Professional Mentoring for Early Childhood and Primary School Practice (Springer Texts in Education) 3031371852, 9783031371851

Citation preview

Springer Texts in Education

Mary Moloney Jennifer Pope Ann Donnellan

Professional Mentoring for Early Childhood and Primary School Practice

Springer Texts in Education

Springer Texts in Education delivers high-quality instructional content for graduates and advanced graduates in all areas of Education and Educational Research. The textbook series is comprised of self-contained books with a broad and comprehensive coverage that are suitable for class as well as for individual self-study. All texts are authored by established experts in their fields and offer a solid methodological background, accompanied by pedagogical materials to serve students such as practical examples, exercises, case studies etc. Textbooks published in the Springer Texts in Education series are addressed to graduate and advanced graduate students, but also to researchers as important resources for their education, knowledge and teaching. Please contact Yoka Janssen at Yoka.Janssen@ springer.com or your regular editorial contact person for queries or to submit your book proposal.

Mary Moloney · Jennifer Pope · Ann Donnellan

Professional Mentoring for Early Childhood and Primary School Practice

Mary Moloney Mary Immaculate College University of Limerick Limerick, Ireland

Jennifer Pope Mary Immaculate College University of Limerick Limerick, Ireland

Ann Donnellan Mary Immaculate College University of Limerick Limerick, Ireland

ISSN 2366-7672 ISSN 2366-7680 (electronic) Springer Texts in Education ISBN 978-3-031-37185-1 ISBN 978-3-031-37186-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37186-8 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Contents

1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Importance of Practicum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 The Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Who Is This Book for? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 4 6 10 12

2

What Is Mentoring and Who Mentors? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Origins of Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 The Concept of Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Mentoring—A Multi-dimensional Construct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Mentoring as a Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 Mentoring as a Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 Dialogic Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8 Who Mentors, and What Is Their Role? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9 Role of the Mentor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10 Who Is the Mentee, and What Is Their Role? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11 Role of the Mentee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.12 Five Factors of Effective Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13 Chapter Summary Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15 15 15 17 20 21 23 24 26 26 29 30 31 34 34

3

Mentoring and Coaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Coaching and Mentoring: The Same or Different? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Comparing Coaching and Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Features of Coaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Supervisory Coaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Content Focused Coaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 The Process of Agreeing a Shared Lesson Plan Using CFC . . . . 3.8 Chapter Summary Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39 39 40 41 44 49 50 51 52 52

v

vi

Contents

4

Characteristics of a Mentor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Understanding Adult Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Interpersonal Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Mentoring Competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Mentor Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Emotional Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Applying Emotional Intelligence to Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 Emotionally Intelligent Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8 Chapter Summary Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55 57 60 63 64 65 67 68 72 73

5

The Mentoring Process: The First Mentoring Meeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Mentoring in the Pre-service Career Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Phases of the Mentoring Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 The First Mentoring Meeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Practice Scenario 3: First Mentoring Meeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Things to Consider When Planning the First Mentoring Meeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 What Are S.M.A.R.T Goals? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 Factors that Support Effective Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8 Active Listening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9 Rate Your Listening Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.10 Chapter Summary Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

75 75 78 80 80

Moving Beyond the First Meeting. Approaches to Mentoring . . . . . . . 6.1 The Learning Zone Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Facilitating Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Approaches to Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Formal Mentoring During Initial Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 Triadic Model of Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 How Triadic Mentoring Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 Informal Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.8 Educative Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.9 Inside and Outside Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.10 Images of Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.11 Stepping in and Stepping Out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.12 Teaching Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.13 Demonstration Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.14 Mentoring on the Move . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.15 Mentoring and Debriefing Sessions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.16 Co-Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.17 Peer Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.18 Communities of Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.19 Chapter Summary Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

93 93 96 97 97 98 99 101 102 103 105 106 108 109 109 109 109 110 112 114 115

6

82 84 86 87 89 90 90

Contents

7

8

9

vii

Critical Role of Feedback in the Mentoring Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Clarifying the Concept of ‘Feedback’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Critical Role of Mentor Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Contextual Considerations for Mentor Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Crafting Mentor Approaches to Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 What Does Feedback Look Like, and How and When, Should It Be Delivered? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6 Creating the Conditions for Providing Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7 Choosing a Model of Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8 Contemplating Approaches/Strategies to Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8.1 Medal and Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8.2 The Feedback Sandwich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8.3 Chronological Fashion Feedback: De-constructing the Task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8.4 The Pendleton Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9 Chapter Summary Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

119 120 122 123 125

The Mentor’s Role in Nurturing Reflective Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Models of Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Schön’s Model of Reflective Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Rolfe, Freshwater, & Jasper ‘What’ Model (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 Kolb’s Reflective Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 Gibbs Reflective Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.6 The Rs of Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.7 Using the 5Rs to Maximise Mentoring Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.8 Mirror, Mirror on the Wall: The Self-Reflective Mentor! . . . . . . . 8.8.1 Things to Consider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.9 How Often and How Much Reflection? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.10 Power Relations in Mentor Feedback and Reflective Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.11 Chapter Summary Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

141 143 144 146 146 148 151 152 154 154 155

Optimal Conditions for Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 Reviewing the Benefits of Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 Supportive Mentoring Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Organisational Commitment to Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.1 Supporting a Mentoring Culture: Self-Evaluation Questions for Universities/Colleges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.2 Supporting a Mentoring Culture: Self-Evaluation Questions for Primary Schools/Early Childhood Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 Organisational Ethos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5 Physical Resources for Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6 Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

161 161 163 163

127 131 132 133 134 135 136 136 138 138

155 159 159

167

167 168 169 170

viii

Contents

9.7

Mentor Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7.1 Mentor Training Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8 Characteristics of Effective Mentoring-Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9 Mentee Willingness to Engage in the Mentoring Process . . . . . . . 9.10 Overcoming Impediments to Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.11 Chapter Summary Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

172 176 177 178 179 181 182

10 Ethical Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1 What is Ethical Mentoring? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 Power Imbalance in the Mentor–mentee Relationship . . . . . . . . . . 10.3 Power-Differential Beyond Initial Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4 Mentor Availability and Competence as Ethical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5 Confidentiality as an Ethical Consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6 Chapter Summary Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

185 186 188 193

11 Concluding Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1 What? What Key Concepts Were Addressed? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.1 The What of Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.2 The What of Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.3 The What of the Complexity of Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.4 The What of Universal Design for Learning in Relation to Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.5 The What of Mentoring Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.6 The What of the Ethics of Mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.7 The What of Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.8 The What of Optimal Conditions for Mentoring . . . . . . . 11.2 So What? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3 Now What? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

201 202 203 203 205

193 195 198 199

206 206 207 207 208 209 210 212 213

Acronyms

ACECQA AITSL CAEP CECDE CEDEFOP CFC CIMA CIPD CoP CPD CS CT CWRC DEECD DES DfE EC ECDA ECEC EI EIM ELT GSFA GTC ITE MTED NAYEC NCCA NIET OECD QAB QAP ST TALIS

Australian Children’s Education and Care Quality Authority Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training Content Focused Coaching Chartered Institute of Management Accountants Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development Community of practice Continuous professional development College supervisor Cooperating teacher Child Welfare Resource Centre Department of Education and Early Childhood Development Department of Education and Skills Department for Education Education continuum Early Childhood Development Agency Early Childhood Education and Care Emotional intelligence Emotional Intelligent Mentoring Experiential learning theory Georgia Student Finance Authority General Teaching Council Initial teacher education Mentoring Training, Education and Development National Association for the Education of Young Children National Council for Curriculum and Assessment National Institute for Excellence in Teaching Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development Qualifications Advisory Board Quality Assurance Programme Student teacher Teaching and Learning International Study ix

x

TC TEMAG TRBWA TSAT UDL ZPD

Acronyms

Teaching Council Teacher Education Ministerial Advisory Group Teacher Registration Board of Western Australia Teacher Self-Assessment Tool Universal Design for Learning Zone of proximal development

List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Fig. 2.2 Fig. 2.3 Fig. 2.4 Fig. 2.5 Fig. 3.1 Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig.

3.2 4.1 4.2 4.3

Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig.

4.4 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 6.1

Fig. 6.2 Fig. 6.3 Fig. 6.4 Fig. 6.5 Fig. 6.6 Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig.

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4

Mentoring as a continuum within education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Characteristics of the mentor–mentee relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . Symbiotic relationship between mentor and mentee and the benefits in an educational context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schein’s mentor role checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Five factors of effective mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview of the generally agreed features of coaching in an organisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An effective coach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview of mentoring characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Triangular model of mentor competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shared core skills and unique skills required by both mentors and mentees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Core competencies of emotional intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Practicum continuum for pre-service teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Steps in the mentoring process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Goals/objectives of the first mentoring meeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview of the communication process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The 7–38-55% communication rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The learning zone model. Source Based upon Senninger (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Triadic model of supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Triad mentoring relationship in a school or early childhood setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Four key elements of educative mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Images of mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview of the stepping in and stepping out technique Source Adapted from: © Coach Mentoring LTD. (2020) . . . . . . . . The 8Cs of feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Serve and return . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The feedback sandwich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18 22 23 28 31 45 46 61 64 65 66 76 79 82 85 86 94 99 99 103 105 106 121 129 133 136

xi

xii

List of Figures

Fig. 7.5

Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig.

8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4

Fig. 8.5 Fig. 8.6 Fig. 8.7 Fig. 9.1 Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig.

9.2 9.3 10.1 10.2 11.1

Fig. 11.2

Applying the Pendleton model. Source Marc Nevin. Image reference by Marc Nevin A Guide To Giving Better Feedback—Marc Nevin (https://marcnev.in/aguide-to-giving-better-feedback) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reflection in-action and reflection on-action. Schön (1991) . . . . Rolfe, freshwater & jasper ‘what’ model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kolb’s reflective cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mapping feeling, watching, thinking and doing onto Kolb’s reflective cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recast version of Kolb’s experiential learning model. Bergsteiner et al. (2010), p.34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gibbs’ reflective cycle, Gibbs (1998) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The 5Rs of reflection and associated open-ended reflective questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mentoring spheres of knowledge. Source Schatz-Oppenheimer (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Impact of mentor training on mentees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aspects of training to address mentor’s expectations . . . . . . . . . . Key ethical maxims in mentoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Am I ready to mentor? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . What? So What? Now What? Rolfe, Freshwater, & Jasper ‘What’ Model (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Next steps? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

137 144 146 148 149 149 150 152 173 175 178 187 196 202 212

List of Tables

Table 1.1 Table 1.2 Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 2.3 Table 3.1 Table 4.1 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table

4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 5.1 6.1 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 8.1 8.2 8.3

Table Table Table Table

9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4

Practicum provides opportunities for pre-service teachers . . . . . . Overview of practice scenario mentees, mentors and their practice context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relationship between the purpose of mentoring and nature of mentee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relationship between the purpose of mentoring and who mentors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Indicators and description associated with collaborating with the university/college . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison between mentoring and coaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typical enrolment ages in bachelor degree programmes across OECD Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview of adult-learner characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Key characteristics associated with effective mentoring . . . . . . . . Mixed methods perspective model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Impact of low and high EIM on the mentoring relationship . . . . S.M.A.R.T. goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stepping in and stepping out technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dictionary definitions of ‘feedback’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crafting effective feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Things to consider when organising a feedback meeting . . . . . . . Guidelines to enhance the quality of feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The ‘what’ model of reflective practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Using the 5 Rs to maximise reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . How often, how much and why should we engage in reflective practice? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Design features of a supportive mentoring framework . . . . . . . . . Impact of mentoring training on mentors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of Effective Mentor Training Programmes . . . . . . . . . . Suggestions for overcoming challenges to mentoring . . . . . . . . . .

5 11 27 30 33 43 56 58 63 68 70 84 107 122 128 132 134 147 153 156 164 174 177 180

xiii

1

Introduction

Why a book on mentoring? Why a book on mentoring across the early childhood and primary school continuum? We begin this book, as we finish it, with reflective questions. Indeed, it was through reflective questioning that the book came about. As mentors in our own right (university-based and setting-based), and having been mentored in different situations, we have pondered what mentoring is, and what it is not. We have contemplated the wicked issues in mentoring: the dichotomy between support and evaluation; power relations and privilege, ethics, and so on. All of these issues can create tensions and dilemmas in the mentoring process. This common purpose, and interest in mentoring, led to the establishment of our own Community of Practice (CoP), long before writing this text. Our steadfast interest in mentoring has sustained our CoP since 2020, resulting in in-depth discussions, knowledge sharing and collaborative learning. In 2019, we received a grant from the National Forum for the Enhancement of Teaching and Learning1 through the Strategic Alignment of Teaching and Learning Enhancement (SATLE) Funding in Higher Education.2 Having identified the need to support early childhood professionals in Ireland, to fulfil their role as mentor to preservice early childhood teachers engaging in practicum, using the funding from the National Forum for the Enhancement of Teaching and Learning, we developed a 14-week long online mentoring programme in 2020/2021.i Each week, over the duration of the programme, participants engaged in a facilitated online CoP. The purpose was to support participants with their reflections on mentoring, their current approach/approaches to mentoring, implementing new learning, changes

1

The National Forum for the Enhancement of Teaching and Learning, was established in 2012 to enhance teaching and learning for all students in Irish higher education. 2 The Strategic Alignment of Teaching and Learning Enhancement (SATLE) funding is designed to form a coherent basis to drive teaching and learning innovation and enhancement across the Higher Education sector. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. Moloney et al., Professional Mentoring for Early Childhood and Primary School Practice, Springer Texts in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37186-8_1

1

2

1

Introduction

in mentoring practice etc. Evaluation of the mentoring programme points to the benefits in terms of enabling the participants, inter alia, to: • • • • • • •

Enhance their mentoring knowledge and skills; Apply the principles of mentoring within their early childhood setting; Take a more holistic view of mentoring; Understand the need to create time and space to work with pre-service teachers; Support their colleagues’ and pre-service teachers’ professional practice; Further develop their mentoring capacity; and Learn more about mentoring.

Coupled with our work as mentors, the findings from this evaluation further motivated us to explore in more detail, what mentoring is, and what it is not. Notes taken during our CoP meetings, readings to inform our practice, reflections on teacher education across the education continuum (early childhood and primary), and reflection in-and-on our practice (Schön, 1987) became the foundation for this book. So, back to this book. Throughout time, Governments in many countries have focused on the importance of Initial Teacher Education (ITE) for pre-service primary school teachers. To ensure high quality teaching, many countries have developed national teaching standards, and accreditation of ITE providers at primary education level. The use of teaching standards to assess primary school teaching practices and the accreditation of ITE programmes features in Australia (Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL), 2011; National Program Standards for Teacher Education (AITSL, 2015), Ireland (Teaching Council, 2011, 2016); Scotland (General Teaching Council (GTC), 2019), New Zealand (Education Council New Zealand, 2016), the United Kingdom (Department for Education (DfE), 2012), and the United States (Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP), 2015), for example. Compulsory school starting age varies considerably around the world, ranging from age 3 years in France (since 2018), to age 7 years in Sweden, or 5 to 8 years in the United States (varies by State). Depending on the school starting age then, much of what happens in the early years of school can be considered as early childhood education. But what of early childhood per se? Less attention tends to be paid to the professional formation of early childhood teachers outside of formal education. Indeed, there is no consensus across countries regarding the nomenclature for those working with children aged from birth to six years. Consequently, terms such as practitioner, educator, childcare assistant, early years teacher3 prevail. None-the-less, the relationship between early childhood education and alleviating child poverty, redressing educational disadvantage and improving children’s long-term chances and social mobility is increasingly recognised (Moloney, 2021;

3

We use the term early childhood teacher.

1

Introduction

3

Moloney & Petterson, 2017). With this recognition comes heightened expectations for what early childhood teachers should know and be able to do. Well qualified early childhood teachers, who’s initial and continuing professional development enables them to fulfil their professional role is essential to achieving positive outcomes for children (Department of Education & Skills, 2019; Eurydice, 2023; Government of Ireland, 2022). Whatever the reason, the professional formation of early childhood teachers is coming under greater scrutiny. In many instances, accountability measures similar to primary school have been developed (Moloney et al., 2019). These standards too, are concerned with accreditation of ECE (Early Care and Education) programmes and their providers, and with assessing pre-service early childhood teacher practice. Ireland is a case in point. Earlier, we referenced how Governments in many countries (e.g., Ireland, Australia, New Zealand) have developed national teaching standards, and accreditation of ITE providers at primary education level. It is evident that these countries increasingly recognise the importance of ITE and teaching standards within ECE also. In Ireland, for instance, the Government published Professional Award Criteria and Guidelines for ECEC (Early Childhood Education and Care) Degree programmes (Department for Education and Skills (DES), 2019). It also established a Qualifications Advisory Board (QAB) in 2019. The QAB manage the review of new Initial Degree Level Professional Education Programmes for coherence with the Professional Award Criteria and Guidelines. Similarly, in Australia, ACECQA (Australian Children’s Education and Care Quality Authority), determines and approves the qualifications required by early childhood teachers, assesses qualifications for equivalency, and publishes the national registers of tertiary and Technical and Further Education (TAFE) courses. Western Australia, the largest State in Australia requires Early Childhood Teacher registration. The Teacher Registration Board of Western Australia (TRBWA), established through the Teacher Registration Act 2012, holds responsibility for the accreditation of initial teacher education programmes in Western Australia. It therefore registers all teachers in Western Australia from early childhood to year 12. In New Zealand, the Teaching Council | Matat¯u Aotearoa represents teachers across the education continuum: early childhood, primary and secondary schooling. It ensures quality teaching and high standards by registering teachers (early childhood, primary and secondary); setting and maintaining professional standards, and ensuring teachers are competent and fit to practice.

4

1

1.1

Introduction

Importance of Practicum

Clearly, pre-service teacher training programmes across the early childhoodprimary school continuum vary from country to country. However, across all countries, practicum,4 also known as school placement, teaching practice, or field experience is the fulcrum of initial teacher education. Darling-Hammond (2010) maintains that quality practicum experience is central to the preparation of pre-service teachers. Indeed, across the literature concerning teacher professional preparation, the need for pre-service teachers to gain practical skills in real world contexts (in classrooms, early childhood settings and other relevant contexts) dominates. With regards to early childhood practicum, supervised practicum is critical to the professional formation of pre-service early childhood teachers (DES, 2019). Regardless of educational context, early childhood or primary, practicum provides opportunities for pre-service teachers to engage in a range of relevant experiential activities, aimed at supporting and enhancing their professional development. Against the backdrop of the Irish early childhood and primary school context, the following table summarises the expectations of practicum as set out in national standards for both. Indicative of national practice frameworks and standards in other countries, practicum focuses on teacher preparation, engagement, and reflection. However, practicum is not a chance occurrence. As indicated in Table 1.1, it involves a high support environment (Teaching Council, 2017) and supervision by a more experienced professional (DES, 2019). In the context of Initial Teacher Education, it involves a mentor-teacher (school or setting based mentor) and a university/ college appointed mentor. This particular model gives rise to the triad model of mentoring, the preferred method for practicum experiences (Grossman, 2011). In turn, this leads to questions about the concept of mentoring, and its role in the professional formation of early childhood and primary school teachers. While mentoring is critical to the professional formation of early childhood and primary school teachers, it has also gained prominence as a support mechanism for teachers at various stages of their career (Aderibigbe et al., 2014); such as, induction into the profession and continuous professional development for veteran teachers. Pre-service teachers across the early childhood and primary school continuum, consistently identify practicum, and their mentor-teacher, as the single most important factor in their teaching preparation (Le Cornu & Ewing, 2008; Moloney, 2017; Valencia et al., 2009). Not only does practicum play a role in the professional formation of teachers, but novice teachers also need support in making the transition to the teaching profession as well. As such, mentoring plays a vital role in stemming teacher attrition, and supporting teacher retention. It is thought that teachers leave the teaching profession within the first five years (Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2019;

4

The term used in this book.

1.1 Importance of Practicum

5

Table 1.1 Practicum provides opportunities for pre-service teachers Early childhood

Primary school

Observe experienced professionals

Experience a high support/high challenge model of placement where their strengths are nurtured and fostered, while areas for further learning and development are identified in an overarching context of collaborative professionalism

Reflect on these observations in a variety of early childhood settings with the support of a more experienced professional

Plan for and undertake, class teaching, learning and assessment using a wide variety of strategies in a diversity of class settings and subject areas

Integrate theory and practice

Establish classroom management strategies that support suitable and effective learning for all pupils that promote and maintain positive behaviour

Apply knowledge in practice

Observe experienced teachers teaching

Develop and demonstrate the required values, Be involved in a wide range of school activities knowledge(s) and practices to work with children in the context of their setting, family, and community under the supervision of a more experienced professional Critically engage in self-reflection and self-evaluation of their own practice

Reflect critically on their practice and programme of study and how both inform and shape each other

Engage in professional conversations with Receive and respond to feedback on their more experienced professionals (setting/ practice school-based teachers and supervisors) around Identify areas for further professional learning their practice (DES 2019, p. 24) Engage in research on their own practice that demonstrates the connection between sites or practice (university and school) (The Teaching Council, 2017, p. 13)

Gallant & Riley, 2017; Geiger & Pivovarova, 2018), feeling discouraged and disillusioned. In the US for example, the national attrition rate is eight per cent (compared to three to four per cent in Singapore and Finland), with only one- third of attrition accounted for by retirement (Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2019). Data from the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, 2019: Teaching and Learning International Study (TALIS, 2018)), shows that across the OECD countries, teachers in 13 countries question their career choice. These teachers are likely to be under 30 years of age, relatively new to the teaching profession (novice teachers with five years’ experience or less) and working in publicly managed schools (Schleicher, 2020). According to Buchanan et al. (2013), one reason for high attrition rates is the disconnect between the expectations of pre-service teachers and the reality of teaching once qualified.

6

1

Introduction

While mentoring is essential for pre-service teachers, it is also seen as a “powerful intervention” for teachers new to the teaching profession (Hargreaves & Fullan, 2000, p. 52; Heikkinen et al., 2012). It helps new and early career teachers to learn new pedagogies and socialises them into the norms and standards of the teaching profession (early childhood and primary). Thus, reducing practice shock (Buchanan et al., 2013; Colognesi et al., 2020; Waaland, 2017). Furthermore, as indicated by Hudson (2013), and Shanks et al. (2012), mentoring helps to embed experienced teacher’s professional development. It seems that mentoring is the bedrock not just of Initial Teacher Education, but also of inducting newly qualified teachers into the profession and enhancing continuous professional development for veteran teachers. This is a tall order that leads to lots of questions about mentoring. If mentoring is to unleash the tremendous potential attributed to it, are there certain conditions that must be met? Does mentoring look different in an early children context than a primary school context? Given the critical importance of early childhood education, to young children’s learning trajectories, practicum and mentoring are no less important to early childhood teachers, than they are to primary school teachers. Across this continuum, as illustrated through this book, core principles of mentoring apply to both. Fundamental considerations addressed throughout the book are: Who mentors? Does an experienced early childhood or primary school teacher make a good mentor? Does a university lecturer make a good mentor? Are those involved in mentoring prepared for their role, or the complexity of mentoring? In relation to initial teacher education, Hudson (2002) tells us, that in the main, the quality of practicum experiences depends on the quality of the mentoring. At a fundamental level then, we ask: what is mentoring?

1.2

The Book

There is a vast and rich body of theory and literature relating to mentoring. It simply would not have been possible to do justice to all this work. Nor, was that our purpose. We decided, therefore, to distil the relevant literature and theory, to provide an accessible and practical insight into mentoring, rather than an exhaustive theoretical compendium. In and of itself, mentoring, which has its origins in Greek mythology sounds simple. Is it? As discussed throughout this text, mentoring is both a relationship and a process. What does that mean? Hopefully, Chap. 2 will provide some answers to this conundrum, while Chap. 3, which explores the difference between mentoring and coaching, identifies role differentiation and the overlap between coaching and mentoring in the context of practicum. We do not intend here to provide an abridged version of the book’s content, but rather, to highlight some of the key concepts which imbue the text. These have derived from the theory, the literature, our reflections, and our personal experience of mentoring and being mentored.

1.2 The Book

7

For example, throughout the book, we are mindful of the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Framework (www.cast.org). As we know, our workplaces, our universities/colleges, our schools and our early childhood settings are increasingly diverse. Cognisant of the UDL principles, and mindful that a one-size-fits-all approach is not effective, it is, therefore, essential to understand how these principles affect the mentoring process and the mentoring relationship. The UDL framework is grounded in three principles: Multiple means of representation, multiple means of expression, and multiple means of engagement. These principles call for varied and flexible ways to: • Present or access information, concepts, and ideas (the what of learning) • Plan and execute learning tasks (the how of learning), and • Get engaged, and stay engaged in learning (the why of learning) These principles can be applied to any discipline or domain to ensure that all learners can access and participate in meaningful, challenging learning opportunities (www.cast.org) including practicum and mentoring. Using reflection points, practice scenarios and key learning points throughout the book, we hope you will be able to discern for yourself where, when, and how UDL applies to mentoring. Moreover, the reflection points, practice scenarios and key learning points, throughout the text, are also intended to prompt reflection on real life mentoring scenarios from the perspective of the mentor and the mentee. Overall, they are concerned with bridging the theory to practice divide in mentoring, in ways that are accessible and make sense for the reader. More about this later! As mentioned, during reflections on our own understandings of mentoring, and drawing upon our personal experiences of mentoring and being mentored, we contemplated what we term, the wicked issues in mentoring. While at one level, mentoring is presented as a supportive relationship that aims to support personal and professional development, build, and enhance emotional or psychosocial behaviours, at another, it involves an evaluative role. During ITE, this evaluative role, which is informed by national teaching standards, is especially pertinent. This dichotomous role—the balance between support and evaluation—creates tensions and dilemmas in the mentoring relationship. Several chapters within this text, examine tensions and challenges generally, as they relate to supporting a pre-service or newly qualified novice teacher. For example, there are inevitable tensions for a pre-service or novice teacher as they transition from a comfort zone to a learning zone (Chap. 4). The book asks, how do we, as mentors, prevent mentees from entering the panic zone (Senninger, 2000)? Chapter 4 references the need for a mentor to understand and facilitate adult learning techniques. Do you know what these are? Although mentoring can be perceived as a one-way process, in which, the mentor transmits knowledge to the mentee, that is not the case. Depending on their willingness, mentors can learn from pre-service and novice teachers. Through peer mentoring and communities of practice, shared experiences and collaborative learning can be a rich experience for those involved (Chap. 6).

8

1

Introduction

Although feedback is an integral aspect of mentoring pre-service teachers (Chap. 7), it too can create dilemmas and tensions. When to give feedback – should it be immediate or delayed? What should feedback look like? How should it sound? How will pre-service teachers receive feedback? How much feedback should be given? In response to Joy Amulya’s (2011) question: how often, how much and why? Chapter 7 provides insights and suggestions with regards to providing feedback. The book questions the purpose of mentoring. As in, how do we as mentors, support the professional formation of pre-service teachers? We do not after all, aim to develop clones of ourselves, which can easily happen when an over-zealous mentor believes their approach to teaching is the right approach. Such mentors may want to reproduce clones of themselves (Hobson & Malderez, 2013). In teasing this out, we stress the critical role of reflection. In many European countries and further afield, reflective practice features in national professional standards for teachers, including Australia, England, Ireland, Scotland, and the United States. The Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL) for example, have developed a Teacher SelfAssessment Tool (TSAT) to help teachers reflect on their practice in line with the Teacher Standards (AITSL, 2015). Equally, the National Quality Standards for Early Childhood Education, promote and support teachers to engage in reflective practice through self-assessment (Australian Children’s Education and Care Quality Authority (ACEQUA), 2020a, 2020b). Zeichner (2010, 2015) maintain that practices are more than just what we do. They are inclusive of the reflection and learning that accompanies the work of teaching (Ibid.) In relation to beginning teachers, Korthagen (2017), for example, says that reflective practice helps them to identify what is going on inside their minds. New insights gained from reflective practice can lead to new and effective classroom practices (Ibid.). Engaging in reflective practice is a mark of professional competence. However, as discussed in Chap. 8, which examines how to nurture reflection, teachers may not instinctively know what reflective practice is. As such, the skill of reflective practice is cultivated during ITE, as pre-service teachers work with a school/early childhood setting-based mentor as well as their university/college appointed mentor during their practicum experiences. Indeed, as noted by Pennanen et al. (2015), a mentor is someone who themselves are thinking and reflecting. Such mentor thinking and reflecting forms the basis of their advice (Ibid.). A word here about UDL. You may well ask, how does UDL relate to reflection? Remember, the UDL principles call for varied and flexible ways to address the what, the how and the why of learning. Reflection is an abstract concept for most pre-service teachers, and indeed, it can be for veteran teachers too. Cognisant of UDL, we ask how pre-service teachers can understand the what, the how and the why of reflection. If we do not model these reflective skills for them, how will they know what is involved or how to do it. Mentors therefore play a vital role in bringing reflection to life for the mentee, bridging the abstract to concrete divide, as it were. As discussed in Chap. 8, therefore, a model of mentoring that identifies methods to inspire and cultivate reflective practice is essential.

1.2 The Book

9

Commenting on critical reflection, the National Forum for the Enhancement of Teaching and Learning (2021, p. 1), tell us it is more likely to be achieved through dialogue with peers and others. It can be usefully undertaken in peer triad or with a mentor (Ibid.). This serves as a timely reminder to mention again, the many approaches to mentoring discussed in Chap. 6. While practicum calls for a formal, University/college initiated approach to mentoring, informal mentoring approaches are equally important. Have you ever had the experience of somebody taking you under their wing as you commenced a new job? This is often the case, during practicum, or induction, when a teacher within the school, or early childhood setting takes on the role of ‘looking out’ for the pre-service or novice teacher. Drawing primarily on the seminal work of Laura Doan in Canada, we explore the concept of peer mentoring, which has been instrumental in building capacity and stemming skills stasis in early childhood education. Chapter 6 also examines the role of Communities of Practice (CoPs) in supporting teacher praxis. According to Schleicher (2020) research evidence has shown that while traditional training such as courses, or seminars can be an effective tool for learning, school embedded professional development (peer learning, and CoPs) tend to have a greater impact on teaching practices. What is an ethical mentor? We turn our attention to this question in Chap. 10. For the most part, mentoring relationships are positive, and work well. However, tensions and ethical dilemmas may occur. Hansman (2009) says these are nested in interpersonal relationships? Chapter 10 explores the concept of ethical mentoring, examining the factors that give rise to ethical dilemmas, tensions and conflicts in the mentoring relationship and process. It identifies key ethical maxims in mentoring. Can we tempt you to look? How many of these maxims resonate with you? How many are to the forefront of your mind as you engage in mentoring? Of course, the issue of power and privilege features strongly. Although mentoring is invariably described as non-hierarchical (e.g., Hobson, 2016), the mentor’s greater experience and knowledge, and standing within the educational community (e.g., the university) creates a power imbalance. The evaluative role further exacerbates hierarchical power relations. Chapter 10 examines these issues and more, addressing how to work with a mentee who uses ‘strategic silence’ (Hobson & McIntyre, 2013), or a mentee whose truthful perception of children, leaves the mentor reeling. Given the importance attached to mentoring in the professional formation of teachers, it would be remiss of us not to address the optimal conditions for mentoring. The mentoring role is demanding and intensive. It requires considerable skill. Yet, the extant literature suggests that in many instances, mentors are unprepared for their role. Whose responsibility is this? What other conditions are pre-requisites to effective mentoring? We are in no doubt that certain conditions must be in place to support the mentoring process. For that reason, Chap. 9 examines a range of issues that support or impede mentoring. These are characterised as practical or logistical issues, relationship issues, and organisation issues (Garvey, 2004). Have you heard of a mentoring architecture? Like any good book, we are reluctant to reveal the entire plot. Suffice it to say, that having read Chap. 9, you will, as a

10

1

Introduction

mentor have a whole new perspective on how your organisation (school, early childhood setting, university, college) approaches mentoring. You will also query the justification to appoint just any mentor to a pre-service teacher as they engage in practicum, or to appoint the first available teacher to mentor a novice, or early career stage teacher. That is not to say that these teachers are unable to mentor. It does however, point to the need to ensure that the conditions to support mentoring are established in the first instance. As we write, we are mindful of the pace of change in education, and the increasing role of technology in our classrooms and our workplaces. From a mentoring perspective, many of us have, in recent years, had to adapt our practice and utilise tools within the virtual world. We have engaged in mentoring practices online. Hence, we have developed our skills and acclimatised to communicating through screens rather than always in person. Mentoring meetings, peer learning, or CoPs can be facilitated online. Although this text focuses upon in-person mentoring, the underlying principles, the concepts discussed, the strategies proposed and so on, are equally applicable to the online environment.

1.3

Who Is This Book for?

As we conclude this chapter, we hope we have whetted your appetite by providing some key insights into the contents of the book. It is important however, to clarify whom the book is for. Throughout this introductory chapter, we have focussed on the mentoring process and relationship, as it applies to practicum during Initial Teacher Education. In this respect, the book will be of particular interest to those in the further and higher education sectors, as well as school and early childhood setting-based teachers that work with pre-service early childhood and primary school teachers. As such, the book is relevant to experienced mentors, who may wish to affirm their existing approach to mentoring, or who may wish to explore, discover and embrace new and improved ways of working with a mentee. Equally, the book provides invaluable insights, strategies and reflection points to support any individual who may be thinking of undertaking a mentoring role. As the book is written with the needs of both a mentor and mentee in mind, it will also be of interest to pre-service and novice early childhood and primary school teachers. Accordingly, it provides insight into the roles and responsibilities of both a mentor and a mentee. In addressing mentor and mentee expectations and behaviours, before during and after mentoring, the book helps to create a shared understanding of the mentoring relationship and process for both. Consequently, we do not differentiate chapters as being of relevance to either a mentor or a mentee. Rather, it is important that both engage with all chapters, so that they better understand each other’s roles, responsibilities and expectations. Chapters 1–4 are primarily theoretical. In addition to establishing the theoretical basis for mentoring, these initial chapters explore key content relating to the construct of mentoring, the differences and similarities between coaching and mentoring and so on. Chapters 5–10 adopt a more practical stance, introducing

1.3 Who Is This Book for?

11

Table 1.2 Overview of practice scenario mentees, mentors and their practice context Mentee

Practice context

Mentor

Gosia, a newly qualified teacher

Infant class teacher in a rural school

Lillian, a fellow infant class teacher

Johanna, a final year undergraduate early childhood student teacher

Undertaking practicum in an early childhood setting

Jack, setting-based lead teacher

Joy, a third year undergraduate early childhood student teacher

Undertaking practicum in an early childhood setting

Mikaela, setting-based pedagogical leader

Tom, a newly qualified teacher

Commencing his first teaching role following graduation

Natasha, a school-based teacher-mentor

Rachel, an early childhood teacher

Teaches in an early childhood setting

Anshul, a friend

Shayla, a final year undergraduate student teacher

Undertaking infant practicum

Eugene, a university appointed mentor

Joshua, a final year undergraduate student teacher

Undertaking practicum in a primary school

Kate, a school-based mentor-teacher

James, a first year undergraduate Struggling to cope with the student teacher demands of university

Cassie, a university appointed mentor

the reader to a range of strategies to help them establish and maintain positive mentoring relationships and processes. As we wrote, the UDL principles, were at all times, to the forefront of our minds. For this reason, we have included practice scenarios, which draw upon early childhood and primary school contexts, as well as reflection points throughout. Table 1.2, provides an overview of the mentors, mentees and their practice contexts included in the practice scenarios throughout the book. The reflection points and practice scenarios, intended for mentors and mentees, are carefully crafted to support the reader to consider each other’s perspectives. In addition, we have developed a series of diagrams and tables to present complex information in accessible ways. We hope that these various strategies will invite you to engage, and to stay engaged with the material within the book. Regardless of whether you are a mentor or a mentee, we imagine, that in writing this chapter, we have prompted your thinking and reflection on mentoring. That is the thrust of the book, not to answer all your questions about mentoring, but to encourage your continued reflection on what mentoring is, what it is not, who mentors, how they mentor and why. In conclusion, we hope this book will inspire and motivate mentors and mentees alike to reflect on the core aspects of mentoring. Overall, we hope you will consider how the content relates to your own practice, in the past, at present and how, it might inform your practice in the future.

12

1

Introduction

References Aderibigbe, S. A., Colucci-Gray, L., & Gray, D. (2014). Mentoring as a collaborative learning journey for teachers and student teachers: A critical constructivist perspectives. Teacher Education Advancement Network (TEAN) Journal, 6(3), 17–27. Amulya, J. (2011). What is reflective practice? Available at: https://pdf4pro.com/amp/view/whatis-reflective-practice-community-science-2f810b.html Australian Children’s Education and Care Quality Authority (ACEQUA). (2020a). Guide to the national quality framework. Available at: https://www.acecqa.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020a01/Guide-to-the-NQF.pdf Australian Children’s Education and Care Quality Authority (ACEQUA). (2020b). Quality area 1: Developing a culture of learning through reflective practice. Availble at: https://www.ace cqa.gov.au/sites/default/files/acecqa/files/QualityInformationSheets/QualityArea1/Developin gaCultureofLearningThroughReflectivePractice.pdf Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL). (2011). Accreditation of initial teacher education programs in Australia: Standards and procedures. http://www.aitsl.edu.au/ Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL). (2015). Accreditation of initial teacher education programs in Australia. AITSL. Buchanan, J., Prescott, A., Schuck, S., Aubusson, P., & Burke, P. (2013). Teacher retention and attrition: Views of early career teachers. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 38(3), 112– 129. Carver-Thomas, D., & Darling-Hammond, L. (2019). The trouble with teacher turnover: How teacher attrition affects students and schools. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 27(36). https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.27.3699 Colognesi, S., Van Nieuwenhoven, C., & Beausaert, S. (2020). Supporting newly-qualified teachers’ professional development and perseverance in secondary education: On the role of informal learning. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(2), 258–276. Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation. (2015). CAEP accreditation standards. Available at: https://www.caepnet.org/~/media/Files/caep/standards/final-board-amended-201 50612.pdf Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). Teacher education and the American future. Journal of Teacher Education, 61(1–2), 35–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487109348024 Department of Education and Skills. (2019). Professional award criteria and guidelines for initial professional education (Level 7 and Level 8) degree programmes for the early learning and care sector in Ireland. Available at: https://www.education.ie/en/The-Education-System/EarlyChildhood/professional-award-criteria-and-guidelines-for-initial-professional-education-l7-8degree-programme-elc-ireland.pdf Department for Education, UK. (2012). Teacher’s standards. Available at: https://dera.ioe.ac.uk/ id/eprint/13187/1/teachersstandardsfromseptember2012.pdf Education Council New Zealand. (2016). Our Code Our Standards. Code of Professional Responsibility and Standards for the Teaching Profession. https://teachingcouncil.nz/assets/files/codeand-stanards/our-code-our-standards-Nga-Tikanga-Matatika-Nga-Paerewa.pdf Eurydice. (2023). Teachers and education staff: Initial education for teachers working in early childhood and school education. Available at: https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-edu cation-systems/ireland/initial-education-teachers-working-early-childhood-and-school Gallant, A., & Riley, P. (2017). Early career teacher attrition in Australia: Inconvenient truths about new public management. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 23(8), 896–913. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2017.1358707 Garvey, B. (2004). The mentoring/counselling/coaching debate. Development and Learning in Organizations, 18(2), 6–8. Geiger, T., & Pivovarova, M. (2018). The effects of working conditions on teacher retention. Teachers and Teaching Theory and Practice, 24(6), 1–22.

References

13

Government of Ireland. (2022). Nurturing skills: The workforce plan for early learning and care (ELC) and school-age childcare (SAC), 2022–2028. Available at: https://www.gov.ie/en/public ation/97056-nurturing-skills-the-workforce-plan-for-early-learning-and-care-elc-and-schoolage-childcare-sac-2022-2028/ Grossman, P. (2011). Framework for teaching practice: A brief history of an idea. Teachers College Record, 113(12), 2836–2843. Hansman, C. A. (2009). Ethical issues in mentoring adults in higher education. In New directions for adult and continuing education (pp. 53–63). https://doi.org/10.1002/ace.343 Hargreave, A., & Fullan, M. (2000). Mentoring in the new millennium. Theory into Practice, 39, 50–56. Heikkinen, H. L. T., Jokinen, H., & Tynjälä, P. (2012). Teacher education and development as lifelong and lifewide learning. In H. L. T. Heikkinen, H. Jokinen, & P. Tynjälä (Eds.). Peer-group mentoring for teacher development (pp. 3–30). Routledge. Hobson, A. J. (2016). Judgementoring and how to avert it: Introducing ONSIDE Mentoring for beginning teachers. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 5(2), 87– 110. Hobson, A. J., & Malderez, A. (2013). Judge mentoring and other threats to realizing the potential of school-based mentoring in teacher education. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 2(2), 89–108. Hudson, P. (2002). Constructive mentoring for primary science teaching: Exploring and designing constructs for sequencing science lessons. Investigating: Australian Primary and Junior Science Journal, 18(2), 17–22. Hudson, P. (2013). Mentoring as professional development: ‘Growth for both’ mentor and mentee. Professional Development in Education, 39(5), 771–783. Korthagen, F. (2017). Inconvenient truths about teacher learning: Towards professional development. Teachers and Teaching, 23(4), 387–405. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2016.121 1523 Le Cornu, R., & Ewing, R. (2008). Reconceptualising professional experiences in preservice teacher education…reconstructing the past to embrace the future. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24(7), 1799–1812. Moloney, M. (2017). An exploration of the evidential base for Early Childhood Education and Care professional practice placement in Higher Education Institutes in Ireland. Available at: https:/ /dspace.mic.ul.ie/handle/10395/2597 Moloney, M. (2021). From voice to action: Perspectives from the field. Establishing a professional body for the early childhood sector in Ireland. Commissioned Research, available from CRANN Moloney, M., & Petterson, J. (2017). Early childhood education management: Insights into business practice and leadership. Routledge. Moloney, M., Sims, M., Rothe, A., Beuttner, C., Sonter, L., Waniganayake, M., Opazo Perez, M. J., Calder, P., & Girlich, S. (2019). Resisting neoliberalism: Professionalisation of early childhood education and care. International Journal of Elementary Education, 8(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/ 10.11648/j.ijeedu.20190801.11 National Forum for the Enhancement of Teaching and Learning. (2021). chapter 1 OECD. (2019). TALIS 2018 Results (Volume 1): Teachers and Schools Leaders as Lifelong Learners. https://doi.org/10.1787/1d0bc92a-en Pennanen, M., Bristol, L., Wilkinson, J., & Heikkinen, H. L. T. (2015). What is ‘good’ mentoring? Understanding mentoring practices of teacher induction through case studies of Finland and Australia. Pedagogy Culture and Society, 24(1), 1–27. Schleicher, A. (2020). TALIS 2018: ‘Insights and interpretations’. Available at: https://www.goo gle.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwi8 hdHTuND7AhUHiFwKHQilAYsQFnoECAsQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oecd.org% 2Feducation%2Ftalis%2FTALIS2018_insights_and_interpretations.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1etfkDj_Bx9jpqytD_3lJ Schon, D. A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. Jossey Bass. Senninger, T. (2000). The learning zone model—Thempra social pedagogy.

