, because Connects adverbial clauses, which indicate the cause of the action reflected in the principal part of a sentence. Clauses with this conjunction answer the questions почемý? why?, в связи́ с чем? in connection with what? These clauses may precede the principal clause and can also open a sentence; in this case, the comma is placed only before the principal clause. They may also follow the principal clause, but the comma is placed before что in this case. The conjunctions ввидý тогó что in light of the fact that, вслéдствие тогó что as a consequence of the fact that, в си́ лу тогó что given the fact that, поскóльку because, can be utilized as synonyms of в связи́ с тем что, and they are frequently used in scholarly language, journalism, and literature. The synonymous потомý что because is neutral, while так как given that and оттогó что because sound more bookish. (See also ввидý тогó что, в связи́ с тем что, вслéдствие тогó что, в си́ лу тогó что, оттогó что, поскóльку, потомý что, так как.) Вот, напримéр, егó статья́ тóлько и вы́ плыла в связи́ с тем, что Гáрднеру потрéбовалось узнáть кóе-что из биогрáфии Кýрцера. (Ю. Домбрóвский, «Обезья́ на прихóдит за свои́ м чéрепом»)

For example, his article only emerged because Gardner had to find out a little something about Kurtser’s biography. (Dombrovsky, The Monkey Comes for His Skull)

Всегó Particle. Interjection Particle Only, just Stresses a small amount of something or offers an inferior estimation of something or someone. The informal synonyms всегó-нáвсего just, всéго лишь only, or всегó-то only can also be used.

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До отъéзда остáлось всегó пять дней.

There are only five days left before the departure.

На вечери́ нку пришли́ всегó-нáвсего четы́ ре человéкa.

Just four people came to the party.

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Гри́ ша рабóтает в дóлжности “Grisha works as an assistant editor.” млáдшего редáктора. – Всегó-то? А я “Just an assistant? I thought he was already дýмала, что он ужé стал редáктором. an editor.”

Interjection [coll.] All the best Used when parting. To wish someone all the best, one uses one of the following synonymous phrases: всегó хорóшего, всегó дóброго, всегó лýчшего. Всегó sounds informal when used as a standalone expression. До свидáния, всегó вам хорóшего, до Goodbye, all the best to you, see you. встрéчи. Ну, мы пошли́ . Всегó, покá.

Well, we’re off. So long, bye.

Всё [coll.] Particle Used with words that denote а changing feature. Emphasizes a feature’s variability or permanence. Frequently used with demonstrative and determinative pronouns, adverbs, comparative adverbs, and verbs that designate an increase or decrease in something. Can be combined with the particle жe. Translations may vary. (See also жe.) А́ нна Михáйловна всё такáя же краси́ вая.

Anna Mikhailovna is as pretty as ever.

Вы живёте всё там же?

Are you still living at the same place?

Рáненому станови́ лось всё хýже.

The wounded man’s condition was getting worse and worse.

Морóз всё крепчáл.

It was getting colder and colder.

Note! When всё modifies a noun, it is a pronoun. When it means всегдá still, до сих пор until this time, исключи́ тельно specifically, it is an adverb. When it means однáко however, and connects clauses, it is a conjunction.

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Всё же Particle. Conjunction Particle [coll.] After all Всё же or всё ж emphasizes conflict in а situation. Can be used in simple sentences and also in complex sentences with subordinate clauses of concession that point to circumstances in spite of which the action described in the principal clause is accomplished. Used with the conjunctions хотя́ although, несмотря́ на то что regardless of the fact that, невзирáя на то что not considering the fact that, пусть / пускáй though, как ни no matter how, скóлько ни no matter how much. Synonymous with всё-таки after all. (See also всё-таки.) Ты всё же собирáешься уходи́ ть?

Are you getting ready to leave after all?

Несмотря́ на то, что был си́ льный морóз, ребя́ та всё же пошли́ катáться на конькáх.

Despite the severe frost, the kids still went skating.

Как ни хóчется быть с вáми, всё же нýжно идти́ .

As much as I want to be with you, I do have to go.

Conjunction Still Softens the contrast or points out the disparity between parts of a compound sentence and is often used with the conjunctions и and, а while, но but. (See the synonyms всё-таки, однáко, тем не мéнее.) Нам дóлго объясня́ ли, почемý бассéйн закры́ лся на ремóнт, но мы всё же ничегó не пóняли.

They spent a long time explaining why the pool was closed, but we still did not understand.

Пётр Алексáндрович вы́ шел рáньше, Pyotr Aleksandrovich left earlier to get to the meeting on time, but he was still late. чтóбы успéть на собрáние, и всё же опоздáл.

Всё-таки Particle. Conjunction Particle After all, nevertheless Всё-таки or всё ж таки [coll.] is a synonym of всё же after all and emphasizes conflict in а situation. Can be used in simple sentences, as well as in complex sentences with subordinate clauses of concession that point to

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circumstances in spite of which the action described in the principal clause is accomplished. Used with the conjunctions хотя́ although, несмотря́ на то что regardless of the fact that, невзирáя на то что not considering the fact that, пусть / пускáй though, как ни no matter how, скóлько ни no matter how much. (See also всё же.) Всё-таки Ири́ ну увóлили.

Irina was fired after all.

Он всё-таки приезжáет кáждую недéлю, хотя́ в э́ том нет никакóй необходи́ мости.

He comes every week nevertheless, although there is no need.

Conjunction Still, anyway Softens the contrast or points out the disparity between parts of a compound sentence. Synonymous with the conjunctions всё же after all, однáко however, and тем не мéнее nevertheless. Often used with the conjunctions и and, а while, но but. (See also всё же, однáко, тем не мéнее.) Проси́ ли тебя́ не дéлать э́ того, а ты всё-таки сдéлал по-свóему.

You were asked not to do this, but you did it anyway.

Сóлнце бы́ ло весь день, но бельё всё-таки не вы́ сохло.

It was sunny the entire day, but the clothes still didn’t dry.

В си́ лу [form.] Preposition With the genitive case Given Used when something is or was happening due to a reason. Can be used as synonym of ввидý because of, в связи́ с in connection with, or из-за because of. Nouns with в си́ лу answer the questions в си́ лу чегó? due to what?, по какóй причи́ не? because of what? (See also ввидý, в связи́ с, из-за.) Mнóгие лю́ ди отдаю́ т предпочтéние éвро в си́ лу нéкоторого ослаблéния америкáнского дóллара.

Many people prefer euros given the depreciation of the American dollar.

В си́ лу своегó положéния журнали́ сты игрáют акти́ вную роль в формировáнии общéственного мнéния.

Given their position, journalists play an active role in the formation of public opinion.

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Phrase with в си́ лу В си́ лу (сложи́ вшихся) обстоя́ тельств . . .

Given the (current) circumstances . . .

В си́ лу сложи́ вшихся обстоя́ тельств мы вы́ нуждены остáться дóма.

Given the current circumstances, we are forced to stay home.

В си́ лу тогó, что [form.] Conjunction Given the fact that Connects adverbial clauses that indicate the cause of the action reflected in the principal part of a sentence. A clause with в си́ лу тогó, что may either follow or precede the principal clause. А comma appears before что in both cases. Frequently used in scholarly language and journalism. (See the synonyms ввидý тогó что, вслéдствие тогó что, из-за тогó что, поскóльку.) В си́ лу тогó, что дéнег на препарáты нет, óпыты придётся останови́ ть.

Given the fact that there are no funds for new medication, the experiments will have to be stopped.

Он не собирáется уделя́ ть серьёзное внимáние лéвым экономи́ стам в си́ лу тогó, что их взгля́ ды не имéют соли́ дной теорети́ ческой оснóвы.

He will not pay close attention to economists on the left, given the fact that their views do not have a solid theoretical foundation.

Вслед за Preposition With the instrumental case Following someone/something Nouns with this preposition answer the questions вслед за кем? after whom?, вслед за чем? after what? Can be a synonym of по чьим-то следáм following in someone’s footsteps [lit. or fig.]. Стóимость рубля́ бýдет пáдать вслед за снижéнием цен на нефть.

The value of the ruble will fall following the decline in oil prices.

Вслед за сы́ ном мать пошлá на плóщадь, чтобы́ вы́ сказать протéст прóтив режи́ ма.

Following her son, the mother went to the square to protest the regime.

Вслед за тем(,) как Conjunction Immediately after Used when the action depicted in the principal clause occurs after the action depicted in the subordinate clause. A clause with вслед за тем как may either

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follow or precede the principal clause. There is no comma before как when the conjunction with the subordinate clause precedes the principal clause. Вслед за тем как is more literary stylistically than its neutral synonyms пóсле тогó как after, как тóлько as soon as. (See also как тóлько, пóсле тогó как.) Кри́ зис стал углубля́ ться вслед за тем, как цéны на нефть пошли́ вниз.

The crisis worsened immediately after oil prices went down.

Вслед за тем как в óфисе прошёл óбыск, Мáркова увóлили.

Immediately after the office was searched, Markov was fired.

Вслéдствие Preposition With the genitive case As a consequence Points at something that is the result of subsequent occurrences. Phrases with this preposition answer the question вслéдствие чегó? as a consequence of what? Constructions with вслéдствие can be separated by commas when they are placed in the middle of a sentence, between a subject and a predicate, or when they clarify what is said in the sentence. Synonymous with в результáте as a result. Frequently used in formal speech. (See also в результáте, из-за.) Вслéдствие землетрясéния пострадáли ты́ сячи жи́ телей.

As a consequence of the earthquake, there were thousands of casualties.

Мнóгие рабóтники, вслéдствие сокращéния финанси́ рования, бы́ ли увóлены.

As a consequence of cuts in subsidies, many employees were fired.

Note! Do not confuse the preposition вслéдствие with the phrase в слéдствии during the investigation.

Вслéдствие тогó(,) что Conjunction As a consequence of the fact that Connects adverbial clauses that imply a consequence or a result. These clauses may either follow or precede the principal clause. When a clause with this conjunction opens the sentence, a comma appears between the clauses; when it follows the principal clause, the comma is placed before что. Frequently used in scholarly language and journalism. (See the synonyms в результáте тогó что, ввидý тогó что, из-за тогó что.)

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Вслéдствие тогó что у Мáрка ухýдшилось зрéние, емý пришлóсь уйти́ из лаборатóрии.

As a consequence of Mark’s vision getting worse, he had to leave the laboratory.

Виногрáда в э́ том годý бы́ ло мáло вслéдствие тогó, что всё лéто шли дожди́ .

The grape harvest was poor this year as a consequence of the nonstop summer rains.

Вслéдствие чегó Conjunction As a consequence of which Connects adverbial clauses that imply a consequence or a result. Follows the principal clause. Semantically close to поэ́ тому therefore, отчегó и and so, потомý и that’s why, почемý и which is why. Synonymous with в результáте чегó as a result of, which is less formal than вслéдствие чегó. (See the synonyms в результáте чегó, в слéдствие чегó, отчегó и, потомý и, почемý и, поэ́ тому.) Декáн ухóдит на пéнсию, вслéдствие The dean is retiring, as a consequence of чегó oбъя́ влен кóнкурс на э́ ту which there is now a national search for the дóлжность. position.

В слýчае Preposition With the genitive case In case of Phrases with this preposition answer the question в какóм слýчае? in what case? В слýчае пожáра звони́ те 01.

In case of a fire, dial 01.

Phrase with в слýчае В слýчае чегó . . . [coll.]

If anything happens . . .

Ты остаёшься однá. В слýчае чегó, сразý звони́ .

You’re staying by yourself. If anything happens, call immediately.

В соотвéтствии с [form.] Preposition With the instrumental case In accordance with Phrases with в соотвéтствии с answer the question в соотвéтствии с чем? in accordance with what? Constructions with в соотвéтствии с can be separated

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by commas when they are placed in the middle of a sentence, between a subject and a predicate, or when they clarify what is said in the sentence. Frequently used in journalism, as well as scholarly and bureaucratic language. (See also на основáнии, соглáсно.) В соотвéтствии с прикáзом дирéктора слýжащие вы́ нуждены вы́ йти на рабóту в выходны́ е дни.

In accordance with the director’s orders, employees are required to work at the weekend.

Все преподавáтели, в соотвéтствии с In accordance with the rules, al professors инстрýкцией, должны́ пройти́ have to pass the training. трéнинг.

В сопровождéнии Preposition With the genitive case Accompanied by Phrases with в сопровождéнии answer the questions в сопровождéнии когó? accompanied by whom? or в сопровождéнии чегó? accompanied by what? Перевóзка оборýдования осуществля́ лась в сопровождéнии полицéйских.

The transported equipment was accompanied by the police.

В сýщности Parenthetical word In essence Used to show that the speaker is focusing on the essence of the thought. Separated by commas. Used in the same way as its synonym по сýти in essence and more frequently than по существý basically. More formal than сóбственно (говоря́ ) strictly speaking. (See also по сýти, по существý, сóбственно (говоря́ ).) В сýщности, все размóлвки мéжду коллéгами происхóдят из-за нежелáния поня́ ть друг дрýга.

In essence, all arguments between coworkers happen because of their unwillingness to understand each other.

В сравнéнии с Preposition With the instrumental case In comparison with Phrases with в сравнéнии с answer the questions в сравнéнии с чем? in comparison with what?, в сравнéнии с кем? in comparison with whom? Constructions

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with в сравнéнии с can be separated by commas when they are placed in the middle of a sentence, between a subject and a predicate, or when they clarify what is said in the sentence. Tends to be utilized in formal speech. (See also по сравнéнию.) Нýжно бы́ ло определи́ ть кáчество нóвой продýкции в сравнéнии со стáрой.

It was necessary to determine the quality of the new production in comparison with the old one.

Молодóму писáтелю былá вы́ делена кварти́ ра, хотя́ егó жили́ щные услóвия, в сравнéнии с жильём други́ х, бы́ ли довóльно неплохи́ ми.

The young writer was accorded an apartment, although his living conditions, when compared to those of others, were quite good.

В течéние Preposition With the genitive case During, throughout Used with nouns that denote time or an event during which something is happening. Phrases with this preposition answer the questions в течéние какóго врéмени? during what time?, в течéние чегó? during what? Used in various styles. (See also на протяжéнии.) Жáркая погóда стоя́ ла в течéние всегó мéсяца.

The hot weather held throughout the entire month.

В течéние спектáкля в зáле ничегó не было слы́ шно из-за не прекращáющегося ли́ вня.

Throughout the play, it was impossible to hear anything in the theater because of the incessant downpour.

Note! Do not confuse the preposition в течéние, which indicates duration, with the phrase в течéнии реки́ , which means in the flow of the river.

В то врéмя(,) как Conjunction While, during, at the same time as, when Used either when the actions expressed in the principal and subordinate clauses occur simultaneously (with imperfective verbs in both parts), or when the action expressed in the principal clause partially coincides with the action expressed in the subordinate clause (with perfective and imperfective verbs accordingly). A comma does not split в то врéмя как and is placed between the principal and subordinate clauses when the conjunction opens the sentence. The comma is

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placed before в то врéмя как when the subordinate clause follows the principal clause. Тhe comma may appear before как when the subordinate clause follows the principal clause and the word врéмя is emphasized. (See the synonym покá.) В то врéмя как преподавáтели обсуждáли результáты экзáмена, студéнты игрáли в футбóл.

While the teachers were discussing the exam results, the students played soccer.

Мы встрéтились с ним чéрез мнóго лет в то врéмя, как он ужé рабóтал в другóй больни́ це.

We met with him many years later, when he was already working in another hospital.

Дéвушки поéхали на фéрму собирáть The girls went to a farm to gather strawberries at the same time as a horrible клубни́ ку, в то врéмя как началáсь thunderstorm started. ужáсная грозá.

While, whereas, although This meaning is used when the content in the principal clause is contradictory to the content in the subordinate part. (See the synonyms мéжду тем, тогдá как.) Мáша весь день ничéм не занятá, в то врéмя как Сáша рабóтает без óтдыха.

Masha does nothing the whole day, while Sasha works without any breaks.

Олéга перевели́ в другóй отдéл и повы́ сили зарплáту, в то врéмя как он ничéм не заслужи́ л э́ то продвижéние.

Oleg was transferred to another department and was given a raise, although he did nothing to deserve this promotion.

В том числé Conjunction Including Used to emphasize the part that follows it. В кинó пошли́ все, в том числé (и) Дáня с Сáшей.

Everybody went to the movie, including Danya and Sasha.

В числé Preposition With the genitive case Among someone/something Highlights one or a few members of a group of people, things, or phenomena.

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На симпóзиуме в числé прóчих обсуждáлась проблéма бездóмных детéй.

Among others, the problem of homeless children was discussed at the symposium.

Phrases with в числé В числé други́ х.

Among others.

В числé лýчших.

Among the best.

В числé прóчего.

Among the rest. (things)

В числé прóчих.

Among the rest. (people)

Где Conjunction Where Adverbial subordinate clauses of place with где refer to a combination of a predicate and the demonstrative words там there, тудá there in the principal clause. The adverbs всю́ ду everywhere, вездé everywhere, спрáва on the right, слéва on the left, and others may be used in principal clauses. Ивáн Пáвлович ужé не рабóтает там, Ivan Pavlovich is no longer working at the где он рабóтал нéсколько лет назáд. place where he worked several years ago. Маши́ на поéхала напрáво, где былá стоя́ нка.

The car drove to the right, where there was parking lot.

Вездé, где появля́ лась Надéжда Пáвловна, станови́ лось веселéе.

Wherever Nadezhda Pavlovna showed up, things became livelier.

Note! Excluding the demonstrative words там there, тудá there, оттýда from there from the principal clause is possible in colloquial speech, but in many cases, it is not the preferred style. Они́ пошли́ тудá, где былá большáя толпá людéй.

They went where there was a large crowd of people.

Where Connects subordinate clauses that function as subjects or objects and fill a missing gap in a principal clause. These clauses answer the questions of cases. Где conveys the meaning of time. Алексéй Дми́ триевич не хотéл расскáзывать, где он провёл выходны́ е дни.

Aleksei Dmitrievich didn’t want to talk about where he had spent his days off.

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Where Connects attributive subordinate clauses that usually refer to the part of the principal clause that is expressed by a noun or nominal phrase when a noun in the principal clause indicates a place or a space. These clauses answer the question какóй? which? Где can be replaced by котóрый which. В гóроде, где / в котóром он роди́ лся и вы́ рос, всё измени́ лось до неузнавáемости.

The town in which he was born and lived has changed so much that it is unrecognizable.

Где (бы) ни Conjunction Wherever Connects subordinate clauses that point to the places in spite of which the action described in the principal clause is accomplished. Conveys intensity to the action described. The particle ни is usually placed before either a predicate or an adverbial modifier (only when the latter is an adverb). The particle never precedes a noun. They can also be combined with бы to emphasize the meaning. The adverbs всю́ ду everywhere, вездé everywhere, повсю́ ду all around, со всех сторóн from all sides, and others can be used in principal clauses. (See also кудá (бы) ни, откýда (бы) ни.) Где Людми́ ла Николáевна ни рабóтает, ей вездé нрáвится.

Wherever Liudmila Nikolaevna works, she always likes it.

Где бы Степáн ни появля́ лся, он вездé станови́ лся душóй óбщества.

Wherever Stepan went, he always became the life and soul of his circle of friends.

Глáвное [coll.] Parenthetical word Most importantly Indicates something important and meaningful. Separated by commas. In English, глáвное can often be rendered as “and” in the beginning of an utterance. Sometimes, only intonation can convey the meaning of глáвное. Глáвное, пóмни, что экзáмены нýжно сдать в начáле февраля́ .

Most importantly, don’t forget that you have to take the exams in the beginning of February.

Emphasizes something that the speaker perceives as illogical and unexpected. Онá, глáвное, самá же сказáла, что не нáдо приезжáть зарáнее.

And she herself said that we shouldn’t arrive early!

Note! Can be used as a modifier and is not separated by commas.

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Глáвное мероприя́ тие бýдет почемýто проводи́ ться в концé фестивáля.

For some reason, the main event is going to be at the end of the festival.

Говоря́ т Parenthetical word They say Points out that the information that is the subject of an utterance is based on gossip. Separated by commas. Говоря́ т, лéто в э́ том годý бýдет óчень жáрким.

They say that summer this year is going to be very hot.

Note! Can function as a predicate. No commas are needed. Они́ говоря́ т, что слив не бýдет в э́ том годý.

They say that there won’t be any plums this year.

Грéшным дéлом Parenthetical expression Ashamed to say Expresses one’s own fault, guilt, or sin. Separated by commas. Мы, грéшным дéлом, реши́ ли, что всё э́ то произошлó из-за негó.

We’re ashamed to say that we thought it all happened because of him.

Да Particle. Conjunction Particle Yes, right Used to confirm a statement in a reply. This particle, as an equivalent of правда? true?, is used to confirm a statement at the end of a sentence: да? right?, i.e., as a tag question. (See also прáвда, хорошó.) Мы лéтом поéдем на мóре, да? – Да.

“We’ll go to the sea this summer, right?” “Yep.”

Really? Can express hesitation or doubt when used after an interrogative sentence as a reply, meaning are you sure? or really? Can express irony. Мне нýжен нóвый компью́ тер. – Да? Я дýмал, что и э́ тот хорóш.

“I need a new computer.” “Really? I thought this one was good enough.”

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Yes? Can be a synonym of что? what? with an interrogative intonation when someone is addressed. It is a more polite response than что and expresses readiness to listen. Пётр Леони́ дович! – Да? Я Вас слýшаю.

“Pyotr Leonidovich!” “Yes? What can I do for you?”

By the way Used in the beginning of an utterance when recalling something. Да, я ещё забы́ ла сказáть, что Антони́ на проси́ ла передáть привéт.

By the way, I forgot to mention that Antonina says “Hi.”

Да and [coll.] is always unstressed and always used with the question words и зачéм? and for what reason?, что? what?, кудá? where to?, где? where?, or in a combination with words that indicate mistrust or hesitation, such as the responses да как же э́ то? how can it be?, да мóжет ли э́ то? how is it possible? Not separated by a comma. Да и зачéм емý éхать тудá? Сидéл бы And what does he have to go there for? He’d себé дóма. be better off staying at home. Да и где мóжно купи́ ть таки́ е дешёвые билéты?

And where can you buy tickets that cheaply?

Да [coll.] expresses negative emotions, annoyance, mistrust, or disagreement, indicating a meaning opposite to that of the previous utterance. It is combined with a sarcastic конéчно of course, сейчáс right, in a second, как раз yeah, sure, как же of course, and is pronounced as an exclamation with irony. Always stressed. Вот Мари́ я приéдет скóро. – Да, как же!

“Maria will be here soon.” “Right, of course she will.”

Expressions with the particle да Вот э́ то да! [coll.]

Wow!

Посмотри́ , какóй дом пострóили – не дом, а дворéц! – Вот э́ то да!

“Look at that new house! It’s not a house – it’s a palace!” “Wow!”

Ну да! [coll.] emphasizes agreement in a reply with the stress on да. Мы éдем в ресторáн? – Ну да!

“Are we going to the restaurant?” “Yep!”

Ну да? Да ну? [coll.] Really? Emphasizes doubt. Мы éдем в ресторáн. – Ну да?

“We’re going to a restaurant.” “Really?”

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И да и нет. Yes and no. Вы соглáсны со мной? – И да и нет.

“Do you agree with me?” “Yes and no.”

Ни да ни нет. Neither yes nor no. Ну что, даю́ т тебé э́ тот проéкт? Что шеф сказáл? – Ничегó он не сказáл: ни да ни нет.

“Well? Did they give you the project? What did the boss say?” “He didn’t say anything: neither yes, nor no.”

Да здрáвствует / бýдет! Three cheers for, hooray for, etc., is used to introduce slogans or expressions of praise. While this is not too common in contemporary English, it is very common in Russian; it might be easier to compare it to familiar constructions in French: Vive le/la . . ., e.g., Vive la France! Да здрáвствует 1-е Мáя!

Three cheers for the 1st of May!

Conjunction And Can be a synonym of и and. Mostly used in folklore, proverbs and sayings, and in colloquial Russian. (See also и.) И остáлись они́ вдвоём: он да егó мать.

And the two of them, he and his mother, were left alone.

But Can be a synonym of но but. (See also но.) Хотéли мы поéхать в гóры, да погóда We wanted to go to the mountains, but the помешáла. weather didn’t allow it. The combinations да и and, but also, да и к томý же and, but also are used to confirm information (often negative) contained in the previous thought. To express a contrast with the previous thought with a tone of pity or sympathy, the combination да тóлько however is used. Да и то can be considered an equivalent of мáло тогó not only, так ещё и (к томý же) and not only that, but, and бóлее тогó moreover. Никудá мы не поéхали в суббóту, да и (к томý же) врéмени не было.

We didn’t go anywhere on Saturday, and we didn’t have time anyway.

Мы пришли́ на вечери́ нку пóзже всех, да и то бы́ ли недóлго.

We got to the party later than everyone else and even then we didn’t stay very long.

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Давáй(те) Particle Let’s Used in imperative sentences to express motivation, encouragement, or inducement to do something. Commonly, the verb that follows давáй(те) is in the first person plural, future tense, either imperfective or perfective. However, this particle can be combined with verbs and pronouns in the first, second, or third person in certain situations. It can also be combined with a verb in the infinitive, and then it conveys commands that are seen as informal suggestions or can be considered inclusive. Additionally, it can be used to confirm a statement in a reply. (See also пускáй, пусть.) Ди́ на, давáй поéдем на катóк.

Dina, let’s go skating.

Давáйте встáнем зáвтра порáньше.

Let’s get up early tomorrow.

Лáдно‚ давáй я сдéлаю э́ то.

Ok, let me do this.

Андрю́ ша, давáй пойди́ позанимáйся.

Andryusha, how about you go study.

Давáй Николáй схóдит в магази́ н.

Have Nikolai go to the store.

Дáже Particle. Conjunction Particle Even Used to emphasize words or phrases. No comma is needed. О нём дáже никтó не вспóмнил.

Nobody even mentioned him.

Дáже can be used with the conjunctions éсли if or когдá when to connect a subordinate and main clauses. A comma appears in front of дáже. There is no comma between the particle and conjuctions. (See also и.) Мы ужé никудá не поéдем, дáже éсли ты сейчáс закóнчишь рабóту.

Even if you finish working right now, we’re not going anywhere anymore.

Дáже когдá он говори́ т прáвду, емý никтó не вéрит.

Even when he tells the truth, nobody believes him.

Conjunction Even Дáже connects clauses or words when it is needed to clarify or add something. There is a comma before constructions like this.

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Онá емý ничегó не сказáла, дáже не намекнýла, что остáлась без рабóты.

She didn’t tell him anything, didn’t even hint that she was left without a job.

Далекó от Preposition With the genitive case Far away from Phrases with this preposition answer the nonspecific question где? where? and the more specific question на какóм расстоя́ нии от? what distance from? This preposition is neutral, unlike its synonyms вдалекé от far away from, вдали́ от far from, which are commonly used in elevated styles. (See the antonyms невдалекé от, недалекó от.) А́ лла вспóмнила, что остáвила ключи́ на холоди́ льнике тóлько, когдá ужé былá далекó от дóма.

Alla remembered that she left her keys on the fridge only when she was already far away from her house.

Note! Do not confuse the preposition далекó от, which governs nouns in the genitive case, with the adverb далекó far away, which is used independently. Дéти уéхали, живýт далекó в гóроде.

The kids left and are living far away in the city.

Действи́ тельно Parenthetical word Indeed, really Indicates verification and confirmation expressed in the utterance and is separated by commas. When used in a question, articulates doubt. Can be used as a sentence-reply. (See the synonym в сáмом дéле.) Действи́ тельно, нáша начáльница собирáется уходи́ ть на другýю рабóту.

Our boss really is going to leave for another job.

А́ нна, э́ то же Вáша кни́ га? – Действи́ тельно.

“Anna, isn’t this your book?” Indeed it is.”

Note! Do not confuse the parenthetical word with the adverb действи́ тельно truly, which functions as a part of a sentence and is not separated by commas. Sometimes, it is difficult to understand whether it is a parenthetical word or an adverb – this depends on the author’s perception.

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Он не был на рабóте, так как действи́ тельно был бóлен всю недéлю.

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He was not at work, seeing as he truly was sick the whole week.

Дéлать нéчего Parenthetical expression Nothing to be done about it Дéлать нéчего or нéчего дéлать (which is less frequently used) indicates that the speaker has to do something unwillingly or without enthusiasm. Separated by commas. Дéлать нéчего, придётся идти́ на собрáние.

Well, nothing to be done about it – I’ll have to go to the meeting.

Note! Do not confuse the parenthetical expression дéлать нéчего with a part of a sentence that is not separated by commas. Мы закóнчили рабóту, и раз здесь дéлать нéчего идём домóй.

We’re finished work and since there’s nothing left to do, let’s go home.

Дéскать Particle As one put it Used in reference to someone’s speech, often with a shade of distrust, explaining someone’s actions. Separated by commas. (See the synonym мол.) Артём звони́ л и сказáл, что, дéскать, Artyom called and said that, as he put it, он сам спрáвится, мы емý не нужны́ . he’ll do it by himself, he doesn’t need us. Э́ то, дéскать, не егó винá.

This, as he put it, isn’t his fault.

Для Preposition With the genitive case For Used in phrases that indicate purpose or goals for accomplishing something. Indicates the function of inanimate objects, as well as animate objects for which something is intended. Used to depict for whom something is done or something that has value. Combined exclusively with the interrogative words когó whom and чегó what to form the questions для когó? for whom?, для чегó? for what? Емý нýжно собрáть мнóго дáнных для исслéдований.

He needs to collect a lot of data for his research.

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Э́ то магази́ н для рыболóвов.

This store is for fishermen.

Ей подари́ ли фарфóровую вáзу для фрýктов.

They gave a gift of a porcelain vase for fruit.

То, что сказáла А́ ня, бы́ ло пóлной неожи́ данностью для меня́ .

What Anya said was completely unexpected for me.

Phrases with the preposition для Врéдно / полéзно / вáжно для когó-то / чегó-то.

Harmful/beneficial/important for someone/ something.

Имéет значéние для когó-то / чегó-то.

Has value for someone/something.

Для пóльзы дéла.

For the sake of the job.

Для улучшéния чегó-то.

For the improvement of something.

Для чьегó-то удовóльствия.

For someone’s pleasure.

Для смéха.

For laughter’s sake.

Для тогó(,) чтóбы Conjunction In order to, so that Connects adverbial clauses of purpose to the principal clause. Sentences with this conjunction are used to answer the questions зачéм? for what purpose?, с какóй цéлью? with what goal? An adverbial clause with this conjunction can be placed before, in the middle of, or after the principal clause. A comma does not split off the conjunction when it starts a sentence. When it follows a principal clause, a comma can be placed before the first word or before чтóбы. A comma before чтóбы emphasizes the demonstrative word. Для тогó чтóбы is used less frequently than чтóбы and more frequently than с тем чтóбы. (See also чтóбы, с тем чтóбы.) Зачéм Пётр Алексáндрович сиди́ т над кни́ гой весь день? – Для тогó чтóбы закóнчить кни́ гу, емý нýжно мнóго рабóтать.

“Why does Pyotr Aleksandrovich work on his book all day long?” “In order to finish the book, he needs to work a lot.”

Мы должны́ пообéдать порáньше, для тогó чтóбы успéть в кинó.

We need to have dinner earlier in order to get to the movies on time.

Ири́ на вы́ шла из кóмнаты для тогó, чтóбы не мешáть роди́ телям разговáривать.

Irina left the room so that she wouldn’t get in the way of her parents talking.

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До Preposition With the genitive case Before, until Denotes either an interval of time before a specified point or an event for which only the end point is shown. Phrases with до respond to the question когдá? when? or the less general до какóго врéмени? until what time? Phrases with this preposition can combine with phrases with the preposition с. (See also с.) Мы должны́ закóнчить рабóту до вéчера.

We have to finish the job before the evening.

До войны́ здесь былá цéрковь.

Before the war, there was a church here.

Магази́ н рабóтает с девяти́ до пяти́ .

The store is open from nine to five.

До спектáкля остаётся недéля.

There is a week left before the play.

До шести́ лет их сын не говори́ л поангли́ йски – тóлько по-рýсски.

Until he was six, their son didn’t speak English – only Russian.

To Indicates approaching or reaching, a limitation or boundary of something. These phrases respond to the question до какóго мéста? as far as/to what place? До ближáйшей стáнции нýжно идти́ полчасá.

You have to walk half an hour to the nearest station.

У неё кóсы до пóяса, а ю́ бка до колéн.

Her braids are to her waist, while her skirt is to her knees.

To Points out the length, height, and depth of something, or the degree of an action or condition. Он кричáл до хрипоты́ , но егó никтó так и не услы́ шал.

He screamed until hoarse, but ultimately, no one heard him.

Сапоги́ у Кáрла всегдá вы́ чищены до Karl’s boots are always polished to блéска. perfection.

Up to Literally means “approximately.” Скóлько человéк мóжет помести́ ться “How many people can fit in this hall?” в э́ том зáле? – До ста человéк. “Up to 100.”

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До to is often paired with the preposition от from, indicating space. (See also от.) От Ки́ ева до Нóвгорода нýжно éхать пóездом 16 часóв.

It takes 16 hours to get from Kiev to Novgorod by train.

До is used with verbs with the prefix до- signifying the end or limit of an action: довари́ ть до концá to cook until ready, доéхать до мéста to reach a place, долетéть до Сарáтова to reach Saratov (by plane).

Phrases and expressions with the preposition до Вплоть до.

Down to the very.

Впредь до.

Until [a specific point in the future].

До сих пор.

Up to this point.

До концá.

Until the end.

До изнеможéния.

To exhaustion.

До ýжаса.

To no end.

До предéла.

To the limit.

Довести́ до слёз.

Drive to tears.

Дойти́ до рýчки.

To reach one’s limit.

Измени́ ться до неузнавáемости.

To change so as to be unrecognizable.

Напугáть до смéрти.

To scare to death.

Не до тогó.

Not in the mood.

Пить до дна.

To chug.

Промóкнуть до ни́ тки.

To get drenched.

Считáть до скольки́ -то.

To count until some number.

Должнó быть Parenthetical expression Most likely Articulates uncertainty, doubt, or assumption. Separated by commas. Tends to be utilized in formal language. (See the synonyms вероя́ тно, возмóжно, ви́ димо, мóжет быть, навéрное.) Мáша на секýнду замолчáла, должнó Masha fell silent for a second, most likely быть, вспóмнив что-то. remembering something. Стáло темнó – должнó быть, к дождю́ .

It got dark, most likely in anticipation of the rain.

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Note! Do not confuse the parenthetical expression with the predicate, which is а part of a sentence. In this case, it means should be, and no commas are needed. Что должнó быть на столé в новогóднюю ночь?

What should be on the table for New Year’s Eve?

Допýстим Parenthetical word. Particle Parenthetical word Let’s say Expresses assumption, supposition, and guess. Separated by commas. Tends to be utilized in formal language. (See the synonym предполóжим.) Они́ , допусти́ м, закóнчат свою́ часть проéкта, но мы при э́ том не бýдем готóвы.

Let’s say they finish their part of the project, but we still won’t be ready.

Particle Perhaps Implies uncertain affirmation and readiness to make objections. Can be used as a sentence-reply. Вы ведь рáньше придéрживались такóй же тóчки зрéния? – Допýстим. Однáко из э́ того ничегó не слéдует.

“Didn’t you earlier hold to the same point of view?” “Perhaps. However, that doesn’t mean anything.”

Ты всё-таки придёшь? – Допýстим.

“So, will you come?” “Perhaps.”

Note! Допýстим as a parenthetical expression must be distinguished from the verb in the first person plural: we allow, we permit. In this case, no commas are needed. Мы не допýстим э́ тих аспирáнтов к защи́ те кандидáтской.

We will not let these graduates defend their dissertations.

До тех пор(,) покá Conjunction As long as Connects adverbial clauses of time to the principal clase when the action expressed in the subordinate clause indicates a time boundary. Normally, verbs in the subordinate and main clauses are imperfective. Clauses with this conjunction answer the question до каки́ х пор? until what time? Not split by a comma

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when opening a sentence; the comma is instead placed between the principal and subordinate clauses. (See also до тех пор покá не, покá не.) Джон и Джéки бýдут жить в э́ том John and Jackie are going to live in this дóме до тех пор, покá он рабóтает на house as long as he has his old job. стáром мéсте. До тех пор покá бýдет э́ та власть, нормáльной жи́ зни ждать не прихóдится.

As long as this regime holds, we shouldn’t hope for a normal life.

До тех пор(,) покá не Conjunction Until Used like до тех пор покá as long as and покá не until to connect adverbial clauses of time to the principal clause when the action expressed in the subordinate clause indicates a time boundary. Clauses with this conjunction answer the question до каки́ х пор? until what time? Typically, a verb in the subordinate clause is perfective. When this conjunction opens a sentence, it is not split by a comma; the comma is instead placed between the principal and subordinate clauses. До тех пор покá не is more formal than покá не and emphasizes the content in the subordinate part. (See also до тех пор покá, покá не.) Когдá вы, наконéц, уйдёте? – Мы не мóжем вы́ йти до тех пор, покá не прекрати́ ться дождь.

“When will you finally leave?” “We can’t leave until the rain stops.”

До тех пор покá не закóнчится ремóнт дорóги, нýжно выезжáть рáньше.

Until the road work is complete, you will have to leave earlier.

До каки́ х пор бýдет продолжáться “How long will this disaster continue?” э́ то безобрáзие? – До тех пор покá не “Until the current president retires.” уйдёт в отстáвку ны́ нешний президéнт.

Note! The particle не in this conjunction is not a negation.

До тогó(,) как Conjunction Prior to, until, before Connects adverbial clauses of time to the principal clause, if the action described in the principal clause occurs before the action described in the subordinate

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clause. This conjunction can be combined with verbal infinitives. When opening a sentence, it is not split by a comma; the comma is instead placed between the principal and subordinate clauses. Used with the words задóлго long before, незадóлго not long before, за before. (See also прéжде чем, пéред тем как.) До тогó как нáчался дождь, бы́ ло жáрко и дýшно.

Until the rain began, it was hot and humid.

Я должнá закóнчить всю рабóту до тогó, как поéду в óтпуск.

I need to finish all my work before I go on vacation.

Он ушёл незадóлго до тогó, как онá вернýлась.

He left not long before she returned.

Други́ ми словáми Parenthetical expression In other words Used to refer to one’s own rhetoric. Separated by commas. Stylistically neutral, while the synonym ины́ ми словáми in other words is more often utilized in literature and formal language, and the synonym инáче говоря́ in other words is less formal. (See also инáче говоря́ , ины́ ми словáми.) Други́ ми словáми, éсли ты не напóм- In other words, if you don’t remind them that you exist, then you won’t be invited to нишь о себé, то тебя́ на слéдующее the next interview. собесéдование так и не вы́ зовут.

Note! Други́ ми словáми can function as part of a sentence as an adverbial modifier. In this case, no commas are needed. Вы должны́ написáть э́ то всё други́ ми словáми.

You must rewrite all of this using different words.

Едвá Conjunction Barely Used in complex sentences, when the action depicted in the principal clause occurs after the action depicted in the subordinate clause. These subordinate clauses answer the question когдá? when? If the subordinate clause introduced by the conjunction едвá precedes the principal clause, the principal clause can start with the word как how. Sounds slightly bookish. (See also лишь, как тóлько, чуть тóлько.) Все стáли болéть, едвá начался́ семéстр.

Everybody became sick, though the semester had barely begun.

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Едвá Серёже испóлнилось пять лет, как егó роди́ тели развели́ сь.

Seryozha was barely five years old when his parents divorced.

Едвá ли Particle Unlikely Articulates doubt or disbelief in the veracity of something. Often used as a sentence-reply. More bookish than its synonym вряд ли doubtful. (See also вряд ли.) Ты смóжешь приéхать сегóдня? – Едвá ли.

“Will you be able to come today?” “Unlikely.”

Едвá ли Сергéя останóвит тот факт, что он чуть не ýмер от предозирóвки.

Sergey will hardly be stopped by the fact that he almost died from an overdose.

Едвá ли не [coll.] Particle Practically Conveys uncertain supposition or comparison that includes exaggeration. (See the synonym чуть ли не.) Матвéй пришёл к фи́ нишу едвá ли не сáмый послéдний.

Matvey was practically last to the finish line.

Едвá не Particle Nearly Indicates an action (often undesired) that was close to completion, but that was not ultimately completed. Used with verbs in the past tense. Sounds more bookish than its synonym чуть не nearly. (See also чуть не.) Онá едвá не брóсила всё и не уéхала с ним.

She nearly left everything behind and went with him.

Еди́ нственно Particle Solely Emphasizes the solitary characteristic of the described fact. Used less frequently than its synonyms лишь only and тóлько only. No commas are used with this particle. Sounds bookish. (See also исключи́ тельно, лишь, тóлько.) Онá вы́ шла за негó еди́ нственно, чтóбы досади́ ть свои́ м роди́ телям.

