Rural Development in Northern Thailand: An Interpretation and Analysis

Citation preview

R U R A L DEVELOPMENT IN NORTHERN THAILAND AN INTERPRETATION A N D ANALYSIS

C.L.J. van der Meer, Rural Develggmewt in Northern Thailand. }3RRg1_ page

10 11

line

3

"Thai" should read "Tai"

Table 1

first

pow

should read: 1°11

8.8*

\

Note: all figures are corrected CCIllSLiS

12

Table 2

data except for 1911

Note : uncorrected census data which differ from the estimated

figures in Table 1 114

25

15

Table

"Thai" should read "Tai"

u

Note: "the Tables 1 and 2" should read "Table

26

i

37

32

H2

8

1"

"Policy" shou?d read "Polity" "policy" should read "polity

should read' ".appointment is only valid if1".

19

71+

l

"and" should read "that" 'Q

should read: 'fertilizer application

vary..." 88

u

delete "ha".

91

1"-l

E) g

Table 19

last figure of col 2: "65 3 651"

last figure of col 7: U 5% 5" should read: "production which supports the vieuw..

1145

Table 2u

H

1990" should read "1980"

line 2:

II

line

1980 should read "1990"

Q

153

37

should read: "...Only few settlers.

166

39

should read: "..cultivation by the land owner then .

J tJ I

Table 27

• •

v

11

H

figures of the middle part should be rived to t`p@ left •D *the 5Las~*~5--'€¥w

figures are:

H F,l.L*

52.7'.' l.

188

20

190

1

delete first line

192

1

delete first line

203

2

should read:

26I+

delete

"Ecological arguments also".

II I

O

.the protected domestic • » . H

heading of part A should read: Paddy Housing Land"Total land H holding area

\

RIJKSUNIVERSITEIT TE GRONINGEN

RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN NORTHERN THAILAND AN INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS

PROEFSCHRIFT

ter verkrijging van het doctoraat in de economische wetenschappen op gezag van de Rector Magnificus Dr. M. R. van Gils in het openbaar to verdedigen op donderdag 4 jun 1981 des namiddags

to 4.00 our

door

CORNELIS LODEWIJK JOHANNES VAN DER MEER geboren to Spijkenisse

ITS

krips repro repel

'r-

Promoter : Prof. Ir, R. van Hees Co-referent : Prof. Dr. A. Maddison

Acknowledgements

My

in

interest

problems

intricate

the

of

of

development

w o r k e d in 1975/76 when I Nor t h o r n T h a i l a n d was c r e a t e d in at the Nor t h o r n Region A g r i c u l t u r a l an UNDP/FAO pro j e t C h i a n g M a i . Af t e r m y c o n t r a c t D e v e l o p m e n t C e n t r e (NADC) in with this pro ject I s t a r red this research with supper t from

The University of Groningen. the Faculty of Economics, permission to National Research C o u n c i l of T h a i l a n d g r a n t e d carry out fieldwork. Dr. Krui Punyasingh, former direc tor o f NADC, o f f e r e d o f f i c e f a c i l i t i e s a t NAUC, a n d w a s h e l p f u l Deputy for my r e s e a r c h from the in obtaining approval U n d e r - s e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e o f t h e M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e and During the Thamrongnavasawat. Co-operatives, Dr. Thalerng in a friendly periods of fieldwork I enjoyed much h e l p atmosphere f r o m M r . P a i r o j P h o l p r a s i t , d i r e c t o r o f NADC, a t NADC, and M r . Lynn J. H e w i t t , UNDP/FAO p r o j e c t m a n a g e r

NADC's

from

Planning

Mr.

staff.

Branch

of

Attinuth

NADC,

Chief

Bhromsiri,

gave

Of

the

professional

valuable

supper t .

Because this s t u d y covers widely divergent subjects, it could only be carried o u t w i t h c o - o p e r a t i o n f r o m many p e r s o n s and o r g a n i z a t i o n s . I b e n e f i t e d in par t i c u l a r f r o m a d v i c e and c o m m e n t s o n d r a f i s f r o m : Mr.

Amway

Korvanich,

Suwanbubpa,

Mrs.

Dr.

J.P.

Andriesse,

Aree Wiboonpongse,

Mr.

Aran

dr.

Professor

C.J.L.

B e r t h o l e t , M r s . K a t h e r i n e B o w i e , M r . Cham N a n - R u a n g s a n g , M r . Cha yan V a d d h a n a p h u t i , Mr. P . G . D e k k e r , Mr. C . A . van D i e pen, Mr. J. Lindsay Falvey, Mr. Trevor Gibson, Professor

dr.

F.P.

Mr.

Krirkklat

Jansen,

Dr.

G.

Kalshoven,

Pipatseritham,

Dr.

Mr. Peter

K a n g wan D e v a h a s t i n , Kunstadter,

Mr.

Paul

( V o n g p h a c h a n h ) L i o u , D r . Manu S e e t i s a r n , M r . C l i v e M a s s e y , D r . J o h n M. M c K i n n o n , D r . A . J . N i e l s M u l d e r , M r . P a i r o j , S u c h i n d a , D r . R o b e r t A. R a l s t o n , M r . A . G . R i j k , M r . S o m k i a t Osotsapa,

Dr.

Somnuk

Sriplung,

Mr.

Shimbhanao,

Mr.

Mr. Anders Tandrup, Wanat Bhruksasri. Professor Dr. Angus Maddison improving Dr.H.P.

very

the

final

Schapper,

beginning

stimulated

draf t .

I

University

in

1975/76

my i n t e r e s t

in

of

when the

Surasinghsamruam T h a n a Tong t o n a n d

gave valuable am e s p e c i a l l y Western

was

he

subject

and

at

_

advice for grateful to

Australia.

my

Dr.

At

supervisor, the

end

he

the

he did

t h e i n d i s p e n s a b l e e d i t i n g . M o s t o f a l l I am g r a t e f u l f o r the f r i e n d l y supper t from Professor Ir. R . v a n H e e s , who supervised this study. I thank a l l persons and o r g a n i z a tions

who

emphasized

sole

supper red

that

the

this

study.

conclusions

However,

and

possible

lt

need

errors

to

be

are

my

responsibility.

J:

A study like this is difficult to combine with obligations of kinship and friendship. For this I feel especially indebted to Irene, Marcille and Jaas, and thank them for Hans M a r i n and understanding. their and van Leeuwen, Gloria and Lynn Hewitt gave warn hear red care when my health

Finally, I thank my colleagues of the was in trouble. Depar trent of Applied Economics for their encouragement, and Mrs. Maidra Lukkien-Bernadina and Mrs. Gera Jolink for typing, and Mr. A.G.M. Nijensteen for assisting with the index. C.L.J. van der Meer

Groningen, The Netherlands

May 1981

_.ii-

Measures I baht

1

i S about

0 . 0 5 U S $ or 20 baht

1,600 square

raj

20

1 tang

metros and 6.25

is about raj

1 US

$

= 1 hectare

l i t res

Abbreviations

ARD

Accelerated Rural Development Organization

CPT

Agricultural Requisites Scheme for Asia and the Pacific Communist Par ty of Thailand

DAE

Division of Agricultural Economics

ARSAP

ESCAP

Economic and Social Commission for Asia

and the

Pacific FAO

FFT ILO MOAC NADC NEDB NESDB ONCB RFD TALD

Food and Agriculture Organization of the'United Nations

Farmers Federation of Thailand International Lab our Organization Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives Nor thorn Region Agricultural Development Centre National Economic Development Board

National Economic and Social Development Board Office of the Narcotics Control Board Royal Forestry Depar trent

Thai Australian Land Development Pro ject United Nations UNPDAC United Nations Programme for Drug Abuse Control UNDP United Nations Development Programme UN

Glossary changed amp fur tambol

province district sub-district

iii

and

Definitions

Concepts

its "swidden" term The from dialects to origin owes England, Nor t h e n or also as "swithen" where i t appears " s w i v v e n " , meaning a " b u r n i n g and c l e a r i n g " , or as a v e r b " t o c l e a r by b u r n i n g " ( W a t t e r s , 1 9 6 0 ; K e e n , 1 9 7 4 ) . I t has by some w r i t e r s t o d e s c r i b e a wide v a r i e t y of been adopted commonly used in is of s h i p ting c u l t i v a t i o n and i t types study this In Thailand. to refers "swidden agriculture" a g r i c u l t u r e f o r which s l a s h and burn t e c h of kinds all in and used niques are which a f i e l d is let t in f allow

of t e r

being c r o p p e d f o r one o r a l i m i t e d number of c o n s e c u Related words years. five "swiddens" "swiddening", are bidden agriculture, practising meaning and " s w i d d e n e r s " ,

bidden

fields,

and

f armers

practising

swidden

agricul-

turn. II

f arming s y s t e m s are Fallow systems" where land in f a l l o w percent 33 and 67 between covers of area local the of which hoe- or p l o u g h - c u l t i v a t i o n a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d , and in i s more imper t e n t than s l a s h i n g a n d b u r n i n g . F a l l o w l a n d i s unregulated grazing. m o s t l y used f o r A f arming s y s t e m in

f allow vegetation for upland "Permanent a f arming system c u l t i v a t i o n " is w i t h l e s s t h a n 30 p e r c e n t f a l l o w l a n d and w i t h annual c r o p p i n g o f u n i r r i g a t e d error is

which

grazing,

made

are

called

is

a

improve

to

"ley

system "

.

fields. production to refers production" "Subsistence for production subsistence towards Orientation use.

direct

means

a

directly goods and food of preoccupation with provision this sense is u s e d b y h o u s e h o l d s . A s u b s i s t e n c e s o c i e t y in and l i t t l e m a r k e t - o r i labor one w i t h l i t t l e d i v i s i o n o f e n t e d p r o d u c t i o n , where a small par t o f c o n s u m p t i o n at ti-

cles

and

food

is

obtained

from

outsiders.

This

concept

of

the where usage p o w e r t y in to a state of "subsistence" refers which the s e c u r e d . be hardly can l i v e hood of means barest poor, our s e n s e may b e v e r y S u l b s i s t e n c e . s o c i e t i e s in but t h e y may a l s o b e r e l a t i v e l y p r o s p e r o u s . subsistence

should

not

be

confused

with

t o the body o f , p e r s o n s h o l d i n g p u b l i c refers "Bureaucracy" In this sense it duties. official in or engaged office i r r e s p e c t i v e whether officials, government all comprises in an a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s e a r c h s t a t i o n , in a r e engaged they l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a p l a n n i n g b o a r d , or in t h e m i l i t a r y .

-iv

Contents

Acknowledgements / i Measures

/iii

Abbreviations

/iii

Glossary /iii

Definitions and Concepts L i s t of Contents /v List of Tables /vii List of Appendices /viii Figures /1x

/iv

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION /1 CHAPTER 11. THAILAND AND ITS UPPER NORTH /6 1 1 . 1 . Physical Characteristics / 6 II. 1.1. L o c a t i o n / 6 1 1 . 1.2. Climate /9 Population / 1 0 11.2. t1.3. 11.4.

H e r i t a g e of the P a s t / 2 0 P o l i t y and A d m i n i s t r a t i o n / 2 6

11.5.

Some

Social

Aspects

/39

CHAPTER III. THE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC SITUATION /48 111.1. 111.2. 111.3.

111.4.

From Subsistence To Commodity Production /48 Production Structure and Economic Growth /52 Income Distribution /56 Financial Stability /59

CHAPTER IV. AGRICULTURE /63 CHAPTER

v.

LAND-USE /71

Land-Use Systems /71 v.1.1. I r r i g a t e d Agriculture /72 V.1.2. S w i d d e n A g r i c u l t u r e / 7 7 V.1.2.1 N a t u r e and C l a s s i f i c a t i o n / 7 7

v.1.

v.1.2.z V.1.2.3

V.l.3.

Par rial Swiddeners / 7 8 Integral Swiddeners / 8 0 Forestry /84

v.

CHAPTER

CONTINUED

V. 2 Land-Use /86 V 3 Land Tenure /92 V . 3. 1 . Land-Use Rights /92 Tenancy and Distribution of Land /94 V. 3 . 2 C onflicts /98 V v . Landlords, Tenants and Labourers /98 v . 2. Farmers and Foresters /103 v 2 1 Economic and Social Aspects /103 V . Ism 2. 2 Environmental Aspects /110 1

*

I

l

l

I

l

l

l

l

is44

l

I

I

CHAPTER VI. ANALYSIS OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT /125

VI.1.

Development

Policies

/125

VI. 1.1. Policy and Change /125 VI.l.2. National Development Plans /126 VI. 1.2.1 Status and Role of Development plans /126

... .

VI 1 2 2 Development Aims /130 Efficiency in Rural Development V I 1. 3 I

VI.2.

Administration /135 Creation of Productive Employment /143

VI.3.

Land-Use Policy /152 VI.3.1. Land Allocation /153 VI.3.2. Distribution of Land /162 VI.3.3. Land Titles /170 v1.4. Price Policy and Marketing /172 v1.5. Development of Irrigated Agriculture /184 VI.6. Highland Development Policies /194 VI.7. Development in Swidden Agriculture /20 8 VI.8. Improvement in Forestry /219 VI.8. 1. Forest Management and Protection /219 vI.8.2,

Reforestation /220

VI.8.3. VI.8.4.

The Forest Village System /223

v1.9.

Agro-Forestry /229

Foreign Assistance /232

CHAPTER VII. PROSPECTS FOR DEVELOPMENT /_2/+3 Appendices

/252

Bibliography

/273

S u b j e c t index / 2 8 2

Authors

index

/288

S a m e n v a t t i n g (Summary

in Dutch) / 2 9 0

vi-

Llst Table

l

Tabla

.. 2

Population

of t a b l e s

Growth,

Distribution

of

-

1911

Population

pggg 11

1970 and Land

1970 o f M i n o r i t i e s in Thailand b y P r o v i n c e in t h e U p p e r N o r to

3.

Resources, Population

Table

4.

Population

Table

5

1?

Table

6

Rate of migration by Province 1965-1970 Overall and Sectoral Targets and Actual

7

Growth R a t e s Change in Composition

513

Table

Table

8.

in 1 9 1 9 , 1 9 i 7 , 1 9 6 0 and

1970

of Gross

16

Domestic

Table

Product Trends in Gross Regional Product 1971 - 1 9 7 6 Income per Worker by Main ' Occupation in 1 9 7 6 Income Distribution Among Household Groups in D i f f e r e n t Regions Using Income C a t e g o r i e s

Table 11

Income

Table

C o m p o s i t i o n o f T o t a l Agricultural Production 1962-1976 Major E x p o r i s 1 9 6 2 - 1 9 7 0 Y i e l d s o f Major Crops Farm P r i c e s o f M a j o r P r o d u c t s Average Size o f Landholding per Farm Family

9. Table 10 u

of 1973 of

Typical

1976 1.

12 15

Table

12.

Table 1 3 . T a b l e 14. Table 1 5 . Table 16.

Agricultural Households,

55 55 56

57 58

64 61+

65 66 68

1975 Table 1 7 .

Average

Yield

of Paddy per

Raj Planted

Table Table

P h y s i o g r a p h i c Land U n i t s

70 86

F o r e s t e d Land in the Upper Nor th 1 9 7 3 ; Comparison o f NADC and RFD Figures Tenure o f Farm Land by Region, 1 9 7 1

91 95

1976/77

Table 2 0 . Table

21.

Tenure

o f Farm Land in

the U p p e r

Nor th

95

1973

ll+3

Table

Pro jected

Table

Growth T a r g e t s the W o r l d Bank

Table

P r o j e c t e d L a b our Force in the U p p e r N o r th Assumed Increase of the A g r i e u l t u r a l

145

Area, 1 9 7 3 - 2 0 0 0 E x p e c t e d Increase in Employment From Land Allocation for Agriculture in the Uplands

161

and H i g h l a n d s ,

161

Table

Table 2 6 .

Table 2 7 .

Table 28 Table

29.

Growth o f Employment for

Employment P r o p o s e d

by 141+

1973-2000

Land Tenure by D i f f e r e n t I n t e n s i t y o f Cropping and D i f f e r e n t Farm-Sizes Number o f Farmers' Groups and members o f

167

Major

178

Agricultural

Institutions

Sources o f Income in in 1 9 7 6

two F o r e s t

Villages 227

vii

.l-

List Appendix

A.1

Regions,

of

Appendices

Sub-Regions

and

Provinces

page 252

Appendix B-1

Some Regional Annual Climate Data

253

Appendix B.2

Annual Rainf all and Number of Days with Rainf all, 1962-1975

254

Appendix B.3

Monthly Climatic Figures for Chiang Mai Population, Households and Literacy in the Upper Nor th, 1970 Total Population by 5 Year A Group, 1970 Population II Years of Age and over by Type of Eeonomie Activity, 1970

.Appendix C.1 Appendix

C.2

Appendix C.3

255

256 257 258

Appendix C.4 Economically Active Population II Years Age and over by Major Industry Group, Appendix D.1 Appendix D.2 Appendix E.l Appendix E.2 Appendix Appendix

F.1 F.2

Appendix F.3

1970 Gross regional P r o d u c t ( G R P ) a t M a r k e t

259

Prices, 1976

260

Gross Provincial Product ( G P D ) at Marks Prices 1976, Upper Nor th Planted Area of Major Crops 1962-1976 Planted Area of Major Crops in the Upper Nor th, 1977

262

Upper Nor t h 1961

265

261

263 261+ Agricultural Landholding 1973 Forest Type Areas and Other Strata in the

Comparison of Forest Area in the Upper Nor th based on Air Photo Interpretation 1961, Satellite Imagery Interpretation 1973 and National Reserved Forests

266

1975 Appendix F.4 Appendix F.5

AppendiX F.6 Appendix G.1 Appendix G.2

Land-Use in the Highlands of the Upper Nor th 1973 267 Land-Use in the Upland of the Upper Nor th 1973 268 269 Distribution of Landholdings 1975 Planned and Aetual Development 270 Expenditures and Sectoral Priorities

Composition of Planned Development Expenditure to Agriculture

-viii-

271

THAILAND

fig.1

.

./-

BU R M A

5""`°"\

/".

\

.I

_

.I .r--_,..¢"J

\

f

_,.._. ¢

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,» 1

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I

I

_ 1,

l I

2€1n&

'L I

> 'to

( )

II!s'

2

J

0

3 >

\

--

national frontier

--

provincial boundaries

rivers 1

I

:>

.1

o

~Ao~A6ueg

1

I

~=-Z_

_,n

(;it*

;==~

I

I..

sons

HONG

r

Mekong

.

`

f'

I

|

I

-x_

.

Q

|

u

I I

main roads

railway provincial capitals

5.0

100 km

CHAPTER I . This

INTRODUCTION

study

land.

It

is It

government.

in

pects

economic on

shows

Nor t h e r m

Central

development

land-use

that

It

are

re j e t s

bureaucracy

and

and

by

the

Nor thorn the

foreign

of

and

f avourable beliefs

the pros-

than

held

aid

Thai--

role

experience

less

popular

in

on

development

Thailand

Thailand.

government

such

about

concentrates

for

in

the

establishment

as'

-that

swidden a g r i c u l t u r e

-that

forest

should

destruction

and

be

abolished;

soil

erosion

are

major

prob-

lems; -that

only

tree

forest

plantations

-that

control

a c h i e v e d by -that

aid

-that

and

cheap

this

critical

of

sume

that

can

study

present

are

regime to

to

to

that

can

production

the

be

introduction

provide

assist

of

is

popular

beliefs it

a necessary the

are

f arm

modern

with marketing.

policies,

Within there

and

and

these

change

hills

development; with

required

re jeers

development. lead

opium

for

and

the

pro j e c t s ;

development

revolutionary

government

which

of

systems;

credit,

in

reforestation,

synonymous

agricultural

Although

successful

for

necessary is

co-operatives

inputs

acceptable

abolition

is

development

h i g h input

and

and

is

needed

income-replacement

foreign

-that

cover

are

existing

available

does

and

condition social policy

is

pre-

not

for

order options

development.

Thailand'S a g r i c u l t u r a l development during the l a s t hundred years is g e n e r a l l y considered to have been s u c c e s s f u l : i t s o u t p u t has grown f a s t e r than t h a t of most developing countries, its agriculture has contributed substantially to foreign exchange earnings and to government revenues, and its food p r i c e s have remained low. However, this development was mainly concentrated in and around the Central R e g i o n w h e r e t h e p r o d u c t i o n of e x p o r t c r o p s c o u l d be e a s i l y expanded.

the

Expansion

development

scribed

in

this

region

is

a

typical

example

of

of peasant agricultural expor i s as deby M y i n t l . In o t h e r r e g i o n s t h i s k i n d of d e v e l o p m e n t

was not tation. From

possible,

1850-1980

from

about

vation in

use,

opment

Briefly,

growth

and

ulation

The

of

is

greater

this with

that

by

by

increased

ninefold

area

1.5 of

now

is

under

to

good

crop is

how

that

for

is

to

agricultural

which

for

devel-

increase

pressure,

population

Malthus

and

past

answering

intensification

of

20

quality

expor is from

culti-

nearly

population

relevant

thesis

transpor-

strongly

growing

is

cheap

the

land

question

thesis

constrained

all

under

of

perhaps

differ

production

contrasts

from

for

main

production

lack

while

almost

prospects

Boserup's

questions. induces

Since

of

population

millions,

population

patterns.

whether

ture,

50

twelvefold

the

rural

agricultural and

to

hectares.

expanding

because

Thailand's

5.5

increased

million now

mainly

of is

increase agriculthat

production

this

pop-

possibil-

ities.

To i n c r e a s e a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n now r e q u i r e s i n t e n s i f i cation of land-use and/or higher crop yields, but such developments are unlikely to follow the same p a t t e r n in v a r i o u s r e g i o n s of T h a i l a n d . There are great differences b e t w e e n r e g i o n s in endowment of n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , p o p u l a tion

pressure,

land-use,

and

tenure.

Areas

with

spectacular

growth in the past, such as the C e n t r a l Plain and i t s surrounding upland a r e a s , s t i l l have b e t t e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s for increased production than t h e Nor t h e a s t and the Upper N o r t h , w h i c h a r e t h e p o o r e s t r e g i o n s in t h e c o u n t r y . There

is

analyses

need of

in

and

Thailand

for

cations

of

different

systems,

and

population

a p p r e c i a t e d and and development

for

more

agricultural physical

detailed

development. conditions,

pressures

of t e n

are

regional

The

impli-

agricultural

insufficiently

play only minor r o l e s in economic analysis p l a n s . S t u d i e s of t h e s e f a c t o r s f o r b e t t e r

understanding of development processes could lead to more e f f e c t i v e government development programmers and pro j e c t s . The Upper irrigated lowlands, and

Nor t h has t h r e e d i f f e r e n t k i n d s of l a n d - u s e : the a g r i c u l t u r e w i t h w e t - r i c e as t h e m a i n c r o p in swidden a g r i c u l t u r e i n the u p l a n d s and highland

forestry

land-uses

has

in

the

uplands

basically

and

highlands.

different

_.2_

Each

of

these

characteristics,

which

problems and a d i f f e r e n t impact imply d i f f e r e n t development of population increase and external i n f l u e n c e s . Therefore p o l i c i e s are needed s e p a r a t e l y f o r lows p e c i f i c government l a n d s , u p l a n d s and h i g h l a n d s . H o w e v e r , t h e p r o b l e m s in d i f areas a r e interdependent and r e q u i r e a coordinated ferent policies. in a n a l y s i n g and p r e s c r i b i n g development approach

I n t h e U p p e r Nor t h o f T h a i l a n d a l a r g e n u m b e r o f s t u d i e s but l i t t l e has been out, and p r o j e c t s have been c a r r i e d d o n e t o u s e t h e s e f o r e v a l u a t i o n of t h e g e n e r a l s i t u a t i o n . The

main

purpose

this

of

to

is

study

and

combine

synthesize

also is into a regional framework that such information requires This interdependent with the national framework. and villages f arms, from information of interpretation national sociothe p e r s p e c t i v e of within the pro jects, economic

structure

and

polity.

harmful c o n f l i c t s c o n c e r n i n g land-use in the Upper the major emphaNor t h are a major o b s t a c l e to development s i s in t h i s s t u d y is to examine and a n a l y z e f a r m i n g s y s t e m s many f a c c t s l a n d - u s e t h e r e . L a n d - u s e has and p a t t e r n s of

Because

from e c o n o m i c , agronomic and a n d c a n be s t u d i e d A s i n g l e v i e w has l i m i t e d t i o n a l p o i n t of view.

instituuse f o r

and designing p o l i c i e s . Therefore understanding development t h i s s t u d y f o l l o w s a combined a p p r o a c h and is an a t t e m p t a t s y n t h e s i s . The aim is t o add t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g and knowledge various from information synthesizing and combining by and d i s c i p l i n e s , not t o add t o a par t i c u l a r monosources disciplinary

field

of

research.

main

field

of

interest

Another

in

this

the

is

study

impact

e r r o r i s . The a n a l y s i s of t h e s e government development the Thai government w i t h t h e r o l e of necessarily star is

of

b u r e a u c r a c y . I n many between distinction

cases it is government

impossible to policies and

make a c l e a r bureaucratic

the t o do things and willingness the between policies, and c a p a c i t y t o do them, and between p e r c e p t i o n of problems the e v a l u a t i o n of the Thus t a c k l e them. to policies the of government p o l i c i e s is an i n t r i c a t e s u b j e c t . In impact o f f i c e r s c a n e a s i l y be r o l e of g o v e r n m e n t some cases the u n d e r s t o o d by c o n s i d e r i n g them as a c l a s s , w i t h c o n f l i c t i n g

i n t e r e s t s with the r e a l i t y is

other more

classes. complex.

However,

in

Modernization

many and

situations the

influx

of ideologies and outlook, and among opinions are found.

ideas have changed the traditional government officers strongly diverging

The i n f o r m a t i o n in t h i s S t u d y was o b t a i n e d f r o m b o o k s , r e por i s , interviews, and f r o m many f i e l d t r i p s during the year 1975/1976, and during several shot ter periods of research work in following years. Because most of the r e s e a r c h was d o n e when the a u t h o r w o r k e d in a g o v e r n m e n t office in the Upper Nor t h , access to information from government organizer-tions and pro jects in the a r e a was r e l a t i v e l y e a s y . S p e c i a l e r r o r i s w e r e made t o a s s e s s which findings from pro j e c t s and from research were a p p l i c a b l e f o r development and which approaches a r e u s e l e s s or harmful. T h e r e was no a t t e m p t t o e v a l u a t e the e f f i c i e n c y or u s e f u l n e s s of s i n g l e p r o j e c t s . Studies society

$n development deal with processes of change in and i n v o l v e a number of m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s . The complexity of s o c i a l r e a l i t y makes i t v i r t u a l l y imposs i b l e to cover a l l r e l e v a n t f a c t o r s . Data are always incomplete, of t e n u n r e l i a b l e and m o s t l y o b t a i n e d from unique events or experiments that cannot be r e p e a t e d . T h e r e f o r e assessment of r e l e v a n c e and reliability of information, interpretation of multi-interpretable f acts usually form imper t e n t elements for development studies. This study includes s t a t e m e n t s and a s s e t l i o n s based on i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of data and on d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n s f o r which hard e v i d e n c e was not available. If development studies are restricted to hard f acts only, they inevitably are f at

behind

social

of

little

If

this

the

reality,

general

book

was

background

ever, for information

economy sable

Issues tenure cussed

little

written

only

information

readers on the

(CH.

for

of

III)

use

to

policy

making,

and

interest.

for

would

Thai

have

readers,

been

some

omitted.

of

How-

not f amiliar with Thailand, general c o u n t r y and i t s s o c i e t y (CH. I t ) , the

and

understanding

agriculture the

(CH.

situation

in

IV) the

are

indispen-

Upper

Nor th.

concerning land-use systems, actual land-use, and conflicts about land and l a n d - u s e , are in d e t a i l i n C h a p t e r V.

land dis-

V I there is an analysis of s e l e c t e d changes and In Chapter trends. The agricultural lab our f o r c e will g r o w about 3 0 percent risk

than

population

creasing

of

deterioration

of

land,

in

the

tive

are

policies,

Chapter

VII

discusses

lopment

par t l y

implementation

making and

summarizes

political

in

in-

highlands

problems,

ecological

uncontrolled occupation of

these

discussed, and

and

par t l y to

show

to

suggest

of rural development

some

aspects

major

and

more

effec-

in

policy

bottlenecks structural

prospects

for

programmers. elements

rural

and

deve-

the Upper N o r th.

Footnotes

1. M y i n t , H . , The E c o n o m i c s o f the D e v e l o p i n g C o u n t r i e s , Hutchinson U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , L o n d o n , 3rd e d . , 1 9 6 7 .

2

B o s e r u p , E s t e r , The C o n d i t i o n s o f A g r i c u l t u r a l G r o w t h , T h e E c o n o m i c s o f A g r a r i a n Change under P o p u l a t i o n

Presume,

Aldine,

a in

of the past decades are policies trends and p r o s p e c t s . P o l i c y

common lands. Government d i s c u s s e d in r e l a t i o n to alternatives

of

because

impoverishment,

uplands

b i d d e n agriculture,

conflicts

and v i o l e n t

loss

and

result

will

this

pressure

sizes,

f arm

decreasing

risk

serious

a

that

past,

the

in

is

There

2000.

year

the

by

greater

Chicago,

1 9 6 5 , Ninth

printing,

1977.

CHAPTER I I

n

THAILAND AND I T S UPPER NORTH

I n this chapter general background information this study. In addition to general features country, contrasting features of the v a r i o u s p e c i a l l y the U p p e r Nor t h a r e d e s c r i b e d . II.l.

is given f o r of t h e whole regions, es-

Physical Characteristicsl

11.1.1.