14

1

Introduction

Shanks, R. K., Robson, D., & Gray, D. S. (2012). New teachers’ individual learning disposition: A Scottish case study. International Journal of Training and Development, 16(3), 183. https:// doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2419.2012.00403.x Teaching Council. (2011). Policy on the continuum of teacher education. The Teaching Council. Teaching Council. (2016). Droichead: An integrated induction framework for newly qualified teachers. The Teaching Council. Teaching Council. (2017). ‘Droichead: The integrated professional induction framework. The Teaching Council, Kildare. Valencia, S. W., Martin, S. D., Place, N. A., & Grossman, P. (2009). Complex interactions in student teaching lost opportunities for learning. Journal of Teacher Education, 60(3), 304–322. Waaland, T. (2017). Mentoring and early years practitioners: Investigating the influence of higher education qualifications and social support. Cogent Education, 4(1), 1–13. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2017.1415630 Zeichner, K. (2010). Rethinking the connections between campus courses and field experiences in college and university-based teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 61, 89–99. Zeichner, K. (2015). Engaging local communities in the preparation of teachers. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 51, 118–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/00228958.2015.1056662

2

What Is Mentoring and Who Mentors?

2.1

Introduction

This chapter explores the concept of mentoring, and who mentors. It explains that there is no single universal definition of mentoring. Rather, it is a multidimensional concept, associated with relationships, process and context. The chapter begins with a discussion of the origins of mentoring within Greek mythology. Following this, the chapter examines:

• • • • • •

2.2

Definitions and perspectives of the concept of mentoring Mentoring as a relationship and a process Who mentors and what is the role of the mentor? Who is the mentee and what is their role? Five factors of effective mentoring Collaborating with the university

Origins of Mentoring

As mentioned in Chap. 1, mentoring is a widely used term in education. But what does the term really mean? Who mentors, and what is the mentor’s role? Mentoring is not a new concept. Its origins go back to Greek mythology. Specifically, the story in which “the goddess Athena appears in the likeness of Mentor to guide and advise Odysseus’ son Telemachus to find his father” (Pennanen et al., 2015, p. 3). Mentor was considered a close, trusted, and experienced guide (Haggard et al., 2011), and held responsibility for all aspects of Telemachus’ development: physical, intellectual, spiritual and social (Clawson, 1980). Among Mentor’s qualities were “divine knowledge and superior wisdom…[and]…counsellor” (Pennanen © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. Moloney et al., Professional Mentoring for Early Childhood and Primary School Practice, Springer Texts in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37186-8_2

15

16

2 What Is Mentoring and Who Mentors?

et al., 2015, p. 3). It is thought that this mythical story influenced the Oxford English Dictionary meaning of the word ‘mentor’. However, Pennanen et al. (2015) assert that the origins of the word mentor go beyond Greek mythology. They suggest the word is an “agent noun of mentos” associated with intent, purpose, sprit and passion (p. 29). It is descended from the “Proto-Indo-European word mon-eyo”, which combines the concepts of ‘one who thinks’ and ‘one who admonishes’ (ibid., p. 29). According to Pennanen et al. (2015) then, the origins of the term, open up new and different ways of thinking about the meaning of mentor and mentoring. Against this backdrop, Pennanen et al., define a mentor as “one who is thinking and reflecting, and this forms the basis of his/her advice” (p. 29). Chapter 8 further explores the concept of a thinking and reflecting mentor. Likewise, Turner (2004), says the word mentor did not feature in the English language until 1750, when the French writer Fénelon published the story: Les Adventures de Télémaque. In this story, Mentor was the main character. Turner asserts that Fénelon’s Mentor, not Homer’s forms the basis for modern usage of the word. Regardless, mentor has come to stand for “a wise and responsible tutor—an experienced person who advises, guides, teaches, inspires, challenges and corrects, and serves as a role model” (Turner, 2004, p. 1). It generally refers to a person who acts as a guide or advisor for a younger and less experienced person (Pennanen et al., 2015). Formal mentoring programmes, which began in the 1980s grew in popularity in the 1990s. Over the last thirty years, mentoring has become an important aspect of professional development in a variety of fields, including education (Brandau et al., 2017), and early childhood education and care (Howes & Jacobs, 2013). As mentioned in Chap. 1, while mentoring is critical to the professional formation of early childhood and primary school teachers, it has also gained prominence as a support mechanism for teachers at various stages of their career (Aderibigbe et al., 2014). As a support mechanism, that extends beyond initial teacher education, mentoring applies across the education continuum from early childhood to primary school. In returning to the centrality of mentoring to pre-service teacher’s practicum experience, it is noteworthy, that pre-service early childhood and primary school teachers consistently identify practicum, and their mentor-teacher, as the single most important factor in their teaching preparation (Moloney, 2017; Valencia et al., 2009). Likewise, Haas et al. (2022) say that much of the quality of practicum experience depends on the mentor-teacher (i.e., the in-school or early childhood setting mentor). A school or early childhood setting with a strong mentoring culture (see Chap. 9) and a structured and comprehensive induction and mentoring programme leads to higher teacher satisfaction and better retention (Early Childhood Development Agency (ECDA), Singapore, 2016). In terms of inducting teachers into the teaching, or early childhood profession, mentoring is one of the most important components of induction (Doan, 2019; Early Childhood Development Agency, Republic of Singapore, 2016; Langdon et al., 2014).

2.3 The Concept of Mentoring

17

During induction, newly qualified teachers are guided to develop knowledge and understanding about teaching practices, and to develop a professional identity (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011). In addition, mentoring helps new teachers to position themselves within a school or early childhood setting (Ståhle & Stålbrandt, 2022). It helps them to deal with the initial difficulties and challenges of the teaching profession (Ibid.). Burch and Jackson (2013, p. 57) say that effective mentors can guide the student teacher through the “third space” between university/college and the enactment of teaching (Hellmann, 2019). All of this leads to questions about mentoring. How is mentoring defined? What are its defining characteristics? Where and when does mentoring occur? Who mentors? Do good teachers automatically make good mentors? Mentor and Mentee Reflection Point

Think about people you have come across in your workplace (early childhood setting or primary school), who have helped/supported you. • Did you think of them as mentors? • With these people and experiences in mind, write a sentence or a short paragraph which describes your definition of mentoring.

2.3

The Concept of Mentoring

There is no single definition of mentoring. Instead, it has multiple meanings, and is used to achieve different goals (Heikkinen et al., 2012). Chapter 1 explains that while mentoring is integral to the professional formation of pre-service early childhood and primary school teachers, it can also be used to: • Induct a new teacher into the school or early childhood setting • Support veteran teachers to reflect upon and enhance their practice • Serve as a tool to support veteran teachers’ ongoing professional development. Kemmis et al. (2014) argue that all aspects of mentoring—meanings of mentoring; material conditions for mentoring, and the social relations of mentoring—are contested. Based on their examination of mentoring practices in Australia (in the State of New South Wales), Finland and Sweden, Kemmis et al. (2014) identified three mentoring archetypes: supervision, support and collaborative self-development. We now discuss each of these mentoring archetypes: • Mentoring as supervision. Involves the mentor in observing, reflecting on, and assessing the mentee’s performance (Colognesi et al., 2020; Kemmis et al., 2014). The aim is to help newly qualified teachers to pass through the

18

2 What Is Mentoring and Who Mentors?

formal juridical requirements for probation. Having met these legal requirements, teachers become fully qualified, autonomous members of the teaching profession • Mentoring as support. Seen in this way, mentoring is a process of professional support and guidance for a new teacher. A more experienced teacher supports a new teacher to develop their professional practice. The mentor supports the mentee in their professional on-the job development by observing them while they teach (Colognesi et al., 2020). In this way, the mentor helps the mentee to adapt to their role, and to the teaching profession (Kemmis et al., 2014) • Mentoring as collaborative self-development. Here, mentoring is seen as a process that helps a new teacher to become a member of a professional community. In that sense, mentoring as collaborative self-development might be found in the “sharing of experiences and expertise in a network of teachers, within or outside the new teacher’s own school” (Colognesi et al., 2020, p. 259). In this approach, like a community of practice (CoP Chapter 6), a group of novices, accompanied by a mentor, aim to improve their professional practice (Ibid.), and members take part as equals in professional dialogue (Kemmis et al., 2014). As indicated, each mentoring archetype has a different purpose and seeks to achieve different outcomes. In practice, however, mentoring may include elements from more than one archetype (Ibid.). In borrowing from Brandau et al. (2017), we contend that mentoring is an integral part of teacher professional development. It is also central to school/ early childhood setting development. It creates systemic links from initial teacher education to the induction phase, through to continuing professional development (Fig. 2.1). Alegado and Soe (2020) tell us that mentoring is a collective term. It is used to describe the relationship between a more experienced individual (a mentor) and a less experienced individual (a mentee or protégé) (Ibid., Barrera et al., 2010; Gardiner, 2017; Hobson et al., 2009). As such, through the provision of one-toone support (Hobson et al., 2009), experienced and veteran teachers help novice and early career teachers to learn and develop professional skills (Barrera et al., 2010). Expanding upon this definition, Ingersoll and Strong (2011, p. 203) say that mentoring “is the personal guidance provided, usually by seasoned veterans, to beginning teachers in schools.”

Continuing professional development

Initial teacher education

Induction phase Fig. 2.1 Mentoring as a continuum within education

2.3 The Concept of Mentoring

19

Mentoring is also perceived as a “professional guidance relationship in which an experienced, intellectually and socially valued mentor acts as adviser for a less experienced employee and helps this ‘mentee’ develop his/her work” (Heikkinen et al., 2012, p. 13). Within this construct then, a novice early childhood, or primary school teacher is inducted into the knowledge and established practice of the profession. Accordingly, the novice teacher is supported, guided and mentored by the master, or veteran teacher. In the course of mentoring, the novice teacher becomes accustomed to, learns their professional craft, and becomes inducted into the community of practice within their school or early childhood setting. Or, as noted by Hobson et al. (2009), mentoring helps to develop the mentee’s ability, easing their induction into the culture of the profession and into the specific local context. Mentor Reflection Point

The mentee is usually portrayed as a younger or more inexperienced individual just beginning their career. • In your experience as a mentor, what do you think? Is a mentee always a younger and more inexperienced person? • What about a mentor? Could a recent graduate who can empathise with the student teacher be a mentor?

When thinking about the mentee, it is important to consider the purpose of mentoring. We believe that the purpose of mentoring determines whom the mentee is or could be, i.e., whether they are a pre-service teacher, a newly qualified novice teacher, a more experienced teacher transitioning between schools or early childhood settings, or any member of the teaching team. As shown in Table 2.2, depending on the purpose of mentoring, a mentee can be a pre-service teacher, who needs mentoring support as part of their initial teacher education and professional formation. A mentee can also be a newly qualified teacher. In which case, mentoring is a form of induction into the school or early childhood setting. When mentoring is used for Continuous Professional Development (CPD), any teacher, or all teachers and staff within a school or early childhood setting become a mentee. Irrespective of the purpose of mentoring, a mentee is generally perceived as an individual who is under the tutelage of a mentor (a more experienced or skilled person). A mentor oversees the holistic development of a mentee, providing guidance, support and direction.

20

2.4

2 What Is Mentoring and Who Mentors?

Mentoring—A Multi-dimensional Construct

Using the definitions discussed to this point, it would be easy to perceive mentoring as linear and one-dimensional. This is not the case. As mentioned earlier, it is a multi-dimensional construct, within which, the mentor–mentee relationship “allows transfer of different fundamentals and factors such as pedagogical, academic knowledge, psychosocial, attitudes and behaviours throughout the mentoring process” (Alegado & Soe, 2020, p. 232). It is associated with knowledge transfer. It empowers personal and professional development, supporting a mentee with their transition into the profession. Mentoring also builds and enhances emotional or psychosocial behaviours, such as understanding, teamwork and motivational skills. Depending on the context, the distinction between expert and novice can be blurred (Aderibigbe et al., 2014). For example, as discussed in Chap. 6, in peer mentoring, both the mentor and mentee can be the same age, share the same interests, and be equal in terms of their career stage. In such circumstances, the distinction between mentor and mentee can be blurred or even non-existent. The definition of mentoring, has therefore, been refined throughout the years. Nolan (2017) references a move away from the traditional position of expert/novice roles to a more collaborative approach. In this collaborative approach, mentors and mentees work together to co-construct learning (Ellis et al., 2020). Ambrosetti and Deckers (2010, p. 52) define mentoring in teacher education as a “non-hierarchical, reciprocal relationship between mentors and mentees who work towards specific professional and personal outcomes for the mentee.” Hobson (2016) also identifies non-hierarchical relationships as a hallmark of quality mentorship. He argues that hierarchical relationships make “it difficult to establish relational trust and for mentees to openly share their professional learning and development needs with mentors” (p. 101). None-the-less, as discussed in Chap. 10, mentoring frequently involves power-relations between a mentor and mentee, which require careful consideration and sensitive handling. In the realm of teacher education, Brandau et al. (2017) point to a change in thinking in mentoring that has altered priorities in mentoring practice. Consequently, mentoring practice has moved from an apprenticeship style, involving an expert and a novice, toward a reflective approach (Brandau et al., 2017). Besides, a mentor is no longer perceived as the person holding all the power (see Chap. 10 for a discussion of power in the mentor–mentee relationship). Rather, as the mentor concedes authority, power is increasingly shared between the mentor and the mentee (Ellis et al., 2020; Jones & Brown, 2011). As such, it is widely recognised that both the mentor and the mentee have something of value to offer, and, to gain from each other. In other words, mentoring is mutually beneficial for both the mentor and the mentee (Aderibigbe, 2013; Aderibigbe et al., 2014; Alegado & Soe, 2020; Moloney & Pope, 2022). Therefore, mentoring is rooted in relationships, is highly relational, and it is premised on mutual trust and respect.

2.5 Mentoring as a Relationship

2.5

21

Mentoring as a Relationship

Without doubt, the relationship between the mentor and mentee is paramount. Invariably, the mentor–mentee relationship is perceived as reciprocal. In the field of early childhood education, Murphy and Thornton (2015), for example, define mentoring in terms of a reciprocal professional relationship that helps to improve new teachers’ professional practice, and provides opportunities for veteran teachers to gain new perspectives. Adding to this perspective, and further highlighting the reciprocal nature of mentoring, Nolan (2017) outlines the contribution of new teachers to the mentoring relationship. She observes that new teachers bring fresh ideas, enthusiasm, and a recent engagement with research from their training. Based on their evaluation of mentoring training in Ireland, Moloney and Pope (2022) found that veteran early childhood teachers are energised by preservice teachers’ enthusiasm and innovative ideas. Mackie’s (2020) research with pre-service teachers (mentees) and class teachers (mentors) in Scotland provides further insight into the mentee’s beliefs about their influence on their mentor’s practice. In Mackie’s study, mentees felt that if mentors were receptive to learning from them, they could bring new teaching strategies and ideas for curriculum. Moreover, the pre-service teachers believed they influenced mentors to reflect on their own practice more than usual. Taking a holistic viewpoint, and focussing solely upon the mentee, Clutterbuck and Megginson (2007, p. 4) associate mentoring with “identifying and nurturing of potential for the whole person”. Meanwhile, Burley and Pomphrey (2011), perceive mentoring as an intentional, nurturing, insightful process. The central aim is to develop professional learning and improve professional practice (Ibid., 2011). Therefore, the relationship between the mentor and mentee includes, yet surpasses information, advice, or monitoring (Cox & Orehovec, 2007; Ellis et al., 2020; Glass & Walter, 2000). Indeed, as discussed in Chap. 7, the purpose of mentoring is not to evaluate, or judge. Instead, the overall purpose is to develop the mentee’s practice, and professional development. Depending on their willingness, mentors can also learn from student teachers, and newly qualified teachers. Figure 2.2 provides an overview of the characteristics of the mentor–mentee relationship. As shown in Fig. 2.2, the mentor–mentee relationship is characterised by a sense of mutual trust and respect (Cox & Orehovec, 2007; Ellis et al., 2020; Kim, 2016; Straus et al., 2013). If mentors and mentees have shared assumptions and ideas, mentoring also fosters emotional, cognitive and even spiritual transformation (Zanchett et al., 2017). In addition, Yale University (2022) reference the need for open and honest communication, as well as perseverance. Perseverance is especially important when attempting to overcome any obstacles that may arise within the mentoring relationship (Ibid.). Identifying mentoring as a relationship, Zey (1984) suggests that the mentor oversees another person’s development and career. He posits a ‘mutual benefit model’ which derives from social learning theory (Bandura, 1977). The mutual benefits model correlates with communities of practice, discussed in Chap. 6. Similar to a CoP, the model shows that mentoring is premised upon the idea “that

22

2 What Is Mentoring and Who Mentors?

Fig. 2.2 Characteristics of the mentor–mentee relationship

individuals enter into and remain part of relationships to meet certain needs, for as long as the parties continue to benefit” (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011, p. 203). Zey’s model, therefore, summarises the symbiotic relationship between the mentor and the mentee. In 1991, Zey extended the model by adding the organization (e.g., the school or early childhood setting), which holds the mentor and the mentee. In this revised model, all those involved in mentoring: the organization, the mentor and the mentee benefit from the relationship (see Fig. 2.3). Figure 2.3, with points adapted from Ingersoll and Strong (2011) illustrates how mentoring supports teachers along a continuum from initial teacher education through to their induction into the school or early childhood setting. It also shows how this mentoring support helps the school or early childhood setting, in terms of children’s learning, development and growth. Additionally, as shown, mentoring helps with teacher retention. As a form of professional development, mentoring leads to enhancing communication skills, developing leadership roles (problemsolving and building capacity) and advancing pedagogical knowledge (Hudson, 2013).

2.6 Mentoring as a Process

23

Fig. 2.3 Symbiotic relationship between mentor and mentee and the benefits in an educational context

2.6

Mentoring as a Process

While mentoring is heavily dependent upon the mentor–mentee relationship, it is also described as a process. For example, Gardiner (2017) conceptualizes mentoring as a continuous process that seeks to sustain productive changes in practice. Similarly, Girves et al. (2005) describe mentoring as “an intentional process that is supportive, nurturing and protective, providing orchestrated or structured experiences to facilitate growth” (p. 453). While also referring to mentoring as a process, Bozeman and Feeney (2007) associate mentoring with one’s work, career and professional development. They suggest its purpose lies in “the informal transmission of knowledge, social capital, and psychosocial support perceived by the recipients as relevant to work, career or professional development” (p. 731). Bozeman and Feeney note that the mentoring process

24

2 What Is Mentoring and Who Mentors? entails informal communication, usually face to face and during a sustained period of time, between a person who is perceived to have a greater relevant knowledge, wisdom, or experience (the mentor) and a person who is perceived to have less (the protégé). (p. 731)

In relation to pre-service early childhood teachers, Kupila et al. (2017, p. 38) view mentoring as an “interaction process” that aims to support teachers’ identity construction and professional development. Likewise, Shields and Murray (2017) suggest that the range of supports offered by mentors, influence the mentee’s emerging professional identity as members of the department or whole school community. Drawing upon their study of mentoring in Australian schools, Talbot et al. (2018) define mentoring as a mutually educative process. It is a collaborative experience of co-creating knowledge, skills and confidence (Ellis et al., 2020; Talbot et al., 2018). This definition mirrors the work of Bokenko and Gantt (2000) who speak of dialogic mentoring.

2.7

Dialogic Mentoring

The concept of dialogic mentoring is built upon meaningful two-way conversations where the mentor and the mentee value and respect each other’s views. According to Dymoke and Harrison (2006), all mentoring models (see Chap. 6) are underpinned by discourse and dialog that foster autonomy and professional responsibility in one’s personal teaching style. Dialogic mentoring is a form of organizational learning that “encourages experimentation, risk-taking, openness along with creativity, authenticity, imagination and innovation” (Bokenko & Gantt, 2000, p. 238). Similarly, Talbot et al., explain how The mentor and mentee are involved as speakers in a shared experience of meaning construction through dialogic interaction. This shared meaning making is laced through with ‘threads’ that each speaker brings to the dialogue. (2018, p. 8)

Against the backdrop of their mentoring study in a UK University, NahmadWilliams and Taylor (2015) also conceptualise mentoring as a dialogic process. Thus, dialogic mentoring encourages the mentor and the mentee to challenge and extend their thinking, to reshape their understanding, and to work collaboratively to create shared meaning (Ellis et al., 2020). This type of mentoring shows: 1. A genuine care and respect for the other person in the interaction/relationship 2. The ability and willingness to engage in reflection, individually and collectively 3. The ability and willingness to speak authentically of one’s thoughts, ideas and assumptions (Bokenko & Gantt, 2000, p. 241).

2.7 Dialogic Mentoring

25

Mentee Reflection Point

Consider a time (during study, or in your workplace) when you were mentored. • • • •

How would you describe the relationship between you and your mentor? Would you describe the mentoring process as dialogic? Why, why not? What worked well? What challenges, if any, did you encounter?

From a social constructivist perspective, dialogue is vital in fostering learning. It helps to organise thinking and develop new understanding within social contexts (Vygotsky, 1978, 1980) including schools and early childhood settings. This means that through their interactions with their mentor, mentees develop, refine and enhance their knowledge of practice (Vygotsky, 1980). Schwille (2008) stressed the importance of dialogue to the learning of the beginner teacher, in terms of considering demanding situations, addressing anxieties and specific aspects of teaching (Hargreaves, 2010). As discussed in detail in Chap. 6, these conversations, which take place between the mentor and mentee before and after teaching episodes are outside-the-action aspect of mentoring (Schwille, 2008). None-theless, the dialogic nature of discussion is educative and feeds into the mentoring process. Donnellan (2020) suggests that as a process, mentoring is not about offering quick-fix solutions, nor is it about isolated weekly observations of practice (Jones et al., 2019). Rather, mentoring is an immersive process (Donnellan, 2020; Jones et al., 2019). It involves the mentee and mentor exploring aspects of pedagogy and developing a relationship that is conducive to shared learning (Moloney & Pope, 2023; Jones et al., 2019). Mentoring therefore, requires a considerable time commitment from the mentor, the mentee and the school or early childhood setting. See Chap. 9 for a comprehensive discussion of how time supports or hinders the mentoring process. O’Doherty and Deegan (2009) view mentoring as a social and educational process. Educative mentoring (Feinman-Nemser, 2001) is characterised by collaboration. In this construct, mentors help mentees to interpret and understand teaching to further develop teaching capacity (Iancu-Haddad & Oplatka, 2009). This educative process requires time, content, and a positive attitude to the potential of mentoring (O’Doherty & Deegan, 2009). Others (e.g., Ragins & Kram, 2007; Schwille, 2008) also perceive mentoring as a social learning process. Viewed in this way, mentoring provides teachers with an opportunity to develop networks that foster relationships and address the mentee’s learning needs. Effective mentoring that seeks to transform teaching and learning practice, requires time and space to enable the mentor, at a minimum to:

26

2 What Is Mentoring and Who Mentors? audit their existing mentoring practice, read and reflect on research concerned with both the pedagogical skills of mentoring and the development of mentoring as an educative ‘stance’; conduct conversations for learning that do not avoid the ‘hard issues’. (Timperley, 2001; 2015 in Talbot et al., 2018, p. 3)

Mentor or Mentee Reflection Point

Using your knowledge and experience of mentoring or being mentored, identify the ‘hard issues’ that may arise during the mentoring process. Moving beyond mentoring as relationship and process, it encompasses the mentor and mentee willingness to critique their practice so they can develop their skills. Thus, mentoring is seen as a learning task (Hudson, 2013; Mertz, 2004; Schwille, 2008). Clearly however, learning is not confined solely to the mentee. Hudson’s (2016) multi-case study involving over 200 teachers involved in a mentoring professional development programme found that mentors share experiences with mentees. They “divulge their pedagogical weaknesses with tangible solutions…as a method of modelling open self-reflection” (Hudson, 2016, p. 41). Thus, indicating that “as experienced teachers, they are not infallible, but rather on a continued learning journey about teaching, particularly in relation to individual classes and students.”

2.8

Who Mentors, and What Is Their Role?

The purpose of mentoring determines who mentors. As illustrated in Table 2.1, for instance, if the purpose of mentoring is to support the professional formation of the pre-service teacher, a university/college lecturer, as well as school or early childhood setting personnel may undertake a mentoring role. In the case of inducting a newly qualified teacher into the teaching or early childhood profession, a teacher within the school or early childhood setting may undertake the mentoring role. Whereas, if the focus of mentoring is upon teacher CPD (continuous professional development), an external organisation, and/or school/setting personnel may undertake the mentoring.

2.9

Role of the Mentor

As mentioned previously, a mentor is invariably defined as someone who is a trusted counsellor, guide, tutor, or coach. Typically, a mentor motivates, supports, shapes, encourages, and guides a mentee to be all he or she can be (Varney, 2012).

2.9 Role of the Mentor Table 2.1 Relationship between the purpose of mentoring and nature of mentee

27

Purpose of mentoring

Who is the mentee?

Professional formation of a pre-service teacher

Pre-service teacher

Induct a new teacher into the Newly qualified teacher at the school or setting beginning of their career, or More experienced teacher moving between schools or settings Enhance continuous professional development

Anyone in the school or setting

Mentor Reflection Point

• How do you view the potential of the pre-service early childhood or primary school teacher? • How could you support them to be the best they can be?

A mentor fulfils many roles within the mentoring relationship. With regards to preservice teachers, school or early childhood setting-based mentors (often the class teacher) guide their professional development in real world contexts (Norman & Feinman-Nemser, 2005). They do this through a combination of “showing and telling, asking and listening” (van Ginkel et al., 2016, p. 101). In essence, school and early childhood setting-based mentors play an invaluable, pro-active hands-on role in supporting the mentee. As illustrated in the following checklist, Schein (1978), lists eight mentor roles. These are: teacher, confidant, sponsor, opener of doors, role model, developer of talent, protector, and successful leader (Fig. 2.4). Mentor Reflection Point

Although these eight mentor roles are clearly important, depending on your beliefs and approach to mentoring, you may identify some roles as more important. With this in mind, we ask you to reflect on the roles that are important to you. • • • •

Which of the roles identified by Schein would you tick off as important? Which roles do you see yourself having as a mentor? Is there anything missing from the checklist? What would you add? Would you remove anything from the list? Why?

According to Schwille (2008), if the purpose of mentoring is to develop the mentee’s practice, the mentor must support them to identify their needs. This

28

2 What Is Mentoring and Who Mentors?

Fig. 2.4 Schein’s mentor role checklist

involves creating a caring, safe space where the mentee feels comfortable with identifying and articulating their needs. In this respect, Noddings (2012) notes that learning happens when people feel supported, nurtured and cared for. The foundations of creating a caring, supportive and facilitative mentoring environment involves both the mentor and the mentee understanding the task, accepting each other’s social and emotional needs, and potential contributions (Mahn & John-Steiner, 2012). Focussing on the mentoring relationship, Ellis et al. (2020) and Hudson (2016) highlight the need for the mentor to be enthusiastic about mentoring, sharing information about the school and class, and sharing expectations. Hudson further asserts that mentors utilise personal attributes such as honest communication, active listening and humour to facilitate the mentoring process. Mentors also allocate sufficient time (see Chaps. 9 and 10) to build and sustain the mentoring relationship (Hudson, 2016). So, what is the role of the mentor? As with mentoring, there is no single role, or definitive list of mentor roles. Similar to Schein (1978), Hobson and Malderez (2013), describe a variety of roles that the mentor may play. In the process of mentoring then, a mentor may adopt a number of supportive roles or stances, including…

2.10 Who Is the Mentee, and What Is Their Role?

29

Those of educator (which involves, for example, listening, coaching and creating appropriate opportunities for the mentee’s professional learning), model (Inspiring, demonstrating and making visible aspects of being a teacher), acculturator (helping the mentee into the full membership of the particular professional culture), sponsor (opening doors, and introducing the mentee to the right people), and provider of psychological support (providing the mentee with a safe place to release emotions or ‘let off steam’). (Hobson & Malderez, 2013, p. 62).

Drawing upon the roles outlined here, and elsewhere throughout the present chapter, a mentor fulfils a diversity of roles. Broadly speaking, a mentor must: • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Establish an approachable relationship that nurtures the mentee Be willing to learn and listen, and Share with others without reservation Be confident in their own understanding of teaching and learning, and Impart their knowledge to the mentee Understand the tone in which to communicate with, and provide feedback to the mentee Be flexible in their thinking and avoid being authoritarian and/or judgemental Respond positively to the needs of the mentee Model professional standards and practice Support the mentee to achieve their goals (especially pertinent for pre-service teachers) Help the mentee to find solutions to challenging situations Follow up with the mentee Encourage sustained motivation in the school or early childhood setting Be reflective.

2.10

Who Is the Mentee, and What Is Their Role?

As mentioned, the mentoring relationship is symbiotic. It involves commitment and the active involvement of both the mentor and the mentee. Let us consider again here, what the term mentee means? While the mentee is generally under the tutelage of a more experienced or skilled person (mentor), this does not mean that the mentee is always young and/or inexperienced. Remember, while mentoring plays a crucial role in the professional formation of the pre-service teacher, it is not confined solely to initial teacher education. Mentoring plays a role in supporting teachers across the early childhood and primary school continuum. Therefore, as illustrated in Table 2.2, a mentee can be: • A pre-service teacher, who needs mentoring support as part of their initial teacher education and professional formation

30

2 What Is Mentoring and Who Mentors?

Table 2.2 Relationship between the purpose of mentoring and who mentors

Purpose of mentoring

Who is the mentor

Professional formation of a pre-service teacher

University lecturer School teacher/early childhood teacher

Inducting a new teacher into School teacher/early childhood the school or setting teacher Enhancing Continuous Professional Development

External associationa , school/ setting personnel

a

Varies by country. In Ireland for example, the National Council for Special Education may provide CPD for primary school teachers, while Better Start may provide this for the Early Childhood profession

• A newly qualified novice teacher being inducted into the school or early childhood setting • An individual teacher, or entire staff team within the school or early childhood setting engaging in CPD. Notwithstanding the reason for their involvement in the mentoring process, a mentee is not a passive vessel into which, a mentor pours knowledge (Zachary & Fischler, 2009). Quite the opposite. As discussed in Chap. 4, as adult learners, mentees bring their own funds of knowledge from their undergraduate training, their workplace, and their life experience to the mentoring process. They play a proactive role in the mentoring process. They take overall responsibility for setting up and cultivating a healthy mentoring relationship (Inzer & Crawford, 2005). With this in mind, we now turn our attention to the role of the mentee.

2.11

Role of the Mentee

Similar to mentoring, the mentee’s role is multi-faceted. While there is no definitive list of duties or roles, as mentioned, the mentee plays an active role in the mentoring relationship and process. They must therefore: • Know what they want and shape the overall agenda for the mentoring relationship • Prioritize issues for action or support • Communicate their goals and expectations clearly to their mentor • Be open in communicating with the mentor • Have reasonable expectations of the mentor. This means they must not expect the mentor to have all the answers or to be an expert in every area • Prepare and come prepared to each mentoring meeting • Seek guidance and constructive feedback on their professional development and career goals

2.12 Five Factors of Effective Mentoring

31

• Critically reflect upon their experience • Maintain a healthy relationship with the mentor. Clearly, the mentee is an active partner and collaborator with their mentor, throughout the mentoring process. The mentee shares responsibility for supporting the mentoring relationship and ensuring the success of the mentoring process. Overall, mentoring refers to “a process of serving as a mentor, or someone who facilitates and assists another person’s development” (Kamarudin et al., 2020. p. 291). In this process, the mentor’s role is to teach, guide and help shape the professional growth and learning of the mentee, and to serve as a positive role model (Ellis et al., 2020; Harvard School of Public Health, 2015). In successful mentor/ mentee relationships, both parties are engaged, flexible, and authentic. Crucially, the relationship is characterised by reciprocity.

2.12

Five Factors of Effective Mentoring

In 2004, Hudson developed a model of mentoring, that was elaborated on by Hudson et al. (2005). This model delineates five factors for effective mentoring: personal attributes of the mentor, system requirements, pedagogical knowledge, modelling and feedback (Fig. 2.5). Haas et al. (2022, p. 131) explain these five factors as follows: 1. Personal Attributes of the mentor teacher, which incorporates how they support the mentee, guide them towards reflective practice, instil positive attitudes for teaching, demonstrate active listening, undertake problem-solving and instil confidence for teaching

Fig. 2.5 Five factors of effective mentoring

32

2 What Is Mentoring and Who Mentors?

2. System Requirements for teaching where the mentor-teacher shares the aims, policies and curriculum relevant for teaching. When beginning teachers start employment, they need an understanding of system requirements (Hudson, 2004) 3. Pedagogical Knowledge has eleven practices that include the mentor-teacher sharing planning, timetabling, preparation, teaching strategies, content knowledge, problem-solving, classroom management, questioning skills, lesson implementation, assessment, and viewpoints about teaching. Through sharing, mentoring can become a “think aloud intellectual activity” in which mentor and mentee discuss knowledge, “ways of thinking” and “processes of inquiry” (Feiman-Nemser, 1998, p. 69). The mentor’s pedagogical knowledge is key to the mentoring process (Hudson et al., 2005). Equally, omitting pedagogical knowledge during mentoring reduces the quality of the mentee’s experience within the school or early childhood setting (Hudson, 2004) 4. Modelling highlights the importance of modelling practices. This includes modelling effective teaching, well designed lessons, hands-on lessons, rapport with students, enthusiasm, classroom management, and proper language for teaching. Hudson (2004) says “modelling these specific mentoring practices may lead to developing their mentee’s understanding of primary teaching practices in specific subject areas” (p. 5). Schmidt (2008) references increased mentee self-confidence as they observe their mentor’s teaching practices. Feinman-Nemser (1998) advocate for collaborative modelling where the mentor and mentee showcase individual styles. Modelling is accompanied by the need to have two-way professional conversations about what is being modelled to guide the mentee’s observation of the mentor’s practice (Haas, et al., 2022) 5. Feedback is concerned with how the mentor teacher shares feedback with the mentee, and the quality of the feedback (see Chap. 7). The five-factor model of mentoring, highlights the importance of the mentor-teacher providing the mentee with clear expectations about how the feedback will be delivered, the reviewing and discussion of lesson plans, the position of planning and enacting formal observation, the importance of both oral and written feedback and conversations about teaching evaluations (Haas et al., 2022). Overall, the five-factor model helps to provide structure for what effective mentoring entails. However, Ellis et al. (2020) point to another critical factor in effective mentoring, the need to collaborate with the university. Collaborating with the University Drawing upon an in-depth review of salient literature, Ellis et al. (2020) identified indicators of a quality pre-service teacher mentor. These indicators are classified across seven domains: Collaborating with the university/college; developing a disposition and professional knowledge in mentoring; establishing an effective relationship with pre-service teachers; facilitating pre-service teacher’s learning;

2.12 Five Factors of Effective Mentoring

33

Table 2.3 Indicators and description associated with collaborating with the university/college Indicator

Brief description of the indicator

Develop a collaborative relationship with the university

It is important that a collaborative relationship exists between the university and school in preparing future teachers

Develop a dialogic interaction with university academics/lecturers and the pre-service teacher

The pre-service teacher, the cooperating teacher and the university-based teacher educator should work together in dialogic interaction

Develop a shared view of good teaching with university academics

Cooperating teachers and ITE providers should share a clear vision of what good teaching entails

Develop a shared vision of the responsibilities There needs to be a shared understanding of of the mentor role with the university the purpose of practicum and the roles of the participants across the practicum community Integrate on-campus elements of the teacher education programme with professional experience

The placement, scheduling, and staffing of practicum should integrate with on-campus elements of the teacher education programme

Source Ellis et al. (2020, p. 5)

modelling effective teaching and making connections between theory and practice; providing direction and support; and finally, using a progressive mindset and supporting pre-service teachers to nurture a teacher-identity. Many of these indicators, which have already been mentioned, will be explored further throughout the book. At this point however, domain 1: Collaborating with the university/college, warrants attention. This domain is particularly relevant to school/early childhood setting-based mentors involved in mentoring pre-service early childhood and primary school teachers during their practicum experiences. Table 2.3 sets out the indicators and a brief description associated with this domain. In our view, developing a collaborative relationship with the ITE provider (university/college) is a core aspect of a mentoring architecture, as discussed in Chap. 9. It signifies organisational commitment to mentoring. Accordingly, it helps to ensure a shared understanding of the purpose of practicum, of the mentoring relationship and process, and of each other’s roles and responsibilities. Such a collaborative relationship between the ITE provider and the host school or early childhood setting, establishes mutual trust and reciprocity, ultimately benefitting mentors and mentees alike.

34

2 What Is Mentoring and Who Mentors?

2.13

Chapter Summary Points

As a Relationship and a Process, Mentoring

• Is integral to the professional formation of pre-service teachers. • Supports the induction of newly qualified novice teachers into the school or early childhood setting. • Helps experienced veteran teachers to reflect upon and enhance their practice, serving as a tool to support ongoing professional development. • The purpose of mentoring determines who mentors. • The mentor–mentee relationship is characterised by reciprocity. Positive and productive mentoring experiences are a function of both mentor and mentee contributions to the relationship. • A mentor supports a mentee and oversees their holistic development. They provide guidance support and direction through informal communication, usually face to face over a sustained period.

References Aderibigbe, S. A. (2013). Opportunities of the collaborative mentoring relationships between teachers and student teachers in the classroom: The views of teachers, student teachers and university tutors. Management in Education, 24(2), 70–74. Aderibigbe, S. A., Colucci-Gray, L., & Gray, D. (2014). Mentoring as a collaborative learning journey for teachers and student teachers: A critical constructivist perspectives. Teacher Education Advancement Network (TEAN) Journal, 6(3) (Special Issue 2), 17–27. Alegado, P. J. E., & Soe, H. Y. (2020). The significance of mentoring on teachers’ beliefs and teachers’ pedagogical practices: A comparative analysis among 47 countries based on 2018 teaching and learning international survey (TALIS). Bulgarian Journal of Science and Education Policy (BJSEP), 14(2), 232–259. Ambrosetti, A., & Dekkers, J. (2010). The Interconnectedness of the roles of mentors and mentees in pre-service teacher education mentoring relationships. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 35(6), 42–55. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice-Hall. Barrera, A., Braley, R. T., & Slate, J. R. (2010). Beginning teacher success: An investigation into the feedback from mentors of formal mentoring programs. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 18(1), 61–74. Bokeno, R. M., & Gantt, V. W. (2000). Dialogic mentoring: Core relationships for organizational learning. Management Communication Quarterly, 14(2), 237–270. Bozeman, B., & Feeney, M. (2007). Toward a useful theory of mentoring: A conceptual analysis and critique. Administration and Society, 39, 719–739. Brandau, J., Studencnik, P., & Kopp-Sixt, S. (2017). Dimensions and levels of mentoring: Empirical findings. Global Education Review, 4(4), 5–19. Burch, J., & Jackson, A. (2013). Developing partnership through third space activity. Teacher Education Advancement. Network Journal, 5(2), 57–68. Burley, S., & Pomphrey, C. (2011). Mentoring and coaching in schools: Professional learning through collaborative inquiry (1st ed.). Routledge.

References

35

Clawson, J. (1980). Mentoring in managerial careers. Prager. Clutterbuck, D., & Megginson, D. (2007). Making coaching work: Creating a coaching culture. Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Colognesi, S., Van Nieuwenhoven, C., & Beausaert, S. (2020). Supporting newly qualified teachers’ professional development and perseverance in secondary education: On the role of informal learning. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(2), 258–276. Cox, B. E., & Orehovec, E. (2007). Faculty-student interaction outside the classroom: A typology from a residential college. Review of Higher Education, 30(4), 343–362. Doan, L. K. (2019). Finding community: ‘An exploration into an induction support pilot project.’ Journal of Childhood Studies, 44(1), 68–79. Donnellan, A. (2020). An exploration of how the mentoring component of the leadership for inclusion in the early years (LINC) programme supports the adult learner. unpublished thesis (Masters), Mary Immaculate College, University of Limerick. Dymoke, S., & Harrison, J. K. (2006). Professional development and the beginning teacher: Issues of teacher autonomy and institutional conformity in the performance review process. Journal of Education for Teaching: International Research and Pedagogy, 32(1), 71–92. Early Childhood Development Agency, Republic of Singapore. (2016). Mentoring matters: A practical guide to learning-focused relationships. Available at: https://www.ecda.gov.sg/docs/ default-source/default-document-library/early-childhood-educator/ecda-mentoring-matters-ebook.pdf Ellis, N. J., Alonzo, D., & Nguyen, H. T. M. (2020). Elements of quality pre-service teacher mentor: A literature review. Teacher and Teacher Education, 92, 1–13. Feiman-Nemser, S. (1998). Teachers as teacher educators. European Journal of Teacher Education, 21(1), 63–74. Feiman-Nemser, S. (2001). From preparation to practice: Designing a continuum to strengthen and sustain teaching. Teachers College Record, 103(6), 1013–1055. Gardiner, W. (2017). Mentoring “inside” and “outside” the action of teaching: A professional framework for mentoring. The New Educator, 13(1), 53–71. Girves, J. E., Zepeda, Y., & Gwathmey, J. K. (2005). Mentoring in a post-affirmative action world. Journal of Social Issues, 61(3), 449–479. Glass, N., & Walter, R. (2000). An experience of peer mentoring with student nurses: Enhancement of personal and professional growth. Journal of Nursing Education, 39(4), 155–160. Haas, E., Hudson, P., & Hudson, S. (2022). Mentoring for effective teaching—An analysis of Austrian teachers’ school-based mentoring practices. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 10(4), 130–139. Haggard, D. L., Dougherty, T. W., Turban, D. B., & Wilbanks, J. E. (2011). Who is a mentor? A review of evolving definitions and implications for research. Journal of Management, 37(1), 280–304. Hargreaves, D. H. (2010). Creating a self-improving school system, Nottingham, National College for Leadership of Schools and Children’s Services. Available at: www.nationalcollege.org.uk/ index/docinfo.htm?id=133672 Harvard School of Public Health. (2015). The Mentor-Mentee Relationship. https://www.hsph.har vard.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/36/2016/06/The-Mentor-Mentee-Relationship-Handout_O ctober-2015.pdf Heikkinen, H. L. T., Jokinen, H., & Tynjälä, P. (2012). Teacher education and development as lifelong and lifewide learning. In H. L. T. Heikkinen, H. Jokinen, & P. Tynjälä (Eds.), Peer-group mentoring for teacher development (pp. 3–30). Routledge. Hellmann, K. (2019). Kohärenz in der Lehrerbildung—Theoretische Konzeptionalisierung. In K. Hellmann, J. Kreutz, M. Schwichow, & K. Zaki (Eds.), Kohärenz in der Lehrerbildung (pp. 9– 30). Springer Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-23940-4 Hobson, A. J. (2016). Judgementoring and how to avert it: Introducing ONSIDE Mentoring for beginning teachers. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 5(2), 87– 110. Hobson, A. J., Ashby, P., Malderez, A., & Tomlinson, P. D. (2009). Mentoring beginning teachers: What we know and what we don’t. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(1), 207–216.