She married him solely to spite her parents.

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Е́ жели [arch., folk.] Conjunction If Connects a subordinate clause to the principal clause to express a real condition or circumstance needed to accomplish an action. Mostly used in folklore and literature, and can sound sarcastic. Syntactically utilized in the same way as its synonyms éсли if, кóли if, когдá if. Semantically close to кóли, which is archaic as well. (See also éсли, кóли, когдá.) За что же медáль, éжели пóмер, прáвда? (В. Бы́ ков, «Болóто»)

What is the medal for if he is dead, right? (Bykov, The Bog)

Е́ жели бы [arch., folk.] Conjunction If Connects a subordinate clause to the principal clause to imply unreal or contraryto-fact conditions, i.e., if the actions depicted in the principal clause could take place, the subordinate clause expresses the conditions for possible fulfillment. As with éжели if, this conjunction is mostly used in folklore and literature and can sound sarcastic. Syntactically utilized in the same way as its synonym éсли бы if. Semantically close to кáбы if. (See also éсли бы, кáбы, когдá бы.) Е́ жели бы такáя дáма подвернýлася покóйнику Кáрпу Лукичý, да он бы её узлóм завязáл. (Д. Н. МáминСибиря́ к, «Клад»)

If such a lady turned up in front of the dead Karp Lukich, he would tie her up in a knot! (Mamin-Sibiriak, The Treasure)

Е́ сли Conjunction If Connects a subordinate clause to the principal clause to express a real condition or circumstance needed to accomplish an action. A subordinate clause starting with éсли can be placed at the beginning or at the end of a sentence. Subordinate clauses with éсли answer the questions при какóм услóвии? on what condition?, в какóм слýчае? in what case? If the subordinate clause with the conjunction éсли precedes the principal one, the latter is often introduced by the word то then. A comma is placed between the two parts of the complex sentence. Frequently, but not always, both parts are used in the future tense. Е́ сли is neutral and is used in all styles. (See also éжели, когдá, кóли, раз.) Е́ сли Тимýр сдéлал всю рабóту, то он мóжет идти́ домóй.

If Timur has finished his work, he can go home.

Онá мóжет идти́ в клуб, éсли у неё нет други́ х дел.

She can go to the club if she has no other work to do.

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Е́ сли бы Conjunction If Connects a subordinate clause to the principal clause to imply unreal or contrary-to-fact conditions, i.e., if the actions depicted in the principal clause could take place, the subordinate clause expresses the conditions for possible fulfillment. Used with verbs in the past tense in both clauses, even though the utterance may allude to actions in the past or in general, regardless of time. Often, if the subordinate clause with the conjunction éсли бы precedes the principal one, the latter is introduced by the word то then. Е́ сли бы is neutral and is used in all styles. (See also éжели бы, кáбы, когдá бы.) Е́ сли бы Ми́ ша пришёл вóвремя, то нам не пришлóсь бы ждать пóезд ещё час.

If Misha had come on time, then we wouldn’t have had to wait another hour for the train.

Жéня переéхал бы в другóй гóрод, éсли бы нашёл рабóту.

Zhenya would move to a different city if he found another job.

Естéственно Parenthetical word. Particle Parenthetical word Naturally Can function as a particle or a parenthetical word, depending on the sentence structure. Can be translated as “logically.” Expresses confidence and is separated by commas. Stylistically conversational. (See also разумéется, конéчно.) Илья́ Ивáнович рабóтает здесь недáвно и, естéственно, ещё не во всём разобрáлся.

Ilya Ivanovich hasn’t worked here for long and, naturally, hasn’t fully gotten into the rhythm of things.

Particle Of course Used as an independent sentence-reply in confirmation to an utterance. Ты бýдешь обéдать? – Да, естéственно, ужé пять часóв.

“Are you going to have dinner?” “Yes, of course; it’s already five o’clock.”

Note! Естéственно naturally can function as a part of a sentence, i.e., an adverbial modifier, and is not separated by commas.

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Натáша дéлала всё легкó и естéственно.

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Natasha did everything easily and naturally.

Ещё Particle. Conjunction Particle [coll.] Else, other Used with the question words какóй what kind, где where, как how, зачéм for what, кудá where to, and others to make phrases more vivid. Can express disagreement or displeasure. In certain situations, not translated directly. Ты в ресторáн пойдёшь? – В какóй ещё ресторáн!? Никудá я не пойдý.

“Will you go to the restaurant?” “What restaurant!? I’m not going anywhere.”

Else Can combine with the interrogative words кто who, что what, and где where. Где ещё мóжно вы́ пить вкýсный кóфе? – На Арбáте.

“Where else can we get a good coffee?” “On the Arbat.”

Где же ещё мóжно вы́ пить вкýсный кóфе, éсли не на Арбáте!

Where else you can have a good coffee if not on the Arbat!

When used with the demonstrative words тогдá then, там there, сюдá here, такóй such, and others, it emphasizes a reference to a time, place, event, or person, and is used to convey more details. Тогдá ещё былá ужáсная погóда, – всё вокрýг занеслó снéгом, и мы два дня сидéли взаперти́ .

Тhe weather was awful then; everything was covered with snow, and we stayed cooped up inside for two days.

Expressions and phrases with ещё [coll.] Ещё чегó! Not a chance! expresses a distinctly negative attitude towards something that has occurred or was suggested. May sound rude. Мáма, я досмотрю́ кинó. – Ещё чегó! “Mom, let me finish the movie.” “Not a Спать порá. chance! It’s bedtime.” Вот ещё! is almost the same as ещё чегó, but is not quite as strong. Не хочý я с вáми éхать, хочý быть дóма. – Вот ещё, не выдýмывай, поéхали.

“I don’t want to go with you, I want to stay home.” “That’s enough of your nonsense, let’s go.”

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Ещё бы! No kidding! is semantically close to разумéется! of course!, без сомнéния! no doubt about it! It confirms the previous utterance and can serve as a positive, albeit informal, reply. (See also без сомнéния, разумéется.) Мне óчень понрáвился спектáкль. – “I really liked the show!” “No kidding! What Ещё бы! Такóй режиссёр, таки́ е a great director, and the actors were great, too!” актёры! Э́ то ещё что такóе? What’s going on here? Combinations like this with pronominal adverbs express bewilderment with a sense of negative emotion. Э́ то ещё что такóе? Почемý ты не в шкóле?

What’s going on here? Why aren’t you at school?

Ещё какóй / как! And how! indicates a high (affirming) degree of a certain feature. Во всей Еврóпе былá ужáсная жарá э́ тим лéтом. – Ещё какáя жарá!

“It was awfully hot all over Europe this summer.” “And how!”

(Э́ то) ещё ничегó that’s not so bad implies моглó быть хýже it could be worse in comparison with something that actually is worse. Опя́ ть всю ночь не спал – рабóтал? – “You didn’t sleep again. Were you up Э́ то ещё ничегó. Вот на прóшлой working all night?” “This is nothing. Last недéле я три дня подря́ д не спал. week, I didn’t sleep for three days straight.”

Conjunction [coll.] Also, too, as well, and yet Ещё in combination with а and, и and, да and intensifies the focus on the topic being discussed. May be a synonym of к томý же in addition to, which has the same meaning, but is more expressive. Can imply lack of correspondence between two designated actions, objects, or events and may convey a negative overtone. (See also к томý же.) Они́ бы́ ли в Москвé, да? – Да, а ещё в Петербýрге и Пскóве.

“Were they in Moscow?” “Yes, and in Petersburg and Pskov as well.”

Пóздно кудá-то идти́ , да ещё и устáла. It’s too late to go anywhere, and I’m tired, too. Нагруби́ л. А ещё интеллигéнтным человéком себя́ считáет.

He’s rude to me, and yet he considers himself well mannered.

Жаль (жáлко [coll.]) Parenthetical word (It’s a) pity Separated by commas. Жаль is more neutral than жáлко, although it is not as formal as its synonym к сожалéнию unfortunately. (See also к сожалéнию.)

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Жаль, порá расставáться.

Pity, it’s time to say goodbye.

Жáлко, что совсéм нет врéмени.

It’s a shame that there’s no time at all.

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Note! Жаль and жáлко can function as a part of a sentence, and, in this case, they are not separated by commas. Их жáль до слёз.

They deserve so much pity.

Вы́ глядит онá довóльно жáлко.

She looks pretty pitiful.

Же Particle. Conjunction Emphatic particle Used right after the word(s) being emphasized. The words какóй what, так so, такóй such, э́ тот this, etc., specify or indicate the identity of the object being discussed. Каки́ е же э́ то краси́ вые цветы́ !

These flowers are so beautiful!

Мы слýшали э́ тот же концéрт на прóшлой недéле.

We listened to this very same concert last week.

Зáвтра бýдет такáя же погóда, как вчерá.

Tomorrow, the weather will be the same as yesterday.

Conjunction Contrasts objects and is used in sentences that indicate acts or facts that oppose or contradict one another. Semantically close to the conjunction а while, but. Placed after the compared or intensified word. (See also а.) Грýше 17 лет, брáту же её 13.

Grusha is 17; her brother is 13.

Ты побýдь здесь немнóго, мне же нáдо идти́ .

You stay here a while longer. I have to go.

За Preposition With the accusative case Behind Used with nouns designating the object behind which another object moves. Phrases with за answer the question кудá where? Постáвь чемодáн за шкаф.

Put the briefcase behind the wardrobe.

Сóлнце спря́ талось за тýчу.

The sun hid behind a cloud.

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At, to Used with nouns denoting objects that have a functional role and the verbs сади́ ться to sit and усáживаться to sit down. The expression за стол can be used as an imperative, implying идём за стол, functioning as an invitation for everyone to gather at the dinner table for a meal. Все за стол – обéд ужé готóв.

Let’s go, dinner’s ready!

Когдá он сади́ лся за роя́ ль, в дóме срáзу станови́ лось ти́ хо.

Whenever he sat own at the piano, the house grew quiet.

Used with nouns that designate a field of knowledge or activity in which people are going to be involved. The verbs принимáться to become involved with, брáться to take to, which imply learning and working, are used in these situations. Translations may vary. Олéг акти́ вно при́ нялся за пóльский и бы́ стро егó вы́ учил.

Oleg started actively learning Polish and quickly mastered it.

Неизвéстно, когдá мы возьмёмся за ремóнт дóма.

It’s unclear when we’ll start fixing the house.

Verbs like брáться to take to, держáться to hold on to, хватáться to grab, and цепля́ ться to hook on to, which imply holding someone or something [lit. or fig.], are used in phrases with за. Phrases with за answer the question за что? for what?, за когó? for whom? Translations may vary. От стрáха дéвочка схвати́ ла отцá за рýку и не отпускáла её.

Out of fear, the girl grabbed her father’s hand and didn’t let go.

Натáша дéржится за проéкт, понимáя, что други́ х дéнег не бýдет.

Natasha holds on to her project, knowing full well that there won’t be any other source of money.

Out (of) Used in phrases with verbs of motion and other verbs that imply movement out of or away from something. Phrases with за answer the question кудá? where? За порóг дóма ты не вы́ йдешь, покá тебé не разрешáт.

You are not to leave this house without permission.

Учи́ тельница вы́ ставила за дверь Пéтю, котóрый всем мешáл.

The teacher kicked Petya out of the classroom, because he was distracting the other students.

В суббóту мы собирáемся за гóрод.

On Saturday, we’re planning to go to the woods.

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For Phrases with за imply that someone is performing an action on behalf of someone or something. Большинствó нарóда голосовáло за экономи́ чецкие рефóрмы.

The majority of the people voted for the economic reforms.

Джэйн должнá былá всю недéлю рабóтать за свою́ коллéгу

All week long, Jane had to cover for her colleague.

Toasts with за За вас!

To you!

За мáмино / чьё-то здорóвье!

[To] mom’s/someone’s health!

За нáшу дрýжбу!

To our friendship!

For Phrases with за designate a fact, event, or characteristic as a cause, reason, or basis of an action. Люби́ ть за добротý.

To love for one’s kindness.

Ругáть за плохýю рабóту.

To chastise for poor work.

Цени́ ть за талáнт.

To value for one’s talent.

Благодари́ ть за услýгу.

To thank for one’s service.

Отомсти́ ть за оби́ ду.

To avenge a slight.

Отплати́ ть за грýбость.

To pay someone back for a rudeness.

Награди́ ть за достижéния.

To reward for achievement.

Не сты́ дно за проéкт.

To have no shame for a project.

Компенсáция за исслéдования.

Compensation for research.

Суд за крáжу.

A hearing for a theft.

Демонстрáция за мир.

A demonstration for peace.

For, about Phrases with за express feelings towards someone or something. These phrases answer the questions за когó? for whom?, за что? for what? Волновáться за детéй.

To worry about the kids.

Рáдоваться за студéнтов.

To be happy for the students.

Боя́ ться за дочь.

To be scared for the daughter.

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Переживáть за роди́ телей.

To worry about the parents.

Оби́ дно за мýжа.

To be upset for one’s husband.

Тревóжно за будýщее.

To be worried about the future.

For The preposition за is used with nouns expressing price. Дéньги за конфéты нýжно отдáть Елéне Ивáновне.

You need to give the money for candy to Elena Ivanovna.

За скóлько ты купи́ ла ю́ бку? – За ты́ сячу рублéй.

“How much did you buy the skirt for? “1000 rubles.”

For Phrases with за are used when someone or something is perceived to be someone or something else. These answer the questions за когó? for whom?, за что? for what? За когó вы меня́ принимáете?

Who do you take me for?

Онá взялá за образéц фи́ льмы А́ нга Ли.

She regards Ang Lee’s films as a model.

Фёдор остáлся за стáршего.

Fyodor was left in charge.

Sayings and expressions with за [with the accusative case] Ухвати́ ться за солóминку.

To grasp at straws.

Обéими рукáми за.

To support wholeheartedly.

О́ ко за óко, зуб за зуб.

An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth./ Blood for blood.

Заткнýть за пóяс.

To leave in the dust.

Ни за каки́ е дéньги. / Ни за каки́ е коври́ жки. / Ни за каки́ е шиши́ .

Not a chance. [The difference is in styles, from formal to informal.]

Выхóдит за вся́ кие рáмки / грани́ цы / That is utterly unacceptable. предéлы. Ни за что.

Never.

Не за что.

Don’t mention it.

Before With the preposition до up to, indicates how long one action or event takes place before another: за пять минýт до начáла five minutes before the beginning,

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за год до пéнсии a year before retirement. Phrases with this preposition answer the question за скóлько врéмени до? how long before? За недéлю до свáдьбы они́ поссóрились.

They quarreled a week before the wedding.

During, in Indicates the period or duration within which an action takes place: за две недéли in two weeks, за лéто during the summer. Phrases with this preposition answer the question за скóлько врéмени? for how long?/in what period of time? Строи́ тельство нýжно бы́ ло закóнчить за нéсколько мéсяцев.

Construction was supposed to be finished in a few months.

With the prepositions от from and до to, it indicates the distance from and to where something takes place or is located. Phrases with this preposition respond to the questions где? where?, в какóм мéсте? in what place? За пять человéк до нас билéтов бóльше не остáлось.

Five people ahead of us, they ran out of tickets.

Михаи́ л Аврáмович живёт за нéсколько квартáлов от метрó.

Mikhail Avramovich lives a few blocks from the subway.

With the instumental case Behind, at The spatial preposition за indicates the place behind which objects are situated [lit. or fig.]. Phrases with за answer the question где? where? За чёрной тýчей прогля́ дывало я́ ркое The bright sun peeked out from behind a сóлнце. black cloud. Онá дóлго стоя́ лa за двéрью и прислýшивалaсь к томý, о чём говори́ ли в кóмнате.

She stood behind the door for a long time and listened in on what they were talking about in the room.

Что скрывáется за послéдними собы́ тиями, ни́ кто тóлком объясни́ ть не мóжет.

Nobody can truly explain with any accuracy what lies behind the latest events.

At Combines with nouns denoting objects that have a functional role and with the used or implied verbs сидéть to sit, стоя́ ть to stand [lit. or fig.]. Все ужé за столóм – обéд давнó готóв.

Everybody’s already at the table. Dinner was ready long ago.

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Когдá он сидéл за роя́ лем, в дóме срáзу станови́ лось ти́ хо.

When he sat down at the piano, the house immediately grew quiet.

Дáрья Петрóвна весь день стоя́ ла за прилáвком и к вéчеру óчень уставáла.

Darya Petrovna stood at the counter all day long and always grew very tired by the evening.

During, while Phrases with за designate a time during which something is happening. These phrases answer the question когдá? when? Они́ чáсто обсуждáют нóвости за обéдом.

They often discuss the news during dinner.

За рабóтой Андрéй не замéтил, как бы́ стро прошлó врéмя.

While he was working, Andrey didn’t notice how quickly the time had passed.

Behind, after Phrases with за point to the object after or behind which someone or something moves or is situated. Can be used figuratively. Can be combined with вслед after. These phrases answer the questions за кем? after whom?, за чем? after what? When certain verbs, e.g., слéдовать to follow are used, the translation may vary. И́ горь замéтил, что человéк в чёрном Igor noticed that a man in a black coat was плащé идёт за ним. following him. Е́ сли мы бýдем слéдовать за вáми, то If we follow you, we won’t get lost. не потеря́ емся. Идéи э́ того поли́ тика привлекáют, и мнóгие за ним идýт.

This politician’s ideas are very inviting, and many support him.

За кем Вы стои́ те? – Вон за той дéвушкой в крáсном.

“Who are you standing behind?” “Behind that young lady in the red.”

After Used in phrases that point to event(s) that follow(s) after other event(s) or when one thing follows after another. Can be combined with вслед. (See also пóсле.) За пéрвым свидáнием послéдовало другóе, и вскóре они́ стáли встречáться.

After the first date, there was another, and soon, they started dating for real.

Дни бегýт за дня́ ми – так незамéтно прохóдит врéмя.

Days fly by one after another – so does time sneak away from us.

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For Indicates an object to be picked up or fetched. The questions за кем? for whom?, за чем? for what? are used in this case. Они́ ещё должны́ зайти́ за Кóлей.

They still have to stop by for Kolya.

За чем он пошёл в магази́ н? – За хлéбом.

“What did he go to the store for?” “For read.”

Used in formal language with specific phrases in which the preposition is not directly translated. Письмó за пóдписью вицепрезидéнта компáнии.

A letter for the vice president’s signature.

Диплóм за нóмером 100 лежáл у дирéктора на столé.

Diploma number 100 lay on the director’s desk.

Sayings and expressions with за [with the instrumental case] Держáть язы́ к за зубáми.

To keep one’s lips sealed./To hold one’s tongue.

За душóй ничегó нет.

To be dirt poor.

За кем-то‚ как за кáменной стенóй.

Someone keeps you safe.

Ходи́ ть за кем-то хвостóм.

To tail someone.

Онá за кем-то зáмужем.

She’s married. (This expression is used exclusively for women)

За предéлами / грани́ цами возмóжностей.

Beyond the realms of possibility.

За исключéнием Preposition With the genitive case Except for Usually, phrases with this preposition are separated by commas. Neutral and used in various styles and genres. Phrases with за исключéнием answer the questions за исключéнием когó? except for whom?, за исключéнием чегó? except for what? (See the synonyms исключáя, крóме.) Все пошли́ на дискотéку, за исключéнием Кристи́ ны.

Everyone went to the dance party except for Christina.

Им понрáвилось всё в гости́ нице, за исключéнием вáнной.

They liked everything in the hotel except for the bathroom.

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За счёт Preposition With the genitive case On account of, because of, at the expense of Frequently used in the formal style. Phrases with it answer the questions за счёт чегó? on account of what?, за счёт когó? on whose account? Also used in the expression за чужóй счёт at someone else’s expense, when someone passes responsibility for something to another. (See also благодаря́ .) Мнóгие прогрáммы на телеви́ дении мóгут вы́ жить тóлько за счёт госудáрственной поддéржки.

Many television programs can survive only because of government funding.

За счёт когó депутáты получáют тáкие высóкие пéнсии? – За счёт учителéй, студéнтов, обы́ чных пенсионéров.

“At whose expense do the representatives receive such pensions?” “At the expense of teachers, students, and ordinary retirees.”

Ли́ де нáдо помóчь. Одолжи́ ей, пожáлуйста, дéньги. – Легкó быть дóбрым за чужóй счёт.

“Lida needs help. Let her borrow some money, please.” “It’s easy to appear kind at someone else’s expense.”

За счёт тогó что [form.] Conjunction On account of the fact that Used in adverbial clauses, indicating the cause of the action reflected in the principal part of a sentence. Connects a subordinate clause to the principal clause and may either follow or precede the principal clause. A comma does not split the conjunction when it starts a sentence, but it is placed before что when it follows a principal clause. Sentences with this conjunction are used to answer the question за счёт чегó? on account of what? Во мнóгом успéх был дости́ гнут за счёт тогó, что прéжняя распредели́ тельная систéма былá уничтóжена в одночáсье. (ruscorpora.ru)

In large part, the endeavor was successful on account of the fact that the previous distribution system was destroyed in a single hour. (ruscorpora.ru)

За счёт тогó что агéнтство явля́ ется крупнéйшим игрокóм на ры́ нке регионáльной реклáмы, у негó достáточно устóйчивая пози́ ция. (ruscorpora.ru)

On account of the fact that the agency is a very big player in the regional advertising market, it has a sufficiently stable position. (ruscorpora.ru)

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Затéм(,) чтóбы Conjunction In order to Used in adverbial clauses of purpose to indicate the motive of the action reflected in the principal part of the sentence. Usually, a subordinate clause follows the principal. Used less frequently than the neutral conjunction чтóбы in order to. Utilized in formal styles, e.g., in literature and journalism. Clauses with this conjunction answer the questions зачéм? for what purpose?, с какóй цéлью? with what goal? (See the synonyms чтóбы, для тогó чтóбы, с тем чтóбы.) Дéлал он это не тóлько затéм, чтóбы прокорми́ ть семью́ и себя́ , но и потомý, что люби́ л, всем существóм люби́ л поэ́ зию. (Н. С. Гумилёв, «Оцýп», 1926)

He did it not just to feed himself and his family, but because he loved poetry with his whole being. (N. S. Gumilyov, Otsup, 1926)

Затó [coll.] Conjunction However, but Conveys the meaning “but on the other hand” or “at the same time” with a positive implication. Spins the emphasis of a sentence, explicating in the second part of the sentence or clause the compensation or benefits of what is described in the first clause or part. (See the synonyms но, однáко, тем не мéнее.) Маши́ на óчень дорогáя – затó нóвая и хорóшая.

The car is very expensive, but it is new and good.

В кинó ужé пóздно идти́ , затó мóжно It’s too late to go to the movies, but now I обéд приготóвить. can make dinner.

Здрáвствуй(те) Interjection Hello This etiquette interjection is a formal greeting and is used once a day. If you meet someone more than once, you can just nod, or smile, or salute with a greeting gesture, otherwise it will be perceived as something strange. Здрáвствуй is used when addressing someone close, a familiar person, or a child, while здрáвствуйте is used when addressing a group of people or as a polite greeting to one person whom you address Вы you [form.]. The synonyms здорóво hey and привéт hi are informal and cannot replace a polite formal здрáвствуйте. They imply familiarity and a friendly or close relationship between people. Валéрия Семёновна, здрáвствуйте! – Здрáвствуй, Кóля.

“Valeriya Semyonovna, hello!” “Hello, Kolya.”

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Пéтька, здорóво! Как жизнь? – Привéт, Ири́ шка! У меня́ всё путём, а ты как?

“Hey, Pet’ka! What’s up?” “Hi, Irishka! Things are fine, how’re you?”

Здрáвствуйте! [inform.] The plural form can also be used to express disagreement or astonishment. К нам зáвтра приезжáют нáши коллéги, и вéчером придýт к нам. – Здрáвствуйте! А рáньше нельзя́ бы́ ло сказáть?!

“Our colleagues are coming tomorrow and will visit us in the evening.” “Heeeello! You couldn’t have said something earlier?!”

Знáешь (ли), знáете (ли) Parenthetical word You know Calls for a listener’s attention, informal with знáешь, formal with знáете, or plural with знáете. Can express doubt or disbelief. The particle ли makes the utterance less direct. As a parenthetical word, it should be separated by commas. А нам, знáете ли, зарплáту не бýдут плати́ ть, поскóльку дéнег нет.

And you know – they’re not going to pay us, seeing as they’re out of money.

Ты, знáешь, всё-таки найди́ врéмя и приéдь.

You know, you should still find time and visit us.

Note! The parenthetical word знáешь, знáете must be distinguished from when it is a part of a sentence. As a predicate, it is not separated by commas. Знáете ли вы, что в Ки́ еве такогó коли́ чества снéга не было послéдние 100 лет?

Do you know that Kiev hasn’t had this much snow in the last 100 years?

Знáчит Parenthetical word. Conjunction Parenthetical word [coll.] So Expresses the conclusion or a consequence of what was said earlier or of the situation. Separated by commas. Informal, while its synonym стáло быть it seems sounds bookish. (See also стáло быть.) Ромáн, знáчит, не собирáется никудá уезжать?

So, Roman isn’t going to go anywhere?

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Note! The parenthetical word знáчит must be distinguished from when it is a part of a sentence. As a predicate, it is not separated by commas. Э́ то ничегó не знáчит.

It doesn’t mean anything.

Conjunction So Знáчит or и знáчит, а знáчит connects parts of a sentence or clauses and indicates that their content is a conclusion of what was said in the previous part. It is an informal synonym of the slightly bookish стáло быть it seems and the formal слéдовательно ergo, which is used mostly in literature. (See also слéдовательно, стáло быть, так.) Стáло теплéе, знáчит скóро зацветýт дерéвья.

It got warmer, so trees will start blooming soon.

Банк закры́ т, а знáчит придётся снять дéньги в автомáте.

The bank’s closed, so we’ll have to get money from an ATM.

И Conjunction. Particle Conjunction And Designates the unification of objects, actions, or signs according to their similar features. Likewise points out that a list of objects, actions, or signs is exhausted. (See also и . . . и.) Отéц сидéл в пáрке и смотрéл‚ как дéти игрáют в мяч.

The father sat in the park and watched the kids play ball.

В садý росли́ ли́ лии, рóзы, азáлии и рододендрóны.

Lilies, roses, azaleas, and rhododendrons grew in the garden.

And Connects similar/analogous statements and reports about simultaneous actions, facts, and phenomena and expresses a relation between them. (See also и . . . и.) Дул си́ льный вéтер, и бы́ ло довóльно A strong wind blew, and it was pretty cold. хóлодно.

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Аnd Used to show a sequence of actions, events, or facts that follow one after another. Displays relation to time. In addition, a part of a sentence accompanied by и closes the utterance. It does not express an attitude towards them. Натáша полýчит ви́ зу и кýпит билéт.

Natasha will receive a visa and buy a ticket.

And Indicates logical connections between two or more situations. Signifies that the previous action had a result. The phrase и вот [coll.] also means “as a result.” Ли́ зе óсенью испóлнится семь лет, и онá пойдёт в шкóлу.

Liza will be seven years old in the fall and will go to school.

Влáсти боя́ тся социáльных сетéй и стремя́ тся их ликвиди́ ровать.

Governments are wary of social networks and strive to eliminate them.

But Connects parts of a sentence where the second part displays contradiction towards the previous part. The conjunctions но but, however (more frequently) or а but, while (less frequently) can be used to express, respectively, negative or less negative feelings towards a situation, while и is neutral. (See also а‚ но.) Сергéй хотéл пойти́ в казинó и не пошёл

Sergey wanted to go to the casino, but didn’t.

And Connects repeating words to emphasize their significance. Говори́ т и говори́ т – головá ужé боли́ т от э́ того.

He just talks and talks so much, my head’s splitting.

And Joins parts of a sentence where the second part clarifies what is said in the previous part. Серёжа хорóший музыкáнт, и осóбенно хорошó он игрáет на бая́ не.

Seryozha is a good musician and plays the accordion especially well.

And Attaches and emphasizes additional information to the main statement. Can be combined with крóме тогó besides. (See also а‚ но.)

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Кáтя занимáлась в театрáльном инститýте‚ и крóме тогó‚ в литератýрном.

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Katya studied at the theater institute, and at the institute of literature as well.

And Starts an utterance indicating a connection with the previous statement. Expresses a positive or negative reaction to it. Used in poetry and literature. Жéня потеря́ ла рабóту. – И что онá тепéрь собирáется дéлать?

“Zhenya lost her job.” “And what is she going to do now?”

И пéсней я не скли́ чу вас, / Слезáми не вернý, / Но вéчером в печáльный час / В моли́ тве помянý. (А. Ахмáтова)

You won’t return despite my song,/My tears won’t help me too,/But in the hour, sad and long,/My prayer will speak of you. (Anna Akhmatova)

In combination with всё-таки anyway, still, и opens a sentence and connects the utterance with a thought asserted earlier in the discourse. The synonymous conjunctions a and, но and, but are used more often than the conjunction и in these situations, because they convey nuances that are expected and could be utilized in such discourses. (See also а‚ но.) И всё-таки ты не прав!

Still, you’re not right!

Phrases with и Вот тó-то и онó.

That’s exactly it.

И без тогó плóхо / хорошó.

It’s bad/good enough without it.

И впрямь. [coll.]

Really? (in disbelief)

Э́ то и есть . . .

This is . . .

И так дáлее.

Et cetera.

И томý подóбное.

And such.

Particle Even, and, but Used to emphasize that something is happening unexpectedly. Used before the word to be emphasized. (See also дáже.) Онá и самá вéрит в то, что говори́ т.

Even she herself believes what she says.

Ви́ ктор и предстáвить себé не мог, что емý мóжет так повезти́ .

Viktor couldn’t even believe that he could be so lucky.

И какóй же ты стрáнный.

How strange you are.

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Имéнно об э́ том я и хотéла тебя́ спроси́ ть.

And that’s exactly what I wanted to ask you about.

Expressions with и И копéйки нет.

Not even a penny.

И не проси́ .

And don’t even try to ask.

И́ бо [book.] Conjunction For Connects adverbial clauses that indicate the cause of the action reflected in the principal part of a sentence. Usually, a subordinate clause with и́ бо follows a principal clause. Synonymous with the neutral потомý что because. Sounds archaic and is used in literature. (See also потомý что.) Гóсподи – взмоли́ лась Сю́ зан, снóва понимáя, что никогдá бóльше не уви́ дит своегó люби́ мого, и́ бо егó душá и тéло навéки поглоти́ ло небытиé – за что? (Луи́ за Валери́ , «И́ бо пришлá ночь»)

“God above,” prayed Susan, once more realizing that she will never again see her beloved, for his soul and body were forever devoured by the void. “Why?” (Valerie, For the Night Came)

Из (изо) Preposition With the genitive case From In combination with inanimate nouns, denotes the origin of something or someone, or a place where an object is located. These combinations respond to the question откýда? where from? (See also от.) Все надéются, что Андрéй скóро вернётся из Афганистáна.

Everyone is hoping that Andrey will return from Afghanistan soon.

О́ ля из Волгогрáда.

Olya is from Volgograd.

Дед обы́ чно забирáл внýка из шкóлы.

Grandpa usually picked up his grandson from school.

Из тюрьмы́ сбежáл престýпник.

A criminal broke out of jail.

From Used with nouns that indicate a source of origin. These combinations respond to the question откýда? where from?

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Э́ та статья́ из стáрого журнáла.

This article is from an old journal.

Кто-то стреля́ л из пистолéта.

Someone shot a gun.

Ну что ты пьёшь из буты́ лки, как бýдто стакáна нет?

Why are you drinking from the bottle as if there were no glass?

From, out of Used with nouns that indicate the place from which something or someone is excluded or extracted. These phrases respond to the question откýда? where from? А́ ллу исключи́ ли из инститýта за неуспевáемость.

Alla was expelled from the institute for poor grades.

Страни́ ца вы́ рвана из тетрáди.

The page is torn out of a notebook.

Из тéкста вы́ черкнули вáжные словá. Important words were crossed out of the text. Э́ то плáтье ужé давнó вы́ шло из мóды.

This dress went out of style long ago.

From, out of Used with nouns that indicate the material or substance from which something is made. These phrases respond to the question из какóго материáла? from what material? or из чегó? from what? Шкаф сдéлан из крáсного дéрева.

The dresser is made of mahogany.

Из чéго э́ тот джем? – Из крыжóвника.

“What is this jam made out of?” “It’s made from gooseberries.”

Out of Used with nouns that indicate conditions or circumstances from which someone is pulled out. Verbs like вы́ вести to take (someone) out, вы́ йти to leave, вы́ тащить to drag out are usually utilized in these situations. Тóлько отéц мог вы́ тащить её из депрéссии.

Only her father could drag her out of her depression.

Не выводи́ меня́ из терпéния.

Don’t test my patience.

From Used with nouns that indicate the whole from which a part is singled out. Used in or implies the combination оди́ н из one of. Онá из профéссорской семьи́ .

She is from a family of professors.

Тóлько он оди́ н выделя́ лся из всей толпы́ .

He alone stood out from the whole crowd.

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Used with nouns to denote circumstances or feelings that are a reason or motive for the action. Translations may vary. Исходя́ из анáлиза происходя́ щего, мы принимáем решéние о закры́ тии магази́ на.

Based on the analysis of the current situation, we are making the decision to close the store.

Из боя́ зни остáться без рабóты он берётся за все проéкты.

Out of fear that he will be left without a job, he accepts every project.

Ли́ за не спóрит с Ники́ той Сергéевичем из вéжливости.

Liza doesn’t argue with Nikita Sergeevich out of politeness.

Of Used with nouns that indicate parts or fragments that comprise a whole. The verb состоя́ ть to make up is used or implied in these sentences. These phrases respond to the question из скóлькиx? out of how many?, из чегó? out of what? Из скóлькиx частéй состои́ т экзáмен? Обéд из трёх блюд.

How many parts does the exam have? Dinner consists of three courses.

Грýппа тури́ стов из восьми́ человéк приезжáет к вéчеру.

A group of eight tourists is arriving by the evening.

Хоккéйная комáнда состои́ т из пяти́ полевы́ х игрокóв и вратаря́ .

A hockey team is made up of five field players and a goalkeeper.

Note! It correlates with the preposition в to, which, with nouns in the accusative case, denotes a direction of opposite movement (в Новосиби́ рск – из Новосиби́ рска to Novosibirsk – from Novosibirsk). With nouns in the prepositional case, в in denotes the source or place of something or someone (в фи́ льме – из фи́ льма in the film – from the film, в Сóчи – из Сóчи in Sochi – from Sochi). (See also в.)

Sayings and proverbs with из Изо всех сил.

With all of one’s strength.

Из послéдних сил.

With one’s last strength.

Из пéрвых рук.

From a firsthand source.

Из рук в рýки.

To change hands (directly).

Из молоды́ х да рáнний.

So young and yet so successful.

Дéлать из мýхи слонá.

To make a mountain out of a molehill.

Вы́ вести из себя́ .

To drive someone up the wall.

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Вы́ йти из себя́ .

To be beside oneself with fury.

Из уст в устá.

Straight from the horse’s mouth.

Вы́ сосать из пáльца.

Make something out of thin air.

Корми́ ть из лóжечки.

To spoonfeed.

Изо дня в день. / Из мéсяца в мéсяц.

From day to day/from month to month.

Из огня́ да в пóлымя.

Out of the frying pan and into the fire.

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Из-за Preposition With the genitive case From, from behind Indicates movement from behind something into an open area. Used with nouns that denote inanimate objects. Phrases with this preposition respond to the question откýда? where from? Неожи́ данно из-за углá вы́ шли двóе.

Two figures suddenly appeared from around the corner.

Phrases with из-за Встать из-за столá.

To get up from the table.

Встать из-за компью́ тера.

To get up from the computer.

Because of Implies that the cause has negative ramifications. Phrases with this preposition respond to the questions из-за чегó? because of what?, из-за когó? because of whom?, почемý why? (See also благодаря́ .) Из-за болéзни он пропусти́ л мнóго заня́ тий в университéте.

He missed a lot of classes at the university because of his illness.

Он дóлго ждал её и из-за неё опоздáл на пóезд.

He waited for her for a long time and missed his train because of her.

Из-за тогó(,) что Conjunction Because of Connects adverbial clauses that indicate the cause of the action reflected in the principal part of a sentence. The clause with this conjunction may either follow or precede the principal clause. A comma does not split the conjunction when it starts a sentence, but it is placed before что when it follows a principal clause. Synonymous with благодаря́ томý что thanks to. However, it has negative

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implications. Clauses with this conjunction answer the question из-за чегó? because of what? The conjunctions потомý что because, оттогó что because, так как given that, ввидý тогó что in light of the fact that, вслéдствие тогó что as a consequence of the fact that, в си́ лу тогó что given the fact that, and others are synonymous as well. Nevertheless, they, too, have their own nuances and are used in different styles. (See also благодаря́ томý что, потомý что, оттогó что, так как, ввидý тогó что, вслéдствие тогó что, в си́ лу тогó что.) Из-за тогó что адвокáта госпитализи́ ровали, слýшания бы́ ли отлóжены.

Because the lawyer was hospitalized, the hearings were postponed.

Пожáр в больни́ це мог начáться из-за тогó, что кто-то брóсил окýрок на пол.

The fire in the hospital could have started because someone threw a cigarette butt down on the floor.

Из-под Preposition With the genitive case From under Indicates the object from which a movement originates, commonly in combination with inanimate nouns. These phrases respond to the question откýда? where from? Олéг вы́ тащил я́ щик с буты́ лками из-под столá.

Oleg brought out a case of bottles from under the table.

Вдруг из-под ног вы́ порхнула какáя-то пти́ ца.

Suddenly, a bird flew out from under his feet.

Огрóмную ры́ бину с больши́ м трудóм вы́ тянули из-подо льда.

They wrestled the humongous fish out from under the ice with great effort.

Denotes the object where something was stored previously. These phrases respond to the question из-под чегó? from what? Бáбушка держáла ни́ тки в Grandma kept the thread in a tin-plate candy жестянóй корóбке из-под конфéт. box.

Phrases and expressions with из-под Из-под земли́ .

Out of nowhere.

Достáть что-то из-под земли́ .

To obtain something using whatever means necessary.

Возни́ кнуть из-под земли́ .

To appear suddenly out of nowhere.

Из-под (сáмого) нóса.

Out from under one’s (very) nose.

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Укрáсть из-под нóса.

To steal out from under one’s nose.

Увезти́ / унести́ из-под нóса.

To take something away out from under one’s nose.

Из-под пáлки.

Against your own will.

Рабóтать из-под пáлки.

To work against one’s own will.

Из-под полы́ .

Illegally.

Продавáть что-то из-под полы́ .

To sell something illegally.

Водá из-под крáна.

Tap water.

И . . . и Conjunction And . . . and Connects similar objects, phenomena, signs, or actions and emphasizes the significance of each item in the list. A comma is placed after each of the listed parts. Used in poetic language. (See also и.) Они́ успéли и в магази́ н съéздить, и в садý убрáть, и в кинó сходи́ ть.

They managed to go to the store and clean the yard and go to the movies.

И скýчно, и грýстно, и нéкому рýку подáть. (М. Лéрмонтов)

I am weary and sad and there is no one around to look to. (Lermontov)

И́ ли (иль) Conjunction Or Connects the last object of a list, which contains words, clauses, or phrases that denote actions or phenomena that mutually exclude one another. Neutral and is used in various styles and genres. Used more often than its synonyms и́ ли . . . и́ ли either. . .or, ли́ бо or, ли́ бо . . . ли́ бо either or. (See и́ ли . . . и́ ли, ли́ бо, ли́ бо . . . ли́ бо, то ли . . . то ли, не то . . . не то.) Твой моби́ льник лежи́ т на столé и́ ли на пóлке.

Your phone is either on the table or on the shelf.

Сáра с друзья́ ми пойдёт в кинó и́ ли бýдет игрáть в какýю-нибудь игрý в интернéте.

Sarah is either going to go to the movies with her friends or will play some online game.

Ты успéешь к шести́ , и́ ли я самá должнá бýду уйти́ ?

Will you make it by six or will I have to go by myself?

Expresses uncertainty in combination with the particle нет no. Semantically close to the particle ли if, whether. (See also ли.) Áлик не знáет, приéдет Нáдя и́ ли нет.

Alik doesn’t know if Nadya will come.