Location

Thailand2 i s l o c a t e d i n t h e h e a r t of s o u t h e a s t A s i a . I n t h e w e s t a n d n o r t h i t h a s a common b o r d e r with Burma, in the n o r t h e a s t w i t h L a o s , in the s o u t h e a s t w i t h Cambodia and on the M a l a y a n p e n i n s u l a in the s o u t h w i t h M a l a y s i a ( s e e F i g u r e 1). In the southwest i t l i e s on t h e Andaman Sea a n d i n t h e s o u t h e a s t on t h e G u l f of S i a m . The e x t r e m e nor t h e r m and southern

5°36

' N,

97°22'E

points of the and the western and l 0 5 ° 3 8 ' E .

border are and eastern

within

The country has a t o t a l area of 513,500 sq. l e s s t h a n F r a n c e w i t h 549 , 4 0 0 s q . k m . , and i t

population

of

The c o u n t r y

is

44 m i l l i o n

whereas

France

Again

within

had

these

regions

f o u n d y e t each of these t u r e s . The b o u n d a r i e s of ministrative boundaries. l i s t e d by ( s u b ) r e g i o n s .

are

are

and within

km., slightly had in 1977 a

52 m i l l i o n .

not g e o g r a p h i c a l l y homogeneous

t i c a l p u r p o s e s the f o l l o w i n g r e g i o n s Central Region, the Nor t h e a s t , t h e

20°28'N

borders

and f o r

prac-

distinguished:

nor t h

considerable

and

the

the

South.

differences

are

r e g i o n s has i t s own t y p i c a l f e a regions follow the provincial adIn Appendix A all provinces are

T h e South is the par t of T h a i l a n d on the Malayan p e n i n s u l a and t h e r e f o r e also called Peninsular Thailand. I t has more r a i n than o t h e r p a r i s of the c o u n t r y . T i n mining is an lmpor t e n t economic a c t i v i t y . In a g r i c u l t u r e rubber and cocon u t p r o d u c t i o n a r e r e l a t i v e l y imper t e n t in a d d i t i o n to wet

f o r local consumption. Along the marine f i s h e r i e s have developed.

rice production lines extensive

coast

long

T h e Nor t h e a s t , a l s o c a l l e d the K o r a t P l a t e a u , is g e o g r a p h i Phetchabun by the c a l l y separated f r o m the C e n t r a l Region i n f l u e n c e d more by t h e been has history it In its Range. population Its par i s of the country. Khmer t h a n o t h e r is e t h n i c a l l y v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h e L a o i n L a o s . The N o r t h e a s t is t h e p o o r e s t r e g i o n . The s o i l s a r e poor and d r y , and a g r i c u l and cassava a r e the t u r a l y i e l d s low and u n r e l i a b l e . Kenaf of the d r y u p l a n d typical products wet r i c e is where in the country,

the The

lower

areas a n d , just as e l s e crop in the predominant

areas.

Central

hear t

the

Region, because

subdivided,

of

its

of

the

heterogeneity.

country, Its

of t e n

is

centre

is

the

area. This the big r i c e producing C e n t r a l P l a i n , which is p l a i n i s , a n d h a s f o r a l o n g t i m e b e e n a c e n t r e of p o l i t i c a l Central the to belong also mountains western The power. I n some s t a t i s t i c s t h e W e s t is d i s t i n g u i s h e d a s a Region. is t r e a t e d as s e p a r a t e s u b - r e g i o n . More of t e n the S o u t h e a s t f r u i t s and marine a sub-region. Here cassava, sugar cane, the Bangkok M e t r o p o l i s , Of t e n dominate. fisheries products

is shown o n l y b i g u r b a n a r e a of t h e c o u n t r y , s t a t i s t i c s . I t s economy is urban and average much h i g h e r than in o t h e r a r e a s . the

in

Most confusing Central Region.

separately income i s

is the d i s t i n c t i o n between the Nor t h and the agencies define Some a u t h o r s a n d g o v e r n m e n t

nor therm p r o v i n c e s , seven the of region and o t h e r s t a k e a number someprovinces O v e r t i m e the M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e has where in between3. Nor th f r o m seven to sixteen i t s d e f i n i t i o n of the changed the N a t i o Now t h e n a t i o n a l S t a t i s t i c a l O f f i c e , provincesh*. the

some

nal

Nor t h

take

as the sixteen

Economic

Agriculture

and and

Social

Planning

Cooperatives,

Board

follow

this

and

the

Ministry

of

definition.

F o r p l a n n i n g p u r p o s e s t h e N o r t h c a n be s u b d i v i d e d i n t o t h e U p p e r N o r t h a n d t h e L o w e r N o r t h . The L o w e r N o r t h c o n s i s t s of v a l l e y s and f o o t h i l l s , a n d has much g e n t l y s l o p i n g l a n d of r e c e n t l y been good q u a l i t y , which has q u i t e in use, taken e s p e c i a l l y f o r m a i z e , and t h e r e f o r e has a n e t i m m i g r a t i o n .

7

The Upper Nor t h is t h e a r e a of t h i s r e s e a r c h and i t s Eea-° t o r e s d e s e r v e more a t t e n t i o n . I t c o n s i s t s of the p r o v i n c e s o f C h i a n g R a j , C h i a n g M a i , Mae H o n g S o n , N a n , P h r a e , Lam p a n g a n d Lamp f u n (see Figure 2). The area c o n s i s t s mainly of h i l l y and mountainous a r e a s w i t h a s e r i e s of r i d g e s f r o m nor t h to south. The mountain ranges a r e generally 1,000 to i n e l e v a t i o n . The t o t a l a r e a i s a b o u t 2,000 metros 90,000 sq. kms. of which about 7 0 p e r c e n t c a n be c l a s s i f i e d a s h i g h l a n d s , 20 p e r c e n t a s u p l a n d s a n d 10 p e r c e n t a s l o w l a n d s . Geographically the area is s i m i l a r t o b o r d e r a r e a s in n o r t h e a s t Burma and Yunan in China. T h e m i d d l e p a r t of the Upper Nor t h is d r a i n e d by f o u r r i v e r s : the P i n g , t h e W a n g , t h e Yom a n d t h e N a n . D o w n s t r e a m they join and f o r m the Chao P h y a , the l a r g e r i v e r of the Central P l a i n . The w e s t e r n par t is d r a i n e d by t r i b u t a r i e s of the Salween r i v e r and the nor the a s t e r n par t by t r i b u t a r i e s o f the Mekong r i v e r . Along the r i v e r s t h e r e a r e b o t h n a r r o w and wide basins of a l l u v i a l d e p o s i t s a t e l e v a t i o n s of about 300 m e t r o s . These basins are densely p o p u l a t e d , whereas the h i l l y and mountainous a r e a s a r e s p a r s e l y p o p u l a t e d .

A l a r g e v a r i e t y of s o i l s is f o u n d in the a r e a . In t h e lowlands alluvial soils are predominant. Most s o i l s in the bottoms of v a l l e y s in the basins are fer tile. I n t h e uplands,

which a r e

rolling

terrain

and

foothills,

of t e n

rather

poor sandy and l a t e r i t e soils are found. These have low n u t r i e n t content and low moisture r e t e n t i o n . The n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n is dry d i p t e r o e a r p f o r e s t s . B e t t e r upland soils c o n t a i n l o a m a n d m a y be o f b a s a l t o r l i m e s t o n e o r i g i n . On these

soils,

forests

are

if

have

they

dominant.

a

Where

deep

profile,

moisture

is

mixed

more

near streams, e v e r g r e e n f o r e s t s may be f o u n d . lands several soil types are found, ranging brown ear ths related to weathering products with sandy

a

high and

moisture late rite

retention soils.

and

Natural

h i l l e v e r g r e e n f o r e s t s t o mixed d i p t e r o c a r p f o r e s t s d e p e n d i n g on i t y of t h e s o i l s .

_8_

a

deep

as

In the highfrom reddish of limestone

profile

vegetation

deciduous

abundant,

to

poor

ranges

from

deciduous f o r e s t s and d r y the a l t i t u d e and the q u a l -

Climate

11.1.2.

general the rainy season The period f r o m October. d r y and the months of Fe-

In in

has a monsoon climate. Thailand s t a r i s i n A p r i l o r May a n d e n d s

and

cool

is

January

to

November

March and A p r i l a r e hot and d r y . In the South and bruary, less d i s t i n c t , without S o u t h e a s t the dry season is shot t e r , and r a i n f a l l is h i g h e r than in the r e s t a clear cool period, I n t h e Upper Nor t h and t h e Nor t h e a s t the the country. of have p e r i o d s w i t h c o l d w e a t h e r when c o n t i n night f r o s t s However, Asia. from Central blow

can

cool season e n t a l winds

o n l y o c c u r o n high e l e v a t i o n s o v e r 1000 o r 1500 m e t e r s . I n A p p e n d i x B . 1 some b a s i c c l i m a t i c d a t a a r e g i v e n by r e g i o n .

in

provincial

four

for

the

three

basins.

lower

years

five

to

damaged

the

seasonal

for

Chiang Mai.

climate

Average

rainf all

season,

exceeds

piration. allows mental

Climatic

is

rainf all

may

be

in

throughout

the

Every

that

crops

so

extreme

Variations

in

Appendix

B.3

in

the

growing

evapotraus-

potential

rainf a l l

may

cause

Temperature

years.

some

year,

located

unpredictable.

in

variability

shot tages

all

Nor t h ,

drought.

average

B.2

Appendix

July-October,

period

varies

rainf all

in

illustrated

are

estimated

the

are or

floodings

the

in

water

cropping water

rains

pattern

the

However,

considerable

Monsoon of

because

are

shown

the Upper

in

capitals

that

is

is

This

years.

between

considerably

Thailand

of

feature

imper t a n k

An

that

provided

supple-

available.

conditions

in

the

differ

mountains

somewhat

from

is temperature year the Throughout conditions. lowland e s p e c i a l l y a t n i g h t . B e c a u s e of t h i s , c u l t i v a t i o n of lower, possible a t higher e l e v a t i o n s . Rainf a l l temperate c r o p s is

i s i n g e n e r a l h i g h e r a t h i g h e r e l e v a t i o n s , b u t o n e s i d e of a m o u n t a i n may r e c e i v e m u c h m o r e r a i n t h a n t h e o t h e r . I n t h e mountains,

with

fewer

rainf all

torrential

is

relatively

showers

than

-9-

more

in

the

equally

distributed

lowlands

11.2. The

Population

great

majority

of

the

Thai

population

belongs

to

the

Thai ethnic groups of which a l s o a r e living in neighbour countries and in Chinas. Culturally and politically the C e n t r a l Thai a r e d o m i n a n t . The nor t h e r m T h a i , l o c a l l y c a l l e d khan myang, and the nor the astern Thai, of ten referred to

w i t h the somewhat d e r o g a t o r y t e r m l a o , have both d i a l e c t and d i s t i n c t c u l t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

The Chinese a r e the most rently since early Thai s e t t l e d in t h e c o u n t r y and

imper t e n t ethnic history Chinese

a

distinct

minority. immigrants

Appahave able to

some w e a l t h y C h i n e s e w e r e reach the h i g h e s t p o s i t i o n s in the c o u n t r y 6 . Many C h i n e s e f a m i t i e s have been a s s i m i l a t e d af t e r a f e w g e n e r a t i o n s , but the Chinese o r i g i n of s e v e r a l i n f l u e n t i a l old f a m i t i e s is g e n e r a l l y known.

I n the nineteenth c e n t u r y , wage-rates in Bangkok were report e d l y t;h.e h i g h e s t i n A s i a , a p p a r e n t l y as a r e s u l t o f u n d e r population7. S o u t h e r n C h i n a , on t h e c o n t r a r y , was o v e r p o p u l a t e d and had low wage l e v e l s . Chinese peasants in these a r e a s were more used to drudgery and low c o n s u m p t i o n l e v e l s than Thai peasants. In the first par t of the nineteenth c e n t u r y the number of C h i n e s e i m m i g r a n t s s t a r r e d t o i n c r e a s e and,

with

a

considerable

few

interruptions,

throughout

immigration

the.nineteenth

and

figures first

were

half

of twentieth century. Most immigrants were employed as coolies in urban areas f o r construction of i n f r a s t r u c t u r a l f a c i l i t i e s ( c a n a l s , r a i l w a y s ) and a s w o r k e r s in t i n m i n e s . the

the

Relatively

remarkably, upward

few

Chinese

vir tually

mobility

many

were

employed

none became

engaged peddlers,

in

in

agriculture

rice

growing.

traders,

and m e r c h a n t s , and p l a y e d imper t e n t r o l e s in of r i c e p r o d u c t i o n and t r a d e in the n i n e t e e n t h

and,

By

shopkeepers

the expansion century.

T r a d e and manuf a c t u r i n g became dominated by t h e C h i n e s e and only r e c e n t l y have Thais become s u b s t a n t i a l l y engaged in e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l o c c u p a t i o n s . The n u m b e r of C h i n e s e in T h a i -

land

is

Moreover, Southeast

unknown,

s i n c e most of them have Thai c i t i z e n s h i p . Chinese in T h a i l a n d i n t e g r a t e e a s i e r t h a n in o t h e r Asian c o u n t r i e s and many have i n t e r m a r r i e d w i t h

-

10-

Thai. Many urban Thai have Chinese ancestors. There are several million people whose culture retains Chinese influonces.

There are several other minority groups in Thailand. In urban areas are a few Indians engaged mainly in business. Some southern provinces have a considerable Malay population. The Nor th has several minority groups, usually, but incorrectly,

called tribes, mainly living in the hills and mountains8. The

first

results

enumerations

1911 of

to

the

for

189210.

was

are

do

in

Table

not

end

for

1977

the

1911:

in

conducted

given

Thai p o p u l a t i o n

estimate

The

The

1970

1.

exist,

lngram9 g i v e s an e s t i m a t e T e j Bun nag e s t i m a t e s 5 . 2 .

are some e s t i m a t e s . p e o p l e for 1 8 5 0 and peoplell.

Thailand

in

census

from

Previous 'but

there

of 5-6 million million people is

his

million

population

fast

is increase striking. U n d o u b t e d l y p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h by a f a c t o r of 5 in less than s e v e n t y y e a r s is bound to have had f a t reaching implications society. on the for especially Chapter I V , A s s h o w n in

agricultural drastically

population, of the

because

changed have must outlook the emerging scarcity of land.

Table 1. Population Growth, 1911-1970

Average annual Population Census

Intercensal

Growth Rate (percent)

(millions)

1911

1919

9. 8

1929 1937 1947

12. 2

2 2 2 2 2 2

14 .5 17 . 8

26. 8 36. 3

1960 1970

Source . Economic and

3 2 3 1 Social

Commission for Asia and the

( E S C A P ) , P o p u l a t i o n o f Thailand, Country M o n o g r a p h S e r i e s N o . 3 , Bangkok 1976, pp. 11, 210

pacific

The regional distribution of the population is given in Table 2. The Nor t h e n region (Upper + Lower Nor th) has the lowest population density. The Central Region has a popu-

lation density of more than 100 per sq.km. 11

Table

2.

Distribution

of

P o p u l a t i o n and

Land

Resources,

1970.

Percentage of Land Area

Percentage

Population of (millions) Population Kingdom

34.4

Central

10.6 12.0

Nor t h e a s t Nor t h o r n

7.5 4.3

Southern

Source:

100.0 30.8 35.0 21.8 12.4

ESCAP,

op.

cit:.,

Density (per _/sq_.km. )

.

100.0 20.2 33.1 33.0

67 103 71 MY 61

13.7 14 .

p.

T h a i l a n d h a s a s m a l l u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n : o n l y 13 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n l i v e s in u r b a n a r e a s . A n o t h e r 9 p e r c e n t live in the so-called semi-urban S a n i t a r y D i s t r i c t s 1 2 . The Bangkok M e t r o p o l i s with 2 . 9 million people in 1970 is the only big urban area. The second l a r g e s t town, Chiang Mai, has about 150,000 inhabitants. I n the period between the 1960 and 1970 censuses the urban p o p u l a t i o n g r e w a n n u a l l y by 6 . 5 p e r c e n t . Since 1970 the Bangkok p o p u l a t i o n has i n c r e a s e d r a p i d l y because of i n t e r r e g i o n a l m i g r a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y f r o m t h e N o r t h e a s t . O f f i c i a l r e g i s t r a t i o n of i n h a b i t a n t s i s i n e f f e c t i v e a n d t h e 5 m i l l i o n m a r k may h a v e b e e n p a s s e d b y 1 9 7 8 . Family

planning was s t a r r e d in the 1960s by p r i v a t e and government o r g a n i z a t i o n s . The government instituted policies o f v o l u n t a r y f a m i t y p l a n n i n g only in 197013 s i n c e when f ami-

l y p l a n n i n g has s p r e a d r a p i d l y , most c l e a r l y in u r b a n a r e a s , b u t i n c r e a s i n g l y in t h e c o u n t r y s i d e . The 1970 c e n s u s indicared

lotion

already

by

a

slow

down

one year cohor t urban areas the

0-8. I n decreasing

from

the

age

of

of

population

was becoming numbers per

13

years

growth,

as

the

popu"

constant f o r ages of one-year cohor t are

o1d1".

In

the

C h i a n g Mai

v a l l e y the number of c h i l d r e n e n t e r i n g lower e d u c a t i o n has d e c l i n e d as a r e s u l t of d e c r e a s i n g b i t t h r a t e s . The main reason f o r t h i s is that there are no s t r o n g c u l t u r a l and religious

objections

against

famity

planning.

Where

f amity

planning f a c i l i t i e s are available bit th control techniques a r e a d o p t e d q u i c k l y . Government e r r o r i s to make f a m i t y p l a n ning f a c i l i t i e s a v a i l a b l e throughout the c o u n t r y are l i k e l y t o have a s t r o n g e f f e c t on p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h .

-12

are for inat the census15. in r u r a l areas teachers Local carefully. out

figures that Thailand's census is generally agreed It n o t r e l i a b l e . The t o t a l 1970 p o p u l a t i o n of t e r a d j u s t m e n t t o be a b o u t 36 m i l l i o n s under-enumeration is estimated

s t e a d of t h e 3 A . A e n u m e r a t e d carried not is census the t o c a r r y o u t the census d i d not v i s i t a l l houseentrusted was the information h o l d s as p r e s c r i b e d and i n some cases the a v i l l a g e c o f f e e shop. More imper t e n t f o r in gathered

been e n u m e r a t e d 1 6 . o r k h a n rnyang a r e t h e d o m i n a n t g r o u p of t h e U p p e r N o r t h . They f o r m a b o u t 80 p e r p o p u l a t i o n and speak a d i s t i n c t Thai d i a -

Thai

Nor t h o r n

The

the population in c e n t of t h e t o t a l

C e n t r a l T h a i , the schools in used older people and

lect. guage Among

tribe"

"hill

called

so

the

of

most

probably

that

is

Nor t h

g r o u p s have not

is the only l a n o f f i c i a l language, administration. and in g o v e r n m e n t i n r e m o t e a r e a s many p e r s o n s s t i l l

not or a r e h a r d l y a b l e t o speak C e n t r a l T h a i , but almost the Nor t h e r m centuries In past it. understands everybody T h a i l i v e d mainly i n the b a s i n s of the r i v e r v a l l e y s . P o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h r e c e n t l y has led t o a h i g h p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e i n t h e s e v a l l e y s a n d g r o w i n g n u m b e r s of p e o p l e have m o v e d t o are

the

terraces

higher

adjacent

higher

even

and

foothills

in

into

mountains. present an imper tent group in them are occupied in government

Central Thais l a n d . Many o f and

assimilated Thai

Central

areas

habits

Even

are

of

elite.

local

the

e a t i n g h a b i t s of p e t t y o f f i c i a l s v i l l a g e r s of Ban P i n g a r e c l e a r

d e s c r i p t i o n of o p i n i o n s 'among

Thai

Nor thorn

many

Thai.

dialect

and

among

especially

imper lance,

Central

the

with

also

areas

urban

In

business.

in

become

Nor t h o r n T h a i administration

in rural increasing Moermans'

and

related

evidence

of

a s s i m i l a t i o n 1 7 . I n t h e e y e s of t h e Nor t h o r n T h a i , a d o p t i o n and a s s i m i l a t i o n of C e n t r a l Thai language and h a b i t s enhance o n e ' s s t a t u s and chances f o r advancement.

the

entered

group

Chinese

from

the

seas

during

sively

groups

two

are

There

in

Chinese

in

the

Upper

Nor t h u g .

One

region f r o m the South; they a r e descended who e n t e r e d T h a i l a n d f r o m o v e r immigrants

last

the

engaged

of

This

centuries.

business

and

trade.

13

group

is

almost

exclu-

The

other

group

came

overland from Southern China. Chinese had a long h i s t o r y of t r a d e i n Nor t h o r n T h a i l a n d a n d N o r t h e n B u r m a . Af t e r t h e c o m m u n i s t v i c t o r y in China i n 1949 s e v e r a l groups of r e f u g e e s a l s o m o v e d s o u t h . I n c l u d e d w e r e r e m n a n t s o f t h e Kuo M i n T a n g a r m y . As t e r t h e s e a r m y groups were d r i v e n out of Burma in the 1950s they s e t t l e d i n . c o n s i d e r a b l e numbers in Nor t h e n T h a i l a n d a l o n g t h e Burmese b o r d e r s 9 . They s t i l l have m i l i t a r y s t a t u s but are formally c o n t r o l l e d by t h e T h a i m i l i t a r y . Including their relatives and descendents from intermarriage with local g r o u p s t h e r e may be a b o u t t e n t h o u s a n d of such persons in t h i s g r o u p . T h e y a r e e n g a g e d in t r a d e , s m u g g l i n g t o a n d f r o m B u r m a , o p i u m t r a f f i c , a g r i c u l t u r e a n d , a p p a r e n t l y s t i l l , in

from Yunan probably

m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t i e s . Another group of r e f u g e e s f r o m Yunnan i n S o u t h e r n China a r e m a i n l y Muslims and C h r i s t i a n s . Most of t h e m a r e Y u n n a n e s e a n d a r e c a l l e d Haw C h i n e s e . Some o f t h e m

settled in villages in the mountains and a r e engaged in a g r i c u l t u r e and t r a d e . Others have s p r e a d over the a r e a and a r e e n g a g e d i n t r a d e , e s p e c i a l l y in t h e m o u n t a i n s , a n d f o r m a n i m p e r t e n t c h a i n i n l o c a l o p i u m t r a f f i c a n d t r a d e . Kuo M i n Tang Chinese a n d Haw C h i n e s e together were recently e s t i mated at over 15,00020. Although can a l s o

l i v i n g p r i m a r i l y in t h e Shan S t a t e s of B u r m a , Shan be f o u n d i n Mae H o n g S o n a n d C h i a n g M a i a l o n g t h e

Burmese b o r d e r . n u m b e r has b e e n ing population

The

Shan

are

a

sub-group

of

the

Thai.

Their

d e c r e a s i n g in r e c e n t y e a r s as u n d e r i n c r e a s pressure the Nor t h o r n Thai s e t t l e in a r e a s w h e r e S h a n l i v e d a n d some of t h e l a t t e r h a v e moved t o Burma. The Shan a r e mainly w e t - r i e e c u l t i v a t o r s but many p r a c t i s e in addition swidden a g r i c u l t u r e . In the mountains there are several minority groups21. G r o u p s s u c h as t h e Khmer, L u a a n d H ' t i n , b e l o n g i n g e t h n i c a l ly to the Austroasiatic f amity, are remnants of groups living in Thailand b e f o r e the T h a i p e o p l e s e m e r g e d as the dominant

group.

All o t h e r g r o u p s , the Karen, Meo, Yao, Lisu, A k h a , a n d Lahti a r e u s u a l l y c l a s s i f i e d e t h n i c a l l y as S i n o - T i b e t a n s , but the o r i g i n s of the Meo, Y a o , and Karen a r e s t i l l d i s p u t e d . Most of these groups have moved i n t o the area from Southern China and Burma over the past two c e n t u r i e s . Because of

-IA

w a r s and p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e in Nor t h o r n Indo-China t h i s process continues up to

Burma, Yunan the present

and

)

day.

T h e K a r e n a r e more n u m e r o u s t h a n o t h e r g r o u p s . They l i v e along the Nor t h o r n and W e s t e r n b o r d e r i n T h a i l a n d . I n the U p p e r N o r t h t h e y l i v e c h i e f l y i n t h e p r o v i n c e s Mae H o n g S o n a n d C h i a n g M a i . I n b o r d e r i n g a r e a s in Burma t h e r e a r e s e v o r a l m i l l i o n s of K a r e n . T h e r e a r e no p r e c i s e d a t a on t h e p o p u l a t i o n s ty groups, but two surveys have been made.

of the m i n o r i The f i r s t was

m a d e f o r a UN t e a m i n 1965/66; the second survey was Tribal Data Pro ject 1973-197722. Data are presented

the in

Table 3. According to these data the minority groups in the Upper Nor t h t o t a l l e d 270,000 persons in 1973-1977. Possib l y t h i s f i g u r e is l e s s than the a c t u a l number as not a l l areas were well covered and some v i l l a g e s may have been overlooked. S i n c e t h e r e i s a n o n g o i n g i m m i g r a t i o n a n d as population in minority communities repot redly growing is r a p i d l y , i t may be a s s u m e d t h a t t h e t o t a l m i n o r i t y populat i o n i n t h e U p p e r N o r t h i s a t l e a s t 300 , 0 0 0 A large par t of this population s t i l l does not have Tha 1 c i t i z e n s h i p . Only in the r e c e n t p a s t have l a r g e n u m b e r s i n some a r e a s

Table

3.

Population

of

Minorities Tribal

UN S u r v e y

Thailand

in

Data

Pro ject

1973-1977

Team 1 9 6 5 / 6 6 * Whole

, , 1 1 , 303

53,031 15,994 9,4110 1 6 , 119 6,442

Lua

n.a.

K h a Mu H'tin

H w a n

Only above e l e v a t i o n s Sources: United Nations United Tribal

, 250 , ,

6 3 15 19 3 9 8

, 269 , 990

274,241

*

13 , 566 11

19 3 9 8

n.a.

Total

,

12 , 5 4 5 22 , 652

2 1 , £176 13 , 5 6 6 10, 966 6 , 315

49,835

Others

184 , 6 4 8 43 , 239 22 584

139 529 25 8 1 5 2 1 , 622

123,380

Karen

Meo Lahu Lisu Yao Alfa

Whole Kingdom

Upper Nor t h

Kingdom

336

, 197

of

the

of 6 0 0 m . Survey Team, Repot t

Nations Survey Team, Bangkok, 1967; Research C e n t r e , Tribal Data Pro ject

1973-1977,

Summary T a b l e s ,

Chiang M a i ,

1977.

15-

G L ; L u n u

.La

.

F

u

1 -

\..»\.rn.ILI11il;.l.\:..Ll:_x...lLJ"

\ . . - < _ \ L - : - - r v -

1

i n

.l-

p;

L

4 l

L

.|.

I

-

been registered as Thai nationals and only because they were

wanted as voters for some candidates in the national elections23. In the census of 1970 a large par t of the minorities as well as the Haw Chinese and the Kuo Min Tang Chinese were not enumerated, so that the total population in the Upper Nor th may be several hundred thousand higher than actually repot red.

The census data of 1970 (Appendix C.l) shows that only 5.5 percent of the population in the Upper Nor to live in municipal areas and only 16.8 percent in the so-called semi-urban Sanitary Districts. In many Sanitary Districts 50 percent of the households are classified as agricultural households. Literacy in the Upper Nor th is optimistically repot red almost 70 percents"'. However a in remote areas of the Upper Nor th and among minority groups few people can read and write.

Comparison of census data since 1919 indicates a rapid overall population increase (see Table 4). Population growth in the Upper Nor th, however, is somewhat lower than that of the whole Kingdom. Table

A. Population by Province in the Upper Nor th in

1919, 1947 a 1960 and 1970.* Average Annual G r o w t h

Population in Thousands 1919 9,207 Kingdom Upper Nor th 1,3l»2 266 Chiang Rai

1919- 1947- 19601960 1970 1947 1947 1960 1970 3.2 2.7 17,443 26,258 34,397 2.3 2.9 2.6 2,024 2,952 3,813 1.5 4.1 3.2 812 1, 112 2.2 485

Chiang Mai Nan

350 164

536

798

1.5

3.1

2.5

211

240

311

0.8

1.1

3.2

Phrae

104

213

299

366

2.6

2.6

2.0

104 583

1.0

1.6

2.6

0.7

2.7

2.2

311

1.1

2.5

2.3

Mae Hong Son Lam pang L a m p fun

50

66

276

332 180

133

81 472 250

1,026

* Uncorreeted census data, which d i f f e r from the estimated figures presented in the Tables 1 and Source

Chiang R a j has the most r a p i d growth. r a t e s and d e a t h r a t e s m i g r a t i o n p l a y s the

2.

National S t a t i s t i c a l Office, Statistical Yearbook 1 9 7 2 / 7 3 , and p r e v i o u s Yearbooks.

provinces

in

the

Upper

Nor th

_16_

In a d d i t i o n an imper tent

only

Chiang

Raj,

to bit th r o l e . Of Chiang

population from high f o r Chiang R a j , because Chiang Rai has a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e proper l i o n of Lam p a n g a n d L a m p f u n h a v e s i g n i f i agricultural land. Phrae, out-mia net cant out-migration rates. Overall there is mainly to the Lower Nor t h , g r a t i o n f r o m the Upper Nor t h , where more land is a v a i l a b l e , and to the Bangkok M e t r o p o l i s i n s e a r c h of jobs and b e t t e r e d u c a t i o n .

Mai

and

(see

Table

5.

Rate

Table

of

The

5).

increase

in

in-migration

is

a net

Son show

Mae H o n g

migration

by C h a n g e d

Migration

per

(rate

Out

C h i a n g Mai Nan Phrae Mae Hong S o n

Lam pang

20.7

Lamp fun

18.3

Source:

ESCAP,

18. 1 20 • 3

36.5 27.4 16.3 17.2 34.6

Chiang R a j

op.

cit.

1

p.

of

1,000

In

1965-1970 population) Net

18.1

28. 3 36 6 16. 3

7.1 -12.0 -19.4 18.3

44 . 6 46. 1

-23.9 -27.8

.

22

I n t h e U p p e r N o r t h a v e r a g e p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y is l o w e r t h a n i n o t h e r p a r i s of t h e c o u n t r y . H o w e v e r , t h e b a s i n s in t h e a r e a s in the populated the most densely Upper Nor t h a r e w i t h p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t i e s of t e n 5 0 0 / s q . k m . and i n country, The upland and mountainous some a r e a s c l o s e t o 1 0 0 0 / s q . k m . . land total the of percent 90 about occupy which areas, a r e a , h a v e l o w d e n s i t i e s v a r y i n g b e t w e e n 2 a n d 10 p e r s o n s / and somewhat h i g h e r d e n s i t i e s in a r e a s w i t h f e r t i l e sq.km., s o i l s . B e c a u s e of t h e high g r o w t h r a t e , T h a i l a n d has a h i g h p r o p e r l i o n of i t s p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e l o w e r a g e g r o u p s . I n t h e U p p e r Nor t h more t h a n 43 p e r c e n t of the p o p u l a t i o n is l e s s t h a n 15 y e a r s of a g e ( s e e A p p e n d i x C . 2 ) , and o n l y 6 p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n i s a b o v e 6 0 . Of t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n 4 9 p e r c e n t is r e p o t r e d e c o n o m i c a l l y a c t i v e ( l a s t l i n e of Append i x C . 3 ) , w h i c h i s 7 2 p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f 11 y e a r s and over.