36

2 What Is Mentoring and Who Mentors?

Hobson, A. J., & Malderez, A. (2013). Judge mentoring and other threats to realizing the potential of school-based mentoring in teacher education. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 2(2), 89–108. Howe, N., & Jacobs, E. (2013). Mentors perceptions of factors associated with change within early childhood classrooms. Alberta Journal of Early Childhood Education Research, 59(4), 591– 612. Hudson, P. (2004). Specific mentoring: A theory and model for developing primary science teaching practices. European Journal of Teacher Education, 27(2), 139–146. Hudson, P. (2013). Mentoring as professional development: ‘Growth for both’ mentor and mentee. Professional Development in Education, 39(5), 771–783. Hudson, P. (2016). Forming the mentor-mentee relationship. Mentoring and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 24(1), 30–43. Hudson, P., Skamp, K., & Brooks, L. (2005). Development of an instrument: Mentoring for effective primary science teaching (MEPST). Science Education, 89(4), 657–674. Iancu-Haddad, D., & Oplatka, I. (2009). Mentoring novice teachers: Motives, process, and outcomes from the mentor’s point of view. The New Educator, 5(1), 45–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 1547688X.2009.10399563 Ingersoll, R. M., & Strong, M. (2011). The impact of induction and mentoring programs for beginning teachers: A critical review of the research. Review of Educational Research, 81(2), 201–233. Inzer, L. D., & Crawford, C. B. (2005). A review of formal and informal mentoring: Processes, problems, and design. Journal of Leadership Education, 4(1), 31–50. Jones, R., & Brown, D. (2011). The mentoring relationship as a complex adaptive system: Finding a model for our experience. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 19(4), 401–418. Jones, L., Tones, S., & Foulkes, G. (2019). Exploring learning conversations between mentors and associate teachers in initial teacher education. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 8(2), 120–133. Kamarudin, M. binti, Kamarudin, A. Y. binti, Darmi, R. binti, & Saad, N. S. binti. (2020). A review of coaching and mentoring theories and models. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, 9(2), 289–298. Kemmis, S., Heikkinen, H., Fransson, G., Aspfors, J., & Edwards-Groves, C. (2014). Mentoring of new teachers as a contested practice: Supervision, support and collaborative self-development. Teaching and Teacher Education, 43, 154–164. Kim, H. (2016). Mentors. Available: https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/hdf_facpubs/39/ Kupila, P., Ukkonen-Mikkola, T., & Rantala, K. (2017). Interpretations of mentoring during early childhood education mentor training. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 42(10). Langdon, F. J., Alexander, P. A., Ryde, A., & Baggetta, P. (2014). A national survey of induction and mentoring: How it is perceived within communities of practice. Teaching and Teacher Education, 44, 92–105. Mackie, L. (2020). Partnership within the context of mentoring initial teacher education students in Scotland: Progress or maintaining the status quo? Scottish Educational Review, 52(1), 52–57. Mahn, H., & John-Steiner, V. (2012). ‘Vygotsky and sociocultural approaches to teaching and learning. Educational Psychology, 7. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118133880.hop 207006 Mertz, N. (2004). What’s a mentor, anyway? Educational Administration Quarterly, 40, 541–560. Moloney, M. (2017). An exploration of the evidential base for Early Childhood Education and Care professional practice placement in Higher Education Institutes in Ireland. Available at: https:/ /dspace.mic.ul.ie/handle/10395/2597 Moloney, M., & Pope, J. (2022, July, 12–15). Professional mentoring for early childhood practice: Enhancing educators’ capacity to support the professional formation of early childhood educators. 74th World Assembly and OMEP International Conference. Athens. Moloney, M., & Pope, J. (2023). Willing and unable or willing and able? Insights from an evaluation of a mentoring training programme for early childhood teachers in Ireland. Education 3-13, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004279.2023.2236118

References

37

Murphy, C., & Thornton, K. (2015). Mentoring in early childhood education. A compilation of thinking, pedagogy and practice. E-book. Nahmad-Williams, L., & Taylor, C. A. (2015). Experimenting with dialogic mentoring: A new model. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 4(3), 184–199. Noddings, N. (2012). The caring relation in teaching. Oxford Review of Education, 38(6), 771–781. Nolan, A. (2017). Effective mentoring for the next generation of early childhood teachers in Victoria, Australia. Mentoring and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 25(3), 272–290. Norman, P. J., & Feiman-Nemser, S. (2005). Mind activity in teaching and mentoring. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21(6), 679–697. O’Doherty, T., & Deegan, J. (2009). Mentors, not models: Supporting teachers to be empowered in an Irish context. Research in Comparative and International Education, 4(1), 22–33. Pennanen, M., Bristol, L., Wilkinson, J., & Heikkinen, H. L. T. (2015). What is ‘good’ mentoring? Understanding mentoring practices of teacher induction through case studies of Finland and Australia. Pedagogy Culture and Society, 24(1), 1–27. Ragins, B. R., & Kram, K. E. (2007). The roots and meaning of mentoring. In B. Ragins & K. Kram (Eds.), The handbook of mentoring at work: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 3–15). Sage. Schein, E. H. (1978). Career dynamics: Matching individual and organizational needs. AddisonWesley. Schmidt, M. (2008). Mentored and being mentored: The story of a novice music teacher’s success. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24, 635–648. Schwille, S. A. (2008). The professional practice of mentoring. American Journal of Education, 115, 139–167. Shields, M., & Murray, M. (2017). Beginning teachers’ perceptions of mentors and access to communities of practice. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 6(4), 317–331. Ståhle, Y., & Stålbrandt, E. E. (2022). Exploring descriptions of mentoring as support in Swedish preschools. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 43(1), 54–68. https://doi.org/10. 1080/10901027.2020.1817814 Straus, S. E., Johnson, M., Maruez, C., & Feldman, M. (2013). Characteristics of successful and failed mentoring relationships: A qualitative study across two academic health centres. The Journal of Teaching and Learning Resources, 88(1), 82–89. Talbot, D., Denny, J., & Henderson, S. (2018). ‘Trying to decide …what sort of teacher I wanted to be’: Mentoring as a dialogic practice. Teaching Education, 29(1), 47–60. Turner, M. M. (2004). Mentoring an overview. Available at: http://www.crowe-associates.co.uk/ wp-content/uploads/2015/05/The-Mentoring-Wheel.pdf Valencia, S. W., Martin, S. D., Place, N. A., & Grossman, P. (2009). Complex interactions in student teaching lost opportunities for learning. Journal of Teacher Education, 60(3), 304–322. van Ginkel, G., Verloop, N., & Denessen, E. (2016). Why mentor? Linking mentor teachers’ motivations to their mentoring conceptions. Teachers and Teaching, 22(1), 101–116. Varney, J. (2012). Humanistic mentoring: Nurturing the person within. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 45(3), 127–131. https://doi.org/10.1080/00228958.2009.10517302 Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1980). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press. ©Yale University. (2022). Step 3. What makes a mentoring relationship successful. Available at:https://fly.yale.edu/mentorship/self-directed-mentoring-program/step-3-what-makes-mentor ing-relationship-successful Zachary, L. J., & Fischler, L. A. (2009). The mentee’s guide: How to make mentoring work for you. Wiley. Zanchett, M. S., Bailey, A., Kolisnyk, O., Baku, L., Schwind, J., & Osino, E. (2017). Mentors’ and mentees’ intellectual-partnership through the lens of the transformative learning theory. Nurse Education Practice, 25, 111–120. Zey, M. G. (1984). The mentor connection. Dow Jones-Irwin, Homewood, IL.

3

Mentoring and Coaching

3.1

Introduction

The terms mentoring and coaching are often used interchangeably. While these concepts are not the same, they have similar characteristics. Both are development approaches, based on the use of one-to-one conversations to enhance an individual’s skills, knowledge or work performance (Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD), 2020). Both mentoring and coaching are approaches to improvement and continuous professional and personal development. We have already established mentoring as a relationship-oriented process. Although coaching is described as a “relationship-based process led by an expert with specialized adult learning knowledge and skills…” (NACEY and NACCRA, 2011, p. 11), it is predominantly, task-oriented. The purpose of coaching is to change behaviour (McGill & Brockbank, 2012). It is oriented toward managing performance, ensuring tasks are completed correctly (Ibid.). Coaching is a subset of mentoring. During the mentoring process, there will be times, when the mentor may need to utilise coaching strategies. Oberholzer (2019) advises that the key is to know when to use mentoring and coaching to maximise the talents of those being supported. At the novice stage (e.g., ITE), Tannenbaum and Schmidt (2009) suggest leading on telling and guidance (coaching), moving toward questioning and negotiation skills (see Chap. 7) at a more advanced stage of the mentee’s development. With this in mind, this chapter, beings with a question: Coaching and mentoring, are they the same or different? Throughout this chapter then, we explore role differentiation and overlap between coaching and mentoring in the context of practicum. Overall, the chapter examines the following:

• A Comparison of Coaching and Mentoring • Features of Coaching © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. Moloney et al., Professional Mentoring for Early Childhood and Primary School Practice, Springer Texts in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37186-8_3

39

40

3

Mentoring and Coaching

• Supervisory Coaching • Content Focused Coaching.

3.2

Coaching and Mentoring: The Same or Different?

As mentioned, mentoring and coaching are frequently used interchangeably. Acknowledging that they are both valuable processes, Lofthouse et al. (2010, p. 7) say the boundary between coaching and mentoring is “somewhat permeable.” Indeed, as the present chapter illustrates, there are multiple areas of similarity across the two concepts. The Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (CIMA, 2008) for instance, refer to a number of common mentor/coaching characteristics. These include willingness to listen; openness to new ideas; challenging ways of thinking; work experience; making time available; and encouraging new enthusiasm (p. 7). From the perspective of Stahl et al. (2018), coaching comprises the following elements: • • • • • •

A relationship between the coach and the learner Deliberate practice Purposeful learning activity Provision of feedback Iteration and Reflective practice (p. 14).

Many of the elements identified by Stahl et al., are common to mentoring. Notably the relational aspect (Chap. 2), provision of feedback (Chap. 7) and reflective practice (Chap. 8). On the topic of relationships, Gardiner (2012, p. 195) identifies trusting relationships as “foundational to the coaching process.” Furthermore, Gasper and Walker (2020) say that both mentoring and coaching interconnect at the point where the success of both depends on the relationship between the parties involved being premised on trust, commitment and respect. The relational nature of mentoring and coaching maximises the effects of both (Ibid.). Gardiner also suggests that coaching is aligned to new teachers’ needs and context, and a scaffolded process that enhances their ability to respond to immediate needs. Similar characteristics can be attributed to the mentoring process for pre-service, novice and veteran teachers. You might ask then, what is the difference between coaching and mentoring? When you think of coaching and mentoring, do you see them as being the same, or do you differentiate between them. Let’s take a closer look.

3.3 Comparing Coaching and Mentoring

3.3

41

Comparing Coaching and Mentoring

Drawing upon the CUREE (2005) national framework for coaching and mentoring in the UK, Lofthouse et al. (2010) distinguish between three related processes: Mentoring, Specialist coaching and Collaborative (Co-) coaching. These processes are defined as follows: • Mentoring—a structured, sustained process for supporting professional learners through significant career transitions • Specialist coaching—a structured, sustained process for enabling the development of a specific aspect of a learner’s practice • Collaborative (Co-) coaching—a structured, sustained process between two or more professional learners to enable them to embed new knowledge and skills from specialist sources in day-to-day practice (Lofthouse et al., 2010, p. 7). The definitions of specialist and collaborative (co-) coaching presented here indicate it is a sustained process that is focussed upon a specific aspect of practice. Although the European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (CEDEFOP, 2022) also associate coaching with clearly defined goals and objectives, they do not perceive it as a sustained process. Instead, CEDEFOP suggest that when the goals and objectives are achieved, coaching comes to an end. According to the CIPD (2020) the coaching process lasts for a defined period or forms the basis of an ongoing management style. It can also serve as an immediate, short-term solution that involves management in goal setting for measurable impact (Robins, 2009). While coaching aims to assist improvement in specific areas or aspects (Clutterbuck, 2004), it may not necessarily involve a short-term relationship. This is especially so, when it forms the basis of an ongoing management style, as when it is used for CPD within an early childhood setting or school. Overall, by contrast, mentoring is broader, with evolving goals and objectives (CEDEFOP, 2022). It has a long history of being associated with learning and a tool for self-development (Doherty & Jarvis, 2016), and as an essential element of continuing early childhood teacher development (Balduzzi & Lazzarri, 2015), as well as primary teacher development (Becker et al., 2019). Kemmis et al., (2014) also attribute a more general function to mentoring. They note that in traditional mentoring approaches, co-operating teachers (see Chaps. 1 and 5) primarily offer emotional support, and often discuss general pedagogical topics rather than content specific issues (Valencia et al., 2009). As indicated throughout this book, in the context of initial teacher education, emotional support is essential. However, offering emotional support does not negate the need for a mentor to provide instructional support relating to improving lesson planning or teaching quality for instance. Areas which are considered crucial tasks in initial teacher preparation (European Commission, 2013). In the words of Mok and Straub (2021, p. 3), co-operating teachers “act as coaches who work closely with students and provide guidance to foster the development of [student teachers’]

42

3

Mentoring and Coaching

teaching repertoire through collaboration with [them].” In the context of practicum, therefore, a mentor may use coaching as part of their arsenal to bring about change in the pre-service teacher’s thinking and practice. Although little is known about the effectiveness of coaching for pre-service teachers, Becker et al. (2019) say that some coaching approaches, such as ContentFocused Coaching have been adapted to offer additional support to pre-service teachers during practicum. We discuss this model/approach further later in this chapter. It seems that, in the main, co-operating teachers in schools and/or early childhood settings act as coaches for pre-service teachers during teaching. In that sense, they undertake supervisory coaching, which is usually informal and difficult to distinguish from mentoring (Doorewaard & Meihuizen, 2000). However, as already mentioned, coaching is not confined to co-operating teachers. To this point, we have identified the instructional focus and duration of coaching as the main differences between coaching and mentoring. Clutterbuck (2004) identifies another significant difference. He suggests that the defining feature of mentoring is the holistic nature of the mentoring role. It is this holistic focus that “distinguishes [mentoring] from other learning or support roles, such as coaching and counselling” (Ibid., p. 3). Regardless of the differences between these concepts, both coaching and mentoring are recognised as part of the culture of early childhood education and care (McMahon et al., 2016), and of teaching (Mok & Staub, 2021). In relation to pre-service teachers, Auld et al. (2010) say that coaching has been identified as beneficial in terms of skills acquisition. Can a distinction be drawn then with regards to when and how mentoring and coaching can be used? Mentor Reflection Point

• From your perspective, what are the differences between mentoring and coaching, or, do you feel that they are the same?

Table 3.1, which draws upon the work of the NAEYC and NACCRRA (2011), Lofthouse et al. (2010), compares coaching and mentoring, and outlines some of the main differences between the two. Did you identify any of these differences? During practicum, a coach may provide immediate feedback, also known as side-by-side coaching about the pre-service teacher’s performance. While recognising that feedback is essential for improving pre-service teacher performance, Taylor et al. (2022) reference the need to provide pre-service teachers with effective, timely, relevant, and useable feedback. Bozer and Jones (2018) summarise the interplay between a coach’s feedback and the recipient’s interpretation and use of the feedback Specifically, the coach assists the coachee in processing and interpreting feedback, raising awareness, taking responsibility for change, challenging assumptions, and gaining a

3.3 Comparing Coaching and Mentoring

43

Table 3.1 Comparison between mentoring and coaching Mentoring

Coaching

Definition

A relationship-based process between colleagues in similar professional roles. Usually involves a more experienced individual with adult learning knowledge and skills, (mentor), providing guidance and example to the less-experienced mentee. The intention is to increase an individual’s personal or professional capacity, resulting in greater professional effectiveness. Mentoring usually takes place at significant career points, such as supporting induction or taking on a new professional role

A relationship-based process led by an expert with specialised and adult learning knowledge and skills. This expert often works in a different professional role than the recipient(s). They focus on goal setting and achievement, building specific professional dispositions, skills, and behaviours for an individual or group. Coaching usually involves focused professional dialogue designed to develop a person’s specific professional skills, to enhance their teaching repertoire

Focus

Addresses the mentee’s holistic professional growth and supports reflective processes that professionals (mentor or protégé) need to translate the theories and information learned through study into best practices

Supports the development of specific skills and practices. Focuses on performance-based outcomes, and for teachers, it often supports experimentation with new classroom strategies

Relationship Includes the mentor and mentee Requires interactions that build respect establishing and maintaining a positive, and trust. Should be distinguished from trusting, and respectful relationship supervisory processes. However, its findings and conclusions may contribute to job performance evaluation Process

Begins with establishing role clarity and goal setting. It includes the facilitation of adult learning techniques such as guided self-reflection, resulting in the application of new ideas. Includes various combinations of questioning, listening, observation, reflection, feedback, prompting, modelling and practice. May include unplanned contacts between mentor and mentee when the mentee has questions or specific concerns. Remains ongoing until goals are achieved

Begins with a collaborative agreement between the coach and the individual to set the guidelines and the goals. Includes various combinations of questioning, listening, observation, reflection, feedback, prompting, modelling and practice. Likely to occur through planned contacts and concludes when the specific goal is achieved

Feedback

While verbal feedback is a core aspect of mentoring, there may be a requirement for the mentor to provide documentary evidence of the mentoring process, and its outcomes, e.g., demonstrating that the mentee has met certain competencies (generally a requirement of practicum). During mentoring, the mentor shares their skills and knowledge to improve performance

Feedback is verbal. It is evaluative in nature, focused on performance and future actions. In coaching, a coach identifies potential issues and aims to fix them

(continued)

44

3

Mentoring and Coaching

Table 3.1 (continued) Mentoring

Coaching

Duration

Ongoing, iterative process

Can occur one time or in a series of sessions, dependent upon the successful achievement of the goal

Delivery

May be provided face-to-face or through distance technology-based methods

May be provided face-to-face or through distance technology-based methods

new perspective, setting inspiring personal development goals, and staying accountable for actions to achieve goals despite discomfort and setbacks. (p. 33)

In addition, Scheeler and Lee (2002, p. 232) highlight certain benefits of “precise, immediate, frequent feedback,” noting that it ‘increases efficacy and efficiency’. By contrast, delayed feedback “allows learners to practice errors, especially in the acquisition phase of learning and when learners are allowed to repeat errors” (Ibid., p. 232). A more in-depth discussion of immediate and delayed feedback features in Chap. 7. With regards to coach and mentor training, although coaching requires formal training, mentoring does not. In a review of the literature on coaching interactions between co-operating teachers and pre-service teachers, Hoffman et al. (2015) concluded that in the absence of preparation and guidance in how to support pre-service teachers, co-operating teachers tend to coach the way they have been coached. Assuming an evaluative stance, they “rely heavily on praise and corrections as their primary tools” (Ibid., p. 110). According to Hoffman et al., co-operating teachers focus on helping pre-service teachers to fit in and feel successful, rather than challenging them to develop. The risk here is that pre-service teachers will not benefit from practicum, and instead learn how to conform and confirm the status quo (Ibid.). Likewise, in relation to mentoring, we contend that mentors too must be prepared for their role. In this respect, we make the case for mentor training (Chap. 10). Now that we have explored some of the similarities and differences between coaching and mentoring, we turn our attention to the features of coaching.

3.4

Features of Coaching

In line with previous definitions of coaching as a measure to enhance performance and bring about change, Cox et al. (2014, p. 1) define it as “a human development process that involves structured, focused interaction and the use of appropriate strategies, tools and techniques to promote desirable and sustainable change.” It is “a powerful vehicle for increasing performance, achieving results and optimizing personal effectiveness” for the benefit of the learner (coachee) and potentially, other stakeholders (Ibid., p. 1). Coaching is associated with a range of features,

3.4 Features of Coaching

45

Fig. 3.1 Overview of the generally agreed features of coaching in an organisation

as illustrated in Fig 3.1, which summarises five agreed features of coaching as identified by the CIPD (2021). Many of these features have already been alluded to (Fig. 3.1). Again, as you will see elsewhere in this book, some of these features are common to mentoring also. For example, mentoring and coaching both aim to achieve a similar result—professional or personal growth of the mentee/coachee. Mentoring can encompass both organisational (university/college, school or early childhood setting) and individual goals (Chap. 2), it provides mentees with opportunities to better assess their strengths as well as areas for development (Chaps. 2 and 4). Finally, like coaching, mentoring is a skilled activity. As discussed in Chap. 10 then, ideally, a mentor should be trained in mentoring. Mentor and Mentee Reflection Point

The characteristics included in Fig. 3.1 refer to the agreed features of coaching—the act of coaching. But what of the coach, the person involved in coaching. • What characteristics would you associate with the coach?

46

3

Mentoring and Coaching

Look at Fig. 3.2, which is based on the work of the Pennsylvania Child Welfare Resource Centre (CWRD, n.d). It summarises the main characteristics associated with an effective coach. Did you identify any of the characteristics shown? As mentioned, the characteristics illustrated in Fig. 3.2 have been adapted from the Pennsylvania Child Welfare Resource Centre (CWRC, n.d., pp. 1–3). The following list explains each characteristic in detail: • Positive. The coach’s role is not to correct mistakes, find fault or assess blame. Instead, a coach achieves productivity goals by coaching [learners] to peak performance; • Enthusiastic. Leaders, supervisors and managers set the tone. Their attitude is catching. If a coach projects negativity, they get negativity back; • Supportive. This involves much more than providing an encouraging word and a pat on the back. The coach’s role is to get the learner what they need to do

Fig. 3.2 An effective coach

3.4 Features of Coaching

•

•

• •

•

•

•

47

their job well. This includes providing tools, time, training, answers to questions and protection from outside interference. The coach anticipates needs and prevents problems from happening; Trusting. Workers are not infallible. They have good days and bad days. Good coaches trust learners to be conscientious, to be truthful, and to do their job well. When learners see their supervisor or manager applying high standards to their own work, they are more likely to do the same. It is important that once a coach tells the learner what to do, that they let them do it; Focussed. Effective communication is specific and focused. Effective coaches deal in specifics. They keep the task manageable. They are far more likely to see results if a learner leaves the coaching episode focussed on resolving the issue at hand; Goal oriented. An effective coach bases assignments on clear, definable goals, and link specific tasks to those goals. They then communicate those goals to the people who actually have to do the work; Observant. An effective coach does not sit in their office all day. They mingle with staff, paying attention to what is said and what is not said. They are attuned to, and pick up on body movements and tone of voice (see Chap. 5 for deeper insights on effective communication); Respectful. An effective coach respects the rights of all staff as human beings. This can be as simple as avoiding making assumptions, or as complex as learning that a gesture made frequently to indicate approval comes across as demeaning to someone from another culture. It is important that a coach gets to know the staff and treats them as individuals with respect; Patient. Patience is not just a virtue. It is a survival skill in the workplace. When frustrated by staff action or in-action, a coach must tell them again, how to do something, but find other words to do so. They might use a new approach. They might for example, ask the learner to explain the instructions to them, as if they were a new worker. This shows that the learner being coached understands the directions, and it helps them to internalise those directions. As the CWRC note, to teach is to learn twice; Assertive. While a coach is positive, enthusiastic, supportive, trusting, goalfocused, observant, respectful, patient and clear, they must not lose sight of the need to be assertive. This is a critical fact of organisational life. Supervisors need to supervise; managers need to manage. Being an effective coach does not mean the coach passes on their responsibility to make decisions. It means they make sure they understand what is involved in any decision, that they communicate decisions effectively, and that learners able to act on those decisions appropriately. This is how things get done. Being assertive involves maintaining a strong presence, acting with confidence and persistence (CWRC, n.d., pp. 1–3).

48

3

Mentoring and Coaching

Mentor and Mentee Reflection Point

The Pennsylvania Child Welfare Resource Centre also say that an effective coach is Clear. If the learner did not hear the instruction correctly, maybe the coach did not say it right. For example, I explain something to you, but you do not understand. I repeat, using essentially the same words, only louder and/or more slowly. The scenario continues, with both of us getting frustrated, angry and further apart. • Whose fault is it? Yours, for not understanding? Or mine, for failing to find a more effective way to communicate? (Adapted from the CWRS, n.d.).

In the case illustrated here, as noted by the CWRS, it does not matter whose fault it is. The simple fact is that you and I are not connecting. As with mentoring, effective communication is vital. This point is reiterated throughout the text. Ultimately, if you are trying to communicate and the other person does not understand, you must take responsibility for making the connection (Ibid.). Key Learning Point

When communication is misunderstood, either through coaching or mentoring, avoid making it worse by simply repeating the same words louder of more slowly (adapted from CWRS).

As a mentor or a coach, it is critical to be aware of how we communicate with a mentee. As discussed in Chaps. 1 and 4, the student population in university/ college, in schools and early childhood settings is increasingly diverse. Some pre-service, novice and veteran teachers may have to surmount language barriers. Some may have auditory issues. Being aware of these matters, and using the principles of UDL, we can adjust how we communicate. For example, the field of early childhood education is saturated by diverse terminology. This can be confusing for pre-service early childhood teachers in the early stages of their initial teacher education. It is important to avoid jargon, to use simple terms, to offer explanations etc., when communicating. It is important also to be aware of nonverbal communication and remain alert to any sign that a mentee is overwhelmed by what we are saying. Both mentoring and coaching are used to challenge and help individuals to change the way they work, identify and solve problems, overcome obstacles, make decisions and implement change. Both utilise strategies such as developing the ability to engage in reflective practice through a process of pertinent

3.5 Supervisory Coaching

49

open-ended questioning, as well as recognising the importance of supportive feedback (Gasper & Walker, 2020). Both strategies (reflective practice and supportive feedback) are explored in Chaps. 7 and 8. Coaching and mentoring are multidimensional. As a multi-dimensional approach (Stefan et al., 2015), coaching is practical and inclusive of a psychological process that involves behavioural change or a change in how a skill is implemented (Taylor, 2007). According to Lutton (2012) coaching is a closely related role that emphasises all the relationship-based skills of mentoring but also implies a specific focus. Key Learning Point

The interactions and conversations between cooperating teachers and preservice teachers around practice are imbued with content, expectations, understandings, strategies and even the power and authoritative stances taken. Cooperating teachers use talk not only to describe their own decisionmaking and reflection but also to nurture the learning of the pre-service teachers in the context of practice. This nurturing work around practice that is directed toward growth has come to be referred to in terms of ‘coaching’ (Hoffman et al., 2015. p. 100). In looking at this quotation from Hoffman et al. and comparing it to the discussion of mentoring in Chap. 2, it is evident that conversations between mentors and mentees are equally saturated with content expectations, understandings and so on. Similarly, mentors nurture their mentees’ (e.g., student teachers) learning in the context of practice, with the intention of enhancing their professional growth and development as teachers. This again, brings us back to the question: is there a difference, or what is the difference between coaching and mentoring? In the context of the practicum component of initial teacher education, the answer may lie in the different roles undertaken by the cooperating teacher, and the university/ college appointed mentor.

3.5

Supervisory Coaching

Earlier, we presented a range of features associated with effective coaching. Did you notice the reference to supervisors? Pre-service teachers may refer to their university/college appointed mentor as a supervisor. This is not the case. University/college-based mentors do not work alongside the pre-service teacher in the classroom. In other words, they do not engage in supervisory coaching. Here we draw a distinction between roles. That is: the role of the school-based mentor who may be the class teacher, or the early childhood setting-based mentor who may be a pedagogical leader, or a manager for example. These mentor/coaches who work alongside the pre-service teacher in-situ—in the natural environment of the classroom or early childhood setting, engage in supervisory coaching. On the other hand, the role of the university/college-based mentor is to evaluate the pre-service

50

3

Mentoring and Coaching

teacher’s performance against programmatic criteria, which are driven by national teacher standards. They simultaneously fulfil an important support role, ensuring the pre-service teacher makes the transition from their comfort zone to the learning zone, without slipping into the panic zone where development becomes impossible (see Learning Zone Model, Chap. 6). Experiential situated learning for teachers has consistently been identified as important in professional learning (Labone & Long, 2016). During practicum, preservice teachers get an invaluable opportunity to engage in experiential, situated learning in the real-world context of the classroom or early childhood setting. Such learning, which leads to sustained pedagogical change (Labone & Long, 2016) depends upon the quality of coaching and mentoring. As mentioned at the outset, coaching is a subset of mentoring. Chapter 2 explores the many meanings associated with mentoring, and how it is used to achieve different goals (Heikkinen et al., 2012). In Chap. 2 also, Kemmis et al. (2014) identified three mentoring archetypes, one of which is mentoring as supervision. At this stage, you are probably asking what does mentoring as supervision mean? According to Colognesi et al. (2020), mentoring as supervision involves the mentor in observing, reflecting on, and assessing the mentee’s performance. However, as alluded to earlier, supervision is often associated with assessment of performance, whereas mentoring is not. As discussed throughout this book mentoring involves inspiring, guiding, facilitating and giving non-judgemental feedback (Hobson, 2016; Hobson & Malderez, 2013). While a mentor may ‘coach’ a mentee on a specific aspect of their practice, mentoring is never supervision, performance management, or assessment for a third party (Klasen & Clutterbuck, 2002, p. 9). That is not to say that supervisory coaching is negative. Supervisors (e.g., class teachers; pedagogical leaders, managers) with a reputation for collaboration and who are seen as having a strong commitment to facilitating ongoing learning, are often viewed as leaders from whom other teachers want to learn (Lieberman & Friedrich, 2010). In early childhood, Eggbeer et al. (2007) say a tradition of providing reflective supervision is well established with responsibilities and characteristics similar to mentoring. The traditions of mentoring and reflective supervision differ from the broader duties of general supervision because they focus on offering empathy and support, and facilitating reflection (Parlakian, 2002a, 2002b; Weatherston et al., 2010). Qualities that are intended to promote professional growth over time. In essence, supervisors who take responsibility for guiding teachers’ decision-making through reflection are engaged in a form of onthe-job mentoring known as reflective supervision (Heller & Gilkerson, 2009). See Chap. 8 for deeper insights into the role of reflection in the mentoring process.

3.6

Content Focused Coaching

There is no doubt that national teaching standards inform the content and evaluation of initial teacher education programmes. These standards generally focus on three areas of knowledge and skill: teaching practice skills, pedagogical skills

3.7 The Process of Agreeing a Shared Lesson Plan Using CFC

51

and subject knowledge (Taylor et al., 2022). While there are many approaches to coaching, including observing, modelling and classroom observation (Gibbons & Cobb, 2016), here, we provide insight into a model of coaching: Content Focused Coaching (CFC) that is especially effective in the context of practicum. While originally developed for the training of experienced and novice teachers, CFC can be applied to primary teacher practicum (Becker et al., 2019). CFC coaches, i.e., experienced cooperating teachers scaffold student teachers’ development of high-quality instructional practices in a particular disciplinary area (Coburn & Russell, 2008 in Gibbons & Cobb, 2016, p. 238). They do this by engaging student teachers in activities that focus on key disciplinary ideas, how students learn those ideas, and pedagogical principles for supporting students’ learning (Ibid.). So, what is CFC? Becker et al. (2019) indicate that CFC is grounded in a coaching cycle of pre-lesson conferences and the enactment of lessons and post-lesson conferences. It does not “prescribe specific instructional methods but supports the learner in their daily activities of planning, teaching and reflecting on lessons by proposing settings and tools for coaching interactions” (Ibid., p. 14). Elements of CFC include core issues for lesson design and engaging in coconstructive dialogues. Other coaching activities in CFC, which are reflective of mentoring, include modelling instruction or co-teaching (see Chap. 6). Becker et al. (2019) highlight another vital aspect of CFC in teaching practicum. This involves the use of pre-lesson conferences that aim for the joint development of lesson plans. Pre-lesson conferences are recommended to communicate lesson objectives and teaching strategies (Ibid.). It is likely that these conferences support the pre-service teacher’s knowledge and understanding of teaching practice skills, pedagogical skills and subject knowledge. Aspects that feature in national teaching standards in many countries.

3.7

The Process of Agreeing a Shared Lesson Plan Using CFC

In their article Advancing student teachers’ learning in the teaching practicum through Content-Focused Coaching: A field experiment, Becker et al. (2019) take us through the process of agreeing on a shared lesson plan: 1. The cooperating teacher invites the pre-service teacher to express their own ideas, beliefs and convictions; to elaborate on lesson ideas; and to justify choices by using invitational conversation techniques; 2. During this process, the cooperating teacher gives direct assistance and uses meta communication for strategic planning and coordination (called coaching moves). CFC aims to reduce imbalances in dialogues by striking a balance between patience and active listening on the one hand, and introducing lesson-design proposals, suggestions and arguments on the other hand (Becker et al., 2019, p. 14).

52

3

Mentoring and Coaching

This demanding task might be easier to accomplish in pre-lesson conferences, as they offer a setting in which the evaluative component is less accentuated: Here jointly planning a lesson is the focus and not something the ST did or did not do in a lesson. Proposals and recommendations can be articulated more openly, in a dialogue of mutual respect in which both partners can bring in their own questions and ideas. (p. 14)

Overall, as noted by Gibbons and Cobb (2016), the purpose of CFC is to provide teachers with “ongoing job-embedded support for improving the quality of their instruction and their student’s learning” (p. 255). This job-embedded support provided in-situ differentiates coaching from mentoring, in the sense that the cooperating teacher provides coaching on-site in the classroom. This chapter shows how the boundaries between mentoring and coaching are intertwined. While there are many similarities, there are significant differences also. In the realm of practicum, a mentor can of necessity, and serendipity, fulfil a dual role of mentor and coach.

3.8

Chapter Summary Points

• Although the coaching and mentoring roles may appear contradictory, they are in fact complimentary. Coaching is, therefore, a subset of mentoring. • Both mentoring and coaching are used to challenge and help individuals change the way they work, identify and solve problems, overcome obstacles, make decisions and implement change. • Coaching is a short-term and task-based process, while mentoring is broader, and focused on holistic development. • Coaching and mentoring use many of the same skills. • Successful mentoring and coaching depend on a relationship of trust and respect. • The need to foster a safe learning environment requires the mentor and the coach to be clear about their individual roles. Sometimes, however, the reality may be that one person may be required to fill both roles.

References Auld, R., Belfiore, P., & Scheeler, M. (2010). Increasing pre-service teachers’ use of differential reinforcement: Effects of performance feedback on consequences for student behaviour. Journal of Behavioral Education, 19, 169–183. Balduzzi, L., & Lazzarri, A. (2015). Mentoring practices in workplace-based professional preparation: A critical analysis of policy developments in the Italian context. Early Years: An International Journal of Research and Development, 35(2), 124–138.

References

53

Becker, E. S., Waldis, M., & Staub, F. C. (2019). Advancing student teachers’ learning in the teaching practicum through Content-Focused Coaching: A field experiment. Teaching and Teacher Education, 83, 12–26. Bozer, G., & Jones, R. J. (2018). Understanding the factors that determine workplace coaching effectiveness: A systematic literature review’. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 27(3), 342–361. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2018.1446946 CEDEFOP. (2022). One-to-one support through coaching or mentoring. Available at: https://www. cedefop.europa.eu/en/tools/vet-toolkit-tackling-early-leaving/intervention-approaches/oneone-support-through-coaching-or-mentoring#:~:text=This%20is%20an%20individualised% 20approach,related%20to%20health%20and%20welfare Chartered Institute of Management Accountants. (2008). Mentoring and coaching. Available at: https://www.cimaglobal.com/Documents/ImportedDocuments/cid_tg_mentoring_coa ching_Aug08.pdf.pdf Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD). (2020). Evaluating Learning and Development. CIPD Factsheet. Clutterbuck, D. (2004). Everyone needs a mentor: Fostering talent in your organisation. CIPD Publishing. Colognesi, S., Van Nieuwenhoven, C., & Beausaert, S. (2020). Supporting newly qualified teachers’ professional development and perseverance in secondary education: On the role of informal learning. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(2), 258–276. Cox, E., Bachkirova, T., & Clutterbuck, D. (2014). The complete handbook of coaching. Sage. CUREE. (2005). National Framework for mentoring and coaching. https://www.curee.co.uk/men toring-and-coaching Doherty, J., & Jarvis, P. (2016). Continuing professional development. In The complete companion for teaching and learning practice in the early years. Routledge. Doorewaard, H., & Meihuizen, H. (2000). Strategic performance options in professional service organisations. Human Resource Management Journal, 10(2), 39–57. Eggbeer, L., Mann, T., & Seibel, N. (2007). Reflective supervision: Past, present and future. Zero to Three, 28(2), 34–38. European Commission. (2013). Supporting teacher competence development for better training outcomes. https://www.education.ec.europa.eu/policy/school/doc/teachercomp_en.pdf Gardiner, W. (2012). Coaches’ and new urban teachers’ perceptions of induction coaching: Time, trust, and accelerated learning curves. The Teacher Educator, 47(3), 195–215. Gasper, M., & Walker, R. (2020). Mentoring and coaching in early childhood education. Bloomsbury Publishing Pic. Gibbons, L. K., & Cobb, P. (2016). Content-focused coaching: Five key practices. The Elementary School Journal, 2, 237–260. Heikkinen, H.L.T., Jokinen, H., & Tynjälä, P. (2012). Teacher education and development as lifelong and lifewide learning. In H. L. T. Heikkinen, H. Jokinen, & P. Tynjälä (Eds.), Peer-group mentoring for teacher development (pp. 3–30). Routledge. Hobson, A. J. (2016). Judgementoring and how to avert it: Introducing ONSIDE Mentoring for beginning teachers. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 5(2), 87– 110. Hobson, A. J., & Malderez, A. (2013). Judge mentoring and other threats to realizing the potential of school-based mentoring in teacher education. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 2(2), 89–108. Hoffman, J. V., Mosley Wetzel, M., Maloch, B., Greeter, E., Taylor, T., Dejulio, S., & Khan Vlach, S. (2015). ‘What can we learn from studying the coaching interactions between cooperating teachers and preservice teachers? A literature review. Teaching and Teacher Education, 52, 99– 112. Kemmis, S., Heikkinen, H., Fransson, G., Aspfors, J., & Edwards-Groves, C. (2014). Mentoring of new teachers as a contested practice: Supervision, support and collaborative self-development. Teaching and Teacher Education, 43, 154–164.

54

3

Mentoring and Coaching

Klasen, N., & Clutterbuck, D. (2002). Implementing mentoring schemes: A practical guide to successful programs. Butterworth Heinemann. Labone, E., & Long, J. (2016). Features of effective professional learning: A case study of the implementation of a system-based professional learning model. Professional Development in Education, 42(1), 54–77. Lieberman, A., & Friedrich, L. (2010). How teachers become leaders: Learning from practice and research. Teachers College Press. Lofthouse, R., Leat, D., & Towler, C. (2010). Coaching for teaching and learning: A practical guide for schools. CfBT Education Trust. Lutton, A. (2012). Advancing the profession: NAEYC standards and guidelines for professional development. National Association for the Education of Young Children. McGill, I., & Brockbank, A. (2012). Facilitating reflective learning: Coaching, mentoring and supervision (2nd ed.). Kogan Page Ltd. McMahon, C., Dyer, M., & Baker, C. (2016). Mentoring, coaching and supervision. In L. Trodd (Ed.), The early years handbook for students and practitioners. Butterworth-Heinemann. National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) and National Association of Child Care Resources and Referral Agencies (NACCRRA). (2011). Early childhood education professional development: Training and technical assistance glossary. NAEYA. Available at: http://www.naeyc.org/GlossaryTraining_TA.pdf Oberholzer, L. (2019). Developing a Culture of Mentoring and Coaching in a Mainstream Secondary Context through the use of Lesson Study. Research in Teacher Education, 9(1), 39–44. Parlakian, R. (2002a). Look, listen and learn: Reflective supervision and relationship-based work. Zero to Three. Parlakian, R. (2002b). Reflective supervision in practice: Stories from the field. Zero to Three. Pennsylvania Child Welfare Resource Centre (n.d). Characteristics of an Effective Coach. http:// pacwrc.pitt.edu/Curriculum/STSRemoteModule3/Handouts/H016_ChrEffCch,pdf Robins, A. (2009). Mentoring in the early years. Sage Publications. Scheeler, M. C., & Lee, D. (2002). Using technology to deliver immediate corrective feedback to preservice teachers. Journal of Behavioral Education, 11, 231–241. Guidelines for preparing Interview https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja& uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwix9YLVsL_7AhWFSkEAHTPqDygQFnoECBMQAQ&url=https% 3A%2F%2Fwww.lenus.ie%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F10147%2F42709%2F2090.pdf%3Fs equence%3D1%26isAllowed%3Dy&usg=AOvVaw10F0KHU3h4BaemL0kmXhpB Scott Heller, S., & Gilkerson, L. (2009). A practical guide to reflective supervision. Zero to Three. Ståhle, Y., Stahl, G., Sharplin, E., & Kehrwald, B. (2018). Real-time coaching and pre-service teacher education. ISBN 978-981-10-6397-8 (eBook) Stefan, D., Orboi, M. D., Garvrilla, C., & Savescu, J. (2015). Theoretical aspects regarding specific techniques of stimulating activities of training in coaching pedagogic practice. Research Journal of Agricultural Science, 47(4), 147–150. Tannenbaum, R., & Schmidt, W. (2009). How to choose a leadership pattern (Harvard Business Review Classics). Harvard Business School Publishing Corporation. Taylor, J. (2007). Instructional coaching: The state of art. In M. Mangin & S. Stoelinga (Eds.), Effective teacher leadership: Using research to inform and reform (pp. 10–36). Teachers College Press. Taylor, L., Oostdam, R. J., & Fukkink, R. G. (2022). Standardising coaching of preservice teachers in the classroom: Development and trial of the synchronous online feedback tool (SOFT). Teaching and Teacher Education, 117. Valencia, S. W., Martin, S. D., Place, N. A., & Grossman, P. (2009). Complex interactions in student teaching lost opportunities for learning. Journal of Teacher Education, 60(3), 304–322. Weatherston, D., Weigand, R., & Weigand, B. (2010). Reflective supervision: Supporting reflection as a cornerstone for competency. Zero to Three, 31(2), 22–30. Yee Mok, S., & Staub, F. C. (2021). Does coaching, mentoring and supervision matter for preservice teachers’ planning skills and clarity of instruction? A meta-analysis of (quasi) experimental studies. Teaching and Teacher Education, 107, 1–14.