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Note! The conjunction иль is the same as и́ ли. It is archaic and can be found in literature and poetry. Онá, бывáло, нам поёт пéсни иль пля́ шет лезги́ нку . . . (М. Лéрмонтов, «Герóй нáшего врéмени»)

She used to sing to us or dance the lezginka. (Lermontov, The Hero of Our Time)

И́ ли . . ., и́ ли Conjunction Еither . . . or Placed before each of the words or clauses that are listed. Emphasizes the fact that each part excludes the other. A comma is placed after each of the listed parts. Used less often than its synonym и́ ли or. At the same time, it is more neutral than ли́ бо or and ли́ бо . . . ли́ бо either. . . or. (See also и́ ли, ли́ бо, ли́ бо . . . ли́ бо, то ли . . . то ли, не то . . . не то.) Бори́ с хóчет занимáться и́ ли программи́ рованием, и́ ли журнали́ стикой. (Игрáя на компью́ тере.) И́ ли мы сейчáс же пройдём э́ тот ýровень, и́ ли я с вáми игрáть бóльше не бýду!

Boris wants to work either in programming or in journalism. (Playing a video game.) Either we beat this level right now or I’m not going to play with you anymore!

Expressions with и́ ли . . . и́ ли И́ ли – и́ ли.

Choose!

И́ ли сейчáс, и́ ли никогдá!

Now or never!

Note! The conjunction иль . . . иль is the same as и́ ли . . . и́ ли. It is archaic and can be found in literature and poetry. Иль в лесý под нож злодéю Попадýся в сторонé, Иль со скýки околéю Где-нибýдь в карантинé. (А. Пýшкин, «Дорóжные жáлобы»)

Either I’ll fall ’neath a bandit’s knife In the forest off the road, Or I’ll die from boredom Somewhere in quarantine. (Pushkin, Complaints from the Road)

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И́ менно Particle. Conjunction Particle Specifically, exactly Stresses and specifies the words following it. Makes a certain part of a sentence more precise, usually somewhat emphatically. Used as a freestanding word and as a confirming reply. Ты хóчешь катáться на рóликах и́ менно сейчáс? – Да, и́ менно сейчáс.

“Do you want to go roller-skating right now?” “Yes, exactly right now.”

Мы должны́ купи́ ть и́ менно э́ тот компью́ тер.

We need to buy this computer specifically.

У меня́ такóе впечатлéние, что ты не понимáешь, о чём мы говори́ м. – И́ менно-и́ менно.

“I get the feeling that you don’t understand what we’re talking about.” “Exactly.”

Used with the demonstrative words вот here and так so to confirm the previous thought. Translations may vary. Ты что, не хóчешь éхать с нáми ? – Вот и́ менно.

“You mean you don’t want to go with us?” “That’s right.”

Прáвда, э́ то Васи́ лий Аксёнов написáл «О́ стров Крым»? – И́ менно так.

“Is it correct that Vasily Aksenov wrote The Island of Crimea?” “Yes.”

Я сдéлала э́ ту рабóту и́ менно так, как Вы проси́ ли.

I did the job precisely the way you asked.

Used with interrogative pronouns to specify the utterance как и́ менно? how exactly/in what way?, что и́ менно? what exactly?, and with other question words like где where, когдá when, зачéм why, почемý why, etc. Как и́ менно ты собирáешься провести́ свой óтпуск?

How exactly are you going to spend your vacation?

Что и́ менно мы подáрим ей на день рождéния?

What exactly are we going to give her for her birthday?

Conjunction Namely [form.] Used to begin a list of objects or items. Frequently combined with а: а и́ менно . . . namely . . . Also specifies what was said previously and can be rendered as to be precise. Formal and is often used in scholarly literature, journalism, etc., contrary to its less formal synonym то есть that is. (See also други́ ми словáми, ины́ ми словáми, то есть.)

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В доклáде глáвный акцéнт был сдéлан на разви́ тии коммéрческой дéятельности университéта, а имéнно на привлечéнии спóнсорских средств и грáнтов.

In the report, the emphasis was placed on developing the university’s commercial activities, namely attracting sponsors and grants.

Основнáя мáсса картóфеля произвóдится в срéдней полосé, а имéнно в Белгорóдской, Новгорóдской областя́ х и Респýблике Чувáшия. («Вопрóсы стати́ стики», 2004, http://ruscorpora.ru/)

The bulk of the potatoes is produced in the middle strip, namely in the Belgorod and Novgorod regions and the Republic of Chuvashia. (“Questions of Statistics,” 2004, http://ruscorpora.ru/)

Инáче Conjunction Otherwise An adversative conjunction used in compound sentences to indicate that the accomplishment of the action in the second clause depends on the action in the first clause. Neutral, while the synonyms а то otherwise and не то otherwise are informal, and в проти́ вном слýчае otherwise is formal. (See also а то, в проти́ вном слýчае, не то.) Заказáть билéты нáдо ужé, инáче их не бýдет.

We need to order the tickets now, otherwise there won’t be any left.

Возьми́ зóнтик, инáче промóкнешь.

Take an umbrella, or you’ll get drenched.

Note! Do not confuse the conjunction with the adverb, which means differently. Он дýмает об этом инáче.

He thinks about it differently.

Инáче говоря́ Parenthetical expression In other words Used to refer to one’s own rhetoric. Separated by commas. This expression is less formal than its synonym ины́ ми словáми in other words, while the synonym други́ ми словáми in other words is neutral. (See also други́ ми словáми, ины́ ми словáми.) Кто в дóме хозя́ ин? Инáче говоря́ , к комý обрати́ ться?

Who’s the man in charge? In other words, who should I speak to?

Ужé пóздно, инáче говоря́ , мы мóжем не успéть.

It’s already late; in other words, we might not make it.

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Ины́ ми словáми Parenthetical expression In other words Refers to one’s own rhetoric. Separated by commas. More often utilized in literature and formal language, while its synonym други́ ми словáми in other words is neutral, and инáче говоря́ in other words is less formal. (See also други́ ми словáми, инáче говоря́ .) Биóлоги предложи́ ли испóльзовать для э́ того корóткую генети́ ческую послéдовательность, котóрая отнóсится к стандáртной чáсти генóма, ины́ ми словáми, есть у всех. (Н. Мáркина, «Детáли ми́ ра», 2011, www.ruscorpora.ru)

Biologists have proposed utilizing a short genetic sequence, which is related to a standard part of the genome, which, in other words, everybody has. (Markina, “Details of the World,” 2011, www.ruscorpora.ru)

Исключáя Preposition With the accusative case Excluding Often used with the particle не not. Usually, constructions with this preposition are separated by commas. Phrases with (не) исключáя answer the questions (не) исключáя когó? (not) excluding whom?, не исключáя чегó? (not) excluding what? Somewhat formal and may sound bookish. (See the synonyms за исключéнием, крóме.) Все студéнты лю́ бят игрáть в шáшки, исключáя Тимýра.

All the students like to play checkers excluding Timur.

Всем рабóчим, не исключáя води́ теля грузовикá, удалóсь послýшать начáльника трáнспортного цéха.

All the workers, not excluding the truck driver, managed to listen to the head of the transport division.

Note! Do not confuse the preposition with the verbal adverb исключáя excluding, expelling. Исключáя студéнтов из ВУЗов, влáсти продолжáют репрéссии.

By expelling the students from higher education institutions, the government continues its repressions.

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Исключи́ тельно Particle Exclusively Emphasizes the exclusiveness of something. Synonymous with еди́ нственно solely, лишь but, тóлько only. No commas are used with this particle. More frequently used in formal language. (See also еди́ нственно, лишь, тóлько.) В корпорáции пóлностью отказáлись от произвóдства сóбственных компью́ теров, сосредотóчившись исключи́ тельно на вы́ пуске систéм хранéния. (Л. Черня́ к, «От мэйнфрéймов к систéмам хранéния» // «Computerworld», 2004.)

The corporation has completely rejected the production of personal computers, focusing instead exclusively on releasing storage systems. (Chernyak, “From Mainframes to Storage Systems,” Computerworld, 2004)

Исходя́ из Preposition With the genitive case Based on Indicates circumstances based on which actions occur. Usually, constructions with this preposition are separated by commas. Answers the question исходя́ из чегó? based on what? Commonly used in formal styles. Иванóв бýдет дéйствовать, исходя́ из Ivanov will act based on the interests of his интерéсов своегó предприя́ тия. enterprise.

Phrases with исходя́ из Исходя́ из скáзанного.

Based on what was said.

Исходя́ из э́ того / тогó.

Based on this/that.

Исходя́ из óпыта.

Based on experience.

Исходя́ из тогó(,) что Conjunction Based on the fact that, since Connects subordinate clauses that indicate circumstances based on which actions in the principal clauses take place. These subordinate clauses answer the question исходя́ из чегó? based on what? and the question исходя́ из каки́ х соображéний? based on what ideas/thoughts? Can appear in the beginning of a sentence or in the middle. Commas are placed before the conjunction and before что. Used in formal language.

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Исходя́ из каки́ х соображéний Вы увóлили срáзу нéскольких сотрýдников? – Вы́ нуждены бы́ ли увóлить, исходя́ из тогó, что фи́ рма испы́ тывает финáнсовые трýдности.

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“Why did you fire several employees simultaneously?” “We were forced to fire them, since the firm is experiencing financial hardships.”

И так [coll.] Particle Anyway Translated differently based on the context. Underlines that an additional action or event would exacerbate one’s current disposition. The expression (и) без э́ того even without can be used similarly. (See also без.) Не расстрáивай меня́ – и так плóхо.

Don’t upset me – I feel bad already.

И так врéмени нет, а тут ещё рабóты добáвили.

I don’t have time anyway, and now I have all of this additional work.

Expression with и так И так и сяк.

This way and that.

Итáк Conjunction So Used in the beginning of sentences. Semantically close to the parenthetical слéдовательно ergo and таки́ м óбразом thus. Separated by commas, sometimes by a dash. (See also слéдовательно, таки́ м óбразом.) Итáк, год закáнчивается, и нáдо дýмать, что дéлать дáльше.

So, the year is ending, and we have to think of what to do next.

И то Conjunction To boot Connects parts of sentences that add limitations to what was said previously. Usually, a comma appears before the conjunction. Дя́ дя Олéг приезжáет рéдко, и то ненадóлго.

Uncle Oleg rarely visits, and only for a little while, to boot.

Ди́ на всё дéлает с опоздáнием, и то плóхо.

Dina does everything belatedly, and poorly, to boot.

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Ишь [coll.] Particle Look at [someone] Expresses astonishment, admiration, displeasure, or annoyance. Often used with the words как like, какóй which, что what. In a certain context, it can supply an opposite, often negative meaning. Ишь ýмная какáя, дýмает, никтó не замéтил ничегó.

Look at you, smarty-pants, thinking nobody noticed anything.

Ишь чегó захотéли, лишь бы не рабóтать.

Look at them, not wanting to work.

Expression with ишь Ишь ты!

Look at you!

К (ко) Preposition With the dative case Towards Indicates direction. With physical places and objects, denotes the point towards which a motion is directed. Designates movements towards something that cannot be entered. Phrases with this respond to the nonspecific question кудá? where? or the more specific question по направлéнию к чемý? in what direction? (See also в, на.) Э́ то дорóга к лéсу.

This is the road to the woods.

Иди́ к кинотеáтру. Мы там бýдем чéрез полчасá.

Go to the movie theater. We’ll be there in half an hour.

То Indicates a person’s place as the destination. These phrases respond to the nonspecific question кудá? where? or the more specific question к комý? to whom? (See also у.) Кудá вы собирáетесь? – Идём к Ли́ зе. У неё вечери́ нка.

“Where are you going?” “We’re going to Liza’s. There’s going to be a party.”

Note! Cannot be used with inanimate nouns, unlike the prepositions в to and на to. (See also в, на.)

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By Indicates the final moment in time by which an action must be accomplished. Answers the question к какóму врéмени? by what time? Бы́ ло бы неплóхо закóнчить ремóнт дóма к прáздникам.

It would be nice to finish repairing the house by the holidays.

Ко дню рождéния роди́ тели купи́ ли беговýю дорóжку.

My parents got me a treadmill for my birthday.

To Indicates the object to which something or someone is added or joined. Answers the questions к чемý? to what?, к комý? to whom? The verbs присоединя́ ть to join (together), дополня́ ть to supplement, добавля́ ть to add, примыкáть to adjoin are used. Гарáж примыкáет пря́ мо к дóму.

The garage is connected directly to the house.

Note! Phrases with к combine with the verb принадлежáть to belong to express the idea that someone belongs to a specific group or organization: Они́ принадлежáли к однóй пáртии. They belonged to the same party. Indicates objects that are adjuncts to other objects. Translations may vary. Ключ к замкý.

The key to the lock.

Эпи́ граф к пóвести.

The epigraph to the novella.

Мýзыка к спектáклю.

Music for a show.

Пóдпись к письмý.

A signature for a letter.

Тéзисы к доклáду.

A summary for a paper.

Он так и не закóнчил предислóвие к сбóрнику статéй к нýжному срóку.

He never managed to finish the preface for the collection of papers by the deadline.

Some verbs are used with nouns and the preposition к. This answers the questions к чемý? to what?, к комý? to whom? готóвиться к

to prepare for

стреми́ ться к

to strive for

приближáться к

to approach

обращáться к

to address

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апелли́ ровать к

to appeal to

приступи́ ть к

to begin to

прикасáться к

to touch

привлéчь к отвéтственности

to hold accountable

привлéчь внимáние к чемý-то и́ ли к комý-то

to draw someone’s attention to something or someone

Some nouns are used with the preposition к. This answers the question к чемý? to what?, к комý? to whom? Любóвь к комý-то и́ ли к чемý-то.

Love for someone or something.

Трéбовательность к себé и к други́ м.

Expectations for oneself and others.

Привя́ занность к друзья́ м.

Attachment to friends.

Пристрáстие к деньгáм.

Obsession with money.

Внимáтельность к лю́ дям.

Responsiveness to people.

Отношéние к рабóте.

Attitude towards work.

Привы́ чка к табакý.

Smoking habit.

Expressions and phrases with к К чемý э́ то?

What good is that/what is the point of that? implies ни к чемý there’s no need for it.

К лицý.

It suits someone.

Не к лицý.

It doesn’t become someone./It doesn’t suit someone.

К мéсту / не к мéсту.

Timely/untimely.

К слóву.

By the way.

Ни к чемý.

Good for nothing.

К томý же . . .

Also . . ./In addition . . .

К сожалéнию.

Unfortunately.

К счáстью / к несчáстью.

Luckily/unluckily.

К бедé.

A sign for the worst.

К дождю́ .

A portent of rain.

От чáстного к óбщему.

From the specific to the general.

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Кáбы [arch., folk.] Conjunction If Connects subordinate clauses that imply unreal or contrary-to-fact conditions, i.e., if the actions depicted in the principal clause could take place, the subordinate clause expresses the conditions for possible fulfillment. This conjunction, like éжели бы if, is mostly used in folklore and literature. Syntactically utilized in the same way as its synonyms éжели бы if, éсли бы if, когдá бы if. (See also éжели бы, éсли бы, когдá бы.) Кáбы я былá цари́ ца, – Говори́ т однá деви́ ца, – То на весь крещёный мир Приготóвила б я пир. (А. Пýшкин, «Скáзка о царé Салтáне»)

“Were our tsar to marry me,” Said the eldest of the three, “I would cook and I would bake — Oh, what royal feasts I’d make.” (Pushkin, Tale of Tsar Saltan, translated by Louis Zellikoff)

Кáжется Parenthetical word. Particle Parenthetical word It seems Demonstrates uncertainty or hesitation. Separated by commas. Used in speech in the actual present tense, unlike казáлось it seemed, which is used in narration. (See also казáлось, сýдя по всемý, похóже.) Вы, кáжется, забы́ ли, что сегóдня нýжно бы́ ло прийти́ рáньше.

It seems you’ve forgotten that you had to arrive early today.

Particle I think so The particle кáжется is used as а response that expresses hesitation. Фильм начинáется в 8:30? – Кáжется. “The film starts at 8:30?” “I think so.”

Note! Can function as a predicate, depending on its function and the structure of the sentence. As a predicate, it is not separated by commas. Онá всегдá кáжется весёлой.

She always seems joyful.

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Казáлось Parenthetical word It seemed Conveys assumption or guess expressed in the next part of an utterance. Said utterance sounds reasonable and logical, but is not necessarily so. The expression is separated by commas. Used in narration in the grammatical past tense, unlike кáжется it seems, which is used in speech in the actual present tense. (See also кáжется, казáлось бы.) Казáлось, егó совсéм не интересýют окружáющие.

It seemed that he was completely uninterested in the surrounding people.

Note! Can function as a predicate, depending on its function and the structure of the sentence. As a predicate, it is not separated by commas. Елéне казáлось, что онá ужé былá в э́ том мéсте рáньше.

Elena thought that she had already been in this place earlier.

Казáлось бы Parenthetical word It would seem Conveys assumption or guess expressed in the next part of an utterance. Said utterance sounds reasonable and logical, but is not. Separated by commas. (See also казáлось.) Учёному дар расскáзчика, казáлось бы, без нужды́ , а у негó он каки́ м-то óбразом входи́ л в егó наýчный талáнт. (Д. Грáнин, «Зубр»)

A scientist, it would seem, has no need for the gift of a storyteller, but for him, it was somehow ingrained into his scientific talent. (Granin, The Bison)

Как Conjunction. Particle Conjunction How Connects subordinate clauses that function as subjects or objects and fill a missing gap in a principal clause. Used to indicate perception and refers to words that express perception: ви́ деть to see, ви́ дно visible, слы́ шать to hear, слы́ шно one hears, замечáть to note, замéтно noticeable, ощущáть to sense, ощути́ мо palpable, чýвствовать to feel, чýвствуется one feels. Как conveys emotions, while its synonym что that emphasizes the fact that something is going on. (See also что.)

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Зи́ на услы́ шала, как кто-то вошёл в дом и стал поднимáться по лéстнице.

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Zina heard how somebody went into the house and started going up the stairs.

As, as well as Expresses equality or correspondence. Used to compare objects, features, or actions in comparative constructions or in subordinate and principal clauses. The demonstrative words так (же) so (as), такóй (же) so (as), таки́ м (же) óбразом in the same manner are usually used in the principal clause. A comma is placed before как. Sentences with как are elliptical. (See also бýдто, слóвно, тóчно.) Лéна дéлает всё возмóжное, чтóбы помóчь мáтери, как и её сестрá.

Lena does everything she can to help her mother, as does her sister.

Глеб такóй осторóжный, как егó отéц.

Gleb is as careful as his father.

Expressions and sayings with как Ви́ дно как на ладóни.

As clear as if it lay on your palm.

Всё идёт как по мáслу.

Like a knife through butter.

Похóжи как две кáпли воды́ .

Like two peas in a pod.

Как за кáменной стенóй.

To be very safe and secure – “safe as houses.”

Живёт как у Христá за пáзухой.

To be carefree.

Сидéть как на игóлках.

To fidget around.

Дрожáть как оси́ новый лист.

To tremble like a leaf.

Льёт как из ведрá.

It’s raining cats and dogs.

Расти́ как на дрожжáх.

To grow by leaps and bounds.

Бежи́ т как угорéлый / сумасшéдший. To run like mad.

Note! No commas are needed in fixed sayings before как.

As Signifies that someone or something functions as someone or something else. No commas are needed. Он рабóтает сейчáс как дирéктор кегельбáна.

He currently works as the director of a bowling alley.

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Как óпытный педагóг онá не торóпится с вы́ водами в отношéнии спосóбностей свои́ х ученикóв.

As an experienced pedagogue, she does not reach hasty conclusions concerning the abilities of her students.

Э́ тот учéбник мóжно испóльзовать как спрáвочник.

This textbook can be used as a reference book.

Note! Как is used with an appositive, describing and modifying objects. Separated by commas. Sometimes, the author can decide if the construction is an appositive. О́ льга Николáевна, как знáющий специали́ ст, должнá знать, что дéлать в таки́ х слýчаях.

As a knowledgable specialist, Olga Nikolaevna must know what to do in these situations.

This conjunction is used in phrases like дом как дом a house like any other house, кинó как кинó a movie like any other movie, which imply that there is nothing special about the discussed object. No commas are needed. Тебé понрáвился матч? – Матч как матч. Ничегó осóбенного.

“Did you like the game?” “A game like any other. Nothing special.”

As soon as Как or как тóлько connects subordinate clauses, which shows that the action in the principal clause follows right after the action shown in the subordinate clause. Срáзу immediately is implied or used with как in these situations. Как, unlike как тóлько, sounds conversational. Когдá when is used more frequently. (See also когдá.) Как зарегистри́ руешься, срáзу мóжешь начáть трéнинг.

As soon as you’ve registered, you can start the training.

Как переéхали в нóвый дом, так перестáли ви́ деться.

As soon as we moved to a new house, we stopped seeing one another.

Particle [coll.] How. What do you mean? Used in the beginning of interrogative sentences to express astonishment, doubt, or unpleasant surprise. Пóезд ушёл. – Как ушёл? Ещё не врéмя.

“The train left.” “What do you mean, left? It’s not time yet!”

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Как бýдто Conjunction. Particle Conjunction As if Connects subordinate clauses that imply some unreal supposition. Can almost always be replaced with the conjunction как éсли бы as if, but как is not used in such cases. Sentences with как бýдто cannot, as a rule, be elliptical. The conjunctions бýдто as if, слóвно as if, тóчно just like are synonyms of как бýдто. Слóвно, тóчно point to a close resemblance of the actions depicted by the predicates, while бýдто implies proximity. (See also бýдто, как, как éсли бы, слóвно, тóчно.) Ки́ ра смотрéла на Семёна, как бýдто не узнавáла егó.

Kira looked at Semyon as if she didn’t recognize him.

Particle [coll.] As if Indicates that something is suppositional, illusory, imaginary, or invented. Он сидéл и как бýдто спал.

He sat as if he were sleeping.

Как бы [coll.] Particle As if Conveys doubt, misgiving, or reservation. Very conversational. (See бýдто, врóде, как бýдто.) Начáльник как бы хорошó отнóсится It is as if the boss has a good attitude towards his employees, but in reality, he к свои́ м подчинённым, а на сáмом doesn’t think about them at all. дéле о них совсéм не дýмает.

Как бы не Conjunction That Connects clauses to express awareness or wariness. Here, the particle не does not express negation. Placed before the predicate in a subordinate clause. The verbs боя́ ться to be afraid of, волновáться to be worried, опасáться to be wary, страши́ ться to fear, тревóжиться to be anxious, etc., are used in the principal clauses. Роди́ тели боя́ лись, как бы Илю́ ша не заболéл.

Ilyusha’s parents were afraid that he might get sick.

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Отéц беспокóится, как бы дочь не пропусти́ ла заня́ тия.

The father’s worried that his daughter might miss her classes.

Note! The conjunction что can be substituted for как бы не. In these cases, the particle не is not used. Отéц беспокóится, что дочь полýчит ни́ зкие оцéнки при поступлéнии в университéт.

The father is worried that his daughter will get low grades when she goes to college.

Как (бы) ни Conjunction No matter how Connects subordinate clauses that point to the circumstances in spite of which the action described in the principal clause is accomplished. Conveys intensity to the action described. The particle ни is usually placed before either a predicate or an adverbial modifier (only when the latter is an adverb). The particle never precedes a noun. This conjunction can also be combined with бы to emphasize the meaning of concession. Phrases with всё-таки after all, всё равнó doesn’t matter, тем не мéнее nevertheless are often used in the principal clause. Как ни хóчется побы́ ть с вáми, всётаки нýжно идти́ .

No matter how much I want to stay, I have to leave.

У Поли́ ны никáк не получáлось налáдить отношéния с коллéгами, как бы онá ни старáлась.

Polina had no luck patching things up with her colleagues no matter how hard she tried.

Как вдруг Conjunction When suddenly Indicates that the action in the subordinate clause occurs suddenly following the action in the principal clause, often interrupting or interfering with it. The subordinate clause follows the principal clause. Мы собирáлись вы́ йти пройти́ сь, как We were getting ready to go for a walk when вдруг началáсь грозá. suddenly a thunderstorm started.

Как éсли бы Conjunction As if Connects subordinate clauses, which imply some unreal supposition. Usually replaced with the conjunction как бýдто as if, but как is not used in such cases. The conjunctions бýдто as if, слóвно as if, тóчно just like are synonyms

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of как éсли бы. Слóвно, тóчно point to a close resemblance of the actions depicted by the predicates, while бýдто implies proximity. (See also бýдто, как, как бýдто, слóвно, тóчно.) На ýлице безлю́ дно, как éсли бы все попря́ тались от хóлода.

The streets are empty as if everyone is hiding from the cold.

Как же [coll.] Particle How Expresses astonishment, amazement, or wonder. Sometimes can convey a negative overtone and imply disagreement akin to certainly not. Как же тётя Э́ лла обрáдуется, когдá узнáет об э́ той нóвости!

How Aunt Ella will be happy when she finds out about this news!

Тебя́ пригласи́ ли на вéчер? – Как же, жди.

“Did you get invited for the evening?” “Certainly not; wait for it.”

А как же Can be used as a positive response to the utterance. Вы успéете к назнáченному срóку? – “Will you make it within this time frame?” А как же! “Of course!”

Как назлó [coll.] Parenthetical expression As if on purpose Indicates an event or action that coincides with another event or action and makes it difficult to fulfill it. Separated by commas. (See also как нарóчно.) Нáдо торопи́ ться, врéмени мáло остаётся, а тут, как назлó, звонóк за звонкóм, как сговори́ лись все.

I need to hurry, there’s not a lot of time left, and suddenly, as if on purpose – phone call after phone call, as if everyone had conspired.

Как нарóчно Parenthetical expression As if on purpose Indicates an event or action that coincides with another event or action and makes it difficult to fulfill. Separated by commas. (See also как назлó.) Собрáлись éхать на дáчу, а день, как нарóчно, вы́ дался дождли́ вым.

We were getting ready to go to the dacha, but, as if on purpose, the day turned out to be rainy.

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Как ни стрáнно Parenthetical expression As strange as it is Used to point out that a situation, action, or event takes place, although this fact astonishes or suprises the speaker. Separated by commas. Арéнда такóго дóма, как ни стрáнно, обхóдится им не óчень дóрого.

As strange as it is, renting this house is not very expensive for them.

Как обы́ чно Parenthetical expression As usual Indicates the usual, common character of something, someone, or a situation. Separated by commas. Сергéй Сергéич, как обы́ чно, говори́ л дóлго и прострáнно.

As usual, Sergey Sergeyich spoke at great length.

Какóй Conjunction The likes of which The connective word какóй points out that an object is similar to others. Connects subordinate clauses that usually refer to the part of the principal clause that is expressed by a noun or nominal phrase. Its case depends on its function in the attributive clause. (See also котóрый.) На вы́ ставке бы́ ли мечи́ , каки́ х он никогдá рáньше не ви́ дел.

At the exhibition, there were swords the likes of which he had never seen before.

What kind of, what a Connects subordinate clauses that function as subjects or objects and fill a missing gap in a principal clause. Answers the questions of cases. Какóй focuses on the quality of objects, their type, or the order of their choice. Вы дáже не мóжете себе предстáвить, в какóм замечáтельном мéсте мы побывáли!

You can’t even imagine what a wonderful place we spent time in!

Какóй бы ни Conjunction Regardless of Connects subordinate clauses, pointing out that what is said in the principal clause is true despite someone or something that the subordinate clause discusses. Used with the past tense.

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Почемý-то считáлось, что каки́ м бы ни был муж – э́ то твой крест, и ты должнá егó нести́ .

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For some reason, it was accepted that regardless of the husband you had, he was your cross to bear.

Как оказáлось/окáзывается Parenthetical expression As it turned out Shows that something is unexpected. Separated by commas. Их компáния, как оказáлось, предостáвила креди́ т, не бýдучи их спóнсором.

As it turned out, their company offered them credit, despite not being their sponsor.

Как полагáется Parenthetical expression As is expected Shows that something meets necessary requirements. Used more often than как полóжено. Separated by commas. Они́ , как полагáется, толпи́ лись у трýпа. (И. Грéкова, «Без улы́ бок»)

As is expected, they crowded around the corpse. (Grekova, Without Smiles)

Note! The phrase can be a part of a sentence. No commas are needed. Как полагáется по послóвице: оди́ н за всех, и все за одногó!

As the saying goes, one for all and all for one!

Как прáвило Parenthetical expression As a rule Typically used in formal language. Separated by commas. Морáльный ущéрб, как прáвило, подлежи́ т возмещéнию в пóлном объёме.

As a rule, emotional distress is subject to compensation in full.

Как раз [coll.] Particle Specifically Emphasizes parts of an utterance. Can be a synonym of и́ менно exactly. (See also и́ менно.) В вáших дéйствиях как раз нет никакóй лóгики.

Specifically your actions are completely illogical.

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Как раз э́ тот фильм нам и не понрáвился.

Specifically this film was the one we didn’t like.

Как . . ., так и Conjunction Just like, exactly like Connects coordinate parts of a sentence that are compared or different clauses in which objects, subjects, or actions are compared. Как сказáл стари́ к, так и сдéлал.

The old man did it exactly like he said he would.

Как дóма Нáстя ничегó не хóчет дéлать, так и в шкóле онá лéнится

Nastya is lazy at school, just like at home, where she doesn’t want to do anything.

Как тóлько Conjunction As soon as, the moment Connects subordinate clauses that indicate when the action depicted in the principal clause occurs after the action depicted in the subordinate clause. These subordinate clauses answer the question когдá? when? The principal clause can start with the word как. Как тóлько is neutral, unlike its synonyms едвá barely, лишь just, лишь тóлько the moment, чуть тóлько the moment. (See also едвá, лишь, лишь тóлько, чуть тóлько.) Как тóлько закóнчился матч, началáсь си́ льная грозá.

The moment the game ended, a severe thunderstorm started.

Дéти побежáли на ýлицу, как тóлько вы́ шло сóлнце.

The children ran outside the moment the sun came out.

Караýл [coll.] Interjection Help! Used when someone is seeking help. Not used often in contemporary language, unlike its synonyms спаси́ те save me/us, помоги́ те help me/us. «Караýл! На пóмощь!» – простонáл оди́ н из корреспондéнтов. (Г. Гóрин, «Ирони́ ческие мемуáры»)

“Help me! Somebody help!” moaned one of the correspondents. (Gorin, Ironic Memoirs)

К несчáстью Parenthetical expression Unfortunately Speakers use this expression to articulate their pity or sympathy towards an utterance. Separated by commas. (See also к счáстью.)

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И́ ра, к несчáстью, сломáла нóгу и не смоглá приéхать с нáми.

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Unfortunately, Ira broke her leg and couldn’t come with us.

Когдá Conjunction When Connects subordinate clauses that indicate the time of the action reflected in the principal part of a sentence. Used when the action depicted in the principal clause occurs at the same time, before, or after the action depicted in the subordinate clause. These subordinate clauses answer the questions когдá? when? The principal clause may include the demonstrative words то then or тогдá then. Когдá он возвращáется домóй, то все When he comes back home, everyone is ужé спят. already asleep. Когдá Пóла откры́ ла сýмку, онá обнарýжила, что пáспорта нет.

When Paula opened her purse, she found that her passport was missing.

Сотрýдники вернýтся, когдá закóнчится трéнинг.

The employees will return when the training ends.

If Connects subordinate clauses that imply real conditions. They indicate the circumstances of the action reflected in the principal clause. These subordinate clauses can be placed before or after the principal clause. If the subordinate clause precedes the principal one, the principal clause will start with the demonstrative words то then and тогдá then. Когдá is used to express a generalization, although it is not used in impersonal sentences: Дед всегдá читáет, когдá у негó есть свобóдная минýта. Grandpa always reads when he has a free minute. Когдá is not used frequently, unlike its neutral synonym éсли if. (See also éсли.) Когдá есть вопрóсы, то задавáй их.

If you have questions, ask them.

Когдá они́ смóгут, тогдá они́ зайдýт к If they can, they’ll stop by. нам.

When Connects subordinate clauses that function as subjects or objects and fill a missing gap in a principal clause. The clauses answer the questions of cases. Когдá conveys the meaning of time. Не поня́ тно, когдá у пáртии рéйтинг мéньше пяти́ процéнтов, а онá претендýет на роль пáртии влáсти.

It’s strange when a party’s approval rating is below five percent, but it vies for control of the government.

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Ты лю́ бишь, когдá тебé всё врéмя расскáзывают, как нýжно жить?

Do you like it when someone constantly tells you how to live your life?

Когдá бы Conjunction If Connects subordinate clauses that imply unreal or contrary-to-fact conditions, i.e., if the actions depicted in the principal clause could take place, the subordinate clause expresses the conditions for possible fulfillment. The particle бы appears in both principal and subordinate clauses. Can emphasize a part of the principal clause when placed after the part to be emphasized. The neutral synonym éсли бы if is used more frequently, while the synonymous кáбы if, éжели бы if are archaic. (See also кáбы, éжели бы, éсли бы.) Когдá бы он постоя́ нно занимáлся, то проблéм бы́ ло бы мéньше.

If he were to study consistently, then there would be fewer problems.

Когдá (бы) ни Conjunction Whenever Connects subordinate clauses, pointing out that what is said in the principal clause is true despite the time of the action in the subordinate clause. Conveys intensity to the action described. The particle ни is usually placed before a predicate. Never precedes a noun. Когдá ни can also be combined with бы to emphasize the meaning. Synonymous with всегдá always and никогдá never. (See also когдá.) Когдá ни придёшь, Пáвла дóма нет.

Whenever you come over, Pavel isn’t at home.

Когдá бы ты ни позвони́ ла, я всегдá рáда тебé.

Whenever you call, I’m always happy to hear from you.

Конéчно Parenthetical word. Particle Parenthetical word Of course Can also be translated as sure. Expresses confidence and is separated by commas. (See also безуслóвно, бесспóрно, естéственно, разумéется.) Ки́ ра, конéчно, ещё мнóгого не знáет, но онá, рабóтая с таки́ ми специали́ стами, наберётся óпыта.

Kira, of course, still doesn’t know much, but she’ll gain experience working with such specialists.

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Particle Of course Used as an independent sentence-reply in confirmation to an utterance. (See also безуслóвно, бесспóрно, естéственно, разумéется.) Ты идёшь с нáми? – Конéчно!

“Are you coming with us?” “Of course!”

Корóче говоря́ Parenthetical expression In short Used to avoid details or when closing the conversation. Separated by commas. (See also слóвом.) Стащи́ л я их у председáтеля ленингрáдского горисполкóма. Корóче говоря́ , у мэ́ ра Ленингрáда. (С. Довлáтов, «Чемодан»)

I stole them from the head of the Leningrad city council. In short, from the mayor of Leningrad. (Dovlatov, The Suitcase)

Котóрый Conjunction Which Connects subordinate clauses that usually refer to the part of the principal clause that is expressed by a noun or nominal phrase. These clauses answer the question какóй? what kind? Котóрый distinguishes one object from others. Agrees with the noun it modifies in gender and number. Its case depends on its function in the attributive clause. (See also какóй.) Клуб, в котóрый друзья́ собирáлись пойти́ , оказáлся закры́ т.

The club the friends planned to go to turned out to be closed.

На моногрáфии, котóрые бы́ ли напи́ саны Дми́ трием Алекéевичем мнóго лет назáд, ссылáются до сих пор.

To this day, people are citing the books Dmitry Alekseevich wrote many years ago.

Note! The subordinate clause should be placed after the word referred to, or else confusion can occur. Кастрю́ ля стоя́ ла на плитé, в котóрой был суп. The pot stood on the stove, which had the soup. The subordinate clause should be placed after the noun кастрю́ ля to avoid awkwardness. Кастрю́ ля, в котóрой был суп, стоя́ ла на плитé. The pot with the soup stood on the stove.

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Note! Котóрый cannot be used as the subject of an attributive clause if the predicate expressed by a nominal is in the present tense. The sentence Он уви́ дел прия́ теля, котóрый диджéй He saw his friend who was a DJ is not correct. In this case, two sentences can be used or the sentence should be rephrased. 1. Он уви́ дел прия́ теля. Он диджéй. He saw his friend. He is a DJ. 2. Он уви́ дел прия́ теля, котóрый рабóтает диджéем. He saw his friend, who works as a DJ.

К примéру Parenthetical word For example Its synonym напримéр for example is more formal. Separated by commas. (See also напримéр, скáжем.) Мне óчень нрáвятся нéкоторые англи́ йские актри́ сы, к примéру, Джýди Денч, Хéлен Ми́ ррен, Мэ́ гги Смит.

I like some British actresses a lot, like, for example, Judi Dench, Helen Mirren, and Maggie Smith.

Крóме Preposition With the genitive case Besides Phrases with крóме are separated by commas if the preposition is a synonym of исключáя еxcluding and за исключéнием еxcluding. Phrases with крóме answer the questions крóме когó? besides whom?, крóме чегó? besides what? (See also исключáя, за исключéнием.) Никомý не расскáзывай, крóме Лари́ сы.

Don’t tell anyone besides Larisa.

Other than A synonym of не считáя not counting, which is more common, and поми́ мо besides, which is less common. No commas are needed. (See also не считáя, поми́ мо, сверх.) Потасóвки возникáли, когдá крóме студéнтов и приглашённых на тусóвки проникáл другóй контингéнт.

There were scuffles when somebody other than students and guests crashed the parties.

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Expression with крóме Крóме шýток.

All jokes aside.

Крóме тогó Parenthetical expression Additionally Emphasizes additional information in the utterance. Separated by commas. Он попроси́ л кóфе и, крóме тогó, пирóжное.

He asked for coffee and, additionally, a pastry.

Крóме тогó(,) что Conjunction Aside from, other than that Connects clauses that clarify the utterance and displays facts that are of importance. The part that follows the clause with the conjunction has additional information. A comma does not split the conjunction when it starts a sentence, but it is placed before что when it follows a principal clause. Synonymous with мáло тогó(,) что it’s not enough that, although крóме тогó(,) что tends to have a positive implication. (See also мáло тогó что.) Крóме тогó что О́ льга ýчится, она ещё и рабóтает.

Aside from studying, Olga also works.

Semantically close to не считáя тогó(,) что not counting that, поми́ мо тогó (,) что aside from. (See also не считáя тогó что, поми́ мо тогó что.) О ней мáло что извéстно, крóме тогó, что в дéтстве онá потеря́ ла свои́ х бли́ зких.

Little is known about her other than that, when she was little, she lost her loved ones.

К слóву (сказáть) Parenthetical expression By the way А synonym of мéжду прóчим by the way and кстáти by the way, which are used more often than к слóву. Separated by commas. Валéрий Ви́ кторович был замечáтельный лингви́ ст и, к слóву сказáть, знал мнóго языкóв.

Valery Viktorovich was an amazing linguist and, by the way, knew many languages.

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К сожалéнию Parenthetical expression Unfortunately Speakers use this expression to articulate their dissatisfaction or frustration towards an utterance. Separated by commas. Semantically close to к несчáстью unfortunately. (See also к несчáстью.) Пóсле развáла Совéтского Сою́ за, к сожалéнию, мнóгие остáлись без рабóты.

Unfortunately, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, many people were left without a job.

Note! К сожалéнию can be used in combinations with possessive pronouns and some adjectives that express a degree of emotions. К моемý сожалéнию.

Unfortunately.

К глубóкому сожалéнию.

To my deep regret.

К большóму сожалéнию.

Much to my regret.

Кстáти Parenthetical word By the way A synonym of мéжду прóчим by the way and к слóву by the way. Кстáти and мéжду прóчим are used more often than к слóву. Кстáти говоря́ by the way and кстáти сказáть by the way can be used as well. Separated by commas. (See also к слóву, мéжду прóчим, слýчаем.) Ты, кстáти, не собирáешься на футбóл? Можéшь состáвить мне компáнию.

By the way, are you going to the soccer game? You can keep me company.

К стыдý своемý Parenthetical expression To one’s shame Expresses displeasure or condemnation towards one’s own or someone else’s actions. Separated by commas. The synonymous сты́ дно сказáть to my shame is used more often. (See also сты́ дно сказáть.) Oн, к стыдý своемý, не смог отвéтить на такóй простóй вопрóс.

To his shame, he couldn’t answer such an easy question.

К счáстью Parenthetical expression Luckily Speakers use this expression to articulate their delight or satisfaction towards an utterance. Separated by commas. (See also к несчáстью.)

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Ири́ на, к счáстью, вóвремя вспóмнила, что её ждёт начáльник.

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Luckily, Irina remembered in time that her boss was waiting for her.

Note! The phrase can be a part of a sentence. No commas are needed. Посýда бьётся к счáстью.

Broken tableware brings good fortune.

Кто Conjunction Who As a connective word, кто focuses on the subject or object, and when it is an object, it is declined. Connects subordinate clauses that function as subjects or objects and fill a missing gap in a principal clause. These clauses answer the questions of cases. Совершéнно поня́ тно, о ком они́ говоря́ т.

It’s completely clear whom they’re discussing.

Не пóмню, кто дал мне э́ тот телефóн.

I don’t remember who gave me this number.

Connects subordinate clauses that usually refer to the part of the principal clause that is expressed by a noun or nominal phrase. These subordinate clauses answer the question какóй? which? Connects the attributive clause to the pronouns тот that, все everyone, кáждый each, любóй any in the principal clause when it functions as a subject or an object. Can be translated in different ways or elided entirely. Та, о ком он так дóлго мечтáл, наконéц былá с ним.