17

T h e r e a r e two r e a s o n s f o r the h i g h p e r c e n t a g e of e c o n o m i c a l f o r only f o u r F i r s t , basic e d u c a t i o n is ly active people. a n d s o m e h a v e l e s s . O f f i c i a l l y s e v e n y e a r s of e d u c a years, facilities

school

areas

most

in

but

prescribed,

is

tion

are

a v a i l a b l e only f o r f o u r y e a r s o r l e s s . Seeond, i n Thai s o c i o e t y almost everyone par t i c i p a t e s in p r o d u c t i o n . I f t h e r e is a

way

possible

to

earn

useful

goods

gather

to

or

money

for

i t is t a k e n u p . I n t h i s s e n s e a l a r g e m a j o r i t y the household t h a n 10 y e a r s i s e m p l o y e d o r l o o k i n g of i n d i v i d u a l s older T h i s d o e s n o t mean employment. or temporary f o r permanent a c t i v e person is a f u l l ~ t i m e w o r k e r . that every economically

most

In

active

provinces were males

figure

is

lower.

more

(Appendix

are

data

census

The

of

thirds

two

than

employed

c.3).

the e c o n o m i c a l l y F o r women t h e

for

the

March

period

During there-

2 5 - 3 1 , which is almost: a t the end of the d r y s e a s o n . t h i s p e r i o d t h e r e is l i t t l e a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y and f arm

the

people,

some

fore

especially In

season.

women,

idle

remain

of

percentage

the

Rai

Chiang

for waiting unemployed

t o s t a r t is much h i g h e r waiting f o r the f arm season people 41 and males the of p r o v i n c e s : 39 p e r c e n t other in than p e r c e n t of the f e m a l e s .

of

tion

period

the

of

in

females

small

Upper

Services

Nor t h

and

popula-

not

work-

employed

previously

t h e m a l e s a n d 86 p e r c e n t o f for a Manuf a c t u r i n g a c c o u n t s

of the w o r k f o r c e : e c o n o m i c a l l y a c t i v e men a n d

sector.

those

of

proper lion

the

for

or, was

question,

83.4 percent (Appendix C . 4 ) .

active

economically

the

Nor t h was e m p l o y e d

agriculture:

the of

Upper

the

during

ing

in

majority

overwhelming

The

only 3 . 3 women a r e

provide

commerce

b u t many c o t t a g e enterprises, in which more and handicraf is

in

this The

s c a l e manu a c t u r i n g

than

as

such

industries women

percent

employment.

more

has very few modern l a r g e

3.7 engaged

and

men

are

textiles employed.

R e t a i l t r a d e i s a l s o d o m i n a t e d by women w h i c h i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e d a t a f o r commerce. O v e r a l l , the s t a t i s t i c s show an a g r i c u l t u r e - b a s e d e c o n o m y c a p p e d b y some s e r v i c e s , c o m m e r c e a n d t r a n s p o r t a n d m i n o r manuf a c t u r i n g a c t i v i t i e s . I t w o u l d be w r o n g t o i n f e r t h a t a l l of t h e 85 p e r c e n t of a g r i c u l t u r a l w o r k e r s a r e engaged w h o l l y in a g r i c u l t u r e . I n t h e Nor t h e r m Thai

economy

many

persons

Large

numbers

is there s t i l l more than have of

f arm

workers

little

one are

_18_

lab our

source

of

permanently

specialisation: lab o u r income. or

temporarily

Also,

construction

and

or

towns

people

may

groups

in

the

be

agricultural

tural

income

percent

classified

earned

income

to

income

of

OE t h e i r

as

workers

operating

a

in

f arm.

agricultural than

agricultural.

agricultural

total

workers

income.

-1 9

is

may

than may

have

Average

usually

many

industrial

other

worker

workers

hand

other

More

and

road

employment

temporary the

On

a non-agricultural

by

and

seek

or

handicraf i s .

on

work

may

local

traders

butchers,

they

off-season,

maintenance,

produce

addition

income

cultural

in

as

such

activities

electricians,

carpenters,

riceraillers. in

n o n - f arm

par t-time

in

engaged

blacksmiths,

half be

more

of

agrinon-

non-agricul-

close

to

25

11.3.

Heritage

of

the

Past

T h e h i s t o r y of t h e T h a i p e o p l e b e f o r e t h e f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y U n t i l then t h e a r e a had s e v e r a l kingdoms dominais obscure. t e d by Mon, Khmer and o t h e r s 2 5 . P r o b a b l y Thai l i v e d in the the In dominant26. politically not were they but area, c h i e f doms and k i n g century small Thai-dominated thin t e e t h Shan S t a t e s and i n the Upper in the first doms emerged,

in the Nor t h , but soon a l s o more to the South in Sukhothai power I n 1351 Ayudhya was f o u n d e d and i t s Plain. Central the S o u t h and the Lower the C e n t r a l Region, over extended of A y u d h y a was Nor t h . The emergence and p o l i t i c a l expansion

u n i f i c a t i o n of a l r e a d y political of result the probably wars a g a i n s t Sukhotai and e x i s t i n g t o w n s , and of s u c c e s s f u l t h e K h m e r e m p i r e 2 7 . T h e A y u d h y a n s t a t e , k n o w n by t h e E u r o p e a n s as S i a m , remained a power i n the a r e a f o r most of t h e by t h e Burmese b u t t i m e 2 8 . I n 1767 Ayudhya was d e s t r o y e d w a s s o o n r e g a i n e d . A new c a p i t a l w a s f o u n d e d , independence f i r s t in T h o n b u r i , and was moved t o Bangkok i n 1 7 8 2 2 9 . U n t i l the end of the Siam. of independent

t h e U p p e r N o r t h was nineteenth century Nor th the thin teenth century In the

t h e C h i e f of and became o v e r l o r d o r k i n g of the whole a r e a . I n l o c a l o f f a i r s , howa u t o n o m o u s . The Nor t h o r n Kingdom the c h i e f s remained ever, though of t e n a t war w i t h S i a m , remained i n d e of Lanna t a i , I t was u n t i l t h e m i d d l e of t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . pendent by s o u t h e r n n e i g h b o u r , but by i t s f i n a l l y over thrown, not t h e B u r m e s e , a n d f o r the n e x t t w o h u n d r e d y e a r s was a v a s s a l o f the kingdom of Burma.

had

many

Chiang

Af t e r

petty

Mai

the

chiefdoms.

gained

control

destruction

of

Around over

the

Ayudhya

year

other

the

in

1767

1300

chiefs

when

the

Central

Thai l i b e r a t e d themselves from the Burmese, they a l s o sent in d r i v i n g t o the Nor t h and i n 1773 succeeded their armies o u t o f - t h e N o r t h . A s a r e s u l t i n 177A t h e Burmese a r m i e s p r i n c i p a l i t i e s o f C h i a n g M a i , L a m p f u n a n d Lam p a n g d e the

t h e i r a l l e g i a n c e t o S i a m a n d t h u s b e c a m e v a s s a l s of to regain tried Burmese the I n a s e r i e s of wars Siam30. c o n t r o l . The N o r t h was d e v a s t a t e d , l o s t much of i t s p o p u l a With abandoned. and destroyed was Mai Chiang and tion, Burmese were armies, the a s s i s t a n c e f r o m the Central Thai a n d d r i v e n o u t . C h i a n g Mai was r e b u i l t i n 1887 and defeated

clared

-20

Nor th

Upper

the

was

repopulated

by

imper r e d

people

from

@lSeWhEf€3 l .

Apar t

the

from

s u p p e r t i n t i m e of w a r or r e b e l l i o n , were states tributary the on demands j u r i s d i c t i o n and taxation, in autonomous

military

government's the were They slight.

in f o r e i g h r e l a t i o n s , and t o some e x t e n t , administration, p r o v i d e d t h a t no h a r m was done t o i n t e r e s t s of t h e Bangkok

The p r i n c e s and t h e n o b i l i t y of the t r i b u t a r y government32. s t a t e s were s u p p o s e d to take t h e o a t h of a l l e g i a n c e t w i c e a to to

and year According

as

considered Bangkok

as a demonstration tribute send LeMay, the p r i n c e of Chiang M a i ,

overlord

of

the

Upper

Nor t h ,

loyalty. of who c o u l d b e had t o go t o

tr1ennially33.

tribuatary the r u l e r s of the T h e t r a d i t i o n a l a u t o n o m y of s t a t e s was c h a l l e n g e d w i t h t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f w e s t e r n p o w e r s . the i n f l u e n c e I n the second p a r t of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y o f f o r e i g n e r s , m a i n l y the p e r s o n n e l of t e a k l u m b e r c o m p a n i e s and

missionaries,

increased.

In

1855

King

Mongkut

signed

the

by B o w r i n g T r e a t y w i t h G r e a t B r i t a i n , l a t e r t o be f o l l o w e d treaties These countries. other with treaties similar g r a n t e d e x t r a - t e r r i t o r i a l r i g h t s t o s u b j e c t s of t h e s e c o u n with conflicts resolve to procedures provided and tries Nor therm r u l e r s were these s u b j e c t s . However, the autonomous t o t h e i r own way i n d e a l i n g w i t h f o r e i g n e r s a n d accustomed s o in f a c t t h e t r e a t i e s d i d n o t a p p l y t o t h e Nor t h . T h i s c a u s e d a s e r i e s of c o m p l a i n t s i n B a n g k o k . A d i r e c t t h r e a t t o Nor t h e r m autonomy was t h e f a c t t h a t some c h i e f s c h e a t e d the the in concessions same the selling by companies lumber

forests

to

different

eompanies3'+.

Resulting

eonfliets

t h r e a t e n e d to p r o v i d e a b a s i s f o r c o l o n i a l powers to i n t e r f e r e on behalf of t h e i r s u b j e c t s . King Chulalongkorn chose r a t h e r t h a n r i s k t h e s u b j e c t i o n of t o t a k e a c t i o n himselft h e N o r t h by c o l o n i a l p o w e r s . He s o u g h t a n d f o u n d opp o r t u n i -

ties to Nor t h .

gradually

establish

Central

Thai

control

over

the

T h e f i r s t a c t i o n w a s t o s i g n a t r e a t y w i t h B r i t i s h I n d i a in 1871+ o n b e h a l f o f t h e N o r t h . I n 1883 a new t r e a t y w a s c o n * c l u d e d w i t h B r i t a i n which r e s u l t e d in the s t a t i o n i n g of a C e n t r a l Thai h i g h c o m m i s s i o n e r in Chiang Mai. Local c o m m i s s i o n e r s were s e n t t o the Nor th.

..21_

Gradually more c h i e f s opposed

and

t h i s i n t e r f e r e n c e but they l o s t administrative w e a k e n e d by t h e

were

they

which

to

f u r then

was

power

their

reforms

s u b j e c t e d in the e i g h t e e n n i n e t i e s . The c h i e f s , s t r i p p e d of i n t o the Central Thai t h e i r p r e r o g a t i v e s , were incorporated Thai by C e n t r a l replaced finally and service government

v a n i s h e d . The o f f i c e r s . By 1 9 2 0 t h e i r p o w e r h a d c o m p l e t e l y i n c o r p o r a t i o n of t h e N o r t h e r m t r i b u t a r y s t a t e s m u s t b e s e e n the second half during a g a i n s t the i n t e r n a t i o n a l background the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . The o l d e n e m y , Burma, had been of Malayan S t a t e s , by t h e B r i t i s h , a s h a d t h e S o u t h e r n occupied a n d t h e F r e n c h had t a k e n o v e r i n I n d o - C h i n a . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l t o r e s i s t the colonial s t r o n g enough kingdom was not Thai

powers. system

old

The

from

extracted

st

mulati-on

of

countries

wars

countries

was

to

to

task

was

escape

control were

capture

royal

extol t

of

to

capital.

resettle from

areas

not

the

and

A11

main

keeping accu-

the

of

the

southeast

a main

purpose

from

other

administrative

population

under

be

again-

core

The

population The

areas.

could

for for

and

lab our.

under-populated

and

surplus

people

states,

cru-

meet

defense

revolts,

local

scarce

over

well-controlled

in

vent

the

to

surplus

successful

tributary

of

in

then

Enough

for

of

suppression

rulers

wealth

the

was

system

of

the

of

countryside

suited

was

kingship

stability.

for

the

for

invaders,

control

Asian

absolute

of

requirements

cial

and

to

pre-

control.

The p o p u l a t i o n c o n s i s t e d of s e v e r a l k i n d s of s l a v e s , bonded o f f i c i a l s who f o r m e d a n a p p o i n t e d n o b i l i t y , and commoners, restricted the royal f a m i t y . The l a t t e r group, members of of a q u e e n a n d of d e s c e n d e n t s t o the f i r s t f o u r g e n e r a t i o n s w i t h decreasing ranks f o r successive g e n e r a t i o n s , occupied many of the main e x e c u t i v e p o s i t i o n s in the government s y s tem.

f o r the goA m a i n s o u r c e of income and m i l i t a r y s t r e n g t h v e r n m e n t w a s s e v e r a l m o n t h s p e r y e a r o f c o r v é e l a b o u r of a l l m a l e c o m m o n e r s b e t w e e n 18 a n d 6 0 y e a r s o f a g e . Of t e n p a r t o r a l l of t h i s o b l i g a t i o n c o u l d be f u l f i l l e d by p a y i n g a s e r v t a x . I n a d d i t i o n a l l k i n d s of t a x e s a n d i c e or commutation r e g i s t r a t i o n f e e s were l e v i e d on economic a c t i v i t i e s and on p r o p e r t y . U s u a l l y government o f f i c i a l s were not p a l d . They had t o take c a r e of themselves and had the r i g h t t o e x t o l t a

_.22_

surplus

place

from

in

the

l a b o r

of

cials.

Taxes,

Officials

was

par t l y

could

their

use

own

both

benefit.

the

benefit

legal

fines

many

which o f f i c i a l s

an

imper t e n t

taxation or

and

This

illegally.

Moreover

through

business

for

and

back.

also

own

also

used

fees

kept

was

their

but

of ten

f arms

tax

to

Business

protect

for

ways,

registration

or

out

profit.

legal

commoners

increased rented

population

several

offi-

he

were

c o u l d make

legal

of

of

could

taxes

source

the

business

took

Corvée

of

a

income.

apparatus

protégés

to

against

competitors. In

theory

owned

the

all

dismiss that

whomever

he

the

king

on

for

members

inefficient

tions New

and

gap

rulers.

between

cial

When

in

Bun nag h a s and

were

powerless

reform would

of have

1855

opened rights

by

the met

and

it

pointed

practice35. as

became the

In

was

their

for

and

in

of ten

obliga-

themselves. harmful

there

practice

powerful

as

semi-heredi-

was

out,

member

was

king of

small

the

most

In

was

at was

was

for

a big

provin-

many

autonomous

the in

treaties

vested

were

of

as

15,

hands

f amity.

because

situation

impossible from

age the

powerful

decline

this

opposition

years

following

1868,

in

and

administration much

in

administration

officials.

too

if

heavily

well

raising

surplus

enforce

and

states.

a

income

government

to

almost

and

was

became

death,

practice

was

as

fulfil

not

extol red

Te j

theory

who

the

did

He

capital

families.Tax

hard

As

his

and

appoint

seems in

it

appointments

was

life

could

powerless.

in

officials

tributary

regent

rather

f amities f act

over and

However,

powerful

Chulalongkorn

was

laws

much o f

appropriation

In

of

governors

rulers

a

kept

powers

be

in

because

legislation

local

he

could

So

absolute promulgate

wanted.

powerful

provinces.

tary

had

could

dependent the

king

land,

a

of

of The

mis-

drastic

because

lt

interests.

accepted,

which

the c o u n t r y f o r f o r e i g n trade. The e x t r a - t e r r i t o r i a l granted to f o r e i g n e r s caused s e r i o u s troubles. For-

c o u l d o n l y be p u t o n t r i a l i n c o n s u l a r c o u r i s , w h i c h t o be s t r o n g l y b i a s e d in f a v o u r of f o r e i g n interests and thus became a s e r i o u s t h r e a t t o Thai autonomy36. W i t h the expansion of the c o l o n i a l dependencies on T h a i l a n d ' s borders large numbers of Asian s u b j e c t s of the colonial signers

proved

powers

also

s t a r red

to

claim

consular

..23_

protection.

Foreign

of

*f a l l u r e

conflicts

and c l a i m s

provincial

of

the

in

tributary

that

cient

internal

scale

reform

system

was

Nor th,

East

The

was

a

the

of

South the

division

for

the

several

new

of

lost

thorough

reform

administration

to

central

functions

a

full this

in

the

of

states

tributary

and

French

and

provincial

between

was

suffi-

Before

implementation

the

it

a

created

administration.

provincial

were

had

direct

However,

needed.

Chulalongkorn

base

a

of

from

powers

including

urgently

was

was

number

growing

subjects,

the case

in

government

Thai the

colonial

keep their

of

implemented, and

principle

tion

to

king

power

of

restrict

to

administration,

states,

1892

by

and

behalf

on

intervention

only

order

In

the

protection

provide

to

responsible.

made

subjects

outside

Never t i e l e s s

administration.

existing

was

This

country.

the

their

protect

to

government

throughout

the

of

scope

the

ordered

consuls

efficiently

British. administra-

ministeries,

be-

and between divisions depar tments within a ministry tween w i t h i n a d e p a r t r e n t . E s p e c i a l l y the l o s s of f i s c a l a u t o n o m y a n d c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f t a x r a i s i n g w a s h e a v i l y o p p o s e d by t h e c e n t r a l and l o c a l e l i t e s . S e v e r a l o t h e r measures were t a k e n local e l i t e s : - the the weaken to intention full the with of the corvée a b o l i t i o n of s l a v e r y , and replacement gradual traditional Also tax. by a c a p i t a t i o n obligation lab our e l i t e s were s t r i p p e d of t h e i r p r i v i l e g e s and economic r e many were p e n s i o n e d o f f , o t h e r s were o f f e r e d a p a i d sources' government function under d i r e c t c o n t r o l and s u p e r v i s i o n of the k i n g ' s A r o u n d 1 9 2 0 t h e r e f o r m was f u l l y i m p l e officers. rented, disapelements had traditional all not although peered.

e d u c a t i o n a n d w e s t e r n i n f l u e n c e s c r e a t e d a new m i d d l e of commoners m a i n l y employed i n t h e c i v i l s e r v i c e and bureaucracy and the in positions top Most military. the the royal f o r members of reserved were s t i l l government m e m b e r s of t h e new m i d d l e c l a s s w a n t e d a Ambitious f amity. s h a r e o f p o w e r . I n t h e 1 9 3 0 s T h a i l a n d was s e v e r e l y a f f e c t e d by the economic d e p r e s s i o n . S a l a r y r e d u c t i o n s and d i s m i s s a l o f many led to s t r o n g d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n among the m i d d l e c l a s s and c i v i l i a n s a n d in 1932 a g r o u p of young a r m y o f f i c e r s a s u c c e s s f u l coup d ' e t a t . The a b s o l u t e m o n a r c h y was launched a b o l i s h e d a n d r e p l a c e d by a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l m o n a r c h y .

Modern

class

_24_

t o be i n t h e claimed b e e n s h o t t; only have

t h e r e v o l u t i o n was Although u n t i l now t h e r e democracy, with

elected

an

parliament.

In

f act

the

1932

name of periods

revolution

was

elite the Within oligarchy37. to from autocracy a move various between power a continuous struggle for there is

changing and factions of decline and Growth f actions. for risk a continuous bear f actions between coalitions Every year or at most every few years a every government. f a l l s b e c a u s e o f i n t e r n a l s p l i t s o r b e c a u s e of a government coup

d'etat.

Since

New g o v e r n m e n t s

draf t process

a

new

1932

of t e n

one

Thailand

abolish

legitimize

to

constitutionalism

m a t i o n of a u t h o r i t y

the

of

became

the ruling

-25_

had

has

previous

their the

13

constitutions.

constitution

existence.

new

elites38.

source

of

In

and

this

legiti-

11.4. An

policy

imper t e n t

the

primacy

and

Administration

f e a t u r e of T h a i s o c i e t y t i l l r e c e n t t i m e s w a s of the government b u r e a u c r a c y : the main power

w i t h i n the bureaucracy. In the old system of the " p o l i t i c i a n s " were the top bureaucrats, and they o f ten belonged t o r o y a l t y which was the a p e x of the o l d s y s t e m . Af t e r t h e r e v o l u t i o n of 1 9 3 2 m e m b e r s of r o y a l t y

centres

were

kingship

r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s . These were i n f a c t by t h e an emerging m i d d l e c l a s s who s e i z e d p o w e r a n d became the new e l i t e . S i n c e , the e l i t e was a l m o s t e n t i r e l y recruited from the upper layers of the c i v i l a n d m i l i t a r y bureaucracy. Cabinet members almost e x c l u s i v e l y had a backwere

displaced

members

ground

of

as

so

bureaucrats,

did

the

large

majority

of

the

legislature39.

Business, although C h i n e s e , was u n d e r ces,

taxation,

long

since

firm

control

monopolies

mainly

and

of

in

the

the

hands

elite

of

through

"protect2ion"L*0.

Thus

ethnic licenthe

old e l i t e a l s o - had much economic power and c o u l d a t l e a s t control b u s i n e s s p e o p l e . Af t e r the 1932 r e v o l u t i o n the new p o l i t i c a l e l i t e managed a l s o to gain c o n t r o l over business. First nationalistic campaigns were launched with racist t e n d e n c i e s , which t h r e a t e n e d the Chinese b u s i n e s s communityL|+1_ A t t h e s a m e t i m e many s t a t e m e m b e r s of t h e T h a i p o l i t i c a l e l i t e b e c a m e m e m b e r s of t h e b o a r d s of d i r e c t o r s a n d a d v i s e r s of C h i n e s e owned b u s i n e s s f i r m s . The c l e a r reason f o r the Chinese t o i n v i t e them was to o b t a i n " p r o t e c t i o n "

and

"f avours"

Since t h e l a t e 1960 s t h e p r i m a c y of the b u r e a u c r a t i c e l i t e has been c o n s t a n t l y under c h a l l e n g e by new power groups. T h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s s e e m s t o be a r a p i d u r b a n g r o w t h , which

h a s l e d c o d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of u r b a n s o c i e t y . M o s t c l e a r i s the successful political emancipation of b a n k e r s , b u s i n e s s men a n d i n d u s t r i a l i s t s . T h e i r w e a l t h a n d t h e i r n u m b e r h a v e increased considerably. These new elites are n e c e s s a r i l y c l i e n t s of t h e b u r e a u c r a t i c e l i t e s .

so

called

"democratic

period",

1973-1976,

a

no longer During the

considerable

number of p e o p l e b e l o n g i n g t o the g r o u p of b a n k e r s , businessmen and i n d u s t r i a l i s t s a p p e a r e d in parliament and in t h e c a b i n e t ' * 2 . The p o l i t i c a l e m a n c i p a t i o n of t h e s e g r o u p s has been enhanced by s e v e r a l f a c t o r s . The w e a l t h y C h i n e s e

26-

f a m i t i e s a s s i m i l a t e d r a p i d l y by a d o p t i o n of T h a i c u s t o m s many of t h e i r a n d by i n t e r - m a r r i a g e w i t h T h a i s . M o r e o v e r ,

with

children

good

education

for

prestige

probably

vice,

sys

bureaucratic

the

with

links

direct

and

independent

establish

to

well

as

ser

government

entered

have

reasons

t e m * 3 . At t h e s a m e t i m e g r o w i n g n u m b e r s o f t h e T h a i p o l i t i in bank have become engaged e l i t e and their children cal i n g , b u s i n e s s , and i n d u s t r y . d e v e l o p m e n t and d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n of the econo economic professionals of class middle upper technocratic various specialists, i n t e l l e c t u a l s a n d m a n a g e r s has d e v i l

With

a

my

government tech-

the

by

distrusted

and

disliked

was

which

(1976/1977),

the

of

management

Kraivixien

Than i n

The

apparatus.

the

on

influence

increasing

with

oped,

bureaucratic

and

met p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e f r o m the t e c h n o c r a t s nocrats, the business world, and could achieve l i t t l e .

an

activities

their of

f armers

ry

groups,

noted

just

their

established. and

f armers still

ever, armed

to

people

star red

power

existing

the to

seem

not

the

in

one,

threat

does

have

students

a modest

main

The

most

Never theless

to

play

student

play

unions

activities

a

were was

labourers

that

agree

Af t e r

forbidden

role,

although

Thai p o l i t i c s .

of

socio-economic o r d e r , these

from

come

other

of

a

culmi

1976.

were

pol 1tica1

of

control

tight

and

of

unions

activities

the

arrested,

leaders

restricted,

lab our

and

student

several

this,

star red

which

activist

d'etat

coup

the

before

the

of

suppression

bloody

the

in

organization,

paramilita

groups,

actions

violent

other

and

murders

years

open p r o t e s t

of

response,

in

ultra-rightist

by

organized

of

series

However,

following

forms

many

stimulated

have

labourers.

and

the

of

end

the

to

the

In

1973.

in

dictatorship

led

that

process

the

in

role

imper t e n t

Than o r - P r a p a s

poll played

actions

Student

success.

in

share

a

claim

to

began

less

with

but

power,

tical

also

groups

other

Several

groups,

but

how from

l e d by t h e C o m m u n i s t P a r t y o f revolt developed armed 1960s f i r s t i n t h e N o r t h e a s t , and s p r e a d g r a d u a l l y o v e r t h e court Many r e m o t e a r e a s a l l o v e r t h e c o u n t r y a r e d o m i n a t e d t r y _ rural areas, the During

revolt in (CPT). Thailand

by

the

that

CPT a n d

these

from

areas

the

were

spread

of

extending

_27_

armed

till

clashes

1979.

it

Af t e r

appeared

the

coup

in

d'etat

1976

from

urban

1977

the

cratic nlsts, is

Forces

of

formed

joined for

(CCPDF)

socialists

invasion

radicals,

and

Committee

apparently

have

many

areas

and

a

was

founded

student and

serious

CPT

by

the

as

for

and

comprises The

fled

groups.

members,

communists.

following

setback

Patriotic

which

leaders

students,

guerilla

Co-ordinating

dominated

Cambodia

especially

with

In

Demo-

commu-

but

which

Vietnamese

events,

however,

fur then

expansion

seem

to

of

the

and

the

CPT.

Despite

the

growing

share

in

power

by

new

groups

c h a l l e n g e of a r m e d r e v o l t , i t i s l i k e l y t h a t t h e b u r e a u c r a cy w i l l c o n t i n u e t o p l a y a dominant r o l e i n many f i e l d s . Therefore, a s t u d y in r u r a l development must g i v e due c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o t h e r o l e of the bureaucracy and the Many W e s t e r n a u t h o r s , mainly American, have w r i t t e n

polity. on Thai

p o l i t i c s and the Thai buraucracyL'5. Whether they are Eor e i g n a d v i s e r s , such as W o r l d Bank and U.N. e x p e l i s , cons e r v a t i v e o r l e t l i s t s c h o l a r s , they s h a r e p e s s i m i s t i c and negative

conclusions

about

the

system.

The

main

conclusions

a r e that the s y s t e m is c o r r u p t and i n e f f i c i e n t . There a r e several controversies among s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s a b o u t the c o r r e c t f r a m e w o r k f o r a n a l y s i s of the Thai s o c l a l system 5 . As t h e b u r e a u c r a c y has a c e n t r a l place in Thai s o c i e t y , these controversies are reflected in the methodology of several studies on the role of the bureaucracy. 1 9 5 0 s and 1960s most a u t h o r s c o n c e n t r a t e d mainly on

I n the individual behaviour and on " v a l u e s " , whereas relatively little a t t e n t i o n was g i v e n t o socio-economic s t r u c t u r e . I n the 1970s r e l a t i v e l y more weight is given to socioeconomic r e l a t i o n s , as in p a t r o n - c l i e n t r e l a t i o n s and in c l a s s a n a lysls.

The

from tion

present

bureaucracy

has

developed

the t r a d i t i o n a l bureaucracy, of surplus f r o m the mass of

without

major

breaks

w h i c h d e p e n d e d on e x t o r the p o p u l a t i o n . This ex-

tor lion is a basic characteristic of a pre-capitalist class. A bourgeois government, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , d e p e n d s m a i n l y on taxes and payments f o r services which i t prov i d e s , a n d i t f o r m s p r i m a r i l y p a r t of t h e e x c h a n g e e c o n o m y . Both t y p e s of government need d i f f e r e n t i d e o l o g i c a l j u s t i fication. In many respects the present bureaucracy can s t i l l be c o n s i d e r e d a s a p r e - c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s . W i t h i n t h i s

_28_.

inefficient-

and/or

will

a

career.

During cers

Reorganization

of

government

been

"problems"

initial

have

changes

had

social

structure.

Status

and p o w e r

There

is

general

abroad

the

in

a

services

making

on

with

meets

and

accepted

be

reorganizations

apparatus,

because

exist,

that

bureau-

for

government

influence

agreement

f actor

Thai

of

government

still

little

training

Thai

for

character

and

as

includes

cosmetic

thousands

trained

phenomenon

normal

had

have

to

reorg-

and

advocated

training

may

it

Never t h e l e s s ,

decades,

recent

have

imper t e n t

an

appear

on

later

goal

be

difficulties.

more

it

if

major

to

appears

it

and

crats,

a

is

abroad

Training

Foreign

course,

Of

work.

par ticularly

re jected,

be

not

abroad.

rarely

usually

are

of

undesirable

bureaucrats

Thai

of

services

remedies

These

7.

remedies

Training

government

of

anization

behaviour

motives.

their

of

ever

easily

misinterpreted

t h e i r behaviour i s

that

disap-

they

(if

The

sometimes

is

Pre-

account.

completely

f o r m a t i o n can

dominant.

from

at

conclude

of ten

class

traditional

the

into

not

ideology,

in

change

all-dominant

understanding

of

lack

of

advisers

f

politicians

and

bureaucrats because

is

but

perceived

be

,

have

modern

hand,

other

services,

taken

be

longer

no

are

they

On t h e

were).