4

Characteristics of a Mentor

In this chapter, we explore the characteristics of a mentor. These include, but are not confined to a positive attitude, enthusiasm, patience, and authenticity. Critical mentor skills include, understanding how adults learn, and how to facilitate this. As such, the present chapter begins with a discussion of mature students, followed by a discussion of Understanding Adult Learning. The remainder of the chapter explores:

. . . . .

Interpersonal Skills Mentor Characteristics Mentor Competencies and Abilities Emotional Intelligence and Emotionally Intelligent Mentoring.

Mature Students Not all university/college students come directly from secondary school. As we know, learning is a continuous, ongoing, and lifelong process. Therefore, the student population in university/college includes both young and mature-age adult learners. Defining mature students varies from Country to country. In Ireland, for instance, the Higher Education Authority (HEA) (2021) defines mature students as those aged 23 years or over on 1 January of their year of entry to higher education. Whereas, in the UK, a mature student is defined as being over 21 years old at the beginning of an undergraduate degree (Hubble & Bolton, 2021). Using data from Education at a Glance (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2022), the following table provides an overview of typical enrolment ages in Bachelor Degree programmes across OECD countries in 2019. As shown, in 25 of the 36 countries included in Table 4.1, students are aged 25 years+, with the upper age at 30+ years in nine countries. Hubble and Bolton © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. Moloney et al., Professional Mentoring for Early Childhood and Primary School Practice, Springer Texts in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37186-8_4

55

56 Table 4.1 Typical enrolment ages in bachelor degree programmes across OECD Countries

4

Characteristics of a Mentor

Country

Typical enrolment age

Australia

19–29

Austria

20–28

Belgium

19–22

Canada

19–24

Chile

20–26

Colombia

19–27

Czech Republic

20–25

Denmark

22–30

Estonia

20–31

Finland

21–32

France

18–22

Germany

20–28

Greece

20–34

Hungary

20–29

Iceland

21–32

Ireland

19–23

Israel

22–29

Italy

20–27

Korea

19–23

Latvia

20–29

Lithuania

20–25

Luxembourg

20–24

Mexico

19–24

Netherlands

19–25

New Zealand

19–30

Norway

22–35

Poland

20–27

Portugal

19–24

Slovak Republic

20–24

Slovenia

19–23

Spain

19–27

Sweden

22–36

Switzerland

21–28

Turkey

21–33

United Kingdom

19–23

United States

19–26

Source https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/3197152b-en/index. html?itemId=/content/publication/3197152b-en

4.1 Understanding Adult Learning

57

(2021) report that in 2019/20, mature students (older than 21 years) accounted for 37% of all undergraduate entrants in the UK, while in Ireland, 19.1% of new entrants in universities, colleges and institutes of technology were mature students (older than 23 years) in 2018/19 (HEA, 2021). While mature students bring a wealth of knowledge and life experience to the learning environment, many are re-engaging with education, sometimes after a long absence. Against this backdrop then, mentors must know and understand how mature students learn, and critically how to support them.

4.1

Understanding Adult Learning

Significantly, the learning process for adult learners is not just about knowledge acquisition. Instead, it also involves: . Comprehension about how learning fits into their lives . How learning can be applied to their workplace roles, and . How learning is relevant to their life experiences (Kasworm, 2008). Learning is influenced by, and embedded in students’ lives, values, cultures, and working conditions (Opfer & Pedder, 2011). An effective mentor recognises and respects this. While there are many theories of adult learning, Malcolm Knowles, an American educator developed one of the best-known theories. He used the term Andragogy, which refers to the art and science of adult learning. It, therefore, refers to any form of adult learning (Kearsley, 2010). Andragogy correlates with the term pedagogy, both of Greek origin. Pedagogy translates as Paidi (child) and Ago (guide), i.e., child-led, while, andragogy, means Andras (man) and Ago (guide), i.e., adult-leading. Between 1980 and 1984, Knowles made five assumptions about the characteristics of adult learners, as summarised in Table 4.2. In summary, Knowles’ concept of andragogy clarifies how adults learn best and their attitude towards learning. Mentor Reflection Point

. To what extent does your experience as a teacher-educator, teacher-mentor resonate with Knowles’ assumptions about adult learners? . What are the enablers to supporting your mentees to be self-directed learners? . What are the challenges for you, in supporting your mentees to be selfdirected learners?

58

4

Characteristics of a Mentor

Table 4.2 Overview of adult-learner characteristics Assumption

As a person matures

Self-concept

Their self-concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward one of being a self-direct human being

Adult learning experience

They accumulate a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning

Readiness to learn

Their readiness to learn becomes increasingly oriented to the development tasks of their social roles

Orientation to learning

Their time perspective changes from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application. So, their orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject-centredness to one of problem centredness

Motivation to learn

Motivation to learn is internal

Source Knowles (1984, p. 12)

Not everyone supports Knowles’ differentiation of adult learning and pedagogy. Why do you think this is so? Think about the differentiation between andragogy and pedagogy. What does it mean? Taylor and Hamdy (2013) say the differentiation between andragogy and pedagogy seems artificial. What do you think? For Taylor and Hamdy, many of the principles of andragogy can be applied equally to children’s learning. They therefore suggest: It is probably more appropriate to think in terms of a learning continuum, which stretches throughout life, with different emphases, problems and strategies at different times. (Taylor & Hamdy, 2013, p. 1561)

Somewhat like Knowles characteristics, Prakash et al. (2019), identified four distinct categories of adult learners, as follows: 1. Self-directed learners who plan, conduct, and assess their own learning; 2. Goal-oriented learners usually know what goal they want to reach upon enrolling in a course; 3. Activity-oriented learners learn more readily with various activities, and 4. Learning-oriented learners who must see a reason for learning something; learning must apply to their work or other responsibilities to be of value to them (p. 76). Prakash et al. (2019, p. 76) argue that adult learners have a “deep need to be self-directed.” Often described as the goal of adult education, Taylor and Hamby (2013), suggest self-directed learning emphasises autonomy and individual freedom in learning. For this reason, teachers engage “in inquiry with students to awaken interest rather than searing as an oracle of knowledge” (ibid., p. 76). Selfdirected learning suggests that “adult students can participate in the diagnosis of

4.1 Understanding Adult Learning

59

their planning and implementation of the learning experiences, and the evaluation of those experiences” (Merriam et al., 2007, p. 85). Although Taylor and Hamby identify self-directed learning as the ultimate goal of adult education, they also identify certain limitations. Thus, self-directed learning: . Takes no account of the social context of learning . Underestimates the value of other forms of learning such as collaborative learning (Taylor & Hamby, 2013) It is noteworthy though, that Knowles (1975) described the concept of self-directed learning as adults taking initiative and using resources to further their own learning efforts. He did not indicate that being self-directed meant being cut off from socialising with others. Rather, he recommended that the learning environment must be collaborative, welcoming, and one of mutual respect and trust (Knowles, 1984), characteristics that permeate the mentoring relationship as explicated throughout this book. If we view adult learning in terms of a learning continuum that stretches throughout life, we must accept that adult learners have a wealth of knowledge. Knowledge acquired through their life experiences prior to attending university/ college. Adult learners bring their opinions, values and beliefs to the mentoring process. As a mentor, how do you view this? Do you view it as a resource, or a challenge? Mentor Reflection Point

Adult learners have a wealth of knowledge acquired through their life experience prior to attending college, and or the workplace. They bring all of this to the mentoring process . How can you use this knowledge as a resource in the mentoring relationship?

A mentor facilitates learning (Ellis et al., 2020). Critical mentor skills include, understanding how adults learn, and how to facilitate this. Hudson and Hudson (2017) refer to the potential challenges presented by ‘mature-aged’ mentees. Challenges include the mentee being overly confident, and/or inadvertently undermining their mentor through incessant questioning. As facilitators of learning, mentors “see themselves as resources for learning, rather than as didactic instructors who have all the answers” (Brookfield, 1986, p. 63). All of this has implications for the mentoring role. We suggest then, that andragogy may be used as a starting point for approaching mentoring, or as a guide for a mentor to understand the realities of adult learners, and to foster a collaborative relationship. Hudson’s (2004) five-factor model (see Chap. 2) highlights the personal attributes of the mentor. In this regard, O’Dwyer and McCormack (2014, p. 47)

60

4

Characteristics of a Mentor

suggest mentors “should be able to demonstrate energy, flexibility, adaptability and possess a social intelligence that understands the complexity of human interactions and behaviour change.” Equally, Ellis et al. (2020) stress the importance of interpersonal and communication skills, which as discussed in the following section, are essential.

4.2

Interpersonal Skills

Broadly speaking, a mentor should have good interpersonal and communication skills (Darling-Hammond, 2005; Ellis et al., 2020; Hudson & Hudson, 2017; Jonson, 2008; Nolan, 2007). Makes sense. Yes? But let us think about what this means. How would you classify good interpersonal skills? What interpersonal skills would you look for in a mentor? What interpersonal skills do you possess as a mentor? Ellis et al. (2020) associate interpersonal skills with the ability to communicate, and to build relationships with others. Sometimes, these abilities are referred to as people skills. Think about the many times we hear the phrase, s/he is a ‘real people person’? This somewhat trite phrase undermines the complexity, and multi-faceted nature of people skills. People skills encompass the ability to be compassionate, trustworthy and flexible. Hurst and Reding (2002) add other characteristics such as patience, gentleness, authenticity. Figure 4.1 provides an overview of a range of important mentor characteristics as identified by Hurst and Reding (2002). Although the characteristics shown here relate to mentoring characteristics, it could be argued that some equally apply to the mentee. Which characteristics would you identify as ‘mentee’ characteristics? Why? From the perspective of Early Childhood Education, Rodd (2006) says that in addition to empathy and understanding, successful mentors have an interest in lifelong learning and professional development, sophisticated interpersonal skills, cultural sensitivity, understanding of the role of a mentor, and considerable early childhood expertise (p. 172).

The types of skills identified by Rodd are also essential for elementary and primary school mentors. For instance, Ellis et al. (2020), reference the need for mentors to demonstrate enthusiasm and passion for the mentoring role, to develop a pedagogy of professional experience learning, and to possess strong academic and professional knowledge. Rodd also stresses the need for “active listening, effective observations, reflective conversations, awareness of different learning styles, and adult/teacher development” (2006, p. 173). Other desirable characteristics include being approachable, being a good listener and possessing a willingness to learn (Nolan, 2007). Furthermore, as discussed in Chap. 7, mentors should be able to engage in open, honest non-judgemental conversations with mentees (Ellis et al., 2020; Hudson, 2016; Hudson & Hudson, 2017).

4.2 Interpersonal Skills

61

Fig. 4.1 Overview of mentoring characteristics

Key Learning Point

Empathy is the ability to imagine oneself in another’s place and understand the other’s feelings, desires, ideas, and actions (Kasl & Yorks, 2015, p. 240).

Here we introduce Gosia, a newly qualified teacher, who feels overwhelmed within the infant classroom. Review practice scenario 1 and consider the reflective questions. Practice Scenario 1—Mentoring Characteristics in Practice

Gosia is a newly qualified teacher. She is the infant class teacher in a rural school, responsible for twenty-four 5-year-old children. She has been teaching for six months but feels overwhelmed. On the one hand, she understands the children’s need to play and be active, but on the other, she feels restricted by the demands of the curriculum. She shares her thoughts with a fellow

62

4

Characteristics of a Mentor

infant teacher; Lillian who has been teaching in the school for five years. Lillian reassures Gosia that her feelings are normal. She recalls her own first year as a teacher following graduation, and offers to share lesson plans with Gosia. Lillian also invites Gosia to observe her teaching. 1. How would you describe Lillian and Gosia’s relationship? 2. Describe the mentoring characteristics and skills being demonstrated by Lillian? 3. What effect do you think Lillian’s reassurance has on Gosia?

In this scenario, Lillian is approachable, she demonstrates active listening. She empathises with Gosia. She is able to imagine herself in Gosia’s shoes. Having been a newly qualified teacher previously, she is able to identify common ground and understand Gosia’s feelings. Through their discussion, Lillian engages in informal mentoring. She is honest and non-judgmental, demonstrating familiarity with the school, the curriculum and the students. She provides immediate and consistent feedback to Gosia (see Chap. 6 for further insights into informal mentoring, and Chap. 7 for detail on feedback). Chu (2012, 2014) believes that trust is more likely to be built when mentors start the mentoring relationship by actively listening to the mentee. Active listening, a core mentor skill, which helps to establish what the mentee wants to know, has a profound effect on the mentee. According to Daloz (2012), mentees are most likely to feel supported when mentors listen, provide structure, express positive expectations, serve as advocates, share themselves, and make the relationship special. When mentors actively listen, ask questions and remain non-judgemental, they facilitate rapport and trust with their mentee, thus, helping their learning (Ellis et al., 2020; Ward et al., 2012). All of the aspects outlined here correlate with Hudson’s (2004) five-factor model of mentoring (see Chap. 2). Mentor and Mentee Reflection Point

There is no doubt that active listening is an essential mentor skill. However, there are other skills that are just as important, and play a vital role in the mentoring relationship and process. . What additional mentor skills would you consider necessary?

In addition to active listening, and as mentioned in Chap. 2, Ellis et al. (2020), stress the importance of facilitating the mentee’s learning through dialogic interaction. Similarly, Bartell (2005, p. 73), specifies a range of other characteristics, including the need for a mentor to “…advise, promote, nurture…and seek to develop the skills and abilities” of their mentee. Earlier, Fig. 4.1, based on the

4.3 Mentoring Competence

63

Table 4.3 Key characteristics associated with effective mentoring Commitment to own learning and development Self-awareness and behavioural awareness Willing to commit to and make time for the mentoring relationship A genuine interest in mentee’s growth and development Specific job-related skills and expertise Prepared to share knowledge and own experience (Including lessons learned and mistakes made, where relevant) Discreet and observes strict confidentiality Good interpersonal skills Objective, supportive and honest Treats the mentee as a colleague Recognises the limits of their own expertise and experiences and clearly communicates that, and refers the mentee to other professionals when appropriate Seeks to understand and is respectful of the beliefs, personal attitudes, and values of others—even if different Prepared to take the initiative in raising problems and difficulties with the partnership, however elementary they may seem Source University of Auckland (2014, p. 15)

word of Hurst and Reding (2002) highlights authenticity as an important mentor characteristic. What is authenticity? What does it mean in the context of mentoring? Taylor (2007), suggests that an authentic relationship allows “individuals to have questioning discussions, share information openly, and achieve greater mutual and consensual understanding” (in Mezirow & Taylor, 2009, p. 13). As you reflect on practice scenario 1, how would you characterise the relationship between Gosia and Lillian? Would you describe it as authentic? How do you know? In their discussion of effective mentoring, the University of Auckland (2014) highlight a range of characteristics, as illustrated in Table 4.3.

4.3

Mentoring Competence

In 2003, Johnson developed a triangular model of mentor competence, which includes three essential components: Abilities, Competencies and Virtues (see Fig. 4.2). As illustrated in Fig. 4.2, virtues, which relate to integrity, caring and prudence form the base of the triangle. Johnson (2003, p. 134) says this signifies their “centrality and importance in underlying the entire competence structure.” Ramirez (2012) suggests that virtues are the qualities possessed by an individual, typically

64

4

Characteristics of a Mentor

Fig. 4.2 Triangular model of mentor competence

regarded as admirable by society. They signify “moral and behavioural uprightness” (p. 58). To put it another way, the mentor must behave ethically, and uphold ethical principles when engaging in mentoring. Although, “virtues and abilities can be developed, they are less malleable and more difficult to instill than competencies” (Johnson, 2003, p. 134). A detailed discussion of ethical mentoring features in Chap. 10. Ramirez (2012) adds patience to the base of the triangle. He suggests that a mentor must sit back patiently and allow the mentee to make mistakes, and to learn from their mistakes.

4.4

Mentor Abilities

Johnson classifies abilities into three domains: . Cognitive: intellectual skill and cognitive complexity . Emotional: emotional balance and personality adjustment . Relational: capacity for intimacy and communication skill (2003, p. 135). Drawing upon a large body of research, Johnson identified some frequently mentioned mentoring abilities and traits. As well as patience, empathy, approachability, supportiveness and commitment (mentioned earlier), he identified “an ability to read and understand others emotionally, genuine interest in protégés, sense of humour, intelligence, knowledge or mastery in one’s field…” (p. 137). Likewise, Ramirez (2012) suggests the need for mentors to be caring. They should show “genuine concern for the mentee, and prudent, demonstrating sound judgement and wisdom” (p. 58).

4.5 Emotional Intelligence

65

Fig. 4.3 Shared core skills and unique skills required by both mentors and mentees

However, Johnson (2003) notes that abilities and skills are not the same. Thus, a skill is defined as: A learned, observable behaviour you perform that indicates (to someone else) how well you can do something. (Phillips-Jones, 2003, p. 1)

Therefore, while skills can be learned and developed, abilities speak to a more fundamental potential or capacity (Johnson, 2003). Drawing on Phillips-Jones (2003), Fig. 4.3 shows the shared core skills, as well as the unique skills required by both mentors and protégés. Here again, the relational aspects of mentoring are highlighted. Regardless of training in the mentoring role, a mentor, be they an early childhood or primary school teacher, or a university/college lecturer, with poor emotional intelligence is unlikely to become a relationally skilful mentor (Johnson, 2003). As mentoring is underpinned by the mentor–mentee relationship, emotional intelligence (EI) of both the mentor and the mentee would seem to be an important trait.

4.5

Emotional Intelligence

Daniel Goleman popularised the concept of Emotional Intelligence in 1995. Simply put, Emotional Intelligence is a person’s ability to control and be aware of their own emotions while showing empathy, and understanding of others’ emotions (Goleman, 1995, 1998; Department of Education and Early Childhood Development (DEECD), Victoria, 2010). When applied to the workplace, EI involves the capacity to effectively perceive, express, understand and manage emotions in a professional and effective manner (Palmer et al., 2002). Emotional intelligence

66

4

Characteristics of a Mentor

includes five core competencies (Goleman 1995, 2004) and these competencies are represented in Fig. 4.4. . Self-awareness involves not only knowing one’s own emotions, but also understanding one’s emotional impact on others. It is associated with one’s selfconfidence, ability to perform a realistic assessment on oneself, one’s desire for constructive criticism, and the ability to have a self-deprecating sense of humour (Goleman, 1995, 2000, 2004). A self-aware mentor recognises their own feelings, understands their habitual emotional response to events, recognises how their emotions affect their behaviour and performance, and see themselves as others see them. They have a good sense of their own abilities and limitations. Self-awareness is essential to having empathy with others. If the mentor is not aware of their own emotions, they will be unable to read the emotions of their mentee . Self-regulation is the ability to control and redirect emotional impulses that may be disruptive. It is characterised by having integrity, the ability to be comfortable with ambiguity and change, and the ability of an individual to establish themselves as trustworthy to others (Goleman, 1995, 2004)

Fig. 4.4 Core competencies of emotional intelligence

4.6 Applying Emotional Intelligence to Mentoring

67

. Motivation is the drive to achieve. The ability of the mentor to use their deepest emotions to move and guide the mentee toward their goals. This ability enables the mentor to take the initiative and to persevere. Motivation is characterised by an individual’s ability to be optimistic even in the face of failure, a passion for work and new challenges, and persistent energy to improve oneself (Goleman, 1995, 2004) . Empathy is about one’s ability to sense, understand and respond to what other people are feeling. It is about taking consideration of others’ feelings when making decisions. Empathy is characterised by cross-cultural difference, skill in both attracting and retaining talent in an organisation, and the ability to develop others by providing feedback (Goleman, 1995, 2000, 2004). However, as highlighted in Chap. 7, mentors must not be judgemental when providing feedback. On the contrary, in keeping with an empathetic stance, mentors build rapport and trust with their mentee, facilitating and supporting their learning (Hudson & Hudson, 2017; Ward et al., 2012) . Social skill, the final domain of EI (Emotional Intelligence) is the ability to manage, influence and inspire emotion in others. This skill is associated with moving people in a desired direction by managing relationships (Goleman, 1995). Social skills are defined by an individual’s ability to lead change, be persuasive, network, and to build and lead teams (Ibid.). Since mentoring relationships involve intense mentor–mentee interactions, Hudson and Hudson (2017) say that social interaction skills are a pre-requisite to sustaining and building these relationships. Social interaction skills include active listening, effective communication, and “supportiveness with abilities to instil positive attitudes and confidence in their mentees” (Ibid., p. 17).

4.6

Applying Emotional Intelligence to Mentoring

To better understand how EI might apply to mentoring, Opengart and Bierema (2015) developed a mixed methods perspective model, comprising four elements: Understanding Emotional Intelligence and the self, Respecting Emotional Intelligence and others, Integrating Emotional Intelligence into thought, and Assimilating Emotional Intelligence and action (see Table 4.4). Chapter 6 introduces the ‘Stepping in and Out’ technique (© Coach Mentoring Ltd, 2020), which uses a blend of rational and emotional questioning to explore the mentee’s perspective of the situation they are in. Consistent with EI, the Stepping in and Out technique helps the mentee to face up to the thinking and emotions of those who are outside their perspective. According to Opengart and Bierema (2015), once mentors or mentees master EI on a personal level, they are ready to develop deeper understanding of others’ emotions. Being aware of others’ emotional state helps both the mentor and the mentee decide how to engage with each other (Ibid.). As illustrated in Table 4.4 and reflected in the ‘Stepping in and Out’ technique, mentors can determine the mentee’s emotional state, and question them about observed stress, anger, frustration, excitement, etc., (Ibid.). The ability to

68

4

Characteristics of a Mentor

Table 4.4 Mixed methods perspective model EI and the self

EI and others

EI and thought

EI and action

Develops self-awareness, regulation and motivation; Adapts during emotional moments; Learns from social interactions; Uses emotions to improve social and interpersonal effectiveness

Possesses self-awareness, and can manage emotions; Displays intra and interpersonal EI Determines other’s emotional state, and adjusts behaviour accordingly; Exhibits empathy toward others

Reasons with, perceives and understands emotions; Reflects on own and others’ emotional states, both during and after social interaction; Uses insights from reflection on emotions to shape future social interactions; Learns from emotional interactions

Manages emotions; Adapts to others’ emotional states; Manages stress; Controls mood; Evaluates emotional situations and identifies effective and appropriate response; Uses situational judgement; Remains calm; Selects best response during conflict; Offers support to others; Helps others identify their emotional states

Source Opengart and Bierema (2015)

tune into a mentee’s emotions, not only helps the mentor to identify what the mentee is feeling, but also perhaps, to pre-empt their actions and support their response. It is thought that the lower a mentee’s EI, the less successful the mentoring relationship will be, and the higher the EI, the more likely, the relationship will succeed (Chun et al., 2010). Tuning into the mentee’s emotions enables the mentor to be more empathetic and effective (Opengart & Bierema, 2015). Likewise, a mentee can also tune into their mentors’ emotions and reactions to their presence and emotional states (Ibid.). Again, the reciprocal nature of the mentor–mentee’s relationship is evident. Key Learning Point

It is imperative that the mentor can actively listen to and face up to the thinking and emotions of a mentee who may be outside their perspective. The ability to remain calm, control moods, select the best response during differences of opinion, offer support to, and help a mentee to identify and address their emotional state, are essential mentor characteristics.

4.7

Emotionally Intelligent Mentoring

This book repeatedly stresses the relational nature of mentoring. However, as discussed in Chap. 10, mentoring relationships may not progress as planned. Inability to handle the intensity of the mentoring process, risks the relationship

4.7 Emotionally Intelligent Mentoring

69

not advancing beyond the first stage (i.e., preparation—see Chap. 5 for details). While mentoring: Can be exhilarating and rewarding for the mentor when the process goes well, the relationship works, and the protégé is successful. It can also evoke shame or anxiety over past failures or regrets. Mentoring may also cause frustration and anger toward the protégé when he or she is not listening to the mentor’s advice or performing to their expectations. (Opengart & Bierema, 2015, p. 243)

As evident from this excerpt, mentoring can be emotionally charged. Emotions affect both the mentor and the mentee. For this reason, mentors require a high level of EI to manage their own emotions, but also to model, monitor and respond to their mentee’s emotional state (Opengart & Bierema, 2015). In terms of initial teacher education (ITE), it could be argued that it is important to support the pre-service teacher’s EI to help them develop self-awareness, coping skills, self-motivation and confidence (Cherniss et al., 2006). A mentee’s ability to develop EI increases their overall emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1995). In turn, this should affect their ability to build a trusting relationship with their mentor (Chun et al., 2010; Shipley et al., 2010). When trust has been established, problems and issues can be faced and dealt with more effectively. Earlier in this chapter, we introduced the Triangular Model of Mentor Competence (Johnson, 2003). Adding patience to the base of the triangle, Ramirez (2012) references the need for mentees to make and learn from their mistakes. Emotionally intelligent mentors allow their mentees to make mistakes so that learning can take place. Trust in the relationship allows for risk taking, and learning through error (Donnellan, 2020). In this way, innovative ideas can be explored without criticism or feelings of being judged, allowing significant learning to occur (Ibid.). Factors that promote trust in a relationship result from a sense of mutual respect. Trust also results from recognition of the strengths that both the mentor and the mentee bring to the mentoring relationship. Stressing the importance of EI in mentoring relationships, Opengart and Bierema (2015) developed the following definition of Emotionally Intelligent Mentoring (EIM). Emotionally intelligent mentoring (EIM) is an intense, mutually beneficial developmental relationship between a mentor and protégé that depends upon and expands emotional and social skills in ways that inform thought and action, benefit the self and others, and result in career learning and advancement. (2015, p. 243)

The emotional engagement of both the mentor and the mentee leads to a successful mentoring relationship (Sosik & Lee, 2002), as it fosters mentee trust and confidence (Chun et al., 2010). An emotionally intelligent mentor, can therefore, be critical to the mentoring relationship (Crumpton, 2019), using their “emotional competence to maximize the potential of the mentoring relationship” (Opengart & Bierema, 2015, p. 252).

70

4

Characteristics of a Mentor

Table 4.5 illustrates key points about how high and low levels of emotional intelligence mentoring might affect a mentor and a mentee. Mentor Reflection Point

As you review the impact of Low and High Emotionally Intelligent Mentoring, think about your own mentoring. . Where would you locate yourself in relation to the skills outlined in Table 4.5

Table 4.5 Impact of low and high EIM on the mentoring relationship Implications of high EIM (Emotionally Intelligent Mentoring)

Mentors are better able to:

Mentees are better able to:

Use self-awareness Connect with the mentee Handle intensity of relationship Accurately assess the mentee’s feelings Encourage mentee to reflect on actions Use and draw on personal emotions to be an effective mentor Challenge mentee to deal with negative emotions Help mentee’s character development Express empathy for mentee Exhibit good role modelling Encourage mentee to reflect on learning Manage emotions

Use self-awareness Understand own and others’ emotions Facilitate expressiveness, responsiveness and enthusiasm Be honest and open Listen, reflect, and respect mentor’s advice Ask for help Network Manage emotions and stress

Implications of low EIM

Mentors are less able to:

Mentees are less able to:

Understand mentee’s needs Determine emotions Appraise mentee’s needs and feelings Form a bond with mentee Network personally, and on behalf of the mentee Be transparent Maintain frequent ongoing contact Manage emotions

Identify emotions Handle feelings such as vulnerability and feeling overwhelmed Connect with mentor Feel comfortable disclosing necessary information Ask for help Keep emotions in check

Adapted from Opengart and Bierema (2015)

4.7 Emotionally Intelligent Mentoring

71

The relationship between the mentor and the mentee is at the heart of the mentoring process. There is no doubt that emotional intelligence plays a crucial role in maintaining a mutually respectful, trusting and learning relationship. Needless to say, EI is, an essential mentor characteristic. In general, a mentor’s role is to observe, guide, model best practice, identify and clarify expectations, support their mentee’s interests, and engage in reflection. All of this requires certain skills and abilities. With this in mind, the following mentor reflection point prompts you to consider your skills and abilities as a mentor. Mentor Reflection Point

. What skills and abilities do you bring to the mentoring process? . What skills and abilities require further development?

In returning to the centrality of emotional intelligence to the mentoring relationship, we identify empathy; “intuiting another’s feelings” as particularly relevant (Goleman, 1995, p. 96). Empathy derives from one’s ability to read non-verbal cues, and it is more about how something is said rather than what was said (ibid.). Goleman also says that paying attention to how a message is conveyed is a learned skill. Such is the importance of empathy, that Chu (2014) says, a mentor’s level of expertise and knowledge about a topic is irrelevant if empathy is absent. For example, a pre-service teacher who feels frustrated or anxious about making changes while engaging in practicum becomes more comfortable when the mentor first meets their concerns with acceptance and empathy (Miller & Rollnick, 2002). The same applies to any mentee, whether pre-service, newly qualified, or veteran teacher. In such circumstances, a mentor’s offer to collaborate to investigate a problem is usually met with greater interest (Goleman, 1995). As discussed previously, a mentor must be able to understand, read, interpret and respond appropriately to the mentee’s emotions. Furthermore, Goleman indicates that the mentor needs to show the mentee that they sense how they feel by “play[ing] back inner feelings in another way” (1995, p. 100). Regardless of their place within the teaching career continuum, a mentee needs a mentor who empathically connects to their concerns and experiences and remains emotionally present. If for example, the mentor focuses on the task or the problem rather than on the mentee, they may miss the underlying factors that have led to the action or the behaviour. Chun and et al. (2010) as already mentioned, found a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and the degree of confidence that a mentee has in a mentor. In their view, emotional intelligence is positively related to the extent to which a mentee learns. Such learning is then, related to the mentee’s job satisfaction and career attitude (Ibid.). Opengart and Bierema (2015) suggest that to get the most out of a mentor–mentee relationship, emotional intelligence should be measured and discussed. Additionally, both the mentor and the mentee should

72

4

Characteristics of a Mentor

develop self-awareness of their emotional intelligence (Ibid.). Such self-awareness may lead to heightened learning, more successful mentoring relationships, and improved teacher retention (Opengart & Bierema, 2015). Engaging in understanding the “thoughts, feelings, hopes, and dreams of another person is foundational to the role of the mentor” (Chu, 2014, p. 35). Rogers (1975) viewed this as the way of being with another person which is termed empathic means temporarily living in their life…without making judgment…you lay aside the views and values you hold for yourself in order to enter the other’s world without prejudice… a complex, demanding, strong yet subtle gentle way of being (p. 4)

Chapter 2 describes mentoring as a continuous process that seeks to sustain productive changes in practice (Gardiner, 2017). Mentoring also strives to develop a relationship that is conducive to shared learning. In relation to the pre-service early childhood or primary school teachers engaging in practicum during their ITE, Chu (2014) outlines the importance of understanding their prior knowledge, beliefs, and experiences, and acknowledging that for each mentee, these are shaped by a different personal and professional background. A mentor must recognise that no two mentees are the same, and each views the world through a different lens. To be effective, a mentor must embrace, be curious about, and understand difference. The mentor should be authentically curious, be able to examine assumptions, and explore beliefs and values rather than overlook difference.

4.8

Chapter Summary Points

. Not all university students come directly from secondary school. University comprises both young and mature adult learners . Adult learners have a wealth of knowledge acquired through their life experiences prior to attending university/college. They bring their opinions, values and beliefs to the mentoring process . Mentors must understand how adults learn to support their learning and help them achieve their goals . Mentors require good interpersonal skills . Emotional Intelligence is a critical mentor skill. It comprises five core competencies: Self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skill . Emotionally intelligent mentors allow their mentees to make mistakes so that learning can take place.

References

73

References © Coach

Mentoring Ltd. (2020). How to explore feelings in a mentoring conversation. Available at: https://ngocoachingmentoring.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/How-to-explorefeelings-Handout.pdf Bartell, C. A. (2005). Cultivating high-quality teaching through induction and mentoring. Corwin Press. Brookfield, S. D. (1986). Understanding and facilitating adult learning. Jossey Bass Publishers. Cherniss, C., Extein, M., Goleman, D., & Weissberg, R. P. (2006). Emotional intelligence: What does the research really indicate? Educational Psychologist, 41, 239–245. Chu, M. (2012). Observe, reflect and apply: ways to successfully mentor early childhood educators. Dimensions of Early Childhood, 40(3), 20–28. Chu, M. (2014). Developing mentoring and coaching relationships in early care and education. Pearson. Chun, J., Litzky, B., Sosik, L., Bechtold, D., & Godshalk, V. (2010). Emotional intelligence and trust in formal mentoring programs. Group and Organization Management, 35(4), 421–455. Crumpton, M. (2019). I am emotionally intelligent and ready to mentor! The Chronicle of Mentoring & Coaching [special Issue], 2, 177–181. Daloz, L. A. (2012). Mentor: Guiding the journey of adult learners. Jossey-Bass. Darling-Hammond, L. (2005). Cultivating high-quality teaching through induction and mentoring. Corwin Press. Department of Education and Early Childhood Development, Victoria. (2010). A learning guide for teacher mentors. Available at: https://www.education.vic.gov.au/Documents/school/princi pals/profdev/learngteacherm.pdf Donnellan, A. (2020). An exploration of how the Mentoring Component of the Leadership for INClusion in the Early Years (LINC) Programme supports the Adult Learner. Unpublished thesis (Masters), Mary Immaculate College, University of Limerick. Ellis, N. J., Alonzo, D., & Nguyen, H. T. M. (2020). Elements of quality pre-service teacher mentor: A literature review. Teacher and Teacher Education, 92, 1–13. Gardiner, W. (2017). Mentoring “Inside” and “Outside” the action of teaching: A professional framework for mentoring. The New Educator, 13(1), 53–71. Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ for character, health and lifelong achievement. Bantam Books. Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. Bantam Books. Goleman, D. (2000). Leadership that gets results. Harvard Business Review, 78(2), 78–90. Goleman, D. (2004). What makes a leader? Harvard Business Review, 82, 82–91. Higher Education Authority. (2021). Study of mature student participation in higher education. What are the challenges? Recommendations for the future. https://www.hea.ie/assets/uplods/ 2021/06/study-of-mature-student-participation-in-higher-education_JUne-2021.pdf Hubble, S., & Bolton, P. (2021). Mature higher education students in England. Briefing Paper, number 8809, February 24, 2021. House of Commons Library. https://researchbriefings.files. parliament.uk/documents/CBP-8809/CBP-8809.pdf Hudson, P. (2004). Specific mentoring: A theory and model for developing primary science teaching practices. European Journal of Teacher Education, 27(2), 139–146. Hudson, P. (2016). Forming the mentor-mentee relationship. Mentoring and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 24(1), 30–43. Hudson, P., & Hudson, S. (2017). Mentoring Pre-service teachers: Identifying tensions and possible resolution. An International Journal of Teacher’s Professional Development, 22(1), 16–30. Hurst, B., & Reding, G. (2002). Teachers mentoring teachers: Fastback 493. Phi Delta Kappa International. Johnson, W. B. (2003). A framework for conceptualizing competence to mentor. Ethics and Behaviour, 13(2), 127–151. Jonson, K. F. (2008). Being an effective mentor: How to help beginning teachers succeed. Corwin Press.

74

4

Characteristics of a Mentor

Kasl, E & Yorks, L. (2015). Do I really know you? Do you really know me? Empathy amid diversity in differing learning contexts. SAGE Journals, 66(1) Kasworm, C. E. (2008). Emotional challenges of adult learners in higher education. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 120, 27–34. Kearsley, G. (2010). Andragogy (M. Knowles), The theory into practice database. Knowles, M. S. (1975). Self-directed learning. Association Press. Knowles, M. S. (1984). Andragogy in action. Jossey-Bass. Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. John Wiley & Sons inc. Mezirow, J., & Taylor, E. (2009). Transformative learning in practice: Insights from community, workplace and higher education. Jossey-Bass. Miller, W. R., & Rollnick, S. (2002). Motivational interviewing: Preparing people for change (2nd ed.). Guilford. Nolan, M. (2007). Mentor coaching and leadership in early care and education. Thomson, Delmar Learning. O’Dwyer, M., & McCormack, M. (2014). Addressing the Gaps between Training and Practice. Evaluation of the South Dublin National Early Years Access Initiative. Available at: https://www.earlychildhoodireland.ie/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/SD_NEYAI_ Report_LoRes_FINAL_FOR-PRINT.pdf OECD. (2022). Education at a glance 2022: OECD indicators. Available at: https://www.oecdilibrary.org/deliver/3197152b-en.pdf?itemId=%2Fcontent%2Fpublication%2F3197152b-en& mimeType=pdf Opengart, R., & Bierema, L. (2015). Emotionally intelligent mentoring reconceptualizing effective mentoring relationships. Human Resource Development Review, 14(3), 234–258. Opfer, V. D., & Pedder, D. (2011). Conceptualizing teacher professional development. Review of Educational Research, 81(3), 376–407. Palmer, B., Donaldson, C., & Stough, C. (2002). Emotional intelligence and life satisfaction. Personality and Individual Differences, 33, 1091–1100. Philips-Jones, L. (2003). Skills for successful mentoring: Competencies of outstanding Mentors and Mentees. Available at: https://my.lerner.udel.edu/wp-content/uploads/Skills_for_Suc essful_Mentoring.pdf Prakash, R., Sharma, N., & Advani, U. (2019). Learning process and how adults learn. International Journal of Academic Medicine, 5, 75–79. Ramirez, J. J. (2012). The intentional mentor: Effective mentorship of undergraduate science students. Journal of Undergraduate Neuroscience Education, 11(1), 55–63. Rodd, J. (2006). Leadership in early childhood (3rd ed.). Open University. Rogers, C. R. (1975). Empathic: An unappreciated way of being. Available at: http://journals.sag epubcom/doi/pdf Shipley, N. L., Jackson, M. J., & Segrest, S. L. (2010). The effects of emotional intelligence, age, work experience, and academic performance. Research in Higher Education Journal, 9, 1–18. Sosik, J. J., & Lee, D. L. (2002). Mentoring in organisations: A social judgement perspective for developing tomorrow’s leaders. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 8(4), 17–32. Taylor, D. C. M., & Hamdy, H. (2013). Adult learning theories: Implications for learning and teaching in medical education: AMEE Guide No. 83. Medical Teacher, 35(11), e1561–e1572. https:/ /doi.org/10.3109/0142159X.2013.828153 Taylor, J. (2007). Instructional coaching: The state of art. In M. Mangin & S. Stoelinga (Eds.), Effective teacher leadership: Using research to inform and reform (pp. 10–36). Teachers College Press. University of Auckland, New Zealand. (2014). The University of Auckland: A Guide to Mentoring. Available at: https://cdn.auckland.ac.nz/assets/auckland/business/current-students/PDFs/ mentoring-guide-final.pdf Ward, E. G., Thomas, E. E., & Disch, W. B. (2012). Protégé growth themes emergent in a holistic, undergraduate peer-mentoring experience. Mentoring and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 20(3), 409–425.

5

The Mentoring Process: The First Mentoring Meeting

As discussed in Chap. 2, mentoring is both a relationship and a process that results in benefits for both the mentor and the mentee. The emphasis on mentoring as a process, enables the mentee to develop holistically as a professional, in knowledge, skills, dispositions, attitudes and values, in an accepting and safe environment (Chu, 2012). The mentoring relationship, however, underpins all aspects of the mentoring process. This chapter explores:

• • • • • •

5.1

Mentoring in the pre-service career context Phases of the mentoring process The first mentoring meeting Active listening S.M.A.R.T goals Non-verbal communication.