The one he had dreamed of for so long was with him at last.

Note! When тот functions as an attribute, the connective word котóрый which is used. Та жéнщина, о котóрой он так дóлго мечтáл, наконéц былá с ним.

The woman he had dreamed of for so long was with him at last.

Кто бы ни Conjunction Whoever Connects subordinate clauses, pointing out that what is said in the principal clause is true despite someone or something that the subordinate clause discusses. Used with the past tense.

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Кто бы ни обращáлся к Гали́ не Михáйловне, онá всем старáлась помóчь.

Galina Mikhailovna tried to help whomever sought her out.

К томý же Conjunction Additionally The words connected by this conjunction contain extra information. After к томý же, a comma is not needed. Often used with и and. (See also при э́ том, тáкже.) Бы́ ло пáсмурно, и к томý же всё врéмя шёл дождь.

It was cloudy, and it was raining all the time.

Кудá Conjunction Where Connects subordinate clauses that function as subjects or objects and fill a missing gap in a principal clause. These clauses answer the questions of cases. Кудá conveys the meaning of direction of movement. Они́ и тепéрь не знáют, кудá отпрáвятся пóсле визи́ та к рóдственникам.

Even now they don’t know where to go after they visit their relatives.

Where Adverbial subordinate clauses of place with кудá refer to a combination of a predicate and the demonstrative words там there, тудá there in the principal clause. The adverbs всю́ ду everywhere, вездé everywhere, напрáво to the right, налéво to the left, and others may be used in principal clauses. Матвéй пóнял, что попáл не тудá, кудá собирáлся.

Matvey realized that he hadn’t ended up where he wanted to be.

Note! Excluding the demonstrative words там there, тудá there, оттýда from there from the principal clause is possible in colloquial speech, but in many cases, it is not the preferred style. Дéти побежáли тудá, кудá éхали велосипеди́ сты.

The kids ran to where the cyclists were headed.

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Where Connects attributive subordinate clauses, which usually refer to the part of the principal clause that is expressed by a noun or nominal phrase when a noun in the principal clause indicates a place or a space. These clauses answer the question какóй? what kind? Кудá can be replaced by котóрый which. Лес, кудá / в котóрый дéти ходи́ ли собирáть грибы́ и я́ годы, был совсéм недалекó.

The woods where the children went to pick mushrooms and berries were quite close.

Кудá (бы) ни Conjunction Wherever Connects subordinate clauses that point to places in spite of which the action described in the principal clause is accomplished. Conveys intensity to the action described. The particle ни is usually placed before a predicate. The particle never precedes a noun. Кудá ни can be combined with бы to emphasize the meaning; in this case, it is used with the past tense. The adverbs всю́ ду everywhere, вездé everywhere, повсю́ ду all around, со всех сторóн from all sides, and others can be used in principal clauses. (See also где бы ни, откýда (бы) ни.) Кудá Сáша ни позвони́ т, нигдé никтó не отвечáет.

Wherever Sasha calls, nobody ever answers.

Кудá бы Пáша ни ходи́ л, вездé бы́ ло полнó нарóда.

Wherever Pasha went, there was always a crowd.

Кыш [coll.] Interjection Shoo! An exclamation that is used to chase away birds. However, it is used in various contexts and situations. Used with the adverb отсю́ да from here. (Отгоня́ я голубéй.) Кыш, кыш отсю́ да!

(Chasing away pigeons.) Shoo, shoo!

(Грýбо в áдрес мальчи́ шек на ýлице.) (Rudely directed at boys playing outside.) Кыш, а ну пошли́ отсю́ да. Shoo, get out of here.

Лáдно [coll.] Particle Okay Expresses agreement. Used as a positive reply. More conversational than its synonym хорошó okay. (See also хорошó.) Пойдём вмéсте пообéдаем? – Лáдно.

“Let’s go have lunch together?” “Okay.”

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Okay? Used in the end of an utterance with an interrogative intonation when the speaker expects an affirmative reply. Я к вам заглянý на минýтку, лáдно? – Хорошó.

“I’ll stop by for a bit, okay?” “Alright.”

Легкó сказáть Parenthetical expression Easy to say Implies that it is difficult to do something. Separated by commas or by dashes. Легкó сказáть, пое́ хали рабóтать на стрóйку на нéсколько мéсяцев.

It’s easy to say “let’s go work at the construction site for a few months.”

Note! Can be used as a predicate. In this case, no commas are needed. Легкó сказáть такóе. Как осуществи́ ть?

That’s easier said than done. How do we make it happen?

The expression легкó сказáть – трýдно сдéлать easy to say, hard to do is conversational.

Лýчше сказáть Parenthetical expression More precisely Semantically close to the parenthetical expressions точнéе говоря́ more precisely, точнéе сказáть more precisely. Separated by commas. Прошéдшую ночь я летáл и́ ли, лýчше сказáть, шагáл по вóздуху. (И. Грéкова, «Без улы́ бок»)

Last night I flew, or more precisely, walked on the air. (Grekova, Without Smiles)

Note! Can be used as part of a sentence. In this case, no commas are needed. Вот тут я не знáю, как лýчше сказáть «у нас в странé» и́ ли «рýсские лю́ ди». (Е. Гришковéц, «Одноврéмeнно»)

Here, I do not know how to say it better: “in our country” or “Russian people.” (Grishkovets, Simultaneously)

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Ли (ль) Particle. Conjunction Particle Used to form an interrogative sentence to emphasize uncertainty or doubt. Всё ли поня́ тно вам?

Do you understand everything?

Мы ещё не знáем, хорóший ли он дирéктор.

We don’t know yet whether he is a good director.

Phrases with ли Мáло ли?

Who knows?

То ли дéло . . .

It’s another thing . . .

Шýтка ли.

It’s not a joke.

Conjunction Whether, if Connects subordinate clauses that usually refer to a verb, a participle, a verbal adverb, or a short adjective in a principal clause. Explanatory clauses function as subjects or objects and fill a missing gap in a principal clause. These subordinate clauses answer the questions of cases. Never opens a clause, but follows the word to which it refers, so it is usually the second word in the clause. Also serves to express questions in indirect speech. Doubt is reflected by ли in its standard position, while и́ ли нет or not is placed at the end of a sentence. (See also и́ ли.) Я не увéрен, смогý ли почини́ ть модéм – возмóжно, придётся покупáть новый.

I’m not sure if I’ll be able to fix the modem – we might have to buy another one.

Кáтя спроси́ ла, мóжно ли перенести́ её доклáд на другóй день.

Katya asked whether she could change the date of her presentation.

Note! The conjunction ль is the same as ли. Archaic and can be found in literature and poetry.

Ли́ бо Conjunction Or Connects the last object of a list, which contains words, clauses, or phrases that denote actions or phenomena that mutually exclude each other. Semantically close to и́ ли or, while stylistically it is often used in literature and formal

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language. (See the synonyms и́ ли, и́ ли . . . и́ ли, ли́ бо . . . ли́ бо, то ли . . . то ли, не то . . . не то.) Раи́ са Михáйловна бýдет принимáть учáстие в нóвом проéкте, ли́ бо уéдет в командирóвку.

Raisa Mikhailovna will either be taking part in the new project, or she will be on a business trip.

Ли́ бо . . . ли́ бо Conjunction Either . . . or Placed before each of the words or clauses that are listed. Emphasizes the fact that each part excludes the other. A comma is placed after each of the listed parts. Used less often than its synonym ли́ бо or and much less than и́ ли or. (See the synonyms и́ ли, и́ ли . . . и́ ли, ли́ бо, то ли . . . то ли, не то . . . не то.) А́ нна éздит на рабóту ли́ бо на своём мéрсе, ли́ бо на такси́ .

Anna gets to work either in her Mercedes or in a taxi.

Лишь Conjunction. Particle Conjunction As soon as, right after Лишь just, éдва лишь the moment, or лишь тóлько the moment are used when the action depicted in the principal clause occurs after the action depicted in the subordinate clause. If а subordinate clause with these conjunctions precedes the principal clause, the principal clause can start with the word как as. A subordinate clause with these conjunctions answers the question когдá? when? These conjunctions can sound archaic in spoken Russian, but they are appropriate for written and literary language. For spoken Russian, the word лишь can be replaced by тóлько only. (See also тóлько.) Лишь сóлнце зашлó, срáзу стáло темнó.

As soon as the sun set, it got dark immediately.

Лишь тóлько Пётр закóнчит шкóлу, он тут же уéдет в другóй гóрод.

The minute Pyotr finishes school, he’s going to move to a different city.

Particle Only Can be replaced with тóлько only in reference to certain objects or phenomena without exceptions. (See also тóлько.) Он пóмнит лишь тебя́ .

He remembers only you.

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Only Means “not a lot.” Emphasizes how small the amount of something is. The combinations лишь тóлько and всегó лишь can be used to highlight the utterance and denote the insignificance or unimportance of the subject being discussed. Лишь and the combinations are informal, while the synonym тóлько only is formal. (See also тóлько.) Им остáлось учи́ ться всегó лишь два гóда.

They only have two years of school left.

Saying with лишь Это лишь цветóчки, я́ годки впереди́ .

That’s just for starters; the worst is yet to come.

Лишь бы Particle If only, just Either expresses a strong desire or wish, or characterizes someone’s indifference towards something. Лишь бы он быстрéе вернýлся.

If only he comes back sooner.

Тебé лишь бы сказáть что-нибýдь.

You just want to say something.

Мáло тогó Parenthetical expression Not only that Emphasizes additional information in the utterance, expressing positive or negative emotions. Separated by commas. (See also крóме тóго.) Лёнина племя́ нница не приéхала, чтóбы уви́ деться с нами, мáло тогó, дáже не позвони́ ла.

Lyonia’s niece didn’t come to see us; not only that, but she didn’t even call.

Мáло тогó что Conjunction It’s not enough that Connects clauses that clarify the utterance. The part that follows the clause with the conjunction has additional information. A comma does not split the conjunction when it starts a sentence. Synonymous with крóме тогó(,) что aside from, although it may convey a negative overtone. (See also крóме тогó что.) Мáло тогó что Елизавéта опоздáла, онá и не предупреди́ ла, что опáздывает.

It’s not enough that Elizabeth was late, but she didn’t even warn us that she’d be late.

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Мéжду Preposition With the instrumental case Between, among Indicates that something or someone is situated between or among animate or inanimate objects. Also indicates that something is happening between or among people. Phrases with мéжду answer the questions мéжду кем? between whom?, мéжду чем? between what? (See also среди́ .) Стол мóжно постáвить мéжду шкáфом и стенóй.

The table can go between the wardrobe and the wall.

Мéжду ни́ ми завязáлись хорóшие отношéния.

They have established a good relationship.

Мéжду Лари́ сой и её брáтом былá рáзница в шесть лет.

There was a difference of six years between Larisa and her brother.

Saying with мéжду Мéжду нéбом и землёй.

Between heaven and earth.

Мéжду мóлотом и наковáльней.

Between a rock and a hard place.

Between Shows that an action takes place within a certain interval of time. Я бýду дóма мéжду чáсом и двумя́ . Заходи́ .

I will be at home between one and two. Do drop by.

Мы мóжем встрéтиться в переры́ ве мéжду сéссиями.

We can meet up in the break between sessions.

Мéжду нáми (говоря́ ) Parenthetical expression Between you and me Indicates that the discussed information is not intended for other people. Separated by commas. Пáвел Сергéевич, нáши заседáния, мéжду нáми (говоря́ ), мне перестáли нрáвиться.

Between you and me, Pavel Sergeevich, I don’t much like our meetings anymore.

Note! Can be used as a part of a sentence. Commas are not needed.

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Такóе впечатлéние, что мéжду нáми пробежáла чёрная кóшка.

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It seems as if our relationship went south.

Мéжду прóчим Parenthetical expression By the way Used as a synonym of кстáти by the way. (See also кстáти.) Андрéй‚ мéжду прóчим‚ чéрез три дня уезжáет на нéсколько мéсяцев.

By the way, Andrey is leaving for a few months in three days.

Note! Мéжду прóчим‚ как бы мéжду прóчим as if in passing‚ or как бýдто мéжду прóчим as if incidentally can be used as an adverb. Commas are not needed. Он расскáзывал о своéй жи́ зни на Сéвере и мéжду прóчим сказáл‚ как емý бывáло тоскли́ во без жены́ и детéй.

He was describing his life in the North and mentioned in passing how depressing it sometimes was without his wife and children.

«Я выхожý зáмуж»‚ – как бы мéжду прóчим сказáла Мáйя.

“I’m getting married,” said Maya, as if in passing.

Мéжду тем Conjunction While, in the meantime Мéжду тем and the synonymous а мéжду тем meanwhile, мéжду тем как while connect clauses that contrast with each other. (See also в то врéмя как.) Вéра приéхала днём, мéжду тем остальны́ е при́ были рáньше.

Vera arrived in the afternoon, while the others got there earlier.

Гóсти увлекли́ сь разговóром‚ а мéжду тем ужé бы́ ло пóздно, и нýжно бы́ ло уходи́ ть.

They got carried away with their conversation, and in the meantime, it had gotten late, and they had to leave.

Мы уходи́ ли всё дáльше от лáгеря‚ мéжду тем как потемнéло, и началáсь грозá.

We were getting farther and farther from the camp, and in the meantime, it had gotten dark, and a thunderstorm had started.

Note! Usually, a comma appears before мéжду тем как while without splitting it.

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Мéнее Particle Less Used together with adjectives and adverbs in their basic forms to form a compound comparative degree that is used most often in literature, while the simple comparative degree is neutral and is used in different styles, e.g., мéнее дешёвый less cheap versus дешéвле cheaper. Мéнее should not be confused with мéньше smaller. The former is used to form the compound comparative degree, while the latter is the comparative form of the adjective мáленький small. (See also бóлее.) Дéятельность их фи́ рмы не так замéтна, но от э́ того не мéнее важнá.

The firm’s activities are not as noticeable, but are no less important.

Ми́ мо Preposition With the genitive case By, past Indicates objects that move by other objects without stopping. Phrases with this preposition answer the questions ми́ мо когó? past whom?, ми́ мо чегó past what? Кóстя промчáлся ми́ мо нас, не останови́ вшись.

Kostya zoomed past us without stopping.

Мóжет / мóжет быть Parenthetical word/expression Maybe, perhaps Мóжет is colloquial and is used less frequently than мóжет быть. Both the word and the expression are separated by commas. Can also be a particle and function as an independent sentence-reply. (See the synonyms вероя́ тно, ви́ димо, возмóжно, навéрное.) Онá, мóжет, однá из лýчших модéлей She is maybe one of the best models in в Еврóпе. Europe. Мóжет быть, вы приéдете к нам погости́ ть? – Мóжет.

“Maybe you’ll come visit us?” “Maybe.”

Note! Both the word and the expression can be used as a part of a sentence. No commas are needed. Степáн Петрóвич мóжет стать спорти́ вным комментáтором.

Stepan Petrovich could become a sportscaster.

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Что мóжет быть лýчше, чем óтдых на Багáмах?

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What can be better than a vacation in the Bahamas?

Мóжно сказáть Parenthetical expression You can say Expresses the possibility of using certain ideas, thoughts, or definitions. Separated by commas. (See the synonym нáдо сказáть.) Наш дед, мóжно сказáть, обладáл энциклопеди́ ческими знáниями.

You can say our grandpa had encyclopedic knowledge.

Note! Can be used as a predicate. No commas are needed. А́ нне Петрóвне мóжно сказáть всё, что мы дýмаем по э́ тому пóводу.

We can tell Anna Petrovna everything we think about this.

Мол [coll.] Particle As one put it Used in reference to someone’s speech, often with a shade of distrust, explaining someone’s actions. Separated by commas. (See the synonym дéскать.) Олéг объясни́ л, что, мол, пересéли они́ за другóй стóлик, поскóльку им нáдо бы́ ло о чём-то поговори́ ть вдвоём.

Oleg explained that they sat at a different table because, as he put it, they had to talk about something by themselves.

На Preposition With the accusative case For Indicates the period or duration of the effect or impact of an action or the period during which one plans to be doing something. Forms the question на скóлько врéмени? for how long? The combination на какóй with words that denote a unit of time form interrogative sentences such as: на какóй день? for what day? The combination на э́ тот / пéрвый раз are also commonly used. Translations may vary. Пéред отъéздом Ки́ ра отдалá собáку свои́ м друзья́ м на пять дней.

Before she left, Kira left her dog with her friends for five days.

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На втóрник нýжно успéть мнóго прочитáть.

We need to get a lot of reading done for Tuesday.

На сегóдняшний день нáша лаборатóрия с рабóтой не справля́ ется.

As of today, our lab is not able to handle the current amount of work.

На пéрвый раз такóе поведéние мóжно прости́ ть.

It’s possible to pardon such behavior the first time.

Used with some verbs like отложи́ ть to postpone, перенести́ to reschedule, опоздáть to be late, when implying a specific moment or length of time. Answers the questions на когдá? for when?, на скóлько? for how long? Тести́ рование перенесли́ на слéдующую недéлю.

They rescheduled the testing period for next week.

Мы отложи́ ли на год поéздку в Иркýтск.

We postponed our trip to Irkutsk for a year.

Вчерá ты опоздáл на 25 минýт‚ сегóдня – на час.

You were 25 minutes late yesterday and an hour late today.

To, on Designates the direction in which an object moves. In particular, combines with nouns in the accusative case and is used with or implies verbs of motion. Phrases with this preposition answer the question кудá? where? Correlates with the preposition с with. (See also с.) Веснóй Э́ лла собирáется на Кавкáз снимáть фильм.

Ella is going to the Caucasus in the spring to shoot a film.

Онá поéхала на вокзáл.

She went to the train station.

Кудá постáвили чáйный серви́ з? – Кáжется на шкаф.

“Where is the tea set?” “I think it’s on the shelf.”

Note! Does not follow verbs such as быть to be, рабóтать to work, проводи́ ть to spend, отдыхáть to take a vacation; for example, compare éду на три дня I’m going there to spend three days with бýду три дня I’ll be there three days. Used to define a measurement, amount, range, or volume of a whole. Indicates the number of parts or pieces into which the whole could be divided. Phrases with на answer the question на скóльких? for how many?, на скóлько? for how much? Translations may vary.

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Мать приготóвила обéд на дéсять человéк.

Mother made dinner for 10 people.

Разрéжь торт на вóсемь частéй.

Cut the cake into eight pieces.

Онá накупи́ ла подáрков на 2000 рублéй.

She spent 2000 rubles on gifts.

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Phrases with на and certain verbs Надéть одéжду на ребёнка.

To put clothes on a child.

Наки́ нуть платóк на плéчи.

To throw a scarf around one’s shoulders.

Смотрéть / взглянýть на когó-то.

To look/glance at someone.

Учи́ ться на инженéра.

To study to become an engineer.

Читáть / учи́ ть стихи́ на пáмять.

To recite/memorize poetry.

Занимáться на одни́ пятёрки.

To get straight As.

Лови́ ть на ýдочку. [lit. and fig.]

To hook.

Закры́ ть на замóк.

To lock.

Провожáть когó-то на пóезд.

To accompany someone to the train.

Приглашáть на пóкер / на обéд.

To invite someone to poker/dinner.

Трáтить дéньги на что-то и́ ли когó-то. To spend money on something or for someone. Рабóтать на когó-то.

To work for someone.

Звать на пóмощь.

To call for help.

Вызывáть на дуэ́ ль.

To challenge to a duel.

Вéрить на слóво.

To take one at one’s word.

Хромáть на лéвую нóгу.

To have a limp in one’s left leg.

Кричáть на когó-то.

To scream at someone.

Производи́ ть впечатлéние на когó-то.

To make an impression on someone.

Надéяться на когó-то и́ ли на что-то.

To rely on someone or something.

Воздéйствовать на когó-то.

To affect someone.

Отвечáть на вопрóс.

То аnswer а question.

Настáивать на своём.

To insist on one’s own ideas.

Испы́ тывать на прóчность.

To test someone or something’s sturdiness.

Быть похóжим на когó-то.

To resemble someone.

Меня́ ть что-то на что-то.

To exchange something for something.

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Phrases with на and certain nouns Запрéт на алкогóль.

A prohibition on alcohol.

Дéньги на ремóнт.

Money for repairs.

Прáво на образовáние.

The right to education.

Ковёр на пол.

A rug for the floor.

Лéкция на какýю-то тéму.

A lecture on some topic.

Рецéнзия на статью́ .

A review of an article.

Реáкция на кри́ тику.

Reaction to criticism.

Sayings with на На вся́ кий слýчай.

Just in case.

Мáстер на вы́ думки.

A master inventor.

Готóв на всё.

Ready for anything.

With the prepositional case On, at, in Used to indicate an object’s location. Phrases with this preposition answer the nonspecific question где? where? or the more specific questions на ком? on whom?, на чём? on what? Семья́ Ли́ дии всю жизнь жилá на Аля́ ске.

Lydia’s family lived in Alaska all their life.

Где лежáт докумéнты? – В портфéле на пóлке.

“Where are the documents?” “In the briefcase on the shelf.”

На Жéниной рукé браслéт смóтрится замечáтельно.

The bracelet looks great on Zhenya’s wrist.

Ребёнок лежи́ т на животé и не хóчет переворáчиваться.

The baby is lying on his stomach and doesn’t want to turn over.

Used with nouns indicating units of time to imply that something is happening at that moment. Combined with the noun недéля a week. Forms phrases like встать на рассвéте to get up at dawn, умерéть на какóм-то годý жи́ зни to die at some specific age, повидáть на своём векý to have seen a lot, на пя́ том

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мéсяце берéменности in her fifth month of pregnancy. These phrases answer the nonspecific question когдá? when? На прóшлой недéле в компáнию приéхали гóсти из мнóгих стран.

Last week, a lot of guests from many countries visited the company.

Phrases with на and certain verbs Учи́ ться на пя́ том кýрсе.

To be in one’s fifth year of college.

Победи́ ть на вы́ борах.

To win the elections.

Отсýтствовать на лéкции.

To be absent from the lecture.

Выступáть на фóруме.

To present in a forum.

Говори́ ть на какóм-то языкé.

To speak a language.

Игрáть на музыкáльных инструмéнтах.

To play musical instruments.

Жáрить на мáсле.

To fry in oil.

Вязáть на спи́ цах.

To knit.

Что-то рабóтает на батарéйках.

Something runs on batteries.

Что-то происхóдит на чьих-то глазáх.

Something is happening in front of someone’s eyes.

Сосредотóчиться на проблéме.

To concentrate on the problem.

Оснóвываться / бази́ роваться на дáнных.

To be founded/based on data.

Phrases with на and certain nouns Пальтó на мехý.

A fur-lined coat.

Тýфли на каблукáх.

High-heeled shoes.

Стóлик на колёсах.

A table on wheels.

Кáша на молокé.

Kasha made with milk.

Sayings with на На лю́ дях.

To be among people.

На войнé как на войнé.

Business as usual. (From the French “à la guerre comme à la guerre”)

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Particle Here Used when offering someone something. Very informal. Can sound rude if addressing people who are not very close. Separated by commas. Дай, пожáлуйста, тот словáрь. – На, возьми́ .

“Give me that dictionary, please.” “Here, take it.”

Навéрно(е) Parenthetical word Probably Separated by commas and utilized in different styles. Can be used as a separate sentence. Expresses confirmation with a shade of doubt. (See the synonyms возмóжно, ви́ димо, должнó быть, мóжет быть.) Я, навéрное, вернýсь к девяти́ .

I’ll probably be back by nine.

Note! Can be used as an adverb in a sentence. The choice depends on the speaker’s perception. No commas are needed. Он навéрное придýмает, как вы́ йти из э́ той ситуáции.

He’ll probably come up with a way out of this situation.

Навстрéчу Preposition With the dative case Towards Used to indicate movement in an opposite direction. Phrases with this preposition answer the questions навстрéчу комý? towards whom?, навстрéчу чемý? towards what? Used in many phrases figuratively. Навстрéчу нам шли солдáты.

Soldiers were walking towards us.

The commonly used phrase идти́ навстрéчу чьим-то желáниям means to acquiesce to someone’s wishes.

Note! Do not confuse навстрéчу with the two words на встрéчу to a meeting.

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Над (надо) Preposition With the instrumental case Надо is the same as над and is used before one-syllable words that begin with two consonants, the first of which is either р or л (надо лбом over one’s forehead, надо рвом over a ravine). Used in contemporary language mostly with a personal pronoun in the first person singular надо мной over me.

Over The spatial preposition над indicates the place where objects are situated. Used in response to the question где? where? Над пóлем пролетéла стáя птиц.

A flock of birds flew over the field.

Фотогрáфии вися́ т над столóм.

The photos are hanging over the table.

Saying with над Стáвить тóчку над и.

To dot the is and cross the ts.

On, over Combines with the verbs рабóтать to work, дýмать to think over, смея́ ться to laugh at and the nouns рабóта work, смех laugh. Тhe question над чем? over what? is used to form interrogative sentences. Вы дóлго ещё бýдете рабóтать над прогрáммой?

Will you be working on your program much longer?

Подýмай над э́ тим.

Think about it./Think it over.

Дéти смея́ лись над Кири́ ллом и довели́ егó до слёз.

The children laughed at Kirill and drove him to tears.

Phrases with над Не влáстен над собóй.

Has no control over himself.

Сдéлать над собóй уси́ лие.

To force yourself to make an effort.

Вознести́ сь над всéми.

To rise above everyone.

Побéда над врагóм.

Victory over one’s foes.

Наси́ лие над ли́ чностью.

Abuse.

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Нáдо дýмать / нáдо полагáть Parenthetical expression Most likely Semantically and syntactically, these expressions are close to ви́ димо it seems, вероя́ тно likely, возмóжно possibly, очеви́ дно obviously and others. They are separated by commas. (See also ви́ димо, вероя́ тно, возмóжно, очеви́ дно.) Алексéй Дми́ триевич, нáдо полагáть, Aleksey Dmitrievich will, most likely, be бýдет зáнят своéй наýчной рабóтой, busy with his scholarly work and won’t have и на внýков врéмени у негó не бýдет. time for his grandkids.

Note! Can be used as a predicate. No commas are needed. Нáдо дýмать о дóме, о бли́ зких, о чём-то хорóшем.

One should think about home, about relatives, about something good.

Нáдо сказáть Parenthetical expression I have to say Used to draw someone’s attention to the subject discussed. Separated by commas. (See also мóжно сказáть.) Обстанóвка в нáшем отдéле, нáдо сказáть, не хорóшая.

I have to say, the situation in our division is not good.

Note! Can be used as a predicate. No commas are needed. Нáдо сказáть всю прáвду, а не ждать, One should say the whole truth instead of покá всё раскрóется. waiting for it to come out on its own.

На здорóвье Interjection You’re welcome Used as a conversational response to someone who says спаси́ бо thanks among people who are familiar with one another and, specifically, after a meal. In many everyday situations, people also use the informal не за что it’s nothing, while пожáлуйста you’re welcome is used in more formal situations. (See also не за что, пожáлуйста.) Ну, спаси́ бо за обéд. Порá идти́ , ужé пóздно. – На здорóвье.

“Well, thanks for dinner. I should go, it’s getting late.” “You’re welcome.”

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На и́ мя [form.] Preposition With the genitive case Indicates that something is addressed to someone. Used with the name of the addressee in the genitive case. На и́ мя рéктора университéта поступи́ ло заявлéние от грýппы преподавáтелей.

A statement composed by a group of teachers was brought to the attention of the university’s provost.

Наканýне Preposition With the genitive case On the eve of Phrases with this preposition answer the question наканýне чегó? on the eve of what? Стáрые друзья́ приéхали наканýне свáдьбы.

Old friends came on the eve of the wedding.

Note! Can be used as an adverb. In this case, it functions as an independent part of a sentence. Е́ сли вы хоти́ те приготóвить пирóг, то тéсто нýжно замеси́ ть наканýне.

If you want to bake a cake, you have to prepare the dough beforehand.

Наконéц Parenthetical word Finally Expresses impatience or annoyance. Separated by commas. Когдá же, наконéц, закóнчится э́ то бесконéчное строи́ тельство?

When is this endless construction finally going to end?

Finally Emphasizes the final argument during a discussion or is used to finalize thoughts. Synonymous with в концé концóв finally, which is used to put thoughts or ideas in order when listing something. Наконéц pertains to the same semantic group as во-пéрвых first of all, слéдовательно consequently, and others. Can be accompanied by the conjunction и and. (See also в концé концóв, слéдовательно.)

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Эми́ лия дóлго сидéла, слýшала, о чём говори́ ли, и, наконéц, встáла и вы́ шла из кóмнаты.

Emilia sat for a long time, listening to what was said, and, finally, stood up and walked out of the room.

Гри́ ша рабóтает, занимáeтся хозя́ йством, наконéц, вóзится с детьми́ .

Grisha works, takes care of his home, and, finally, takes care of the kids.

Наоборóт Parenthetical word. Particle Conversely, on the contrary As a parenthetical word, it emphasizes the speaker’s opposite opinion. As a particle, it is used as a reply to express disagreement. Separated by commas. Neutral in terms of style, unlike its synonym напрóтив conversely, which sounds bookish. (See also напрóтив.) Чéрез нéкоторое врéмя стáнет я́ сно, каки́ е направлéния бесперспекти́ вны, а каки́ е, наоборóт, нýжно развивáть.

In some time, it will become clear which options are unpromising, and which, conversely, should be explored.

Ты со мной не соглáсен? – Наоборóт, “You don’t agree with me?” “On the я поддéрживаю тебя́ . contrary, I support you.”

Note! Can be an adverb and function as a part of a sentence. In this case, no commas are needed. Разумéется, Ли́ на не прислýшалась и As was expected, Lina didn’t listen and did сдéлала всё наоборóт. everything backwards.

На основáнии Preposition With the genitive case As per Phrases with this preposition answer the question на основáнии чегó? as per what? Frequently used in journalism and scholarly and bureaucratic language. (See also в соотвéтствии с, соглáсно.) На основáнии прикáза президéнта компáнии все сотрýдники полýчат прибáвку к зарплáте.

As per the company president’s order, all employees will receive a raise.

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На основáнии тогó(,) что Conjunction Based on the fact that На основáнии тогó(,) что or на том основáнии(,) что connects subordinate clauses that indicate something that can be a base for actions shown in the principal clause. A comma can appear before что and before the whole phrase. Frequently used in journalism and scholarly and bureaucratic language. Не поня́ тно, закóнно ли увóлить рабóтницу на основáнии тогó, что при приёме на рабóту онá скры́ ла информáцию о своéй берéменности.

It is unclear whether it is lawful to fire an employee based on the fact that when she was hired, she concealed the fact that she was pregnant.

На оснóве Preposition With the genitive case Based on, as a result Indicates something that is the base or starting point for the creation of something. Phrases with this preposition answer the question на оснóве чегó? based on what? Frequently used in journalism and scholarly and bureaucratic language. The synonyms в соотвéтствии с in accordance with and на основáнии as per are more commonly used. (See also в соотвéтствии с, на основáнии.) Успéхи в э́ той óбласти мóгут быть дости́ гнуты тóлько на оснóве испóльзования нóвых технолóгий.

Achievement in this field may be possible only as a result of the use of new technologies.

Наперекóр Preposition With the dative case To oppose Phrases with this preposition answer the questions наперекóр чемý? as opposed to what?, наперекóр комý? as opposed to whom? Наперекóр is used in literature and journalism. (See the synonyms вопреки́ , невзирáя на, несмотря́ на.) Идти́ наперекóр общéственному мнéнию совсéм нелегкó.

To oppose public opinion is very difficult.

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Наподóбие Preposition With the genitive case Resembling, like Implies uncertainty or supposition. Phrases with this preposition answer the question наподóбие когó? like whom?, наподóбие чегó? like what? Can be used with the demonstrative word тот that. Наподóбие is more literal, unlike its synonym врóде like, which is used in informal speech. (See also врóде.) По мнéнию нéкоторых депутáтов, калинингрáдскую проблéму мóжно реши́ ть с пóмощью соглашéния наподóбие Шенгéнского.

In the opinion of a few representatives, the Kaliningrad problem can be solved with the help of something like the Schengen Agreement.

Напримéр Parenthetical word For example The synonymous к примéру for example is less formal. Separated by commas. (See also к примéру, скáжем.) Поэ́ тому ИТ-директорá бы́ стро опускáют рýки, когдá речь захóдит, напримéр, об управлéнии ýровнями обслýживания. (Н. Дýбова, «Вокрýг ITSM» // «Computerworld», 2004)

This is why IT directors quickly give up when talk starts up about, for example, controlling different levels of service. (Dubova, Around ITSM, 2004)

Напрóтив Preposition. Parenthetical word. Particle Preposition With the genitive case Across from Indicates objects that are located against something or someone. Phrases with this preposition answer the questions напрóтив когó? across from whom?, напрóтив чегó? across from what? The verb находи́ ться to be located is used or implied. Напрóтив общежи́ тия нахóдится столóвая.

Across from the dorm is the cafeteria.

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Parenthetical word. Particle Conversely, on the contrary As a parenthetical word, it emphasizes the speaker’s opposing opinion. As a particle, it is used as a reply to express disagreement. Sounds bookish, unlike its synonym наоборóт conversely, which is neutral in terms of styles. Separated by commas. (See also наоборóт.) И́ горь Влади́ мирович, напрóтив, умнéйший человéк.

Conversely, Igor Vladimirovich is very smart.

Ты считáешь, что нýжно покупáть Форд? – Напрóтив, я дýмаю, что Тойóта лýчше.

“You think that we should buy a Ford?” “On the contrary, I think that a Toyota would be better.”

На протяжéнии Preposition With the genitive case During, throughout Used with nouns that denote time during which something is happening. Phrases with this preposition answer the question на протяжéнии какóго врéмени? during what time? Used in various styles. Used less frequently than в течéние throughout. (See also в течéние.) На протяжéнии всегó мéсяца шли си́ льные дожди́ .

It rained very heavily throughout the entire month.

Note! На протяжéнии is not used when the utterance is about an event. In this case, в течéние is used. (See also в течéние.)

Нарядý с Preposition With the instrumental case Along with Shows that some objects participate in actions along with other objects. Phrases with this preposition answer the questions нарядý с кем? along with whom?, нарядý с чем? along with what? Commonly used in formal language. Constructions with нарядý с can be separated by commas. (See also крóме.)

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В ины́ х слýчаях, нарядý с междунарóдным договóром, слéдует применя́ ть и соотвéтствующий внутригосудáрственный правовóй акт. (М. Козлóва, «Свобóда сóвести и свéтскость госудáрства» // «Адвокáт», 2004)

In other cases, along with an international agreement, it is necessary to implement a concordant intragovernmental rights act. (Kozlova, Freedom of Conscience and a Secular State, 2004)

Наскóлько . . . настóлько Conjunction As much as . . . Used to juxtapose comparable characteristics of someone or something in two clauses of a sentence. The characteristics’ intensity or degree is the thing being contrasted. A comma splits the two clauses. Наскóлько поéздка в Испáнию нам не подошлá, настóлько путешéствие по Фрáнции нам понрáвилось.

As much as we didn’t like our trip to Spain, our trip to France was much more enjoyable.

Насчёт [coll.] Preposition With the genitive case About, concerning Used when one makes inquiries about someone or something. (See also относи́ тельно, по пóводу.) Так как насчёт билéтов? Ты ужé заказáл?

So what about those tickets? Have you ordered them already?

Начинáя с Preposition With the genitive case Starting with, beginning with/on/in Shows the starting point that relates to time or various objects, topics, etc. When structures with this preposition clarify the utterance, they are separated by commas. (See also с.) Начинáя с понедéльника кни́ жный магази́ н закрывáется на ремóнт.

Starting on Monday, the bookstore will be closed for repairs.

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Её ромáн, начинáя с назвáния и закáнчивая послéдним абзáцем, свидéтельствует о глубóком понимáнии истóрии.

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Her novel, from the title to the very last paragraph, suggests a deep knowledge of history.

Не Particle Not Negates various parts that denote actions, objects, modifiers, etc., in a sentence. Встрéча состои́ тся не сегóдня.

The meeting is not taking place today.

Не врéмя об э́ том рассуждáть.

Now is not the time to discuss this.

Трéнер не дóлжен был собирáть комáнду вчерá.

The coach should not have had to draft the team yesterday.

Used together with the particle ни not with negative pronouns. (See also ни.) Никогдá рáньше у них не было таки́ х Never before did they have such problems. проблéм. Used with another не to confirm something. Евгéний не мóжет не игрáть на пиани́ но.

Evgeny cannot help but play the piano.

Used in sentences with double negation, e.g., where the particle не appears before an auxiliary verb and before an infinitive in a compound predicate. Can be affirmative and may emphasize a positive meaning. Невозмóжно не вéрить емý.

It’s impossible not to believe him.

Frames something as irrelevant, e.g., in such phrases as спит не спит, а хотя́ бы отдыхáет regardless of whether he’s sleeping, he’s at least relaxing. Хóчешь не хóчешь, а решéние принимáть нáдо.

Want it or not, we need to make a decision.

Морóз не морóз, но ты, лýчше, возьми́ тёплое с собóй.

Cold or not, you’d better take something warm with you.

Emphasizes the significance of an action with a repeating verb where the second verb has a prefix, e.g., слýшать нам зáписи не переслýшать no matter how long we listen to these recordings, we will not finish them all. Мáша рáдуется встрéче с дочерьми́ не нарáдуется.

Masha can’t stop feeling happy about seeing her daughters.

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Used in exclamatory and interrogative sentences to express surprise, astonishment, or admiration. Combines with pronouns, adverbs, and particles как не, кто не, кто тóлько не, чегó не, чегó тóлько не and others. Combines with ли, e.g., не ты ли? Каки́ е фи́ льмы он не смóтрит!

What movies doesn’t he watch!

Что онá тóлько не дéлала, чтóбы получи́ ть дóлжность райóнного судьи́ !

What hasn’t she done to become the district judge!

Ты не рад нáшему прихóду? – Как не рад?! О́ чень рад!

“You’re not glad to see us?” “What do you mean – ‘not glad?!’ I’m very glad!”

Не хоти́ те ли вы съéздить кудáнибудь?

Would you like to go somewhere?

Forms the fixed phrases éдва ли не barely didn’t, чуть ли не almost didn’t, вряд ли не unlikely that one won’t that indicate supposition or emphasized negation. Also forms the similar phrases далекó не by far not, отню́ дь не not quite, ничýть не completely not, нискóлько не not at all, вóвсе не completely not.

Proverbs with не Не мытьём, так кáтаньем.

By any means possible.

Вы́ ше головы́ не пры́ гнешь.

Know your limits.

Волкóв боя́ ться – в лес не ходи́ ть.

Nothing ventured, nothing gained.

Слóво не воробéй, вы́ летит не поймáешь.

A word spoken is past recalling.

Под лежáчий кáмень водá не течёт.

A rolling stone gathers no moss.

Не пóйман – не вор.

If no one caught you – you’re innocent.

Гусь свиньé не товáрищ.

A sow is no match for a goose.

Небóсь [coll.] Parenthetical word Probably Expresses assurance or supposition. Separated by commas. Utilized in informal language. (See the synonyms возмóжно, ви́ димо, должнó быть, мóжет быть, навéрное.) А вы, небóсь, меня́ забы́ ли?

But you probably forgot me?

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Note! Can function as a particle; in this case, commas are not needed. An author can decide if the comma should appear.

Невдалекé от Preposition With the genitive case Not far from Phrases with this preposition answer the nonspecific question где? where? and the specific questions невдалекé от когó? not far from whom?, невдалекé от чегó? not far from what? Can be used in elevated styles like неподалёку от not far from, while its synonym недалекó от not far from is neutral (See also недалекó от, неподалёку от and the antonyms вдали́ от, вдалекé от, далекó от.) Невдалекé от хáты протекáл холóдный ручéй.

A cold river flowed not far from the hut.

Note! Do not confuse the preposition невдалекé от, which governs nouns in the genitive case, with the adverb невдалекé far away, which is used independently. Невдалекé сидéли тури́ сты и пéли под гитáру.

There were tourists not far away playing guitar and singing songs.

Невзирáя на Preposition With the accusative case Despite Phrases with this preposition answer the questions невзирáя на что? despite what?, невзирáя на когó? despite whom? Constructions with this preposition are usually separated by commas. Невзирáя на sounds bookish when compared with its neutral synonym несмотря́ на despite. (See also незави́ симо от, несмотря́ на.) Невзирáя на пéрвую неудáчу, я подтянýлся на брýсьях и стал махáть ногáми. (В. Аксёнов, «Пóра, мой друг, порá»)

Despite the first failure, I pulled myself up on the parallel bars and started waving my legs around. (Aksyonov, It’s Time, My Friend, It’s Time)

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Saying Невзирáя на ли́ ца.