Economic

government

influenced

contradictions

class

but

peared,

have

must

and

government

of

role

capitalist

simplistic.

for

ideas

foreign

all

f actors

other

many

and

of

influx

modernization,

groups

new

from

pressure

is

alone

contradictions

class

on

change,

based

analysis

an

bu-

the

of

role

and

But

understood.

be

readily

may

reaucracy

development

the

framework

historical

so

cultural

hierarchical

only. offiare

a

the

but

these

f ar

and

values

status

is

a

is d o m i n a n t s o c i a l v a l u e in T h a i l a n d . I n d e e d , much e m p h a s i s most However, status. enhance that activities to given o b s e r v e r s have given i n s u f f i c i e n t a t t e n t i o n to the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n s t a t u s and p o w e r . Power c a n l e a d d i r e c t l y and i n d i And, r e c t l y t o s t a t u s . Power i m p l i e s p o s s e s s i o n of s t a t u s and benefits privileges, acquire to used be can power w e a l t h which i n d i r e c t l y l e a d t o an i n c r e a s e of s t a t u s . I n d i r t y , i t is T h a i s o c i e t y the use of power is n o t s o m e t h i n g

.

major lityL*9.

a

The someone

8oal48.

If

of power is h a r d l y s u b j e c t t o morafrom a benefits and power exercises

use

..29_

powerful p o s i t i o n he i s m o r e l i k e l y t o be a d m i r e d and to meet d e f e r e n c e t h a n t o m e e t d i s g u s t , even i f power is u s e d dishonestly for private goals. Power is something t o be u s e d , and if someone is a b l e t o u s e i t , he s o m e h o w d e s e r v e s it.

Bureaucratic

status

implies

authority

and

it

sanctions

t h e u s e of p o w e r . T h i n a p a n ' s s t u d y o n c o r r u p t i o n p r o v i d e s a n i n t e r e s t i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e T h a i i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of power50. I t appears that most people c o n s i d e r p u b l i c o f f i c e as

o f f i c e , and c o n s e q u e n t l y , and do not t h i n k i t o f f i c e r s to o b t a i n b e n e f i t s from t h e i r f u n c t i o n . e x i s t i n g legal codes concerning corruption cer t a i f l y

personal

wrong

The did

for

not

emerge

from

widely

held

social

norms.

Patron-Client Relations Patron-elient relations l a r g e , a n d e s p e c i a l l y in person's

are

imper t e n t

the

bureaucracy

in

Thai

and

in

society at politics. A

power

depends s t r o n g l y on t h e n u m b e r a n d p o s i t i o n i s a b l e t O m o b i l i z e . On t h e o t h e r h a n d in order t o a t t r a c t a n d t o k e e p c l i e n t s o n e h a s CO p r o v i d e scarce some b e n e f i t s , f avours and p r o t e c t i o n . Power over bureaucratic-, resources (proper ty, lab our or judicial-, a n d p o l i t i c a l p o w e r ) is t h e r e f o r e indispensable f o r having m a n y c l i e n t s . A p a t r o n who l o o s e s p o w e r may g r a d u a l l y l o o s e clients.

Of

clients

he

The word "f action" (khans) is mostly used for "groups" based on p a t r o n - c l i e n t r e l a t i o n s around p o w e r f u l p e r s o n s in p o l i t i c s and in the bureaucracy. These f actions are the main p o l i t i c a l u n i t s . Most p o l i t i c a l par t i e s a r e conservat i v e b u t t h e y l a c k a c l e a r i d e o l o g y . They a r e b a s e d on a few powerful persons, consequently political par t i e s cons i s t of f a c t i o n s . I f t h e r e is n o t an a l l d o m i n a t i n g strong

man

i n T h a i p o l i t i c s , who i s a b l e t o c o n t r o l s e v e r a l f a c t i o n s t h e r e s u l t may b e p o l i t i c a l i n s t a b i l i t y . P e o p l e who are dissatisfied with the existing par ty or government policy may c h a n g e allegiance resulting in the split of par t i e s and the break of c o a l i t i o n s . Apparently t h i s was o n e of t h e m a i n c a u s e s of t h e p o l i t i c a l i n s t a b i l i t y d u r i n g the so c a l l e d " d e m o c r a t i c p e r i o d " 5 l . But a l s o in non-democ r a t i c periods such i n s t a b i l i t i e s occur. Since 1932, breaks between f actions and new coalitions, mainly within the

-30_

source

and

ied,

percent

public

new

more.

crats

to

influence skills

powerful

the

persons.

of

a

f action

powerful

rivals

exchange

for

with

links

class~mates, ful their

the

In

friends, to

for

f avours

and

f actions,

several

who

people can

f actions little

make

combine

a

all

political

e.g. are

of

"obliged",

quick for

but

as

a

against

course

supper t .

through

with

imper t e n t

an

play

protection

claims;

f actions

-31_

relations

influence,

some

probably

has

supper t

and

intermediaries, capability

exercise

can

he

loyalty,

to

process

poli-

requires

establish

to

capacity

the

is

This

process53.

capability

charac-

is

system

skill

relevant

most:

bud g e t t i n g the

and

Thai

the

as

polity,

the

An i n d i v i d u a l

role.

member.

protégés.

and

skill

Riggs,

by

additional

offer

to

and

bureau-

senior

enable

some-

and

rake-off

percent

persons

clients

to

responsible

the

provides also

budgets

capable

benefits

bureaucratic

the

terized to

twenty

attract

Bureaucratic

tical

to

ten

Expanding

and

f amours

of ten

with a

bureaucrats times

buildings

benefits

Construction

considerable.

be

can

allocations

budget

from

the

than

direct

the

bureaucrats,

senior

For

price52.

market

normally

are

higher

percent

hundred

government

of

purchases

Government

one

to

lev-

actually

are

expenditure

the

of

taxes

of

amount

unnecessary.

twenty

prices

of

possible

is

pro jects

at

the

if ty

of

percent

is

f i f ty

only

that

estimated

have

Insiders

considerable.

tough

is

corruption

of

magnitude

The

high.

are

stakes

the

because

continuous

a

struggle

The

bureaucracy.

the

within

causes

procurement

budget

Therefore

tion.

struggle

not

administra-

efficient

reward

who

outsiders,

by

performed

within

is

allocation

budget

that

are

still

extent,

large

a

to

implies

This

bureaucracy.

the

In

and,

were

Thailand

in

cert res

power

real

re-

in

role

crucial the

seen,

we h a v e

As

procurement.

a

play

f actions

bureaucracy,

the

In

govern-

of

changes

frequent

for

d'etat.

coups

and

causes

the

were

military, ment

in

People

relatives, and

power-

career,

because

vital

purposes.

of

Technical

and

Technical tance in

and the

Professional

skills

professional

skills

fulfilled.

t o enhance chances f o r budget claims s m o o t h p e r f o r m a n c e of t e c h n i c a l t a s k s . of

technical

ic

and

related

probably

work.

secondary

of

are

impor-

b u r e a u c r a c y , as l o n g a s b a s i c t a s k s can be T e c h n i c a l a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l s k i l l m a y be a c q u i r e d

professional

to

a

Scientific

low

and

skills

social

r a t h e r than f o r the The low a p p r e c i a t i o n in

the

bureaucracy

appreciation

professional

for

is

scientif-

achievements

hardly

r e s u l t i n h i g h e r s t a t u s a n d t h i s in t u r n c a n a t least: par*t i a l l y e x p l a i n why a s c i e n t i f i c o r p r o f e s s i o n a l c a r e e r i n government services gives l i t t l e s a t i s f y a c t i o n . I n comparison with many o t h e r d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , T h a i l a n d h a s many well

e d u c a t e d t e c h n i c i a n s and s e r v i c e . L a r g e numbers of

ment

sities

in

the

United

States,

professionals

Thai

have

in

the

govern-

at

univer-

studied

Europe

a n d A u s t r a l i a a n d many of them have a d o c t o r ' s degree. However, these qualities are poorly used in the Thai system. Research plans and p r o f e s s i o n a l work a r e of ten irrelevant to outside stan-

d a r d s , and t h e e x e c u t i o n of r e s e a r c h p l a n s is frequently harmed by l a c k of f u n d s . Young p r o f e s s i o n a l s and technicians in government s e r v i c e c a n r a r e l y make a c a r e e r in

their

field o f e x p e l r i s e . I f t h e y w a n t t o make a c a r e e r t h e y have t o become a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , and so s k i l l f u l p r o f e s s i o n a l s and r e s e a r c h e r s i n government research institutes a r e of t e n p r o m o t e d t o a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o s t s . Productivity T o s t r i v e f o r h i g h p r o d u c t i v i t y is c e r t a i f l y not an import i n t value in the Thai b u r e a u c r a c y . This is, for people w o r k i n g in m i d d l e r a n k s , c e r t a i f l y r e l a t e d t o the low p r e s -

t i g e of s c i e n t i f i c and p r o f e s s i o n a l w o r k . I t is not p r e s t i gious t o work hard f o r a b s t r a c t goals and it does not enh e n c e c h a n c e s ~ f o r a f a s t c a r e e r . To make f r i e n d s , t o c r e a t e a p l e a s a n t a t m o s p h e r e a n d t o be a l w a y s r e a d y t o c a r r y o u t

ad

hoc

tasks

Consequently

for the

the pace

boss, of

are

work

in

more lower

imper t e n t

and

middle

slow.

i

..32_.

f actors.

ranks

is

Centralization

is

officials

different

quite

centralized

highly

is

bureaucracy

Thai

the

because

ranking

high

of

The s i t u a t i o n This

imper A11 d e c i s i o n s o f i m p e r l a n c e , a n d e v e n m a n y w i t h o u t h i g h l e v e l s . D i r e c t o r s of D i v i s i o n s at taken lance, are of Under-Secretaries Depar tments, of Director-Generals S t a t e , Cabinet M i n i s t e r s and the Prime M i n i s t e r a r e over approval for bureaucratic details submitted loaded with

of t a s k s b e c a u s e Long d e l a y s of t e n o c c u r in the e x e c u t i o n s i m p l e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e t a i l s a r e n o t s e t t l e d . I n t h e mean and

middle

many

time

Formal

administrative

rules

formal

centralization

is

of

rules

as

soon

seems

an

rules

as

are

the

garding

is

not

the

at

guideline rules.

necessarily

A burden

officers.

However

imper t e n t

Thus

keep

application seems

that

and

well

as

work

formal

as

of

regula

if

persons

powerful

with

peace

To

the

persons

bothers

one

no

neglect the

prescribe

Rules

in it

ranking

higher

cases

to

inter

or

values

decide

may

of

stake.

many

aside.

swept

major

decisive.

of

work

with

interests in

necessarily

the

minister

or

are

but

official,

lions is

as

groups

powerful an

officer long

not

prescribe

conflict

rules

as

ests,

to

but

centralistic,

strongly

are

inactive

remain

officials

low-ranking

dis r e

in

centralization

decisive.

An e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e h i g h d e g r e e o f c e n t r a l i z a t i o n may b e t o c o n t r o l many f o u n d i n the d e s i r e of b u r e a u c r a t i c p a t r o n s appointments d e t a i l s . F o r t o l o o s e g r i p on m o n e y s p e n d i n g , o f f a v o u r s , a p p l i c a t i o n of r u l e s m e a n s t o l o o s e granting the most imper t e n t b e n e f i t s f r o m the system a n d , moreover i t makes the b o s s v u l n e r a b l e . Lower r a n k i n g o f f i c i a l s of t e n respond

to

this

attitude

by

avoiding

decisions,

even

within

t h e i r a u t h o r i t y , i f the m a t t e r s a r e s e n s i t i v e o r d i s p u t e d They w i l l not r i s k problems w i t h p a t r o n s . In such c a s e s the to superiors for or to committees c a n be s e n t problems c o n s i d e r a t i o n , w h e r e p e r h a p s no d e c i s i o n is t a k e n e i t h e r I n o t h e r c a s e s t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of m e a s u r e s a n d p o l i c i e s can

be

result

because

delayed

is

execution solved.

that and

rules the

top

are can

obstruction

of

found be

and

used

overloaded

33

conflicts.

and

to

prevent

with

or

problems

The

delay CO be

Staff A

Functions

typical

feature

of

the

Thai

is

bureaucracy

that

few

in-

s t i t u t i o n s h a v e s t a f f u n i t s . As f a t a s t h e y e x i s t t h e y a r e of ten weakly s t a f f e d , i . e . s t a f f e d w i t h l e s s s u c c e s s f u l and less powerful o f f i c e r s . The r e a s o n f o r t h i s is t h a t s t a f f

s e c t i o n s h a v e n o t much g r o u n d f o r b u d g e t c l a i m s f o r projects. Consequently, staff sections o f f e r few benefits for t h e i r o f f i c i a l s . In the p a s t many s t a f f s e c t i o n s have been s e t u p , b u t as a r u l e they worked as l i n e s e c t i o n s and soon became l i n e s e c t i o n s . S t a f f m e e t i n g as in western c o u n t r i e s do not function well in the Thai s i t u a t i o n . In meetings most junior personnel, even when they a r e s p e c i a l i s t s , w i l l

only feel

they

are

not

free

to

give

or

plans

of

views

are

they

when

speak

Mostly

to

asked

asked

and

if

their

own

opinion

they

speak

by

are

asked

if

these

superiors. they

rarely

oppose

the

superiors.

Top b u r e a u c r a t i c o f f i c i a l s of t e n have no p e r s o n a l s t a f f , o n l y c l e r k s , s e c r e t a r i e s a n d d r i v e r s . Of t e n t h e y o p e n t h e i r mail p e r s o n a l l y , not allowing anyone else to open i t . Self

p r o t e c t i o n of high o f f i c e r s is probably a main reason f o r t h e l a c k o f s t a f f a d v i s e r s : no o n e i s a b l e t o c h e c k s e n s i tive matters, s o n o o n e c a n be u s e d b y o u t s i d e r s . W h a t e v e r the reason, the effects a r e imper t e n t . The t o p o f f i c i a l s a r e not even a b l e t o read and s t u d y a l l i m p e r t e n t r e p o t t s , and, consequently, documents a r e regularly signed without any

cheek

Social

of

professional

staff

advisers.

relations

Relations largely

respect

between

the

privileged officials

while In

population

by

the

population e11te treat

deference cheated.

the

determined

the

can

be

divided

and

the

the

privileged

the words

common

common of

a

and

the

cultural

man Thai

is

bureaucracy

heritage.

into

man.

In

elite badly

two

In

groups:

day-to-day with served,

regard and

are this

the life and of ten

intellectual5:

If man h a s a l a r g e c a r w i t h a s p e c i a l emblem a t t a c h e d to the f r o n t , or h a s a s o l d i e r a s h i s d r i v e r , he c a n turn l e t t or right contrary to a traffic policeman's orders. Fur therm o r e , if t h e p o l i c e m a n h a s any f l a i r he will show his respect by saluting the car and its

34-

fur then impressing the p r i v i l e g e d man w i t h and r e i n f o r c i n g h i s f a i t h i n the p r o p r i e t y

occupant, own p o w e r

of

cleverness

....

subordinates

his

T h e c o m m o n man h a s t o t a k e t h e b u s t o hanging out the doorway, W h i l e he i s free

feels

tor

knows

collector

ever

be

full

him

at

shout

to

that

well

no

his

and

work. the t i c k e t

unceasingly,

privileged

collec the for man w o u l d

t r a v e l l i n g by b u s " .

I f a p r i v i l e g e d man h a s t o a r r a n g e s o m e t h i n g w i t h a g o v e r n r e n t o f f i c e he c a n m o s t l y s e t t l e t h e m a t t e r b y t e l e p h o n e o r s e n d s o m e o n e i n h i s p l a c e . I f he h a s t o go h i m s e l f he c a n bypass queues and lower o f f i c i a l s . to The common man has wait, to o f t e n v e r y l o n g , a n d he may b e s e n t f r o m o f f i c e

office insignificant matters. he c a n s e t t l e e v e n before to such an a v e r s i o n of going has c o m m o n man T h a i Every o f f i c e s , not o n l y b e c a u s e i t is a w a s t e of time but b e c a u s e h e k n o w s t h a t he w i l l be i l l - t r e a t e d b y t h e c l e r k , who i s p o o r l y p a i d and l o o k s o n t h e common man a s a s u p p l e m e n t a r y source o f income55. Almost a l l Thai a s p i r e t o become p r i v i -

leged

men,

even

if

only

on

a

temporary

basis.

name in someone's persons, to mention powerful t i m e , may o b t a i n f o r place and a t an a p p r o p r i a t e

To a c t the

for

proper

t h e common the man g o o d s e r v i c e , a n d f o r t h e m o m e n t h e may r e c e i v e Also in the o f s o m e o n e who c o u n t s . t r e a t m e n t and r e g a r d s petty between peasants and gaps social the countryside b u r e a u c r a t s a r e wide. S a l a r i e s of government o f f i c i a l s a r e l o w , but: t h e p o s t s a r e p r e s t i g i o u s i n t h e e y e s o f p e a s a n t s and they o f f e r b a s i c s e c u r i t y and o t h e r b e n e f i t s , pension, c a r e a n d a c c e s s t o e d u c a t i o n . Many p e o p l e s e e f r e e medical i t as a m a j o r aim to g e t one of t h e i r children into governservice.

ment

Elitism

the p o l i t i c a l e l i t e s , r e m i n i s c e n t of c l a s s i d e o l o g y . I t p l a y s a r o l e in main p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s a s well o f f i c e r s and government petty r e l a t i o n between the a s in run by a o l i g a r c h i c The s t a t e is common p o p u l a t i o n . the e l i t e . D i f f e r e n c e s of i n t e r e s t a n d views among the p o l i t i -

the

Throughout there

cal

is

elite

a

bureaucracy

strong

may

lead

sense

to

of

and

among

elitism,

continuous

35-

struggles

between

cliques

the struggles, these notwithstanding but f actions, and state, the guardian of the as a whol»= b e h a v e s as elite

The interest. national the and institutions, major the is which interest, national the serve to claim elite s t r o n g l y r e l a t e d t o t h e i r own i n t e r e s t as a g r o u p o r c l a s s ,

cliques and f aco r even only the i n t e r e s t of dominating implicit the interest national the To s e r v e tions. is issues like a coup and in major the e l i t e , ideology of sensitive

or

d'etat

matters

political

explicit

reference

legitimizing

for

interest

national

the

actions.

political

Other

to

made

is

of ten

a r e r e a d i l y seen as a t h r e a t to the s t a t e n o t p a t r i o t i c and i n s t i t u t i o n s , and therefore

ideologies

and

the

are

e a s i l y marked

major

"communist".

B u r e a u c r a t s and p o l i t i c i a n s m o s t l y presume t h a t the Common to achieve progress man is i n c a p a b l e t o make r e a l c h a n g e s , and t o c a r r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . I t is t h e r e f o r e t h e t a s k of the e l i t e to plan and to i n i t i a t e c h a n g e . In the t r a d i t i o n is population rural the relations superior-inferior al need they conservative: and dull awkward, considered l e a d e r s h i p and guidance f r o m the l o c a l and n a t i o n a l e l i t e s .

T h e r e f o r e , development sees the e l i t e what national

of

the

and

interest

rural

development s p e n d much

plans and policies r e f l e c t primarily the and desirable f o r necessary as f o r the p o o r . The wishes and o p i n i o n s

are

population policies.

error t

a primary

not

consideration necessary

considered with the communication not

is

It

in to

rural populaon because t i o n in o r d e r t o f i n d out what t h e i r o p i n i o n s a r e , the e l i t e t h i n k they know well what is in the i n t e r e s t of

the p o p u l a t i o n . In r e a l i t y however, the g r e a t m a j o r i t y of the Thai e l i t e know v e r y l i t t l e a b o u t l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s and problems in the c o u n t r y s i d e . S o c i a l values do not m o t i v a t e o r t o be i n t e r e s t e d the e l i t e to communicate with peasants that f i l t e r s from rural areas to i n t h e m . The i n f o r m a t i o n mostly is bureaucratic channels through elite urban the and

incomplete,

cratic It

and

would

rural be

biased

towards

the

interest

of

the

bureau-

elites.

erroneous

to

think

that:

the

bureaucracy

is

homogeneous and t h a t l i t t l e change takes place w i t h i n the various between be found can differences Great system. a g e n c i e s . Of s p e c i a l i m p e r l a n c e i s t h e r o l e o f government

_36_

bureaucratic

individual custom

and

widespread

is

and

depends

Corruption

leaders.

possibilities,

in

some

on

agen-

a n d of l i t t l e i m p e r l a n c e in o t h e r s . The same a p p l i e s t o o f f i c e r s : some have a m p l e o p p o r t u n i t i e s o t h e r s none a t others behavior, traditional "typical" have some all, s t r i v e f o r n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l g o a l s a n d " n e w " p o l i c i e s . Some present the discontented with are young o f f i c e r s the of to be wrong would it However, situation. bureaucratic Young people expect s i g n i f i c a n t changes in the near f u t u r e . rank and a r e s t i l l w i t h o u t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . In have lower existing the to themselves adapt may they future the

cies

realities.

socialized

Moreover,

persons

selection

reach

the

can

ensure

that

the

most

top.

military and universities of students among study a In a p p e a r e d t h a t more t h a n one t h i r d o f c o l l e g e s in 1972 i t t h e s t u d e n t s had l o w d e m o c r a t i c a t t i t u d e s 5 6 . A b o u t h a l f of

to this s t u d e n t s had a u t h o r i t a r i a n a t t i t u d e s . R e l a t e d t w o t h i r d of the s t u d e n t s had a d i s l i k e of c r i t i is Thailand in meeting s i n from persons Criticism cism. even of ten f e l t as an i n s u l t and as i m p o l i t e b e h a v i o r , showed t h a t among among p e o p l e of e q u a l r a n k . The s t u d y s t u d e n t s , who a l m o s t a l l w i l l c h o o s e a c a r e e r i n g o v e r n m e n t the

is

that

the t r a d i t i o n a l v a l u e s of the a majority shared service, i t i s n o t t o be e x p e c t e d t h a t i n Thai e l i t e . Consequently, institutions in government major changes near f u t u r e the a n d t h e i r o p e r a t i o n w i l l be g e n e r a t e d f r o m i n s i d e t h e b u -

is t h e e m e r g e n c e of a s t r o n g d e m o c r a t i c Neither reaucracy. m o v e m e n t t o be e x p e c t e d . M o d e r a t e s a n d " l i b e r a l s " w i t h i n may g r a d u a l l y o b t a i n a s h a r e i n p o w e r , ' b u t the bureaucracy f o r the n e a r f u t u r e only a modest one. Some

readers

may

question

whether

Thai

bureaucracy

and

p o l i c y d e s e r v e s o m u c h a t t e n t i o n a s g i v e n h e r e . Of t e n t h e argument is heard t h a t s o c i a l values and b u r e a u c r a t i c beh a v i o u r in a l l c o u n t r i e s show s i m i l a r i t i e s and t h a t t h e r e i s no r e a s o n t o t r e a t a p a r t i c u l a r b u r e a u c r a c y a s a s p e c i a l with the opinion that a l l one can s y m p a t h i z e c a s e . Although s h a r e some common f e a t u r e s , bureaueraeies humans and a l l t o t h e s o l u t i o n of p a r t i t h e s e a r g u m e n t s do n o t c o n t r i b u t e are more l i k e l y t o p r e v e n t c u l a r p r o b l e m s . Such a r g u m e n t s

understanding of

the

of

Thai

society

that

bureaucracy.

..37_

to c l a r i y the

operation

Another "modern

opinion Western

to be re jected is that the roots for rational" thinking and behaviour are found

in every culture and that in time a modern s o c i e t y w i l l emerge f r o m a t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y just as happened in the West. Such opinions, theories, presume that

related to all Western

unilinear evolution societies are similar

traditional societies, whatever that all d i f f e r e n c e s , will follow s i m i l a r development paths.

and

38-

their

11.5.

Aspects

Social

Some

For a good u n d e r s t a n d i n g required is information and

the s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n background life rural health, education,

of

on

religion.

Education education

Modern

reign Modern

reforms

performed

education

has

in

the

been

and

In

for

process

primarily

of

the

the

implementation

of

new

tasks

had

to

many

for

the

monasteries.

the

in

monks

by

during

replaced

Thailand

(1868-1910>57.

required

was

education

administrative

be

given

education

traditional

into

introduced

was

Chulalongkorn

king

of

that

modernization.

oriented

providing

Since

then

government

officials.

is a r e q u i r e m e n t f o r ver t i c a l m o b i l i t y , a l t h o u g h theory than in p r a c t i c e . It gives access to employin teaching including organizations, government ment: i n and to concerning access Regulations education. primary a r e based on edueaorganizations p r o m o t i o n in government t i o n a l l e v e l s and on c i v i l s e r v i c e examinations. Neveris people of t h e l e s s the s o c i a l and economic background is e a s i e r f o r c h i l d r e n to education o f ten d e c i s i v e . Access urban c i t i z e n s than f o r c h i l d r e n of poor peasof wealthy a n t s . Most poor people cannot a f f o r d to send t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o town f o r s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n . Education

more in

In

the

previous

section

emphasis

was

given

to

the

under-

u t i l i z a t i o n of a v a i l a b l e t e c h n i c a l and p r o f e s s i o n a l s k i l l s these s k i l l s are low valued in the s y s t e m . Morebecause have d i f f i c u l t i e s f i n d i n g o v e r , g r e a t n u m b e r s of g r a d u a t e s among unemployment considerable is There jobs. suitable school among especially and graduates university young from a from vocational highschools58. Graduates leavers middle class background than poor p e o p l e . Since

the

late

can

nineteenth

better

century

afford

it

has

to

be

been

unemployed

a

custom

for their children abroad t o send elite among t h e Thai e d u c a t i o n . Among g r a d u a t e s t h e r e i s a t o u g h c o m p e t i t i o n t o o b t a i n s c h o l a r s h i p s a b r o a d . C h i l d r e n of the e l i t e a r e s e n t

_.39_

anyway, because t h e i r f a m i t i e s pay in t h e e v e n t t h a t scholarship is not f o r thcoming. At present Thailand

the has

several thousands of people with foreign education and a m o n g t h e m t h e r e is a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r of p e r s o n s w i t h a a a Ph.D.. According to Thai intellectual in Thailand,

doctorate

has

now

become

a

status

symbol

as

the

title

of

the Sakdina system (traditional dignity marks). Persons with foreign education can mostly e n t e r the c i v i l s e r v i c e a t a h i g h e r l e v e l than people w i t h only Thai e d u c a t i o n , and their career prospects are better.

The general weakness of the Thai e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m is t h a t it is s t i l l o r i e n t e d t o w a r d s t r a d i t i o n a l b u r e a u c r a t i c w o r k . I t gives l i t t l e training f o r p r a c t i c a l work. For example, graduates

of

agricultural

colleges

are

mostly

not

familiar

f a r m - w o r k u n l e s s they a r e f a r m e r ' s c h i l d r e n . Most of them have a n o n - a g r i c u l t u r a l background and t h e r e f o r e they are rather unsuited f o r the posts they u s u a l l y g e t , i . e . a p o s t as e x t e n s i o n w o r k e r . The big s o c i a l gap b e t w e e n government o f f i c e r s and f armers is an imper t e n t reason f o r the persistence of such impractical education. It is d o u b t f u l whether a change in school p r o g r a m res w o u l d have much i m p a c t , g i v e n the dominant social values. with

S o c i a l v a l u e s can f o r m o b s t a c l e s in many o t h e r f i e l d s t o o . F o r e x a m p l e , a c c o r d i n g to the f o u r t h n a t i o n a l plan t h e r e is a g r e a t u n s a t i s f i e d demand f o r h i g h e r q u a l i f i e d and more appropriately t r a i n e d p e r s o n n e l in the f i e l d of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and management59. Shor t a g e s occur in both government s e r v i c e and p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e , and among f u l l - t i m e m a n a g e r s as w e l l a s among p r o f e s s i o n a l w o r k e r s w i t h a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and management t a s k s . However, s p e c i a l t r a i n i n g measu r e s h a v e n o t b e e n q u i t e s u c c e s s f u l . I t is m o s t l i k e l y t h a t traditional cultural roots are the real bottlenecks for efficient modern administration. In general the r o l e of e d u c a t i o n and t r a i n i n g in solving these problems is overestimated.

Health The q u a l i t y of h e a l t h c a r e i n T h a i l a n d is g o o d , b u t h i g h l y concentrated in urban cert res. In the countryside few modern medical s e r v i c e s a r e a v a i l a b l e . In case of d i s e a s e

40-

have t o go to people free is care medical

be

long,

of t e n

are

for.

paid

and

65

countries.

health The

has to not bad come x p e c t a t i o n in

medication

situation

average

people

queues

life

is

i n I n d i a o n l y I+9 y e a r s a n d i n i s a l m o s t 60 y e a r s , the f i g u r e s For Malaysia and Singapore 46 y e a r s .

Thailand Indonesia are

average

and

limited,

capacities

The

other

to

pared

For poor treatment. town f o r h o s p i t a l s , but: in government

67

In

yearseo.

Thailand

diseases,

infectious

account f o r o n l y a modest par t of d e a t h s 6 1 . I n i s o l a t e d a r e a s a n d e s p e c i a l l y among m i n o r i t y g r o u p s the In the h i l l s h e a l t h s i t u a t i o n i s rnueh p o o r e r t h a n a v e r a g e . malaria

and

culosis

is

led shoes

hookworm

widespread.

respectively and

sanitary

by

are

the

These

main

three

problem,

and

also

diseases

can

be

medication,

prophylactic

measures,

and

by

prophylactic

tuber--

control-

by

wearing

inoccula-

mounthe in especially problem, An a d d i t i o n a l c a p a c i t y of opium The working opium a d d i c t i o n . of n o r m a l , and t h e i r o p i u m cononly 75 percent earn. Their they may c o s t a s m u c h o r m o r e t h a n sumption drug and of t e n decreases responsibility social of sense a d d i c t s a r e p a r a s i t e s on t h e i r f a m i t i e s . V i l l a g e s with a p e r c e n t a g e o f d r u g a d d i c t s a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o be m o s t high imper t e n t An innovation. organizational to unacceptive r e a s o n f o r t h e s t a r t of o p i u m u s e is the u s e of o p i u m as a pain k i l l e r . tions62.

is tains, a d d i c t s is

H e a l t h and power t y a r e c l e a r l y i n t e r r e l a t e d in the c o u n t r y s i d e i n Nor t h o r n T h a i l a n d . The d i r e c t e f f e c t of d i s e a s e s is t h e l o s s o f p r o d u c t i v e w o r k o f s i c k p e o p l e a n d o f t h o s e who h a v e t o c a r e f o r them. The r e s u l t is of t e n a d e c r e a s e of p r o d u c t i o n and i n c o m e . At the same t i m e n e c e s s a r y e x p e n d i and increases. Impoverishment ture f o r travel and treatment e v e n l o s s o f l a n d c a n be t h e r e s u l t 6 3 . On t h e o t h e r h a n d i t is in d i e t s and r e s u l t s power t y implies poor that clear the in widespread are Both anemia. and malnutrition and anemia cause a d e c r e a s e of countrys1de6L*. M a l n u t r i t i o n p h y s i c a l s t r e n g t h and an i n c r e a s e d l i a b i l i t y to d i s e a s e s . T h i s can a l s o d i s t o r t normal d e v e l o p m e n t of c h i l d r e n .