Mentoring in the Pre-service Career Context

Broadly speaking, Ragins and Kram (2007, p. 5) define mentoring as “a developmental relationship that is embedded within the career context”. This gives rise to questions about when the career context begins. Does it begin when the teacher graduates, and commences work within an early childhood setting or school? Does the career context begin while the pre-service teacher is engaged in their programme of study? What do you think? We suggest the career context begins way before the pre-service teacher graduates from their programme of study. Previous chapters referenced the many contexts in which mentoring occurs. One such context relates to mentoring the © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. Moloney et al., Professional Mentoring for Early Childhood and Primary School Practice, Springer Texts in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37186-8_5

75

76

5 The Mentoring Process: The First Mentoring Meeting

pre-service early childhood or primary school teacher while engaged in practicum as part of their initial teacher education. Practicum provides the pre-service teacher with their first ‘lived experience’ of the education setting. It is while engaging in practicum that pre-service teachers interact with veteran teachers and engage in the act of teaching. They gain handson experience of working directly with children as well as school-based or early childhood setting-based teachers. Many studies stress the importance of practicum. Mentoring during practicum allows pre-service teachers “in the formative stages of learning to engage productively with a more experienced teacher” (Hudson, 2016, p. 32). When the mentor accepts the pre-service teacher into their classroom during practicum, the mentoring relationship becomes formalized (Ibid.). As mentioned previously, pre-service early childhood and primary school teachers consider practicum to be the most influential aspect of their professional formation. They rate practicum as being more important than classroom-based learning or coursework (e.g., Cohen et al., 2013; Moloney, 2017; Ritblatt et al., 2013; Ziechner, 2010). Furthermore, Boyd et al. (2008) argue that undergraduate programmes that focus on the work of the classroom and provide opportunities for teachers to study what they will be doing, produces teachers who are more effective during their first year of teaching (p. 26).

Practicum experiences are therefore key to producing competent teachers (Cohen et al., 2013). Along a continuum, practicum enables pre-service teachers to: • Gain insight into teaching • Bridge the theory practice divide, and • Determine whether teaching is the career for them (see Fig. 5.1). As illustrated in Fig. 5.1, throughout the practice continuum, practicum helps the pre-service teacher to: • Get a feel for how to do things in the real world, rather than just the idea on paper, and learn different skills and strategies that you would not have learned

Fig. 5.1 Practicum continuum for pre-service teachers

5.1 Mentoring in the Pre-service Career Context

77

by sitting in a lecture every day (Early childhood student teacher respondent quoted in Moloney, 2017, p. 61) • Gain their future image as teachers through their practical experience of teaching (Lim & Kwon, 2009, p. 87), which enables them to • Develop an understanding of what a real teacher is (Pietsch and Williamson, 2005 in Cevher-Kalburan, 2014) • Decide whether teaching is the career for them (Thorpe et al., 2011; Moloney, 2017). In terms of how practicum influences the career choice of pre-service early childhood teachers, Thorpe et al. (2011) and Moloney (2017), suggest that students who have a positive experience during practicum are more likely to consider entering the ECEC (Early Childhood Education and Care) workforce. Therefore, while initial teacher education is part of the career context, school and early childhood mentor-teachers leave a lasting impression on students. These mentor-teachers represent the model teachers that students would like to become in the future (Aldemir & Sezer, 2009). This has considerable implications for mentors, in terms of how they mentor, and when they mentor. In other words, a mentor must know how to establish and maintain the mentoring relationship. They must also have the capacity to initiate and sustain the mentoring process. Chapter 9, which explores the optimal conditions for mentoring, emphasises the need for time to mentor. In the absence of mentor knowledge and skill, mentoring is left to chance. Equally, lack of time undermines the mentoring relationship and process. In all these circumstances, both the mentor and the mentee will struggle. Neither will benefit from the mentoring relationship. The following practice scenario illustrates the challenge for the mentee, Johanna, a final year undergraduate early childhood teacher, when the mentor, Jack, fails to set time aside for mentoring, and clearly lacks mentor skill. Practice Scenario 2: The Treasure Hunt

Johanna is a final year undergraduate early childhood student. She is undertaking practicum in a full day-care setting, where she is gaining experience of teaching pre-school aged children (3 to 5 years old). She is now in week 3 of a 5-week block of practicum. Jack, the lead teacher is Johanna’s mentor. Although Jack has repeatedly told Johanna ‘We must have a meeting,’ to date, this has not occurred. Johanna has repeatedly reminded Jack of the need to meet. Invariably however, he tells her he is ‘too busy.’ Today, Johanna, Jack and another teacher in the setting are taking the children to the park adjacent to the setting. They have planned a treasure hunt for the children. It is 9.00 am. Children are arriving to the setting. They are excited, chattering excitedly. Normally, upon arrival to the setting, they remove and hang up their coat. They place their bag in their personalised storage area. Today however, Jack instructs the children not to remove their

78

5 The Mentoring Process: The First Mentoring Meeting

coats, but to come into the classroom, and sit quietly. He takes a roll call. He reminds the children of the ‘rules’ of the treasure hunt, reading from a detailed list. The children become unsettled. They begin to nudge each other, giggle, and get off their seats. The more Jack asks them to sit still and be quiet, the more unsettled they become. Noticing their unrest, and recognising the need to redirect their attention, Johanna, asks “who would like to sing a song? What will we sing”? As the children shout ‘me, me, me,” Jack immediately says “no singing this morning. We are going on a treasure hunt. I want you to listen to me.” Johanna explains, “I just thought singing would help to settle them. They like being active. They are finding it hard to settle with the excitement.” Jack replies “that is not how we do things here. Just watch and listen, learn what to do”. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

How do you think Johanna feels? What might her future image of teaching be? How might she feel about her future career as an early childhood teacher? How would you describe the mentoring relationship? How would you describe the mentoring process?

As stated earlier, and illustrated through practice scenario 2, mentoring cannot be left to chance. It is not about isolated weekly observations of practice (Jones et al., 2019). Nor is it about offering quick fix solutions (Donnellan, 2020). As discussed in Chap. 2, mentoring is an immersive process. It involves the mentor and the mentee exploring aspects of pedagogy and developing a relationship that is conducive to shared learning. It is, as suggested by O’Doherty and Deegan (2009), a social and educational process. While Chap. 2 discusses the mentoring process from a theoretical and academic perspective, we now explore the practicalities of the process.

5.2

Phases of the Mentoring Process

As with any process, mentoring comprises a series of actions and/or phases. Successful mentoring involves four phases. Based on Metros and Yang (2006) and Zachary (2012), these are identified as preparation, negotiating, enabling growth, and coming to closure (Fig. 5.2). The sequential phases outlined in Fig. 5.2 build on each other and vary in length. Preparing for mentoring is an important first step in the mentoring process and relationship. With this in mind, and drawing upon previous chapters, the preparation checklist presented here will help you to consider your preparedness for mentoring. As you review the preparation checklist, consider other areas that you may need to think about as you prepare to mentor a pre-service teacher engaging in practicum in your school or early childhood setting.

5.2 Phases of the Mentoring Process

79

Fig. 5.2 Steps in the mentoring process

Preparation checklist Your role as mentor I can establish an approachable relationship that nurtures this person I have a genuine interest in helping this person and learning from them I am clear about my role and responsibilities I can commit adequate time to the mentoring relationship I have access to opportunities and resources to support this person’s learning I am willing to share my knowledge and expertise to support this person’s development I am committed to developing my own mentoring skills I am flexible in my own thinking I am a reflective teacher

Yes ✓

No x

80

5.3

5 The Mentoring Process: The First Mentoring Meeting

The First Mentoring Meeting

Now that you have prepared for your mentoring role, it is important to think about the first mentoring meeting. This introductory meeting is a negotiating meeting. This means that the mentor and the mentee communicate, negotiate, and agree expectations and goals. However, regardless of the purpose of the mentoring, e.g., supporting a pre-service teacher engaging in practicum, or helping a newly qualified teacher to bridge the theory practice divide, the importance of having an initial mentoring meeting cannot be overstated. In the following practice scenario, Joy, a 3rd year early childhood student meets with her setting mentor, Mikaela, a pedagogical leader, on the first day of an 8-week practicum.

5.4

Practice Scenario 3: First Mentoring Meeting

Mikaela and Joy are using the manager’s office for their first mentoring meeting. The manager has ensured another teacher is available to relieve Mikaela from her teaching so she can meet with Joy. As Joy enters the office, Mikaela welcomes her, and invites her to sit. Mikaela: We are delighted to have you working with us Joy. I hope you will enjoy your time here. The children are excited to meet you. Joy: I am excited too and looking forward to being part of the team here. It is good to hear the children know I am coming. I am eager to meet them. Mikaela: Yes, it is important to prepare the children. I see from the documentation received from your college, that you are required to get experience of working with the 4-year-old children. Have you worked with that age group in the past? Joy: I love working with that age group. This is my second time working with 4year-olds. The first time was during the second year of my studies, when I worked with them for 5 weeks. That was in a sessional early childhood setting. So, working with that age group in a full day-care setting is a new experience for me. Mikaela: Oh, you will have no problem settling in so. We have ten 4-year-olds here, and there is one teacher. We use an emergent curriculum. Are you familiar with that approach? Joy: I am. We learned how to implement an emergent curriculum in college. I love how it builds on the children’s emerging interests and supports their agency and autonomy. I enjoy how it uses playful pedagogy and relevant and meaningful experiences. I am keen to learn more while working here with the children and their teacher. Mikaela: I can see you are going to fit right in. Once we go down to the classroom in a few minutes, I will give you a copy of the current curriculum. You can review it in your own time. Then we can discuss it during the week. I am sure you would like to have input, so we will have a chat about that as time goes on. Joy: That sounds great.

5.4 Practice Scenario 3: First Mentoring Meeting

81

Mikaela: There are a few things I want to discuss with you before we go down to the classroom. Ok? Joy: Of course Mikaela: As today is your first day, I suggest you spend your time getting to know the children. Tell them who you are and why you are here. Take time to get to know their names. Sit with them, observe them, and interact with them. It is important that you establish positive relationships with them from the beginning. But of course, you know this already. I just want you to know what my expectations are. Tell me Joy, what are your expectations while you are here with us over the coming weeks? Joy: Thank you for asking. I agree with you about getting to know the children. It will help them to feel comfortable having me in their classroom. While here, my college requires me to plan and implement some activities for the children. To do this, I will have to undertake observations of the children. Will it be okay to do that? Mikaela: Oh, I look forward to hearing about your plans. We will chat about the observations at our next mentoring meeting on Friday. I am sure you appreciate the need to get parental permission. As I said, let us discuss this again on Friday. How do you feel about meeting every Friday morning at 10.00am? Joy: Friday works for me. Mikaela: There is no need for you to be anxious about these meetings. They are an opportunity for us to chat about pedagogy, mine as well as yours. You look surprised Joy. I believe you will bring new ideas about theory and pedagogy from your training. We will learn together. What do you think? 1. How do you think Joy feels? 2. How would you describe the relationship between Mikaela and Joy? 3. How does Joy experience differ from Johanna’s experience in the previous scenario? 4. What might Joy’s future image of teaching be? 5. How might she feel about her future career as an early childhood teacher? The scenario presented here provides insight into the first mentoring meeting between Joy and Mikaela. Note how the mentor, Mikaela, establishes trust and rapport with the mentee, Joy. She demonstrates a positive outlook. She acknowledges what Joy will bring to the process; ‘new ideas about theory and pedagogy.’ In this way, Mikaela affirms and recognises Joy’s abilities. At the same time, she acknowledges her own openness to learning. Mikaela is open and inviting, while also being supportive. In effect, she is modelling respect, and in turn, inviting respect from Joy, the mentee. Overall, as indicated in Fig. 5.3, it is important that the mentor and the mentee: • Discuss and understand the learning objectives set • Establish where the mentee is at in relation to their pedagogical knowledge, skill and practice, and where they want to go

82

5 The Mentoring Process: The First Mentoring Meeting

Fig. 5.3 Goals/objectives of the first mentoring meeting

• Discuss any expectations and concerns the mentee may have • Plan and consider realistic goals together.

Mentor and Mentee Reflection Point

Communicating expectations is a critical aspect of the mentoring process. It is essential that conversations about expectations occur. The best time to do this is during the first mentoring meeting. Montgomery (2017) argues that mentors cannot be the sole determinants of expectations. • Who else holds responsibility for determining expectations?

Both the mentor and the mentee need space and time to communicate and agree expectations, and how these will be achieved during the mentoring process. Conflicting mentor–mentee expectations can significantly undermine the development of productive mentoring relationships (Rajuan et al., 2007) (Fig. 5.3).

5.5

Things to Consider When Planning the First Mentoring Meeting

Remember, first impressions make a lasting impression on the mentee. These first impressions tell the mentee how prepared you are for mentoring. They indicate whether you are interested in them, or just going through the motions. These first impressions inform the mentee’s opinion of you, your school or early childhood

5.5 Things to Consider When Planning the First Mentoring Meeting

83

setting. They affect how mentees engage with the Learning Zone Model introduced in Chap. 6. Organising the first mentoring meeting is therefore critical to how you want the mentee to perceive you, and to the early stages of building the mentoring relationship. There are many considerations, including: • When and where, the first mentoring meeting will take place. Is there an available space to meet with the mentee? Is this space away from the hustle and bustle of life in the school/early childhood setting, and free of interruptions? Is it accessible from a UDL perspective? • What time will you hold the mentoring meeting? It may not be a good idea to organize a meeting in the morning as children are being dropped to the early childhood setting or school. Parents and or children may need your attention at this time. Equally, it may not be appropriate to organize a meeting close to children’s going home time, when again, you are likely to be interrupted • How will you ensure teacher/child ratios are maintained during the mentoring meeting? This is an added consideration in the context of an early childhood setting in particular, where ratios are generally mandated through country specific regulations. Use the first mentoring meeting to establish a trusting relationship. Sheridan and Young (2017) suggest that genuine conversations play a key role in building mutual trust. As demonstrated in practice scenario 3, Mikaela engaged in a genuine conversation with Joy. She was attentive, and showed interest in Joy’s previous experience, and demonstrated a willingness to learn from her. She also clarified her expectations and established a plan to meet with Joy each Friday morning at a specific time. There is no room for ambiguity. Joy knows what is expected of her from the outset. A mentor can also use the first mentoring meeting to set S.M.A.R.T. goals (Table 5.1). You may feel that the first meeting is very early to set S.M.A.R.T goals. However, this will be determined by the duration of practicum and the schedule of mentoring meetings, which will differ from programme to programme, and country to country. Another consideration here relates to the mentee’s needs. For example, an anxious mentee may feel overwhelmed if presented with too much information too soon. In such circumstances, the mentor uses their professional judgement to determine when it is most appropriate to set S.M.A.R.T goals. Consider how many mentoring meetings you will engage in with your mentee. If for instance, you will meet your mentee on three occasions, during practicum, you will need to establish S.M.A.R.T goals as soon as possible. As mentioned however, there may be instances, when as a mentor, you can establish these at a later time in the mentoring process. It is therefore an individual decision, based on the particular mentoring context.

84

5 The Mentoring Process: The First Mentoring Meeting

Table 5.1 S.M.A.R.T. goals

5.6

Specific

State the goal in simple, but specific terms

Measurable

How will progress be monitored and measured?

Attainable

Goals must be appropriate and achievable

Realistic/relevant

Goals must be realistic

Timely

What timeframe is associated with the success of each goal?

What Are S.M.A.R.T Goals?

S.M.A.R.T is an acronym that stands for Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, and Timely. The university where the pre-service teacher is undertaking their programme of study informs these goals, which are part of the negotiating stage of mentoring. This means they inform the learning outcomes for the preservice teacher, and the nature and type of experiences they are expected to have while engaging in practicum. It is important to note that these learning outcomes, and prescribed learning experiences are non-negotiable. They are aligned to the pre-service teacher’s programme of study. Besides setting the S.M.A.R.T goals, other matters for discussion and agreement at the first mentoring meeting, which further enhance trust in the relationship, relate to the following: • Timeframe for the mentoring relationship as determined by the college/ university where the pre-service teacher is undertaking their initial teacher education • Frequency and duration of mentoring meetings to discuss progress and identify areas that require attention, and or additional support for the mentee • Boundaries to ensure the mentee is aware of what matters are confidential in terms of their role within the school or early childhood setting, what the mentor is willing to help with, what this help involves and so on.

Importance of Non-verbal Communication There is no doubt that the success of the mentoring relationship depends on the ability of the mentor and the mentee to develop and maintain respect, trust, and effective communication. The word communication derives from the Latin word ‘communis’. This means ‘common’ which implies common understanding. It also means to impart, participate or transmit. Keyton (2011), therefore, describes communication as the process of transmitting information and common understanding from one person to another. Every communication exchange involves a sender and a receiver. Both the sender and receiver send and decode messages.

5.6 What Are S.M.A.R.T Goals?

85

Fig. 5.4 Overview of the communication process

Figure 5.4 shows that communication occurs, not only to pass on information, but ultimately to receive feedback (see Chap. 7). Feedback distinguishes communication from information provision. Daniel (2016) notes that when there is feedback, the communication process is complete, and is therefore, meaningful (in Fatimayin, 2018). In the context of mentoring, two-way communication exchange is essential. Therefore, the mentor and the mentee are both senders and receivers of information. While verbal communication is a critical aspect of the mentoring process, the power of non-verbal communication is just as important. You may have heard the adage that communication is only 7% verbal and 93% non-verbal. The basis for this proverb stems from the work of Albert Mehrabian, an Iranian/American professor of psychology, who underscores the importance of non-verbal communication. Mehrabian (1971) developed the 7–38–55% communication rule (Fig. 5.5), which indicates that nonverbal cues like body language and tone of voice can communicate more about a person’s feelings than their words. As illustrated, Mehrabian believes that 7% of the meaning of feelings and attitudes take place through the words used in spoken communication. 38% of feelings and attitudes take place through tone and voice. The remaining 55% of feelings and attitudes occur through the body language we use. Although Mehrabian’s work has been criticized for its focus on feelings and attitudes, he was instrumental in successfully highlighting the vital role that nonverbal communication plays in the expression of feelings and emotional states...[his] theory is helpful for reminding us that where visual clues are lacking, close attention must be paid to the words used and the way they

86

5 The Mentoring Process: The First Mentoring Meeting

Fig. 5.5 The 7–38-55% communication rule

are expressed if we wish to ensure that the correct message is communicated (https://www. bl.uk/people/albert-mehrabian).

Lunenburg (2010, p. 2) further notes that “nonverbal gestures, facial expressions, body position, and even clothing can transmit messages”.

5.7

Factors that Support Effective Communication

Effective communication between mentors and mentees is central to the mentoring process. However, a range of factors can prevent and disrupt effective communication. These include: • Sincerity. Without sincerity—honesty, straightforwardness, and authenticity— all attempts at communication are destined to fail • Empathy. Empathy is the ability to put yourself in someone else’s shoes. It involves being aware of other peoples’ feelings and emotions. As mentioned previously, the elements of empathy are emotional intelligence, attention, listening, and demonstrating interest through body language. The empathetic person can see the world through the eyes of the other person • Self-perception. How we see ourselves affects our ability to communicate effectively. A healthy but realistic self-perception is a necessary ingredient in communicating with others (the elements outlined here are associated with emotional intelligence. See Chap. 4 for further insights)

5.8 Active Listening

87

• Role perception. Mentees must be aware of what is expected of them within the school or early childhood setting. Unless mentees know what their role entails, and what is expected of them, they will not know what to communicate, when or how to communicate, or with whom to communicate • Ability to communicate. The way in which you communicate may inhibit discussion or cause others to feel inferior, angry, hostile, dependent, compliant, or subservient. Communication involves the ability to paraphrase what has been said and allow uninterrupted time for the mentee to speak. Again, here we must be mindful of UDL and adapt how we communicate (e.g., pace and tone) to benefit a mentee who may have processing or language differences. Positive communication is essential. This means avoiding authoritarian instruction, such as ‘you should’ • Feedback. Chapter 7 discusses the centrality of feedback in the mentoring process. However, it is important to note here, that unless the mentor considers the nature and type of feedback, it can impede rather than improve or support communication • Listening ability. People fail to appreciate the importance of listening and do not become actively involved with what others are saying (Adapted from Lunenburg, 2010, p. 5–6). Maloney (2012) suggests that listening may be the key to successful mentoring. She says that mentors must listen to the mentee’s spoken and unspoken needs. They must listen to their problems and their suggested solutions. They then guide them to their chosen path. It is, then, essential that the mentor engages in active listening, which, as discussed in the previous chapter, is a core mentoring skill.

5.8

Active Listening

Mentors engage in active listening during mentoring meetings. It can be tempting to come to a mentoring meeting armed with pre-determined advice you would like to offer the mentee, or to have ready-made ‘solutions’ for their questions and concerns. Consider what this approach conveys to the mentee. Rather than being supportive, such an approach shows lack of interest in the mentee and their experiences. It speaks volumes and may indicate your wish to expedite communication. It alienates the mentee. By contrast, active listening shows that you paid attention, you have heard and understood the mentee’s concerns (Phillips-Jones, 2003). Mentor and Mentee Reflection Point

• What does active listening mean to you?

88

5 The Mentoring Process: The First Mentoring Meeting

So, what is active listening and what does it involve? The Georgia Student Finance Authority (GSFA, 2017) describe active listening as an attempt to truly understand the content and emotion of what the other person is saying by paying attention to verbal and non-verbal messages. The task is to focus, hear, respect, and communicate your desire to understand. This is not the time to be planning a response or conveying how you feel (p. 5).

Both Maloney (2012) and the GSFA (2017) remind us that in the context of mentoring, the relationship is about the mentee, not the mentor. The GSFA, therefore, assert that a good listener usually receives (listens) before they transmit (talks). They recommend that mentors not be like the narcissistic character played by Bette Midler in the movie Beaches. In this movie, Bette Midler only slowed down enough to say to her friend, “That’s enough about me. What do you think about me?” Similarly, Maloney (2012) notes, a mentor cannot know what a mentee is looking for from a relationship if they do not listen. The mentor’s role is to listen and guide the conversation. In this way, the mentee finds their way, not the mentor’s way (Maloney, 2012). It is obvious, a mentor ‘cannot expect the mentee to mature, if the mentor makes all the decisions and just gives the answers’ (p. 212). Active listening empowers mentees to find their own answers. It builds and consolidates a mutually trusting and respectful relationship between the mentor, and the mentee. Crucially, active listening enables growth and learning (see four steps in the mentoring process), motivating the mentee towards the Learning Zone (Senninger, 2000). Look at the active listening checklist here. It gives an overview of the key aspects involved in active listening. As indicated, active listening combines both verbal and non-verbal communication. It also involves paraphrasing what has been said and allowing uninterrupted time for the mentee to speak. Active Listening Checklist • Appear genuinely interested (make encouraging sounds, ‘hmmm,’ interesting) • Reflect back or paraphrase comments to show you have grasped and understood what is being said • Use non-verbal communication (make and hold eye-contact, nod you head, leaning slightly toward the mentee, frowning, or smiling) • Avoid interrupting the mentee when they are speaking • Rephrase, restate, or paraphrase the mentee’s message • Summarize key elements of what each of you said (Adapted from PhillipsJones, 2003; Lunenburg, 2010) According to Lunenburg (2010), restating, paraphrasing, or summarizing the message is one of the most powerful active listening techniques. Actively listening to mentees shows them what they have to say is valued. Over time, it builds trust, and encourages them to voice their opinions and share their ideas and concerns. If they have positive experiences of voicing their opinions and of being heard, they will

89

learn to see talking as a constructive way of dealing with issues and difficulties. In turn, they are more likely to seek help when they need it (Phillips-Jones, 2003). Example of paraphrasing

Example of restating

Example of summarizing

Forgive me if I am wrong, but what I think I am hearing you say is…

So, then what happened after you left the room?

It sounds like you’re frustrated because your colleague dismissed your idea. Am I hearing that correctly?

Remember: Mentoring is a process. It is mentee-centric, meaning it is about the mentee, not the mentor. It involves active and reflective listening. As a skill and art, it must be practiced, discussed, and refined.

5.9

Rate Your Listening Skills

The following activity invites you to rate yourself on a range of attributes associated with active listening. If you mentor currently, or aspire to mentor in the future, engaging with this activity will help you to identify existing strengths. In addition, it will help you to decide any areas that you may need to enhance. Activity 1. Rate your listening skills Listening skills

Never Sometimes Often Very often Always

I listen to what I want to hear I jump to conclusions I finish people’s sentences I fill silences with words I let my mind wander when being spoken to I think about what I will say next when others are speaking I continue to do something else while being spoken to I find myself being biased or judgmental when others are speaking I jump to conclusions when others are speaking I check my phone when I am being spoken to

Authors, Moloney (2010) and Phillips-Jones (2003) highlight the need to resist the impulse always to turn the conversation to your experiences and opinions, and to find immediate solutions to problems you may be hearing. Instead, it is better to listen carefully to your mentee in the first instance. Later, you can problem solve, and guide the mentee toward a solution.

90

5 The Mentoring Process: The First Mentoring Meeting

5.10

Chapter Summary Points

• Pre-service early childhood and primary school teachers consider their practicum experiences to be the most influential aspect of their professional formation. From their perspective practicum is more important than classroom-based learning or coursework • Mentoring, which supports pre-service teacher’s professional development, is essential during practicum. Under the guidance of a mentor, pre-service teachers engage productively with, and learn from and with a more experienced teacher • Mentoring cannot be left to chance. Preparing for mentoring is an important first step in the mentoring process and relationship • First impressions matter. Organising the first mentoring meeting is critical to how you want the mentee to perceive you, and to the early stages of building the mentoring relationship • Communicating expectations is a critical aspect of the mentoring process. Conversations about expectations must occur in the early stages of the mentoring process • Mentoring is mentee-centric • Active listening is a critical mentor skill that builds and consolidates a mutually trusting and respectful relationship between the mentor, and the mentee.

References Aldemir, J., & Sezer, O. (2009). Early childhood pre-service teachers’ images of teacher and beliefs about teaching. INONU University Journal of the Faculty of Education, Special Issue, 10(3), 105–122. Boyd, D., Grossman, P., Lankford, H., Loeb, S., & Wyckoff, J. (2008). Teacher preparation and student achievement. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23777903_Teacher_ Preparation_and_Student_Achievement/citation/download Cevher-Kalburan, N. (2014). Early childhood pre-service teachers’ concerns and solutions to overcome them (the case of Pamukkale University). South African Journal of Education, 34(1), 1–18. Chu, M. (2012). Observe, reflect and apply: Ways to successfully mentor early childhood educators. Dimensions of Early Childhood, 40(3), 20–28. Cohen, E., Hoz, R., & Kaplan, H. (2013). The practicum in preservice teacher education: A review of empirical studies. Teaching Education, 25(1), 125. Donnellan, A. (2020). An exploration of how the Mentoring Component of the Leadership for INClusion in the Early Years (LINC) programme supports the adult learner. Unpublished thesis (Masters), Mary Immaculate College, University of Limerick Fatimayin, F. F. (2018). What is communication? Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/pub lication/337649561_What_is_Communication#fullTextFileContent

References

91

Georgia Student Finance Authority. (2017). Chapter 5: Communicating with your mentee. In Reach coordinator resources. Available at: http://reachga.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/ CHAPTER-5-Communicating-with-Your-Mentee.pdf Hudson, P. (2016). Forming the mentor-mentee relationship. Mentoring and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 24(1), 30–43. Jones, L., Tones, S., & Foulkes, G. (2019). Exploring learning conversations between mentors and associate teachers in initial teacher education. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 8(2), 120–133. Keyton, J. (2011). Communication and organizational culture: A key to understanding work experiences. Sage. Lim, S.-R., & Kwon, H.-J. (2009). Pre-service teacher’s narratives on the experience of early childhood practicum. Asia-Pacific Journal of Research in Early Childhood Education, 3(1), 87–100. Lunenburg, F. C. (2010). Communication: The process, barriers, and improving effectiveness. Schooling, 1(1), 1–11. Maloney, M. E. (2012). Ethical Mentorship: The dilemma of success or failure. Clinics in Dermatology, 30, 210–215. Mehrabian, A. (1971). Nonverbal communication. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 19, 107– 161. Metros, S. E., & Yang, C. (2006). The importance of Mentors. Available at: https://www.educause. edu/research-and-publications/books/cultivating-careers-professional-development-campus-it/ chapter-5-importance-mentors Moloney, M. (2017). An exploration of the evidential base for early childhood education and care professional practice placement in Higher Education Institutes in Ireland. Available at: https:/ /dspace.mic.ul.ie/handle/10395/2597 Montgomery, B. L. (2017). Mapping a mentoring roadmap and developing a supportive network for strategic career advancement. SAGE Open, 7(2), Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/215 8244017710288 O’Doherty, T., & Deegan, J. (2009). Mentors, not models: Supporting teachers to be empowered in an Irish context. Research in Comparative and International Education, 4(1), 22–33. Philips-Jones, L. (2003). Skills for successful mentoring: Competencies of outstanding Mentors and Mentees. Available at: https://my.lerner.udel.edu/wp-content/uploads/Skills_for_Suc essful_Mentoring.pdf Ragins, B. R., & Kram, K. E. (2007). The roots and meaning of mentoring. In B. Ragins & K. Kram (Eds.), The handbook of mentoring at work: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 3–15). Sage. Rajuan, M., Beijaard, D., & Verloop, N. (2007). The role of the cooperating teacher: Bridging the gap between the expectations of cooperating teachers and student teachers. Mentoring and Tutoring, 15, 223–242. Ritblatt, S. N., Garrity, S., Longstreth, S., Hokoda, A., & Potter, N. (2013). Early care and education matters: A conceptual model for early childhood teacher preparation integrating the key constructs of knowledge, reflection, and practice. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 34(1), 46–62. Senninger, T. (2000). The learning zone model—Thempra social pedagogy. Sheridan, L., & Young, M. (2017). Genuine conversation: The enabler in good mentoring of preservice teachers. Teachers and Teaching, 23(6), 658–673. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602. 2016.1218327 Thorpe, K., Ailwood, J., Brownlee, J., & Boyd, W. (2011). Who wants to work in child care?: Preservice early childhood teachers’ consideration of work in the childcare sector. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 36, 85–94. Zachary, L. J. (2012). The Mentor’s guide facilitating effective learning relationships (2nd ed.). Jossey-Bass. Zeichner, K. (2010). Rethinking the connections between campus courses and field experiences in college and university-based teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 61, 89–99.

6

Moving Beyond the First Meeting. Approaches to Mentoring

The previous chapter focused upon the first two steps in the mentoring process: preparation and negotiation. Using the Learning Zone Model (Senninger, 2000), the current chapter addresses the third step: facilitating growth. As discussed throughout the present chapter, facilitating growth is interrelated with approaches to mentoring. Commencing with the Learning Zone Model (Senninger, 2000), the chapter explores: Approaches to Mentoring, including formal and informal mentoring

. . . . . . .

6.1

Triadic model of mentoring Informal mentoring Educative mentoring Inside and outside mentoring Images of mentoring Peer mentoring and Communities of practice.

The Learning Zone Model

Tom Senninger, a German educator and adventurer, developed the Learning Zone Model (Fig. 6.1). This model is based on Lev Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). It encourages people to see positive experiences as learning experiences. It also helps people to understand and expand their own boundaries and ‘comfort zones’.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. Moloney et al., Professional Mentoring for Early Childhood and Primary School Practice, Springer Texts in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37186-8_6

93

94

6

Panic Zone

Learning Zone

Comfort Zone

Moving Beyond the First Meeting. Approaches to Mentoring

An unfamiliar place. Learning is beyond what the mentee is familiar with, and becomes difficult Where the mentee grows and learns

A safe place to reflect and make sense of experiences

Fig. 6.1 The learning zone model. Source Based upon Senninger (2000)

Figure 6.1 shows how Senninger (2000) categorizes experiences into three zones: 1. the comfort zone 2. the learning zone, and 3. the panic zone. People generally operate within their comfort zone where they are familiar with their environment, colleagues, daily activities etc. The comfort zone is intertwined with the rhythms and routines of everyday life and work. College may be the comfort zone for the pre-service teacher. Here they feel comfortable with the daily lecture and tutorial schedule, interacting with peers and lecturers, accessing familiar spaces and environments, studying in the library and so on. Likewise, the mentee’s comfort zone—the workplace—stands for safety and status quo. Without doubt, the comfort zone is a safe environment. It affords space to reflect, make sense of experiences, and get on with day-to-day activities. In the comfort zone, neither the mentor nor the mentee must take any risk, and often, they remain unchallenged. Things stay the same, often unquestioned (Ryan & Markova, 2006). A critical question therefore arises in relation to the comfort zone. Does it offer opportunities to learn and develop? Or, can remaining in the Comfort Zone prevent people from developing new skills, and/or expanding their professional growth? Senninger (2000) argues that because people are not challenged by unfamiliar concepts in the comfort zone, their learning is limited. For the pre-service teacher, newly qualified, or early career teacher, moving from the comfort zone to the learning zone is important for their learning and development. It enables them to make new discoveries, explore their limits, stretch their capabilities, and master new skills. All of which, leads to new learning and professional growth. According to Senninger (2000), each person’s learning zone system is unique as are the boundaries of every zone.

6.1 The Learning Zone Model

95

Using the Learning Zone Model, the mentor helps the mentee to find their comfort zone. Thus, the mentee identifies what they are doing well currently, asking critical questions; moving through engagement with new information, ideas and practice into the learning zone, where they grow and develop. Throughout their initial teacher education, and teaching career, teachers work primarily within their comfort zone. At times though, they will also move across different learning zones for varied reasons, such as practicum, induction and CPD (Continuous Professional Development). Initially however, as a mentee transitions from the comfort zone to the learning zone, they may feel anxious and overwhelmed. A mentor therefore, plays a key role in preventing this experience from pushing the learner into the panic zone where learning and development is impossible (Department of Education and Skills (DES) 2013, p. 4). Mentor and Mentee Reflection Point

Identify and think about your own comfort zone. . How do you feel in your own comfort zone? . Have you ever been pushed into the panic zone? . How did it feel? Is it easy to take on new information when you are feeling like this?

Now that you have thought about how you might have felt when pushed into the panic zone, think about the challenge for a pre-service teacher or a newly qualified teacher as they transition from initial teacher education to professional practice. The following practice scenario, which involves Tom, a newly qualified primary school teacher, will prompt your thinking. Practice Scenario 4: Moving into the panic zone

Tom is a newly qualified teacher. He is about to start his first teaching role following graduation. During a chat with his friend, he expresses concerns about his role as a new teacher. Although he is excited, he is also apprehensive. He is concerned that, for the first time, he is solely responsible for his own classroom. He fears his mind will go blank when confronted with the classroom, that he will forget everything he learned in college. He is worried that the children will not like him, that he will not fit in with the other teachers in the school and will have nothing to contribute to conversations in the staff room. 1. Where would you situate Tom within the Learning Zone Model? 2. Why do you think Tom is apprehensive?

96

6

Moving Beyond the First Meeting. Approaches to Mentoring

3. How will his anxiety affect his work, as he commences his new teaching role? 4. What are the implications for Tom’s mentor in the school?

As a newly qualified teacher, preparing for his first teaching role, Tom is transitioning from a comfort zone, that of college, which has been his lifeline throughout his initial teacher education, to the learning zone in his new school. As he embarks on this journey, the familiar becomes temporarily unfamiliar, as Tom questions his abilities. He has lost trust in himself. He imagines all the things that could go wrong. If Tom’s anxiety continues, if he spends too much energy managing his fear, he will remain in the panic zone. He may be unable to work and/or develop professionally as a teacher. Within the school, Tom’s mentor will induct him into the profession, working to reassure him, and minimizing the risk of pushing him into the panic zone. Regardless of where they are found along the teaching career pathway, Portner (2008) suggests that the mentor helps the mentee to develop the capacity and confidence to make his or her own informed decisions, enrich his or her own knowledge, and sharpen his or her own abilities regarding teaching and learning (p. 8).

In other words, the mentor eases the transition from the comfort zone to the learning zone. Alongside this, they support the mentee’s professional growth within the learning zone. Here we return to Supervisory coaching (see Chap. 3), which involves a mentor; in Tom’s case, a school-based mentor (e.g. teacher), working alongside him in situ, within the classroom. In this respect, coaching is seen as part of the facilitating growth aspect of mentoring.

6.2

Facilitating Growth

Do you remember the four steps in the mentoring process? They are preparation, negotiating, facilitating growth and closure. Other chapters reference mentor characteristics and emphasize the critical importance of the mentoring relationship. As mentioned previously, the mentoring relationship begins with the first two steps: preparation and negotiating. The remainder of this chapter is concerned with facilitating growth, as the mentee transitions from the comfort zone to the learning zone. To help the mentee’s growth, different approaches to mentoring may be used. As discussed in the following sections, these approaches may be formal or informal.

6.4 Formal Mentoring During Initial Teacher Education

6.3

97

Approaches to Mentoring

Stan (2021) differentiates between formal and informal mentoring. Citing Leslie et al. (2005), she suggests that formal mentoring is performed at the institutional level. Let us pause for a moment and consider what this means. In the case of initial teacher education, formal mentoring is performed at the institutional level. This means it is initiated by and performed by the mentee’s university/college. Formal mentoring is then, a careful, structured and monitored process (Singh et al., 2002). It is characterized by “well-defined objectives, a coherently established program, scheduled meetings, precise and anticipated actions, formative evaluations etc.” (Leslie et al., in Stan, 2021, p. 166). By contrast, informal mentoring is non-structured with little interference from an organisational perspective (Singh et al., 2002). Unlike structured formal mentoring, informal mentoring involves “sporadic, voluntary meetings, training activities, without planning or evaluation” (Singh et al., 2002, p. 166). Whether formal or informal, colleges, schools and settings must align and tailor their support in line with the purpose of the mentoring and based upon the needs of the mentee. Here, we turn our attention to formal mentoring associated with practicum during initial teacher education. As reiterated throughout this volume, practicum is a core aspect of the pre-service teacher’s professional formation.

6.4

Formal Mentoring During Initial Teacher Education

As discussed in previous chapters, school or early childhood setting-based practicum is an essential aspect of initial teacher education. It plays a pivotal role in supporting the pre-service teacher to gain hands-on experiences of teaching. In addition, it exposes the pre-service teacher to the reality of teaching. Practicum enables pre-service teachers to: . See, experience and apply what they are learning in college in an authentic setting (Moloney, 2018) . Apply content and pedagogical knowledge, thus, bridging the theory to practice divide (Bonnett, 2015; Doan and Gray, 2021; Moloney, 2018) . Learn and practice new skills (Moloney, 2018) . Enhance their ability to positively influence children’s well-being, learning and development (Hyson et al., 2009) . Learn about, and work with children from diverse backgrounds . Engage in reflection, making sense of their practice (Waddell & Vartuli, 2015) . Become familiar with, and accustomed to workplace culture (Moloney & Pope, 2022) . Enhance their personal and professional development and growth (Moloney, 2018; Moloney & Pope, 2022; Mullen et al., 2008)

98

6

Moving Beyond the First Meeting. Approaches to Mentoring

. Rehearse and refine their skills in anticipation of leading their own classrooms (Henning et al., 2019, p. xvi). Overall, under the guidance of a mentor, practicum supports pre-service teacher’s professional formation. Van de Ven (2011) says that practicum depends upon embedded cooperation between teacher-educators and theorists on the one hand, and school/setting teachers on the other. This embedded cooperation between all those involved in mentoring the pre-service teacher helps to bridge the theory–practice divide in teacher education (Ibid.).

6.5

Triadic Model of Mentoring

Conceptualizing mentoring in terms of embedded cooperation between teachereducators and theorists on the one hand, and school/setting teachers on the other, brings to mind, the triadic model of mentoring (Hart, 2018; Jackubik et al., 2016). For the most part, mentoring has been perceived in terms of a dyadic structure, which involves a mentor and a mentee working together as a pair. This dyadic structure reflects earlier discussion, which describes mentoring as a relationship between a more experienced individual, the mentor, and a less experienced individual, the mentee. The overall aim is to support the mentee’s personal and professional growth (see Chap. 2). Historically, however, the triadic model of supervision has been the preferred method for practicum experiences (Grossman, 2011). As such, Cohen et al. (2013) associate practicum with a supervision triad, consisting of a field supervisor, the pre-service teacher and a mentor-teacher. Hart (2018) suggests, triadic models are designed around multiple interactions between a cooperating teacher (CT), a college supervisor (CS) and the student teacher (ST). Drawing upon the notion of embedded cooperation (Van de Ven, 2011), the student teacher’s professional growth is dependent upon positive and sustained interactions between the university/college and the host practicum school or early childhood setting (Fig. 6.2). In other words, a collaborative relationship between the university/college and the host practicum school or early childhood setting is central to effective mentoring (Ellis et al., 2020). In the triadic model, a pre-service teacher is placed in a classroom within a primary school, or early childhood setting. In the case of pre-service primary school teachers, they work with children under the supervision of a cooperating teacher, who is also the classroom teacher. This may not always be the case for pre-service early childhood teachers. While they may work under the supervision of a cooperating teacher (i.e., classroom teacher, or pedagogical leader), they may also work under the supervision of the setting manager. None the less, as mentioned earlier, from an institutional perspective, the field supervisor is typically the university/ college teacher for the pre-service teacher (Cohen et al., 2013). It may also be a university/college appointed supervisor, such as a retired teacher (Fig. 6.3).

6.6 How Triadic Mentoring Works

College

99

School/ setting

Student teacher

Fig. 6.2 Triadic model of supervision

Fig. 6.3 Triad mentoring relationship in a school or early childhood setting

6.6

How Triadic Mentoring Works

Byars-Winston and Dahlberg (2019) provide detailed insight into the many ways in which, triadic mentoring works. They articulate how triads can include one mentee and two mentors, two mentees and one mentor, and a combination of the two. In the triadic model, the most experienced individual in the triad mentors a less experienced person, who in turn, mentors an individual who is new to the field. In this way, the triad “form[s] a sort of mentorship cascade or ladder” (Ibid.,

100

6

Moving Beyond the First Meeting. Approaches to Mentoring

p. 84). In some instances, mentorship triads may include three-way interactions (e.g., between a university/college supervisor, school/early childhood setting mentor and mentee). These triads are characterized by trust and responsiveness and providing career and psychosocial support. This structure is described as a ‘closed’ triad. In other instances, mentorship triads may manifest as dyad. Simply put, they involve interactions between pairs of individuals in the triad. For example, while there is interaction between the school/early childhood setting mentor and mentee, or between the university/college supervisor and mentee, there is no three-way interaction. This structure is described as an ‘open’ triad. Key Learning Point

Triadic mentoring requires the university/college and the school/early childhood setting to: . Be clear about the purpose of practicum (i.e., what are the intended learning outcomes?) . Set out their expectations of the pre-service teacher (attendance, dress code, prepare and implement lesson plans etc.) . Agree their respective roles and responsibilities during the practicum period, including how supervision occurs (e.g., site visits by a university/ college lecturer, direct observation of the student, feedback etc.) . Agree the frequency of site visits . Agree when and how communication will occur (electronically, telephone, text) . Sign a memorandum of understanding (MOU).