Regardless of anyone.

Невзирáя на то, что Conjunction Despite the fact that Connects subordinate clauses of concession and point to the circumstances in spite of which the action described in the principal clause is accomplished. These subordinate clauses answer the question невзирáя на что? despite what? Sounds more bookish than its neutral synonym несмотря́ на то, что regardless of the fact that. Commas usually appear before the whole conjunction and before что. (See the synonym несмотря́ на то, что.) Невзирáя на то, что емý необходи́ ма рабóта, он не смóжет приня́ ть Вáше предложéние.

Despite the fact that he needs a job, he will not be able to accept your offer.

Не дай Бог Parenthetical expression God forbid Expresses vigilance, concern, alertness. Separated by commas. Can sound sarcastic, implying the opposite of what is actually said. Informal. (See also чегó дóброго.) И обязáтельно нáдо уточни́ ть, что он ýчится на вторóм кýрсе, а то, не дай бог, подýмают, что на пя́ том! (А. Алéксин, «Мой брат игрáет на кларнéте»)

And it’s vital to stress that he’s a sophomore, else, God forbid, they’ll think that he’s in his fifth year. (Aleksin, My Brother Plays the Clarinet)

Note! Can function as part of a sentence. No commas are needed. Не дай бог вам нéрвничать. Э́ то тóлько покáжет вáше бесси́ лие. (Ю. Домбрóвский, «Факультéт ненýжных вещéй»)

God forbid that you worry. That will only show your helplessness. (Dombrovsky, The Department of Unnecessary Things)

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Недалекó от Preposition With the genitive case Not far from Phrases with this preposition answer the nonspecific question где? where? and the specific questions недалекó от когó? not far from whom?, недалекó от чегó? not far from what? Neutral, while its synonyms вдалекé от far from and неподалёку от not far from can be used in elevated styles. (See also невдалекé от, неподалёку от and the antonyms вдали́ от, вдалекé от, далекó от.) Недалекó от пансионáта находи́ лось здáние с игровы́ ми автомáтами.

Not far from the resort, there was an arcade.

Note! Do not confuse the preposition недалекó от, which governs nouns in the genitive case, with the adverb недалекó far away, which is used independently. Где нахóдится почтóвое отделéние? – Тут недалекó за углóм.

“Where is the post office?” “It’s here, close by, just around the corner.”

Незави́ симо от Preposition With the genitive case Regardless of Phrases with this preposition answer the specific questions незави́ симо от когó? regardless of whom?, незави́ симо от чегó? regardless of what? В театрáльный кружóк принимáют всех незави́ симо от спосóбностей.

Everyone is accepted into the theater club regardless of skill.

Не за что Interjection Not a problem Used as an informal response to someone who says “thank you.” In many everyday situations, people use the informal не за что, while пожáлуйста you’re welcome is used in more formal situations; на здорóвье you’re welcome is conversational and is used in informal situations. The particle не in this phrase is stressed. (See also на здорóвье, пожáлуйста.) Мóжно Вáшу рýчку? – Пожáлуйста. – Спаси́ бо. – Не за что.

“May I borrow your pen?” “Here you are.” “Thank you.” “Not a problem.”

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Не мóжет быть Interjection No way! Impossible! Used as a reaction to something that invokes surprise, strong astonishment, or doubt. Separated by commas. (See also неужéли.) Ты знáешь, ипподрóм ужé откры́ т, строи́ тельство закóнчено. – Не мóжет быть!

“You know, the racetrack is already open, the construction’s over.” “No way!”

Note! Can be a part of a sentence. No commas are needed. Э́ та эксперти́ за не мóжет быть при́ знана незави́ симой.

This expertise cannot be accepted as independent.

Не повéришь Parenthetical expression You won’t believe it Не повéришь (an informal address to one person) or не повéрите (a formal address to one person or a neutral address to more than one person) are used when a speaker is aware that the about-to-be-given information can invoke doubt. Separated by commas. А по нáшей ли́ нии дви́ нешь, не повéришь, скóлько зарабóтать мóжно, éсли вписáлся прáвильно. (В. Пелéвин, «S.N.U.F.F.»)

Take a walk in our shoes; you’ll never believe how much you can earn if you fit in. (Pelevin, S.N.U.F.F.)

Note! Can be a part of a sentence. No commas are needed. Я сдéлаю тебя́ настóлько счастли́ вым, что ты не повéришь в э́ то сам. (В. Пелéвин, «S.N.U.F.F.»)

I’ll make you so happy that you won’t even believe it yourself. (Pelevin, S.N.U.F.F.)

Неподалёку от Preposition With the genitive case Not far from Phrases with this preposition answer the nonspecific question где? where? and the specific questions неподалёку от когó? not far from whom?,

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неподалёку от чегó? not far from what? Can be used in elevated styles, like невдалекé от not far from, while its synonym недалекó от not far from is neutral. (See also невдалекé от, недалекó от and the antonyms вдали́ от, вдалекé от, далекó от.) А ещё в рáннем дéтстве мы ходи́ ли в располóженный неподалёку от нáшего дóма Алексáндровский сад. (И. Архи́ пова, «Мýзыка жи́ зни»)

And in our early childhood, we went to the Alexandrovsky garden, which was located not far from our house. (Arkhipova, The Music of Life)

Note! Do not confuse the preposition неподалёку от, which governs nouns in the genitive case, with the adverb неподалёку nearby, which is used independently. Сýдя по нéкоторым при́ знакам, лесни́ чество неподалёку.

Judging by certain signs, there is forestry going on nearby.

Не прáвда ли Particle Right? Used when it seems that a speaker is asking a listener for agreement or confirmation. Separated by commas or can be a freestanding sentence. Used in the same way as не так ли? does it not? while the synonym прáвда? really? is more neutral and informal. (See also не так ли, прáвда, прáвильно.) Спеши́ ть нéкуда, не прáвда ли?

There’s no need for speed, right?

Гри́ ша ужé вернýлся. Не прáвда ли?

Grisha has already come back. Right?

Не рóвен час Parenthetical expression Heaven forbid Expresses vigilance, concern, alertness. Separated by commas. Widely used in literature and can sound bookish if used in speech. (See also не дай бог, чегó дóброго.) Порá éхать, не рóвен час, грозá хлы́ нет, и мы не смóжем никудá дви́ гаться.

We need to go, or else, heaven forbid, it will start pouring, and we won’t be able to go anywhere.

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Несмотря́ на Preposition With the accusative case Despite Phrases with this preposition answer the questions несмотря́ на что? despite what?, несмотря́ на когó? despite whom? Constructions with this preposition are usually separated by commas. Neutral, while its synonym невзирáя на despite can sound bookish. (See also вопреки́ , наперекóр, невзирáя на.) Несмотря́ на непрекращáющиеся грóзы, Жéня éздит на óзеро кáждый день.

Despite the perpetual storms, Zhenya goes to the lake every day.

Несмотря́ на то, что Conjunction Despite the fact that Connects subordinate clauses of concession and points to the circumstances in spite of which the action described in the principal clause is accomplished. These subordinate clauses answer the question несмотря́ на что? despite what? Neutral, while its synonym невзирáя на то, что despite the fact that sounds more bookish. Commas can appear before the whole conjunction and before что or just before the whole construction. (See also невзирáя на то, что.) Рефóрма пенсиóнной систéмы ужé близкá к завершéнию, несмотря́ на то, что остáлись неразрешённые вопрóсы.

The retirement reform is almost finished, despite the fact that some unsolved questions remain.

Несомнéнно Parenthetical word. Particle Parenthetical word Indubitably, no doubt Expresses certainty, confidence. Used in various styles and genres, especially in literature and journalism. Separated by commas. (See the synonyms бесспóрно, без сомнéния, безуслóвно, конéчно, разумéется.) Несомнéнно, мы бы за мéньшие дéньги содержáли гóрод, чем егó сегóдня содéржат. (Е. Семёнова, «Олигáрх без гáлстука» // «Аргумéнты и фáкты», 2003)

No doubt that we would be able to support the city with less money than is used to maintain it right now. (Semyonova, Oligarch Without a Tie, 2003)

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Particle No doubt Used as a reply that expresses certainty and assurance. Can sound very brusque and forceful. (See the synonyms бесспóрно, без сомнéния, безуслóвно, конéчно, разумéется.) Вы смóжете прийти́ рáньше и помóчь? – Несомнéнно!

“Will you be able to come in earlier and help out?” “Sure, no doubt about it!”

Не стóлько . . ., скóлько Conjunction Not . . . so much as Indicates that what is shown in the second part of a sentence is more important than what is shown in the first part. A comma appears before скóлько. Ви́ димо, для негó э́ то и́ мя знáчило не стóлько, скóлько для меня́ . (Ю. Сенкéвич, «Путешéствие длинóю в жизнь»)

Apparently, this name didn’t mean to him what it meant to me. (Senkevich, A Journey as Long as Life)

В Вашингтóне мнóгие понимáют, что Сéверная Корéя хóчет не стóлько напугáть, скóлько заяви́ ть о себé.

In Washington, many understand that North Korea doesn’t want to scare everyone so much as let them know that it’s there.

Не считáя Preposition With the genitive case Not counting Phrases with this preposition answer the questions не считáя когó? not counting whom?, не считáя чегó? not counting what? Synonymous with крóме other than and поми́ мо besides, which are less common. Constructions with this preposition are separated by commas. (See also крóме, поми́ мо.) Итогó сóрок человéк, не считáя детéй, котóрые вертéлись вокрýг столá. (А. Рыбакóв, «Тяжёлый песóк»)

Overall, there are 40 people, not counting the kids, who are hovering around the table. (Rybakov, Heavy Sand)

Нет Particle No Expresses disagreement and is used in negative replies. Есть хóчешь? – Нет.

“Do you want to eat?” “No.”

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No Forms impersonal constructions to express the absence of something or someone. Нет никакóго желáния кудá-нибудь идти́ .

I have no desire to go anywhere.

No Substitutes a predicate, a phrase, or a sentence with a negation when they are in opposition to the previous utterance. Онá спрáшивала меня́ , не рассказáл She asked me whether I told you her story. ли я вам её истóрию, – я, разумéется, Needless to say, I said “no.” (Turgenev, сказáл, что нет. (И. Тургéнев, «А́ ся») Asya)

[coll.] Evokes a listener’s attention to the utterance. No translation. Нет, вы тóлько посмотри́ те на негó. Нáдо же быть таки́ м самоувéренным.

Just look at him. Look at how self-confident he is.

[coll.] Used in the end of an interrogative sentence in the hopes that a listener gives a positive reply. Идём в кинó, нет?

Let’s go to the movies, ok?

Saying and phrase with нет На нет и судá нет.

What can’t be cured must be endured.

Да нет.

Well, no.

Не так ли Particle Does it not? Used in the end of an interrogative sentence in the hopes that a listener gives a positive reply. Separated by commas. Stylistically and semantically used in the same way as не прáвда ли? right? while the synonym прáвда? really? is more neutral. (See also не прáвда ли, прáвда.)

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Увы́ , они́ теря́ ют часть своéй таи́ нст- It’s sad, but they lose part of their mystery, do they not? (Aksyonov, All Day Long венности, не так ли? (В. Аксёнов, Non-Stop) «Крýглые сýтки нон-стоп»)

Не то Conjunction Otherwise, or This adversative conjunction is used in compound sentences to indicate that the accomplishment of the action in the second clause depends on the action in the first clause. Synonymous with the informal а то otherwise, the less informal инáче otherwise, and the formal в проти́ вном слýчае otherwise. Used less frequently than а то. (See also а то, в проти́ вном слýчае, инáче.) Чéрез мéсяц онá должнá вернýться, не то её увóлят.

She has to return in a month, or she’ll be fired.

Не то . . ., не то Conjunction Either . . . or (else) Used when a speaker is expressing the uncertainty or the probability of an action. Used in compound sentences in which clauses indicate sequence or mutual exclusion. Also used to connect coordinate parts of a sentence. Не то . . . не то can be replaced by то ли . . . то ли either . . . or. The conjunction и́ ли . . . и́ ли either . . . or is also synonymous, but emphasizes less ambiguity. (See also то ли . . . то ли, и́ ли . . . и́ ли.) Не то Пáвел идёт на рабóту, не то кто-то дóлжен прийти́ к немý, но он бýдет зáнят в воскресéнье.

Either Pavel is going to work or else someone’s supposed to come see him, but he’ll be busy on Sunday.

Не тóлько Particle Not only Shows that the content of the utterance is not complete and that there is something else. (See also не тóлько . . ., но и.) Илья́ не тóлько игрáет на гитáре, он игрáет на други́ х инструмéнтах.

Not only does Ilya play the guitar, he also plays other instruments.

Не тóлько . . ., но и Conjunction Not only . . . but Connects parts of a sentence and shows that the content of one part is not complete and there is something else that is placed in another part. (See also не тóлько.)

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В сýмке, котóрую онá потеря́ ла, бы́ ли не тóлько дéньги, но и докумéнты.

The purse that she lost contained not only money, but documents too.

Не то чтóбы/чтоб [coll.] Particle It’s not that Expresses an indefinite negation of what is more precisely defined later. Commas are not needed between the parts of the particle. Не то чтóбы óчень устáл, а спать хóчется.

It’s not that I’m tired, but I want to sleep.

Онá, не то чтóбы рассерди́ лась, но былá не довóльна.

It’s not that she became angry, but she wasn’t pleased.

Неужéли Particle. Interjection Really? Forms interrogative sentences. Expresses astonishment, surprise, or amazement. Can be an interjection that is used as an exclamation. (See also не мóжет быть, рáзве.) Неужéли они́ отсю́ да никогдá не уéдут?

Will they really never leave here?

Травý стригýт кáждые три дня. – Неужéли?!

“They mow the lawn every three days.” “Really?!”

Ни Particle Not With nouns in the genitive case, indicates the complete absence of someone/ something. This construction has or implies a negative predicate (a verb with the particle не) or the negation нет in the present tense, which is used or implied. (See also не.) На нéбе не зажглóсь ни однóй звезды́ .

There was not a star in the sky.

На ýлице ни души́ .

There is not a single person on the street.

Used with nouns in the genitive case to express an order or prohibition. Стоя́ ть! Ни с мéста!

Stop! Don’t move!

Молчи́ те. Ни слóва.

Silence. Not a word.

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Phrases and expressions with ни Ни в какýю. [coll.] Not at all. Егó дóлго уговáривали, а он ни в какýю. Так и не захотéл поéхать.

They tried to convince him for a long time, but he was having none of it. Ultimately, he didn’t want to go.

Ни за что! Never! An informal expression that can sound categorical and rude. Ни за что не повéрю, что ты так мог сдéлать.

I’ll never believe that you could have done this.

Ты дóлжен извини́ ться. – Ни за что!

“You have to apologize.” “Never.”

Ни к чемý. There’s no need. Беспокóиться о нас не нýжно, ни к чемý.

You don’t have to worry about us, there’s no need.

Ни при чём. Doesn’t matter. Не взя́ ли Петрá на э́ ту дóлжность, и вóзраст совершéнно ни при чём.

They didn’t take Pyotr for the job, and his age didn’t matter at all.

Ни в кóем слýчае. Under no circumstances. Can sound formal and categorical. Ни в кóем слýчае нельзя́ допускáть монополизáции ры́ нка.

Under no circumstances can we allow the market to become monopolized.

Ни в кóей мéре. Never. Sounds bookish. Мы ни в кóей мéре не хоти́ м никогó оби́ деть.

We don’t intend to offend anyone at all.

Ни . . ., ни Conjunction Neither . . . nor Used in negative sentences that list coordinate subjects, objects, predicates, and modifiers, or joins independent clauses, as in a list, within a compound sentence. Он не хóчет ни читáть, ни смотрéть телеви́ зор.

He wants neither to read nor watch television.

Ни в кинó мы не пошли́ , ни в ресторáн не захотéли идти́ , а остáлись дóма.

We neither went to the movies, nor did we want to go to a restaurant – we stayed home.

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Note! No commas are needed if ни . . . ни is a part of a fixed phrase, saying, or proverb. Ни да ни нет.

Neither yes nor no.

Ни пýха ни перá.

Break a leg.

Ни ры́ ба ни мя́ со.

Neither this nor that.

Ни бе ни ме ни кукарéку.

(Somebody has) no idea about anything.

Ничегó не скáжешь [coll.] Parеnthetical expression Can’t say anything Expresses agreement with something and indicates the impossibility of objecting to something. Separated by commas. В брассери́ готóвят вкýсно, ничегó не скáжешь.

The brasserie makes good food, can’t say anything bad about it.

Note! Can be used as a part of a sentence. No commas are needed. Ты ничегó не скáжешь об э́ том, забýдешь и всё.

You won’t say anything about this, you’ll forget it and that’s it.

Но Conjunction But Indicates features, phenomena, objects, facts that do not correspond, but contradict one another. Свети́ ло сóлнце‚ но бы́ ло хóлодно.

The sun was shining, but it was cold.

But, however Indicates inconsistency when the second part of an utterance has information that limits the content in the first part and seems illogical with regard to it. Synonymous with однáко however‚ nevertheless. Но but, however might be used (less preferably) as a synonym of а but if a speaker would express a less negative attitude towards the utterance. (See also а, однáко, тем не мéнее.) Я люблю́ э́ того человéка‚ но иногдá совсéм не понимáю егó.

I love this man, but sometimes I don’t understand him at all.

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Андрéй с дéтства игрáет в волейбóл, но éздил на соревновáния тóлько оди́ н раз.

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Andrey has played volleyball since his childhood, but has been in a tournament only once.

But, however Spins the information presented in the first clause of a sentence in a more positive light. The “positive” information contained after но balances the “negative” information before но. Can be a synonym of the informal затó at the same time. (See also затó.) Он ужé закóнчил свою́ рабóту? – Нет, но он закóнчит её зáвтра.

“Did he finish his work?” “No, but he’ll finish it tomorrow.”

Рабóта трýдная‚ но интерéсная.

The job is difficult, but it is interesting.

In combination with всё-таки anyway, still, opens a sentence connecting the utterance with a thought asserted earlier in the discourse. Can be used the same way as the conjunctions и but and а but in conveying a negative overtone. (See also а, и.) Но всё-таки мы хорошó провели́ врéмя во Фрáнции.

Still, we had a good time in France.

Ну [coll.] Particle. Interjection Particle Well Emphasizes the sense of a phrase. Used to conclude something. Not separated either by commas or by intonation. Ну нет. Ну нет, так дéло не пойдёт.

Well, no. No, you can’t do it that way.

Ну да. Ну да, приéхал ещё вчерá.

Well, yeah. Well, yeah, he came yesterday.

Ну и что. Не поéдешь никудá. – Ну и что, найдý, что дéлать дóма.

So what? “You’re not going anywhere.” “So what, I’ll find something to do at home.”

Ну уж. По дорóге домóй ви́ дели лáму. – Ну уж и лáму?!

Yeah, right. (expresses distrust and skepticism) “We saw a llama on the way home.” “Really? A llama?”

Ну что? Ну что, убеди́ лся, что я прав?

So? So, do you understand that I’m right?

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Ну что ж. Ну что ж вы не пришли́ ?

Why . . . Why didn’t you come?

Ну и . . . Ну и морóз!

Used to express astonishment. It’s so cold!

Ну и ну. Ну и ну, нáдо же такóе.

Huh. Huh, it came to this.

Ну как? Ну как ты?

So how . . . So, how are you?

Ну как же. Ну как же он мог так сдéлать?!

Emphasizes one’s disapproval. How could he do that?

Ну что ты / вы . . . Ну что ты, я ведь не имéл в видý ничегó плохóго.

Come on. Come on, I didn’t mean anything bad.

Ну а [a personal pronoun] что? Ну а он что?

And what about . . . And what about him?

Ну знáешь / знáете Ну знáешь, э́ то ужé сли́ шком!

Expresses indignation. Well that’s just too much!

Interjection Well Expresses wonder, encouragement, or surprise. Used with an imperative. Separated by commas and by intonation. Ну, расскáзывай, как делá?

Well, go ahead, what’s up?

Ну, Пáвлик, смотри́ , какáя пти́ ца краси́ вая!

Pavlik, look how pretty the bird is!

Phrases like ну егó screw him, ну тебя́ screw you imply a negative or an indifferent attitude toward someone. They can be combined with к чёрту to hell with it or к лéшему to hell with it or imply these phrases.

О (об, обо) Preposition. Interjection Preposition О is used before nouns that start with a consonant or the vowels е, ё, ю, я. Oб is used before the vowels э, о, у, а, и. Обо is used in combination with мне, что, всём, всех.

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With the prepositional case About, of Used with objects that are the content of the utterance. Phrases with this preposition are used with verbs of speech, thoughts, and feelings, e.g., проси́ ть to ask‚ написáть to write‚ мечтáть to dream/to desire, забывáть to forget, расскáзывать to tell, вспоминáть to remember, сообщáть to report, дýмать to think, пóмнить to remember, говори́ ть to say. Phrases with this preposition answer the questions о ком? about whom? and о чём? about what? Semantically, о is close to про about in that it tends to be restricted to colloquial speech. (See also про.) О чём вы чáсто мечтáете? – О том, Чтóбы посели́ ться в мáленьком городкé на берегý океáна.

“What do you often dream about?” “About moving to a little town on the edge of the ocean.”

With the accusative case On, over Used to indicate the object with which something or someone physically interacts. Phrases with this preposition answer the question обо что? on what?/over what? Ребёнок споткнýлся о кáмень и упáл. The child tripped on a rock and fell. Матвéй удáрился плечóм о шкаф.

Matvey hit his shoulder on the wardrobe.

Interjection Oh Used as an address in rhetoric. Common in poetry and folklore. Often, an exclamation mark follows sentences that feature it. О Русь моя́ !

Oh, my Rus’!

Огó [coll.] Interjection Wow! Expresses wonder, astonishment, or amazement. (В зоопáрке.) Огó, какáя большáя!

(In a zoo.) Wow, it’s so big!

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Однáко Conjunction. Parenthetical word Conjunction However, nevertheless Connects parts of a sentence or clauses in compound sentences that imply some kind of limitation or inconsistency. Semantically close to но but, stylistically more formal. If opening a sentence, no commas are needed. (See also впрóчем, но, тем не мéнее.) У моегó дрýга мнóго рабóты, однáко у негó всегдá есть свобóдное врéмя.

My friend has a lot of work; however, he always has free time.

Однáко всем поня́ тно, что прогрáмму нýжно меня́ ть.

Nevertheless, everyone understands that the program must be changed.

Parenthetical word Nevertheless Emphasizes inconsistency or contradiction. Separated by commas if it is placed in the middle of a sentence; no commas are needed if it opens a sentence. Я дýмаю, однáко, нам ужé нýжно идти́ .

Nevertheless, I think we should be going.

Ой Interjection Ouch, whoa, oh Expresses pain, alarm, astonishment, pleasure, or other feelings. When articulating displeasure, criticism, or reproach, it can be repeated: ой-ой-ой. Intensifies the expressed emotions when used with the pronominal words как how and какóй what. Frequently used in lyrics, folklore, and poetry. Used in the same situations as ай oh. Separated by commas. (See also ай.) (О котёнке.) Ой, какóй хорóшенький. (About a kitten.) Aw, look how cute he is! Ой, что э́ то вы дéлаете?

Whoa, what are you doing there?

Ой, то не вéчер, то не вéчер, Мне малы́ м-малó спалóсь. . . (Из рýсской нарóдной пéсни)

Oh, it ain’t evening yet, it ain’t evening yet, I couldn’t close my eye even a wink. (From a Russian folk song)

Окáзывается Parenthetical word It turns out Shows that the information in the utterance is new. Separated by commas.

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Ники́ та, окáзывается, стáрше Дáни на 12 лет.

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Nikita, as it turns out, is 12 years older than Danya.

Note! Can function as a predicate. No commas are needed. Когдá он окáзывается на сцéне, он забывáет обо всём на свéте.

When he is on stage, he forgets about everything in the world.

О́ коло Preposition With the genitive case By, close to, near Used to express location. Phrases with this preposition respond to the question где? where? Где располóжена городскáя библиотéка? – О́ коло музéя искýсств.

“Where is the library?” “Close to the art museum.”

Around, about Used to express time. Phrases with this preposition respond to the question когдá? when? Мы собирáемся вернýться óколо оди́ ннадцати.

We’re going to return around 11.

Around, about Combines with nouns indicating an approximate length or amount of something. Phrases with this preposition respond to the question скóлько? how much?, how many? Скóлько врéмени шёл фильм? – О́ коло двух часóв.

“How long did the movie last?” “Аbout two hours.”

Корóбка конфéт стóит óколо 90 рублéй.

A box of chocolates costs about 90 rubles.

От (ото) Preposition With the genitive case Ото is used before some combinations of consonants, e.g., ото сна from dreaming, день ото дня day to day, and others.

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From Shows the point of origin of something and implies a distance, a period of time, or a source. От must be used whenever the point of origin is a person. The prepositions от from and до to, up to are opposites and denote a distance separating one thing from another. (See also до, из.) Он отплы́ л далекó от бéрега.

He swam far away from the shore.

Шкóльники прочитáли мнóго произведéний рýсских писáтелей 19-го вéка – от Пýшкина до Чéхова.

The students read a lot of works by Russian authors of the 19th century – from Pushkin to Chekhov.

Я получи́ ла письмó от дрýга.

I received a letter from my friend.

Phrases with this preposition are used with verbs that have the prefix от- and indicate a point of movement of something. Отъéхать от здáния.

To drive away from the building.

Отойти́ от окнá.

To go away from the window.

Отскочи́ ть от кострá.

To jump away from the fire.

Оттолкнýться от земли́ .

To push away from the ground.

Отойти́ от когó-то / от чегó-то.

To walk away from someone/something.

Отвернýться от нас.

To turn away from us.

Отплы́ ть от бéрега.

To swim away from the shore.

Пýговица оторвáлась от кóфты.

The button ripped off the sweatshirt.

Отстáть от когó-то.

To fall behind someone.

Отвести́ взгляд от когó-то / от чегóто.

To move one’s gaze from someone/ something.

Because of Indicates an object or phenomenon that is the cause – positive or negative – of something. Can be synonymous with из-за because of, which is used more frequently. (See also из-за.) От си́ льного вéтра упáло стáрое дéрево.

The old tree fell because of the strong wind.

Умерéть от инфáркта.

To die of a heart attack.

Глазá крáсные от слёз.

Eyes are red from tears.

Засты́ ть от стрáха.

To freeze in fear.

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Забы́ ть всё от волнéния.

To forget everything because of worry.

Покраснéть от смущéния.

To blush in confusion.

Растеря́ ться от неожи́ данности.

To forget oneself in surprise.

Мóкрый от дождя́ .

Wet from rain.

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From Identifies a thing to which something else belongs, the former often being a whole of some sort. От чегó э́ тот ключ? – От шкáфа.

“What is this key from?” “From the closet.”

Вéтка от дéрева.

A tree branch.

Пóяс от брюк.

A belt for trousers.

Прóвод от компью́ тера.

A computer cable.

Футля́ р от очкóв.

A glasses case.

Корóбка от чáйного серви́ за.

A box for a tea set.

Against, from Phrases with this preposition indicate objects or phenomena that are to be eliminated or prevented. Лекáрство от гри́ ппа.

A medicine for the flu.

Срéдство от комарóв.

A spray for mosquitoes.

Защищáться от врагóв.

To defend oneself against enemies.

Держáть секрéты от когó-то.

To keep secrets from someone.

Indicates objects that are sources or phenomena of something. Зáпах от цветóв.

The smell of flowers.

Дýет от окнá.

There is a draft coming through the window.

Дым от сигарéт.

Cigarette smoke.

Свет от фонаря́ .

Light from the street lamp.

Тень от дéрева.

Shadow from the tree.

Дéти от пéрвого брáка.

Children from the first marriage.

Выступáть от чьегó-то и́ мени.

To represent someone.

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From Indicates a connection with something, like someone’s activities. В её поэ́ зии что-то от Бéллы Ахмадýлиной.

There is something of Bella Akhmadulina in her poetry.

В харáктере сы́ на мнóгое от бáбушки.

The son’s character has much from his grandmother.

Indicates objects that are in opposition to other objects. Отличáть добрó от зла.

To discern good from evil.

Зави́ сеть от когó-то и́ ли чегó-то.

To depend on someone or something.

Быть незави́ симым от обстоя́ тельств. To be independent of the circumstances.

From [form.] Used to indicate dates in official documents. Прикáз от деся́ того мáя.

The orders from the 10th of May.

Газéта от 21 ию́ ля.

The newspaper from July 21st.

In phrases that show a time sequence. Час от часу не лéгче.

It doesn’t get easier from hour to hour.

Год от гóда.

Year to year.

Врéмя от врéмени.

From time to time.

Шесть лет от рóду.

Six years since birth.

Откровéнно говоря́ Parenthetical expression Frankly speaking Separated by commas. (See the synonyms по прáвде говоря́ , чéстно говоря́ .) Откровéнно говоря́ , встречáться ни с Frankly speaking, I don’t want to see кем не хóчется. anyone.

Откýда Conjunction Where, from which Connects explanatory clauses, which usually refer to a verb, a participle, a verbal adverb, or a short adjective in a principal clause. Explanatory clauses function as subjects or objects and fill a missing gap in a principal clause. These clauses answer the questions of cases. They convey the meaning of space.

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Таня́ не объясни́ ла, откýда приéхали её прия́ тели, и где они́ собирáются останáвливаться.

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Tanya didn’t explain where her friends came from or where they are planning to stay.

Where, from which Adverbial clauses of place indicate the place of the action expressed in the principal part; subordinate clauses of place answer the question откýда? where from? They refer to a combination of a predicate and the demonstrative words там there, тудá there, and оттýда from there in the principal clause. The adverbs всю́ ду everywhere, вездé everywhere, спрáва on the right, слéва on the left, and others may be used in principal clauses. Весёлая тoлпá шла оттýда, откýда раздавáлась мýзыка.

A cheerful crowd was coming from where the music was emanating.

Note! Excluding the demonstrative words там there, тудá there, оттýда from there from the principal clause is possible in colloquial speech, but, in many cases, it is not the preferred style. Он убежáл оттýда, откýда никтó не He ran away from the place that nobody возвращáлся. (Ф. Искандéр, «Сандрó came back from. (Iskander, Sandro from из Чегéма») Chegem)

Where, from which Connects attributive subordinate clauses, which usually refer to the part of the principal clause that is expressed by a noun or nominal phrase when a noun in the principal clause indicates a place or a space. These clauses answer the question какóй? what kind? Откýда can be replaced by котóрый which. Мéсто, откýда / из котóрого мы сбежáли, скóро скры́ лось из ви́ да.

The place from which we ran away was soon hidden from view.

Откýда (бы) ни Conjunction Regardless from where Connects subordinate clauses that point to the places in spite of which the action described in the principal clause is accomplished. Conveys intensity to the action described. The particle ни not is usually placed before either a predicate or an adverbial modifier (only when the latter is an adverb). Never precedes a noun. Can also be combined with бы would to emphasize the meaning. The adverbs всю́ ду everywhere, вездé everywhere, повсю́ ду all around, со всех

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сторóн from all sides, and others can be used in principal clauses. (See also кудá (бы) ни, где (бы) ни.) Откýда Петрóвич ни приéдет, отовсю́ ду привóзит всем подáрки.

Regardless from where Petrovich comes, he always brings presents for everyone.

Однáко откýда бы ни черпáл примéры актёр, éсли у негó есть и́ скренность и темперáмент, он сумéет вы́ жать слезý из пýблики. (Э. Лимóнов, «Молодóй негодя́ й»)

However, regardless from where the actor takes his examples, if he has the necessary candor and temperament, he’ll be able to squeeze a tear from the public. (Limonov, The Young Rascal)

Относи́ тельно Preposition With the genitive case Regarding, concerning Phrases with this preposition answer the questions относи́ тельно когó? regarding whom?, относи́ тельно чегó? regarding what? Frequently used in journalism and scholarly literature, although it is less formal than its synonym в отношéнии regarding. (See the synonyms в отношéнии, по пóводу.) В прави́ тельстве в цéлом есть консéнсус относи́ тельно строи́ тельства.

Overall, there is consensus in the government regarding the construction.

Note! Can be an adverb and function as a part of a sentence not governing nouns. Всё в э́ том ми́ ре относи́ тельно.

Everything is relative in this world.

Оттогó и Conjunction That’s why Connects adverbial clauses that imply a consequence or a result. If a subordinate clause is the first part of a sentence, что joins the principal clause. Semantically close to вслéдствие чегó (и) as a consequence of which, поэ́ тому that’s why; stylistically informal and close to отчегó и and so, почемý и which is why and used in literature. (See the synonyms в результáте чегó, вслéдствие чегó (и), поэ́ тому, отчегó и, почемý и.) Вот что: я хотéл Наполеóном сдéлаться, оттогó и уби́ л . . . (Ф. Достоéвский, «Преступлéние и наказáние»)

Here’s what I’ll say: I wanted to become Napoleon. That’s why I killed her . . . (Dostoevsky, Crime and Punishment)

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Оттогó онá и не спит по ночáм, что дýмает тóлько о нём.

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That’s why she doesn’t sleep at night; she’s thinking only about him.

Оттогó(,) что Conjunction Because Connects subordinate clauses that indicate the cause of the action reflected in the principal part of a sentence. Subordinate clauses with оттогó что follow the principal clause. Can be split so that оттогó opens the principal clause; in this case, the cause is emphasized. When it is not split, a comma can be placed before either оттогó or before что. The latter focuses on the cause. The comma may also be placed before что, emphasizing the demonstrative word. Оттогó что is a little bit bookish, while its synonym потомý что because is more neutral and is used more frequently. (See also поскóльку, потомý что, так как.) У них никогдá нет врéмени, оттогó что они́ óчень неорганизóванные лю́ ди.

They never have time due to the fact that they’re very disorganized people.

Оттогó онá так грусти́ т, что И́ горь уéхал надóлго.

She’s so unhappy because Igor has gone away for a long time.

Отчегó (и) Conjunction Which is why Connects subordinate clauses that indicate a consequence or a result. Used less frequently than its synonyms поэ́ тому therefore, оттогó и and that’s why, потомý и and that’s why. (See also поэ́ тому, оттогó и, потомý и, почемý и.) Кáтя проболéла всю зи́ му, отчегó и не поéхала в Москвý, как собирáлась.

Katya was sick all winter, which is why she didn’t go to Moscow as she had planned.

Ox [coll.] Interjection Oh Expresses fear, sudden pain, sympathy, blame, and other feelings. Separated by commas or followed by an exclamation mark. If ох is used to emphasize the utterance, the comma is not needed. Ох! – óхнул Ёжик и ки́ нулся к окнý. (С. Козлóв, «Новогóдняя скáзка»)

“Oh!” cried the Hedgehog and made for the window. (Kozlov, A New Year’s Tale)

Ох уж э́ ти дéти.

Oh these kids.

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Очеви́ дно Parenthetical word Obviously Semantically and syntactically close to ви́ димо it seems, вероя́ тно likely, возмóжно possibly, нáдо полагáть most likely, and others. Separated by commas. Фёдор, очеви́ дно, забы́ л о том, что собирáлся прийти́ .

Fyodor obviously forgot about the fact that he was going to come.

Note! Can function as a part of a sentence. No commas are needed. Бы́ ло очеви́ дно, что Вáля не приéдет. It was obvious that Valya wouldn’t come.

Пéред Preposition With the instrumental case In front of, ahead of Indicates the place where objects are situated or in front of which something is happening, sometimes metaphorically. Used in response to the question где? where? or the more specific question пéред чем? in front of what? Паркóвку пострóили пря́ мо пéред дóмом.

They built a parking lot right in front of the house.

Вéртится пéред зéркалом весь день.

He twirls in front of the mirror all day long.

Онá всегдá смущáется, когдá нáдо выступáть пéред большóй аудитóрией.

She always grows shy when she has to perform in front of a large audience.

Пéред нáми вся жизнь.

Our whole life is ahead of us.

Before, shortly before Indicates the moment before an event. Used in phrases that respond to the question когдá? when? У них былá серьёзная тренирóвка пéред мáтчем.

They had an intense training session before the match.

Indicates an object or a phenomenon regarding which some actions occur. The following verbs are usually used in these situations: встать to stand up, оказáться to appear, отступáть to retreat, пасовáть to pass, стать to become. Translations may vary.

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Сергéй Олéгович оказáлся пéред необходи́ мостью бы́ стро принимáть решéния.

Sergey Olegovich found himself in the position of having quickly to make a decision.

Но кудá чáще, отступáя пéред трýдностями, сегóдняшняя фантáстика рóбко пя́ тится назáд – к скáзкам. (А. Гéнис, «Три «Соля́ риса» // «Звездá», 2003)

But far more often, retreating from the difficulties, contemporary science fiction shies away in the direction of fairy tales. (Genis, Three “Solarises,” 2003)

Indicates someone or something that is juxtaposed or contrasted with someone or something and thus appears worse. Красотá древнеэлли́ нского кóсмоса блéкнет пéред сия́ нием цéркви. (А. Гурéвич, «Категóрии средневекóвой культýры»)

The beauty of the cosmos of Ancient Greece pales before the glory of the Church. (Gurevich, Categories of the Culture of the Middle Ages)

Обы́ чные проблéмы кáжутся Mundane problems seem meaningless before несущéственными пéред опáсностью the peril of death. смéрти.

Phrases with пéред Преклоня́ ться пéред кем-то / чем-то.

To revere someone/something.

Благоговéть пéред кем-то / чем-то.

To be in awe of someone/something.

Быть виновáтым пéред кем-то / чем-то.

To feel guilty before someone/something.

Испы́ тывать нелóвкость пéред кемто / чем-то.

To be awkward with someone/ something.

Пéред тем(,) как Conjunction Before Used to connect adverbial clauses of time to the principal clause, if the action described in the principal clause occurs before the action described in the subordinate clause. Can be combined with verbal infinitives. When opening a sentence, it is not split by a comma; the comma is instead placed between the principal and subordinate clauses. (See also прéжде чем, до тогó как.) Пéред тем как предприня́ ть каки́ елибо шаги́ , он дóлжен был хорошó всё продýмать.

Before taking any kind of actions, he had to thoroughly think things through.

Нýжно бы́ ло провéрить, в какóм состоя́ нии нахóдится маши́ на пéред тем, как отправля́ ться в путешéствие.

It was necessary to check the condition of the car before going on their trip.

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По Preposition With the dative case Along, on Indicates a surface on or along which an action occurs. Translations may vary. Мы шли по пешехóдному мостý и смотрéли на плывýщие парохóды.

We walked along the pedestrian bridge, looking at the passing steamboats.

Тури́ сты весь день хóдят по гóроду.

Tourists walk around the city all day long.

Плыть по течéнию.

To swim along the current.

Идти́ по вóлчьим следáм.

To follow wolf tracks. [lit. and fig.]

Плáтье с разрéзами по бокáм.

A dress with split sides.

Вы́ шивка по шёлку.

Silk embroidery.

To Indicates places that are visited. Some nouns are used in the plural. Е́ здить по магази́ нам.

To shop (at multiple stores).

Ходи́ ть по теáтрам.

To go to (several) theaters.

Путешéствовать по А́ фрике.

To travel across Africa.

Бéгать по бáрам.

To bar hop.

With plural nouns, shows the same kind of objects throughout which an action is spread. Разли́ ть по рю́ мкам.

To pour shots.

Расстáвить кни́ ги по пóлкам.

To shelve books.

Смотрéть по сторонáм.

To look around.

Разойти́ сь по местáм.

To have everyone take their place.

Used with objects towards which an action is directed. Похлóпать когó-то по плечý.

To clap someone on their shoulder.

Стýкнуть по столý.

To make demands. [lit. and fig.]

Дождь стучи́ т по кры́ ше.

The rain is battering the roof.

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Sayings Удáрить по рукáм.

To reach an agreement.

(Не) поглáдить по голóвке.

(Not) to pat someone on the back.

At, on, in, by Shows an area, a subject, a field of learning, or a kind of activity. Учени́ ца забы́ ла дóма учéбник по рýсскому языкý.

The student forgot her Russian textbook and left it at home.

Э́ тот человéк – чемпиóн по шáхматам.

This person is a chess champion.

Специали́ ст по налóгам.

A tax specialist.

On, based on Indicates works of literature, music, or science that are the basis for other works. Фильм по пóвести.

A film based on a novella.

According to, by (means of) Shows that an action occurs in accordance with something. Рабóтать по плáну.

To work according to plan.

Поступáть по закóну.

To act within the law.

Отвечáть по устáву.

To respond according to the formula.

Одевáться по мóде.

To dress according to fashion.

По всем прáвилам.

In compliance with the rules.

Рабóта не по си́ лам.

The work is beyond one’s skill level.

Суди́ ть по внéшности.

To judge based on appearance.

Рабóтать по грáфику.

To work within the allotted time.

По расписáнию.

According to the schedule.