_g*1._

Rural

life

Numerous

Thai

Thailand

some

p0rcer66,

but

on

various

deserve

villages general

a

large

aspects

attention

been

have

are

studies

number

of

of

village

studied.

those

other

For

by

studies

1ife67.

Nor thorn

Moerman55 are

Only

a

and

available

few

points

here.

a h e a d m a n , e l e c t e d by t h e v i l l a g e r s , b u t is only if the c o n s e n t of the d i s t r i c t Some s i x officer is obtained. to twelve villages form a s u b - d i s t r i c t . The head of the s u b - d i s t r i c t is e l e c t e d f r o m

Every v i l l a g e has appointment valid

among

the to

the

village

government, the

village

but

government

The

headmen.

they

headmen

cannot

service.

government.

get

a

be c o n s i d e r e d

They

form

the

link

payment

as

from

belonging

between

the

They

r e p r e s e n t the v i l l a g e in and r e p r e s e n t the government a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in the v i l l a g e . C o n f l i c t s of l o y a l t y o c c u r of ten as social norms within t h e v i l l a g e a r e of t e n i n c o n gruous with legislation and government policy. Village

the

and

the

government

headmen

are

administration

inclined

to

obstruct

government

policies

and

meet resistance in the village. In Nor thorn Thailand usually the most powerful villagers are elected as village headmen68.

Nuclear f amities are m o s t c o m m o n , b u t t h e r e s e e m s t o be some p r e f e r e n c e f o r m a t r i l i n e a l extended f a m i t i e s . In these extended f amities the youngest married daughter and her husband and c h i l d r e n live in the parental house. If a y o u n g e r d a u g h t e r m a r r i e s , t h e f a m i t y of t h e o l d e r one moves out. In rare occasions a married son's f a m i t y l i v e s in the p a r e n t a l house. I f t h e r e a r e no d a u g h t e r s o r i f t h e e c o n o mic s i t u a t i o n does not a l l o w f o r the e x t e n d e d f a m i t y , f a m i -

l i e s a r e n u c l e a r . Of t e n m a r r i e d c h i l d r e n have t h e i r own house i n the p a r e n t a l compound. All children inherit in p r i n c i p l e a n e q u a l s h a r e o f t h e p r o p e r t y of e a c h o f t h e i r p a r e n t s , but the youngest daughter l i v i n g in the p a r e n t a l

h o u s e i n h e r i t s the house as a compensation f o r the o b l i g a tion t o care f o r the p a r e n t s in t h e i r old age. P r a c t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s may l e a d t o d i f f e r e n t arrangements.

42

Religion The B u d d h i s t m o n a s t e r y has a c e n t r a l p l a c e in t h e v i l l a g e . M o s t male v i l l a g e r s s p e n d some t i m e in the m o n a s t e r y as a

in or monk. The c l e r g y is n o r m a l l y n o t e n g a g e d o f f a i r s , a l t h o u g h m o n k s may be a s k e d f o r a d v i c e o n

novice jar

Very

problems. many

ceremonies

imper tent in

and

ritual

their

is

the

outside

task

monastery.

secy"

many

concerning

The

clergy

is

D a i l y f o o d has on d o n a t i o n s of the l a y - c o m m u n i t y . are services and money periodically and offered be to c o n s t r u c t i o n , and o t h e r e x p e n d i required f o r maintenance, place f o r the also of ten is temple compound The tores dependent

.

village

o f f airs temple

festivals,

of

the

committee,

fairs

and

monastery consisting

are of

other

activities.

the

responsibility

older

male

Material

of

the

villagers-

Buddhism, called exclusively although religion, Popular of The s t u d y doctrines. from Buddhist strongly differs f o r m a l B u d d h i s t d o c t r i n e s is n o t v e r y h e l p f u l a n d c e r t a i f l y n o t s u f f i c i e n t , f o r t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of p e o . p l e ' s r e l i g i o n opinion the to tend Several scholars and social values. asa s p e c t s are more imper t e n t than Buddhist that animist

a repot red murders ten thousand With more than pects69. year, plus a large unregistered number, innumerable robberi e s a n d many o t h e r f o r m s of v i o l e n c e , T h a i s o c i e t y is among I t is e a s i e r to u n d e r s t a n d the most v i o l e n t in the world. t h i s i n the l i g h t of the a n i m i s t w o r l d view as d e s c r i b e d by d o c t r i n e s , which M u l d e r 7 0 t h a n in t e r m s of f o r m a l B u d d h i s t n e i t h e r now n o r i n t h e p a s t f o r m e d a n e f f e c t i v e r e s t r i c t i o n o n t h e u s e of p o w e r a n d v i o l e n c e .

A3-

Footnotes

1. For a detailed geographic description see: Donner, W o l f , The F i v e F a c e s

of T h a i l a n d ,

A n Economic

2

Geography, Institute of Asian off airs, Hamburg, 1978. Since 1939 the official name of the country has been Thailand. Before that time, and during a shot t period

3

of ter the Second World War, the official name was Siam. The name Siam will be used only a few times in a historical context. Since 1977 the number of provinces is in f act 8 and 17 because a new province Phayao has been made of the southern par t of Chiang Raj province. As statistical data have not yet been subdivided we will use the name

Chiang Rai for the former whole province. 4. In Thailand the "Ministry" indicates prlmarly the

office of the Under-Secretary of State. Depar tents, official

belonging

to a c e r rain M i n i s t r y , are n o t

automatically connoted when reference is made to that Ministry. Depar tments of the Ministry of Agriculture use regional sub-divisions, different from the Ministry itself. 5. The word Tai is mostly used to indicate the entire ethnic f amity, whereas the word Thai indicates those

groups living in Thailand. 6. Charnvit Kasetsiri, The Rise of Ayudhya, A History of Siam in the Four teenth and Fif t e e t h Centuries, Oxford

University Press, 1976; Skinner, G. William, Chinese Society in Thailand, An Analytical History, Cornell, Ithaca, New Yor k. 1957.

7 Skinner, loe.cit., PP. 28-32, 91-92. 8. Walker, Anthony R., Introduction, Nor th Thailand: Hills and Villages, Hillman and Lowlanders", in: Walker, Anthony R., ed., Farmers in the Hills, Upland Peoples of Nor th Thailand, University Sains Malaysia, 1975, p.13. Walker argues that it is incorrect to use the term "tribes" as there is no supra local political organization, no considerable cultural uniformity, and no occupation of a definite territory. 9. Ingram, James C., Economic Change in Thailand, 18501970, Stanford University Press, 1971, p. 7. 10. Te j BUn nag, The Provincial Administration of Siam

1892-1915, Oxford University Press, 1977, p. 266. 11. Estimate provided by the Regional and Provincial Accounts Section of the NESDB. 12. National Statistical Office, Population and Housing Census 1970, p. 8.

ESCAP, op. cit., p. 83. National Statistical Office, op.cit., pp. 9-11. Although demographers have expressed doubt about the low number of children repot red they think the numbers between 0-4 years old are underrepor red

-

there is sufficient evidence of a decreasing b i t thrate. _44..

-

15. Arnold, Fred and Mathana Phananiramai, Revised Estimates of the 1970 population of Thailand, Research Paper No. 1, Bangkok, National Statistical Office, 1975. 16. In addition there are nowadays thousands of refugees f r o m Indo-Chinese wsmammm

c o u n t r i e s living in refugee camps

,

,

of

Programmers

Young 2 G o r d o n The Hill Tribes ed Bangkok , 1974, and Walker province and became gradually available

r e r a t e d province by

23.. An example of the way in which these people were used for elections was observed in 1976. A headman of a

Karen village was asked about his duties as a headman. He responded that his last duty was to bring all his villagers to the election office. 24. Literacy is defined as the percentage of the

population of ten years of age and over who can read and write simple statements. 2 5 . For general references see: Coed's, George, The Indianized States of Southeast Asia, Honolulu, East-West

Centre Press, 1968, and: Keyes, Charles F., The Golden Peninsula, Culture and Adaptation in Mainland Southeast, macmillan, 1977. . Charnvit

--

-

Klaus

Bun nag LeMay Jumsai

History

of Anglo Thai Rela

1970, pp. 102-103, 130-165, 175-184. T o j Fanni. pp. 1-39. M.L. Manich Jumsai )p. eit. , gives many examples of the functioning , .in British consular cour is and of tfons, §angRo

us

humi

gerents.

45-

37

|

38 . West

39.

A0

Bangkok q

Sangcha 43

as. 45

PP

William

Gove rnme nt

Walter

Impa ct

46.

Mulde r 47

_

World

Chap ter II § § m p h a s i z e d that this (amo ral) power is an lion s with non- inti mate s outs ider s inti mate pers ons for whic h "mot her

exemplary, and can

which belong rela tive s and, to a lesser mate s and peop le with whom has ,____,__ rela tion , are subject to moral obli gati ons.

clas s

_ _ _ _ .

5 0 . Thin apan Naka ta, Bure aucr atic Corr upti on, Inco 8nit ies Betw een Lega l Code s and Soci al Norm s, Scho ol of P u b l i c Admi

nistration, Bangkok, 1977.

-46

5 1 . Son porn Sangchai, op. cit., p. I. 52. Thinapan Nakata, op. cit., p. 26. 53. Riggs, op. cit., p. 339.

5a. Sulak S i v a r a k s e , S i a m t h r o u g h a Looking Critique, Bangkok, 1973, PD. 34-37. Ibid., P' 35.

Glass,

a

'

Thinapan Nakata, The Problems of Democracy in Thailand A Study of political Culture and S o c i a l i z a t i o n of College Students, Bangkok, 1972. 57. Wyatt, David, The Politics of Reform in Thailand,

Education in the Reign of King Chulalongkorn, Yale University Press, 1969.

58. NESDB, The Four th Five-Year Plan, 1977-1981, p. 188. " 59. Ibid, pp. 197-198. 60. ESCAP, op. cit., p. 58. 61. Ibid, p. 61. 6 2 . Lewis, rev. Paul, Plan of Action, mimeo, NADC, Chiang

Mai, 1975. 63 . C a l a v a n , Michael M., Decisions a g a i n s t Nature: C r o p Choice in a Nor thorn Thai Village, Unp. Ph.D. Thesis, Illinois, 1974, pp. 40-42. 64. Anaemia and Malnutrition Research Centre (MALAN), General Repot t, Chiang Mai, 1977, pp. 1-8. Moerman,

op. eit..

Potter, Jack M., Thai Peasant Social Structure,

University of Chicago Press, 1976. 67

Heirs Potter, Sulamith, Family Life in a N o r f e r n Thai Village, A Study in the Structural Significance of

Women, University of California Press, 1 9 7 7 . , Tur t o n , Andrew, "Nor therm Thai Peasant Society' Twentieth Century Transformations

in Political and Jural

Structures", in Journal of Peasant Studies, 1976 , p p . 263-298; Narnjohn Iddhichiracharas, Bamboo V i l l a g e : A Nor therm Thai Frontier Community, Ph.D. T h e s i s , mimeo 1977; Calavan, op. cit.. Potter, op. cit., Chapter 8. For general descriptions of Thai religion see: Terwiel, B.J., Monks and Magic, A n Analysis of Religious Ceremonies in Cent real Thailand, Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies Monograph

Series No. 24, 1975, Tambiah, S.J., Buddhism and the Spirit Cults in Nor theast Thailand, Cambridge University Press, 1970. For description of aspects of religion in Nor therm Thailand see' King shill, Konrad, Ku Daeng, The Red Tomb, A Village Study in Nor thorn Thailand, Bangkok, 1960 ; Tur ton, Andrew, "Matrilineal Descent Groups and S p i r i t C u l t s of the Thai Yuan in Nor therm Thailand", Journal o f the Siam Society, 1972, p. 60, pp. 217-256, Heirs P o t t e r , op. cit.. 70. Mulder, op. cit..

_g*7_

CHAPTER III.l.

THE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC S I T U A T I O N

III. From

Before

Subsistence

1855

to

Thailand

Commodity

was

Production

largely

self-sufficient1.

In

v i l l a g e s a l m o s t e v e r y t h i n g needed f o r l o c a l c o n s u m p t i o n was grown and made by v i l l a g e r s themselves. There was only limited inter-village trade. able movement; of produce

in

capital,

the

form

of

tax

However, t h e r e was a c o n s i d e r from the countryside to the

in

kind.

All

trade

was

subject

t o royal monopolies and r e s t r i c t i o n s by l o c a l r u l e r s . T r a d e with foreign countries consisted mainly of luxury goods. sometimes, B u l k y expo i s of r i c e or o t h e r p r o d u c t s o c c u r r e d apparently in c a s e s of s c a r c i t y e l s e w h e r e , b u t not on a regular basis. In the

the

taxes, to

past

the

surplus the

corvée f

error is used

and

accumulation

formation

for for

or

were

peasants

was

economy from

l a b o r ,

peasants

of

urban

extol red

in

trade

profits.

escape urban

the

productive

form

almost

peasants,

limited,

to

Warf a r e ,

depended

the

as

to

areas.

consumption, of

precious

purposes

was

in

form

"Services"

reflected

remote

entirely

either

provided

in

the

The

temple

on of

many

surplus

building,

at t i f a c t s .

Capital

limited.

The Bowring Treaty B r i t a i n opened the

polies were to fixed ad

of 1855 between Thailand and Great country to foreign t r a d e . T r a d e monot o be a b o l i s h e d and f o r e i g n t r a d e was s u b j e c t valorem t a x a t i o n . This encouraged a p r o c e s s of

eeonomie s p e c i a l i z a t i o n which is still going on. Cheap imper red i n d u s t r i a l products, mainly c l o t h , began to penetrate into the countryside. It appeared p r o f i t a b l e f o r peasants to expand their rice production and t o exchange r i c e s u r p l u s e s f o r c l o t h a n d o t h e r g o o d s . As a f i r s t r e s u l t cotton production and weaving f o r household needs d e c l i n e d . S p e c i a l i z a t i o n in r l c e p r o d u c t i o n and commercialization did not expand at the same pace everywhere. I t depended largely on possibilities and profitability. Cheap transpor ration was a f i r s t r e q u i r e m e n t , and a v a i l a b i l i t y of l a n d r e s o u r c e s

_48._

a

was

Plain

Central

The

second. be

cheap

transpor ration.

and expensive more Railway construction

paddy

where

area

the

land

enabled

canals

and

rivers

and

easily,

expanded

could

was transport r a t i o n In other regions abundant. less were resources land in t h e f i r s t d e c a d e s of the t w e n t i e t h

transporof possibilities additional provided Consequently high. relatively were tariffs but t r a n s p o r t o f r l c e f r o m t h e Nor t h a n d N o r t h e a s t w a s l i m i t e d , and occurred mainly of h i g h p r i c e s in Bangkokz. in periods I n his 1931 r u r a l s u r v e y Zimmerman f o u n d t h a t s e v e r a l a r e a s i n t h e Nor t h a n d N o r t h e a s t w e r e s t i l l l a r g e l y s e l f - s u f f i century ration,

client.

tion

not

were

and

amounts

of

readily

available the

of

was

In

able

not

because

the

an

of

South

of

of

freedom

Thailand

by

bound

was

par t

imper t e n t

profit

to

lack

expansion

for

everywhere

much

of of

mining

tin

the

the

from lack

or

was

not

of

same

suitable

land

paddy

several rural new

within

the

had

fields.

forms

of

population

opp or t u n i t i e s

resources.

developed

immigrants. Chinese for activity i n d u s t r y . Teak the tin joined peasants of the Nor t h . The t e a k b u s i n e s s product tant

also

but

peasants

all

Not;

capital,

and

population

Perhaps

slavery.

peasants. lab our

land,

regions

between

unequal

only

among

regions

Par t

f o r expansion o f r i c e p r o d u c -

the p o s s i b i l i t i e s

Undoubtedly

as

an

impor-

Thai no Almost was an imper t e n t by was o r g a n i z e d

whereas subjects, Asian and English and French Europeans Nor t h , by m i n o r i t y p e o p l e s f r o m t h e lab o u r was provided Burma a n d L a o s , n o t by T h a i p e a s a n t s .

other that products century peasants for specialization. became coconuts and rubber World War, first the Af t e r During and af t e r i m p e r t e n t e x p o r t a t t i c l e s of the S o u t h . t h e s e c o n d W o r l d War a n i m p e r t e n t d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f a g r i Production of took place. culture m a i z e , soybeans > rung beans, cassava, and sugar i n c r e a s e d kenaf, fruits tobacco, rapidly. were diversification for reasons Imper tent population growth, d o m e s t i c a n d f o r e i g n demand f o r t h e s e twentieth in the I t was only t h a n r i c e w e r e c h o s e n by T h a i

products,

and

improved

transpor ration

_/+9..

facilities.

Newly

cleared

because low

of

levels,

able

on

rice

and

area

maize,

land.

distinct

and

boom

was

suitable

and

as

of

has

other

and

now,

crops on

was

production

were

kept

more

f avour-

individual from

areas

the

for

f arms

at

was

traditional

sugar,

cassava,

f arms.

production

highly

rice

prices

spar t

separate

rubber

*or

paddy

Diversification

Thailand

fruit

less

water,

production

Non-agrieultural This

was

of

the

this

limited

land

lack

boomed

affected

in

the

1950's

and

1960's

by the second Indo-Chinese T h a i l a n d had become a m a j o r

w a r . Af t e r t h e s e c o n d W o r l d War A s i a n a l l y OE t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m e r i c a . As a r e s u l t much A m e r i c a n a i d was s p e n t on i n f r a s t r u c t u r a l f a c i l i t i e s

like

building

road

and communication,

on m i l i t a r y

aid,

and

on other a s s i s t a n c e schemes. I n the 19605 l a r g e a m o u n t s of money were spent on the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of A m e r i c a n m i l i t a r y b a s e s . Tens of thousands of American m i l i t a r y and c i v i l personnel

were

stream

of

As

result,

stationed

in

Thailand

and

a

considerable

American G . I . ' s and c i v i l i a n s from Vietnam passed for "rest and recuperation". A l s o many through Thailand Americans came t o Thailand as t o u r i s t s . Spending f o r warf are , r e l a t e d spending on a s s i s t a n c e , a n d p r i v a t e s p e n d i n g generated a s t r o n g demand f o r u r b a n and imper r e d p r o d u c t s . a

showed

a rapid

response by

good

to

and a

iN

the

goods

goods

and

manuf a c t u r i n g

local

Many

opp o r t u n i t i e s .

market.

decline

of

of

same p e r i o d

prosperity

Many

demand.

termination

strong

the

this

market

consumer

constructing, growth.

levels

The

foreign Now

Thai

urban

a sufficient sustain

firms

of

an

services rapidly

extensive

did n o t It

troops lead

seems

T h a i came for

in

attracted

Ameriean

economy.

number

were

has

of

spending

demands

and

expanded

Thailand

withdrawal

war-related

the to

firms

modern

to

to

that

high

luxury

services.

From the seco-nd h a l f of the nineteenth century onwards, capital formation for productive purposes took p l a c e by r e c l a m a t i o n of l a n d , c a n a l d i g g i n g , and g r o w t h of m e r c h a n t

and usury c a p i t a l . I n i t i a l l y t h i s r e s u l t e d in improvements in infrastructure, transpor t , and marketing functions, l a t e r o n a l s o i n i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n . At t h i s s t a g e t h e u r b a n economy was s t i l l b o u n d by t h e v o l u m e of t r a d e o f a g r i cultural products. During the postwar period urban

50

g r o w t h has become production. The

boom

dion.

A

based

on

in

urban

growing trade

industrial

as

imper t

of

the

the

the

increasingly

the

that

consumer

and

of

the

Agriculture

is

still

Many

urban

The

reality.

It

is

agricultural, Product

has

went

to

is

incorrect

as

the

that

agriculture

and members

the

flow

the of

the

among

more

to

elite

of the

the

star t

in

growing

number

benefit

from

in

par t l y

this

mark 25

too

par t

weak

Recently

is

many

the

but

Thai

and

others

only

source

not

based

on

economy

still

as

in

Gross

and

percent

CHE

processing

and

the

expor t s .

for

on

in for

several

industrial

agriculture

population

cannot

funds urban

a of

to

of

Domestic

manu

yet

wisdom the

of

of

urban

and

flow

manuf a c t u r e r s

increased

grasp

the

purchasing

side.

5 1-

that

capital

acturing

dependent

urban a

Such

ideas But

economy,

urban

power

the

in are

because have

funds.

businessmen in

of

be

interests

groups

productive

and

people

reverse

could

elites.

some

of

feels

Most

community.

diverge

reverse

still

sense.

from

conventional

diversification

elites

small.

agriculture

of

For

imper lance

traditional

productive

interest

from

wide-spread,

about

urban

a

the

interest

contrary

the in

of

of

to

rapidly.

directly

to

The

goods,

share.

Psychologically, on

share

declined

capital

products,

that

longer

agriculture

major

still

no

products.

demand

so

depend

diversifica~ is

are

engaged

belief

with

agriculture

is

agricultural

wealth,

and

goods

people

of

wanted

agricultural

economy

expanded with

of

of

agricultural

become

capital even

indirectly.

has

much

have

economy.

urban

consumer

links

enterprises

marketing

coincided

the

processing

replacement,

industry

up

of

production

sense

of

economy

par t and

independent

A

would

country-

111.2.

Production Structure

and E c o n o m i c

Growth

In the Appendices D . 1 a n d 13.2 t h e composition Domestic Product in 1 9 7 6 is given for the whole the

major

regions

Agriculture

and

accounts

the

for

seven

about

nor therm-most

50

of

percent

of Gross country, provinces-

total

produc-

t i o n in the Nor t h and Nor t h e a s t , and a b o u t one t h i r d in the in b e t w e e n . Central region. The S o u t h ranks Manuf a c t u r i n g is concentrated in the Bangkok Metropolis and in a d j a c e n t areas in the Central Plain and the Southeast. In these areas there are big firms producing modern industrial products. I n the other areas manu a c t u r i n g i s restricted mainly to processing agricultural products and to c o t t a g e

industries. regions.

W h o l e s a l e and r e t a i l

Typical

urban

trade

sectors

are

is

imper t e n t

banking,

in a l l and

insurance

real estate, services, transpor ration and c o m m u n i c a t i o n , and construction. The incidence of these sectors corresponds with relatively high per capita Gross Regional Product. Agricultural percent

than

of

for

Upper

production total

the

Nor t h

Nor th

Nor t h .

In

are

as

a

more

low

with

are

relatively

has

the

most

lesser

with

a

extent

Nor t h

the

region;

as

Lam pang

concentration also

of

accounts a

urban

and in

37

of

Mae

trade

functions

as

and a

the

Hong of

Son. the

of

the

Lower

is

Forest Chiang Upper

services. trade

46

less

production

percent.

production

for

little

cert res

those

agricultural

imper t e n t crop

the than

percent

extensive

Lam p a n g

Upper

in

whole,

33

products Nor t h

the

imper t e n t

C h i a n g Mai and

relatively Raj

in

production

To

a

centre.

The Upper Nor th has a t y p i c a l a g r i c u l t u r e - b a s e d economy. Other economic s e c t o r s are dependent on the a g r i c u l t u r a l sector. As a r e s u l t t h e s e s e c t o r s a r e more imper t e n t in a r e a s where a g r i c u l t u r e is more commercialized and in the r e g i o n a l c e r t r e s . The d i f f e r e n c e in Gross Regional Product p e r c a p i t a c a n be e x p l a i n e d p a r t l y by t h e s a m e f a c t o r s . I n Mae H o n g S o n w i t h a small total population this is not clear because forestry, mining and trade are relatively more imper t e n t than in o t h e r p r o v i n c e s , and p r o d u c t i o n per capita is much affected. For the other provinces the r e l a t i o n is c l e a r e r . I n t h e m a r k e t e e n t r e s of Chiang Mai a n d Lam p a n g p e r c a p i t a G r o s s R e g i o n a l P r o d u c t is h i g h e s t .

52

In

the

the

typical

level

Gross

of

agricultural

production

Regional

income

per

sistence

Product

capita.

Household Office,

differs

was

Utilization

near

it was

than

36

per

capita

commercialized high

There

is

between

Regional

by

another,

Gross

Product

is

perhaps

may

good

in

ten

transpor t

the household more

Gross

income

village

NEDB R u r a l

conducted

with

biased

In

Regional

in

remote

imper t e n t

against

Product

the

areas

relatively

less

with

higher

a

than

data.

more

Product

the

the

cer t a i fly

is

1962-1963

Statistical

of

In

sub-

Gross

subsistence

the

productions.

that

production

Regional

of

In

36 p e r c e n t of

Consumable

recorded

calculated

1969--1970

home

Nan

with

NESDB

national

cert res

is

production

the

percent

relatively

areas.

subsistence

suggested

from

result

are

26

and

Raj

synonymous of

in

produced.

in

production The

not

area.

the

that

urban

retained

percent.

to

of

was found that

subsistence

is

imper lance

home

Study

Chiang

lowest.

officers

area

was

regional

f acilities,

to

The

estimated

villages

consumption

capita

Survey

consumption

is

underestimated

from

Manpower

data

is

Expenditure

it

household

areas

per

P r o d u c t 3 ` .

production

provinces

capita

According

production

Regional

per

per

income

imper t e n t , caput

and

difference income.

Gross

to

and from o u t s i d e the region because of transfer of rents, interest, profits, wages, etc.. For example, a high forestry production or mining production is less imper tent for the local populotion than one may e x p e c t , since a large par t of the production value is t r a n s f e r r e d t o B a n g k o k i n the f o r m o f t a x e s , r o y a l t i e s and income of r e s i d e n t s o f o t h e r p l a c e s . P a r t of the a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n may b e t r a n s f e r r e d t o urban residents in the form of land rents and paid interests.

record

I n Table 6 is shown t h a t a g r i c u l t u r e a n d , in l a t e r y e a r s , a l s o m i n i n g and q u a r r y i n g are t h e s l o w l y growing. s e c t o r s . The main g r o w t h s e c t o r s a r e e l e c t r i c i t y and w a t e r s u p p l y , banking, i n s u r a n c e and r e a l e s t a t e , and manus a c t u r i n g . The e f f e of d i f f e r e n t g r o w t h r a t e s on the s e c t o r a l c o m p o s i t i o n of

Gross

Domestic

Product

is

shown

53

in

Table

7.

Table

6.

Overall

and Sectoral Targets

and Actual

Growth

Rates. annual

average

Plan

1961-1966 T* As#

growth

compound

rates

Four to

Third

Second Plan

First

Plan

Plan

1977-1981

1972-1976

1967-1971 T A

T

A

T

7 0 5 1

7 0 5 1

7 0 5 0

6 0

Cross

Domes t i c Product

Agriculture Mining &

quarrying Manuf a c t u r i n g Construction Electricity & w a t e r supply

Transpor t

retail

,

7 5 4 4

8 5

4 3

5 3

15.1

6.6

9 3

11.1

10.9

10 1

3 9

12.8

11.4

. 4

7

6.41

22.3

18.0

6.1

0 7

3 2

8 0 -10 4

9 6

6 5

8 7

3 0

22 . 4

15 . 0

M. 2

11 . 3

11.0

7. 2

6 0

.

7 8

7

8.1

8. 4

9. 1

7•0

6. 8

6. 3

15.8

17.0

15 . 4

15 . 0

8. 7

8.1

3 .1

5_ 0

4.2

2 5

.

3• 4

A 4

5 4 7 9

12 0 9 5

9 5 7 8

6 0 7 0

5 2 8 1

7 8

9. 3

trade

insurance, real

8 1 6 2

5 6

&

communication Wholesale &

Banking

5 5 3 3

&

estate

Ownership of dwellings Public admi-

5.4

defense

Services

2

* T= T a r g e t ** A= A c t u a l l y realized Data f o r F i r s t and Second Plan on 1962 p r i c e T h i r d a n d F o u r t h P l a n on 1 9 7 2 p r i c e b a s i s .

.

basis

6 2

and

for

7;

NESDB, NESDB, Agriculture relative

is

The F o u r t h Five-Year P l a n , 1 9 7 7 , p . 8 8 ; N a t i o n a l Income of T h a i l a n d 9 1977 e d i t i o n . still

decline.

and

volume

production

of

as as

that

retail of

the

Other

wholesale

twice

11

Phi s i t Pakkasem, "Development Planning and Implemeditation in Thailand" , in Baldwin, Lee W., a n d w. D a v i d M a x w e l l , T h e R o l e of F o r e i g n F i n a n c i a l A s s i s t a n c e to Thailand in the 1 9 8 0 ' s , 1975,

p-

big

¢

a

nistration

Sources:

¢

major major

trade of

and

these

agriculture,

sector sectors

despite are

services.

three

but

big.

-51;

sectors

around

the

rapid

manuf a c t u r i n g ,

Only

in

1960

together

1980

it

was

will

the as

be

Table

7.