During practicum, the pre-service teacher receives a few visits from their university/college supervisor, who sees them in practice, offers advice, and provides verbal and written feedback. (See Chap. 7 for detailed information on providing feedback during the mentoring process). During these visits, the mentor works in an advisory and supportive role. While this role benefits the pre-service teacher in terms of applying theory to practice, engaging in co-professional dialogue with their mentor, affirming practice, identifying strengths, and areas for improvement, and meeting pre-determined standards and goals, the cooperating classroom teacher/pedagogical leader undertakes a complimentary role, that of ‘coach’. In the context of practicum, cooperating teachers act as coaches to the pre-service early childhood or primary school teacher. They work closely and collaboratively with them (Yee Mok & Straub, 2021), engaging in structured, focused interaction, and using appropriate strategies and techniques to “promote desirable and sustainable change” (Cox et al., 2014, p. 1). Overall, this ‘supervisory coaching’ (see Chap. 3) provides guidance to the pre-service teacher to foster learning and development (Yee Mok & Straub, 2021), helping them to improve in specific areas or

6.7 Informal Mentoring

101

aspects of practice (Clutterbuck, 2004, 2014). It is therefore beneficial in terms of skills acquisition (Auld et al., 2010). Mentees benefit from informal mentoring too. As discussed in the following section, informal mentoring can supplement formal mentoring of pre-service teachers, or inducting a newly qualified teacher into the profession, or enhancing early career or veteran teacher’s professional growth.

6.7

Informal Mentoring

While formal mentoring is guided by the university/college (see earlier section), informal mentoring can grow organically and spontaneously, within the school/ early childhood setting (Zachary, 2012; Nottingham et al., 2017). Sometimes during practicum, the cooperating teacher takes the pre-service teacher ‘under their wing’. This may also happen during induction. Occasionally during the career continuum, mentors and mentees come together based on “shared interests, personal or professional goals” (Nottingham et al., 2017, p. 245). Mentees may also seek out other individuals within the school/early childhood setting for support and advice (Nottingham et al., 2016, 2017). Mentees value the mentor’s familiarity with the school, the curriculum and the students, as well as their proximity (Desinome et al., 2014). They appreciate the immediate and consistent feedback provided through informal mentoring (Ibid.). Key Learning Point

To recap, informal mentoring is unstructured, with little interference from an organisational perspective. This enables a mentee to express and develop personal attitudes and fulfil career aspirations (Desimone et al., 2014; Singh et al., 2002).

Unlike formal mentoring, which is focussed upon organisational goals, informal mentoring relationships are centred upon personal objectives. They are not constrained by formal accountability requirements (e.g., meeting targets). They therefore, tend to last longer than formal mentoring roles (Ragins, 2009). Mentor Reflection Point

“Mentoring is more likely to lead to positive outcomes where it takes place in contexts which are relatively free from excessive emphasis on externally determined goals and agendas such as prescriptive criteria for teaching practices” (Hobson et al., 2009, p. 211). . Do you agree with this statement?

102

6

Moving Beyond the First Meeting. Approaches to Mentoring

. How do you feel about externally determined goals for practicum experience? . How can you, as a mentor, ensure positive mentoring outcomes for preservice teachers undertaking practicum in your school or early childhood setting?

Informal mentoring is not a straightforward process. In Chap. 2, Gardiner (2017) proposes the concept of educative mentoring, thus, situating mentoring as part of a continuum of ongoing teacher professional development. Originally coined by Sharon Feiman-Nemser (1998), educative mentoring “is enacted to improve new teacher, and ultimately, student learning” (Gardiner, 2017, p. 55). What is educative mentoring? How does educative mentoring support teacher’s growth and professional learning?

6.8

Educative Mentoring

Educative mentoring reflects a constructivist-oriented model of mentoring. In this model, learning is an active process. Thus, mentees construct their own knowledge by connecting new information to their prior experience in a social community (Gardiner, 2017; Richter et al., 2013). As noted by Gardiner (2017), educative mentoring is based upon social learning theories. This suggests learning is situated, collaborative and scaffolded (Ibid.). Likewise, Daly (n.d) suggests that educative mentoring is based on a vision of teachers as learners, and the classroom as a site of inquiry. It is underpinned by collaborative principles that involve mentor and mentee jointly building knowledge about teaching and learning (Ibid.). Educative mentoring helps the development of alternative beliefs and viewpoints alongside collecting and assessing high-quality evidence that is professionally relevant to the novice teacher (https://www.futurelearn.com/info/courses/early-career-teacherinduction-getting-ready-for-the-early-career-framework-england-/0/steps/237217). Norman and Feiman-Nemser (2005) stress the role of educative mentoring in: . Supporting new teachers to develop an inquiry-based approach to the classroom . Developing deep understanding of learning and teaching. Through educative mentoring, any changes in practice are based on critical thinking, rather than immediate solution-focused strategies (Ibid.). Daly isolates four key elements of educative mentoring as shown in Fig. 6.4. Gardiner (2017) explains that educative mentoring involves mentors spending prolonged time in the novice teacher’s classroom, to understand their classroom context and practice. The mentor then applies their contextual understanding to help the novice teacher establish professional goals (Ibid.). Mackintosh (2019) says that educative mentors create learning opportunities that involve the mentee

6.9 Inside and Outside Mentoring

103

• Links to classrooms as sites of inquiry

• Related to coplanning, team teaching, postlesson dialogue

Teachers as learners

Collaboration

Developing beliefs

High quality evidence

• Associated with alternative viewpoints and critical thinking

• Connects to classsroom enquiry, reading and reflection

Fig. 6.4 Four key elements of educative mentoring

in their ‘zone of proximal development’ (Vygotsky, 1978). Another way to look at this is to think of the mentee within the learning zone (Senninger, 2000). Here, mentors scaffold the mentee’s learning, “helping them learn in and from their practice through reflection, analysis, problem solving, and other forms of assisted performance” (Gardiner, 2017, p. 55). Following analysis of mentoring practices among 26 mentor/novice pairs in China, England and the US, Schwille (2008) suggests that mentoring practices can broadly be grouped into two complementary categories. These are ‘inside’ and ‘outside’ practice, which are reflective of an educative stance (Schwille, 2008).

6.9

Inside and Outside Mentoring

The concept of inside and outside mentoring (Schwille, 2008) sounds intriguing. Simply put however, ‘inside’ mentoring occurs when teachers are working with students. It happens in the classroom. Inside mentoring can be planned. This means that the teacher-mentor in the school or early childhood setting responds to the mentee’s identified learning needs, and demonstrates, or creates opportunities for them to practice and enhance their teaching ability (Gardiner, 2017; Schwille, 2008). By contrast, ‘outside’ mentoring occurs before or after teaching when students are not present. Outside mentoring practices tend to be the go-to strategies for most mentors (Gardiner & Weisling, 2016; Schwille, 2008). They include:

104

6

Moving Beyond the First Meeting. Approaches to Mentoring

quick on-the-fly conversations about challenges, successes, or observed practices, as well as longer, regularly scheduled blocks of time for guided, in-depth reflection and analysis of practice and data. (Gardiner & Weisling, 2018, p. 66)

We now return to Tom, in the following practice scenario. As indicated, Tom is feeling out of his depth and a little over-whelmed in the classroom. He needs help. Practice Scenario 5—Inside or Outside practice?

Tom has asked his mentor, Natasha to observe his teaching. He finds it difficult to pace his lessons and cover all subjects in the curriculum. He feels out of his depth, and a little overwhelmed. Tom is interested in getting Natasha’s insights into this aspect of his practice. Natasha spends an hour in Tom’s classroom each day observing his teaching across a range of subjects. On Friday, Tom and Natasha meet at the end of the school day. During this meeting, Natasha shares her insights with Tom. 1. How would you describe the practice outline here? 2. Is it Inside or Outside practice? 3. How do you know?

The practice scenario here is an example of ‘Outside’ practice. Why do we say this? Natasha spends time in Tom’s classroom. She observes and makes notes on an aspect of his practice. In this case, how Tom paces his lessons. They meet on Friday evening at the end of the school day to discuss Natasha’s observations. The students are not present. Therefore, even though Natasha observes Tom teaching in his classroom, the active mentoring occurs outside the classroom context. Schwille (2008) suggests that planning and reflection, known as pre and post teaching activities, are central aspects of teaching. They are considered ‘outside mentoring’. From this perspective, and as noted by Donnellan (2020), mentoring is not a once-off one task. It continues through conversation and scaffolding mentee’s understanding of teaching (Mertz, 2004). Conversations that occur before and after teaching build the mentee’s skills in reflecting upon and analysing their practice. This enables them to further develop their knowledge, understanding, and teaching skills (Schwille, 2008). Although mentoring activities may involve co-planning, or pre-arranged observations, and follow-up action, unplanned conversations that nurture the mentoring relationship ‘outside’ classroom practice are also beneficial (Gardiner, 2017; Schwille, 2008). During such conversations, the teacher-mentor keeps a bifocal approach, understanding the mentee’s immediate and long-term needs (Schwille, 2008). Clearly, the success of informal mentoring relationships relies upon mutual trust and collaboration, as both the mentor and the mentee share insights into their practice with each other (Gardiner, 2017). Chapter 7 explores the role of

6.10 Images of Mentoring

105

feedback in the mentoring process. It stresses the need for non-evaluative, nonjudgemental feedback. Likewise, ‘Inside’ and ‘outside’ mentoring activities rely upon the teacher-mentor’s understanding that the purpose is not to assess or critique the other’s practice, but to understand, model and support best practice (Schwille, 2008). To better understand the various aspects of informal mentoring, we now draw upon Schwille’s (2008) images of mentoring, which identify six approaches to mentoring. Here, it is important to remember that mentoring is a professional practice. It requires the mentor to draw upon, and use a repertoire of practices, strategies, and skills, to support the mentee’s professional formation and teaching practice.

6.10

Images of Mentoring

Schwille’s (2008) Temporal Framework of Educative Mentoring identifies six images of mentoring shown here in Fig. 6.5. We now explain each of these images of mentoring, beginning with coaching and stepping in.

Fig. 6.5 Images of mentoring

106

6

Moving Beyond the First Meeting. Approaches to Mentoring

Coaching and Stepping-in involves the mentor observing the mentee and being alert to opportunities to offer guidance during the lesson (Schwille, 2008). During the lesson, the mentor is sensitive to, and supportive of the mentee’s needs. They encourage the mentee to overcome challenges and enhance their practice. Gardiner (2017, p. 55) says that stepping in includes a brief consultation during a lesson. She explains how the mentor “literally steps in and takes over a portion of the lesson, and/or when the mentor provides non-verbal cues and feedback during a lesson.”

6.11

Stepping in and Stepping Out

© Coach

Mentoring Ltd (2020) developed a technique called ‘Stepping in and Stepping out.’ This technique uses a blend of rational and emotional questioning to explore the mentee’s perspective of the situation they are in. In addition, it helps the mentee to face up to the thinking and emotions of individuals who are outside their perspective (Fig. 6.6).

Stepping In

Stepping in

Rational

Stepping in

Emotional

Stepping Out

Stepping out

Stepping out Fig. 6.6 Overview of the stepping in and stepping out technique Source Adapted from: © Coach Mentoring LTD. (2020)

6.11 Stepping in and Stepping Out

107

Table 6.1 Stepping in and stepping out technique Stepping in

Stepping out

Acknowledges the individual’s own perspectives. It involves joining the individual to try and understand what they are thinking, and feeling, and why Some people may be reluctant to explore their emotions, fearing what they might discover about themselves. In such instances, they may come at an issue from a purely rational viewpoint Conversely, others may be too emotional about an issue to think about it rationally Stepping in helps a mentee explore their own thinking and feelings about an issue from either a rational or emotional perspective

Helps people to distance themselves from the situation, either to examine it from other people’s or broader perspectives; or to help them empathise with and understand the feelings of others in the situation under discussion Stepping out involves asking them to take someone else’s rational or emotional perspective

Source Adapted from © Coach Mentoring LTD (2020)

In explaining the Stepping in and Stepping Out technique, © Coach Mentoring assert that effective mentors keep dialogues moving. In the main, they achieve this by switching perspective. Switching perspective involves altering the nature and style of the questions mentors ask to ‘get to the bottom of an issue’. As illustrated in Fig. 6.6, a mentee can bring an issue from any perspective. For example, from what they think themselves, or what someone else is thinking or feeling rationally or emotionally. Helping them to find good solutions depends on using questions to guide them gently from one perspective to another, until they are able to see a different and better way forward. It doesn’t matter if you visit all four perspectives several times in the same conversation, or only some of them. What’s important is that the mentee finds a more productive way to look at their issue. (© Coach Mentoring LTD, 2020, p. 2)

It may be necessary however, to explore an issue from each perspective to fully understand and deal with it. Table 6.1 provides a synopsis of Stepping in and Stepping out. Practice Scenario 6: An Emotional Outburst

In the following practice scenario, Tom has an emotional outburst. It is evident that he may need to consider the situation from another teacher’s perspective. Tom feels undermined by another teacher in the school. While he has bottled up his feelings for weeks, his sense of frustration has been building. Today, Tom lost his temper. He had an argument with the teacher. He arrives

108

6

Moving Beyond the First Meeting. Approaches to Mentoring

to a meeting with his mentor, Natasha, feeling angry, and frustrated. He is also feeling disappointed about his behaviour. 1. How should the mentor approach this situation? 2. Whose perspective should be considered? 3. What types of questions should the mentor, Natasha, ask to try and understand the issue? 4. When can Tom begin to explore the situation from the other teacher’s perspective? What types of questions can the mentor, Natasha, ask at this point?

6.12

Teaching Together

The term teaching together is also known as co-teaching and team teaching. It occurs both ‘inside’ and ‘outside’ teaching (Schwille, 2008). Teaching together involves two teachers working together in the classroom, sharing responsibility for planning, implementing and evaluating their practice (Ó Murchú & Conway, 2017). It is a collaborative endeavour. While both the teacher-mentor and the mentee are involved in the act of teaching, they take turns in leading and circulating around the classroom (Schwille, 2008). This form of mentoring expands beyond the classroom. It encompasses preparation, teaching and reflection. It is an active and proactive process. It requires the teacher-mentor and the mentee to observe, interact, question, learn, and meet regularly to set goals and agree strategies (Buckley, 2002). Through team teaching, “the teacher’s reflection on strengths and weaknesses becomes an open, shared process, rather than remaining private and introspective” (Chanmugan & Gerlach, 2013, p. 10). Furthermore, the “relational open process of team teaching makes it more likely that new skills will be practiced and refined” (p. 10). The collaborative nature of the learning also encourages further reflection (Ibid.). Through team teaching, teachers share leadership of the lesson. This shared experience enables the novice teacher to move from learning to teaching, and from teaching to learning (Schwille, 2008). The mentee continually reflects upon their practice, in a process of reflection in action, and reflection on action (Schön, 1987—see Chap. 8 for greater insight). They reflect on teaching during the lesson, and then act upon what they see. Alongside this, they assess their students’ learning, and their own teaching through the support and supervision of their teacher-mentor. In this way, the mentee continually learns from reflection (Schön, 1987). The teacher-mentor observes the mentee choosing when their help is and is not needed. Accordingly, the mentee determines this form of in-action mentoring.

6.16 Co-Planning

6.13

109

Demonstration Teaching

People often learn by observing someone demonstrating something. Such is the case with demonstration teaching. Gardiner (2017) describes demonstration teaching as a planned event with an observational focus. In demonstration teaching, the mentor-teacher intentionally demonstrates the structure of a class or skills (Ho et al., 2016). Throughout the demonstration, the mentee watches, paying attention to the demonstrator’s pedagogical aims (Ibid.). As with team-teaching, the mentee is actively engaged in the process, rather than being a passive observer (Schwille, 2008). Demonstration teaching focusses upon an area or areas of practice where the novice teacher feels they need advice and support (Teaching Council, 2017). It provides an opportunity for the mentee to observe new practice and methodologies, and to assess their relevance to their own practice (O’Doherty & Deegan, 2009). It is a way too, for mentors to communicate the learning outcomes they wish to demonstrate (Ho et al., 2016).

6.14

Mentoring on the Move

Coined by Dembele (1995), the term mentoring on the move is described as informal, conversation-based mentoring (Schwille, 2008). In general, discussions, or brief conversations take place during unplanned meetings, and daily conversations (Stan, 2021; Tourigny & Pulich, 2005). Although they may seem insignificant, and risk being dismissed (Schwille, 2008), informal conversation-based mentoring supports mentees to develop a supportive relationship with their mentor and improve their teaching practice.

6.15

Mentoring and Debriefing Sessions

This form of mentoring involves scheduling a meeting to discuss and create a reflective conversation about a teacher’s practice (Gardiner, 2017; Schwille, 2008). The purpose is to reflect on one’s practice with the intention of informing future practice (Schön, 1987). As noted by O’Doherty and Deegan (2009), the most important aspect of a teacher-mentor role is to facilitate mentee reflection. In the mentoring and debriefing model, mentoring is conversational rather than critical (Tonna et al., 2017). Rather than evaluate, debriefing stimulates mentee reflection (Ibid.).

6.16

Co-Planning

Schwille (2008) describes co-planning as a form of lesson design to be taught by the teacher-mentor, mentee, or both. The purpose is to achieve both long and short-term goals (Pratt et al., 2017). Success depends on the mentor and the

110

6

Moving Beyond the First Meeting. Approaches to Mentoring

mentee setting aside time for planning and reflection (Ibid.). Co-planning must be approached in a collegial and collaborative manner, drawing on the ability of both the teacher-mentor and the mentee (Hargreaves & O’Connor, 2018; Schwille, 2008). Although teacher-mentors guide the mentee through the process of preparing a class, Hargreaves and O’Connor (2018) note that planning affects teaching, reviewing and refining the lesson. Co-planning results in two key outcomes: 1. Teachers enhance their professional relationship with another teacher 2. The purpose of teaching activities is uncovered. Teachers therefore identify the purpose of specific learning activities. This form of mentoring demonstrates a collaborative approach to teaching and learning. Both the mentor and the mentee contribute equally to the planning process. Overall, because mentors “need to act in many capacities towards their… [mentee]…teachers” (Lofthouse, 2018, p. 15), mentoring must be flexible and adaptive to best meet the needs of the mentee, whether as a pre-service teacher, a newly qualified, or early career teacher. It is important here to explore the concept of peer mentoring, where teachers at the same stage in their career, the same age, or within the same setting, working with the same age cohort of children etc., come together to learn from each other, and support their professional development.

6.17

Peer Mentoring

While pre-service teachers gain extensive practicum experience during their initial teacher education, newly qualified teachers need support in making the transition to the teaching profession. Gaikhorst et al. (2014) suggest that a primary reason for high attrition rates (see Chap. 1) among starting teachers relates to inadequate guidance and support. They argue that a support structure might make a difference. Gaikhortst et al., describe a support structure as: the support activities that schools undertake to assist their beginning teachers, such as guidance from a coach, opportunities to gradually grow into the teaching profession and the provision of an introductory handbook (p. 23–24)

Equally, Ingersoll and Smith (2004) highlight critical factors for teacher retention, including having a mentor, planning time with same subject teachers, regularly scheduled collaboration with other teachers, and being a part of an external network of teachers. Undoubtedly, mentoring is a vital tool in supporting early career teachers (Heikkinen et al., 2012), and is viewed as a way of embedding professional development in the context of teacher development (Hudson, 2013). It has the potential to be a “powerful intervention” for teachers new to the teaching profession (Hargreaves & Fullan, 2000, p. 52). It helps to reduce the practice shock at

111

all levels of the education continuum across early childhood, elementary and primary school (Colognesi et al., 2020; Waaland, 2017) by helping novice teachers to socialise into the norms and standards of the profession. Mentor and Mentee Reflection Point

“Newly graduated early childhood [teachers] are often expected to immediately take on roles and responsibilities that include managing groups of children on their own, supporting families and struggling to find their place among established staff teams. This can be stressful and overwhelming and can lead to new [teachers] doubting their own abilities” (Doan & Gray, 2021, p. 20). This statement from Doan and Gray, relating to early childhood teachers, could equally apply to any teacher across the education continuum. As you think about the challenges for new teachers, consider the following in the context of your school or early childhood setting: . What support and advice is available to newly qualified teachers? . Where can they access support and advice? . Who would be best able to support and advise them?

Gordon (2020) argues: Just as teachers are expected to ensure smooth transitions for their pupils, inclusive, effective and coherent strategies are essential to ensure the wellbeing and professional progress of new entrants to the teaching profession (p. 664)

Peer mentoring supports beginning teachers to transition from teacher education to the teaching profession (Doan & Gray, 2021; Kupila & Karila, 2019). In the words of Kardos and Moore Johnson (2010, p. 24), “mentoring, when done right, can stabilise the shifting ground on which new teachers try to stand”. In relation to beginning early childhood teachers, peer mentoring is defined as “mutual instruction between teachers of similar educational background and professional status” (Kupila & Karila, 2019, p. 206). This definition recognises other graduated early childhood teachers in any phase of their career as peers (Ibid.). Peer mentoring is seen as an interaction process aimed at supporting the identity construction and professional development of newly qualified teachers (Ibid.; Doan & Gray, 2021). In peer mentoring, two or more people form a relationship of mutual trust. This relationship, which is co-equal and reciprocal (Doan & Gray, 2021; Kupila & Karila, 2019) makes an invaluable contribution in the early stages of the teaching career and beyond. When coupled with an effective induction process, WomackWynne et al., (2011), assert that peer mentoring can provide at least one year of nurturing and support for those who need it most.

112

6.18

6

Moving Beyond the First Meeting. Approaches to Mentoring

Communities of Practice

We conclude this chapter by considering the possibilities of communities of practice (CoP) in harnessing the power of mentoring. We may be familiar with the term community of practice, but what actually makes a community of practice, or differentiates it from a gathering of people or a team working together? Is a CoP a new phenomenon? Mentor Mentee Reflection Point

. What do you think of immediately when you hear the term a ‘community of practice’ (CoP)? . Are you a member of a CoP? . If currently a member of a CoP, what are the benefits for you?

Communities of practice which are based on social learning theory, are not a recent phenomenon. Wenger (2000) reminds us that since the beginning of time, human beings have formed communities to share cultural practices and reflective learning, giving such examples as cavemen gathering in tribes or street gangs. While these examples may not have been the first that sprung to your mind, the notion of gathering and sharing practices therein, of rituals and considering new ways of working or acting does fit the definition of a CoP. In simple terms, CoPs are a form of continuous professional development and peer support. Wenger, McDermott and Snyder (2002) describe a CoP as a group of individuals in the same field of expertise who come together, to discuss, share and learn from each other, either in person, or virtually. Wenger (2011, p. 1) extended this description, noting that a CoP is a group “of people who share a concern or passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly.” A CoP, as originally envisaged by Wenger (1998) comprises four components: practice (learning by doing); community (learning by belonging); meaning (learning by experience); and identity (learning by becoming). Moreover, according to Wenger, McDermott and Snyder (2002), CoPs are a unique combination of three fundamental elements: 1. a domain of knowledge, which defines a set of issues 2. a community of people who care about this domain, and 3. the shared practice that they are developing to be effective in their domain (p. 27). The starting point for any CoP is its domain, which relates to people’s passion for something. The domain is what initially motivates people to come together. They share a concern or an interest. This shared interest results in a commitment

6.18 Communities of Practice

113

to learn from and share with each other. Members of the CoP can do this through their active participation and engagement in cultural practices that are situated in a particular social community, e.g., a teacher education programme, a school, early childhood setting, or within a college or university. CoP members develop “a shared repertoire of resources: experiences, stories, tools, ways of addressing recurring problems—in short a shared practice” (Wenger-Trayner & Wenger-Trayner, 2012, p. 2). In other words, members of a CoP mentor each other. As they interact and share, members construct and develop their identities as teachers and their understanding of their teaching and their profession. Wenger (1998) identified three forms of belonging to a CoP that shape a person’s learning and development: engagement, imagination and alignment. Members develop their sense of belonging and alignment to a Cop and its way of thinking and doing through their active engagement in the cultural practice (Wenger, 1998). Following the work of Dewey’s (1902) philosophy of pragmatism, and Vygotsky’s (1978) social learning theory, Lave (2009) proposed that active participation in a group, is both a form of action and belonging, where learning occurs naturally. As novices in the group move from the peripheral to the centre (notion of legitimate peripheral participation) (Wenger, 1998), they become more active and engaged within the culture. Over time, they assume the role of expert. Through their active participation and collaboration in a CoP, members are able to imagine themselves, their roles, and their future in teaching for example (see Chap. 5). They do this as they move from peripheral to full participation, or from novice to expert, in making meaning of the tools, concepts, and processes that co-construct and cultivate the practice (Wenger, 1998; Wenger et al., 2002). Over time, as members of the CoP become more confident and skilled in their knowledge of practice (teaching), their identities and understandings become increasingly aligned to the practice. A defining feature of a CoP is that membership is voluntary. Positive relationships and a strong sense of ‘community’ are central to CoPs. As a CoP develops, it may be adjusted in response to the needs and interests of its members, which is essential to the sustainability of the CoP (Wenger, 2012). Smith et al. (2016) highlight how collaborative reciprocal mentoring initiatives, such as a CoP can support the concept of lifelong learning. However, mentoring within the CoP needs more than just the sharing of information. It is supported by the relationships that develop and that sense of identity and belonging within the community (ibid). Pyrko et al. (2017) also stress the collaborative aspect of CoPs. They maintain that it is the learning process of ‘thinking together’ that brings Communities of Practice ‘to life’. There can also be wider positive social emotional benefits to being part of the CoP, such as ‘fostering a sense of responsibility for others’, as Smith et al., (2016, p. 19) observed in their research. They reported that members of a successful CoP identified ‘developing relationships, care for self and others, reduced anxiety, and moral support’ as benefits to being part of the CoP which encouraged continued participation. They also noted a ‘great appreciation for the feeling of “togetherness,” for alleviating professional isolation and taking care of each other’ (Smith et al., 2016, p. 23).

114

6

Moving Beyond the First Meeting. Approaches to Mentoring

In the final chapter, of the present book, we provide insight into how, we as mentors, researchers, and teachers engaged in our own community of practice, to plan and executive the text.

6.19

Chapter Summary Points

. Mentors play a key role in easing the transition for the mentee from their comfort zone to a learning zone. They minimize the risk of pushing mentees into the panic zone, particularly at key times in their career trajectory (ITE and as a newly qualified teacher) . Formal mentoring occurs during ITE. Performed at the institutional level (i.e., university/college), it is a careful, structured monitored process, that is characterised by clearly defined objectives and learning outcomes etc. . Practicum is generally associated with a triadic model of mentoring, designed around multiple interactions between a cooperating teacher, university/college supervisor and the student teacher (mentee). Triads are characterized by trust and responsiveness and providing career and psychosocial support . Informal mentoring, which is relatively free of interference from an organisational perspective, can supplement formal mentoring of pre-service teachers, inducting a newly qualified teacher into the profession, or enhancing early career or veteran teacher’s professional growth . Mentoring is a vital tool to support newly qualified teachers in making the transition to the teaching profession. It helps to reduce the practice shock at all levels of the education continuum across early childhood and primary school by helping novice teachers to socialise into the norms and standards of the profession . Peer mentoring where two or more people form a relationship of mutual trust is especially beneficial in supporting beginning teachers transition from teacher education to the teaching profession . Communities of Practice, which involves a group of individuals in the same field of expertise coming together, to discuss, share and learn from each other, are a form of continuous professional development and peer support.

References

115

References Auld, R., Belfiore, P., & Scheeler, M. (2010). Increasing pre-service teachers’ use of differential reinforcement: Effects of performance feedback on consequences for student behaviour. Journal of Behavioral Education, 19, 169–183. Bonnett, T. H. (2015). International field experience as an impetus for personal and professional transformation: Through the lens of early childhood postsecondary students. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 36(3). Buckley, F. J. (2002). Team Teaching: What How and Why? SAGE Publications Byars-Winston, A., & Dahlberg, M. L. (2019). The science of effective mentorship in STEMM. Consensus study report. National Academies Press. Chanmugam, A., & Gerlach, B. (2013). A co-teaching model for developing future educators’ teaching effectiveness. International Journal of Teaching & Learning in Higher Education, 25(1), 110–117. Clutterbuck, D. (2004). Everyone needs a mentor: Fostering talent in your organisation. CIPD Publishing. Clutterbuck, D. (2014). Everyone needs a mentor. Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. © Coach Mentoring Ltd. (2020). How to explore feelings in a mentoring conversation. Available at: https://ngocoachingmentoring.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/How-to-explorefeelings-Handout.pdf Cohen, E., Hoz, R., & Kaplan, H. (2013). The practicum in preservice teacher education: A review of empirical studies. Teaching Education, 25(1), 125. Colognesi, S., Van Nieuwenhoven, C., & Beausaert, S. (2020). Supporting newly qualified teachers’ professional development and perseverance in secondary education: On the role of informal learning. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(2), 258–276. Cox, E., Bachkirova, T., & Clutterbuck, D. (2014). The complete handbook of coaching. Sage. Dembele, M. (1995). Mentors and mentoring: Frames for action, ways of acting and consequences for novice teachers’ learning. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing. Department of Education and Skills. (2013). Final report on the development and implementation of the Síolta quality assurance programme. Early years education policy unit. Department of Education and Skills. Available at: https://assets.gov.ie/24668/78fe808b17674edb8c9dcdec01e 9dfd7.pdf Desimone, L. M., Hochberg, E. D., Porter, A. C., Polikoff, M. S., Schwart, R., & Johnson, L. J. (2014). Formal and informal mentoring: Complementary, compensatory, or consistent? Journal of Teacher Education, 65(2), 88–110. Dewey, J. (1902). The child and the curriculum including the school and society. Cosimo Inc. Doan, L. K., & Gray, C. (2021). Mentorship as a strategy to address recruitment and retention in the early years sector. The Early Childhood Educator, 36(2), 20–25. Donnellan, A. (2020). An exploration of how the Mentoring Component of the Leadership for INClusion in the Early Years (LINC) programme supports the adult learner. Unpublished thesis (Masters), Mary Immaculate College, University of Limerick. Ellis, N. J., Alonzo, D., & Nguyen, H. T. M. (2020). Elements of quality pre-service teacher mentor: A literature review. Teacher and Teacher Education, 92, 1–13. Feiman-Nemser, S. (1998). Teachers as teacher educators. European Journal of Teacher Education, 21(1), 63–74. Gaikhorst, L., Beishuizen, J. J., Korstjens, I. M., & Volman, M. L. (2014). Induction of beginning teachers in urban environments: An exploration of the support structure and culture for beginning teachers at primary schools needed to improve retention of primary school teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 42, 23–33. Gardiner, W. (2017). Mentoring “Inside” and “Outside” the action of teaching: A professional framework for mentoring. The New Educator, 13(1), 53–71.

116

6

Moving Beyond the First Meeting. Approaches to Mentoring

Gardiner, W., & Weisling, N. (2016). Mentoring “inside” the action of teaching: Induction coaches’ perspectives and practices. Professional Development in Education, 42(5), 671–686. Gardiner, W., & Weisling, N. (2018). Challenges and complexities of developing mentors’ practice: Insights from new mentors. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 7(4), 329–342. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJMCE-12-2017-0078 Gordon, A. L. (2020). Educate–mentor-nurture: Improving the transition from initial teacher education to qualified teacher status and beyond. Journal of Education for Teaching, 46(5), 664–675. Grossman, P. (2011). Framework for teaching practice: A brief history of an idea. Teachers College Record, 113(12), 2836–2843. Hargreave, A., & Fullan, M. (2000). Mentoring in the new millennium. Theory into Practice, 39, 50–56. Hargreaves, A., & O’Connor, M. T. (2018). Collaborative professionalism: When teaching together means learning for all. Corwin. Hart, A. E. (2018). Exploring the interpersonal dynamics of the supervisory triad of preservice teacher education: A qualitative meta-synthesis. Available at: https://digitalcommons. kennesaw.edu/teachleaddoc_etd/23 Heikkinen, H. L. T., Jokinen, H., & Tynjälä, P. (2012). Teacher education and development as lifelong and lifewide learning. In H.L.T. Heikkinen, H. Jokinen, & P. Tynjälä (Eds.), Peer-group mentoring for teacher development (pp. 3–30). Routledge. Henning, J. E., Gut, D. M., & Beam, P. C. (2019). Building mentoring capacity in teacher education. Routledge. Ho, M. K., Littman, M. L., Cushman, F., & Austerweil, J. L. (2016). Effectively learning from pedagogical demonstrations. Available at: http://www.markkho.com/documents/cogsci2018_lear ningfromdemonstration.pdf Hobson, A. J., Ashby, P., Malderez, A., & Tomlinson, P. D. (2009). Mentoring beginning teachers: What we know and what we don’t. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(1), 207–216. Hudson, P. (2013). Mentoring as professional development: ‘growth for both’ mentor and mentee. Professional Development in Education, 39(5), 771–783. Hyson, M., Tomlinson, H. B., & Morris, C. (2009). Quality improvement in early childhood teacher education: Faculty perspectives and recommendations for the future. Early Childhood Research & Practice, 11(1). Ingersoll, R. M. & Smith, T. M. (2004). Do teacher induction and mentoring matter? NAASP Bulletin, 88(638), 28–40 Jakubik, L. D., Eliades, A. B., Weese, M. M., & Huth, J. J. (2016). Part 1: An overview of mentoring practices and mentoring benefits. Paediatric Nursing, 42(1), 37–38. Kardos, S. M., & Moore-Johnson, S. (2010). New teacher’s experiences of mentoring: The good, the bad and the inequity. Journal of Educational Change, 11(1), 23–44. Kupila, P. & Karila, K. (2019). Peer mentoring as a support for beginning preschool teachers. Professional Development in Educaiton, 45(2), 205–216 Lave, J. (2009). The practice of learning. In K. Illeris (Ed.), Contemporary theories of learning: Learning theorists—In their own words. Routledge. Leslie, K., Lingard, L., & Whyte, S. (2005). Junior faculty experiences with informal mentoring. Medical Teacher, 27(8), 693–698. Lofthouse, R. M. (2018). Re-imagining mentoring as a dynamic hub in the transformation of initial teacher education: The role of mentors and teacher educators. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 7(3), 248–260. Mackintosh, J. (2019). Educative mentoring. Available at: https://www.herts.ac.uk/link/volume-4,issue-1/educative-mentoring Mertz, N. (2004). What’s a mentor, anyway? Educational Administration Quarterly, 40, 541–560. Moloney, M. (2018). An exploration of the evidential base for early childhood education and care professional practice placement in higher education institutes in Ireland. Available at: http:// www.ple.ie.

References

117

Moloney, M., & Pope, J. (2022). Professional mentoring for early childhood practice: Enhancing educators’ capacity to support the professional formation of early childhood educators. In 74th World Assembly and OMEP International Conference. Athens, July 12–15, 2022. Mullen, L., Beilke, J., & Brooks, N. (2008). Redefining field experiences: Virtual environments in teacher education. Journal of Social Sciences, 2(1), 22–28. Murchú, F. Ó., & Conway, P. (2017). (Re)Positioning team teaching: The visibility and viability of learning in classrooms. Education Research and Perspectives, 44, 43–69. Norman, P. J., & Feiman-Nemser, S. (2005). Mind activity in teaching and mentoring. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21(6), 679–697. Nottingham, S. I., Barrett, J. L., Mazerolle, S. M., & Eason, C. M. (2016). Examining the role mentorship plays in the development of athletic training preceptors. Athletic Training Education Journal, 11(3), 127–137. Nottingham, S. l., Mazerolle, S. M., & Barrett, J. L. (2017). Promising and established investigator’s experiences participating in the national athletic trainer’s association foundation research programme. Journal of Athletic Training, 52(4), 368–376. O’Doherty, T., & Deegan, J. (2009). Mentors, not models: Supporting teachers to be empowered in an Irish context. Research in Comparative and International Education, 4(1), 22–33. Portner, H. (2008). Mentoring new teachers (3rd ed.). Corwin Press. Pratt, S. M., Imbody, S. M., Wolf, L., & Patterson, A. L. (2017). Co-planning in co-teaching: A practical solution. Intervention in School and Clinic, 52(4), 1–7. Pyrko, I., Dorfler, V., & Eden, C. (2017). Thinking together: What makes communities of practice work? Human Relations, 70(4), 389–409. Richter, D., Kunter, M., Ludtke, O., Klusmann, U., Anders, Y., & Baumert, J. (2013). How different mentoring approaches affect beginning teachers’ development in the first years of practice. Teaching and Teacher Education, 36, 166–177. Ragins, B. R. (2009). Positive identities inaction: A model of mentoring self-structures and the motivation to mentor. In L. M. Roberts & J. E. Dutton (Eds.), Exploring positive identities and organizations: Building a theoretical and research foundation (pp. 237–263). Routledge Press. Ryan, A., & Markova, D. (2006). The comfort-stretch-panic model. Available at: https://www.ams terdamuas.com/binaries/content/assets/subsites/safe/lecturers/background-for-teachers/thecomfort-stretch-panic-model.pdf Schon, D. A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. Jossey Bass. Schwille, S. A. (2008). The professional practice of mentoring. American Journal of Education, 115, 139–167. Senninger, T. (2000). The learning zone model—Thempra social pedagogy. Singh, V., Bains, D., & Vinnicombe, S. (2002). Informal mentoring as an organisation resource. Long Range Planning: International Journal of Strategic Management, 35(4), 389–405. Smith, E. R., Calderwood, P. E., Burrell Storms, S., Lopez, P. G., & Colwell, R. P. (2016). Institutionalizing faculty mentoring within a community of practice model. A Journal of Educational Development, 35(1). Available at: Institutionalizing Faculty Mentoring within a Community of Practice Model (umich.edu) Stan, C. (2021). Formal mentoring versus informal mentoring in education. Available at: https:/ /www.researchgate.net/publication/350529168_Formal_Mentoring_Versus_Informal_Mentor ing_in_Education Teaching Council. (2017). Droichead: The integrated professional induction framework. The Teaching Council. Tonna, M. A., Bjerkholt, E., & Holland, E. (2017). Teacher mentoring and the reflective practitioner approach. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 6(3), 210–227. Tourigny, L., & Pulich, M. (2005). A critical examination of formal and informal mentoring among nurses. The Health Care Manager, 24, 68–76. Van de Ven, P. H. (2011). Reflections from a ‘Dutch’ perspective. In M. Mattsson, T. Eilertsen, & R. Rorrison (Eds.), A practicum turn in teacher education (pp. 189–210). Sense.

118

6

Moving Beyond the First Meeting. Approaches to Mentoring

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press. Waddell, J., & Vartuli, S. (2015). Moving from traditional teacher education to a field-based urban teacher education program: One program’s story of reform. Available at: https://files.eric.ed. gov/fulltext/EJ1084839.pdf Waaland, T. (2017). Mentoring and early years practitioners: Investigating the influence of higher education qualifications and social support. Cogent Education, 4(1), 1–13. Available at: https:/ /doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2017.1415630 Wenger, E. C. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge University Press. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511803932 Wenger, E. C. (2000). Communities of practice and social learning systems. Organization, 72(2), 225–246. Wenger, E. C. (2011). Communities of practice: A brief introduction. Available at: https://schola rsbank.uoregon.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1794/11736/A%20brief%20introduction%20to% 20CoP.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Wenger, E. C., McDermott, R., & Synder, W. M. (2002). Cultivating communities of practice: A guide to managing knowledge. Harvard Business School Press. Wenger-Trayner, B., & Wenger-Trayner, E. (2012). Leadership groups. Distributed leadership in social learning. Available at: http://wenger-trayner.com/blog/leadership-groups-for-social-lea rning/ Womack-Wynne, C., Dees, E., Leech, D., LaPlant, J., Brockmeier, L., & Gibson, N. (2011). Teacher’s perceptions of the first-year experience and mentoring. International Journal of Educational Leadership Preparation, 6(4). Yee Mok, S., & Staub, F. C. (2021). Does coaching, mentoring and supervision matter for preservice teachers’ planning skills and clarity of instruction? A meta-analysis of (quasi) experimental studies. Teaching and Teacher Education, 107, 1–14. Zachary, L. J. (2012). The Mentor’s guide facilitating effective learning relationships (2nd ed.). Jossey-Bass.

7

Critical Role of Feedback in the Mentoring Process

As discussed in Chap. 1, national teaching standards inform the content and evaluation of initial teacher education programmes. These standards generally focus on three areas of knowledge and skill: teaching practice skills, pedagogical skills and subject knowledge (Taylor et al., 2022). Feedback is therefore an integral aspect of the mentoring relationship, for both mentors and mentees during practicum. Crafting and providing feedback, can, however, be a challenging role. Some may associate feedback solely with enhancing student learning and instructional practice (Killian & Wilkins, 2009; Sayeski & Paulsen, 2012). We must be careful though, that in construing feedback in this somewhat narrow fashion, we do not adopt a technicist approach to feedback, and run the risk of trying to clone our mentees into versions of ourselves. On the contrary, we perceive feedback as an opportunity to stretch the pre-service teacher’s capabilities, to open their minds to new and better ways of doing things through critical reflection. Chapter 8 discusses the centrality of reflective practice in the teacher’s professional formation across the early childhood and primary school continuum. Mentor feedback provides an ideal opportunity for nurturing reflective practice. When done sensitively and collaboratively with the mentee, providing feedback enables them to think deeply about the learning environment, their teaching, their ability to bridge the theory practice divide, work collaboratively with various stakeholders and much more. To approach feedback in any other way limits its usefulness as a scaffold for mentees. It is important to note here, that we are not overlooking the importance of mentor reflection. On the contrary, we consider the importance of mentors reflecting on their own experiences as imperative. We, therefore, address the concept of the self-reflective mentor in the next chapter. This chapter begins by attempting to clarify the term ‘feedback’. It then examines the following:

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. Moloney et al., Professional Mentoring for Early Childhood and Primary School Practice, Springer Texts in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37186-8_7

119

120

7

Critical Role of Feedback in the Mentoring Process

• Critical role of mentor feedback • Diverse types of feedback • Contextual factors that may influence feedback, and the conditions for giving and receiving feedback • Challenges inherent in the feedback process and • The concept of feedforward. Ultimately, the chapter, discusses, what we call the 8 Cs of feedback, as shown in Fig. 7.1.