По Михаи́ лу Бахтинý.

Based on the work of Mikhail Bakhtin.

Знать по óпыту.

To know from experience.

Узнáть когó-то по гóлосу.

To recognize someone by their voice.

Вспóмнить по зáпаху.

To remember something by its smell.

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Indicates an action that occurs as a result of something or in accordance with something. Ошиби́ ться по рассéянности / по незнáнию.

To make a mistake because of absentmindedness/insufficient knowledge.

Опоздáть по чьéй-то винé.

To be late because of someone else.

Брак по любви́ / по расчёту.

A marriage of love/convenience.

Сдéлать по наи́ вности.

To act in one’s naivete.

Игрáть не по прáвилам.

To play not according to the rules.

По совéту врачá.

According to the doctor’s orders.

По инстрýкции.

According to the instructions.

Приготóвить что-то по рецéпту.

To prepare something according to the recipe.

Shows objects by means of which something happens. Концéрт по рáдио.

A concert on the radio.

Разговáривать по телефóну.

To talk on the phone.

Послáть посы́ лку по пóчте.

To send a package by mail.

Ориенти́ роваться по звёздам.

To orient oneself by the stars.

Гадáть по кáртам.

To read cards.

With plural nouns that denote time, indicates the regularity or duration of an action. По вечерáм.

In the evenings.

По понедéльникам.

On Mondays.

Рассчитáть по минýтам.

To plan it down to the minute.

Гости́ ть по месяцáм.

To stay at someone’s for months.

Indicates the amount of something when distributing something. (See also по with the accusative.) Дать всем по я́ блоку.

To give everyone an apple.

Принимáть по таблéтке три рáза в день.

To take a pill three times a day.

Phrases with по and such verbs as скучáть to miss someone, горевáть to grieve, тосковáть to long. Тосковáть по дóму.

To long for one’s home.

Скучáть по родны́ м.

To miss one’s loved ones.

Горевáть [liter.] по люби́ мой.

To grieve for one’s beloved.

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Грусти́ ть по прóшлому.

To yearn for the past.

Плáкать по ушéдшим.

To weep for the dead.

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Saying Сня́ вши гóлову, по волосáм не плáчут.

If you sell the cow, you sell her milk too.

Used to name someone. Назывáть когó-то по фами́ лии, и́ мени-óтчеству.

To call someone by their last name, first name, and patronymic.

По кли́ чке.

By their nickname. (usually a pet’s name)

По прóзвищу.

By their nickname.

With the accusative case Used with nouns that denote the edge, margin, or border of something. Used as a point of reference. Воды́ по колéно.

Water up to the knee.

По пóяс.

To the waist.

По другýю стóрону реки́ .

On the other side of the river.

По лéвую рýку от тебя́ .

To your left.

Saying Рýки по лóкоть в крови́ .

Up to one’s elbows in blood.

Points out a period, term, or duration with the preposition с from, used or implied. (See also с.) С пя́ того по двадцáтое мáя.

From the 5th to the 20th of May.

С сентября́ по декáбрь.

From September to December.

По сей день.

To this day.

Indicates the amount expressed by cardinal and collective numerals of something when distributing. По две чáшки чáя.

Two cups of tea each.

По 100 рублéй за штýку.

A hundred rubles per each.

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По-вáшему Parenthetical word In your opinion Close to по вáшему мнéнию, which is more formal. Separated by commas. The parenthetical words по-мóему in my opinion and по-твóему in your opinion are used in the same way. Что же, по-вáшему, опрáвдывает сложи́ вшуюся ситуáцию?

What, then, in your opinion, justifies the current situation?

Note! Do not confuse the parenthetical word with the adverb, which is not separated by commas. Пусть бýдет по-вáшему.

Let’s do it your way.

Повéрь(те) Parenthetical word Believe me Used to convince someone. Separated by commas. Ли́ я, повéрь, поня́ тия не имéла о том, что произошлó.

Believe me, Leah didn’t know anything about what just happened.

Note! Can function as a part of a sentence. Commas are not needed. Повéрьте в и́ скренность мои́ х слов.

Believe the sincerity of my words.

Повéрх Preposition With the genitive case Over Points out the object over which something is located or something happens. Он надéл пиджáк повéрх сви́ тера.

He put a jacket on over the sweater.

По-ви́ димому Parenthetical word It seems Expresses uncertainty. Stylistically close to its synonyms вероя́ тно likely, по всей вероя́ тности in all probability, по всей ви́ димости it seems, and ви́ димо

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it seems, which are primarily used in literature and journalism. Separated by commas. (See also вероя́ тно, по всей вероя́ тности, по всей ви́ димости, ви́ димо.) По-ви́ димому, ещё оди́ н вáжный при́ знак социáльности – нали́ чие осóбых поведéнческих реáкций, напрáвленных тóлько на общéние с себé подóбными. (К. Ефрéмов, «Размышлéния у кни́ жной пóлки: Бéгство от одинóчества» // «Знáние – си́ ла», 2003)

It seems that another important factor of sociability is the presence of specific behavioral reactions, which are directed solely at discourse with similar individuals. (Efremov, Thoughts Besides a Bookshelf: On the Run from Solitude, 2003)

По всей вероя́ тности/по (всей) ви́ димости Parenthetical

expressions

In all probability, it seems Express assurance. Stylistically close to the synonyms вероя́ тно likely, по-ви́ димому it seems, ви́ димо it seems, and очеви́ дно obviously, which are primarily used in literature and journalism. Separated by commas. (See also вероя́ тно, ви́ димо, очеви́ дно, навéрное.) Со стороны́ , по-ви́ димости, несчастли́ вый, Глеб был тáйно счáстлив в э́ том несчáстьи. (А. Солжени́ цын, «В крýге пéрвом»)

Apparently sad to an onlooker’s eyes, Gleb secretly took pleasure in his sorrow. (Solzhenitsyn, In the First Circle)

Под (подо) Preposition Подо is used before words that start with a certain combination of consonants, e.g., подо мной under me, подо льдом under the ice.

With the accusative case Under Designates the direction in which an object moves when used with verbs that imply movement. Phrases with this preposition answer the question кудá? where to? or the more specific question под что? under what? Стань под дéрево, там мнóго тéни. Дровá положи́ ли под кры́ шу.

Go stand under the tree; there’s lots of shade there. They put the logs under the roof.

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Under Used with the verbs попáсть to get to, встать to stand, подстáвить to put in front of, посади́ ть to sit (someone) down, приня́ ть to accept, and взять to take in certain contexts. Попáсть под снегопáд.

To get caught in a snowstorm.

Попáсть под чьё-то влия́ ние.

To fall under someone’s influence.

Встать под душ.

To get in the shower.

Посади́ ть под арéст.

To place someone under arrest.

Приня́ ть когó-то под своё крылó.

To take someone under your wing.

Взять когó-то и́ ли что-то под наблюдéние.

To keep someone under observation.

Взять когó-то под защи́ ту.

To take someone under one’s protection.

Постáвить под контрóль госудáрства.

To put something under the government’s control.

To Used when an action occurs while accompanied by something. Под шум дождя́ .

To the sound of rain.

Под стук колёс.

To the banging of wheels.

Под гитáру.

To a guitar accompaniment.

Под аккомпанемéнт.

To an accompaniment.

Под мýзыку.

To music.

For Indicates an object that is used as something else. Отвести́ зéмлю под кукурýзу.

To allocate land for planting corn.

Вы́ дeлить помещéние под библиотéку.

To allocate space for a library.

Отдáть под строи́ тельство больни́ цы.

To allocate space for the construction of a hospital.

Before Indicates dates or holidays before which something happens. Под Нóвый год.

Just before the New Year.

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Под конéц жи́ зни.

Just before the end of one’s life.

Под Рождествó.

Just before Christmas.

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About Indicates an approximate measure. Лет под три́ дцать.

About 30 years old.

Рост под метр.

About a meter tall.

Человéк под пятьдеся́ т.

About 50 people.

The preposition is used with such expressions: Шкаф под старинý.

An old-style wardrobe.

Поддéлываться под когó-то.

To imitate someone.

Гáлстук под цвет рубáшки.

A tie that matches the color of the shirt.

Сыр под винó.

Cheese to complement the wine.

With the instrumental case Under Indicates the place where objects are situated with verbs (used or implied) that denote state or location. Phrases with this preposition answer the question где? where? or the more specific question под чем? under what? Где мой мяч? – Под столóм.

“Where is my ball?” “Under the table.”

Письмó оказáлось под кни́ гами.

The letter turned out to be under the books.

Гуля́ ть под снéгом.

To walk under the snow.

Быть под дýшем.

To be in a shower.

Находи́ ться под огнём.

To be under fire.

Под деревя́ нной кры́ шей.

Under a wooden roof.

Под томáтным сóусом.

Under a tomato sauce.

Корáбль под флáгом.

A ship under a flag

Under Used with verbs in certain contexts that imply circumstances or conditions. Быть под чьим-то влия́ нием.

To be under someone’s influence.

Оказáться под наблюдéнием.

To become observed by someone.

Остáвить ребёнка под присмóтром.

To leave the child in someone’s care.

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Под чьим-то предводи́ тельством.

Under someone’s lead.

Под чьим-то руковóдством.

Under someone’s supervision.

Под чьим-то взгля́ дом.

Beneath someone’s gaze.

Под воздéйствием сóлнца.

Under the effect of the sun.

Под давлéнием большинствá.

Under peer pressure.

Under Phrases with this preposition can function as adverbial modifiers. Выступáть под псевдони́ мом.

To perform under a pseudonym.

Расскáз под и́ менем Петрóва.

A short story under Petrov’s name.

Кни́ га под определённым назвáнием. A book with a specific title.

Подóбно Preposition With the dative case Like Indicates the object or phenomenon that is of the same kind when compared with other objects or phenomena. Phrases with this preposition can be considered parenthetical constructions and can be separated by commas or parentheses. Подóбно is frequently used in literature and is not as neutral as its synonym как as. (See also как.) Моя́ пáмять, подóбно шагрéневой кóже, всё сжимáется и сжимáется. (С. Спивакóва, «Не всё»)

My memory, like the magic piece of shagreen, keeps shrinking and shrinking. (Spivakova, Not Everything)

Подóбно томý(,) как Conjunction Similar to how Connects subordinate clauses that explain actions discussed in the principal clause by distinguishing their likeness. When the conjunction opens a sentence, it is not split by a comma; the comma is instead placed between the principal and subordinate clauses. Frequently used in literature and is not as neutral as its synonym так как. (See also как.) Подóбно томý как Госпóдь сотвори́ л мужчи́ ну и жéнщину, он создáл герóя, а с ним поэ́ та и́ ли писáтеля. (В. Отрошéнко, «Тáйная истóрия творéний» // «Октя́ брь», 2001)

Similar to how God created man and woman, he created the hero, and the poet or the writer along with him. (Otroshenko, The Secret Story of Creation, 2001)

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Подýмаешь Interjection Big whoop Expresses irony, sarcasm, or scorn. Separated by commas or dashes. Подýмаешь, из столи́ цы приéхал.

Big whoop – he came from the capital.

Подýмаешь – начáльник нашёлся!

They found the boss, big whoop!

Note! Can be used as a predicate. No commas are needed. Подýмаешь об э́ том и не захóчешь дéло с ни́ ми имéть.

If you think about it, you won’t want to deal with them at all.

Пожáлуй Parenthetical word. Particle Parenthetical word Probably Semantically close to вероя́ тно likely, возмóжно possibly. Can sound a little bookish. Separated by commas. (See also вероя́ тно, возмóжно.) Мы, пожáлуй, всё-таки не поéдем никудá.

We probably won’t be going anywhere after all.

Particle Probably Used as a reply to express unsure agreement. Бýдешь отдыхáть зáвтра? – Пожáлуй.

“Are you going to relax tomorrow?” “Probably.”

Пожáлуйста Particle You are welcome, please. Used as a polite address or a request to do something. Used as a formal response to someone who says “thank you.” In many everyday situations, people use the informal не за что not a problem. Separated by commas. (See also на здорóвье, не за что.) Два билéта, пожáлуйста. Спаси́ бо. – Пожáлуйста.

“Two tickets, please. Thank you.” “You’re welcome.”

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Note! Usually, in less formal situations, the responses не за что not a problem or на здорóвье you’re welcome are used. Дáйте, пожáлуйста, стакáн воды́ . Спаси́ бо. – Не за что.

“Could you please give me a glass of water? Thanks.” “Not a problem.”

Expressions and phrases with пожáлуйста Пожáлуйста-пожáлуйста. Yes-yes. Uttered very quickly. Я возьмý ненадóлго э́ ту кни́ гу. – Пожáлуйста-пожáлуйста.

“I’ll take the book for a bit.” “Go ahead, go ahead.”

(Да,) пожáлуйста. Certainly. Used as a positive reply to a request. Мóжно войти́ ? – Да, пожáлуйста.

“May I come in?” “Yes, please.”

Да пожáлуйста. Go for it/go ahead. When said, the stress is on пожáлуйста. This utterance expresses indifference or annoyance. Я уезжáю на недéлю в Москвý. – Да пожáлуйста.

“I’m leaving for Moscow for a week.” “Go for it.”

Ну, пожáлуйста. Do it. Used when someone is impatiently urging someone to do something. Ну, пожáлуйста.

Please, do it.

Ну пожáлуйста. Come on. Begging, pleading about something. Ну пожáлуйста, приéдьте к нам – мы Come on, come visit us – we haven’t seen же óчень давнó не ви́ делись. each other in so long. Ну и пожáлуйста. [coll.] Go ahead/have at it. Used as a remark/reply with a negative attitude towards what is happening. Мы ухóдим – уже пóздно. – Ну и пожáлуйста.

“We’re leaving. It’s late.” “Go right ahead.”

И вот / и вдруг, пожáлуйста. [coll.] And suddenly, here [something/ someone] is. Used when something unpredictable happens that displeases the speaker. Не звони́ л, не приходи́ л сто лет и вот, пожáлуйста, яви́ лся.

You haven’t called, haven’t visited in 100 years and now, suddenly, here you are.

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Позади́ Preposition With the genitive case Behind Phrases with this preposition answer the nonspecific question где? where? and the more specific questions позади́ когó? behind whom?, позади́ чегó? behind what? (See the antonym впереди́ .) Позади́ всех мéдленно шёл мáленький Пéтька.

Little Pet’ka walked slowly behind everyone else.

Note! Do not confuse the preposition позади́ , which is combined with nouns and governs them in the genitive case, with the adverb позади́ , which is used independently. Гóрод остáлся позади́ .

The city was left behind.

Покá Conjunction While Used when the actions expressed in the principal and subordinate clauses occur simultaneously (with imperfective verbs in both parts), or when the action expressed in the principal clause partially coincides with the action expressed in the subordinate clause (with perfective and imperfective verbs accordingly). (See also в то врéмя как.) Бáбушка сидéла и вязáла, покá я готóвила обéд.

Grandma sat and knitted while I made dinner.

Покá пáпа убирáл в садý ли́ стья, приéхали гóсти.

While dad was raking leaves in the garden, the guests arrived.

Покá не Conjunction Until Used like до тех пор покá не until to connect adverbial clauses of time to the principal clause, when the action expressed in the subordinate clause indicates a time boundary. Clauses with this conjunction answer the question до каки́ х пор? until what time? Typically, a verb in the subordinate clause is perfective. Покá не is less formal than до тех пор покá не until, which emphasizes the content in the subordinate part. (See also до тех пор, покá; до тех пор, покá не.)

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Мы не могли́ вы́ йти из дóма, покá не We couldn’t go out of the house until the прекрати́ лся ли́ вень. downpour stopped.

Note! The particle не in this conjunction does not mean negation.

Полóжим Parenthеtical word Let’s say Semantically the same as допýстим let’s say. Stylistically bookish. Separated by commas. (See also допýстим.) В тéхнике, полóжим, они́ мáло что понимáют.

Let’s say that they understand very little about tech equipment.

Note! Can function as a predicate. No commas are needed. Сначáла полóжим в ми́ ску я́ йца, мáсло и сметáну.

First, we’ll put eggs, butter, and sour cream into the bowl.

По мéре Preposition With the genitive case As Used with nouns that indicate progress in action. Constructions with this preposition can be separated by commas. Used in formal language. По мéре приближéния вы́ боров мэ́ ра об оппози́ ции вспоминáют всё рéже.

As the mayoral election draws closer, the opposition is considered more rarely.

По мéре тогó(,) как Conjunction As Used when the circumstances or conditions of an object described in the subordinate clause gradually change in the principal clause. Imperfective verbs express this change. Usually, no comma is used in the conjunction when it opens a sentence. По мéре тогó как мы поднимáлись в гóру, расти́ тельности станови́ лось всё мéньше.

As we climbed higher up the mountain, there was less and less vegetation.

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Он станови́ лся задýмчивее по мéре тогó, как врéмя приближáлось к нóчи.

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He became more pensive as the night drew closer.

Поми́ луй(те) [coll.] Parenthetical word Forgive me Articulates disagreement, objection. Separated by commas. Can sound a bit archaic. Поми́ луйте, рáзве мóжно бы́ ло такóе Forgive me, but how could you have said говори́ ть?! such a thing?!

Поми́ мо Preposition With the genitive case Aside from A synonym of the more common не считáя not counting and крóме оther than. Frequently used in formal language. Phrases with this preposition answer the questions поми́ мо когó? aside from whom?, поми́ мо чегó? aside from what? Constructions with поми́ мо can be separated by commas. (See also крóме, не считáя, сверх.) Цéнность э́ той конферéнции в том, что поми́ мо учёных в ней обы́ чно принимáют учáстие общéственные дéятели.

The value of this conference is that aside from scholars, public figures also take part in it.

Банди́ ты, поми́ мо орýжия, закупи́ ли óколо деся́ тка автомоби́ лей, портати́ вные радиостáнции, моби́ льный телефóн и видеокáмеру.

Aside from weapons, the bandits also bought about 10 cars, portable radios, a cell phone, and a video camera.

Against Can be a synonym for вопреки́ against, which is more commonly used. No commas are needed. (See also вопреки́ .) Встрéча былá организóвана поми́ мо моегó желáния.

The meeting was organized against my wishes.

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По направлéнию к Preposition With the dative case In the direction of Phrases with this preposition answer the question по направлéнию к чемý? in the direction of what? Synonym with к to, which is used more often. (See also к.) Иди́ те по направлéнию к кинотеáтру. Go in the direction of the movie theater. Мы идём навстрéчу. We’re headed your way.

Понимáешь (ли)/понимáете (ли) [coll.] Parenthetical word You see Used to draw a listener’s attention and establish a sense of trust or confidentiality in the conversation. Separated by commas. У нас, понимáете ли, весь мéсяц гости́ ли рóдственники, и врéмени ни на что не было.

You see, our relatives were staying with us for the whole month, and we didn’t have time for anything.

Note! Понимáешь / понимáете can function as a predicate. No commas are needed. Наступáет врéмя, когдá ты понимáешь, что происхóдит вокрýг.

The time comes when you understand what goes on around you.

Поня́ тно Parenthetical word. Particle Parenthetical word Clearly Expresses assurance. Semantically close to конéчно of course and разумéется naturally, which are used more often. Поня́ тно is separated by commas. (See also конéчно, разумéется.) Фильм, поня́ тно, достáточно глýпый. The film, clearly, is pretty foolish.

Particle Understood Can be used as a separate sentence as a reply. Мы сегóдня никудá не идём. – Поня́ тно.

“We’re not going anywhere today.” “Got it.”

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Note! Can function as a predicate. No commas needed. Вам поня́ тно, о чём мы говори́ ли?

Do you understand what we were talking about?

По отношéнию к Preposition With the dative case Regarding, towards The same as в отношéнии к regarding. Bookish. (See also в отношéнии к.) Вы поступи́ ли несправедли́ во по отношéнию к Васи́ лию Андрéевичу.

You behaved unjustly towards Vasily Andreevich.

Поперёк Preposition With the genitive case Across Invokes the connotation that something is situated incorrectly and gets in the way. Phrases with this preposition answer the questions поперёк когó? across whom?, поперёк чегó? across what? О́ чень раздражáет, когдá кто-то стáвит маши́ ну поперёк паркóвки.

It’s very irritating when somebody parks their car across several spots.

Note! Do not confuse with the adverb поперёк, which is not used in combination with nouns. Они́ распили́ ли дóски поперёк и положи́ ли их пéред порóгом дóма.

They sawed the wooden beams in half and placed them in front of the porch.

Sayings with поперёк Встать поперёк дорóги.

Stand in the middle of the road.

Стать поперёк гóрла.

Stick in one’s craw.

Вдоль и поперёк.

Inside out. [fig.]

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По пóводу Preposition With the genitive case About Used when the utterance concerns something or someone. Phrases with this preposition answer the questions по пóводу когó? about whom?, по пóводу чегó? about what? Stylistically close to насчёт about and относи́ тельно concerning. Its synonym в отношéнии regarding is more formal. (See also в отношéнии, насчёт, относи́ тельно.) Что вы дýмаете по пóводу доклáда? – Доклáд был хорóший и вы́ звал мнóго вопрóсов.

“What do you think about the report?” “The report was good and elicited a lot of questions.”

По прáвде говоря́ Parenthetical expression To tell the truth Emphasizes the frankness or honesty of the speaker. Stylistically used in the same way as чéстно говоря́ to tell the truth or откровéнно говоря́ frankly speaking and more often than сказáть по прáвде / по сóвести to tell the truth. Separated by commas. (See the synonyms откровéнно говоря́ , чéстно говоря́ , сказáть по прáвде / по сóвести.) По прáвде говоря́ , éхать сейчáс никудá не хóчется.

To tell the truth, I don’t want to go anywhere right now.

По причи́ не Preposition With the genitive case As a result of Indicates the cause of the action. Phrases with this preposition answer the question по какóй причи́ не? for what reason? Used in formal language, unlike its synonym из-за because of, which is neutral. Constructions with this preposition can be separated by commas. (See also из-за.) Конфли́ кты усложни́ лись по причи́ не углубля́ ющегося экономи́ ческого кри́ зиса.

Conflicts became more serious as a result of the worsening economic crisis.

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По причи́ не тогó, что Conjunction As a result of Connects clauses that indicate the cause of the action reflected in the principal part of a sentence. These clauses answer the questions почемý? why?, по какóй причи́ не? for what reason? Frequently used in scholarly language and journalism. (See also ввидý тогó что, вслéдствие тогó что, в си́ лу тогó что, поскóльку.) Никтó не мог воспóльзоваться правовы́ ми нóрмами по причи́ не тогó, что шла войнá.

Nobody could invoke their civil rights as a result of the ongoing war.

По прошéствии Preposition With the genitive case Past Indicates time after which an action takes place. While its synonym спустя́ since is neutral, по прошéствии is commonly used in literature. Сейчáс, по прошéствии десяти́ лет, вспоминáешь, скóлько замечáтельных людéй сидéло за столóм. (Г. Гóрин, «Ирони́ ческие мемуáры»)

Now, 10 years past, you remember how many wonderful people were sitting at the table. (Gorin, Ironic Memoirs)

Поскóльку Conjunction Because Connects clauses that indicate the cause of the action reflected in the principal part of a sentence. Can be placed before, after, or in the middle of the principal clause. Поскóльку is a little bit bookish, as is its synonym оттогó что because, while потомý что because is more neutral and is used more frequently. (See also оттогó что, потомý что, так как.) Все пи́ сьма остáлись в поли́ ции, поскóльку э́ то вещéственные доказáтельства.

All of the letters were left with the police, because they were material evidence.

Пóсле Preposition With the genitive case After Shows that something occurs after something else ends. Phrases with this preposition answer the common question когдá? when? and the more specific

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questions пóсле какóго врéмени? after what time?, пóсле чегó? after what? The last question can imply an event or phenomenon. Срáзу пóсле окончáния концéрта встречáемся в кафé.

Right after the concert ends, we’re meeting in the cafe.

Твоя́ óчередь пóсле Пéтиной.

Your turn is after Petya’s.

Note! Do not confuse the preposition with the adverb пóсле after, which is used independently without nouns in the genitive case. Can be a synonym of потóм later. На разговóры сейчáс нет врéмени. Поговори́ м пóсле.

There’s no time for talking right now. We’ll talk later.

Пóсле тогó(,) как Conjunction After Used when the action depicted in the principal clause occurs after the action depicted in the subordinate clause. Usually, no comma is used when opening a sentence. Specifies the time of an action, while its synonym когдá when is generalizing. Пóсле тогó как Вéра вернýлась из командирóвки, онá уéхала к сы́ ну.

After Vera returned from her business trip, she went to visit her son.

Ники́ та Сергéевич ушёл на пéнсию срáзу пóсле тогó, как емý испóлнилось шестьдеся́ т.

Nikita Sergeevich retired immediately after he became 60.

Постóльку, поскóльку Conjunction To the degree that Connects adverbial clauses that indicate the cause of the action reflected in the principal part of a sentence. The action described in the principal clause depends in some degree on the action in the subordinate clause. Есть тóлько сознáние, а всё остальнóе, в том числé и мы сáми, существýет тóлько постóльку, поскóльку попадáет в егó сфéру. (В. Пелéвин, «Жёлтая стрелá»)

There is only consciousness, and everything else, including ourselves, exists only to the degree that it enters the sphere of that consciousness. (Pelevin, The Yellow Arrow)

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По сравнéнию с Preposition With the instrumental case When compared with Phrases with по сравнéнию с answer the questions по сравнéнию с чем? when compared with what?, по сравнéнию с кем? when compared with whom? Constructions with по сравнéнию с can be separated by commas when they are placed in the middle of a sentence, between a subject and a predicate, or when they clarify what is said in the sentence. Tends to be utilized in less formal speech than в сравнéнии с in comparison with. (See also в сравнéнии с.) В э́ том годý заболевáемость ветря́ нкой значи́ тельно сни́ зилась, по сравнéнию с прóшлым гóдом.

This year, the incidence of chicken pox has greatly decreased in number when compared with last year.

Посреди́ Preposition With the genitive case In the middle of Used to express location or time. Phrases with this preposition answer the common question где? where? or the more specific question посреди́ чегó? between what? Посреди́ кóмнаты стои́ т большóй стол.

There is a big table in the middle of the room.

Егó прервáли посреди́ доклáда.

He was interrupted in the middle of his presentation.

Посрéдством Preposition With the genitive case By means of Indicates the object or phenomenon by means of which an action occurs. Phrases with this preposition answer the questions посрéдством чегó? by means of what?, посрéдством когó? by means of whom? Has a bookish shade and is widely used in professional language for specific purposes. Its synonyms при пóмoщи aided by and с пóмощью with the help of are more informal. Блоки́ рование áдреса бýдет осуществленó посрéдством изменéния прáвил сетевóго экрáна.

The address will be blocked by changing the firewall settings.

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По сýти (дéла) Parenthetical word In essence Used to show that the speaker is focusing on the essence of the thought. Separated by commas. Used in the same way as its synonym в сýщности in essence and more frequently than по существý basically. Less informal than сóбственно (говоря́ ) strictly speaking. (See also в сýщности, по существý, сóбственно говоря́ .) Дéлать здесь, по сýти, остаётся немнóго, поэ́ тому мы вскóре собирáемся уéхать.

In essence, there’s little more to be done here, which is why we are getting ready to leave soon.

Note! Can function as a part of a sentence. No commas are needed. По сýти так ничегó и не было скáзано.

All in all, nothing of much importance was said.

По существý Parenthetical word Basically Semantically and functionally close to в сýщности in essence, по сýти in essence, and сóбственно (говоря́ ) strictly speaking. Stylistically close to по сýти and is less informal than сóбственно (говоря́ ) strictly speaking. Separated by commas. (See also в сýщности, по сýти, сóбственно (говоря́ ).) По существý, сегóдня любóй человéк Basically, these days, anyone can become a мóжет стать жéртвой террори́ зма. victim of terrorism.

Note! Can function as a part of a sentence. No commas are needed. Э́ ти рефóрмы по существý явля́ ются бессмы́ сленными.

These reforms are pointless by their very essence.

Потомý и Conjunction That’s why Connects adverbial clauses that imply a consequence or a result. If a subordinate clause is the first part of a sentence, что joins the principal clause. Semantically close to вслéдствие чегó (и) as a result of which, поэ́ тому that’s why, оттогó и that’s why. Stylistically informal and close to отчегó и which is why, почемý и

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which is why and used in literature. (See also в результáте чегó, вслéдствие чегó (и), оттогó и, отчегó и, поэ́ тому, почемý и.) Но, мóжет, потомý и не вы́ держал, что был сáмым си́ льным, потомý и надорвáлся. (В. Бы́ ков, «Кáмень»)

But maybe that’s why he couldn’t take it, because he was the strongest. That’s why he crumbled. (Bykov, The Stone)

Потомý(,) что Conjunction Because Connects adverbial clauses that indicate the cause of the action reflected in the principal part of a sentence. Used frequently, since it is neutral in terms of style. Its closest synonym оттогó что because is less colloquial; the synonyms ввидý тогó что in light of the fact that, вслéдствие тогó что as a consequence of the fact that, в си́ лу тогó что given the fact that, из-за тогó что because of have their own nuances and are used more frequently in formal language. Потомý что follows the principal clause. It can be split so that потомý opens the principal clause; in this case, the cause is emphasized. When the conjunction is not split, a comma can be placed either before потомý or before что. The latter focuses on the cause. The comma may also be placed before что, emphasizing the demonstrative word. (See also ввидý тогó что, в си́ лу тогó что, вслéдствие тогó что, из-за тогó что, оттoгó что, так как.) На вéчер мы опоздáли, потомý что Семён задержáлся на собрáнии.

We were late to the party because Semyon was held up at the meeting.

Потомý они́ не пришли́ , что ребёнок заболéл.

They didn’t come, because their child got sick.

Натáша реши́ ла не переезжáть в другóй гóрод потомý, что не хóчет меня́ ть рабóту.

Natasha decided not to move to another city, because she doesn’t want to get a new job.

Похóже Parenthetical word It looks like Semantically close to кáжется it seems. Stylistically more colloquial. Separated by commas. (See also кáжется.) Мы, похóже, застря́ ли в прóбке и к фи́ льму не успéем.

It looks like we’re stuck in traffic and won’t make the film in time.

Note! Can function as a part of a sentence. No commas are needed. Это бы́ ло совершéнно не похóже на негó.

It was completely unlike him.

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Почемý и Conjunction Which is why Connects adverbial clauses that imply a consequence or a result. If a subordinate clause is the first part of a sentence, что joins the principal clause. Semantically close to вслéдствие чегó (и) as a result of which, поэ́ тому therefore, оттогó и that’s why. Stylistically informal and close to отчегó и and so, потомý и that’s why and is used in literature. (See the synonyms в результáте чегó, вслéдствие чегó (и), оттогó и, отчегó и, поэ́ тому.) Онá пребывáла в убеждéнии, что понимáет людéй с полуслóва, почемý и начинáла запáльчиво отвечáть при пéрвых попы́ тках собесéдника что бы то ни бы́ ло произнести́ . (А. Вóлос, «Недви́ жимость» // «Нóвый Мир», 2001)

She lived with the conviction that she understood people right away, which is why she responded hotheadedly as soon as the person she was talking to uttered half a word. (Volos, Immobility, 2001)

Поэ́ тому Conjunction Therefore, so, that’s why Connects adverbial clauses that imply a consequence or a result. If a subordinate clause is the first part of a sentence, что joins the principal clause. Semantically close to вслéдствие чегó (и) as a result of which, почемý и which is why, оттогó и because of which. Stylistically neutral and used in various genres. (See the synonyms вслéдствие чегó (и), знáчит, оттогó и, отчегó (и), слéдовательно, так что.) Кáтя проболéла всю зи́ му, поэ́ тому и не поéхала в Москвý, как собирáлась.

Katya was sick all winter, so she didn’t go to Moscow as she had planned.

Поэ́ тому мы и не стáли слýшать лéкцию, что тéма никогó не заинтересовáла.

That’s why we didn’t listen to the lecture, because the topic didn’t interest anyone.

Прáвда Parenthetical word. Particle. Conjunction Parenthetical word Really Confirms the veracity of a given utterance. Separated by commas. Трофи́ м, прáвда, говори́ т, что всё сдéлает.

Trofim really says that he’ll do everything.

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Particle Right, really Expresses affirmation. No commas are needed. Used in a question that requires assurance or confirmation. Can be a synonym of да. (See also да, хорошó.) Вáся прáвда уезжáет.

Vasya really is leaving.

Ты скóро к нам опя́ ть приéдешь, прáвда?

You’re going to visit us soon, right?

Conjunction Though Clarifies what was said before and may soften the contrast between parts of a sentence. (See also всё же, но, однáко, тем не мéнее, хотя́ .) Он мóжет хорошó рабóтать, прáвда óпыта у негó мáло.

He can work well, though he doesn’t have a lot of experience.

Note! Can be a part of a sentence. No commas needed. Мне не нужнá такáя прáвда.

I don’t need that kind of truth.

Предполóжим Parenthetical word Suppose Used when the speaker is about to make a concession or compromise. Separated by commas. Can be used as a response. Can be utilized in various styles. Ну, предполóжим, согласи́ тся Тáня приня́ ть это предложéние. А кто с ребёнком сидéть бýдет?

Suppose that Tanya agrees to this proposal. Who’ll babysit the kid then?

Придётся комý-то другóму заня́ ться газéтой? – Предполóжим.

“Will someone else have to take care of the magazine?” “I suppose so.”

Note! Can be a part of a sentence. No commas are needed. Предполóжим, что никтó здесь не остáлся.

Let’s assume that nobody’s left here.

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Предстáвь(те) (себé) Parenthetical word Imagine Draws someone’s attention to something. Separated by commas. Ви́ дели мы, предстáвьте себé, в э́ том If you can imagine it, we saw coyotes and пáрке койóтов и олéней. deer in the park.

Note! Can be a part of a sentence. No commas are needed. Предстáвь себé, что ты оди́ н в тёмном лесý и не знáешь, кудá идти́ .

Imagine that you’re alone in a dark forest and don’t know where to go.

Прéжде чем Conjunction Before Used if the action described in the principal clause occurs before the action described in the subordinate clause. Can be combined with verbal infinitives. Usually, a comma appears before the first word of the conjunction if it is in the middle of a sentence. When opening a sentence, the comma is placed between the clauses. Прéжде чем подавáть докумéнты в э́ ту прогрáмму, нýжно бы́ ло ознакóмиться со всéми услóвиями.

Before submitting an application to the university, you had to familiarize yourself with all the requirements.

Андрéй убежáл, прéжде чем О́ ля понялá, что происхóдит.

Andrey ran away before Olya could figure out what was happening.

При Preposition With the prepositional case Attached to, affiliated with Indicates that an object has an attachment to or affiliation with another object. Phrases with this preposition answer the nonspecific question где? where? При инститýте откры́ ли нóвую хими́ ческую лаборатóрию.

They opened a new chemical laboratory affiliated with the institute.

During the time of, under Shows a person during whose reign something happened. Phrases with this preposition answer the nonspecific question когдá? when?

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Перестрóйка началáсь при Горбачёве.

Perestroika began under Gorbachev.

Пéрвый рýсский университéт был откры́ т при Михаи́ ле Ломонóсове.

The first Russian university was opened during the lifetime of Mikhail Lomonosov.

In the presence of someone, in certain conditions (При ком?) При свидéтелях.

(In the presence of whom?) In the presence of witnesses.

Пожáлуйста, не нýжно говори́ ть об э́ том при дéтях.

Please, there’s no need to talk about this in the presence of children.

Онá обещáла отдáть фотогрáфии при She promised to return the photos when we встрéче. see one another. При такóм хóлоде недóлго и заболéть. It’s easy to fall ill in such cold weather.

With Indicates someone who is somehow connected with someone. Phrases with this preposition answer the question при ком? with whom? Tatyana is always with her mother; she has Татья́ на всегдá при своéй мáме – у неё нет никакóй возмóжности вы́ йти no opportunity to go anywhere. кудá-нибудь.

When, while Indicates the action during which something occurs. Used with words that are derived from verbs. Phrases with this preposition answer the nonspecific question когдá? when? При решéнии задáчи студéнт допусти́ л оши́ бку.

While solving the problem, the student made a mistake.

При появлéнии Поли́ ны все замолчáли.

When Polina showed up, everyone fell silent.

By Indicates a phenomenon, event, or circumstances during which the action occurs. Phrases with this preposition answer the question как? how? При лунé.

By moonlight.

Ю́ ля читáла при свéте свечи́ .

Yulia was reading by candlelight.

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Indicates an object that someone has in their possession. При орýжии.

Armed (with weapons).

При орденáх.

Decorated (with medals).

Жéня всегдá при деньгáх.

Zhenya always has money.

Indicates a phenomenon, situation, or circumstances that would allow or cause an action to happen. Мы встрéтимся при пéрвой же возмóжности.

We’ll meet at the first opportunity.

При такóй дальнозóркости Кáтя должнá носи́ ть очки́ , не снимáя.

With such farsightedness, Katya has to wear glasses all the time without taking them off.

При желáнии ты всегó мóжешь доби́ ться.

If you want to, you can accomplish anything.

Причём Conjunction And Connects words, phrases, or clauses in compound sentences that contain additional information or clarify what was said. Constructions with this conjunction are separated by commas. (See also к томý же.) Мнóгие роди́ тели не рабóтают, причём коли́ чество нерабóтающих матерéй и отцóв сущéственно не отличáется. (Из газéт)

Many parents do not work, and the amount of nonworking mothers and fathers is the same. (From newspapers)

Note! Do not confuse the conjunction причём with the combination of the preposition and the pronoun при чём what. (See also при.) При чём здесь погóда? – Совершéнно ни при чём. У нас прóсто мнóго дел.

“What does the weather have to do with anything?” “Nothing. We just have a lot to do.”

При э́ том Conjunction All the while, still The words connected by this conjunction contain extra information. Constructions with при э́ том are usually separated by commas. Often used with и and. (See also к томý же.)

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Алексéй Петрóвич говори́ л дóлго, старáлся произвести́ впечатлéние и при э́ том не замечáл, что порá закáнчивать.

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Aleksey Petrovich spoke for a long time, trying to have an effect on the audience, all the while not noticing that it was time to wind down.

Note! Do not confuse the conjunction with the adverb. No commas are needed. При э́ том он многозначи́ тельно посмотрéл на меня́ .

At the same time, he looked at me meaningfully.

Про Preposition With the accusative case About Synonymous with the preposition о about. Tends, however, to be restricted to colloquial speech. (See also о.) Ты слы́ шала, что говоря́ т про нас? – Ну и пусть. Не обращáй внимáние.

“Have you heard what they say about us?” “Let them. Pay no attention to it.”

Прóсто Particle Just Emphasizes the idea of the utterance. Он прóсто неýмный человéк, и с ним He’s just not a very smart person, and you не нáдо имéть дéло. shouldn’t have any contact with him.

Expression with прóсто Прóсто так.

Just because.

Note! Do not confuse the particle with the adverb. Всё óчень прóсто, и не нáдо усложня́ ть.

It’s all very simple, and there’s no need to make it more difficult than it is.

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Прóтив Preposition With the genitive case Against Indicates objects that are situated against something or move in opposite directions. Phrases with this preposition answer the questions прóтив когó? against whom?, прóтив чегó? against what? Translations may vary. Стол постáвили прóтив окнá – сóлнце бьёт пря́ мо в глазá.

They put the table right across from the window; the sun hits you right in the eye.

Велосипеди́ ст éдет прóтив движéния The bicyclist is going against the flow of и создаёт авари́ йную ситуáцию. traffic and is creating the potential for an accident.

Sayings with прóтив Друг прóтив дрýга.

Against one another.

Идти́ прóтив вéтра.

To go against the wind.

Плыть прóтив течéния.

To swim against the current.

Against Indicates objects or phenomena against which something or someone acts or functions. Phrases with this preposition answer the questions прóтив когó? against whom?, прóтив чегó? against what? Translations may vary. Рабóтники предприя́ тия выступáют прóтив мáссовых увольнéний.

The workers are protesting mass layoffs.

Срéдство прóтив насекóмых.

Bug spray.

Вакци́ на прóтив гри́ ппа.

A flu vaccine.

Against Points out the factor in spite of which an act occurs. Phrases with this preposition answer the question прóтив чегó? against what? (See also вопреки́ .) В цéнтре гóрода води́ тели маршрýток сдéлали останóвку прóтив прáвил.

Van drivers have made an unofficial pickup location in the middle of town that goes against the rules.

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Expressions with прóтив Вы́ ступить прóтив вóли.

To act against your will.

Сдéлать что-то прóтив желáния.

To do something against your wishes.

Поступи́ ть прóтив сóвести.

To do something against your beliefs.

Пря́ мо [coll.] Particle Straight up Emphasizes the utterance. Very informal. Совсéм невозмóжный стал, пря́ мо кошмáр какóй-то.

He’s become completely unbearable, it’s a straight up nightmare.