Change

in

Composition

_

of

Gross

Percent

36.7

l966 k 31 6

1.8 10.A

2 2 12 2

3.9 0.5

5 1 0 8

T r a n s p o r t & communication 7 . 0 Wholesale & r e t a i l trade 1 7 . 8 Banking, insurance &

7 7 18 6

Agriculture

... 1960

Mining a quarrying Manus acturing Construction Electr. & water

real

supply

of

1971 29.4

1.4 18.2

20.3

22.9

4.0

3.3

3.3

1..0 6.9 15.9

6.7

16.5

23.9 0.8

5 3

5 1 1 6

5.1 9.4

5.1

4.3

8.7

9.8

10 • 8

¢1.2 11.2

100.0

100.0

100.0

100. 0

100.0

3 9 1

1

1+1 9

Public administration & defence Services

4.3

1. 4

**

Target. NEDB, The Second National Economic and Social D e v e l o p m e n t P l a n , p. 41; NESDB, The Four th Five-

* E s t i m a t e d on

Sources'

198 l**

4 .

dwellings

Total

1976 26.l» 1.0

2 4 5 0

estate

Ownership

Domestic Product

Year

s e v e n - m o n t h data.

Plan, p.

88.

Data published by Phaichitr Uathavikul show that between 1960 and 1966 the distributive shares of economic sectors changed very little for the Nor th and the Nor theasts. More remarkably, it appears that the data he gave for these regions in 1960 differ only slightly from the data for 1976 presented in Appendix D.l. The main changes in Thailand's economic structure have taken place in Bangkok and surrounding areas. In the Nor th and Nor theast economic growth is still mainly dependent on growth of agricultural production. Table 8 shows that the growth rate of production per

capita is much lower in the outer regions than in the Central Region including

Table

Bangkok.

8. Trend in Cross Regional Product 197 1- 1976

(constant 1962 prices). Regional

Region

Population

N o r th

2.4

Nor theast Centrally) South Whole Kingdom

2.8

1 ) Including

2.6 2.7 2.7

Growth Rate cap(%) Total Per head 4.5 2.1 5.14 2.5 7.1

4.4

4_8

2.0

6.2

3.4

Share

GDP

( )

1971

1976

14.1.

13.2

15.4 57.2

14.8 59.8 12.2 100.0

13.0 100.0

Bangkok.

Sources: NESDB, The Four th Five-Year Plan, pp.l39 5

-55

165

l

ILL. 3.

Distziihuf-

Income

shown c h a t

was

Regional Products d i f f e r s v o n s i d c r a b l y income per capita average difference to

likely

transfers

be

somewhat

of

par t

than p e t

bigger

GRP as

of

income

and Dcl's 0ilal

sectoral

regional,

D in

Appendix

In

on

has

distribution

income

aepecte.

0 1

per

capital

between

regions.

between

regions

caput

CRP b e c a u s e

urban c e r t r e s ,

to

Gross The are of

espe-

cially t o Bangkok. T h e p e r c a p i t a GRP i n B a n g k o k i s s i x t i m e s a s h i g h a s i n the in as high as times four and almost Nor t h e a s t the average excluding Bangkok, Region, In the Central Nor t h . regions. But p e r c a p i t a GRP i s a l s o h i g h e r t h a n i n o t h e r here

the

data

vicinity,

character

of

most

by

affected

are

Bangkok's

which

of

industrial

conceals

Central

activities

typical

the

in

agricultural

Thailand.

income interregional high the for cause underlying The d i s p a r i t i e s i s in t h e f i r s t p l a c e t o be f o u n d i n t h e i n t e r the d i s p a r i t i e s . In Table 9 is shown t h a t s e c t o r a l income income per worker i n a g r i c u l t u r e is a b o u t one s i x t h of the income p e r w o r k e r in i n d u s t r y , one t e n t h of the income p e r

w o r k e r in commerce and l e s s t h a n one f o u r t h of t h e income p e r worker in s e r v i c e s . The high income s e c t o r s a r e mainly and in o t h e r urban c o n c e n t r a t e d in the Bangkok m e t r o p o l i s these sectors considerable d i f f e r but also within areas, e n c e s of income a r e f o u n d . Table

9.

Incomes

Annual Occupation

by

in 1976 Income per Worker ( b a h t ) (GDP p e r p e r s o n e m p l o y e d )

p e r W o r k e r by Main O c c u p a t i o n

Sectors

7 , 113

Agriculture Industry

,

44 2 1 5 70 , 339 32 , 665

Commerce

Service Source:

NESDB,

The

Four th

Five-Year

Plan,

p.143.

is d i s t r i b u t i o n among h o u s e h o l d s income I n T a b l e 10 t h e g i v e n f o r 1 9 7 3 . I t a p p e a r s t h a t m o s t h o u s e h o l d s had incomes N o r t h e a s t lsl In the baht and 30,000 b a h t . 6,000 between p e r c e n t of percent

45

the

had

population

higher

had

lower

incomes. 56

incomes

and

in

Bangkok

Table

Income

10.

Distribution

Different

among Household

Regions,

using

Income

in of

Groups

Categories

1973 Under

Region

6,000

From

000

6,

25.5 41.1

South Central Bangkok

15.2 4.1 0.7

74.3 78.5 54.8

Whole

22.2

64.6

Source:

NESDB,

A common

The

belief

in

baht

49.6

Four th

is

A. 9. 10 17 • 44 13

4 3 5 4 5 2

p.

lash.

u

.

.

Five-Year

Thailand

Percent 30,000 Total

Over

2 9 , 9 9 9 baht 70.1

baht

Nor t o Nor t h e a s t

Kingdom

to

Plan,

that

the

income

100 100 100 100 100 100

0 0 0 0

0 0

distribution

has worsened significantly during the past decades. This b e l i e f i s s u s t a i n e d by n e w s p a p e r s a n d s t a t e m e n t s of s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t s . The a v a i l a b l e s t u d i e s , however, d o n o t s u p p e r t t h i s 7 . T h e d a t a s u g g e s t a s l i g h t i n c r e a s e of indicators of inequality, but because of conceptual and s t a t i s t i c a l problems, and the incomparability of various surveys, the o u t c o m e is not c l e a r . Never t h e l e s s , i t is n o t w i t h o u t s i g n i f i c a n c e t h a t t h e t o t a l n u m b e r of p e o p l e u n d e r the absolute power t y l i n e is d e c r e a s i n g . I t is n o t t r u e f o r Thailand

that

the

r i c h e r as is There

of all

in

is

the

rial,

people

agreement

decades

the

urban

growth

the

general

past

over

poor

has

country.

sectors

and

hand or

subsistence easy

to

it even

rice

find

improved

is

of

of

real

been

the

rich

get

real

On

the

people

laborers

rates

for

to

these

-57..

in

people

e.g.

hand

the the

it

group 1978

On

with

rain fed

is

other

groups

potent

incomes.

Agricultural are

According

agricultural

of

incomes,

other

people

growth

real

groups

growth

of

concentrated

better smaller

stagnating find

economic

groups

heavily

with with

position.

income.

wage

to

poor

economic

unskilled

level

to

declining

lowest

repot t ,

and

strong

several

areas

led

f armers.

agricultural

the

has

areas

easy

groups

their

that

in In

population g r o w t h

stagnating

poorer

bypassed

Growth

possibilities.

one

get

so of t e n s t a t e d .

is

areas and with World

have

also who nonthe Bank

barely

the

and

Bank

World

1978

Upper

the

are

Incomes

introduced

T a b l e 11.

Table

in

combined

report t

with

limited

II.

have

Nor t h e a s t

much

higher

and w h e r e

new

in

that

appears

It

land

lowest

the

areas

These

sub-regions.

in

new

where

could

be

about

information

also

contains

f arms

typical

for

levels

income are

reflect

possibili-ties.

growth

The

the

probably

areas

in

incomes

f armers'

of

stagnation

groups

these

of

rates

Wage

sectors.

rural

risen

in

incomes

capita

per

have

cer mainly

and

1960's

overall

than

rapidly

less

early

the

since

increased

much

income

levels. could

crops

J

baht

Nor theast Upper Middle

Off-f arm

Farm

income

income

Nor t h Upper Upper Lower

(irrigated) (rain fed)

Central

Central

(maize)

East

(cassava)

West

(sugar)

Income

7,500 10,800 8,500

8 , 500 12 , 3 0 0 10 , 0 0 0

3 , 000 1 500 2, 500

12 , 2 0 0 7, 300

15 200 8 , 800

12

14

,

, 000

9 , 200

3 , 000 4 , 000 £4 0 0 0 4 , 000

Plains

East

Total

1 , 000 1 , 500 1 , 500

Lower

, 300 17 , 9 0 0

22

16 ,, 0 0 0

,

, 500

12 , 2 0 0

,

26 3 0 0 21 900 20 , 2 0 0

,

South

Upper

3 000

9,700

Lower

3 000

6 ,400

9 11 600

2 , 100

1 0 , 100

12, 200

)

1

Average

Typical

Source:

Adapted

from'

World

Bank,

_58_

op.

be

occupied.

Income o f T y p i c a l A g r i c u l t u r a l Households

Region

data Nor t h

Upper

the

cit..

12

700

1976

111.4.

Financial

Thailand

has

nancial

was ence.

credited

fi-

was

fixed

to

maintain

exchange

Japanese

in

low

during

and

caused

low

Second

the

forced

colonies

the c o u n t r y ' s

and

external

public

inflation.

The a l l i a n c e

World

the

grain for

hyper-inflation

financial collapse. It and external financial

1950 on

and

and

their

a

internal

rates

circulation

forces

war

independ-

had to be avoided in o r d e r to prevent a casus intervention of colonial powers. Therefore the

policy

allied

1930's

conservative

financial

money

the

its

deemed necessary f o r safeguarding national Any h a r m to f o r e i g n t r a d e and to foreign

the

Before

for

stability

debts,

the

been

financial

interests for

with

of t e n

policies.

belli

of

Stability

War,

deliveries

increase

for

rehabilitation

almost

and

a

the

of t e r

complete

took several years before i n t e r n a l s t a b i l i t y c o u l d be r e g a i n e d . From

administrators

vative financial policies with d i f f e r e n t motives.

as

in

the

followed

again prewar

period,

conseralthough

I n the four development plans since 1961, maintenance of f i n a n c i a l s t a b i l i t y is mentioned as a main o b j e c t i v e . Price s t a b i l i t y and t r u s t in the n a t i o n a l currency were seen as imper tent and

were

aspects

monetary

met.

of

policies

In

the

this

objective.

were

successful

revised

first

Conservative as

it

the

was

fiscal

planned

stated

goals

it w o u l d be a s e r i o u s m i s t a k e t o s e e k a h i g h e r r a t e of e c o n o m i c g r o w t h t h a n 6 p e r c e n t p e r a n n u m a t t h e r i s k of impairing the c o u n t r y ' s c r e d i t and p u r c h a s i n g power o f the bahnlu

.

growth

ty.

Here

in

As

delayed,

mes

a

explicitly

order

result taxation

developed

to

the

choice

the

maintain

profitable was

slowly.

kept

plan

was

desired

made

government

low

and

to

financial

social

that

restrict

stabili-

investments well are

were

program-

,

B e f o r e t h e S e c o n d W o r l d War e x p o r i s u s u a l l y e x c e e d e d imp o r t s 1 1 . As t e r 1 9 5 0 a d e f i c i t d e v e l o p e d i n T h a i l a n d ' s m e r c h a n d i s e t r a d e b a l a n c e . I n m o s t y e a r s t h e d e f i c i t was r e l atively small but af ter 1965 the difference has grown a n d b y 1970 n o t l e s s t h a n 45 p e r c e n t of imper i s were n o t covered by e x p o r i s . Af t e r 1 9 7 0 t h e g a p n a r r o w e d , but in l 9 ? 7 and in 1978 t h e d e f i c i t i n c r e a s e d s h a r p l y a g a i n as a r e s u l t of o i l p r i c e i n c r e a s e s . This means t h a t a f t e r 1965

59-

form of the in imper i s a s s i s t a n c e and borrowing

capital

foreign

in

pay

billion

30

to

1960

of

months

nine

baht;

imper i s

in

1976,

in

1960

7 billion

from

increased

reserve

currency

foreign

the

I n m o s t y e a r s t h e r e was a of payments. imper t and d e s p i t e the t r a d e d e f i c i t s

balance capital

c i a l f o r the considerable

and cru-

investment, foreign became from abroad,

of

months

five

and

baht

large

sufficiently

to im-

increased trade deficits the 1976 Af t e r 1976. in por is Consef u r t h e n and the f i n a n c i a l s i t u a t i o n d e t e r i o r a t e d . the i n f l u e n c e of t h e W o r l d Bank on f i n a n c i a l p o l i quently, increasedlZ.

cies Up

60

than

international

inflation

40

by

rose was

commodity

percent.

the

index

Gross

of

percent 20

percent.

75

percent

internal

and and

are

income

any

was

to

in

most

revenue

external,

considered

to

in

years

is be

increase

total

f aster

increased

1975

applied Benefits

to

and

fill

from

proper tional

years

recent

was

1976

Government

the

18

near about

borrowing,

gap

government

to

and

15

between

in

and

expenditure.

expenditure.

in

index

price

group13.

National P r o d u c t ,

government

the

index

the

increases

consumer

1978

Eood

the

other

Government

of

revenues

ture

for

consumption

Government

1973

From

Remarkably,

percent.

sharp

caused

and

1973

in

markets

How-

low.

inflation

keep

Bangkok

the

1973

to

1962

From

prices.

to

the

in

boom

the

following

able

was

Thailand

1973

to

ever,

income

between expendi-

for

most

gfoupgl,

T h e m a i n s o u r c e s of g o v e r n m e n t r e v e n u e a r e i m p o r t a n d b u s i ness t a x , excises and expor t d u t i e s . Direct taxes are inof c r e a s i n g b u t i n 1 9 7 8 t h e y a c c o u n t e d o n l y f o r 18 p e r c e n t the t a x r e v e n u e s l 5 . The W o r l d Bank d e s c r i b e s the t a x s y s t e m

in s e v e r a l f i e l d s a s i n e q u i t a b l e and i n e f f i c i e n t . Taxes other f i e l d s , whereas in cer r a i n have dis t o r ting e f f e c t s fields

no t a x a t i o n on is There untaxed. remain i n h e r i t a n c e and l i t t l e on g a s o l i n e , and many

capital wealthy can evade t a x e s e a s i l y . The o v e r a l l t a x a t i o n is businessmen s l i g h t l y r e g r e s s i v e or a t best p r o p e r t o n a l t o income 1 6 . gains,

60

Footnotes

1.

Van der Heide, J.H., "The Economic Development of Siam during the Last Half Century", Journal of t h e S i a m Society, Vol. III ,1906, pp. 74-101; Chat tip Nar tsupha and Suthy Prasar tset, The Evolution of the Political Economy of S i a m , 1851-1941, mimeo, Bangkok, 1980 (par tly published earlier by the Social Science

Association, Bangkok, 1979). 2. 3

Zimmerman, Carle C., Siam, Rural Eeonomie Survey 19303 1 , Harvard University, 1931, p. 141. See also Richter, H.V., and C.T. Edwards, "Recent

Economic Developments in Thailand", in' Ho, Rober t, and E.C. Chapman ,eds., Studies of Contemporary Thailand, Australian National University, Canberra,

1973, p. 18.

A

Subsistence production indicates the par t of production that is directly consumed by the f amity which produced it.

5

Fuhs, Friedrich W., and Jan Vingerhoets, Rural Manpower, Rural Institutions

6

7

8.

13.

and Rural Employment in

Thailand, Bangkok, NEDB, 1972, p.3. Phaichitr Uathavikul, " Regional Planning and Development' The Case of Thailand", in: Viehitvong Na 'Pombhe jars, ed., Readings in Thailand's Political Economy, Bangkok, 1978, p. 41. Oey Astra Meesook, A Study of Disparities in Income and Social Services across Provinces in Thailand, Thammasat University, Faculty of Economies, Research Repot t Series No. 7, 1978; Oey Astra Meesook, Income Distribution in Thailand, Thammasat University, Faculty of Economics, Research Repot t No. 10, 1978; Somluckrat Wattanavitukul, "Income Distribution of Thailand", in: Oshima, Harry T., and Toshiyuki Mizoguchi, Income Distribution by Sectors and OverTime in East and South Asian Countries, 1977; United Nations, Intraregional Trade Pro jections, Effective Protection and Income Distribution, Vol. Ill' Income Distribution, Bangkok, 1972. World Bank, Thailand: Toward a Development Strategy of full Par ticipation, unpublished, 1978, p Ingram, op. cit., pp. 170-174, 309-313. NEDB, The National Economic Development Plan 19611966, Second Phase: 1964-1966, p. 11. Ingram, op. cit., pp. 331-335.

. .

Far Eastern Economic Review , Vol. 106, No. 50 2 December 14, 1979, pp. 94-99, and Vol. 107, No. 8 s February 22, 1980, pp. 40-41. National Statistical Office, Bulletin of Statistics, 1978, Vol. 25-26 No.h, p. 100; Far Eastern Economic Review, vol. 109, No. 28, July 4, 1980, p.108.

..61_

l 1+

I

World

Bank, op

cit.,

pp

l

23-27,

Med hi K r o n g k a e w , The

Income Redistribution al E f f e c t s of Taxes and Public Expenditure i n Thailand' A n I n t e r temporal S t u d y ,

n.p., m i m e o .

15

National Statistical

16.

1 9 7 8 , Vol 2 5 - 6 2 , p. W o r l d Bank, op.cit.,

Bulletin o f

Z pp.

Statistics

18-22; Med hi Krongkaew,

op.cit..

62-

)

are

agriculture

Thai

of

E.1.

Appendix

in

shown

is

diversification

Its

featured.

characteristics

some

chapter

this

In

AGRICULTURE

IV.

CHAPTER

I n 1962 74 p e r c e n t o f the c r o p a r e a was p l a n t e d w i t h r i c e , i n 1 9 7 7 6 0 p e r c e n t . The a r e a p l a n t e d w i t h u p l a n d f o o d c r o p s i n c r e a s e d b y a l m o s t 5 0 0 p e r c e n t . M a i z e i s c o n c e n t r a t e d in the

Nor t h and in and

sugar

remained

almost

the

tive

decrease

sava

replaced

of

1962

to

this

vegetables.

and

60

percent

at

of

percent 12

about

The

rapid

foreign

In

total

1976.

in

one

by

caused

is

demand.

of

production

domestic

but

of

The

value

800

percent.

growth.

Probably

group

the

counted has

fruits

still

decreased

it

livestock

agricultural

produc-

12.

in

production

production,

share

in

soybeans

than

f astest

products

crop of

The

a few rice

of

growth

or

Upper

elsewhere

than

Table

1962 The

percent

the

show

crops

miscellaneous

The

cas-

that the

groundnuts,

more

by

increased

In

agricultural

of

in

shown

is

1976 has

a rela-

crops.

composition

the

Eooderops

upland

maize,

the main c a s h

are

Nor t h e a s t .

imper t e n t

E.2),

Appendix

is

this

for

reason the

more

relatively

transition

from

tion

in

beans

and rung

The

The

kenaf

(see

country

the

1972.

much

oilseeds

of

showed

crops

fibro

whereas

same

share

The

West.

the

af t e r

is

rice

Nor th

in

Lower

the

the E a s t and the

cassava in

the Upper Nor t h ,

Nor theast

in

beans

rung

East,

the

in

and

Nor t h

Lower

been

to

for

40

constant

production.

was

demand

mainly

for

generated

kenaf,

by

cassava,

product i o n . The m a j o r e x p o r i s a r e l i s t e d in T a b l e 13. S i n c e t h e has been Thailand the nineteenth century par t of second known as a m a j o r r i c e e x p o r t e r and i t s t o t a l e x p o r t s w e r e o n c e d o m i n a t e d by r i c e . By 1 9 6 2 r i c e e x p o r i s h a d d e c r e a s e d o n e t h i r d o f t o t a l e x p o r i s a n d b y 1 9 7 6 t o o n l y 14 to about In 1978, cassava expor t s exceeded r i c e expor i s . percent. but The main reason is i n c r e a s e d domestic r i c e consumption, r i c e p r i c e p o l i c y has c e r t a i f l y h a r m e d i t s e x p a n s i o n . The maize

and

sugar

is

only

a

small

._63_.

par

t;

of

the

total

Table 12. Composition of Total Agricultural Production* index

value

(1962=100)

(billion baht)

Total

crops

Rice

1967 1972 1976

1962

1967

1972

1976

17.5

20. 9 1 1. 1

36. 7 16. 3

73. 1 29 . 2

120

106

2 10 155

278

3. 7

5.0

29.2

171.

273

940

1 8

1 3 1 8

3 0 1 4 2 3 19 9 11 7 1. 2 8 Z 97 1

133 195 77 147

100 2 2 7 169 2 16 140 97 8 0 8 1510

123 202

370 220

185 129

305

10.5

418

Upland food-

1 8

crops O i l seeds and coconuts Fibro crops Rubber Misc. c r o p s Livestock

c

Forestry Fishery

Total

* Crop

years

are

1 3 0 8 1 7 1 3 2 8

1 9 3 4

10 6 10 3

1 2

2 4

2 6

1 6 23 6

3 0

5 0

29 8

54 6

1 7 1 3

from April

1 6

the year

of

indicated

236

to April

o f the next y e a r . S o u r c e : D i v i s i o n o f Agricultural E o n o m i c s , S e l e c t e d nomie I n d i c a t o r s R e l a t i n g t o A g r i c u l t u r e , Bangkok, 1 9 7 7 a .

Table

I

13. M a j o r

Expos t s

420 350 497 420

Eco-

1962-1970

million baht Agricultural E x p o r t o f which • Rice Rubber P r o d u c t s Maize Sugar Cassava Products Kenaf and J u t e Other A g r . Expor t s * T o t a l E x p o r t Value o f w h i c h Air. E x p o r t s ( Z ) Total

1962

1967

1972

1976

8 s 280

1 1 7 096

15 s 897

az s 809

3,240 2, 111

4,653

4,437

1,574 1,355 75

1,862 1,980 1,265

8,603 5,297

502 61 I»23

726

1,547

5,598 6,856 7,5z6

579 1,365

866 1,8a6

9,529

lls,166 78

1,087 3,719 22,1191 71

579 8,350 60,198 71

87

* Includes f o r e s t r y , f i s h e r y and l i v e s t o c k S o u r c e ' Same as f o r Table 1 2 .

share of non-agricultural expor is has increased to almost 30 percent.

64-

What was cultural area,

the main r e a s o n f o r the s t r o n g increase of agricomponents: There a r e three r e l e v a n t production?

yield,

and

Appendix

prices.

shows

E.1

that

the

crop

1 9 6 2 and 1 9 7 6 .

area increased about 60 p e r c e n t b e t w e e n

With the exception of sugar cane, yields have been constant or declining (see Table 14). The reason for this is that only limited amounts of modern inputs such as fer tilizers and pesticides are used. The application of these inputs is almost limited to a few crops and areas, whereas for most crops and in most areas hardly any are applied. Many observers believe that the price of fer tilizer is too high or conversely the prices of products too low and unpredict-

able.

On

the

continuously

other which

hand

implies

areas

planted

the that

land

are

expanded

quality

lesser

of

is

taken in use. Yields in this relatively poor land are lower than on the oldest occupied areas, with the effect that

overall yields show a declining tendency.

Table

14.

Year* Paddy

Yields of Major Crops Maize

Mung

Cassava

cane

beans

1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970*e! 19'/1**

1972*k 1973

1974 1975

1976 1977

267

325

173

2729

281 278 268

328

184 174 166

2426

257 231 229 283 290

271 283

275

292 270

262 279 380 374 361 211

276 260 265 269 231

326 323 349 333 223

155 148 147

13 1 101 156 144 13 l 11,5 1 18

90

76

Sugar

2381 2334 2347

2294 2463 2609 2451 2263

1940 2080

1,900 5300

7400 5800 7000 5300 6800 6900 7600 6000

8400 8253

(kg/rai) Ground Soy beans nuts 207 217 2 19 210 224 196

2 13 193 192 187 206 189

2080

75£+0

198

2180 23 18 2062

8148

193 199 165

8367 5349

172 157 147 163 133 132 136 16 1 137 15 1 138 136 13-Q 154 179

go,

* Crop years are from April of the year indicated to April of the next year. ** Second crop not included. Source: Division of Agricultural Economics, Agricultural Statistics of Thailand, Crop year 1976/1977,

Bangkok, MOAC, 1977, and Ibid., Crop Year 1977/1978, 1978.

-65-

The (see

Table

were

in c o n s i d e r a b l y . Over the f o r the Bangkok m e t r o -

in

boom

prices

f arm

1968-1971

the

of

because

but

depressed,

considerably

increased

have

products years the

most of In 15).

prices

1973 and 1974 f arm p r i c e s increased index period 1968-1976 the consumer

markets

world

the

S O prices f arm real percent, 64 by increased polis most f arm is, that increased, inflation) for (corrected

has

agricultural

1973, was there though and y e a r s , but in 1976 t h e r e was percent as compared to 19621.

20

15.

Table

Year*

Farm

Paddy

Mung

Maize

cane**

0.76 0.86 0.70 0.86 1.35 2.06 1.85 1.67 1.61»

2;32

1.98 1.87*** 2.37

Index

Same

Thus

appears

it

planted,

to

the

that

the

to

inflation,

real

4.70

5.64

22 1

100

258

18 1

22-4,

ton;

increases the

to

index

the

for

of

increased

by

120

in

both

Over crop

same

the by

88

percent.

-66

crop

period

percent.

production, The

not

was

crops.

of

in

From

of the

1962

production the

Bangkok

This

implies

corrected

total

area

value

real

the

individual

value

and

prices

of

increase

This

current

Alb.

indicated to April Farm p r i c e , from

k g *

increase

increased

value

year

the

of

yields

100

price

2.32 2 . 52 2.51 3. 41 3.99 z.. 16

4 . 63

production. of

.

l+. 2 9

14.

index

from

increased consumer

crop

2.36 2.211

284,

table

that

2.1.11

.

286

per

increased

of

1976

for

2 . 18 2 32 2 . 22 2 06 2 . 28 2 . 56 3 . 00 3 . 58 3 . 75

4.98 5.67

Baht

contributed

agricultural result

as

0.30

109 1 15 108 1 10 11 1 131 177 252

0 41 0.46 0.47

April

*Crop years are from o f t h e n e x t y e a r ; ** January-July. Source'

0.47 0.52 0.47 0.34

3.74

(1972-73=100) 191 181

1977

0.40 0.33 0.54

2.63 2.73 1.81 2.30 2.2£+ 2.57 2.68 3.54

0.97 0.71

1.14 0.97 0.86 0.63 0.80 1. .31 1.96

(bah:/kg) Ground Soy beans nuts

Sugar

Cassava

beans

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977

in of

Products

Major

of

Prices

the

decline net gain

s 1ow a still a

1972 in following

Amman

for

significantly

increased

have

whole

a

as

sector

prices.

trade

of

terms

the

that

shown

consumer

Bangkok

than

Easter

increased

prices

Siam-walla

area

for

planted

urban

with

crops

However,

buff alo

the

tractor.

There

replaced and

better,

animals.

Status

more

become

by

may

play

may

f arms,

still

a

of

change

trend

animals, than

the

animals

may

f aster

jobs

maintenance

widespread

well

as

labourers.

hired

the

and

as

role

the

do

Buff alo

of

many

cultivation.

draught

why

can

for

used

imper t e n t

more

shot t a g s

land

independent

increases

animals

with

fat

cheaper.

even

and

lowland

in

draught

replacing

Tractors

tractors.

consumption.

wet-rice

in

reasons

several

perhaps

areas

in

burden

by

are

now

still

is

in

and

production

been

have

bullocks

animals

are

tractors

although

are

data

f arms.

and

draught

as

of

bulk

the

but

rapid-

show

the

specialized

are

there

Now

areas,

buff aloes

Thailand

price

production

slaughtering

integrated

have been

always

non-specialized

from

centuries

be

12

subsistence

unregistered

agriculture.

near

mainly

In

poultry

and hill

comes

Table

however,

illegal

much

is

There much

areas

rural in

by

observers,

some

to

According

reliable.

Pigs

higher

replaced in

production

livestock

for

data

growth. not

percent

value).

higher

The

been

have

value

low

with

(crops

40

first, of

intensification

second,

and

prices,

f arm

real

planted

raj

This

causes,

two

This

percent.

per

percent.

40

of

result

the

be

can

nearly

by

increased

crops

with

increase

60

by

period

production

of

value

real

the

that

this

over

increased

crops

with means

the The

is

they t

desire recent

replacing

or a of

to oil

draught

tractors.

I n areas w i t h s u f f i c i e n t l a n d , s p e c i a l i z a t i o n in b u f f a l o animals are raised in these Draught r a i s i n g has d e v e l o p e d . f o r use during the a n d s o l d in t h e l o w l a n d a r e a s areas s e a s o n . Af t e r u s e , t h e a n i m a l s may b e r e s o l d t o cropping developed has exchange of type This areas. former the t h e Nor t h e a s t and the C e n t r a l P l a i n s and between between t h e h i l l s and the v a l l e y s in the Nor t h . More imper t e n t is the in production meat for raising buff alo and cattle uplands and done Nor t h t h i s is Upper In the highlands. mainly and to minority groups, belonging by r i c h f a r m e r s ,

b y r i c h f a r m e r s i n t h e l o w l a n d s , who g r a z e t h e i r a n i m a l s i n a d j a c e n t f o r e s t a r e a s and on swidden f a l l o w s . has fields paddy and ponds streams, canals, in Fishing always been an imper t e n t s i d e l i n e a c t i v i t y of the lowland ._67_

Traditionally,

population.

the

were

fish

and

rice

two main

d i e t . O v e r - f i s h i n g in some g r e a s e c o m p o n e n t s of the p o p u l a r of i n c r e a s i n g p o p u l a t i o n and e s p e is a d i r e c t consequence

in of

c i a l l y of the i n c r e a s e of the number of poor people. i s of t e n an a c t i v i t y fishing of u n d e r e m p l o y m e n t periods l a s t resor t f o r poor people.

by Nor

and

province

to

basic

significant

beans,

some

in

scale

Upper

the

in

area

different

consequently

imper t e n t

cash

of

Upper

the

in

the average f arm s i z e is s m a l l e r than that and y i e l d s a r e of t e n h i g h e r of the c o u n t r y , T a b l e 16 s h o w s t h a t a v e r a g e i n the c o u n t r y . o n l y h a l f of f a r m s i z e s in o t h e r a r e a s .

16.