7.1

Clarifying the Concept of ‘Feedback’

Hattie and Timperley (2007) describe feedback as some form of a bridge between teachers’ intended learning goals and students’ current level of achievement in relation to those goals. They maintain that ‘feedback is one of the most powerful influences on learning and achievement’. This powerful statement belies the complexity of feedback, and how and when to give feedback. To begin, it is important to ask, what feedback is. When searching for a dictionary definition, there are differences in how feedback is defined. For example, the following dictionary definitions in Table 7.1 juxtapose the term with positive and negative aspects. Across the dictionary definitions included here, feedback is associated with giving information and advice. This informationve is evaluative or corrective. These definitions also associate feedback with criticism and corrective action. Some use the metaphor of a double-edged sword to describe feedback (e.g., Korver & Tillema, 2014; © Pearson Education, 2016). On the one hand, the mentor acts as a scaffold, while at the same time keeping evaluative standards high (Korver & Tillema, 2014). In the context of practicum, evaluative standards, associated with national teacher standards (e.g., AITSL Australia, CÉIM, Ireland) and the integrity of the initial teacher education programme rightly prevail. Alongside this, mentors play a vital role in scaffolding and nurturing the mentee’s learning and development. In the education context, © Pearson Education (2016) define feedback as a critical component of an ideal instructional cycle... [and the] …consequence of teaching and a response to learner performance…it is widely regarded by researchers as crucial for improving not only knowledge acquisition but learner motivation and satisfaction (p.2)

This definition places feedback along a continuum, ranging from technicist practice (instructional cycle) at one end, to serving as a form of extrinsic motivation (learner motivation and satisfaction) at the other. Hattie (2009) maintains that the process of providing feedback should enhance a student’s achievement. Overall,

7.1 Clarifying the Concept of ‘Feedback’

Fig. 7.1 The 8Cs of feedback

121

122

7

Critical Role of Feedback in the Mentoring Process

Table 7.1 Dictionary definitions of ‘feedback’ Oxford

Merriman-Webster

Cambridge

Noun: advice, criticism, or information about how good or useful something or somebody’s work is

a: the transmission of evaluative or corrective information about an action, event, or process to the original or controlling source

information about something such as a new product or someone’s work, that provides an idea of whether people like it or whether it is good

Hattie and Timperley (2007) describe feedback in terms of “information provided by an agent regarding aspects of one’s performance or understanding” (p.82). In drawing these various definitions together, it is apparent that feedback comprises two key elements: evaluation associated with assessment of students’ learning, and scaffolding, which involves guiding and supporting the student to enhance their practice. As these insights into defining feedback illustrate, feedback plays a crucial role in the student teacher’s professional formation.

7.2

Critical Role of Mentor Feedback

Hudson’s Five Factor Model of Mentoring (see Chap. 2) delineates feedback as a core aspect of mentoring. In Hudson’s (2004) model, feedback is presented as being concerned with how the mentor shares feedback with the mentee, and the quality of the feedback. Donnellan (2020) likewise identified feedback as a core mentoring role in her work in the early childhood sector. Furthermore, Izadinia (2015, 2016) indicate that providing quality feedback is one of the main roles of a mentor, and an essential aspect of professional experience. But why is mentor feedback so critical? If we look at the impact on educational achievement alone, the results are staggering. In an extensive meta-analysis of more than 100 factors influencing educational achievement, Hattie (2009) found the effect of feedback great enough to place it in the top 5 of all in-school influences studied (in © Pearson Education, 2016, p.2). Ferguson (2011) considers feedback as essential to supporting students’ development as independent learners, to monitor, evaluate and regulate their own learning. Even though feedback is thought to be one of the top influences on achievement, not all feedback is equal. Students may not always accept feedback (Scheeler and Lee, 2002). If feedback is ignored, or not considered relevant by students, or if it is not linked to their current ability, it can be ineffective, and may even cause harm (Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Shute, 2008).

7.3 Contextual Considerations for Mentor Feedback

7.3

123

Contextual Considerations for Mentor Feedback

When some people think of feedback, they may immediately see the colour red! This could be physically seeing red- the familiar √ red pen highlighting errors, necessary corrections or notes or symbols (X or a on report forms). Or metaphorically seeing red, becoming angry if the feedback received was extremely critical or perceived as unfair for example. When considering feedback, contextual aspects matter. Key Learning Point

A mentee’s previous interactions, experiences, or associations with feedback may influence their expectations of feedback and how they receive it. For some, while feedback may be associated with positive experiences, for others, it may trigger negative memories

Consideration of these contextual factors matter when thinking about mentor feedback is vital. Think about your feedback from the perspective of the mentee. Put yourself in their shoes, remembering that mentoring is premised upon relationships. As discussed in Chap. 3, emotional intelligence is key; being aware of others’ emotional state helps the mentor and mentee engage with each other (Opengart & Bierema, 2015). For this reason, mentors require a high level of EI (Emotional Intelligence) to manage their own emotions, but also to model, monitor and respond to their mentee’s emotional state (Ibid.). This is especially relevant in the context of giving feedback. With regards to initial teacher education, mentors must be aware of the need to support the student teacher’s EI, helping them develop self-awareness, coping skills, confidence etc. (Cherniss et al., 2006). From this standpoint, while feedback may have a strong evaluative focus, as a mentor, you also have a responsibility to help your mentee develop the skills outlined by Cherniss et al. The risk is that both mentors and students can become overly focussed on the grade being awarded (Lofthouse & Hall, 2014). This can create tensions in the mentoring relationship. How to provide feedback is therefore a vital contextual consideration. We must consider how we ‘deliver the message’ and how it will be ‘received’ by the mentee. You may be familiar with the now famous quote by Maya Angelou (cited in Gallo, 2014) when she said, “I’ve learned that people will forget what you said, people will forget what you did, but people will never forget how you made them feel”. How do we make our mentees feel? This is not something we consider just at the point of feedback. It is part of a mentoring culture (Chap. 10). Consideration of the mentee’s feelings permeate every aspect of the mentoring process, beginning with the first mentoring meeting (Chap. 5), and extending through feedback meetings and interactions. Being cognisant of how our feedback might make the mentee feel is essential. We may not be able to predict how every mentoring feedback encounter will go. We may, however, be able to anticipate and address potential

124

7

Critical Role of Feedback in the Mentoring Process

hazards or pitfalls to reduce the risks associated with giving feedback, such as overwhelming, or demoralising the student, timing of feedback and so on. We discuss this further later in this chapter. Another contextual consideration concerns power-relations in the mentoring process (see Chap. 10). Even though mentoring is viewed as a relational process, power-relations may be present, where the mentor holds a position of power. Our words matter. Once spoken or written, feedback cannot be undone. Harsh insensitive critique can have a devastating effect on the student’s emotional state. Power is not necessarily negative. We must use our power positively and wisely. Positive relational energy goes a long way towards mitigating stress, increasing employee engagement (Amah, 2017), encouraging job performance, and nurturing mentee reflection. Chapter 10 references the principle of beneficence, meaning Do no harm. This principle is especially pertinent when considering mentor feedback. The following question must be to the forefront of our minds: Will our feedback cause undue harm or upset to the mentee? This does not mean that we dilute the feedback. It does mean though that we consider carefully how we craft and deliver the message. Being aware of these aspects prior to engaging in feedback interactions is central to ensuring that we do not push the mentee into the panic zone (Chap. 6) where they feel overwhelmed and fearful of making a mistake, and ultimately, unable to work or learn. Part of the learning process for a mentee is to feel safe to make mistakes, learn from those mistakes, study themselves, and share learning with each other to be successful in their instructional delivery (Dantonio, 2001; Ramirez, 2012). The question is: Are you tolerant of mentee mistakes? How do you, as a mentor, support pre-service teachers who are engaging in practicum, or other teachers, to feel safe in making a mistake, to reflect on, and learn from the experience.? As humans, we are all susceptible to making mistakes. We are also familiar with the adage that we learn from our mistakes. None the less, we ask whether the educational environment, either in early childhood or primary school allows for mistakes to be made? It is important to be aware that some mistakes could have consequences for children, parents, other teachers. Some mistakes could potentially bring the early childhood or teaching profession into disrepute. Feedback can, therefore, be challenging, as a mentor grapples with when and how to give feedback. Should feedback be immediate, should it be delayed? As discussed later in the present chapter, mentors may use their professional judgement in this regard. The key consideration is that regardless of when feedback is given, the mentor is sensitive to, and empathetic in their interactions with the mentee. Being pushed into the panic zone, however unintentionally, is an unpleasant experience. It dents and undermines our confidence. It can leave us feeling unworthy, doubting our ability, and even paralysed by fear. Imagine how it feels for the pre-service or the novice teacher. All of these contextual factors are necessary pre-requisites to considering our approach to mentor feedback.

7.4 Crafting Mentor Approaches to Feedback

7.4

125

Crafting Mentor Approaches to Feedback

When considering approaches to feedback, remember, the purpose is not to admonish or criticise the mentee. Such an approach to feedback can undermine confidence and does little to scaffold and progress the mentee’s professional growth. Providing feedback in a way that fosters confidence and competence requires emotional intelligence, mentor knowledge, and skill. The importance of mentor feedback cannot be overstated. The nature of feedback, and the way it is given, can enhance the mentee’s enthusiasm for their work and their profession. Alternatively, as indicated previously, when mishandled (e.g., overly critical, authoritative, didactic), feedback can stymy professional formation. In the following practice scenario, we see how insensitive feedback affected Rachel’s self-image and self-confidence. Practice Scenario 7: The Mentee’s Perspective on Feedback

It is Saturday. Rachel is having coffee with a work colleague, Anshul, who notices that she seems preoccupied and anxious. When Anshul asks if everything is ok, Rachel blurts out: To be honest, I feel sick. My manager wants to meet me on Monday to discuss my performance. I’m dreading it. I’m sure she’s noticed that I take everything literally. Yesterday, one of the teachers said she was throwing the baby out with the bathwater. I was so confused. Should I tell my manager that I am on the autism spectrum or neurodiverse? Remember what happened in the last setting when I said I was on the spectrum. She said ‘Ah! That explains a lot’ and left a silence hanging there. It was awful. My confidence was knocked. It took me ages to get over it. I don’t think I could take that again… Anshul, is surprised, and unsure how to respond to Rachel 1. What is driving Rachel’s anxiety? 2. What could the setting manager have done differently when Rachel disclosed that she was on the autism spectrum or neurodiverse? 3. What can Anshul do to reassure Rachel? 4. What advice would you give to Rachel as she prepares to meet with her current manager?

Rachel’s emotional reaction to her colleague’s question illustrates how damaging insensitive feedback can be for the mentee. One throw-away comment, ‘Ah that explains a lot’ left an indelible impression on Rachel. It has reinforced a negative view of feedback. When it comes to feedback, being aware of what mentees value and appreciate matters. In their 2014 study, Eller, Lev, and Feurer found that in common with Smith (2010) while mentees expect and desire honest feedback about their performance, it should be encouraging and, characterised by respect. This is especially

126

7

Critical Role of Feedback in the Mentoring Process

important when noting a disagreement. Atjonen (2012) provides further insights into what student teachers value in mentee feedback. Their study, undertaken with 210 student teachers, asked teachers to describe from an ethical stance, both positive and negative mentoring experiences during their student teaching. The findings indicate that the student teachers viewed mentoring as ethically successful when a mentor provided feedback, was student-centred, fair, and just, gave timely advice, enough support, and listened carefully. They also associated ethically successful mentoring with a mentor who was both flexible and demanding, and a positive person (Atjonen, 2012). These studies suggest that mentees appreciate honest feedback. They do not want mentors to temper feedback. On the contrary, they want their mentors to challenge them, but to do so in a fair, just, and supportive manner. This brings us back to considerations of mentoring styles and approaches to feedback. To how best to deliver the message. As a mentor, you will have developed your own mentoring style. You may also have developed an approach to providing feedback to your mentees. Perhaps you have been reflecting on these concepts as you engage with the material in this book. Maybe, you have been asking if you are an effective mentor? It is natural that an ethical and reflective mentor will ponder such questions. Let us now explore the concept of an effective mentor, and approaches to mentor feedback. Many researchers describe an effective mentor as non-directive, developmental and collaborative, rather than directive, judgmental and prescriptive (e.g., CIPD (Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development), 2020; Kullman, 1998; Phelan, 2012). Likewise, Richter et al. (2013, p.166) hold that mentoring that follows ‘constructivist rather than transmissive principles’ encourages mentees’ self-efficacy, teaching enthusiasm, and job satisfaction. Furthermore, it reduces emotional exhaustion (Ibid.). This approach to mentoring, known as developmental mentoring, supports and encourages the mentee. In contrast, Hobson and Malderez (2013) assert that a mentor who overevaluates, advises, or criticises, may hinder the mentee’s well-being and professional development. The central premise of mentoring as a form of professional learning stems from the belief that individuals may best learn through observing, doing, commenting, and questioning, rather than simply listening (Nicholls, 2002). Moreover, open-ended questions are more beneficial to the mentee than closed questions that can hinder dialogue and reflection. According to Nicholls, asking “the ‘why’ question allows the mentor to reflect, share practice and collaborate to improve the mentee’s practice” (2002, p.141). Thus, feedback provides an opportunity for mentees to hone their reflective practice. Here we draw from the Australian Children’s Education and Care Quality Authority (ACEQUA, 2017) who refer to reflective practice as deconstructing or ‘pulling apart’ experiences. This is precisely how we see feedback—an opportunity to work collaboratively with a mentee to reflect deeply on practice. As discussed in Chap. 8, sometimes the mentor will lead the discussion, sometimes the mentee will do so, and sometimes, both the mentor and mentee reflect together in harmony.

7.5 What Does Feedback Look Like, and How and When, Should It Be Delivered?

127

Key Learning Point

ACEQUA (2017) describe that when early childhood teachers deconstruct or ‘pull-apart’ experiences and critically examine each aspect, [they] can gather a wealth of information to guide their decisions about what should be repeated or extended and what might be changed (p.1)

Reflection-based mentoring denotes a relationship between the mentee and the mentor. In this relationship, the mentor aims to contribute to the mentee’s professional development by opening room for reflection in conversations, and encouraging openness to different approaches to teaching (Clutterbuck, 2004; Hudson, 2005; Kram, 1985). Furthermore, Chu et al. (2010) advocate that mentors who listen to the experiences, dilemmas, and interests of their mentees are especially effective when they offer ongoing feedback and encourage the mentee to strive for high standards in ways that respect the organisational (early childhood setting or school) and programme context. In returning to the relationship between mentor feedback and nurturing reflective practice, we are reminded of the concept of educative mentoring, which supports new teachers to develop an inquiry-based approach to the classroom (see Chap. 6). By engaging in educative mentoring, teachers develop deep understanding of learning and teaching (Norman & Feiman-Nemser, 2005). In educative mentoring, any changes in practice are based on critical thinking, rather than immediate solution-focused strategies (Ibid.). All of which, must be borne in mind when considering approaches to mentor feedback. Ultimately, as noted by Ropohl and Rönnebeck (2019, p.2159), providing effective feedback “resembles a tightrope walk. Teachers have to find a balance so that their comments are specific enough for students to know what to do next without giving away the right answer and doing the work for them”. Similarly, Chappuis (2012, p.37) says that effective feedback “does not do the thinking for the student”. We return to the characteristics of effective mentoring, including the need for clear specific comments later. For now, as we consider approaches to mentor feedback, it is time to ask what feedback looks like, and how and when to deliver it.

7.5

What Does Feedback Look Like, and How and When, Should It Be Delivered?

Remember Hobson’s (2016) caution to avoid judge-mentoring. This chapter serves as a timely reminder that mentoring is not meant to be judgemental, unfairly critical, or about ‘finding someone out’ who is ‘lacking’ in areas of their work. Chap. 4 stressed the necessity for effective, timely, relevant and useable feedback (Taylor et al., 2022). According to Hattie and Timperley (2007), effective feedback should support students in closing the gap between their current levels of achievement and pre-defined learning goals. In our view, it is about recognising students’ individual strengths and any areas for attention, where strengths can be used to enhance

128

7

Critical Role of Feedback in the Mentoring Process

Table 7.2 Crafting effective feedback Element

Description

Focus feedback on the task, not the learner (mentee)

Feedback to the mentee addresses specific features of their work in relation to the task. It includes suggestions for how to improve

Provide elaborated feedback to enhance learning

Feedback describes what, how and why of a given issue/concern/problem

Present elaborated feedback in manageable units

Feedback is given in small pieces so that it does not overwhelm the mentee, or be dismissed by them Providing too much information may result in superficial learning, and/or cognitive overload

Be specific and clear with the message and link feedback to goals and performance

If feedback is not specific, if it is unclear, it can impede learning and frustrate the mentee

Keep feedback simple and focused

Give only enough information to help the mentee

Reduce uncertainty between performance and goals

Feedback clarifies goals and aims to reduce or eliminate uncertainty in terms of how well mentees are performing a task, and what needs to happen to achieve goals

Give unbiased, objective feedback

Feedback from a trusted person (mentor) will be taken more seriously than other feedback, which may be disregarded

Use feedback to promote a learning goal orientation

Feedback focuses on learning instead of performance. This involves crafting feedback, stressing that effort results in increased learning and performance, and that mistakes are an important part of the learning process

practice. The mentor must help the student to overcome any challenges identified in a safe, supportive, non-judgemental environment. The following Table 7.2, adapted from Shute (2008) provides insight into crafting effective feedback. Supportive and constructive feedback is imperative (Pekkanli, 2011). In the absence of such feedback, teachers “would feel lost in their self-reflections and evaluations of their teaching practices” (p.600). When mentors provide constructive feedback and demonstrate an appreciation for different perspectives, they encourage their mentees to reflect, to be open to change, and to participate in a timely dialogue about difficult topics (Chu, 2012). It is useful at this juncture, to revisit the ‘Stepping in and Out’ technique (© Coach Mentoring Ltd., 2020, Chap. 6). As discussed, this technique uses a blend of rational and emotional questioning to explore the mentee’s perspective of the situation they are in. As such, questioning can be a useful technique in the mentor feedback loop. In particular, a serve and return open-ended questioning format is useful. An example of this type of serve and return questioning is included in Chap. 8, which examines models of reflective practice. Here we refer to the ‘What, So What, What Now’ model’ of reflection (Rolfe et al., 2001). As you will see in

7.5 What Does Feedback Look Like, and How and When, Should It Be Delivered?

129

Fig. 7.2 Serve and return

Chap. 8, in this model, the mentor and mentee engage in an over and back dialogic reflection on practice. One partner in the mentoring relationship serves/asks a question, the other partner responds, and in turn, returns a question. This does not mean that the mentor serves all the questions. Equally, the batting to-and-fro is not a linear process. There can be extended intervals between questions where mentor and mentee engage in shared dialogue. Sometimes, a question served leads to different explorations and considerations. Serve and return (Fig. 7.2) questioning is a pro-active process involving both the mentor and the mentee. It is one way of nurturing and supporting mentee reflection in the feedback loop. It is menteecentric, taking account of where the mentee is at in relation to their professional development. For example, the mentor might tailor the complexity of the questions depending on whether the mentee is in their first or final year of study, or in the early stages of their career. Sometimes, a return may be nonverbal, and so, it is important to tune into responses. Similarly, as highlighted in Chap. 5, the 7–38–55% rule, mentor body language and tone can have a very powerful impact on what is actually being said or unsaid. Remember: A suitable open-ended serve question nurtures a return (question). Thinking of tennis, in this instance, we want to avoid scoring an ace and aim for a return! Mentor Reflection Point

Clearly feedback is a crucial mentor role. Mentors may engage in this role intuitively. It may be timely, therefore, to reflect and reconsider your role in giving feedback to your mentees. In doing so, you might ask: • When should feedback be given to the mentee? • How should feedback be given? (written, oral, other)

130

7

Critical Role of Feedback in the Mentoring Process

• Do you have a preferred method, why? • How often should feedback be given? • Should there be a standardised approach, or will it depend on the individual mentee or the specific context?

Chu (2014) outlines the importance of reflecting on dilemmas over time, as well as frequent feedback, when and how should feedback be given? Timing of feedback is critical. Ropohl and Rönnebeck (2019) emphasise the timing and amount of feedback as well as its clarity and specificity as important factors in effective feedback. Key Learning Point

It was my teacher’s genius, her quick sympathy, her loving tact which made the first years of my education so beautiful. It was because she seized the right moment to impart knowledge that made it so pleasant and acceptable to me (Helen Keller in Shute, 2008, p.163)

In general, there are two categories of feedback: immediate or delayed. Shute (2008) describes immediate feedback as occurring after a student has responded to an item or a problem. Delayed feedback on the other hand, “may occur minutes, hours, weeks or longer after the completion of some task or test” (p.163). There is no agreement on when exactly feedback should be given. In fact, the literature questions the merits and drawbacks of both immediate and delayed feedback. Ropohl and Rönnebeck (2019) argue that feedback should be given while mentees are still aware of the learning goals and still have the time and opportunity to act on it. What do you think? Bearing in mind, that while mentees should not be afraid to make a mistake, sometimes, mistakes are costly, are there times when it is better to give immediate feedback than to wait?. In Chap. 5, Tom a newly qualified teacher asks his mentor, fellow teacher, Natasha to observe his teaching. He wants her to provide insight into how he paces his lessons (see practice scenario 4). While the plan is that they meet on Friday, Natasha faces a dilemma earlier in the week, as outlined in the following practice scenario. Practice Scenario 8. Establishing Boundaries

The children in Tom’s classroom are 8 years old. On Wednesday, during múineadh ceachtanna Gaeilge (teaching an Irish lesson), a girl in the classroom rolls her eyes, and sticks her tongue out. The other children in her group laugh. Within 2–3 min, other children are laughing and sticking

7.6 Creating the Conditions for Providing Feedback

131

their tongues out at each other. Tom continues with his lesson, seemingly oblivious to the ‘fun’ unfolding before his eyes 1. Why are the children behaving in this way? 2. Should Natasha step in and offer guidance (immediate feedback) to Tom? 3. Should Natasha wait until Friday (delayed feedback) to give feedback to Tom?

Clearly in this scenario, the children are testing boundaries. Tom is a new teacher. His inaction may be due to inexperience, fear of responding knowing he is being observed, or he may be overwhelmed and veering toward the panic zone. If he fails to address the children’s behaviour, by communicating clear expectations, and establishing boundaries, he risks being unable to gain the childrens’ respect. His classroom management skills will flounder. What is ‘fun’ today, may escalate into more risky behaviour tomorrow, which can result in injury to a child. Worryingly, Tom’s inaction may lead to questions about his teaching proficiency. Sometimes, we must use our professional judgement, stepping in when necessary to model appropriate practice. Naturally, this must be done with the utmost sensitivity and respect for the mentee. Once immediate feedback has been given, a more in-depth feedback meeting (delayed feedback) can be undertaken later. The issue of time re-emerges here, as an aspect of the conditions for feedback.

7.6

Creating the Conditions for Providing Feedback

When and where should delayed feedback be given?. The following Table 7.3, which builds upon discussions in Chaps. 5 and 9, provides insight into some key considerations. This is not a definitive list. You know your context and your mentee best. You might, therefore, want to add to this list. As you reflect on this list, ask yourself, what are the optimal conditions for providing feedback? The aim is to balance the dichotomous nature of feedback. Therefore, while evaluative aspects are critical, we must not lose sight of our support role, and the need to preserve a positive mentoring relationship. In this respect, feedback is not a once-off occurrence. It is a regular aspect of mentoring. Our mentees should not dread feedback interactions. If well managed, feedback interactions can be a source of reassurance and motivation for the mentee, and often, the mentor too!

132

7

Critical Role of Feedback in the Mentoring Process

Table 7.3 Things to consider when organising a feedback meeting Considerations

Why is this important?

Timing—Is this the best time to give the Scheduling a feedback meeting late on Friday feedback, is it too early in the day or week? Or may not be wise. The mentee may be is it too late? – clock watching - anxious that they may miss their bus or a lift home – Distracted by other pressing tasks that need to be done at this time – Hungry or thirsty if the meeting overlaps with their break Audience—Are there other individuals around Confidentiality and privacy are important in (e.g., teachers, mentors, university lecturers, or the mentoring process (see Chaps. 2 and 10). even children or parents) It is essential that nobody can overhear your discussion with your mentee Space—Is the room/office space where you meet the mentee appropriate. Does it afford privacy, is it free of interruptions (see Chap. 5). Is it accessible for a mentee who may have a physical disability?

An appropriate meeting space that is comfortable and spacious makes the mentee feel at ease. Asking the manager of an early childhood setting if they can vacate their office to facilitate a feedback meeting for example, can be unsettling for both mentor and mentee

Personal Availability—can you ring-fence sufficient time to meeting the mentee

It is both unprofessional and unethical to organise a meeting knowing you cannot commit uninterrupted time to the mentee

Homework/preparation—have you done your homework? Do you know what you are going to say to the mentee? Have you focussed your feedback, so it is specific and comprehensive?

It is important that your feedback does not overwhelm or frustrate the mentee. Nor should you usurp their time by not being ready for a feedback meeting

7.7

Choosing a Model of Feedback

While many different types or modes of feedback (Fig. 7.3) can be used, the actual quality of the feedback provided is paramount. When choosing what type of feedback to provide, you must ask yourself, what is the purpose or role of the feedback? When thinking about feedback, it is important to be mindful of the principles of Universal Design for Learning. As previously mentioned, UDL consists of 3 principles: multiple means of representation, multiple means of action and expression, and multiple means of engagement. In keeping with these principles, when considering how to provide feedback, it might be important to represent the feedback in more than one way. It is important also to be mindful that some mentees may have language or auditory processing delays. They may experience a language barrier depending on their first language, which may not necessarily be English, for instance. All of these factors have considerable implications for how we give feedback. Against the backdrop of the principles of UDL, the following guidelines in Table 7.4 will help you to enhance the quality of feedback.

7.8 Contemplating Approaches/Strategies to Feedback

133

Fig. 7.3 Types of feedback

In keeping with UDL principles, mentees may influence the choice of feedback. Their own learning and flexibility are therefore required to address their contribution and preferences (Haughney et al., 2020). Structural factors may also influence the mode of feedback. In the case of pre-service teachers, for example, the university/college may use specific standardised documentation-proforma template or instructions for delivery at a feedback meeting. Irrespective of Mode or type of delivery, there are some core indicators of quality when it comes to feedback. In their extensive review of the literature, Haughney et al. (2020) identified the significance of generally agreed aspects, such as positivity, specificity, and timeliness (see Shute, 2008, Table 7.3 earlier). Haughney et al., also identified encouraging active student participation and consistent implementation of the feedback process.

7.8

Contemplating Approaches/Strategies to Feedback

There are many approaches to crafting and giving feedback. The following sections discuss some commonly used approaches. It should be noted, that they do not provide a definite list of approaches or feedback strategies.

134

7

Critical Role of Feedback in the Mentoring Process

Table 7.4 Guidelines to enhance the quality of feedback Guidelines to enhance the quality of feedback Feedback should be meaningful rather than just a ‘paper exercise’ Mentor perspective: this is not something that just has to be done for accountability or to meet requirements of the role. Instead, it is viewed as a useful vehicle to provide constructive and developmentally appropriate feedback Written feedback can be a tangible record to revisit again in the context of progress and professional development Mentee Perspective: Written feedback can be useful to refer back to and consider signposts for future practice Feedback should be clear, avoiding statements that are confusing, ambiguous or too vague In both verbal or written feedback, it is important that phrasing is specific and clear. If the phrasing used is vague or very general, feedback may read like a textbook. As such, the feedback may seem generic, as if it could apply to anyone, rather than personally to the mentee and their experience. Providing specific examples will help the mentee to make sense of, and reflect on the feedback Feedback may be taken out of context if not specific enough. So, make sure to give examples based on practice that the mentee can relate to or that will serve as a reminder/prompt if the mentee is reading written feedback or reflecting on verbal feedback at a later date Avoid using idioms. The mentee could be a literal thinker. Therefore, a statement like ‘keep your eye on the ball’ may be very confusing, if not directly referring to a PE lesson Avoid colloquialisms. English may be an additional language for the mentee. Colloquialisms or local sayings or expressions could be confusing Feedback should motivate and provide constructive signposts to help to develop practice Consider a mentee that may read the written feedback many times, but possibly focuses only on the comments they feel are negative. Such a mentee may feel overwhelmed and may not know what they need to do now to improve Feedback should focus on the professional attributes of the mentee Avoid gender-biased feedback. It is essential not to make personal assumptions and commentary about a mentee’s race, background or personality for example. Consider the appropriateness of pronouns that you may use on documentation about the mentee. Instead, remain focused on the professional attributes of the mentee Feedback should promote mentee participation Consider how to foster reciprocal feedback interactions that promote mentee participation and collaboration? For example, for written feedback, can the mentee provide suggestions or examples for input into the written feedback form? The mentor could ask the mentee how best to phrase comments so that the mentee will internalise the comments, and work collaboratively to generate meaningful contextual feedback

7.8.1

Medal and Mission

Medal and Mission is one of the most well-known types of formative feedback. Developed by Petty (2009), it focuses upon medals, missions and goals. Petty says that feedback should help the learner to: • Discover what they are expected to achieve (goal) • Understand where they are and how far they have gotten in relation to the goal (medal), and • Find ways to close the existing gap (mission)

7.8 Contemplating Approaches/Strategies to Feedback

135

‘Medals’ in feedback refer to giving positive statements or affirmations to mentees so they are intrinsically motivated to work. This could include statements to praise positive interactions, good planning, and organisation, showing initiative and maximising on learning opportunities etc. These affirming statements, coupled with positive relational energy would motivate mentees to keep up the good work. They would also give a clear message that you are tuned into their practice or documentation and open to give credit when credit is due. The ‘Mission’ includes statements that help the mentee to address aspects of their practice or areas of their written work that need to be developed further. Medal and Mission gives feedback to mentees in a way that is motivational as well as developmental. It is important to be aware of the pitfalls associated with models and types of feedback too. While Medal and Mission can be effective, it can also present challenges. It can be challenging for a mentor to get a balance between medal and mission. An imbalance in the negative with more mission than medal can be an ethical dilemma for the mentor. On one hand, there may be key ‘missions’ that as a mentor, you have a duty to highlight or discuss with the mentee. However, there is the risk that this could be upsetting or demotivating for the mentee. How can you address this? The first step is to put yourself into the mentee’s shoes and consider how they will receive an abundance of negative ‘missions’. Will there be too much to take on board or internalise? Will the mentee become defensive and resist so much advice and direction? Will the feedback push the mentee into the panic zone? Is it better to focus on some of the core issues or concerns and prioritise some key areas to address in a more sensitive way? The characteristics of effective feedback (Table 7.2) are especially relevant in this regard.

7.8.2

The Feedback Sandwich

See Fig. 7.4. Some mentors may appreciate the simplistic and structured nature of the sandwich approach. You begin with a positive affirming statement or example that highlights a strength or area of improvement or progress in terms of developing practice. This then leads to the ‘meat’ of the sandwich, the ‘negative’ aspect of the feedback. Ideally, this should be presented in a constructive way. This is then followed with further strength-based affirming statements and constructive, supportive advice. Proponents of this method highlight the balanced approach by acknowledging areas that need to be developed in conjunction with strategies to improve. However, Schwarz (2013) cautions that adopting the sandwich approach may actually undermine your feedback whereby the mentee may be just more focused on the negative that is to come, they ‘just want the meat’ and can fail to take the positives on board!

136

7

Critical Role of Feedback in the Mentoring Process

Fig. 7.4 The feedback sandwich

7.8.3

Chronological Fashion Feedback: De-constructing the Task

This approach focuses on reflecting observations chronologically. It involves replaying a particular event (e.g., teaching a lesson) back to the learner (mentee) from start to finish, or in time order. The mentor, who observes the mentee’s practice, reflects back to the mentee exactly what they did, from the time they began to teach the lesson, how they introduced the lesson, how they supported children during the lesson, and how they brought the less to conclusion, and so on. According to Hardavella et al. (2017), this feedback model involves reflecting on the positives and the opportunities at each stage of the assessment. While it can be useful for short feedback sessions, it can be laborious for the mentor who may become bogged down in detail during long sessions (Hardavella et al., 2017).

7.8.4

The Pendleton Model

See Fig. 7.5. The key aspect of this learner centred, conversation-based model developed in 1984 is to identify an action plan or goals: “reflection for action”. The mentee

7.8 Contemplating Approaches/Strategies to Feedback

137

Fig. 7.5 Applying the Pendleton model. Source Marc Nevin. Image reference by Marc Nevin A Guide To Giving Better Feedback—Marc Nevin (https://marcnev.in/a-guide-to-giving-better-fee dback)

takes a central role in this process. Having checked that the mentee wants and is ready for feedback, the mentor uses open-ended questions to allow for opportunity to think and reflect. The mentee then gives some background about what is being assessed and states what was done well. The purpose is to create a non-threatening environment by focusing on the positives initially. The mentor then proceeds to reinforce these positives with the mentee making suggestions as to what could be improved. Through discussion and conversation, possible weaknesses are scrutinised to offer opportunities for reflection. The mentor can provide advice on how these identified aspects of practice could be improved. Following this, the mentor and the mentee devise a mutually agreed action plan. There may be factors that we are aware of, but there may also be other factors that are hidden to us for personal or professional reasons that may affect how mentees receive feedback. For example, we may not be aware of previous negative learning experiences for the mentee, or internal anxiety levels triggered by other events in their lives etc. From a professional perspective, in terms of boundaries, some of this may be none of our business either. So, it is important to recognise that we will not know all of these factors. We need to be cognisant of that.

138

7.9

7

Critical Role of Feedback in the Mentoring Process

Chapter Summary Points

• Mentor feedback should not be judgemental or unfairly critical. It should not be about ‘looking for problems’ or ‘catching someone out’. • Mentor feedback should recognise the mentee’s strengths and areas for further attention or enhancement, where strengths can be utilised to enhance practice further. • In general, there are two categories of feedback: immediate, occurring after a student has responded to an item of a problem, or delayed, occurring minutes, hours, weeks or longer after the completion of a task for example. • Mentor feedback takes many forms including informal, formal, formative or summative and can be written or verbal. • Reciprocal feedback interactions promote mentee participation and collaboration. Mentees may provide suggestions or examples for input into the written feedback form. • Mentor feedback should address the principles of UDL, and should be ethical and scaffold rather than break, damage or overwhelm the mentee. • In keeping with UDL principles, mentees may influence the choice of feedback. Their own learning and flexibility are therefore required to address their contribution and preferences.

References Amah, O. E. (2017). Leadership styles & relational energy in high quality mentoring relationship. Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, 53(1), 59–72. Atjonen, P. (2012). Student teacher’s outlooks upon the ethics of their mentors during teaching practice. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 56, 39–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 00313831.2011.567395 Australian Children’s Education and Care Quality Authority (ACEQUA). (2017). Annual Report 2016–2017. Retrieved from ACECQA-AnnualReport-20162017.pdf (https://www.acecqa.gov. au/sites/default/files/acecqa/files/Annual%20Report/ACECQA-AnnualReport-20162017.pdf) Chappuis, J. (2012). How am I doing? Educational Leadership, 70(1), 36–41. Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD). (2020). Evaluating learning and development. In CIPD Factsheet. Cherniss, C., Extein, M., Goleman, D., & Weissberg, R. P. (2006). Emotional intelligence: what does the research really indicate? Educational Psychologist, 41, 239–245. Chu, M., Martinez-Griego, B., & Cronin, S. (2010). A head start/college partnership: Using a culturally and linguistically responsive approach to help working teachers earn degrees. Young Children, 65(4), 24–27. Chu, M. (2012). Observe, reflect and apply: Ways to successfully mentor early childhood educators. Dimensions of Early Childhood, 40(3), 20–28. Chu, M. (2014). Developing Mentoring and Coaching Relationships in Early Care and Education. Pearson.

References

139

Clutterbuck, D. (2004). Everyone Needs a Mentor: Fostering Talent in Your Organisation. CIPD Publishing. © Coach Mentoring Ltd. (2020). How to Explore Feelings in a Mentoring Conversation. Retrieved from https://ngocoachingmentoring.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/How-toexplore-feelings-Handout.pdf Dantonio, M. (2001). Collegial coaching: Inquiry into the teaching self. Bloomington, In Phi Delta Kappa. Donnellan, A. (2020). An Exploration of How the Mentoring Component of the Leadership for Inclusion in the Early Years (LINC) Programme Supports the Adult Learner. Unpublished thesis (Masters), Mary Immaculate College, University of Limerick. Ferguson, P. (2011). Student perceptions of quality feedback in teacher education. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 36(1), 51–62. Gallo, C. (2014). The Maya Angelou quote that will radically improve your business. In Forbes Magazine. Hardavella, G., Aamli-Gaagnat, A., Saad, N., Rousalova, I., & Sreter, K. B. (2017). How to give and receive feedback effectively. Breathe, 13(4), 327–333. https://doi.org/10.1183/20734735. 009917 Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77, 81–112. Hattie, J. (2009). Visible Learning: A Synthesis of 800+ Meta-Analyses on Achievement. Routledge. Haughney, K., Wakeman, S., & Hart, L. (2020). Quality of feedback in higher education: A review of literature. Education Sciences, 10(3), 60. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci10030060 Hobson, A. J., & Malderez, A. (2013). Judge mentoring and other threats to realizing the potential of school-based mentoring in teacher education. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 2(2), 89–108. Hobson, A. J. (2016). Judgementoring and how to avert it: Introducing ONSIDE mentoring for beginning teachers. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 5(2), 87– 110. Hudson, P. (2004). Specific mentoring: A theory and model for developing primary science teaching practices. European Journal of Teacher Education, 27(2), 139–146. Hudson, P. (2005). Identifying mentoring practices for developing effective primary science teaching. International Journal of Science Education, 27(14), 1723–1739. Izadinia, M. (2015). Student teachers’ and mentor teachers’ perceptions and expectations of a mentoring relationship: Do they match or clash? Professional Development in Education, pp. 1–16 https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2014.994136. Izadinia, M. (2016). Preservice teachers’ professional identity development and the role of mentor teachers. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 5(20), 127–143. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJMCE-01-2016-0004 Killian, J. E., & Wilkins, E. (2009). Characteristics of highly effective cooperating teachers: A study of their backgrounds and preparation. Action in Teacher Education, 30, 67–83. Korver, B., & Tillema, H. H. (2014). Feedback provision in mentoring conversations: Differing mentor and student perceptions. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 2, 167–175. Kram, K. E. (1985). Mentoring At Work: Developmental Relationships in Organizational Life. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman. Kullman, J. (1998). Mentoring and the development of reflective practice: Concepts and context. System, 26(4), 471–484. Lofthouse, R., & Hall, E. (2014). Developing practices in teachers’ professional dialogue in England: Using coaching dimensions as an epistemic tool. Professional Development in Education, 40(5), 758–778. Nicholls, G. (2002). Mentoring the Art of Teaching and Learning. Kogan Page. Norman, P. J., & Feiman-Nemser, S. (2005). Mind activity in teaching and mentoring. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21(6), 679–697. Opengart, R., & Bierema, L. (2015). Emotionally intelligent mentoring reconceptualizing effective mentoring relationships. Human Resource Development Review, 14(3), 234–258.

140 © Pearson

7

Critical Role of Feedback in the Mentoring Process

Education. (2016). Providing Educational Feedback. Higher Education Services. White Paper. Retrieved from https://www.pearson.com/content/dam/one-dot-com/one-dot-com/us/ en/pearson-ed/downloads/Feedback.pdf Pekkanli, I. (2011). Designing a questionnaire attempting to discover mentors’ feedback in the professionalism of the foreign language teacher candidate. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 2(3), 600–604. Petty, G. (2009). Teaching Today: A Practical Guide (4th ed.). Nelson Thornes Publishers Ltd. Phelan, V. (2012). The difference between mentoring and coaching. In Talent Management Magazine. Retrieved from https://people.themyersbriggs.com/rs/cpp/images/mentoring_and_ coaching.pdf Richter, D., Kunter, M., Ludtke, O., Klusmann, U., Anders, Y., & Baumert, J. (2013). How different mentoring approaches affect beginning teachers’ development in the first years of practice. Teaching and Teacher Education, 36, 166–177. Ramirez, J. J. (2012). The intentional mentor: Effective mentorship of undergraduate science students. Journal of Undergraduate Neuroscience Education, 11(1), 55–63. Rolfe, G., Freshwater, D., & Jasper, M. (2001). Critical Reflection in Nursing and the Helping Professions: A User’s Guide. Palgrave Macmillan. Ropohl, M., & Rönnebeck, S. (2019). Making learning effective—quantity and quality of preservice teachers’ feedback. International Journal of Science Education, 41(15), 2156–2176. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2019.1663452 Sayeski, K. L., & Paulsen, K. J. (2012). Student teacher evaluations of cooperating teachers as indices of effective mentoring. Teacher Education Quarterly, pp. 117–130. Spring. Scheeler, M. C., & Lee, D. (2002). Using technology to deliver immediate corrective feedback to preservice teachers. Journal of Behavioral Education, 11, 231–241. Guidelines for preparing Interview https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja& uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwix9YLVsL_7AhWFSkEAHTPqDygQFnoECBMQAQ&url=https% 3A%2F%2Fwww.lenus.ie%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F10147%2F42709%2F2090.pdf%3Fs equence%3D1%26isAllowed%3Dy&usg=AOvVaw10F0KHU3h4BaemL0kmXhpB Schwarz, R. (2013). The “Sandwich Approach” Undermines Your Feedback. Retrieved from The “Sandwich Approach” Undermines Your Feedback (hbr.org) (https://hbr.org/2013/04/the-san dwich-approach-undermin) Shute, V. J. (2008). Focus on formative feedback. Review of Educational Research, 78(1), 153–189. Smith, K. (2010). Assessing the practicum in teacher education—do we want candidates and mentors to agree? Studies in Education Evaluation, 36, 36–41. Taylor, L., Oostdam, R. J., & Fukkink, R. G. (2022). Standardising coaching of preservice teachers in the classroom: development and trial of the synchronous online feedback tool (SOFT). Teaching and Teacher Education, 117, 103780.