Note! Do not confuse the particle with the adverb. Иди́ те пря́ мо, не сворáчивая.

Go straight ahead and don’t make any turns.

Пусть (пускáй) Particle. Conjunction Particle Let Combined with the present tense or the simple future, can form imperative sentences referring to the third person. These sentences are pronounced with a tense intonation and a raised voice. In writing, this is expressed by a period or an exclamation mark. These particles are used in slogans, sayings‚ toasts, and aphorisms. Пускáй Семён схóдит в магази́ н и кýпит картóшку.

Let Semyon go down to the store and buy potatoes.

Пусть все бýдут здорóвы!

Let everyone be healthy!

Conjunction May Connects subordinate clauses that point to the circumstances in spite of which the action described in the principal clause is accomplished. Strengthens the contradiction between the principal and the subordinate clause and makes speech more emotional and colorful. Has a conversational shade.

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Пускáй на ýлице вéтер и дóждь, в дóме теплó и ую́ тно.

There may be wind and rain outside, but it’s warm and comfortable in the house.

Что до богóв? Пускáй они́ Судьбáми управля́ ют ми́ ра! (А. Дéльвиг, «Поэ́ т»)

What about the gods? Let them rule the Fates of the world! (Del’vig, The Poet)

Путём Preposition With the genitive case By way of Indicates the means by which something is accomplished. Phrases with this preposition answer the question каки́ м óбразом? by what means? Bookish. Путём манипули́ рования молéкулами ДНК и РНК совремéнный человéк мóжет произвóльно и напрáвленно изменя́ ть наслéдственность окружáющего егó живóго ми́ ра. (А. Спи́ рин, «Фундаментáльная наýка и проблéмы экологи́ ческой безопáсности» // «Вéстник РАН» 2004)

By manipulating the DNA and RNA molecules, the modern human can, of his own volition and with determination, change the inheritance of the surrounding world. (Spirin, Fundamental Science and Problems of Ecological Safety, 2004)

Рáди Preposition With the genitive case For the sake of Indicates the person, item, or idea in whose name something is done. Phrases with this preposition answer the questions рáди когó? for whom?, рáди чегó? for what? Готóвы ли лю́ ди поступи́ ться свобóдами и правáми человéка рáди бóльшей безопáсности?

Are people ready to give up their human freedoms and rights for the sake of greater security?

Он готóв рáди неё на всё.

He’s ready to do anything for her.

Indicates the reason of the action. Phrases with this preposition answer the question рáди чегó? for what?

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Рáди справедли́ вости нáдо отмéтить, For the sake of fairness, it should be noted что Татья́ на вы́ глядела прóсто that Tatyana looked absolutely fantastic. замечáтельно.

Expressions and proverb with рáди Шýтки рáди.

For the sake of the joke.

Простоты́ рáди.

For simplicity’s sake.

Рáди крáсного словцá не пожалéет и отцá.

For the sake of being witty, he’ll betray his own father.

Рáди тогó, чтóбы Conjunction In order to Connects subordinate clauses that indicate the motive or purpose of the action reflected in the principal part of the sentence. These clauses answer the questions зачéм? for what purpose?, с какóй цéлью? with what goal? Emphasizes the action decribed in the subordinate clause, but is used less frequently than its synonyms чтóбы in order and для тогó чтóбы in order to. A comma appears before чтóбы. A subordinate clause with this conjuction can be placed before or after the principal clause, as well as in the middle of a sentence. (See also чтóбы, для тогó чтóбы.) Я понимáла, что мой муж принёс очереднýю жéртву [. . .] и вы́ вез из Росси́ и цéлый самолёт людéй лишь рáди тогó, чтóбы не разлучáть оркéстр. (С. Спивакóва, «Не всё»)

I understood that my husband made another sacrifice [. . .] and got an entire plane of people out of Russia just in order to keep the orchestra together. (Spivakova, Not Everything)

Рáди тогó, чтóбы встрéтиться с друзья́ ми, Жáнна готóва былá на мнóгое.

In order to meet her friends, Zhanna was ready to do whatever it took.

Раз Conjunction Since Connects a subordinate clause to the principal clause to express a real condition or circumstance needed to accomplish an action. A subordinate clause starting with this conjunction can be placed at the beginning or at the end of a sentence. Subordinate clauses with раз answer the questions при какóм услóвии? on what condition?, в какóм слýчае? in what case? If the subordinate clause with the conjunction раз precedes the principal one, the latter is often introduced by

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the word то then. A comma is placed between the two parts of the complex sentence. Раз is informal. (See also éсли, когдá, кóли, éжели.) Раз Мирóн позвони́ л, то давáй встрéтимся.

Since Miron called, let’s meet up.

Не вмéшивайся, пожáлуйста, раз ты ничегó не знáешь об э́ том.

Please don’t interfere, since you don’t know anything about it.

Рáзве Particle Really? Used in interrogative sentences to express disbelief, surprise, or amazement. Can be an interjection that is used as an exclamation. Translations may vary. (See also не мóжет быть, неужéли.) Рáзве вы не договори́ лись поéхать зáвтра на рыбáлку?

Didn’t you agree to go fishing tomorrow?

Он давнó увóлился. – Рáзве?!

“He quit his job a long time ago.” “Really?!”

Рáзве тóлько [coll.] Conjunction Unless Connects a subordinate clause to the principal clause to express a real condition, i.e., a circumstance that can limit an action. (See also éсли.) Светлáна приéдет обязáтельно, рáзве Svetlana will definitely come, unless her boss тóлько её не отпýстит начáльство. doesn’t let her.

Разумéется Parenthetical word. Particle Parenthetical word Of course, naturally Can also be translated as “certainly” or “sure.” Expresses confidence and is separated by commas. Less informal than конéчно of course. Can be used together with the parenthetical expression самó собóй it goes without saying. (See also безуслóвно, бесспóрно, естéственно, конéчно, самó собóй.) Ивáн Ивáнович, разумéется, отказáлся приéхать.

Naturally, Ivan Ivanovich refused to come.

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Particle Naturally Used as an independent sentence-reply in confirmation to an utterance. Sometimes used with the particle самó собóй it goes without saying. (See also безуслóвно, бесспóрно, естéственно, конéчно, самó собóй.) Ты помóжешь отцý? – Разумéется.

“Will you help your father?” “Naturally.”

Ря́ дом с Preposition With the instrumental case Next to Phrases with this preposition answer the questions ря́ дом с кем? next to whom?, ря́ дом с чем? next to what? Can be used to compare something or someone with something or someone. Colloquial. Ря́ дом с Ви́ ктором он прóсто Эйнштéйн.

Next to Victor, he’s simply Einstein.

Светлáна всегдá сиди́ т ря́ дом с Таги́ ром.

Svetlana always sits next to Tagir.

С (со) Preposition Со is used before words that start with two or more consonants if the first one is с or з or with a certain combination of consonants (со шкáфчика from the bookcase, со лба from the forehead), before the words весь whole, вся́ кий any, мной me, and others.

With the genitive case From, off Defines the place, object, or event from which something or someone is moving. Phrases with this preposition answer the question откýда? from where? Correlates with the preposition на towards, denoting opposite movement, i.e., from a specified location. (See also на.) Он взял с пóлки кни́ гу.

He took the book off the shelf.

Игнáт приéхал с рабóты пóздно.

Ignat arrived late from work.

Улы́ бка сошлá с её лицá.

The smile slid off her face.

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Phrases with с are used with the verbs снять to take off, стянýть to drag off, стащи́ ть to drag off, увóлить to fire (an employee), упáсть to fall down and verbs of motion with the prefix у-. Снять с ребёнка пальтó.

Take the coat off the child.

Снять / увóлить с дóлжности.

To lay off the job.

Стянýть с себя́ фóрму.

To pull the uniform off oneself.

Стащи́ ть мешóк с вещáми с пóлки.

To drag the bag with the things off the shelf.

Упáсть с дéрева.

To fall out off a tree.

Indicates something that changes from one position to another or shows something that is located on the other side. Переступáть с ноги́ на нóгу.

To shift from one foot to the other.

Перевернýться с одногó бóка на другóй.

To turn from one side to the other.

С изнáнки.

Inside out.

С фасáдной стороны́ здáния вы́ глядят ина́ че.

From the facade, the buildings look different.

Expressions with с С больнóй головы́ на здорóвую.

To shift blame to somebody else.

С однóй стороны́ и с другóй стороны́ .

On one hand and on the other.

Indicates something that is the starting point for something. Phrases with this preposition answer the questions с чегó? from where?, с когó? from whom? С когó начнём? Давáйте с Вас.

Who will we start with? Let’s start with you.

Влюби́ ться с пéрвого взгля́ да.

To fall in love at first sight.

Попáсть в цель с пéрвой попы́ тки.

To hit the target on the first try.

Expressions with с С размáха.

With all of one’s might.

С разбéга.

At a run.

Since Expresses time. Phrases with this preposition respond to the more general question когдá? when? or the specific questions с какóго врéмени? from what

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time?, с какóго числá? from what date? and others. Can combine with the word начинáя starting. Can combine with phrases with the prepositions до until or по along. (See also до, по.) Петрýша игрáл на скри́ пке с сáмого дéтства.

Petrusha played the violin since his childhood.

Он с утрá ещё ничегó не ел.

He hasn’t eaten anything since morning.

Indicates something that is the basis or the source of something. Кóпия с карти́ ны.

A copy of the painting.

Перевóд с италья́ нского на рýсский.

A translation from Italian into Russian.

Used in phrases which imply that something happens from someone’s point of view. С юриди́ ческой тóчки зрéния.

From a legal point of view.

С пози́ ции совремéнного искýсства.

From the position of modern art.

С морáльной стороны́ .

From the moral side of things.

Used with the nouns разрешéние permission, соглáсие agreement, позволéние allowance, одобрéние approval, and others. С Вáшего позволéния я ухожý.

With your permission, I’m leaving.

Used in phrases like the following: Хвáтит с вас.

That’s enough out of you.

С вас 100 рублéй.

A hundred rubles from you.

Сгорéть со стыдá.

To burn from shame.

Сказáть со злóсти.

To say out of spite.

Устáть с дорóги.

To be tired from travelling.

Корми́ ть с лóжечки.

To spoonfeed.

Умирáть с гóлоду.

To die of hunger.

Запи́ ть с гóря.

Drown your sorrows.

Трýдно с непревы́ чки.

Difficulties from lack of experience.

With the accusative case [coll.] Points out an approximate measure or amount of something.

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Они́ прóжили на мóре с мéсяц и уéхали обрáтно.

They spent about a month at the seashore and then went back.

With the instrumental case With Indicates the object or objects with which an action is performed. Can be translated as “accompanied by” or “together with.” The questions с кем? with whom?, с чем? with what? are used to form interrogative sentences in such cases. Вмéсте together is used or implied. Плáтье с цветáми.

A dress with flowers.

Кольцó с гранáтом.

A garnet ring.

Человéк с харáктером.

A person with character.

Я не люблю́ пить чай с сáхаром.

I don’t like to drink tea with sugar.

Expressions with с Вмéсте с тем . . .

Along with . . .

С пóмощью.

With help.

Used in combinations of words that indicate time and with the word кáждый each. Встать с зарёй.

To get up with the sunrise.

Проснýться с рассвéтом.

To wake up with the dawn.

Всё измени́ лось с её приéздом.

Everything changed with her arrival.

С кáждым гóдом бáбушке всё труднéе и труднéе.

It gets more difficult for grandma with every year.

Indicates conditions that accompany the action. Проснýться с головнóй бóлью.

To wake up with a headache.

Сказáть что-то со смéхом.

To say something while laughing.

Вы́ бежать из кóмнаты с плáчем.

To run out of the room in tears.

Дéлать что-то с боя́ знью.

To do something in fear of something.

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Indicates an additional amount that accompanies something. Час с чéтвертью.

An hour and a quarter.

Долг с процéнтами.

A debt with interest.

Киломéтр с небольши́ м.

A kilometer and then some.

Двóе с полови́ ной сýток.

Two and a half days.

Indicates an object to which something happens. The verbs случи́ ться to happen and произойти́ to happen can be used or implied. Катастрóфа с пóездом.

A trainwreck.

Трýдности с рабóтой.

Hardships at work.

Авáрия с маши́ ной.

A car accident.

Indicates the goal of an action. Обрати́ ться к комý-то с прóсьбой. Прийти́ с доклáдом.

To come to someone with a request.

Яви́ ться с жáлобой.

To arrive with a complaint.

Отпрáвиться к комý-то с каки́ ми-то намéрениями.

To go to someone with some kind of intentions.

Отпрáвиться к комý-то с визи́ том.

To visit someone.

To come with a report.

Expression with с Прийти́ с ми́ ром.

To come in peace.

С рáдостью!

With pleasure!

С трудóм.

With difficulty.

С чéстью.

With honor.

Indicates an object that is involved in reciprocated actions. Спóрить с сы́ ном.

To argue with one’s son.

Игрáть с маши́ нками.

To play with toy cars.

Свидáние с дéвушкой.

A date with a girl.

Прогýлка с коллéгами.

A walk with colleagues.

Перепи́ сываться с друзья́ ми.

To correspond with friends.

Phrases with с are used with the verbs здорóваться to say hello‚ прощáться to part, знакóмиться to get acquainted‚ случáться to happen to. Used to extend holiday greetings or to congratulate someone on a special occasion, with or without the verb поздравля́ ть to congratulate.

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Познакóмьтесь с мои́ м дрýгом.

Meet my friend.

С Вáми что-то случи́ лось?

Did something happen to you?

Что с Вами?

What’s the matter (with you)?

Ты ужé попрощáлся с бáбушкой?

Did you already say goodbye to grandma?

С прáздником!

Happy holidays! (can be used for any holiday)

Самó собóй [coll.] Particle. Parenthetical expression Parenthetical expression It goes without saying Can also be translated as “certainly” or “sure.” Expresses confidence and is separated by commas. Very informal. Can accompany разумéется naturally. (See also естéственно, конéчно, разумéется.) Он, самó собóй, приéдет оди́ н.

It goes without saying that he will come by himself.

Particle Of course Used as an independent sentence-reply in confirmation to an utterance. Sometimes used with the parenthetical word разумéется. (See also естéственно, конéчно, разумéется.) Ли́ ля забы́ ла обéщанную книгý, как я и дýмала? – Самó собóй.

“Did Lilya forget the book she promised, as I expected?” “Of course she did.”

С вáшего/твоегó разрешéния, С вáшего/твоегó позволéния Parenthetical expression With your permission Used as a polite form when asking or saying something. The latter can sound bookish. Separated by commas. С вáшего разрешéния, нам порá, ужé пóздно.

With your permission, we should leave; it’s late.

Note! Can be a part of a sentence. No commas are needed. Мáра взялá ключи́ с моегó разрешéния.

Mara took the keys with my permission.

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Сверх Preposition With the genitive case Extra Indicates something that is extra or superfluous or that it exceeds a limit or boundary. Взялá сверх декрéтного за свой счёт, до гóда тепéрь даю́ т. (И. Грéкова, «Перелóм»)

I took my maternity leave and then a little extra at my own expense; they give you up to a year now. (Grekova, The Fracture)

Semantically can be close to крóме besides, не считáя not counting, although it is used with inanimate nouns. (See also крóме, не считáя.) Они́ должны́ бы́ ли получáть дéньги сверх оклáдов и прéмий – на однý зарплáту они́ бы не прóжили.

They were supposed to get extra money aside from their regular earnings and bonuses – they wouldn’t have survived on just their wages.

Expressions with сверх Сверх мéры.

Exceeding the norm.

Сверх вся́ ких ожидáний.

Exceeding all expectations.

Сверх сил.

Exceeding one’s abilities.

Свы́ ше Preposition With the genitive case Upwards of Indicates that the amount of something is higher than something else. (See also сверх.) На симпóзиум приéхали свы́ ше двухсóт человéк.

Upwards of 200 people came to the symposium.

Expression with свы́ ше Свы́ ше мои́ х сил.

More than I can handle.

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Скáжем Parenthetical word Like, for example Used in the same way as for example, for instance. Informal. Separated by commas. (See also к примéру, напримéр.) Кáждый год принóсит рáзные сюрпри́ зы, скáжем, в прóшлом годý былá зáсуха, а в э́ том дождь не прекращáется.

Each year brings different surprises, like last year, which brought a drought, while this year, the rain never stops.

Note! Do not confuse this with the predicate. No commas are needed. Срáзу скáжем, что в э́ тих местáх виногрáд растёт плóхо.

We can immediately say that grapes grow poorly in these parts.

Скажи́ те пожáлуйста! [coll.] Interjection Oh really? Expresses sarcastic astonishment or indignation. Он рабóтает здесь всегó пять лет, а ужé успéл стать зав. кáфедрой! – Скажи́ те пожáлуйста!

“He’s worked here for only five years and has already managed to become chair of the department!” “Oh really?”

Сказáть по прáвде/Сказáть по сóвести Parenthetical expression To tell the truth Expresses frankness. (See also чéстно говоря́ .) В своё врéмя, сказáть по прáвде / сóвести, я мнóгое упусти́ л.

To tell the truth, I missed a lot in my time.

Note! Do not confuse it with a part of a sentence. No commas are needed. Нáдо сказáть по прáвде – мы э́ того не ожидáли.

I have to tell the truth – we didn’t expect this.

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Сквозь Preposition With the accusative case Through Designates the object through which another object moves. Phrases with this preposition answer the question сквозь что? through what? Тóлько ýтром они́ замéтили‚ что сквозь щель в стенé теклá водá.

Only in the morning did they notice that water was leaking through the crack in the wall.

Expressions with сквозь Смех сквозь слёзы.

Laughter through tears.

Сквозь огóнь и вóду.

Through hell and high water.

Скóлько Conjunction As much, as many Connects subordinate clauses that function as subjects or objects and fill a missing gap in a principal clause. The clauses answer the questions of cases. Скóлько conveys the meaning of measure and degree. Татья́ на И́ горевна так и не сказáла, скóлько дéнег нáдо внести́ за экзáмен.

Tatyana Igorevna didn’t say how much money you had to pay for the exam.

Connects subordinate clauses that imply the meaning of measure and degree. Can be used in sentences with the corresponding стóлько this much. Нáдо проводи́ ть с ней стóлько врéмени, скóлько мóжно.

It is important to spend as much time with her as possible.

Скóлько людéй, стóлько мнéний.

There are as many opinions as there are people.

Скóлько (бы) ни Conjunction No matter how much Connects subordinate clauses that point to the measure of something in spite of which the action described in the principal clause is accomplished. Conveys intensity to the action described. The particle ни is usually placed before either a predicate or an adverbial modifier (only when the latter is an adverb). The particle never precedes a noun. Phrases with всё-таки after all, всё равнó doesn’t matter, тем не мéнее nevertheless are often used in the principal clause. They can also be combined with бы to emphasize the meaning of concession.

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Скóлько бы раз ни смотрéла э́ тот фильм, он никогдá мне не приедáлся.

No matter how many times I see this film, I never grow tired of it.

Ничéго не получáется, скóлько бы ни старáлся.

Nothing comes of it, no matter how many times I try.

Слáва бóгу/гóсподи Parenthetical expression Thank God! An exclamation that expresses satisfaction. Separated by commas. Всё, слáва бóгу, обошлóсь.

Thank God it’s over.

Слéдовательно Conjunction. Parenthetical word Conjunction Ergo Слéдовательно, и слéдовательно, or а слéдовательно connect clauses that imply a consequence or a result. Semantically close to поэ́ тому that’s why and synonymous with знáчит so, although слéдовательно is formal in terms of style. (See also вслéдствие чегó, знáчит, поэ́ тому, стáло быть.) Слéдственный комитéт решéние судá не получáл, слéдовательно необходи́ мо продли́ ть срóки на обжáлование.

The investigative committee did not recieve the decision of the court, ergo, it is necessary to prolong the term for appeals.

Parenthetical word Adds a conclusive weight to an utterance. Separated by commas. Formal and used in bureaucratic, scholarly language, and journalism. (See also знáчит, стáло быть.) Слéдовательно, докумéнты у Вас не при́ няли?

So, in conclusion, they didn’t accept your documents?

Слóвно Conjunction As though Connects subordinate clauses that point to a close resemblance of the actions depicted by the predicates. Subordinate clauses with this conjunction answer the questions как? how?, каки́ м óбразом? in what manner? Synonymous with

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тóчно and semantically close to бýдто as if and как бýдто as if. Used in various styles. (See also бýдто, как бýдто, тóчно.) Илья́ смотрéл на собесéдника так, слóвно был не соглáсен ни с одни́ м слóвом.

Ilya looked at his conversation partner as though he didn’t agree with a single word he was saying.

Слóвом Parenthetical word In short Слóвом or одни́ м слóвом are used to avoid details or when closing the conversation. Separated by commas. More formal than корóче говоря́ in short. (See also корóче говоря́ .) Слóвом, вéчер удáлся.

In short, the evening was a success.

Note! Do not confuse it with the part of a sentence. No commas are needed. Одни́ м слóвом э́ того не вы́ разить.

It’s impossible to express this in one word.

Слýчаем Parenthetical word Incidentally Expresses a guess. Used in the same situations as кстáти by the way and случáйно by any chance. Informal. Separated by commas. (See also мéжду прóчим, кстáти, случáйно.) Ты, слýчаем, не собирáешься в магази́ н?

Incidentally, are you planning on going to the store?

Note! Do not confuse it with the part of a sentence. No commas are needed. Возмущённый э́ тим слýчаем он никáк не мог успокóиться.

Indignant because of the incident, he couldn’t calm down.

Случáйно Parenthetical word By any chance Expresses a guess. Can be used in the same situations as кстáти by the way and слýчаем incidentally. Used rather often in interrogative sentences. Informal. Separated by commas. (See also мéжду прóчим, кстáти, случáйно.)

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Ми́ ша, ты, случáйно, не ви́ дел мои́ очки́ ?

Misha, have you, by any chance, seen my glasses?

Note! Do not confuse it with the adverb. No commas are needed. Кристи́ на оказáлась свидéтелем их ссóры совершéнно случáйно.

Kristina witnessed their argument completely by accident.

Сóбственно говоря́ Parenthetical word Strictly speaking Used to show that the speaker focuses on the essence of the thought. Separated by commas. Semantically and functionally close to в сýщности in essence, по существý basically, по сýти in essence. Informal and used more frequently than its synonyms. (See also в сýщности, по существý, по сýти.) Сóбственно говоря́ , ничегó нóвого и полéзного из э́ той лéкции мы не вы́ несли.

Strictly speaking, we didn’t take away anything new from this lecture.

Согласи́ сь Parenthetical word You have to agree Согласи́ сь or согласи́ тесь solicits a listener to agree with the utterance. Согласи́ сь, нельзя́ же тóлько фанфи́ ки читáть.

You have to agree, you can’t just read fanfics.

Note! The imperative согласи́ сь or согласи́ тесь functions as a part of a sentence. Согласи́ тесь с тёткой, она ведь правá.

Agree with your aunt, she’s right.

Соглáсно Preposition With the dative case In accordance with Phrases with соглáсно answer the question соглáсно чему? in accordance with what? Constructions with this preposition can be separated by commas when they are a part of a predicate, or when they are semantically close to the predicate. Frequently used in journalism, as well as scholarly and bureaucratic language. (See also в соотвéтствии с, на основáнии.)

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Kлáссовое расслоéние, соглáсно ры́ ночной пози́ ции и экономи́ ческому капитáлу, привелó к рéзкой дифференциáции не тóлько дохóдов, но и сти́ лей жи́ зни. (Л. Шпакóвская, ruscorpora.ru)

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In accordance with the state of the market and the economic capital, the class divide has led to a drastic difference not only in earnings, but in lifestyle. (Shpakovskaya, ruscorpora.ru)

С однóй / с другóй стороны́ Parenthetical expression On one hand/on the other hand Shows that there are a couple of points of view. Points out the order of thoughts. Separated by commas. When both expressions are placed close to each other, it is appropriate to omit the word стороны́ in the second one. Причи́ ной неудáчи мóжно считáть, с óдной стороны́ , увéренность в превосхóдстве своегó продýкта, а с другóй, серьёзные оши́ бки мéнеджмента.

On one hand, you can consider the confidence in the product’s superiority as the cause of the misfortune, but on the other hand, the same can be said of the serious errors on the part of the management.

Note! Can function as a part of a sentence. No commas are needed. С однóй стороны́ дорóги стоя́ л магази́ н, а с другóй – жилы́ е домá.

There was a store on one side of the street and houses on the other.

Спаси́ бо Particle Thank you Expresses gratitude according to etiquette. Can function as a part of a sentence. Can be ironic or sarcastic, expressing a negative attitude to the utterance. Спаси́ бо Вам, Ефи́ м Михáйлович, за Вáшу добротý.

Thank you, Efim Mikhailovich, for your kindness.

Передáй спаси́ бо тёте Гáле за пироги́ . Thank Aunt Galya for the pies. Нет уж, спаси́ бо, сáми дéлайте э́ то.

Thanks, but no thanks, do it yourselves.

Спустя́ Preposition With the accusative case In Indicates the time or period after the end of which an action occurs. Phrases with this preposition answer the nonspecific question когдá? when? or the

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specific question спустя́ какóе врéмя? after how long? Спустя́ is more formal than its synonym чéрез. (See also чéрез.) Пáвел вернётся спустя́ недéлю.

Pavel will return in a week.

Среди́ Preposition With the genitive case In the middle of Expresses location, shows that an object is inside or in the middle of a space. Phrases with this preposition answer the question где? where? Вдруг мы оказáлись среди́ глухóго лéса.

All of a sudden, we found ourselves in the middle of a thick forest.

Expresses time, i.e., between the beginning and the end of a period of time. Phrases with this preposition answer the question когдá? when? Ребёнок проснýлся среди́ нóчи и не мог никáк уснýть.

The child woke up in the middle of the night and could not fall asleep again.

Among Shows something or someone among other objects, phenomena. Она выделя́ лась среди́ други́ х своéй красотóй.

She stood out among the others for her beauty.

Стáло быть Parenthetical expression. Conjunction Parenthetical expression It seems, it looks like Expresses the conclusion or a consequence of what was said earlier or of the situation itself. Separated by commas. Sounds bookish and is used more often in literature, while the synonyms знáчит so is colloquial and слéдовательно ergo is formal. (See also знáчит, слéдовательно.) Вы, стáло быть, никудá не собирáетесь.

So, it seems you’re not going anywhere.

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Conjunction Which means Connects parts of a sentence or clauses and indicates that their content is a conclusion of what was said in the previous part. Mostly used in literature, while the synonyms слéдовательно ergo and знáчит so are formal and informal respectively. (See also знáчит, слéдовательно.) Ты сéрдишься, стáло быть не прав.

You’re angry, which means you’re wrong.

С тем(,) чтóбы Conjunction In order to Connects clauses that indicate the motive of the action reflected in the principal part of the sentence. These clauses of purpose answer the questions зачéм? for what purpose?, с какóй цéлью? with what goal? Clauses with this conjunction can be placed before, in the middle of, or after the principal clause. A comma does not split off the conjunction when it starts a sentence. When it follows a principal clause, a comma can be placed before the first word or before чтóбы. A comma before чтóбы emphasizes the demonstrative word. Bookish and most frequently used in business, while its neutral synonym чтóбы in order to is used more broadly. (See also для тогó чтóбы, чтóбы.) С тем чтóбы провести́ нéсколько дней с сы́ ном, Андрéй Петрóвич взял óтпуск.

In order to spend a few days with his son, Andrey Petrovich took a vacation.

Закáзчикам необходи́ мо объясни́ ть, как испóльзовать материáлы с тем, чтóбы избежáть авáрий.

It is imperative to explain to consumers how to use the materials properly, in order to avoid accidents.

С тех пор(,) как Conjunction Since Connects clauses that indicate the time of the action reflected in the principal part of a sentence. Used when the action described in the principal clause begins after the action described in the subordinate clause. Usually, no comma is used in this conjunction when it opens sentences. These clauses answer the general question когдá? when? and the specific questions с какóго врéмени? since what time?, с каки́ х пор? since when? (See also с тогó врéмени как.) Я знáю Поли́ ну с тех пор, как мы переéхали на нóвую кварти́ ру, и я пошлá в трéтий класс.

I’ve known Polina since we moved to the new apartment and I went to third grade.

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С тех пор как приéхала моя́ сестрá, нáша жизнь совершéнно измени́ лась.

Since my sister came, our life changed completely.

С тóчки зрéния Parenthetical expression From the point of view of Refers to someone to whom the point of view belongs. Separated by commas. С тóчки зрéния глáвного редáктора, таки́ е статьи́ принóсят тóлько вред.

From the point of view of the chief editor, articles like this bring only harm.

Note! Can function as a part of a sentence if the expression does not have a reference to a person. No commas are needed. Phrases like с наýчной тóчки зрéния from a scientific point of view, с хими́ ческой тóчки зрéния from a chemical point of view are not separated by commas.

Стрáнное дéло [coll.] Parenthetical expression It’s strange Expresses wonder towards the described situation. Separated by commas. Стрáнное дéло, я ведь знáла, что придётся говори́ ть, но совершéнно не подготóвилась. (И. Грéкова, «Без улы́ бок»)

It’s strange, I knew I would have to speak, but I didn’t prepare at all. (Grekova, Without Smiles)

Сты́ дно сказáть Parenthetical expression I’m ashamed to say Expresses displeasure or condemnation towards one’s own or someone’s actions. Separated by commas. Used more often than its synonym к стыдý своемý to one’s shame. (See also к стыдý своемý.) Когдá мы приéхали, сты́ дно сказáть, банáны éли, не останáвливаясь.

When we got there, I’m ashamed to say that we ate bananas nonstop.

Note! Can function as a part of a sentence. No commas are needed. Сты́ дно сказáть коллéгам, что я прóсто забы́ л прийти́ на собрáние.

I’m ashamed to say to my colleagues that I simply forgot to come to the meeting.

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Сýдя по Preposition With the dative case Judging by Indicates objects or phenomenona that are the basis for judgment. Phrases with this preposition answer the questions сýдя по комý? judging by whom?, сýдя по чемý? judging by what? Constructions with сýдя по are usually separated by commas. (See also по, сýдя по всемý.) Сýдя по облакáм, погóда бýдет меня́ ться.

Judging by the clouds, the weather will change.

Сýдя по всемý Parenthetical expression It looks like Expresses guess, deduction, or assumption based on one’s impressions, feelings, or intuition. Separated by commas. More formal than its neutral synonym кáжется it seems and the informal похóже it looks like. (See also кáжется, похóже.) Из э́ того мероприя́ тия, сýдя по всемý, ничегó хорóшего не полýчится.

It looks like nothing good will come from this event.

Счастли́ во Interjection Good luck! Всегó хорóшего, счастли́ во!

Goodbye, good luck!

Expression with счастли́ во Счастли́ во оставáться.

All the best!

Так Particle. Conjunction Particle Nothing much [coll.] Separated by commas. Чемý ты улыбáешься? – Так, вспóмнилось что-то.

“What are you smiling about?” “Nothing much. I just remembered something.”

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Right [coll.] Used as a positive reply or as a question that implies a positive reply or confirmation. Separated by commas. Ты смóжешь заéхать в магази́ н, так? – Так.

“You’ll be able to drop by the store, right?” “Right.”

[coll.] Emphasizes an object or idea that opposes another object or idea. Always unstressed. Not separated by commas. Can be used with а. Я так не люблю́ плáвать в бассéйне.

I don’t like swimming in the pool.

Ты так смóжешь пойти́ на концéрт, а я – нет.

You will be able to go to the concert, but I won’t.

Approximately [coll.] Not separated by commas. Е́ хать до ближáйшего магази́ на киломéтров так 30.

It is about 30 kilometers to the nearest store.

i.e., that is Clarifies what is said previously. (See also и́ менно.) Лéто обы́ чно на ю́ ге страны́ сухóе, так, в э́ том годý дождéй не было три мéсяца.

The summer in the southern part of the country is dry, i.e., there was no rain there for three months.

[coll.] This unstressed particle is used when there is repetition, and it intensifies the thought. Not separated by commas. Э́ то бы́ ли грóзы так уж грóзы.

Now those were thunderstorms.

Нéчего валя́ ть дуракá – рабóтать так рабóтать.

Enough dilly-dallying;if we’re gonna work, let’s work.

Conjunction Then [coll.] An unstressed conjunction that is functionally close to the conditional éсли . . . то if . . . then. (See also éсли, знáчит.) Сказáл, что сдéлаешь, так сдéлай.

If you said you do’ll something, then do it.

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So Connects clauses that imply a consequence or result of what is said in the other clause. Can sound very informal. Can be a synonym for поэ́ тому therefore. (See also поэ́ тому.) Э́ то довóльно дорогáя кни́ га, так ты береги́ её.

This is a pretty expensive book, so you take care of it.

Note! Do not confuse it with the adverb так in this way. No commas are needed. Вы так объясни́ ли, что мы совсéм запýтались.

You explained it in such a way that now we’re completely confused.

Тáкже Conjunction Also Indicates an additional action or an additional object, phenomenon, etc. May be used when both clauses have the same subject. Can start a sentence pointing out that the subsequent utterance is an addition to the previous and is, in a way, more important. Can be a synonym of ещё also. No comma is needed. (See also ещё.) Лари́ са посади́ ла помидóры, онá тáкже стáла вырáщивать сморóдину.

Larisa planted tomatoes and also started growing blackcurrants.

Тáкже емý хотéлось поéхать в Пари́ ж.

He also wanted to go to Paris.

Note! Cannot be a synonym of тóже also in this meaning.

Also, likewise Can be a synonym for тóже also and can replace it when it means the same way as someone/something else. Has a bookish shade, while тóже is neutral. (See also тóже.) Мнóгих не устрáивало врéмя заня́ тий, – Ми́ ша тáкже хóтел приходи́ ть в другóе врéмя.

Nobody was satisfied with the scheduled class time, and Misha likewise wanted to come at a different time.

Note! Do not confuse the conjunction тáкже with the demonstrative word так and the emphatic particle же.

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Так как Conjunction Given that Connects adverbial clauses that indicate the cause of the action reflected in the principal part of a sentence. These clauses answer the questions почемý? why?, по какóй причи́ не? for what reason? Clauses with this conjunction either follow or precede the principal clause. This conjunction cannot be split. More formal than its neutral synonym потомý что because and used less frequently. (See the synonyms ввидý тогó что, в си́ лу тогó что, вслéдствие тогó что, из-за тогó что, оттoгó что, потомý что.) Так как премьéра спектáкля чéрез недéлю, репети́ ции кáждый день с утрá до пóзднего вéчера.

Since the play opens in a week, there are rehearsals every day from morning till late at night.

Репети́ ции кáждый день с утрá до пóзднего вéчера, так как премьéра спектáкля чéрез недéлю.

There are rehearsals every day from morning till late at night, since the play opens in a week.

Так что [coll.] Conjunction So Connects adverbial clauses that imply a consequence or a result. The subordinate clause with this conjunction follows the principal clause. Semantically close to вслéдствие чегó (и) as a result of which, почемý и which is why, оттогó и because of which, поэ́ тому therefore. Stylistically extremely informal. (See the synonyms вслéдствие чегó (и), знáчит, поэ́ тому, оттогó и, отчегó (и), так что.) Я с тобóй не соглáсен, так что не жди от меня́ каки́ х-то дéйствий.

I don’t agree with you, so don’t expect any actions on my part.

Note! Do not confuse the conjunction так что with the adverb and conjunction, which are split by a comma так, что. Дéти спря́ тались так, что их дóлго не The kids hid so well that nobody could find могли́ найти́ . them for a long time.

Таки́ м óбразом [book.] Parenthetical expression Thus Adds a shade of conclusion or logical consequence to an utterance. Semantically close to the less formal знáчит so and the formal слéдовательно ergo. Separated by commas. (See also знáчит, слéдовательно.)

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Словá Вáши, таки́ м óбразом, никаки́ ми реáльными дéйствиями не подкрепля́ ются.

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Thus, your words aren’t supported by any real actions.

Note! Can function as an adverbial expression. No commas are needed. Проблéма былá решенá таки́ м óбразом.

The problem was resolved in that manner.

Так сказáть [coll.] Parenthetical expression So to speak Softens the utterance. The speaker uses this to diminish the sharpness of the speech. Can also be used when the speaker is looking for words. Separated by commas. Informal. Пóсле сегóдняшнего, так сказáть, обéда ужé хóчется есть.

After today’s “dinner,” so to speak, I’m already hungry.

Note! Can function as a part of a sentence. No commas are needed. Учи́ тель замéтил, что так сказáть нельзя́ .

The teacher noted that you can’t say it like that.

Тем бóлее Particle. Conjunction Particle Furthermore Semantically close to the adverb осóбенно especially. Separated by commas when introducing a construction with additional explanations. Translations may vary. Е́ сли тебé э́ то не интерéсно, то мне тем бóлее э́ то не нýжно.

If this doesn’t interest you, then I need it even less.

Во врéмя своéй болéзни онá ни с кем When she was sick, she didn’t want to speak не хотéла разговáривать, тем бóлее to, let alone see, anyone. ви́ деть когó-нибудь.

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Conjunction Especially Connects clauses with an additional argument or reason that is the basis for what is said earlier. Semantically close to the more formal к томý же in addition to, while тем бóлее is informal. (See also к томý же.) Сегóдня мы не смóжем уви́ деться с ним, тем бóлее он рабóтает до позднá.

We won’t be able to see him today, especially seeing as he’s working late.

Parenthetical expression Can function as an informal parenthetical expression. Я, тем бóлее, хочý уйти́ быстрéе.

Furthermore, I would like to leave as quickly as possible.

Тем не мéнее Conjunction Nevertheless This adversative conjunction connects clauses of compound sentences, indicating that the information in the first clause is not categorical or uncompromising, and it clarifies this information. Synonymous with однáко however, and it is close to впрóчем although. Can sound bookish. (See the synonyms впрóчем, однáко.) Он, хотя́ и не профессионáльный худóжник, тем не мéнее пи́ шет замечáтельные карти́ ны.

Despite not being a professional artist, he nevertheless makes noteworthy paintings.

Тогдá как Conjunction While, whereas Used when the content in the principal clause is contradictory to the content in the subordinate clause. Used in scholarly literature. A comma appears before the first word. (See the synonyms в то врéмя как, мéжду тем.) Они́ пытáлись навязáть Достоéвскому еди́ ную систéму мы́ слей, тогдá как Достоéвский как раз не признавáл никакóй систéмы. (М. Бахти́ н, «О полифони́ чности ромáнов Достоéвского»)

They tried to attribute a single system of thought to Dostoevsky, while Dostoevsky expressly refused to acknowledge any system at all. (Bakhtin, Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics)

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То есть Conjunction. Particle That is, to be precise Clarifies what was said previously. Also begins a list of objects or items in the second part of a sentence. Informal, contrary to its formal synonym (а) и́ менно specifically. Can be a synonym of други́ ми словáми in other words, ины́ ми словáми in other words as well, which are formal. То is stressed. In writing, can be abbreviated as т.е. (See also (а) и́ менно, други́ ми словáми, ины́ ми словáми.) Они́ собирáются в похóд чéрез две недéли, то есть пятнáдцатого числá.

They’re going to go hiking in two weeks, the 15th, that is.

Мы купи́ ли óчень мнóго всегó, то есть и винó, и сыр, и óвощи, и хлеб.

We bought a lot of everything, that is, a lot of wine and cheese and vegetables and bread.

Particle [coll.] What do you mean? In discourse, the listener can ask a speaker for clarification using a question: то есть? Can express astonishment and surprise. Very informal. Ты ни кудá не идёшь. – То есть?

“You’re not going anywhere.” “What do you mean?”

Тóже Conjunction. Particle Conjunction Also Can mean the same way as someone/something else. This neutral conjunction can be a synonym of тáкже also, although the latter has a bookish shade. (See also тáкже.) И́ нна не поéдет на дáчу в э́ том годý, Бори́ с тóже не собирáется éхать тудá.

Inna won’t go to the dacha this year, and Boris is also not planning to go there.

Particle [coll.] Expresses disapproval, displeasure, or annoyance. Very conversational. Often used with the personal pronoun мне: тóже мне. Тóже мне специали́ ст. Научи́ сь сначáла, а потóм дéлай.

Yeah right, a specialist. Learn how to do it first, then do it for real.

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Expressions with тóже [coll.] Скáжет тóже.

He/she just says the dumbest things. (a very conversational expression used in response to someone saying something that the speaker cannot accept)

Тóже нашёлся (на нáшу гóлову).

And look at this one (for us to deal with).

Note! Do not confuse the conjunction тóже with the demonstrative word то and the emphatic particle же. (See also же.)

То ли . . .‚ то ли Conjunction Either . . . or Expresses the uncertainty or the probability of an action. Used in compound sentences in which clauses indicate sequence or mutual exclusion. Also used to connect coordinate parts of a sentence. Can be replaced by не то . . . не то either . . . or. The conjunction и́ ли . . . и́ ли is also synonymous, but emphasizes less ambiguity. (See also то ли . . . то ли, и́ ли . . . и́ ли.) То ли ни́ щих стáло мéньше, тó ли их всех вы́ гнали неизвéстно кудá.