Region

with

Average

Size

of

Landholding

Provnces

raj

are

Nor t h

in o t h e r par t s than elsewhere f arm sizes are

Farm Family,1975

per

Upper

in

beans,

longman f r u i t .

and

agriculture

soy

maize,

are

crops

garlic

tobaeeo,

peanuts,

Two c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

Table

Nor t h ,

Upper

the

in

areas

of r u b b e r , k e n a f , c a s s a v a and c o c o n u t s . R i c e more imper tent than elsewhere (see Appendix

most

The

E.2).

rung

available

readily

not

to

area

differ,

characteristics

exception relatively

is

are

chapter

From

region.

the s t r o n g l y . Most of a r e grown o r y i e l d s d i f f e r a r e grown a l s o on a in the c o u n t r y grown elsewhere

crops crops the

this

in

provided

data

The

Nor t h

tai

10 17 7

Nor t h e a s t

23 29

Chiang Chiang

Central

31.

Mae

South

23

Lamp f u n

Country

28

Nan

15

Phrae Lam p a n g

12

Nor th

Source

Division

of

Distribution

In is

lowland of ten

areas

only

6

of

Agricultural

1975,

these

ra1.

Son

Hong

8

8

MOAC,

provinces paddy

-68

Raj

Economics,

Bangkok,

Average

Mai

the

Landholding

1977

( I n Thai)

average

yields

are

f arm

size

almost

75

than higher 17). (Table average national the the U p p e r Nor t h more m u l t i p l e in is cropping p r a c t i s e d than in other areas of the c o u n t r y . This means

percent

Moreover,

f arms in a v a l l e y in

6 raj

that

than

more income country. Vegetable

growing

Thailand.

In

closed this are

production of

Vegetables such

Chinese

lettuce,

as

and

green

Western

beans,

the two

Nor th par t l y for

blame

vegetables

rice.

especially

is

has

most

areas

lowland

the

af t e r

crop

second

a

as

grown

Garlic

In

management.

poor

on

put

in ago

Upper

these

of

One

increasing

the

in

Insiders

losses.

high

of

an

years

few

established

market.

expor t

the

for

because

were

plants

processing

individual

cert res

urban A

abroad.

from

and

is

there

from

demand

of

and

by

scale

small

but

holds,

still

a

on

vegetables

many

economy

Nor thorn

in

imper stance

increasing

gathered

or

Bangkok

from

working

of

because

specialization food

is

t h e U p p e r Nor t h may p r o v i d e i n many o t h e r p a r i s of t h e

f arms

subsistence

This

households.

area,

raj

the

grown

were

herbs

12

imper t e n t .

Gradually

origin

being

are

Chinese

and

cabbage

peas,

also

grown,

cabbage.

The tage

lowland

during than

in

in dry

conditions

the

consumer

vegetable

the U p p e r N o r t h

Central

cool

the

climatic

big

areas

the

over

Plain,

season.

Moreover,

the

mountains

in

l o w l a n d s . B e c a u s e the 700 over m a r k e t , is

growing

is

have

because

slow.

69

of

a climatic

throughout are

distance

more

to

kilometers,

advan-

temperature

lower

the

year

f avourable

Bangkok, expansion

the of

Table 17.

Average

Region

Y i e l d of P a d d y

kg/tai

per

planted,

1976/77

Provinces in Upper Nor th

kg/rai

Raj

Nor th

377

Chiang Mai

Nor theast

197

Chiang Raj

Central Plain

358

East; West South

270 270 29 1

Kingdom

269

May Hong Son Lamp fun Nan Phrae Lam pang

448 500 434 398 £405 £467 379

Upper Nor th

462

Source' Division o f Agricultural Economics, Agricultural S t a t i s t i c a l R e p o t t , Nr. 6 6 , , Bangkok, M O A C , l 9 7 7 .

Footnote

1. Amman Siamwalla, I n f l a t i o n i n Thailand in the 1 9 7 0 ' S : I t s Causes and C o n s e q u e n c e s , Thammasat U n i v e r s i t y , Faculty o f Economics, Discussion Paper S e r i e s , No. 6 1 ,

1978.

_70_

lc

l"-1

lm

lc IH lr-r

DQ

il-»IO

|:»>

l"1

lm

IOI

199 lrt

pg

U0

||-'-

»

IH IH

G

,_.

T r a d i t i o n a l l y t h e Nor t h e n T h a i l i v e d i n t h e v a l l e y s w h e r e t h e y p r a c t i s e d w e t - r i c e a g r i c u l t u r e a s t h e i r m a i n s o u r c e of l i v e l i h o o d . In a d d i t i o n a v a r i e t y of v e g e t a b l e s and o t h e r useful Many subsistence. for mainly grown was crops on higher forests adjacent from gathered were products swamps and paddy f i e l d s t e r r a c e s and in t h e h i l l s . S t r e a m s ,

were the three and population

and vegetables fish, Rice, fish. provided the rural the d i e t of of main components s t i l l are.

and

fer tilization

available,

no

f allow

for

contribute

the

water

the

crucial

known

were

supplied

with

were

dug

there

and

irrigation

provinces. traditional

Royal

Flood

Irrigation

normally

control

techniques

more

was and

with

the

a

have

system

in

Mai' fields

Canals

water.

Mai

in

Many

other to

the

Lamp fun

and

schemes

irrigation

difficult

now

is

these Nor t h

of

Upper achieve

responsibility

of

with the

control are flood for large scale s t a t e operated

Dams

Depar t r e n t .

combined

irrigation

exist

also

schemes

people

and p a d d y

people".

local

by

sur-

constructed

peoples

called

so

maintained

is

Not

Chiang

the

in

Chiang

of

in

control

irrigation

ago,

were

weirs

provinces

2,000

over

are

organized small

the

in

Now

means,

An

irrigation

supplemental

diversion

and

years

hundred

six

over

rivers.

developed

been

have

to

valley

Lamp fun

control.

water

good

simple

with

possible

where

achieve

to

algae

crops.

reliable

and

good

Water

fixation.

nitrogen

to

contain

water

especially

and

fer tilization

necessary.

are

years

water

necessary,

is

irrigation

and

soils

for

f actor

prisingly,

tried

No

optimal,

not

minerals

enough

is

is

water

if

Although

sufficient

on

season.

growing

the

dependent

is

agriculture

Wet~rice

during

new

schemes.

B e f o r e the s t a r t of the r a i n season w e i r s , c a n a l s , d i t c h e s a n d d i k e s a r e r e c o n s t r u c t e d , c l e a n e d and r e p a i r e d . irrigation or rain by soaked are fields rice When t h e t o p u d d l e the and harrowed are ploughed, w a t e r , the f i e l d s are s o i l and to l e v e l the f i e l d s . Ploughing and harrowing the r i c e is sown t r a d i t i o n a l l y done w i t h b u f f a l o . Meanwhile and the prepared s e e d b e d s . When t h e f i e l d s h a v e b e e n in seedlings are the a month old, rice seedlings are about

72

transplanted. In years may become too large

alternatively, flooding.

but

is

In

not

with long d r y p e r i o d s the seedlings t o 'be t r a n s p l a n t e d s u c c e s s f u l l y or,

transplanted both

cases

always

Transplanting

new

easily

has

may

rice

planting

drown

because

material

is

carried

out

of

required,

available.

traditionally

been

by

large

g r o u p s f o r m e d by r e l a t i v e s , n e i g h b o r s and other v i l l a g e r s , p r i m a r i l y on a lab our exchange b a s i s , but a l s o in exchange for payment in rice at harvest time. In recent years

p a y m e n t h a s c o m e t o b e i n c r e a s i n g l y i n c a s h . Af t e r t r a n s p l a n t i n g , maintenance of dikes and d i t c h e s is necessary.

Needing sable

may f a c i l i t a t e

and

a

The

two

are

not

are

burden,

a good

of t e n

harvest

but

neglected.

If

is

major a

formed

water and

because

lab our

serious

for

these

be

cannot

some

peaks,

bottleneck

periods.

supplied

fields

are

to

transplant

earlier

harvest

times

At

vary.

transplanting

individual that

f arms

over

household

base

for

example.

of

209

kg

kingdoms

rice

average

land

consumption per

fodder

and

of

exceed

Yields

same

others.

and

level

is

lab o u r

the

total

ex-change in

case

time,

So

some

consequently

much l o n g e r

performed

in

year

period

than

for

groups of

an

ensure

illness

1200 the

of

can

be

is

able

the

way

in

heads. for

This

is

Nor th

to

a

of

equivalent on

73

good

of

to

1800

paddy

an 8-15

Farmer's

seeds

wine,

five

the

by

cultivate

for

the

in

report r e d

is

rice

f amity

region

above5.

Nor t h

Allowing

production

was

illustrated

described

the

surplus

surplus

Asian

surplus

rice

Upper

S.E.

household

required

kg.

considerable

This

the

in

of

per

a

needs.

in

(illegal)

rise

provide

consumption

paten-tial

The

amount

not

are

easily

could

powerful

The

past. r a j

Moreover,

tasks

others

village

the

at

than

groups

irrigation

members.

Wet-rice

direct

the

and h a r v e s t i n g

f armer.

mandatory

f amity

than

harvesting,

exchange

mental

fields

earlier

weeding

paddy f i e l d s to a lesser groups are

and

lab our

Supple-

all

planted

f armers for

transplanting because

indispen-

not

practised,

the water in the keeps the weeds down. For harvesting, and threshing 9 extent for lab our exchange organized.

is

not

therefore

to

be

animal

1

the

total

persons

would

kg land

of

paddy. without

v a r y b e t w e e n 3 0 0 a n d 5 0 0 kg o f p a d d y p e r r a j . S o , a f a m i t y between 4 and 6 t a i of paddy land f o r s u b s i s t e n c e needs w h e r e a s t h e a r e a t h a t c a n be c u l t i v a t e d is rice production, the organization traditional With this. twice at .least Buff alas small. household cash e x p e n d i t u r e s is of amount many y e a r s and they over a r e expensive but are amer t i z e d c a n y i e l d a d d i t i o n a l i n c o m e in t h e f o r m of c a l v e s a n d m e a t . ample time is Aper t f r o m t i m e s p e n t on w e t - r i e e g r o w i n g ,

for

available

fishing

and

to

household has time less urgent tasks.

other

of

production

gathering.

the

During

repair

the

house

subsistence and

to

crops,

the

season

dry

long

per form

other

household that a typical appears it foregoing the From c o u l d p r o d u c e a n d a n n u a l s u r p l u s of b e t w e e n 1200 and 3 2 0 0 kg of paddy. H o w e v e r , i t is u n l i k e l y t h a t many p e a s a n t s d i d SO place. took agriculture of commercialization before P r o b a b l y most: p e a s a n t s than ten r a j as had f arms smaller had they was n e i t h e r lab our o b l i g a t i o n s and there corvée

need n o r i n c e n t i v e t o c u l t i v a t e m o r e land than n e c e s s a r y Only l o r d s and p e t t y c h i e f s had f o r household consumption. more

land

was

which

cultivated

by

corvée

.and

labourers

s l a v e s . C o m m e r c i a l a g r i c u l t u r e in t h e U p p e r N o r t h may h a v e t o s p e c i a l i z a t i o n $n t h e t e a k t i m b e r star red in~response But t h i s p r o c e s s was the nineteenth century. business in in t h e e a r l y 1920s n o r in 1930 was not extensive. Neither there s i g n i f i c a n t s a l e of a g r i c u l t u r a l products from the Af t e r t h e S e e o n d W o r l d War regions. U p p e r Nor t h t o o t h e r f o r peasants in the Upper Nor t h t o i n c e n t i v e s developed p r o d u c e r i c e and o t h e r c r o p s f o r the m a r k e t and t o i n c r e a s e areas many in however, Then, area. agricultural their l i m i t e d amounts of unused land were l e t t , which p r e v e n t e d

an

increase

in

average

size

f arm

to

levels

comparable

to

peasant mean t h a t a l l not does Plain. This Central the Earms remained s m a l l . In some a r e a s more land was a v a i l a b l e funds to accumulate could or had funds and some people petty of Descendents estates. lord's from land obtain through land much relatively obtained have may chiefs i n h e r i t a n c e . Conversely, former slaves and t h e i r descend-

ants

star red

landless

with

people

and

nothing share

and

perhaps

croppers.

-74

they

were

the

first

to give i t is n e c e s s a r y situation the present of c o m m e r c i a l i z a t i o n , emergence t o the only

To u n d e r s t a n d not

attention

I t should a l s o t o the consequence of p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h . Nor t h Upper the in population the that recalled i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y f r o m 1 . 3 m i l l i o n i n 1 9 1 9 t o o v e r 1, is low, the density m i l l i o n n o w . As l o n g a s t h e p o p u l a t i o n land i n t o s u f f i c i e n t paddy a v e r a g e household can t r a n s f o r m of good q u a l i t y land If dry seasons. the during fields land in swamps and somewhat h i g h e r s c a r c e , lower becomes but

be

Risks

be c l e a r e d .

can

land

are

land

this

on

cultivation

of

and Low a r e a s m a y h a v e c r o p d a m a g e f r o m f l o o d i n g higher. of both reduce y i e l d s . Conversion high a r e a s from drought;

land i n t o paddy f i e l d s is s t i l l p o s s i b l e , b u t a t h i g h c o s t . control and water Large investments in i r r i g a t i o n systems which involve complicated indispensable, are of ten works new c r e a t i o n of r a t e of the p l a n n i n g . As a c o n s e q u e n c e population paddy f i e l d s in the p a s t has been slower than increased considerably, and p r e s s u r e on land has growth

stances

whether

Because

of

and

double

consequence

a

As

the

as

high

inputs

modern

areas a

five

tion source

raj

needs. of

much

higher

f arm

may

income crops.

second

crops

medium

f arm p r o d u c e s

just

enough

O f f - f arm

additional

necessary In

to

rice meet

is

the cases

as of

In

living

yield

some

employment income.

obtainable.

adequate

provide

be use

may the

By

crop.

of

is

for

control

water while

crop

income

the

intensive

rise

one

of

opp o r t u n i t i e s

feasible,

is

income

income.

l a b our

main

the

from

raj

of

from

income

the

enough

good

with

be

may

cultivation

income

only

If

additional

and

is

3-5

a

f amity.

cropping

by

circum-

valleys

the

f avourable soils

better

On

multiple

increased

be

can

provide

can

the

on

depends

characteristics,

are

there

landholdings

It

raj.

relatively

offer

f arming.

intensive

6

f arms

such

physical

Nor t h

Upper

than

less

of

f arms

of

size

decreasing

of

Because

many

landholdings.

of

size

decreasing

to

leading

for

is

most

for

a

possible,

f amity

other

such

needs

consump-

imper t e n t

additional

land

rented.

The p r o c e s s of d e c r e a s i n g a v e r a g e s i z e of f a r m s is a c c e l children In Thailand all by inheritance customs. erated a If proper ty. parental the of par t equal an receive s m a l l e r f a r m i s s p l i t a m o n g s e v e r a l h e i r s , t h e r e s u l t may 75-

be s u b - m a r g i n a l f a r m s b e c a u s e of s i z e . Some o w n e r s of sub~ to e n l a r g e t h e i r f a r m by hard f a r m s may be a b l e marginal w o r k , low c o n s u m p t i o n and good l u c k , but many w i l l f a i l . I f obtain to not: a b l e is land insufficient with a f amity enough a d d i t i o n a l income f r o m d a i l y l a b o u r , by r e n t i n g some additional

they

ways,

other

in

or

land,

may

become

If t h i s h a p p e n s s e v e r a l y e a r s in s u c c e s s i o n t h e y indebted. to turn may h a v e no c h o i c e t h a n t h e i r land t o the over money l e n d e r and s e a r c h f o r b e t t e r opp or t u n i t i e s e l s e w h e r e . is process a Thus the which in on going continuously people a r e being pushed o u t of a g r i c u l t u r e in the poorest l o w l a n d a r e a s . Two p o s s i b i l i t i e s a r e t h e n o p e n : g o t o t o w n o r go to the u p l a n d s . A f a r m e r w i t h 15 r a j o f g o o d i r r i g a t e d l a n d c a n h a v e a h i g h In the holding. income compared w i t h f a r m e r s on a small C h i a n g M a i v a l l e y t h e f a r m e r w i t h 15 r a j o f i r r i g a t e d l a n d o f t e n h a s many longman f r u i t t r e e s , t h e r e s u l t o f p r e v i o u s l y a c c u m u l a t e d s u r p l u s i n c o m e . Lon g a r s y i e l d a n i n c o m e p e r r a j many times -that of paddy f i e l d s . In a d d i t i o n the w e l l - t o - d o f a r m e r may own a r i c e m i l l o r he may b e a t r a d e r i n a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s . H i s i n c o m e m a y b e 5 t o 10 t i m e s a s h i g h s m a l l h o l d e r s . He m a y c o n s u m e of marginal income the as t h e r e s t . B e c a u s e of o n l y p a r t of h i s income and a c c u m u l a t e with i n s u f f i c i e n t land p o s i t i o n many p e r s o n s his economic w i l l be d e p e n d e n t o n h i m f o r w a g e l a b o u r , r e n t i n g h i s l a n d parallels advantage and borrowing his money. S u c h e c o n o m i c him is with conflict because advantage, political a f o r t h o s e who a r e d e p e n d e n t o n h i m . By i n h e r dangerous i t a n c e t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s a r e a l s o s p l i t , b u t e a c h h e i r may receive a f arm large enough o v e r c o n s u m p t i o n . P e o p l e in

s u r p l u s e s to buy indebted people.

land

from

to provide this group

money

a s u r p l u s of income may have s u f f i c i e n t

lenders

obtain

who

it

from

However, w e l l - t o - d o f armers a r e not .the only group which officers, I n many a r e a s p e t t y l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t buys land. buy much such as d i s t r i c t c l e r k s , t e a c h e r s and policemen, o f the l a n d l o s t by s m a l l h o l d e r s . c u l t i v a t e p a r t of the l a n d t h e m Sometimes these o f f i c e r s selves,

out

to

children

more

of ten

f armers. of

they

Petty

well-to-do

become f armers

-76

and

the land usually buy l a n d in

and

rent

officers

are

landlords

government

prefer

to

villages

where

their

the

for

strong

base

a

and g o v e r n m e n t V.1.2.

officials,

living.

between

This

well-to-do

can

form

f armers

which fur then c o n c e n t r a t e s p o w e r .

of

is

the

par t i c u l a r

self-regenerating

classification

generally

followed

the

fr:

la)

lr'f IP* IO ID

general

fields

and

following

of

name

for

vegetation

Conklin's guishes

ll*-

lm lwIH1

IP-'

lm

lr)

agriculture

cropping

am

1p; ic:

IDI

IC

IF?

IH lm I

12

lm

r_

Swidden

II

are

relation

S w i d d e n _Agricult§r§

.

F'
H-'-

Regular

II-h

VI. l. 3.

lm

and techniques seem to be needed.

channeled

through the Local Administration Depar trent of thelMinistry of Interiors. Local administration consists of three levels' the central level in Bangkok, the provincial level and

the district level. Decision making and financing are high1y centralized.

But here, just as elsewhere, high centrali-

-135-

itself

makes

zation

are

officers

consequently respects

and

ineffective

district

and

governors

many

in

the

very

powerful.

At

level,

medium

the

of

representatives

and lion,

Forestry,

Land,

Commerce,

administratively

are

actives

headed

of f i c e ,

co-ordinating

role

by

the

over

the The a s s i s t a n t s , an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t , depar tments, various like Irriga-

by

assisted

is

governor

and

the

administration,

of

level

lowest

provincial

the

a supervising

has

governor,

district

Extension.

off ices.

represent-

These

the

under

the of authority g o v e r n o r , but p r o f e s s i o n a l l y under t h e i r d e p a r T r e n t . Their c a r e e r d e p e n d s on the D i r e c t o r - G e n e r a l o f t h e i r d e p a r t t e n t the therefore and to possibilities limited governor has s u p e r v i s e a n d c o - o r d i n a t e t h e work of d e p a r t m e n t a l o f f i c e r s effectively.

offices, district the of organization and The s t r u c t u r e by t h e d i s t r i c t o f f i c e r ( f a i amp f u r ) ) is s i m i l a r t o headed the p r o v i n c i a l o f f i c e s . Here too are s t a t i o n e d r e p r e s e n t a -

the They a r e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y under depar tments. of the d i s t r i c t o f f i c e r w i t h s i m i l a r problems of

of

tives

authority

A a s on t h e p r o v i n c i a l l e v e l . co-ordination communes or sub-districts 3-10 of consists (tambol) a n d e a c h of t h e s e c o n s i s t s of 4 - 1 0 v i l l a g e s . E a c h v i l l a g e has a headman e l e c t e d by the v i l l a g e r s , w i t h approv al T h e h e a d m e n o f a commune of the d i s t r i c t o f f i c e r . elect one among t h e m s e l v e s , w i t h a p p r o v a l of t h e d i s t r i c t as t h e commune h e a d m a n ( k a m n a n ) . officer,

and

loyalty

district

,

the

Since

reforms

administrative

headmen

(1893-1910)

are

government and the v i l l a g yet they have the e r s . They a r e not g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c e r s , laws and r e g u t a s k of m a i n t a i n i n g l a w a n d o r d e r , e n f o r c i n g policies, repot ting statistil a t i o n s , executing government

intermediaries

the

eal tO

briefed where

on

e.g-

data, join

a

by

meeting

the

bit ths at

district

receive

they

the

between

and

the

deaths.

district

officer

instructions

on for

Once

a

to

have

they

are

policies

and

where

government tasks

they

month

office,

be

performed.

no have They excessiveg. headmen are the of tasks The they cert res and no c o m m u n i t y administrative assistance, On t h e commune l e v e l t h e r e receive only a small honorarium. is

mostly

a

tambol-council

consisting

136-

of

the

headmen

and

people.

This

council,

with

no a u t h o r i t y

over

budgets,

it

influential

other

has

chairman,

rarely

is

there

and

assistance

trative

kamnan

the

has

as

no a d m i n i s -

a community

centre.

the headmen a r i s e not f r o m of The most d i f f i c u l t problems t h e i r l a c k o f m e a n s , b u t f r o m t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s of t h e p o p them protect to headmen expect villagers The ulation. o f f i c e r s , and to against o u t s i d e r s , especially government t o l e r a t e t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l f r e e d o m s . T h i s m e a n s t h a t he has

cords

and

the

with

matters

of

kind

distilling.

and

for

information

He the

to

and

officials

benefit

of

bargain

all

manipulate

re-

to

able

be

must

lumbering,

gambling,

like

activities

illegal

conceal

to

butchering

the

v i l l a g e r s 1O.

T h e y w i l l be m o r e e f f e c t i v e i n p r o t e c t i n g t h e v i l l a g e r s i f This r e q u i r e s t h e y have s u p p e r t of t h e d i s t r i c t o f f i c e r s . a t l e a s t t h a t t h e y have t o s a t i s f y demands f r o m t h e s e o f f i c e r s . T h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l h e a d m a n s e e m s t o be a g o o d p o l i ofthe among both impression, the who c r e a t e s tician them. serving is he that villagers, his and ficials many in conflicting are interests these Traditionally aspects. In

the

Upper

more

Nor t h ,

in

than

Central

head-

Thailand,

in t h e i r v i l t o be t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l p e o p l e men a p p e a r pawns, and t h e r e i s a l s o more f a c t i o n a l lages or their are entourages Perhaps villages. Thai Nor t h o r n in ism in more dominant Central Thailand,

more group

all

the and

personal.

dominating bridges

which

in than Nor th the of country-side are patrons, the phoo l i a n g , the

the

gap

It

between

is

especially

the

majority

this of

the

v i l l a g e r s and the o f f i c i a l s . They p l a y an imper t e n t r o l e and in the implementabudgets development procuring in p o l i c i e s l Z . Neher r e p o t t s a s t r i k i n g t i o n of development

similarity

in

the

official-village elite village wealthy more

patron-client elite

aspects

relationship

as

of

the

compared

district to

the

the elite, the is It c1ients13. their and associations irrigation join who villagers

Because of t h e i r i n f l u e n c e , development and f a r m e r g r o u p s . budgets a r e used f o r these a c t i v i t i e s . T r a d i t i o n a l l e a d e r s o f t h e v i l l a g e no l o n g e r p l a y t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r o l e . new f u n c t i o n a l the joins which "The stratum political i t s e l f and the widening the gap between a s s o c i a t i o n s is of stability the Thus, villagers. of majority great

137

Thailand jeopardincreasingly is of areas rural the i z e d a s the " c o n s t a n t f l u x " of p a t r o n - c l i e n t g r o u p s r a d i cally changes"1". as t e r N e h e r d i d h i s r e s e a r c h i n N o r t h e r m years Three F e d e r a t i o n of T h a i l a n d ( F F T ) emerged Thailand, the Farmers a n d s t a r T e d t o d e f e n d t h e i n t e r e s t of t h e l o w e r s t r a t u m of the

this

Given

till

population

rural

structural

with

harmful

violently.

repressed

possi-

limited

are

there

background

reaching the of bilities only or not, is system p o l i c i e s that are not in

Policies

was

it

poor. The a c t u a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e able t o implement incidentally, the i n t e r e s t of the l o c a l e l i t e .

for

aspects

can

elite

the

only

be

i m p l e m e n t e d w i t h s t r o n g p o l i t i c a l s u p p e r t f r o m t h e t o p , and f r o m o u t s i d e . This makes i t d i f f i c u l t t o plan with force on income a positive effect policies with and implement distribution. policies results indicate that rural development i n Nor the .rn T h a i l a n d have c o n t r i b u t e d t o i n c r e a s e d v i l l a g e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . R u b i n c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e r e is a p o l i c y of this quota" b e t t i n g o n t h e s t r o n g " 1 5 . He e x p l i c i t l y u s e s t i o n o f Wer t h e i r , r e f e r r i n g t o a n y p o l i c y t h a t d e l i b e r a t e l y about bring to order in stratification rural increases increased t o t a l incomed 6 . I n g l e , mainly w r i t i n g from the a n d u s i n g US c o u n t e r - i n s u r g e n c y p o i n t of view of s e c u r i t y

Research

that

eon e l u d e s

studies,

terms

in

income

of

distribution,

development rural a negative had services provided the was f o u n d t h a t s e r v i c e s led In the shot t - r u n i t impact17. which only r e s u l t e d in to increased individual investments income no i n c r e a s e of average and disparity, increased

From a s e c u r i t y

observed.

be

could

of

point

this

view

way

shot t-run18. the in strategy risk a high marked as is that a t least in the shot t - r u n T h e s e examples i l l u s t r a t e p o l i c i e s have been r a t h e r i n e f f e c t i v e the rural development p r o d u c t i v e in reducing income d i s p a r i t i e s and even c o u n t e r and

in

maintaining

security.

Long

effects

term

are

less

clear. The

total

erable.

these

annual

However,

budgets,

or

budgets a

basic

how

for

rural

question

efficient

are

-138-

development is

how

rural

are

consid-

effective

development

are

ser-

number

population.

With

not

much

travel,

and

can

The problem

not

is

and

in

lack

the

lack

of

budgets

for

such

a

situation

the

on

the

rely

to

and

government

of

officers,

country.

the

over

officers

rural

assist

to

infrastructure

of

administrative

mainly

task

and

an absolute

spread

unequal

or

only

main

done,

provide

to

res

except:

military.

have

be

112,000

55

of f i c e r s ,

government

of

districts

and

and

49

goals

and two

38,000

of

only

is

personnel

few

e a s i e s t way i s local elites.

the

all

their

as

have

few

tasks,

but

a population officials

officers

government

Most

the

of

schoolteachers,

police,

means

example

includes

This

pectivelylg.

between

For

have

Rubin

by

total

the

relation weak.

is

development

described and

the

of ten

Quite

vices. rural

Ac-

W o r l d Bank, over two t h i r d s of a l l c i v i l i a n employees of t h e government are s t a t i o n e d i n Bangkok20. The Royal F o r e s t r y Depar t r e n t forms a t y p i c a l example. Two T h a i foresters

and

many

in

f ails

the

to

cording

an

that

FAO f o r e s t e r

respects

repot red to adequately

do

the d e p a r t r e n t the job in its

o v e r c e n t r a l i z a t i o n z l . Their of because adequately, field OE t h e overall staffing c o n c l u s i o n on the is depar Trent t h a t t h e t o t a l n u m b e r of o f f i c e r s a n d t h e i r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s to perform the depar t r e n t ' s tasks. are sufficient This, a mass t r a n s f e r of p e r s o n n e l to the however, would r e q u i r e f i e l d and to p r o v i n c i a l o f f i c e s .

In not ment

its

low

stand

the

efficiency

alone.

budgets,

whether

tration

Depar t e n t

through

the

charnel led

and

technical

the

Forestry

Royal

A considerable

par t

of

through

district

depar t e n t s ,

do

Depar t r e n t

does

the

rural

develop-

the

Local

Adminis-

offices, not

or

solve

directly the

prob-

lems to which they a r e a l l o c a t e d . I t is not enough to conand maintain government b u i l d i n g s , to s t a t i o n o f f i struct in the f i e l d and t o p r o v i d e o p e r a t i n g e x p e n s e s . I f the no e f f e c t i v e p r o g r a m m e r s a t t r a c a g e n c i e s have development t i v e t o t h e l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n , t h e o n l y e f f e c t of the b u d low A t y p i c a l example of building. institution is gets cers

b u d g e t s i s f o u n d i n t h e c r e a t i o n of e f f e c t i v e development t h e H i l l - T r i b e W e l l a r e D i v i s i o n of t h e D e p a r t r e n t of P u b l i c we1 f a r e 2 2 . D u r i n g 125 million about

the Division spent period 1960-1974 the to limited almost was The e f f e c t baht.

139-

b u i l d i n g up and maintenance of government presence m o u n t a i n s . E x p e n d i t u r e r e a c h i n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n was small f r a c t i o n of the total budgets. The e f f e c t

in the only a on the most v i l -

w e l l a r e of the m i n o r i t y g r o u p s was s m a l l a n d in lages non-existent. Major s t r u c t u r a l changes, which were t h e m a i n o b j e c t i v e s of the b u d g e t s , have not been a c h i e v e d . The e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s , almost l o w l a n d s , have been i n e f f e c t i v e

e x c l u s i v e l y o p e r a t i n g in the too. Most e x t e n s i o n workers

are unsuited for their tasks23. They of t e n have a n b a c k g r o u n d and lack knowledge of f a r m l i f e and f a r m

urban

pract i c e s . Their education is mostly t h e o r e t i c a l and too s p e cialized. Their training includes neither i r r i g a t e d agric u l t u r e nor m o d e r n d r y l a n d f a r m i n g p r a c t i c e s . M o s t of them h a v e n o e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g in f a r m m a n a g e m e n t , rural i n s t i t u t i o n s and working w i t h g r o u p s . P r o b a b l y most of them

l a c k t h e a b i l i t y t o s u r v i v e on a s m a l l f a r m . Consequently, o n e s h o u l d n o t e x p e c t t h e i r a d v i c e t o be s e r i o u s l y c o n s i d e r e d by p o o r the f a r m e r s '

f a r m e r s . They confidence.

lack

the

basic

qualities

to

gain

In the recent past the number of a g r i c u l t u r a l e x t e n s i o n workers h a s b e e n i n c r e a s e d c o n s i d e r a b l y . I n 1 9 7 1 t h e r e was one e x t e n s i o n w o r k e r f o r 8 , 0 0 0 f a r m f a m i t i e s and i n 1976 one t o 1 , 1 5 0 . Unfold l u n a t e l y i m p r o v e m e n t of t h e i r q u a l i t y h a s n o t r e c e i v e d much a t t e n t i o n . F o r e f f e c t i v e assistance o f p o o r f a r m e r s , a t l e a s t o n e e x t e n s i o n w o r k e r w o u l d be required f o r 500 f a r m f a m i t i e s . The e x t e n s i o n w o r k e r s , at present stationed at the district offices, have t o spend

almost

half

gathering

of

their

statistics

time

and

on

administrative

repot ting.

So,

in

tasks

like

as

quantity

well

a s in q u a l i t y t h e e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e is f a t from e f f e c t i v e . It

is

not

government

cultural

correct

to

put

services

on

abstract

f actors.

organizations and ity.

pace

of

During

examples

of

and

work

of

individuals

in

many

cases

individuals

low

individual

observed

operations

and

had

for

work

repot red.

to

be

for

one

-140-

make

decisive

this

carried

structural

and

creativeness,

are

study

productivity In

inefficiency

impersonal,

f act

field

cal

blame

In

the

were

all

with

1ow

the

motivation productive

several

and

pro j e c t

out

for

form

of

and

striking

dedication

cer rain

expensive

techni-

equip-

less

Thailand.

in

Thailand

like

to

wanted and

pro j e c t ,

the

expand

to

Although

productivity.

been

abroad

the

same

capacity,

the

pro ject

could

seen

had

and

had

the not

for

willingness

Thai

off icers

more

manpower

responsible was

was

with and

increased

not

to

of ficers

achieved

be

could

productivity

problems

alternative

The

the

what

the

but

ef-

worked

technical

Leading

than

day

per

productivity

is

daily

asked

and

refused.

was

which

equipment,

increase

low

nor

f actors

effectively.

work

done

bottleneck,

the

were

to

and

was very

hours

few

a

climatic

maintenance,

organize

only

that

was

Neither

fectively.

the

for

same with

but

circumstances,

much w o r k

reason

main

The

as

times

six

manpower,

in

the

with

country

donor

a

natural

similar

under

equipment

in

that

appeared

It

rent.

expand.

workers I n research s t a t i o n s t a r g e t s a r e low too. Foreign c l a i m t h a t w e l l - s t a f f e d r e s e a r c h s t a t i o n s in T h a i l a n d of t e n o n e f o u r t h of t h e e x p e r i m e n t s t h a t r e do only annually s t a t i o n s in w e s t e r n c o u n t r i e s do. Not only is prosearch t h e q u a l i t y of good e d u c a t i o n

d u c t i v i t y l o w , d e d i c a t i o n a l s o is low, and w o r k of p r o f e s s i o n a l s a n d t e c h n i c i a n s , w i t h a n d s u f f i c i e n t e x p e r i e n c e , is of t e n p o o r . In

stations

field

appear

to

be

bureaucratic

and

day

idle

offices

in

organizations

people non-working is Idleness high.

the

in

in

out.

day

in,

Thailand but

world,

seems to in Thai o f f i c e s restricted not cer tai fly

also employees; lower workers and technicians

among much o f

many

occurs

This

well-educated t i m e is i d l e .

the

persons

in

most

share

of

be r e l a t i v e l y to unskilled

professional

C H . l I . 4 t e c h n i c a l and p r o f e s s i o n a l s k i l l s The prestigious. not are achievements m o t i v a t i o n in T h a i l a n d is p r i m a r i l y o r i e n t e d to framework with i t s The i n s t i t u t i o n a l powers'.

As e x p l a i n e d i n productivity and achievement and status rules,

regulations

and

organizational

patterns

has

basic t h i s background and r e f l e c t s the developed against persono r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d s s t a t u s and power. Both f a c t o r s ,

m o t i v a t i o n , and i n s t i t u t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , c o n t r i b u t e al t o t h e l o w e f f i c i e n c y . I t i s w r o n g t o e x p e c t , as many f o r eign advisors do, that i n s t i t u t i o n a l reform will automatic a l l y r e s u l t in h i g h e r e f f i c i e n c y . O n l y c a r e f u l l y p r e p a r e d reforms

that

take

cultural

f actors

-141

into

account

can

con-

to wrong is Similarly i t efficiency. higher to tribute even c o n s i d e r low d e d i c a t i o n as a phenomenon as such o r , offi~w o r s e , a s a n e x p r e s s i o n o f l a z y n e s s . Many g o v e r n m e n t c e r s a r e w i l l i n g t o do a good j o b . Q u i t e of t e n t h e e n v i r o n and lack of the b o s s , r e g u l a t i o n s , l a c k of b u d g e t s , ment not o r does provide incentives, not c o - o p e r a t i o n .- d o e s a l l o w them to do t h e job e f f i c i e n t l y .

-

-142-

market

free

forces.

In

of

a rate

percent

production

ated

with

1.8

percent,

Despite

high

sectors

suitable

agriculture

for

increased

barely

have

the

For

near and

becoming

scarce.

the

past

twenty

force

will

Table

22

grow

it

years

Pro jected

-

the

of

3.0

of

was

SO

workers

for

production agriculture

growth

that

expected

the

are is

in

l a b our

annually.

percent

Growth

land

population

rapid

be

can

of

rates

suitable

land

Because 2.5

growth

lower

future

unoccupied

expected

non-

in

1960$26.

the

since

the

unoccupied

non-agrieultural

unskilled

by

area.

crop

employment

of

increase

the

for

wages

real

that

low

of

availability

and

the

production

of

rates

growth

real

agricultural

of

expansion

of

because

mainly

0.5l+

of

annually

increased

employment

agriculture

In

associ-

employment

non-agricultural

of

growth

a

P€tC8Ht25-

22).

Table was

sectors

these

in

growth

(see

annually

percent

4.2

i n c r e a s e d at Each

employment

services

in

and

industry

from

r e s u l t e d mainly

employment

of

growth

decades

recent

In

Employment

Productive

of

Creation

VI.2.

Employment

Actual

Pro jected

1960-70

1970-76

1976-80

1980-85

1985-90

Lab o u r F o r c e

2. 3

2.6

2.9

2. 9

2.6

Non-Agricultural employment

a.2

n.a

4. A

3. 9

3 g

1• 8

n.a.

2 1

.

2. 4

1 9

.

Agricultural

employment

required maintain

co full

employment

Source:

World

Bank,

op.

cit.,

p.

.

76

g r o w t h o f t h e l a b o u r f o r c e may d r o p b e l o w y e a r a s a r e s u l t of t h e r e c e n t s l o w - d o w n of the I n 1970 s t i l l 78 p e r c e n t of growth. population the in a g r i c u l t u r e . The i n d u s t r i e s and l a b our f o r c e was engaged

Only

2.5

of t e r

1990

percent

per

-1£,3-

s e r v i c e s a r e n o t y e t a b l e b y f a t t o a b s o r b the i n c r e a s e o f B a n k e s t i m a t e d t h a t in The World force. labor the the periods 1980-2000, even w i t h an increased n o n - a g r i c u l t u r a l growth lab our more using and the techniques, intensive a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r has t o a b s o r b q u i t e a l o t of a d d i t i o n a l lab o u r .

Table

23

Growth Targets World Bank

by

the

Pro jected

_

Proposed

Employment

for

Actual

1976-80 1980-85

1960-70 1970-76

1985-90

percent

Lab our f o r c e E m p l o y m e n t in

2. 3

2 6

2. 9

2. 9

2. 6

industries E m p l o y m e n t in

3.8

n. a

7. 6

6 8

.

6. 6

Services Agricultural

4. 3

n.a

3 6 u

5. 0

5 7

1.8

n.a

1.7

1. 6

0. 7

.

employment

required

to full

maintain

employment

World

Source:

cit.

op.

Bank,

,

113

p.

the a g r i c u l t u r a l i n c r e a s e of the the period 1970-80 or in about 2 percent per year, l a b our f o r c e w a s p r o b a b l y t o t a l 2 2 p e r c e n t . On t h e b a s e o f c u r r e n t trends (Table 22)

Over

may be 1980-1990 period the increase over a t 24 p e r c e n t . The i n c r e a s e over 1990-2000

the

higher

mated

15 p e r c e n t .

at

estimated

increase

is

the

Over

whole and

percent

75

period in

the

slightly a

1970-2000

the

2000

the

year

f o r c e w i l l be a l m o s t 4 5 p e r c e n t agricultural l a b o r t h a n i n 1 9 8 0 . I f the W o r l d Bank t a r g e t s a r e r e a l i z e d 23)

increase

the

1980Is

will

be

of

12

the

agricultural

percent

and

over

lab our the

esti-

is

force

period

higher (Table

over

the

1990-2000

perhaps 5 p e r c e n t . In t o t a l t h i s w i l l r e s u l t in an i n c r e a s e over o f 18 p e r c e n t o v e r the p e r i o d 1 9 8 0 - 2 0 0 0 a n d 4 0 p e r c e n t 1970-2000. I n t h i s s t r a t e g y , by t h e y e a r the whole period

2000, sorbed

growth in

of

the

lab our

non-agricultural

force sectors.

144

would

be

completely

ab-

is

It

not

limited

other

in

and

ests,

24

Table

of

Pro jected

Number

Index

1970

1550

100

in

implemented

in

Lab our F o r c e

Percent Change

_

vested the

in of

1890

122

1980

2265

146

2000

2£.95

16 1

inter-

will

have

implemenproposed

the

result.

the

Upper Nor t h

(thousands) Non-Agricultural* Percent Index Number Change

285

100

5 15

18 1

890

3 12

1450

509

81

22

1990

expected

be

policies

realization a good

proposals.

Bank

of

to

signifi-

no

cannot

inefficiencies

considered

government

1980

World

opposition

of

Agricultural Year

and

policies

percent

f i f ty

A

can be

improvements

cases

because

success

agencies.

ting

because

implemented

be

to

the

real-

be

will

targets for

implement

proposed

the

of

par t

to

made

been

had

star t

cant

Moreover,

policies,

new

implement

and

prepare

Bank

years

many

takes

it

World

the

that

likely

Usually

ized.

73

20

10

63

Total Year

Number

Index

1970

1835

100

19 80

2405

13 1

1990

3 155

17 2

2000

3945

2 15

Percent Change

32

31 25

*

Includes

Source

net

Data

out-migration. for

author's

1970

are

census

estimates.

-145-

data

9

other

data

are

i t is presumed f o r t h i s s t u d y that the a g r i c u l Therefore t u r a l l a b o r f o r c e i n t h e U p p e r N o r t h w i l l g r o w b y 20 p e r 10 p e r c e n t c e n t over the p e r i o d 1980-1990 and by a n o t h e r ( s e e Table 2 4 ) . The i n c r e a s e of 1990-2000 over the period estimated

is

Nor t h

in

the

Upper

p e r c e n t per year over p e r c e n t f o r the 1 9 9 0 ' s .

the

period

5.5

percent

non-agricultural

sector,

including

increase

of

force

lab our

total

the

2.75

A

the

in

for

will

force

unless

effective

change

the

out-

incomes

capita

disparity,

income

that

implemented

are

policies

government

net

agricultural

the

per

increased

and

employ-

of

year

per

stagnating

in

result

population

rural

the

The

seems p o s s i b l e .

migration, lab our

-

5

of

growth

resulting

ment

at

2.25

and a t

1970-1990

trend.

in T h a i l a n d began some l e a d i n g persons I n the l a t e 1960s, t o r e a l i z e t h a t r a p i d e x p a n s i o n of the c u l t i v a t e d a r e a had i t s l i m i t s , a n d t h a t in the f u t u r e t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r a u t o m a t i c a l l y a b s o r b the increased l a b our no l o n g e r could f o r c e . T h e NEDB a n d t h e L a b o u r D e p a r t r e n t s t a r r e d t o s t u d y Third the In problems. employment and population growth was d e v o t e d t o much a t t e n t i o n (1972-1976) Plan National problems. Family p l a n n i n g s t a r red in t h i s period employment expected long term problems. the of result a direct as Q u a l i t a t i v e and q u a n t i t a t i v e a s p e c t s of e d u c a t i o n , f o r m e d f o r which p o l i c i e s were p r o p o s e d . a n o t h e r f i e l d of concern

As s a i d

before,

spar t

ernment

'has

been

not

infrastructural

from

effective

very

opment p o l i c i e s . I n the ease p l a n s . At was not a l a c k of

Vingerhoets

almost

they may

(western) ment.

Most acts

ment by

and

that

at

contained

p o l i c i e s . E s p e c i a l l y t h e w o r k o f Fuhs v a l u a b l e and became well-known¢'. Y e t

opposition strong Other interests.

would have met proposals harmed vested have might

some

policies

was

there

promotion

Depar t e n t

out

gov-

devel-

was d o n e .

nothing

Perhaps because

or

useful

for

proposals and

Lab our

carried

the

works,

implementing

employment

the

were

studies

several

NEDB

the

of

in

conflicted

have

technology likely, only

powerful

if

is

the

however, it

is

with

only the

pressed

interests.

Such

1 Z»6-

the

means reason by a

an

that

belief

to

achieve

is

that

the

emergency

situation

does

modern

developgovern-

situation not

yet

press to impleseem a t p r e s e n t

depart aments and none of the powerful the p r o p o s e d p o l i c i e s . The d e p a r t e n t s p o l i c i e s . Most b a r e l y i n t e r e s t e d in these

exist;

ment

proposed

the

of

budget

annual

small

and

investments

small

require

policies

revised legislarequire only Some m e a s u r e s allocations. t i o n , e . g . in t h e f i e l d s o f t a x a t i o n a n d imper t r e g u l a t i o n . Depar tments a r e p r i m a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d in pro j e c t s t h a t reis u n l i k e l y it allocation. Therefore budget a high quire t h a t c o m p r e h e n s i v e p o l i c i e s w i l l be i m p l e m e n t e d as l o n g as the government does n o t g i v e high p r i o r i t y to t h i s problem. As t i m e p a s s e s t h e u r g e n c y f o r e m p l o y m e n t p r o m o t i n g p o l i c i e s w i l l become more c l e a r f o r t h e government and r e c e i v e more a t t e n t i o n . Several

policies

prevent

growing

sufficient

and

as

most

just

to

potential

in-

growth

agricultural

promote

co

A policy

production.

employment

Nor t h ,

Upper

The

has

Thailand,

of

areas

other crease

create

to

helpful

be

can

inequality.

help to create a c o n s i d e r a b l e a m o u n t o f emcer t a i fly p l o y r e n t . D i s t r i b u t i v e p o l i c i e s can be h e l p f u l t o achieve high growth c r e a t e p r o d u c t i v e emto r a t e s . Main p o l i c i e s p l o y r e n t in a g r i c u l t u r e a r e p r o v i d i n g a c c e s s t o l a n d , p r o intensified noting using l a b our promoting agriculture,

can

technologies

conducting

and

of

policies

Thai

employment

rural

have

f ar

so

governments

pro j e c t s .

The

implicitly

and

e x p l i c i t l y f a v o u r e d imper r e d w e s t e r n t e c h n o l o g y . F o r examp l e , n o w a d a y s the i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r is c a p a b l e o f p r o d u c i n g a large variety capital domestic but goods, capital of g o o d s p r o d u c e r s h a v e r e c e i v e d h a r d l y any p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t i m p e r i s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e W o r l d B a n k , d o m e s t i c p r o d u c e r s in goods capital than f o r e i g n suited this sector are better t o d e s i g n and p r o d u c e c a p i t a l g o o d s s u i t e d f o r producers

Producers

ery29.

household

and

This

percent. to

these

is

This growth have of

a

means

sectors

that

instead

considered and

tractors

and

error t

the

imper t

Low

employment.

twofold

to

of

on

related

capital

and

skills

significant

a

capital

handicap tariffs

agricultural equipment

-»

11*7-

12h

were

on

other

percent,

TV

par t s

85

motor vehicle

percent,

830

appliances

the

on

goods,

furniture

metal

assembly

tractor

on

n o n - e l e c t r i c a l machin-

for

consumer

luxury

of

high p r o t e c t i o n :

get

hand,

3 percent

and

5 percent,

only

protection

Effective

conditionszg.

Thai

is

are

attracted

goods

for

sectors.

longterm

capital

development. encouraged,

goods

Imports and

the

built-up ture

of

was

about

some

sufficient

expand let t ,

the the

lab our

use

income

and

a

and

There

land

idle

is

situation

employment

a

completely

is

for

harrow

as

may

help

to

no

land

is

When

Then

diff erent.

agriculture

of

only

provide

can

a growing p o p u l a t i o n .

f armers

wet-rice mud

rapidly.

long

as

labor,

worry

to

reason

Mechanization

more

intensification

and

for

agricul-

for

industry

little

is

let t .

area

cultivated

goods

capital

of

substitution

Traditionally, plough

capital

domestic

discouraged.

to

had

prepare

drawn

animal

only

an

rice

fields

and

some

hand t o o l s . N o w a d a y s a n i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r of f a r m e r s , m a i n l y f o r f i e l d p r e p a r a t i o n . The the big f armers, hire tractors hardly preparation is for field of hiring t r a c t o r s cost t h a n t h e c o s t of t r a d i t i o n a l even higher lower or perhaps to use a prestigious is it However, preparation. field lab our. hire to have not do f armers the and tractor A v a i l a b l e d a t a show t h a t t h e d i r e c t of t r a c t o r s in r i c e c u l t i v a t i o n is t i o n of l a b our r e q u i r e m e n t s 3 0 .

of t h e u s e consequence a 25-33 percent reduc-

the in agriculture swidden was only there past the In f o r w h i c h no s o i l t i l l a g e was p r a c t i s e d , and t h e r e uplands I n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e on l a n d w a s no n e e d f o r m e c h a n i z a t i o n . a g r i c u l t u r e . This a s k s f o r more i n t e n s i v e t y p e s of upland and since weeding, intensive and tillage soil requires t h e r e i s of t e n l a c k of l a b o u r , some f o r m o f m e c h a n i z a t i o n I n upland a r e a s in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s w i t h has t o be a d o p t e d . p r e s s u r e i n t h e p a s t , i n a p r o c e s s of increasing population t r i a l and e r r o r , more i n t e n s i v e upland c u l t i v a t i o n systems drawn animal on based were which developed, gradually

mechan1zat1on3 l .

Since

population

pressure

in

the

uplands

T h a i l a n d e m e r g e d o n l y r e c e n t l y , no s u c h i n d i g e n o u s s y s nowadays in u p l a n d a g r i consequently, tems have d e v e l o p e d . c u l t u r e the choice is mainly between land p r e p a r a t i o n with in

a play tractors Hence f o r t h , hand t o o l s . tractors or with emerging permanent preparation for land r o l e in dominant u p l a n d c r o p p i n g s y s t e m s . As w i l l b e a r g u e d i n o t h e r s e e on r e l a t i v e l y p o o r a n d s l o p i n g l a n d t r a c t o r s have tions, been l i t t l e has Never theless very various disadvantages. upland for mechanization drawn animal develop to done areas.

-148-

According

the

the

Even

worse

that

such

already

f armers'

of

creation

can

groups

f armers'

the

promotes

tractor.

a

to

buy

it

cannot

be

expected

the

as

efficiently

as

operate

contractors33.

private

from

services

available

Rijk,

to

according

that

is

want

intro"

the

Never t h e - l e s s ,

Depar trent

that

groups

about

are

account

justified.

be

Promotion

Co-operative

the

rarely

can

tractors

of

duction

into

drawn

animal

yields

crop

or for

necessity

cases

most

and

taken

are

costs

social

If

same.

In

expensive

less

be

would

tractors.

of

introduction

equipment

Technical cropping

multiple

absolute

an

form

rarely

soils,

of

for

requirements

like

considerations, hardness

Nor t h

Upper

the

in

justified32.

be

can

tractorization

cases

few

are

there

Rijk

to

which

for

developed and in use d e a l of a n i m a l d r a w n e q u i p m e n t i n o t h e r d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , e s p e c i a l l y I n d i a , has cons i d e r a b l e p o t e n t i a l in T h a i l a n d . R i j k has d e s c r i b e d a v a r i as a plow, such implements, animal-drawn simple of ety for equipment threshing cultivator, toolbar, disk farrow, c r o p s , and w a t e r l i f t i n g d e v i c e s , and improved hand various t o o l s t h a t c a n be p r o d u c e d a t low c o s t i n T h a i l a n d , of t e n the working with such equipment by local blacksmiths'*. c a p a c i t y of u p l a n d f a r m e r s c o u l d i n c r e a s e s i g n i f i c a n t l y and be r e p l a c e d p r o f i t a b l y b y could tractors most cases in draught animals. A good

The

could

animals grammes

in

in

less

the

lowlands.

side-line

activity.

than

tional

cost

to

use

equipment,

able

paddy

plough

foregoing

Many

and w i t h

should

self-made

lead

do

what

pro-

f avourable

meet

land

sufficient is

animals

Despite

draught

government

raise

requires

it

animals.

is

f armers

upland

f armers

not

there

draught

Therefore

these

many

for

care

likely

most;

uplands

the

In

Good

energy.

will

fields

these and

local

of

imper r e d

of

use

the

to

of

prices

the

in

attention

official

source

a

grazing

for

The

draw

response.

f armer

a

as

increase

fur then

of

prospect;

fuel

the they

required

buff alo

as

little

addi-

of

suit-

lack can

with

the

harrows.

to

the

misunderstanding

that

o n l y d i f f e r e n t f o r m s of m e c h a n i z a t i o n a r e of imper l a n c e f o r of replacement the not is problem The main employment. t r a c t o r s by d r a u g h t a n i m a l s . I n some e a s e s the i n t r o d u c t i o n

.. 1 a 9 -

of

non-irrigated

for

especially

systems,

f arming

intensive

of

l a b our

of

development

the

may

creation

the

Therefore

requires

employment

productive

and v a r i e inputs

non-mechanical

employment.

and

income

increase

mech-

for

crops

other

growing of

variety

a

Moreover,

ties.

by

reduced

be

can

anization,

in

peaks

and

reason

a major

as

seen

of ten

requirements,

lab our

mini-

situations

some

results,

good

give

may

techniques

tillage

In

employment 3 5 .

create

and

problems

mum

employment.

mechanization

solve

may

practices

cultivation

in

and i n c r e a s e

bottlenecks

remove

may

tractors

Changes

areas.

is

there

season

dry

the

During

much

Many

under-employment.

additional people earn i n s u f f i c i e n t f a r m income and seek i n c o m e f r o m e l s e w h e r e . I n some a r e a s a c o n s i d e r a b l e p a r t of espeseasonally to other areas, the lab our f o r c e migrates socially a miserable Seasonal migration is towns. cially employp h e n o m e n o n a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e c r e a t i o n of o f f - s e a s o n ment deserves high p r i o r i t y . In

inputs

removed.

with

limited

cropping

rural

work

programmers

principle

maintenance

national

such

of

and

point by

increases,

view

or

using

a

is

advantage

the

that

provides

that

method

From

infrastructure.

local

a

income

total

income

the

for

used

is

which

for

lab o u r ,

employment, of

improvement

that

is

programmers

alternative

little

is

there

introduced

be

can

dry

for

possibilities

areas

the

principle

in

can

bottlenecks

For

main

channels

market

deficient

and

These

outputs.

and

for

The

returns,

economic

low

the

are

dry

for

possibilities

under-utilized.

highly

land,

of

distribution

be

season

still

this

for

given

reasons unequal

The

are

cropping

season

direct

provide

cropping the

Yet

season.

dry

the

in

multiple

and

double

ways

many

employment

poor

to

people.

In

the

members

be

gramme the

of

the

carried

for

i's

observers programme

tambol

out.

alleged and

introduced

Pramo j . g o v e r n m e n t

p r o g r a m m e , k n o w n a s the a s p e c t o f t h a t programme

would Most:

the ' K u k r i t

1975

work able

council,

inefficiency that

decided

have

Opponents

researchers

believe

a

rural

t a m b o l f u n d . The m o s t r e m a r k w a s t h a t l o c a l p e o p l e , mainly

who

the

150-

which

criticized

and

local

studied benefits

the

pro jects

the

pro-

corruption. effects

outweighed

of the

of t h e p r o g r a m m e was t h e the local level t h a t was government pushed the programme

d i s a d v a n t a g e s . The main weakness B u t i t was n o t poor' p r e p a r a t i o n .

r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h i s . The h u r r y a n d i n s u f f i c i e n t time was l e t t f o r t h e in a great l o c a l l e v e l t o p r e p a r e good p r o j e c t s . The most i n t e r e s t i n g t h e p r o v e n a b i l i t y of l o c a l l e a d e r s e x p e r i e n c e is perhaps l a c k of programmers, d e s p i t e useful t o plan and implement technical and administrative insufficient preparation, objections real The experience. of lack and supper t , and i n e f a g a i n s t the programme were p o l i t i c a l . C o r r u p t i o n

in T h a i l a n d . The d e c e n t r a l i a r e normal phenomena of t h e b u r e a u c r a c y , was a t h r e a t t o z a t i o n and by-passing t r a d i t i o n a l b u r e a u c r a t i c i n t e r e s t s , and c o n f l i c t e d w i t h the the guidance the v i l l a g e r s need that conservative belief The r u r a l work officers. government of and supervision af t e r 1 9 7 5 , but p r o g r a m m e was not c o n t i n u e d by g o v e r n m e n t s that a revised announced i n 1979 the Kriangsak government r u r a l w o r k s p r o g r a m m e w o u l d be i m p l e m e n t e d . ficiency

1 5 1-

Policy

Land-Usp

VI.3.

U n t i l now t h e T h a i g o v e r n m e n t h a s n o t h a d a c o n s i s t e n t l a n d increasingly is pattern land-use The a c t u a l policy. use incompatible with the e x i s t i n g l e g i s l a t i o n . P o l i t i c a l l y it i s impossible to e n f o r c e the e x i s t i n g laws c o n c e r n i n g l a n d u s e a n d f o r e s t p r o t e c t i o n , a n d i t w o u l d b e i n h u m a n t o do s o a s w e l l . To b r i n g a b o u t c o n f o r m i t y b e t w e e n l e g i s l a t i o n a n d task. I t not only r e q u i r e s a c t u a l l a n d - u s e is a c o m p l i c a t e d

revision vant

of

cies.

also

but

legislation,

reorganization

of

rele-

of

new

poli-

implementation

and

agencies,

government

i n c r e a s e in p o p u l a t i o n the problems the l o n g e r the government w a i t s the be t o s o l v e them. P r e s e n t l a n d - u s e i n c r e a s i n g l y a main o b s t a c l e f o r development

the

of

Because

become more u r g e n t , and more d i f f i c u l t i t will

are

problems in

the

uplands

highlands.

and

There is an u r g e n t need f o r a c l e a r and e f f e c t i v e land-use p o l i c y b a s e d on s o c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , on p h y s i c a l c a p a b i l i t i e s o f land a n d o n e c o n o m i c a n a l y s i s . V a r i o u s a g e n c i e s own its Each has these fields. in have r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s p o i n t of v i e w , and p o l i c i e s , which a r e biased to a s p e c i f i c n e i t h e r t h e i n t e r e s t s of t h e l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n , n o r g e n e r a l I t is e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t a r e a p p r o p r i a t e l y looked af t e r . t h a t the Royal F o r e s t r y Depar t r e n t plays a an anachronism dominating role with regard to land a l l o c a t i o n . I n h e r e n t l y such an o r g a n i z a t i o n serves f o r e s t r y i n t e r e s t s , and nowadays forestry between an i n c r e a s i n g d i f f e r e n c e is there interests policies Forestry interest. and the national s h o u l d be s u b o r d i n a t e t o g e n e r a l l a n d - u s e p o l i c i e s , a n d t h e Royal

forest clear

management and f o r e s t

to

be

to

An e f f i c i e n t and

protection.

unlikely

is

policy

land-use

limited

be

should

tasks

Depar t e n t ' s

Forestry

achieved

under

the

their where v a r i o u s a g e n c i e s have circumstances, present own l e g a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and p o l i c i e s , and w h e r e c e n t r a l inefficient. nation

of

authority ous

have

committees

policy

For

land-use

seems

government

to

setting a

matters,

needed

be

agencies

to

proven

planning,

in

be

central

to

these

powerless

rather

and

policies,

which fields

land

legal can

bureau,

tasks be

coor

of

and ordiland

vari-

transferred.

is g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d t h a t r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of g o v e r n It m e n t a g e n c i e s w o r k i n g in t h i s f i e l d , and r e v i s i o n of the existing

legislation

is

required.

-152

It

i s l e s s c l e a r h o w t h i s c a n be a c h i e v e d , a s i t w i l l h a r m i n t e r e s t s . The Than i n g o v e r n m e n t t r i e d i n 1977 t o vested t o g e t h e r i n a new o r g a n i z a t i o n t h e L a n d D e p a r t r e n t , bring Land D e v e l o p m e n t D e p a r t r e n t , D e p a r t r e n t of Land C o - o p e r a Land

Of f i c e ,

Wolf a r e ,

Public

of

Depar t r e n t

the

of

Division

Consolidation

Land

Office,

Reform

Land

lives,

Settlement

D i v i s i o n of the Royal F o r e s t r y succeeded i t , which government

Forest Settlement the and The K r i a n c s a k Depar t r e n t .

p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e of s e r i o u s from a l l agencies concerned. may s e r i o u s l y w e a k e n t h e p o w e r

not take over these p l a n s , o p p o s i t i o n against these plans

did

b u r e a u c r a t i c opposition of a g o v e r n m e n t .

Such

base Three

main a s p e c t s

of

allocation

of

first,

legal

as

distri-

rules

govern-

by

needed

than

the

land

less

much

allocated

agencies

purposes

agricultural

third,

and

such

the

second,

use;

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