Either poor people have become fewer, or they were all chased away somewhere.

Пáвел Ивáнович хотéл написáть о своём дрýге то ли óчерк, то ли большóй ромáн.

Pavel Ivanovich wanted to write either an essay or a big novel about his friend.

Тóлько Conjunction. Particle Conjunction As soon as Used when the action depicted in the principal clause occurs after the action depicted in the subordinate clause. If the subordinate clause introduced by the conjunction тóлько precedes the principal clause, the principal clause can start with the word как when. The synonyms как тóлько as soon as and лишь тóлько the moment are used more frequently. Sounds informal. (See the synonyms когдá, пóсле тогó как, как тóлько, едвá, лишь, лишь тóлько.) Тóлько пáпа вошёл в дом, как срáзу же пошёл к компью́ теру.

As soon as dad walked into the house, he immediately made for the computer

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Телеви́ зор перестáл рабóтать, тóлько The TV stopped working as soon as it пошёл снег. started snowing. Only, but Connects parts of a sentence or clauses in compound sentences that imply some kind of limitation or inconsistency. May confine the positive content of what is said in the other part. Less categorical than its synonym но but and more informal than однáко however. (See also однáко, но.) Ю́ ля купи́ ла краси́ вого стекля́ нного клóуна, тóлько у негó не оказáлось однóй руки́ .

Yulia bought a pretty glass clown, only it turned out one of his hands was missing.

Чай есть, тóлько невкýсный.

There is tea, but it isn’t very good.

Все собирáются на встрéчу, тóлько Кóнор не придёт.

Everybody is going to the meeting, only Connor won’t be there.

Particle Only Emphasizes how small the amount of something is. More formal than its synonym лишь only. (See also лишь.) Сéне тóлько три гóдика.

Senya is only three years old.

Just, only Emphasizes the insignificance of something or someone. Ни́ на Анатóльевна тóлько замести́ тель дирéктора, мнóгое не в её влáсти.

Nina Anatolyevna is just the assistant director. A lot of things are outside her purview.

Exclusively, only Emphasizes selectiveness. Их сын éздит тóлько на маши́ не.

Their son gets around only by car.

Used after зачéм for what purpose, почемý why to stress the questions, which are rather rhetorical. Зачéм тóлько мы купи́ ли э́ ту мéбель?

Why is it that we bought this furniture?

Combined with imperatives to express a threat or a warning. Тóлько попрóбуй, тóлько скажи́ !

Just try, just say it!

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Phrases with тóлько Всегó тóлько. Just. Underlines a small amount. Тётя и дя́ дя приéхали всегó тóлько на пять дней.

Aunt and Uncle came just for five days.

Тóлько и всегó. That’s all. Can be used as a remark or a reply to emphasize the insignificance of what is said, often in interrogative form. Пригласи́ ли на семéйный обéд – тóлько и всегó.

They invited us to a family dinner – that’s all.

Купи́ ла блýзку. – Тóлько и всегó?

“I bought a blouse.” “And that’s all?”

Да и тóлько. And that’s it, and nothing more. [inform.] Can express insignificance or astonishment. Separated by commas. Can be a synonym of тóлько и всегó that’s all. Пóсле óтпуска он стал спокóйнее, да и тóлько.

After the vacation, he became calmer, and that’s it.

Emphasizes the emotion expressed in certain situations. Separated by commas. Смех, да и тóлько.

Hilarious.

Цирк, да и тóлько.

It’s a circus and nothing more.

Тóлько бы. If only. Usually used in the beginning of exclamatory sentences to express a strong wish, hope, or desire. Тóлько бы они́ вернýлись!

If only they returned!

То-то [coll.] Particle No wonder Тогдá поня́ тно. То-то я смотрю́ в подъéзде темнó. (А. Гелáсимов, «Фокс Мáлдер похóж на свинью́ »)

Then it makes sense. No wonder it’s dark in the driveway. (Gelasimov, Fox Malder Looks Like a Pig)

То-то он удиви́ тся.

No wonder he’ll be surprised.

And that То-то и or вот то-то и underline the main idea in the previous utterance. (See also вот.)

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То-то и бедá, что тóлько я и Берлиóз. And that’s the problem: that only I am (М. Булгáков, «Мáстер и Маргари́ Berlioz. (Bulgakov, Master and Margarita) та») Вот то-то и онó!

And that’s just it!

Used as an exclamation when expressing strong feelings. То-то стрáшно!

Of course it’s scary!

То-то гляди́ , кры́ ша обвáлится.

Or else look out, the roof will cave in.

Forms a conclusion with regard to the previous utterance or discussed topic. Can be in the beginning or the end of an utterance. Ну, так что же вы не встаёте? – Тото! Никудá вы и не встáнете, никудá не пойдёте . . . (Ю. Домбрóвский, «Обезья́ на прихóдит за свои́ м чéрепом . . .»)

“Well, so why aren’t you getting up?” “As if! There’s nowhere to get up here, nowhere to go. . .” (Dombrovsky, The Monkey Comes for His Skull . . .)

Expressions with то-то [coll.] То-то рáдости!

There’ll be much joy.

То-то и онó.

That’s exactly it.

Ну то-то.

As I thought.

То-то же.

That’s what I thought.

Тóчно Conjunction. Particle. Parenthetical word Conjunction As if Connects subordinate clauses that point to a close resemblance of the actions depicted by the predicates. Subordinate clauses with this conjunction answer the questions как? how?, каки́ м óбразом? in what manner? Synonymous with слóвно as though and semantically close to бýдто as if and как бýдто as if. Sounds colloquial. (See also бýдто, как бýдто, слóвно.) Он говори́ л так бы́ стро, тóчно боя́ лся, что не успéет сказáть всё.

He spoke so quickly as if he was afraid that he wouldn’t be able to say everything.

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Particle [coll.] Exactly Used as a confirmation in a reply. Translations may vary. Мне показáлось, что Вы заходи́ ли в óфис ýтром. – Тóчно.

“It seemed to me that you went into the office this morning.” “Yes I did.”

Parenthetical word [coll.] For sure Used as a synonym of в сáмом дéле actually, действи́ тельно certainly, but less frequently. Separated by commas. (See also в сáмом дéле, действи́ тельно.) Мы, тóчно, опоздáем.

We’ll be late for sure.

Note! Can function as an adverb. No commas are needed. Я попáл тóчно в цель.

I hit the target exactly.

Точнéе (говоря́ , сказáть) Parenthetical expression Specifically With or without говоря́ saying or сказáть to say, used to point to a more precise explanation of an utterance. Separated by commas. Пётр Ильи́ ч – музыкáнт, точнéе говоря́ , пиани́ ст.

Pyotr Ilyich is a musician, more specifically, a pianist.

Note! Точнéе or точнéе сказáть can function as a part of a sentence. No commas are needed. Ничегó не поня́ тно, нáдо точнéе сказáть.

You can’t understand anything, you need to say it more clearly.

Тут [coll.] Particle Here Used with adverbial words together with which they emphasize negative connotations.

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Емý жить охóта, и мне охóта, он умрёт, и я умрý – кудá тут девáться? (И. Грéкова, «Перелóм»)

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If he wants to live, so do I, if he dies, then I’ll die too – there’s nowhere to hide. (Grekova, The Fracture)

Expressions with тут [coll.] И всё тут!

And that’s that!

Тут как тут!

Right here!

Не тут-то бы́ ло.

That wasn’t going to happen.

У Preposition With the genitive case Can be a synonym of the preposition óколо near, near by and there is/there are when indicating the location of objects. The location can imply that it is someone’s place. Phrases with this preposition answer the question где? where? Их дом нахóдится у пáрка.

Their house is near the park.

Где стои́ т пиани́ но? – Пиани́ но в кóмнате у пáпы.

“Where is the piano?” “It’s in my dad’s room.”

At Indicates approaching a goal or a point of something [lit. or fig.]. Быть у фи́ ниша.

Be at the finish line.

Почти́ у цéли.

Almost at the goal.

At Means at someone’s place. Questions answered with this expression could start with the word где where? (preferably) or у когó at whose place? (less preferable). Где былá мáма? – Онá дéлала причёску у знакóмого парикмáхера.

“Where was mom?” “She was getting her hair done by her stylist.”

Где / у когó живёт Бори́ с? – У роди́ телей.

“Where does Boris live?” “He lives with his parents’.”

Used in the expression у когó-то есть someone has with the interrogative у когó есть? who has? when inquiring about a possession. When inquiring about the location [lit. or fig.] of an object that belongs to someone, the verb есть is omitted (in both questions and replies), and the questions где? where? or у когó? who has? can be used.

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У когó есть журнáл? – У меня́ есть.

“Who has a magazine?” “I do.”

Где моя́ маши́ на? – У Пáши. Он уéхал в банк.

“Where’s my car?” “Pasha took it. He went to the bank.”

Used in situations when the phrase I/we have or the question who has can be utilized. У когó день рождéния?

Whose birthday is it?

У нас на сегóдня мнóго рабóты.

We have a lot of work today.

Что у вас говоря́ т о ситуáции в Си́ рии?

What are they saying about the situation in Syria over there?

У меня́ боли́ т головá.

I have a headache.

У когó роди́ лся ребёнок?

Who had a child?

У кáждого свои́ недостáтки.

Everyone has their shortcomings.

Used to indicate a part of something or someone. Нýжно почини́ ть рýчку у чемодáна.

The handle on my suitcase needs to be fixed.

У тебя́ рубáшка пóрвана.

Your shirt is torn.

Points out the source of something. The source is an animate noun. Phrases with this preposition answer the questions где? where? or у когó? from whom? Он купи́ л рéдкие кни́ ги у знакóмого букини́ ста.

He bought rare books from a used book dealer he knows.

Спроси́ у Клáвы мóжно ли взять у неё фильм.

Ask Klava if I could borrow one of her films.

Points out someone who is a possessor of intellectual property. У Вýди А́ ллена во мнóгих фи́ льмах испóльзована класси́ ческая мýзыка.

Woody Allen uses classical music in many of his films.

Expressions with у Ты у нас молодéц.

You did a good job!

Смотри́ у меня́ ! [coll.]

(Menacingly.) Watch out!

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Увы́ Interjection Alas Expresses regret. Separated by commas or sometimes by dashes. Can be a separate sentence with an exclamation mark. Нет, увы́ , ни желáния, ни стремлéния занимáться э́ тим.

Alas, I have no desire or intention to do this.

Увы́ ! Нам так и не удалóсь встрéтиться.

Alas! We never met up, after all.

Уж [coll.] Particle Emphasizes someone’s assurance in what is said. Уж óчень А́ нна хóчет игрáть э́ ту роль.

Anna really wants to play this role.

Stresses request, order, or permission. Уж будь добр, не забýдь позвони́ ть.

Be so kind, don’t forget to call.

Expresses and underlines displeasure or negative feelings contrary to what is previously said. Дми́ трий Петрóвич óчень талáнтливый. – Уж и талáнтливый! Говорýн он.

“Dmitry Petrovich is very talented.” “You call that talented? He’s just talks big.”

Used in exclamatory sentences with the particle тóлько only in combination with interrogative pronouns and adverbs. Уж кудá их тóлько жизнь не заноси́ ла! Уж где мы тóлько не были!

Where has life not taken them? Where haven’t we been?

Combines with interrogative pronouns and adverbs to form rhetorical questions or exclamatory sentences. Где уж нам?! [coll.]

How can we?!

Что уж тепéрь переживáть?!

What’s the point of worrying now?!

Уж как он рáдовался!

He was so joyful!

Used in folklore and poetry. Уж скóлько их упáло в э́ ту бéздну, Развéрзтую вдали́ . (М. Цветáева)

How many of them fell into that abyss, Unfurling far away. (Tsvetaeva)

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Expressions with уж Ничегó уж тут не подéлаешь.

Nothing to be done here.

Так уж и быть.

Fine, so be it.

Уж на что, а [coll.] Particle He/she/it might be Means “despite the fact that.” Used with а or но. Expresses concession. Дáже леснáя канарéйка, уж на что глупá, а и то её так не поймáешь. (Ю. Домбрóвский, «Обезья́ на прихóдит за свои́ м чéрепом . . . »)

Even a forest canary might be very dumb, but you still can’t catch her so easily. (Dombrovsky, The Monkey Comes for His Skull . . .)

Уж что-что, а [coll.] Particle Say what you want, but Stresses one’s confidence in something or someone. (See also что-что.) Уж что-что, а говори́ ть непрáвду ты научи́ лся.

Say what you want, but you definitely learned how to lie.

Урá Interjection Hurrah, hurray An exclamation that is used in combat. Can also express approval or satisfaction about something. Урá, господá, мы победи́ ли.

Hurrah, gentlemen, we’ve won!

Note! Can function as a part of a sentence. Их урá никтó не услы́ шал.

Nobody heard their hurrah.

Expression with урá Сдéлать что-то на «урá».

To do something well.

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Уф [coll.] Interjection Phew Expresses tiredness or exhaustion. Can also articulate relief. Уф! – сказáл дирéктор и повали́ лся в “Phew,” said the director and toppled into the armchair. (Dombrovsky, The крéсло. (Ю. Домбрóвский, Department of Unnecessary Things) «Факультéт ненýжных вещéй») Уф, отлеглó. Знáчит, дéло не в дéтях. Phew, that’s a relief. Then the children aren’t (И. Грéкова, «На испытáниях») the problem. (Grekova, During the Tests)

Ух [coll.] Interjection Oh man Expresses positive or negative feelings. Can combine with the pronoun какóй such, the adverb как so, and the particle и and. Ух, каки́ е у вас в Алма-Атé нóчи! (Ю. Домбрóвский, «Факультéт ненýжных вещéй»)

Oh man, you have such nights in AlmaAta! (Dombrovsky, The Department of Unnecessary Things)

Ух и жарá!

Oh man, it’s so hot!

Combines with the word чёрт damn to express a negative overtone and the pronoun ты you to express admiration. Pay attention to the commas. (See also фу.) Ух, чёрт! – Он удáрил кулакóм по дивáну. (Ю. Домбрóвский, «Факультéт ненýжных вещéй»)

“Damn!” He hit the couch with his fist. (Dombrovsky, The Department of Unnecessary Things)

Ух ты, как заколоти́ лось опя́ ть сéрдце. (С. Ю́ рский, «Бумáжник Хóфманна»)

Oh man, my heart’s beating really fast again. (Yursky, Hofmann’s Wallet)

Фу [coll.] Interjection Ew An exclamation that expresses a strongly negative attitude towards something or someone. Фу, какáя гáдость!

Ew, how disgusting!

Фу, как не сты́ дно!

Ew, have you no shame!?

Phew An exclamation that expresses relief.

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(Со вздóхом облегчéния.) Фу, как же ты меня́ напугáл.

(With a sigh of relief.) Phew, you scared me.

Combines with the word чёрт damn and the pronoun ты you to express disappointment, anger, or irritation. Pay attention to the commas. (See also ух.) Фу ты, дья́ вольщина какáя! Нехорошó получи́ лось.

Damn it, devil’s spawn. That didn’t turn out good at all.

Фу ты чёрт, как врéмя лети́ т! (В. Некрáсов, «В окóпах Сталингрáда»)

God damn, how time flies! (Nekrasov, In the Trenches of Stalingrad)

Хорошó Particle. Parenthetical word Particle Yes Expresses agreement. The same as да yes. Separated by commas and can be a separate sentence. (See also да.) Хорошó, договори́ лись.

Yes, deal.

Придёшь к пяти́ ? – Хорошó.

“Will you come by five?” “Yes.”

Right Used in a question that requires assurance or confirmation at the end of a sentence: хорошо? i.e., as a tag question. (See also да, прáвда.) Перезвони́ шь Э́ лле, хорошó?

You’ll call Ella back, right?

Expresses threat or warning, often with the particle же. Хорошó же, вы ещё пожалéете об э́ том.

Alright then, you’ll be sorry for this yet.

Parenthetical word Alright Expresses a readiness to agree. Separated by commas. (See the synonyms допýстим, предполóжим.) Хорошó, я поговорю́ с ней, но э́ то ничегó не измéнит.

Alright, I’ll speak with her, but it won’t change anything.

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Note! Can function as an adverbial modifier in a sentence. No commas are needed. Онá хорошó написáла эссé.

She wrote the essay well.

Хоть Particle Even Accompanies phrases that indicate something unrealistic or unfeasible to emphasize the utterance. Иди́ , кудá хóчешь, хоть на край свéта.

Go wherever you want, even to the end of the world.

Even Хоть or да хоть are used when one needs to give arguments. Less formal than the synonymous хотя́ бы if only. (See also хотя́ бы.) Что Вы имéете в виду? – Да хоть наш послéдний разговóр, котóрый ни к чемý не привёл.

“What do you mean?” “Take, for example even our last conversation, which didn’t lead to anything.”

At least [coll.] Synonymous with хотя́ бы at least and is used informally. (See also хотя́ бы.) Не мóжешь мнóго, дай хоть 100 рублéй.

If you can’t give a lot, at least give 100 rubles.

Can be used with the following combinations [coll.]: With кто who, кудá where, где where, respectively meaning кáждый each, всю́ ду everywhere, вездé everywhere. Запрýт кýхню с вéчера и никогó не пускáют. Хоть в мили́ цию бежáть, хоть кудá. (Ю. Три́ фонов, «Дом на нáбережной»)

They close the kitchen in the evening and don’t let anyone in. All you can do is run to the police or wherever. (Trifonov, House on the Embankment)

Хоть бы. . . If only . . . Expresses a wish for something to happen. With infinitives and verbs in the past, functions as an imperative. (See also хотя́ бы.) Хоть бы Гáля скорéе вернýлась.

If only Galya had returned quickly.

Хоть бы поспáть чуть-чуть.

If only I could sleep just a little.

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Хоть бы и так. / А хоть бы и так. / Да хоть бы и так. So what? Expresses partial agreement. Used as a reply that means “nothing bad.” Informal. Synonymous with (а) хотя́ бы и так at least. (See also хотя́ бы.) Ну что, вы́ гнали? Доигрáлась. – А хоть бы и так. Моё э́ то дéло.

“So what, they kicked you out? You had it coming.” “So what? It’s my problem.”

Хоть бы что. / Хоть бы хны. [coll.] Doesn’t care. Means that one does not care or is indifferent. Вчерá мнóго вы́ пили. У меня́ головá разрывáется, а емý хоть бы что.

We drank a lot yesterday. My head’s splitting apart, but he’s right as rain.

Хоть бы не. Hopefully. Expresses a wish. Хоть бы не опоздáть.

Hopefully, I won’t be late.

Хоть умри́ . [coll.] Die trying. Хоть умри́ , а экзáмен сдай.

You can die trying, but pass that exam.

Хоть кудá. [coll.] Used with admiration about someone or something. Онá былá далекó не молодáя, а ещё хоть кудá!

She was far from young, but she looked great!

Хотя́ (хоть [coll.]) Conjunction Although Connects adverbial clauses of concession that point to the circumstances in spite of which the action described in the principal clause is accomplished. These clauses answer the question несмотря́ на что? despite what? Adverbial clauses of concession can be placed before, in the middle of, or after the principal clause. Can be used with the particle и and, which is placed before the predicate in the subordinate clause. Neutral and is used in various genres, while its synonyms несмотря́ на то что regardless of the fact that, невзирáя на то что not considering the fact that are formal. (See also и, несмотря́ на то что, невзирáя на то что.) Натáша не пойдёт в магази́ н, хотя́ в дóме ничегó нет.

Natasha won’t go to the store, although there’s nothing to eat at home.

Хотя́ гóсти бы́ ли приглашены́ на пять, в полови́ не шестóго ещё никогó не было.

Although the guests were invited at five, there was still nobody there at half past.

Ужé пóздно, и, хотя́ ýтром нáдо рáно вставáть, мы продолжáем игрáть в кáрты.

It’s late, and even though we need to get up early, we’re still playing cards.

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Although the dress is old, it’s still pretty.

Even though, but Semantically close to но but, однáко however, а but. Can be used with the particle и and. Хотя́ can be accompanied by всё-таки still to stress the articulated idea. (See also а, и, но, однáко.) Он всегдá дéлает то, о чём егó прóсят, хотя́ и не срáзу.

He always does what is asked of him, even though not right away.

На ýлице сóлнце, хотя́ всё-таки хóлодно.

It’s sunny out, but still cold.

Хотя́ бы Particle If only Expresses a desire for something to happen. With infinitives and verbs in the past, it functions as an imperative. Used less frequently than хоть бы at least and is used more formally. (See also хоть бы.) Хотя́ бы вам удалóсь спрáвиться с э́ тими проблéмами.

If only you had at least managed to deal with these problems.

Хотя́ бы пéнсия былá бóльше.

If only my pension were higher.

At least Synonymous with хоть at least and is more likely used in formal texts. (See also хоть.) Приéдь хотя́ бы на пáру дней.

Come at least for a couple of days.

Взять хотя́ бы [coll.] take, for example is used when one needs to give arguments. Used less frequently than the semantically close хоть even and да хоть even. Its synonym напримéр for example is neutral and is used in various styles and genres. (See also напримéр, хоть.) Взять хотя́ бы совремéнный балéт – рáзве э́ то балéт?

Take, for example, modern ballet. Is it even ballet?

(А) хотя́ бы и так so what? indicates partial agreement. When used as a reply, it means “nothing bad.” Informal and is a synonym of хоть бы и так / а хоть бы и так / да хоть бы и так so what? (See also хоть бы.) Знáчит, я психи́ чески бóлен, ненормáлен? – Хотя́ бы и так. Что смущáться? (А. Чéхов, «Чёрный монáх»)

“So, I’m psychologically ill, abnormal?” “So what? There’s no need to shy away from it.” (Chekhov, The Black Monk)

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Чáсом [coll.] Parenthetical word By any chance Used in interrogative sentences when a speaker has a guess or a supposition. Semantically and stylistically close to случáйно by any chance, слýчаем incidentally. Separated by commas. (See also случáйно, слýчаем.) Ты, чáсом, не оши́ бся? А́ дрес-то прáвильный?

Could you have been wrong by any chance? Is the address correct?

Note! Do not confuse the parenthetical word with the part of a sentence that is not separated by commas. С кáждым чáсом станóвится всё холоднéе.

It gets colder by the hour.

Чегó дóброго Parenthetical expression God forbid Expresses vigilance, concern, alertness. Separated by commas. (See also не дай бог, не рóвен час.) Нéзачем пéред сном смотрéть таки́ е фи́ льмы. Чегó дóброго, ýжасы бýдут сни́ ться.

You shouldn’t watch films like that before bed. God forbid, you might have nightmares.

Чем Conjunction Than Used when a predicate in the principal clause includes a comparative degree. Расскáз получи́ лся смешнéе, чем мóжно бы́ ло ожидáть.

The story turned out funnier than you would have expected.

Instead of [coll.] Used with infinitives. Subordinate clauses with this conjunction can precede or follow principal clauses. The word лýчше better is used or implied in the principal clause. Чем is an equivalent of вмéсто тогó, чтóбы instead of, which is used in various styles and genres, while чем is informal. (See also вмéсто тогó, чтóбы.) Чем сидéть без дéла, пошёл бы кудá-нибудь.

Instead of sitting around with nothing to do, you should go somewhere.

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Proverb with чем Лýчше пóздно, чем никогдá.

Better late than never.

Чем . . ., тем Conjunction The . . . the Used when both principal and subordinate clauses include the comparative degree. However, it is not possible to determine what part of a sentence the principal clause is and what part the subordinate clause is with the conjunction. Чем рáньше ты придёшь, тем бóльше мы успéем сдéлать.

The sooner you come, the more we’ll manage to get done.

Proverb with чем . . ., тем Чем дáльше в лес, тем бóльше дров.

The further you get, the harder the going.

Чéрез Preposition With the accusative case Across Designates the direction in which an object moves. Responds to the nonspecific question кудá? where? Перейти́ чéрез ýлицу / дорóгу.

To cross the street/road.

Переплы́ ть чéрез рéку.

To swim across the river.

Перепры́ гнуть чéрез лýжу / забóр.

To jump over a puddle/fence.

Проéхать чéрез мост.

To go across a bridge.

Designates the place or space on the other side of which something is located. Responds to the nonspecific question где? where? Магази́ н чéрез дорóгу.

The store is across the street.

Аптéка чéрез ýлицу.

The pharmacy is across the road.

Through Semantically close to сквозь through. Phrases with this conjunction answer the question чéрез что? through what? Used in certain phrases. Вдеть ни́ тку чéрез игóльное ýшко.

To thread a needle.

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Просéять мукý чéрез си́ то.

To sift flour.

Пропусти́ ть мя́ со чéрез мясорýбку.

To grind meat.

Проти́ скиваться чéрез толпý.

To squeeze through a crowd.

Through Used with verbs that indicate movement with the prefix про-. Проéхать чéрез весь гóрод.

To drive through the whole city.

Пройти́ чéрез пóле.

To walk through a field.

In Indicates how long (spacially or temporally) after the utterance an action or event occurs or begins. Forms the question чéрез скóлько врéмени? in how long?, чéрез какóе расстоя́ ние? in how long? Вáдик и Тáня встрéтятся чéрез мéсяц‚ когдá закóнчится лéто.

Tanya and Vadik will see each other in a month, when the summer’s over.

Дерéвня чéрез два киломéтра.

The village is in two kilometers.

Мы выхóдим чéрез три останóвки.

We’re getting out in three stops.

In Indicates the interval that defines the regularity of the action. Forms the questions как чáсто? how often? and когдá? when? Нýжно принимáть лекáрство чéрез три часá.

You need to take the medicine in three hours.

Through Used figuratively with words that denote a “negative experience” with the verb пройти́ to walk through. Чéрез страдáния.

Through suffering.

Чéрез испытáния.

Through trials.

Чéрез ýжасы войны́ .

Through the horrors of war.

Expression with чéрез Дéлать что-то чéрез си́ лу.

To do something with great effort.

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Through Used figuratively in phrases with the verbs пройти́ to walk through and писáть to write. Все докумéнты прохóдят чéрез канцеля́ рию.

All documents go through the administrative office.

Э́ то слóво пи́ шется чéрез чёрточку.

This word should be hyphenated.

Through Indicates a person or an object by means of which something takes place. Сообщи́ ть что-то чéрез газéту.

To say something through the newspaper.

Передáть извéстия чéрез знакóмых.

To pass along news through people you know.

Кот залéз в кварти́ ру чéрез окнó.

The cat climbed into the room through the window.

Used in phrases like the following: Переки́ нуть кóсу чéрез плечó.

To toss one’s braid over one’s shoulder.

Сýмка чéрез плечó.

A bag over one’s shoulder.

Чёрт возьми́ /побери́ [coll.] Interjection God damn it! An exclamation that expresses irritation, anger, impatience, or even admiration. Can be used separately or in a sentence as a parenthetical expression, which is separated by commas. Когдá же мы, наконéц, вы́ йдем, чёрт побери́ !

When are we finally going to leave, God damn it!

Чёрт возьми́ ! До чегó здесь хорошó!

God damn! It’s so good here!

Чéстно говоря́ /сказáть Parenthetical expression To tell the truth Еmphasizes the frankness or honesty of the speaker. Stylistically used in the same way as по прáвде говоря́ to tell the truth or откровéнно говоря́ frankly speaking and more often than сказáть по прáвде / по сóвести to tell the truth. Separated by commas. (See the synonyms откровéнно говоря́ , по прáвде говоря́ , сказáть по прáвде / по сóвести.)

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Чéстно говоря́ , мы над э́ тим не задýмывались.

To tell the truth, we hadn’t thought about this.

Note! The phrase чéстно сказáть can be used as a part of a sentence. No commas are needed. Он мóжет чéстно сказáть, что желáния оставáться там у негó не было.

He can truthfully say that he had no desire to stay there.

Что Conjunction. Particle Conjunction That Connects explanatory subordinate clauses that function as subjects or objects and fill a missing gap in a principal clause. Used to clarify what is said in the principal clause of the sentence. Clauses with this conjunction answer the questions of cases. Что is also used when clauses imply confidence or assurance, while the synonym бýдто as if is used to express doubt, supposition, or uncertainty. Что emphasizes the fact that something is going on, while its synonym как how conveys emotions. (See also как, что.) Волóдя всегдá был увéрен, что добьётся успéха.

Volodya was always sure that he would be successful.

Ей óчень не нрáвится, что Пáша игрáет в футбóл.

She really doesn’t like it that Pasha plays soccer.

What Что as a connective word can function as a part of a clause. Focuses on the subject (что) or object (чегó, чемý, что, чем, о чём). Ты мóжешь вспóмнить, о чём мы говори́ ли пéред собрáнием?

Can you remember what we talked about before the meeting?

Тhat Что connects the subordinate clause to the pronouns всё everything or то that in the principal clause, when these pronouns function as subjects, predicates, or objects, but not when they function as attributes; in this case, the connective word котóрый which is used. (See also котóрый.)

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Всё, что остáлось пóсле вечери́ нки, нýжно положи́ ть в холоди́ льник.

We need to put everything that was left after the party in the fridge.

Студéнты не смогли́ сдéлать всё задáние, котóрое бы́ ло на экзáмене.

The students couldn’t do the whole problem that was on the exam.

That Connects explanatory subordinate clauses with the words and phrases так so, настóлько to such an extent, до тогó to such an extent, стóлько so much, так мнóго so much, с такóй си́ лой with such intensity in the principal clause. Кто-то так кричáл, что сбежáлись все сосéди.

Somebody screamed so hard that all the neighbors came running.

Particle What Used as an interrogative reply or when reasking something. А́ ня! – Что? – Идём смотрéть телеви́ зор. – Не слы́ шу, что?

“Anya!” “What?” “Let’s go watch TV.” “I can’t hear you. What?”

What [coll.] Used in the beginning of an interrogative sentence in which the speaker expresses supposition, astonishment, or doubt about someone or something. Can sound very conversational and even rude. Can be used in the phrases ну что so what, ты / вы что what are you talking about, а что so what. Что, не хóчешь éхать?

What, you don’t want to go?

Ты что, не слы́ шал нóвости?

What, you didn’t hear the news?

Чтóбы/чтоб Conjunction. Particle Conjunction That Чтóбы or чтоб [coll.] (which is used less often) connects explanatory subordinate clauses that function as subjects or objects and fill a missing gap in a principal clause. Used to indicate a demand, request, or wish. Also serves to express indirect speech. Translations may vary. Желáтельно, чтóбы мéбель привезли́ до выходны́ х.

It would be good if they brought the furniture over before the weekend.

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Пéтя прóсит, чтóбы мы перестáвили маши́ ну в другóе мéсто.

Petya asks that we move the car to another spot.

In order to Connects adverbial clauses of purpose that indicate the motive of the action reflected in the principal part of the sentence. This neutral conjunction is frequently used, while its synonyms для тогó чтóбы in order to, с тем чтóбы in order to are used less frequently. These clauses answer the questions зачéм? for what purpose?, с какóй цéлью? with what goal? This conjunction can be placed before, in the middle of, or after the principal clause. (See also для тогó чтóбы, с тем чтóбы.) Олéг купи́ л мнóго продýктов, чтóбы приготóвить прáздничный обéд.

Oleg bought a lot of groceries in order to make a celebratory dinner.

Note! If the actions described in the principal and subordinate clauses are performed by different subjects, the predicate of the latter is in the past tense. Емý дáли дéньги, чтóбы он мог купи́ ть себé необходи́ мые кни́ ги и учéбники.

They gave him money so that he could buy the required books and textbooks.

Note! If the actions described in the principal and subordinate clauses are performed by the same subject, the predicate of the latter is in the infinitive. Чтóбы встрéтиться с родны́ ми, мы поéдем в Гермáнию.

In order to meet with our relatives, we’ll go to Germany.

In order to If the predicate of the principal clause is expressed by нýжен needed, необходи́ м essential, слýжит serves as, предназнáчен intended to (in all genders and numbers), the predicate of the subordinate clause can be expressed by a verbal infinitive and a verb in the past tense. Сáше нужны́ нóвые сапоги́ , чтóбы бы́ ло в чём ходи́ ть зимóй в лес.

Sasha needs new boots so that he’ll have something to wear in the woods in the winter.

So that Used to imply purpose with adverbial clauses of manner or measure and degree, which describe the manner or quantity of the action that occurs in the principal clause. The demonstrative words так so, таки́ м óбразом thus, довóльно enough,

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настóлько to such an extent, сли́ шком too, чересчýр overly are used in the principal clause. These subordinate clauses answer the questions как? how?, каки́ м óбразом? in what manner? and refer to the predicate in the principal clause. Одéнься таки́ м óбразом, чтóбы мóжно бы́ ло снять с себя́ чтóнибудь, éсли бýдет жáрко.

Dress in such a way so that you could take something off if it gets too hot.

Рабóта не достáточно хорошó напи́ сана, чтóбы её мóжно бы́ ло предстáвить на обсуждéние.

This work is not written well enough to present it for discussion.

Particle An unstressed particle. Used to express an order, demand, or command. Can sound very rude. Чтóбы / чтоб дýху их здесь не было!

Don’t let me catch them here!

Что (бы) ни Conjunction No matter what Connects subordinate clauses that point that the content of the principal clause is factual in spite of the action described in the principal clause. Conveys intensity to the action described. The particle ни is usually placed before a predicate. This conjunction can also be combined with бы to emphasize the meaning of concession. Phrases with всё-таки after all, всё равнó doesn’t matter, тем не мéнее nevertheless can be used in the principal clause. (See also что ни.) Что Аркáдий ни сдéлает, всё пoлучáется вкривь и вкось.

No matter what Arkady does, everything turns out poorly.

Не хóчет Сáра переезжáть в другóе мéсто, что бы ни происходи́ ло.

Sarah doesn’t want to move to another place, no matter what happens.

Что (же) касáется Conjunction Concerning, as for Used to draw someone’s attention to the utterance. The particle же can be used to emphasize the expressed idea when this conjunction starts the sentence. When this conjunction is used in the beginning of a sentence, which happens frequently, the demonstrative то can be used in the other clause. The prepositions в отношéнии regarding, относи́ тельно regarding, по пóводу about are synonymous. However, this conjunction is more formal and is used in journalism and different genres where formal language is used. (See also в отношéнии, относи́ тельно, по пóводу.)

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Что же касáется борьбы́ с коррýпцией, всё не так прóсто.

As for the fight against corruption, it’s not so simple.

Что касáется кри́ зиса, то госудáрство The government is losing a lot with regard to мнóгое теря́ ет. the crisis.

Что ни Conjunction Another Connects subordinate clauses that indicate repetition. The demonstrative word то can be used in the principal clause. (See also что (бы) ни.) Что ни год, то нóвые проблéмы.

Another year, new problems.

Что ни говори́ (те) Parenthetical expression Say what you will Indicates that despite anything else, the expressed idea is reliable. Separated by commas. Коплю́ дéньги, хочý съéздить, я ведь мальчи́ шкой из дóму уéхал. Что ни говори́ , всё же рóдина. (Д. Грáнин, «Мéсяц вверх ногáми»)

I’m collecting money, I want to go there, I left as a little boy after all. Say what you will, but it’s still my home. (Granin, The Overturned Crescent)

Что ты/вы [coll.] Interjection What are you talking about? This exclamation expresses astonishment, fear, or refusal. May be used when someone informally thanks another. Can be used with ну or да. (See also не за что.) Ну что ты?! Он не мóжет себé такóе позвóлить.

What are you talking about?! He can’t allow himself to do this.

Ну что Вы! Какие благодáрности.

No, no, please! There’s no need for thanks!

Да что ты! Не мóжет такóго быть.

What are you talking about! That’s impossible.

Что ты говори́ шь [coll.] Interjection (Please,) tell me more, you don’t say Что ты говори́ шь or что вы говори́ те expresses astonishment, amazement, wonder, bewilderment, etc. Used with an exclamation mark. Can sound sarcastic. Can be combined with да. Что is stressed.

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Иванькó – писáтель? Да что вы говори́ те! (В. Войнóвич, «Иванькиáда»)

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Ivan’ko is a writer? Tell me more! (Voynovich, Ivan’kiada)

Note! Do not confuse this interjection with a part of a sentence or a question. Лев! Что ты говори́ шь? Как тебé не сóвестно? (Ю. Три́ фонов, «Дом на нáбережной»)

Lev! What are you talking about? How are you not ashamed? (Trifonov, The House on the Embankment)

Что . . ., что [coll.] Conjunction Implies that there is no difference between two objects, actions, or phenomena. Connects clauses or coordinate parts that have objects, actions, or phenomena that are similar in some aspects. There is no universal translation. Что дéти, что взрóслые – все ведýт себя́ одинáково.

Kids, adults – they all behave the same.

Что они́ ýчатся, что они́ не ýчатся – рáзницы никакóй.

Regardless of whether they study, the result for them is always the same.

Что-что, а [coll.] Particle Underlines one’s assurance or confidence in something or someone. (See also уж что, а.) Что-что, а дéлать яи́ чницу я умéю.

Say what you will, but I can make some good scrambled eggs.

Чуть не [coll.] Particle Almost Indicates an action (often undesired) that was close to completion, but that was not ultimately completed. Used with verbs in the past tense. Sounds even more informal than its synonym едвá не nearly. (See also едвá не.) Ой, чуть не упáл.

Whoops, I almost fell.

Чуть ли не [coll.] Particle Practically Conveys uncertain supposition or comparison that includes exaggeration. (See the synonym едвá ли не.)

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Говоря́ т, в университéт дóлжен приéхать кто-то из аппарáта президéнта, чуть ли не сам президéнт.

They say that someone is supposed to be coming to the university from the president’s administration, practically the president himself.

Шýтка ли [coll.] Parenthetical expression No small feat, nothing to laugh at Articulates the importance or significance of something. Шýтка сказáть means the same thing and functions in the same way; however, it is used less frequently. Separated by commas, or else an exclamation mark follows it. Прóжили вмéсте в э́ том дóме сóрок лет, шýтка ли.

We lived together in this house for 40 years – no small feat.

Эй [coll.] Interjection Hey An exclamation that draws someone’s attention. Often sounds very rude. Separated by commas. Эй, слы́ шишь, подожди́ , не спеши́ .

Hey, do you hear me? Hold up, slow down!

Э́ то Particle That Focuses on the most important part of an utterance. Often used in questions with a negative shade. Кто э́ то там кричи́ т?

Who’s that yelling over there?

Я всё-таки не соглашýсь с тобóй. – Э́ то пожáлуйста.

“I still won’t agree with you.” “That’s up to you.”

Note! Do not confuse the particle with the link and the neuter demonstrative pronoun. Шарлóтка – э́ то десéрт из бéлого хлéба и я́ блок.

A Charlotte is a dessert out of white bread and apples.

Э́ то окнó нáдо меня́ ть.

We need to change this window.

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Эх [coll.] Interjection Bah An exclamation that expresses displeasure or disappointment. Separated by commas. Can be used in exclamatory sentences. Translations may vary. Эх, не успéли. Пóезд ушёл минýту назáд.

Bah, we didn’t make it. The train left a minute ago.

Эх, прокачýсь!

Well, I’ll go for a ride!

Я́ кобы Particle. Conjunction Conjunction As if Used in complex sentences to express disbelief and skepticism. The verbs in the principal clause indicate speech, thought, or perception. Semantically close to the conjunction бýдто as though, which articulates doubt, supposition, or uncertainty. However, я́ кобы expresses a greater degree of doubt. When it implies confidence or assurance, the conjunction что is used. (See also бýдто, что.) По рáдио сказáли, я́ кобы бýдет снег.

They said on the radio something about how there might be snow.

Particle It sounds like Expresses distrust, suspicion, and disbelief. No commas are needed. Он сказáл, что егó я́ кобы перевóдят в другóй отдéл.

He said that it sounds like they’re transferring him to another department.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Даль В.И. Пословицы русского народа. Москва: «Издательство Астрель». – 2000. Объяснительный словарь русского языка. Под редакцией В.В. Морковкина и др. Москва: «Издательство Астрель». «AST». – 2003. Ожегов С.И., и Шведова Н.Ю. Толковый словарь русского языка. Москва: «Азбуковник». – 1999. Розенталь Д.Э. Справочник по русскому языку. Практическая стилистика. Москва: «Мир и образование». – 2003. Rojavin, M., Dengub, E., and Forrester, S. Russian for Advanced Students, Hyattsville, MD: Dunwoody Press, 2013. Rojavin, M., and Reid, A. A Guide to Russian Words and Expressions That Cause Difficulties. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 2004. Русская грамматика. Под редакцией Н.Ю. Шведовой и др. Москва: «Наука». – 1980. Словарь сочетаемости слов русского языка. Под редакцией П.Н. Денисова и В.В. Морковкина. Москва: «Русский язык». – 1983.