8

The Mentor’s Role in Nurturing Reflective Practice

The previous chapter explored the importance of reflective practice in the preservice teacher’s professional formation, and throughout their teaching career. In this chapter, we focus our attention on the most well-known models of reflective practice, and how, through the mentoring process, a mentor helps a mentee to hone their reflective skills. The overarching objective of this chapter, therefore, is to explain how to nurture reflective practice through mentor feedback. Alongside this, the chapter also addresses mentor self-reflection. As stated by Fook (2012), critical reflection enables the mentor, to consider experiences, to develop further understandings of themselves, their learning and, how they generate knowledge. The present chapter begins by discussing the centrality of reflection in a teacher’s professional formation. It then explores the following:

• • • • •

Models of Reflection The Rs of Reflection Using the Rs to Maximise Mentoring Feedback The self-reflective Mentor Power Relations in Mentor Feedback and Reflective Practice

The Centrality of Reflection in a Teacher’s Professional Formation In many European countries and further afield, reflective practice features in national professional standards for teachers, including Australia, England, Ireland, Scotland, and the United States. The Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL) for example, have developed a Teacher SelfAssessment Tool (TSAT) to help teachers reflect on their practice in line with the Teacher Standards (AITSL, 2015). Equally, the National Quality Standards for Early Childhood Education, promote and support teachers to engage in reflective © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. Moloney et al., Professional Mentoring for Early Childhood and Primary School Practice, Springer Texts in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37186-8_8

141

142

8 The Mentor’s Role in Nurturing Reflective Practice

practice through self-assessment (Australian Children’s Education and Care Quality Authority (ACEQUA), 2020a, b). In the ECEC context in Ireland, the National Quality Framework: Síolta,1 suggests that the individual practitioner engages in thought processes that make her/him aware, in a critical way, of her/his everyday activities with a view to continuously improving and refining practice (Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (CECDE), 2006, p.4)

Similarly, in teacher education beyond early childhood, the Framework for Teacher’s Learning in Ireland: Cosán2 highlights the need for individual reflection on teachers’ learning and its impact on a personal level, but also for collective reflection in and across schools. In their 2009 position statement, the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) in the US, highlight reflective practice as essential for improving teaching and learning. As discussed elsewhere, practicum helps student teachers to gain experience working with children in the real world by facilitating them to develop new knowledge, skills, and dispositions (Slade et al., 2019). It does this “by fostering critical contemplation of actions in a real-world environment” (p.1). By engaging in reflective practice, teachers become inquiry focused, self-analytical innovative thinkers (Rolfe et al., 2011). Reflective practice can increase a teacher’s self-awareness, helping them to become (more) intentional in their teaching, and their practice. So, what is reflective practice, what does it involve? There is no definitive definition. The process of reflection can take many forms including documenting, thinking or talking about practice, alone or with others (National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA, 2009). It involves a range of skills, including observation, self-awareness, critical thinking, selfevaluation and taking others’ perspectives (Mann et al., 2009). Using these various skills, a mentee for example, develops the capacity to integrate new understanding into future planning and goal setting (Mann et al., 2009). The National Forum for the Enhancement of Teaching and Learning (2021) liken critical reflection to explaining our differences from different perspectives. It involves stepping outside our own point of view. Key Learning Point

Critical reflection is more likely to be achieved through dialogue with peers and others. Critical reflection broadens the context, and may be usefully undertaken in a peer triad or with a mentor, where we think about our individual voice in a critical fashion and tease out espoused theories and critical

1 2

Irish word for seed. Irish word for pathway.

8.1 Models of Reflection

143

practice (critical thinking) (National Forum for the Enhancement of Teaching and Learning, 2021), p.1).

Although, reflection is deemed an integral aspect of teacher education, practice and ongoing professional development, the concept, level and depth of reflection required is ambiguous. Based on her review of the literature concerning the concept of reflection in teacher education, Beauchamp (2015) concluded that a better understanding of reflection is required to enhance the role of reflection in teacher education. Similarly, Collin et al. (2013) argue that a lack of a clear concept of reflection, acts as a hinderance to its use or ‘operationalization’ in teacher education and research. With this in mind, we now turn our attention to some of the more common models of reflective practice.

8.1

Models of Reflection

As reflective practice can mean different things to different people, we consider some examples of different models of reflective practice that can be engaged with during the feedback process. By introducing pre-service teachers to these models and engaging with them during the mentoring process, mentors can nurture mentee’s reflective capacity. The goal is to help mentees to move from surface level reflection through to deep level critical reflection, as outlined in Chap. 7. Although there are many models of reflection, in this chapter, we provide a brief overview of some of the more commonly used models in teacher education. Rather than being prescriptive and recommending a definitive model or cycle, to be truly reflective of reflective practice, it is important that we also reflect on the reflective models or cycles themselves too! It is not just a matter of simply picking a reflective model at random. Hébert (2015, p.361) warns that such an uncritical adoption of a model could actually “undermine the very spirit of reflective practice”. Citing Fox et al. (2011), she points to another concern relating to the need to define and provide a rationale for reflection when working with pre-service teachers. Pre-service teachers are frequently required to observe and conduct lessons in schools and then ‘reflect’ on those experiences. However, these assignments may be given without a clearly articulated definition and rationale for reflective practice (Fox et al., 2011, p.37 in Hérbert, 2015, p.362).

This places an onus on all those involved in triadic models of mentorship to develop a shared understanding of reflective practice. It further underscores the need to establish a mentoring culture within universities/colleges, schools and early childhood settings, including mentor training (see Chap. 10). That said, while mentors hold responsibility for explaining models of reflection and the rationale for using them, it is essential that they do not prescribe

144

8 The Mentor’s Role in Nurturing Reflective Practice

any specific model. Instead, as concluded by Finlayson (2015, p.717), “reflective practice is a personal interpretation driven by the individual’s choice of reflective practice model”. We therefore recommend that you reflect on which model currently best aligns with your practice. Or you could identify merits or downfalls of other models, based on your own theoretical understandings or the contextual factors that influence your practice. We begin now with an exploration of Donald Schön’s (1991) model of reflection-in and reflection-on action. We then discuss Rolfe, Freshwater, & Jasper’s ‘What’ Model (2001), followed by Gibb’s (1998) reflective cycle, culminating with an exploration of Kolb’s (1984) learning cycle.

8.2

Schön’s Model of Reflective Practice

The previous chapter explained how Schön built on Dewey’s work to develop his model of reflective practice. He identified two models of reflection that are particularly relevant in the development of teacher practice in early childhood or primary school (see Fig. 8.1). Here Schön (1991), distinguishes between Reflection in action and Reflection on Action. Do you know what the difference is? Would you know how to explain the difference between these two types of reflection to a mentee? Here, we take a closer look. • Reflection in Action relates to the decisions that a teacher or mentor makes during a lesson or practice. It is about decisions made in the moment. Reflection in action means that teachers for example, reflect on action at the same time as they carry out the action. Schön (1987, p.31) used the example of how jazz musicians improvise in “an immediate and wordless response to the unexpected…in which participants invent on-the-spot responses.” How many times do we find ourselves in a situation, where like a jazz musician, we improvise, thinking on our feet in response to something a mentee does or says. Schön

Reflection in-action (thinking while doing) •Involves reflecting on teaching in the moment, as it happens in the setting, and making adjustments and changes to actions based on past experiences

Reflection on-action (thinking after the event) •Involves reflection after teaching, and using the knowledge gained to inform changes

Fig. 8.1 Reflection in-action and reflection on-action. Schön (1991)

8.2 Schön’s Model of Reflective Practice

145

characterized this skill as having a sense of what to do. He described it as “artful competence” (1987, p.19) or as Bleakley calls it “an intuitive ability, an implicit knowing, or tacit realm of experience” (1999, p.319). Although it can be intuitive, from a student perspective, and as mentioned in Chap. 7, like all reflection, reflection in action is a skill that develops over time. In fact, Schön (1987) referred to reflection in action, as the distinguishing feature of expert practitioners (i.e., teachers) • Reflection on action is a deliberate problem-solving process that consists of two intertwined components: action and thought (Marcos et al., 2009, p.195). It means that reflection runs through cycles that involve four elements: (1) a specific concern or problem, (2) a plan/s of action, (3) teaching action taken, and (4) a review of solutions (Ibid.). Reflection on action involves the thinking back and teasing out of proceedings afterwards or retrospectively. Again, while this may appear a straightforward model, it can be complex in practice. For example, based on a study of student educators in physical education, Zhu (2011) reported that although students reported several opportunities for reflection in action, they identified limited opportunities for reflection on action. Zhu therefore, highlights the need for more experiences, to engage students in reflection on action and deeper reflective practice. Although Schön’s seminal model has been widely adopted through all facets of education, it has also been the subject of critique. For example, Eraut (1995) argues that Schön’s approach “neither analyses everyday practice nor attempts to consider how reflective processes might serve different purposes or vary from one context to the next”. Mentor and Mentee Reflection Point

Most of…[Schön’s]…examples fail to provide evidence of reflection-inaction and none of them relate to crowded settings like classrooms. Indeed, it is difficult to see how one could distinguish reflection-in-action from reflection-on-action when the action is cool and deliberate rather than hot and rapid (Eraut, 1995, p.9). • How do you feel about Eraut’s critique of Schön’s model of reflective practice? • Do you, or have you reflected in action in a crowded classroom? If yes, what challenges, if any did you encounter? • What benefits, if any, can you identify from engaging in reflection in action?

From a critical stance, reflecting on action should also lead to change. However, this may not instinctively take place. So, Killion and Todnem (1991) proposed an additional stage to include ‘Reflection for action’ to further stimulate critical

146

8 The Mentor’s Role in Nurturing Reflective Practice

What?

So What?

Now What?

Descriptive

Knowledge & Meaning

Plan of Action

Fig. 8.2 Rolfe, freshwater & jasper ‘what’ model

evaluation and to identify areas for improvement or change. This is similar to Rolfe et al. (2001) ‘What’ model, to which, we now turn our attention.

8.3

Rolfe, Freshwater, & Jasper ‘What’ Model (2001)

Rolfe et al. (2001) propose the ‘What’ model of reflection. This is an iterative process consisting of three simple open-ended questions (see Fig. 8.2): What, So What and Now What? While these open-ended questions are simple, they require comprehensive reflective answers. The ‘What’ model consists of a series of probing questions that align with each of these three overarching and sequential questions. The intention is to guide the user to increasingly broader and deeper reflection. As different levels of questions can be reflected on, the model can be used by anyone, from novice to expert (Rolfe et al., 2001, 2011). The following table, which includes the original What, So What, What now? Questions from Rolfe et al. (2001) and our examples of related open-ended questions are intended to stimulate reflection through feedback in the mentoring process (Table 8.1). As evidenced here, reflection is viewed as a method of learning from practice. As discussed in the previous chapter, the What, So What, Now What model lends itself to the serve and return questioning technique.

8.4

Kolb’s Reflective Cycle

In 1984, Kolb, devised the Experiential Learning Theory (ELT). This cycle is very much grounded in direct experiences and the premise that individuals learn through direct experiences and therefore should reflect on these experiences. Figure 8.3 illustrates the four stages involved in Kolb’s reflective cycle.

8.4 Kolb’s Reflective Cycle

147

Table 8.1 The ‘what’ model of reflective practice What? So What? Open-ended questions to Open-ended questions to help help describe the experience with understanding the experience

Now What? Open-ended questions to help identify what can be done to improve the experience

What is the problem? What is causing or caused the problem?

What does this tell me about: Myself? (Whether a student, a teacher or a mentor? The children within whom I work? My mentee? My teaching/mentoring approach?

What do you need to do: To improve the experience? To support the child’s learning? To feel better about myself? To relate better to the children? To enhance my teaching/ mentoring?

What did you notice?

What new skills did you learn? What goals have you set for yourself as a result?

What did you think would happen before you started?

What worked or did not work?

What supports will you need to work on? What areas you are concerned about?

What was your role?

What “ah ha!” moments did you experience?

Which of your skills do you need to further develop? What actions will you take to develop the skills identified?

How did you act in the situation?

What was one thing that made you feel most effective?

What is the best way for you to move forward from this event?

What did you observe?

What did you like or dislike about the experience?

How could you be best supported now?

What surprised you?

If you are working in a different context in the future, what key learning will you take with you?

What other ways can you look at the issue/problem/activity? Based on Rolfe et al. (2001).

Learning, according to Kolb “is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (1984, p.38). This view of learning is reflected in the four stages of his reflective cycle. 1. Concrete experience describes the experience. It is followed by a period of 2. Reflective observation which includes reflecting on the experience considering prior experience and existing knowledge 3. Abstract Conceptualisation involves consulting the literature, and consulting with colleagues. Reflection results in new ideas or modification of thinking, and a reappraisal of the experience 4. Active experimentation. In the final stage of Kolb’s reflective cycle, the mentor/mentee tries out new theories, approaches or solutions in similar or new

148

8 The Mentor’s Role in Nurturing Reflective Practice

Fig. 8.3 Kolb’s reflective cycle

situations. This then becomes the concrete experience on which they make subsequent reflections. Another way to look at Kolb’s cycle is in terms of Feeling; Watching; Thinking and Doing (Fig. 8.4). Kolb’s experiential learning theory has been widely influential in adult learning. However, it has also received criticism in terms of the theory and associated instruments. In their critique, Bergsteiner et al. (2010) say that Kolb’s model shows activities as points, rather than timelines. They therefore suggest recasting the graphical model as shown in Fig. 8.5. Based on a systematic review of the literature examining Kolb’s model, Morris (2020) also proposed a revision to Kolb’s model. These revisions included having rich concrete learning experiences that are experiential and contextually based, critical reflective observation, ‘contextual-specific abstract conceptualization, and pragmatic active experimentation’. Long before these recommendations, Graham Gibbs expanded upon Kolb’s work, developing his reflective cycle in (1998).

8.5

Gibbs Reflective Cycle

Gibbs reflective cycle (1998), also known as the iterative model, consists of six stages of reflection and action following an experience. In developing this model, Gibbs sought to provide structure to learning from experience. It provides prompt

8.5 Gibbs Reflective Cycle

149

•Feeling

•Watching

Concrete Experience

Reflective Observation

Active Experimentation

Abstract Conceptualisation

•Doing

•Thinking

Fig. 8.4 Mapping feeling, watching, thinking and doing onto Kolb’s reflective cycle

Concrete experience

Reflective observation

Active experimentation

Abstract conceptualisation

Fig. 8.5 Recast version of Kolb’s experiential learning model. Bergsteiner et al. (2010), p.34

questions throughout the reflective process (see Fig. 8.6), promotes personal reflection on how the mentee felt about what happened, and what was good or bad about the experience. This model, which can also be used to structure and support mentor–mentee feedback, works well with a serve and return questioning technique.

150

8 The Mentor’s Role in Nurturing Reflective Practice

Description What happened?

Action plan

Feelings

What would I do differently? How can i improve?

What was I thinking and feeling?

Conclusion

Evaluation

What else could I have done? What can I improve on?

What was good and bad about the experience?

Analysis What sense can I make from the experience?

Fig. 8.6 Gibbs’ reflective cycle, Gibbs (1998)

As illustrated in Fig. 8.6, the six stages in Gibb’s cycle are: 1. Description: The mentor/mentee describes in detail what happened during the event 2. Feelings: The mentor/mentee recalls and explores their thoughts and feelings during the event. By objectively thinking about what went well or not during the event 3. Evaluation: The mentor/mentee reflect on what was positive or challenging about the event and identify areas that require attention. This stage works best when both the mentor and the mentee consider their learning 4. Analysis: The mentor/mentee try to make sense of the situation by analysing new information garnered from the process to this point. They recognise how the event affected their professional practice 5. Conclusion: The mentor/mentee support their emerging understanding by consulting the literature. They may consult colleagues to understand the situation better, and resolve what else could have been done 6. Action Plan. In this final stage, the mentor/mentee develop an action plan for the future. This plan details how they intend to change their practice, asking themselves: What will I do differently and how? This action plan serves as a

8.6 The Rs of Reflection

151

blueprint to help the mentor, the mentee or both to address a similar event in the future.

Mentor Reflection Point

Review practice scenario 1 in Chap. 3, which outlines how Gosia, a newly qualified infant class teacher feels overwhelmed in her teaching role • What types of prompts can you provide at each stage of Gibbs reflective cycle to support Gosia’s reflection?

Markkanen et al. (2020) explored reflections of teaching staff on challenging situations with pupils. They reported that teaching staff found Gibbs’ reflective cycle to be a helpful aid when reflecting on their feelings, thoughts, and actions related to challenging situations, and how they responded to them. Furthermore, the teaching staff reported that Gibb’s reflective cycle enabled them to reflect on challenging situations from a range of perspectives, including the pupil’s perspective. They felt that this helped them to review and develop their professional practice further. Mentor Reflection Point

While all models of reflective practice discussed to this point (Schon, Rolfe, Freshwater and Jasper, Kolb and Gibbs) can be used in the mentoring process, consider: • Which model appeals to you? • Why? • What do you see as the benefits of each model in terms of supporting a mentor to engage in self-reflection on their own mentoring practice?

8.6

The Rs of Reflection

Šari´c and Šteh (2017) indicate that critical reflection requires attention in teachereducation and CPD. They question “whether during teacher education and in-service teacher training teachers are prepared for the critical reflection on their own teaching practice…” (p.75). An interesting question in the context of teacher knowledge and competency, but also in terms of the mentor’s role in cultivating critical reflection during initial teacher education. In order to engage in critical reflection, you must be able to reflect. While that may sound obvious, one does not necessarily lead to the other.

152

8 The Mentor’s Role in Nurturing Reflective Practice

Fig. 8.7 The 5Rs of reflection and associated open-ended reflective questions

The Cambridge International Education Teaching and Learning Team provide a useful ‘R’ Checklist that helps you get the most out of reflections, and to prompt self-reflection. This checklist is underpinned by six key principles: reacting, recording, reviewing, revising, reworking and reassessing. These principles, represented in Fig. 8.7 are also known as the 5 Rs of reflection.

8.7

Using the 5Rs to Maximise Mentoring Feedback

To make the most out of mentoring feedback sessions, it might be useful to consider framing these open-ended questions from the mentor’s perspective. Equally, based on the collaborative nature of reflection discussed throughout this book, it might also be useful to generate collaborative reflection between the mentor and the mentee. Depending on the individual mentee, and where they are at in the mentoring process, you may decide to adapt the approach to mentoring. It may be necessary to switch from self to collaborate reflection, or to mentor-led guiding questions. An experienced mentor will know when to make the switch, stepping in and out as it were (see Chap. 6) as they work with their mentee to enhance and support the reflective process. Table 8.2 provides a mix of sample open-ended prompt questions to illustrate how a mentor can switch from self to collaborative reflection. As mentors become more experienced, they develop the ability to critically reflect on their own mentoring practice, and further develop their skills. With this in mind, we turn our attention to the self-reflective mentor.

8.7 Using the 5Rs to Maximise Mentoring Feedback

153

Table 8.2 Using the 5 Rs to maximise reflection Rs of reflection

Self-reflection by mentee

Mentor- led reflection

Mentor-prompted Collaborative reflection mentoring by mentor and mentee

1. Reacting

How will I decide what area of my practice I need to focus on?

How will I decide what area of the mentee’s (your) practice you need to focus on?

How will you decide what area of your practice you need to focus on?

How will we decide what area of your practice we need to focus on?

2. Recording (logging your How will I assess reflections) my performance? How will I log or record this?

How will I assess the mentee’s performance? How will I log or record this?

How will you assess your performance? How will you log or record this?

How will we assess your (the mentee’s) performance together? How will we log or record this?

3. Reviewing What worked What do I (understanding your current well and how do I (the mentor) practice) know this? think worked well and how do I (the mentor) know this?

What do you think worked well and how do you know this?

What do we think worked well and how do we know this?

4. Revising (adapting your practice by trying new strategies)

What will I change or adapt?

What will I (the mentor) suggest you change or adapt?

What will you change or adapt?

What do we think you will change or adapt?

5. Reworking (action plan of how you can put these ideas in place in a practical way)

How will I put this in place?

How do I (the How will you put mentor) this in place? suggest you will put this in place?

How do we think you will put this in place?

6. Reassessing (understanding how these new strategies affected learning)

How successful were the new strategies?

How successful do I (the mentor) feel the new strategies were?

How successful do we feel the new strategies were?

How successful do you feel the new strategies were?

Adapted from Cambridge Assessment https://www.cambridge-community.org.uk/professional-develo pment/gswrp/index.html#group-Reflective-practice-in-practice-KagSxPuxXe

154

8.8

8 The Mentor’s Role in Nurturing Reflective Practice

Mirror, Mirror on the Wall: The Self-Reflective Mentor!

In considering the self-reflective mentor, we contemplate the ‘R’ questions, associated with mentor self-reflection. The mentor might ask themselves the following questions: • • • • • • • • •

How did I, as the mentor, nurture a culture of self-reflection for the mentee? Did the feedback address the Rs of reflective practice? Did the feedback stimulate reflective practice for the mentee? Did I engage in mentor led feedback and reflection? Did I help to prompt self-reflection through this feedback? Did I nurture or facilitate collaborative reflection with the mentee? Why did I take the approach that I did? Did I use a combination of these approaches? Do I take the same approach with all mentees, or do I tailor the feedback and nurture reflective practice in different ways with different mentees? • Why might this be? On reflection, if a mentor feels that they heavily led the feedback and are refraining from really nurturing self-reflection, it might be worth exploring the rationale for this further.

8.8.1

Things to Consider

• Is this because you feel you have all the important points to make, or do you feel that it is your role to impart all the knowledge by sharing your experience in the area? Consider your role here. Do you feel that it is your job to showcase your experience or that the onus or responsibility is on you to dominate the feedback discussion or documentation? • Is your eagerness to share your experience limiting or facilitating self-reflection for the mentee? • Is the expectation of the mentee that you will do all the talking in the feedback session or through the documentation? • Is the mentee quiet or more introvert and appears more comfortable not to engage in self-reflection? • Is it worth considering how you adopt different strategies to nurture different aspects of self-reflection during feedback and over time? The reflective mentor may reflect after the feedback meeting or may indeed reflect during the feedback meeting, picking up on verbal or nonverbal cues from the mentee to change tack, rephrase a question or use a different prompt. Or, it may even mean finishing a meeting more prematurely than was originally planned, if on reflection, the optimal conditions for mentoring are not met. Or, from an ethical perspective, the reflection during feedback triggers emotions (see Chap. 10).

8.10 Power Relations in Mentor Feedback and Reflective Practice

155

In terms of reflexivity, critical reflection is a means of considering experiences to develop further understandings of ourselves, our learning and how we generate knowledge (Fook, 2012). This process, Fook (2012) argues, helps us to make connections with social, cultural, and structural factors within our environments. This is also based on the understanding that our ideas, beliefs, and the assumptions we make are in some way attributed to such social contexts. As discussed elsewhere, mentees bring their own funds of knowledge from their undergraduate training, their workplace, and their life experience to the mentoring process (see Chap. 4). For this reason, it is vital that we recognise that mentees may have very different social contexts, and experiences that have shaped their beliefs and ideas, and that they may find it very difficult to consider our viewpoint or reflect in a different way.

8.9

How Often and How Much Reflection?

In terms of the type and level of reflection, Fook (2012, p.440) maintains that ongoing and systematic reflection is essential to ‘responsible professional practice’. As mentors therefore, do we have a responsibility to engage in and model reflective practice for mentees—to nurture this process of reflection in an ‘ongoing and systematic manner’ as Fook mentions? What do you think? In the context of UDL, this is an important consideration. It is unfair to expect a mentee to know how to reflect, if they do not know what it is, how to do it, or why? As mentors, we have an ethical responsibility to model this for our mentees, so they have an example, a vision of what reflection is, and how to engage in reflective practice. Joy Amulya (2011) poses the question: how often, how much and why? The following table summarises her answers to these questions (Table 8.3). In returning to Fook’s (2012) stance, in terms of on-going systematic reflection, and with the student teacher in mind, consideration must be given to the frequency of reflection. Ideally, reflection should be habitual. To develop this skill, the mentee might begin with weekly reflections (at the beginning of their teacher training), increasing to daily reflections over time, as they craft and hone their expertise in this critical area. Chapter 10 discusses the need for ethical mentoring. As discussed, the mentor must behave ethically, and uphold ethical principles when engaging in mentoring. Given the sometimes ethically challenging nature of reflection then, the mentee must be given plenty of time to engage in reflection and know that they are well supported throughout the process.

8.10

Power Relations in Mentor Feedback and Reflective Practice

Chapter 10 explores power relations in the mentoring process, discussing how these can help or impede our work with mentees. Fook (2012) poses some useful reflexivity standpoint questions that could be used by both mentor and mentee.

156

8 The Mentor’s Role in Nurturing Reflective Practice

Table 8.3 How often, how much and why should we engage in reflective practice? Reflective practice can occur at different intervals

Every day, every month, every year

Reflective practice can vary in depth

From a quick pause to notice what happened and didn’t happen during practice or during a mentoring meeting, to a sustained examination and documentation of critical moments during a practicum experience or a meeting

Reflection can serve a variety of purposes

It can be: – Individually useful, to become more aware of what guides our patterns of action and thinking, and what we struggle with and feel successful about – Aimed at making the work of an individual or a team more effective and innovative through ongoing capture of learning and making changes to have a greater impact – Used by departments, agencies, organizations or individuals (e.g., mentors) to bring greater alignment between activities, relationships, and deeper values – Used to strengthen shared thinking, or to expose the framework or theory underlying practice, or complex body of work

You may notice the focus upon mentor power, which accentuates the importance of these questions in mentor self-reflection in particular: • How did I influence the situation? • What preconceptions did I have and how might these have influenced what I did or interpreted? • How did my presence make a difference? • What sort of power did I think I had? and how did I establish myself in the situation? • What were my beliefs about power and how did this affect what I did or chose to see? As a mentor, it is your role to facilitate opportunities for students to reflect respectfully and confidentially about their placement experience. A safe, supportive environment enables students to feel comfortable when challenged about their practice, or when challenging their own practice themselves. In terms of continuing professional development, as mentioned earlier, it is also important that mentors too, reflect on their practice and their role as mentors.

8.10 Power Relations in Mentor Feedback and Reflective Practice

157

Practice Scenario 9: Counter-intuitive Reflection

In answer to some of the prompting questions in a reflective cycle that we have used, a student reflects in a way that we find counter-intuitive to our professional judgement. For example, Johanna, an early childhood teacher mentions that she would much prefer working with older children because the babies don’t talk, and she struggles to communicate with them. Although the mentee is being open and honest, as you advocated for, she is also saying something that you don’t necessarily want to hear or strongly disagree with. Perhaps your understanding of the importance of the first 1,000 days of life influences your perspective. Perhaps then, your preference would be to work with babies. Or you may place a strong professional value on the education and care of very young children, feeling that Johanna is in a privileged position to work with such young children during care routines. Johanna’s opinion may be undermining the value of your profession and your beliefs. Is Johanna, or indeed any mentee entitled to have their opinions and preferences, and express them to you in a genuine or authentic way? Johanna’s comment would also indicate that she has reflected on her experiences of working with different age groups. Based on her reflection, she indicates a preference. However, the role of feedback in nurturing deeper reflective practice could be utilised to offer prompting questions in relation to how young babies may be communicating non-verbally. Offering probing questions as reminders to link to theory, the importance of ‘serve and return’ when communicating with young children or the important role of care routines, for example. It would also be important to acknowledge the mentee’s preferences and honest reflection. Otherwise, you may run the risk of having contrived feedback meetings in future where the mentee only contributes what they feel the mentor may ‘want to hear’.

Further drawing upon Chap. 10, in terms of mentor/mentee feedback conversation or documentation, the mentor should be aware of the potential power aspect of mentoring to try to facilitate authentic critical reflection. How do we, as mentors, address conflicting viewpoints in the feedback dialogue? Would we prefer or demand a passive, accepting mentee? Or would we welcome challenging viewpoints and discussion? It may be useful to deconstruct our thinking about power constructs and critically reflect ourselves, so we can consider conflicts, tensions, challenges and paradoxes. Again, in terms of mentor self-reflection, it may be useful to consider the following prompt questions, included here to help you deconstruct your thinking around power relations and how they influence your feedback: • What language/words/examples have I used? • What perspectives are missing? What are my constructions of power?

158

8 The Mentor’s Role in Nurturing Reflective Practice

• What is the relationship between my beliefs about power and the mainstream or dominant view? • How have I constructed myself in relation to other people, or power? (Fook, 2012, p.447) From a critical social theory perspective, to bring about social change, requires both personal and collective responses with effective communication being essential for a new shared understanding. Two aspects: that of analysis and change are inherent in the critical reflection process. Analysis of power relations would be particularly pertinent, considering self-beliefs and structural factors if there is to be possibilities of change. Fook (2012, p.447) maintains that a critical stance would “place the emphasis on how the critical reflection process can bring about change” and suggests that we might therefore ask questions like: • • • •

How has my thinking changed, and what might I do differently now? How do I see my own power? Can I use my power differently? Do I need to change my ideas about myself or the situations in which I work?

For example, in his research exploring the experiences of social workers and reflective practice, Ferguson (2018) observed that practitioners (i.e., teachers) often reflected in action, by mentally rising above what they are doing to critically consider their actions and potentially adapt them. However, on other occasions, reflection was constrained or not engaged in because of the need for practitioners to “defend themselves against the sensory and emotional impact of the work and the high anxiety they are experiencing” (p.415). Ferguson (2018) argues that we must: • Recognise such limits to reflection • Consider how the self is defended, and • Find ways to develop the capacity of practitioners to think with clarity and think critically to adapt practice accordingly to best serve those whom they work with or for. Wright and Adam (2015) note the value of a critical friendship approach when it comes to critiquing, rethinking, and reframing existing professional practices through reflective practice. They highlight the importance of a collaborative and open environment with staff cohesion and trust as vital components. Kuswandono (2014) cautions against ‘superficial reflection’, stressing the need for trust and authentic feedback from peers. Mentors could also be part of a community of practice of mentors to reflect on their mentoring together. This may encourage the development of mentoring strategies, strengthening the role of feedback by gaining insights and sharing experiences with other mentors. Sharing examples of how reflective practice is nurtured and critically reflecting on the role and position of the mentor in terms of feedback could be very valuable.

References

8.11

159

Chapter Summary Points

• Feedback is essential when it comes to nurturing reflective practice and empowering the mentee. • Critical reflection is “as much about the enabling climate that is created as it is about techniques that are used” (Fook, 2012, p.447). • We are all teachers and learners, regardless of professional roles. • Different models of reflection, and different questions can be used at different times to stimulate critical reflection in a flexible way, depending on the learning needs of the mentee and the approach adopted by the mentor. • Mentor self-reflection is key to developing understanding of themselves, their learning and how they generate knowledge. • Mentors have an ethical responsibility to model reflection for their mentees, so they have an example, a vision of what reflection is, and how to engage in reflective practice.

References Amulya, J. (2011). What Is Reflective Practice? Retrieved from https://pdf4pro.com/amp/view/ what-is-reflective-practice-community-science-2f810b.html Australian Children’s Education and Care Quality Authority (ACEQUA). (2020a). Guide to the National Quality Framework. Retrieved from https://www.acecqa.gov.au/sites/default/files/ 2020-01/Guide-to-the-NQF.pdf Australian Children’s Education and Care Quality Authority (ACEQUA). (2020b). Quality Area 1: Developing a Culture of Learning Through Reflective Practice. Retrieved from https://www.acecqa.gov.au/sites/default/files/acecqa/files/QualityInformationSheets/Qua lityArea1/DevelopingaCultureofLearningThroughReflectivePractice.pdf Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL). (2015). Accreditation of Initial Teacher Education Programs In Australia. Melbourne: AITSL. Beauchamp, C. (2015). Reflection in teacher education: Issues emerging from a review of current literature. Reflective Practice, 16(1), 123–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623943.2014.982525 Bergsteiner, H., Avery, G. A., & Neumann, R. (2010). Kolb’s experiential learning model: Critique from a modelling perspective. Studies in Continuing Education, 32(1), 29–46. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/01580370903534355 Bleakley, A. (1999). From reflective practice to holistic reflexivity. Studies in Higher Education, 24, 315–330. Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education. (2006). Síolta: The National Quality Framework for Early Childhood Education. Dublin: Government Publications. Retrieved from https://siolta.ie/ Collin, S., Karsenti, T., & Komis, V. (2013). Reflective practice in initial teacher training: Critiques and perspectives. Reflective Practice, 14(1), 104–117. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623943.2012. 732935 Eraut, M. (1995). Schon shock: A case for refraining reflection-in-action? Teachers and Teaching, 1(1), 9–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/1354060950010102

160

8 The Mentor’s Role in Nurturing Reflective Practice

Ferguson, H. (2018). How social workers reflect in action and when and why they don’t: The possibilities and limits to reflective practice in social work. Social Work Education, 37(4), 415–427. https://doi.org/10.1080/02615479.2017.1413083 Finlayson, A. (2015). Reflective practice: Has it really changed over time? Reflective Practice, 16(6), 717–730. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623943.2015.1095723 Fook, J. (2012). Reflective Practice and Critical Reflection. https://lifeadjustmentcounselling.com. au/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Article-Critical-Reflection.-Extract-by-Fook-in-Lishman-etal-2015-chapter-26.pdf Fox, K., Campbell, M., & Hargrove, T. (2011). Examining reflective practice: Insights from preservice teachers, in-service teachers and faculty. Journal of Research in Education, 21, 37–54. Gibbs, G. (1998). Learning by Doing: A Guide to Teaching and Learning. Further Educational Unit. Hébert, C. (2015). Knowing and/or experiencing: A critical examination of the reflective models of John Dewey and Donald Schön. Reflective Practice, 16(3), 361–371. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 14623943.2015.1023281 Killion, J. P., & Todnem, G. R. (1991). A process for personal theory building. Educational Leadership, 48, 14–16. Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. Prentice Hall. Kuswandono, P. (2014). University mentors’ views on reflective practice in microteaching: Building trust and genuine feedback. Reflective Practice, 15(6), 701–717. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 14623943.2014.944127 Mann, K., Gordon, J., & MacLeod, A. (2009). Reflection and reflective practice in health professions education: A systematic review. Advances in Health Sciences Education: Theory and Practice, 14(4), 595–621. Markkanen, P., Välimäki, M., Anttila, M., & Kuuskorpi, M. (2020). A reflective cycle: Understanding challenging situations in a school setting. Educational Research, 62(1), 46–62. https://doi. org/10.1080/00131881.2020.1711790 Mena Marcos, J. J., Sánchez Miguel, E., & Tillema, H. H. (2009). Teacher reflection on action: What is said (in research) and what is done (in teaching). Reflective Practice, 10(2), 191–204. Morris, T. H. (2020). Experiential learning—a systematic review and revision of Kolb’s model. Interactive Learning Environments, 28(8), 1064–1077. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2019. 1570279 National Council for Curriculum and Assessment. (2009). Aistear: The Early Childhood Curriculum Framework. Retrieved from https://www.ncca.ie/en/early-childhood/aistear National Forum for the Enhancement of Teaching and Learning. (2021). Chapter 1 Rolfe, G., Freshwater, D., & Jasper, M. (2001). Critical Reflection in Nursing and the Helping Professions: A User’s Guide. Palgrave Macmillan. Rolfe, G., Freshwater, D., & Jasper, M. (2011). Critical Reflection In Practice (2nd ed.). Palgrave. Šari´c, M., & Šteh, B. (2017). Critical reflection in the professional development of teachers: Challenges and possibilities. Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal, 7(3), 67–85. https:// files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1156912.pdf Schon, D. A. (1987). Educating the Reflective Practitioner. Jossey Bass. Schön, D. A. (1991). The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think In Action. Temple. Slade, M. L, Burnham, T. J., Catalana, S. M., & Waters, T. (2019). The impact of reflective practice on teacher candidates’ learning. International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 13(2), Article 15, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.20429/ijsotl.2019.130215 Wright, N., & Adam, A. (2015). The ‘critical friend’ role in fostering reflective practices and developing staff cohesion: A case study in a new secondary school, New Zealand. School Leadership & Management, 35(4), 441–457. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2015.1070821 Zhu, X. (2011). Student teachers’ reflection during practicum: Plenty on action, few in action. Reflective Practice, 12(6), 763–775. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623943.2011.601097

9

Optimal Conditions for Mentoring

This book highlights the crucial role of mentoring in early childhood and primary school teachers’ initial teacher education and continued professional formation. However, mentoring does not just happen. Certain conditions must be in place to support the mentoring process. This chapter explores a range of issues that support or impede mentoring. These are practical or logistical issues, relationship issues, and organisation issues. Following discussion of a supportive mentoring framework, the chapter examines:

• • • • • • •

9.1

Organisational commitment to mentoring Organisational ethos Physical resources for mentoring Time Mentor preparation Characteristics of Effective Mentoring-Training Mentee willingness to engage in the mentoring process.

Reviewing the Benefits of Mentoring

It is apparent that mentoring reaps benefits for both the mentor and mentee. For the mentor, it provides opportunities to build leadership skills, foster their reflective practice, and enrich their own classroom practice. These positive benefits result from mentees bringing theoretical and pedagogical knowledge, as well as innovative ideas to the mentoring process. Mentoring also results in many benefits for the mentee. It helps to socialise them into the norms of the teaching profession. It helps them gain knowledge of workplace expectations, and work practices. Mentoring can also help to increase © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. Moloney et al., Professional Mentoring for Early Childhood and Primary School Practice, Springer Texts in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37186-8_9

161

162

9

Optimal Conditions for Mentoring

professional connections and networks and clarify career goals. Additionally, mentoring increases teacher retention and effectiveness. This is particularly important in the field of early childhood education, which is experiencing a skills stasis (see Chap. 1). Mentoring can, therefore, introduce the mentee to potential new employees, thus, helping to address recruitment and retention in the sector (Doan et al., 2021). Mentoring is a dynamic process. It involves a blend of support and challenge (e.g., stretching professional capacity/boundaries) between the mentor and the mentee. It is a highly relational proactive process of reciprocal mentor and mentee engagement. However, certain conditions must be in place to support the establishment of, and ongoing success of mentoring. Mentor and Mentee Reflection Point

Think about your own context (early childhood setting, primary school or university/college). • What conditions do you think should be in place to support the mentoring relationship and process?

Garvey (2004) identifies three broad areas that either support or impede mentoring. These relate to practical or logistical issues, relationship issues, and organisation issues. Organisation issues feature prominently across the mentoring literature. Cunningham (2007) and Hobson and Maxwell (2020) for instance, stress the importance of a supportive mentoring framework or architecture. Mentor Reflection Point

‘The [mentoring] role will not be optimally effective where a supportive institutional framework, or architecture, is lacking’ (Cunningham, 2007, p.84). • What you do you think a supportive institutional framework looks like? • What are the key aspects of such a framework?

Hobson and Maxwell (2020) use the term organisational, rather than institutional architecture or framework. We adopt the term organisational in the present chapter. As a result, this chapter focuses on the organisational mentoring architecture across the educational continuum, i.e., early childhood and primary school.

9.3 Organisational Commitment to Mentoring

9.2

163

Supportive Mentoring Framework

Eight broad features and associated sub-features characterise Cunningham’s (2007) supportive teacher mentoring framework. See Table 9.1. To this list, we add, identifying a mentor with the disposition to mentor. In 2020, Hobson and Maxwell undertook a study across all nine regions of England. The purpose was to examine the design features of Cunningham’s framework. Their study involved an online survey with teachers at various career stages. These ranged from trainee to long-serving, and highly experienced teachers. They also undertook interviews with early career mentees (i.e., trainee, newly qualified or second year teachers), relatively experienced teacher mentees, mentors of early career and/or experienced teachers etc. Their research confirmed four of eight design features from Cunningham’s (2007) mentoring framework: • • • •

Design Design Design Design

Feature Feature Feature Feature

1: 4: 6: 7:

Institutional Commitment to Mentoring. Mentoring Induction Training and Support. Clarity and Consistency of Mentoring Roles, and Subject Specificity (Hobson & Maxwell, 2020).

They also found partial support for design feature 2: Appropriate Institutional Ethos, and design feature 5: Mentor Selection and Accreditation. However, Hobson and Maxwell (2020) found little evidence to support the importance of three of Cunningham’s (2007) architectural design features. These are design feature 3: Physical Resources for Mentoring, design feature 5: as it relates to Accreditation of Mentors, and design feature 8: Evaluating the Impact of Mentoring. Cognisant of these findings, we turn our attention to design feature 1: Organisational1 Commitment to Mentoring.

9.3

Organisational Commitment to Mentoring

To reiterate, the term organisation is used here to denote a university/college, early childhood setting, or primary school context. In returning to initial teacher education, universities/colleges regularly appoint mentors to oversee, and monitor the pre-service early childhood or primary school teacher’s practicum experience. However, this does not mean that the university/college itself is committed to mentoring. A question arises then. Do universities/colleges provide mentoring for their mentors–members of faculty, or externally appointed mentors, such as retired teachers. It is important to remember that even mentors need mentoring (Zachary, 2005). Without institutional commitment to mentoring, mentors may not be

1

Here we adopt Hobson and Maxwell’s (2020) term ‘Organisational’ rather than the term ‘Institutional’ used by Cunningham (2007).

164

9

Optimal Conditions for Mentoring

Table 9.1 Design features of a supportive mentoring framework Design feature

Sub-features

1. Institutional commitment to mentoring

– Mentor’s work is recognised and rewarded (e.g., through promotion criteria) – Mentors and mentees receive a derogation from teaching to engage in mentoring – Sympathetic timetabling helps mentor–mentee meetings – Sufficient resources are allocated to support mentoring

2. Appropriate institution ethos

– Promoting a collegial environment to encourage reciprocal mentoring relationships – Demonstrable commitment to supporting professional learning – Integrating mentoring with the institution’s overall mission and policies (e.g., induction, employee development)

3. Physical resources for mentoring

– Access to suitable meeting rooms for confidential mentoring discussions – Availability of ICT (Information and Communication Technology) support to help remote mentoring and networking between mentors – Availability of other resources such as relevant texts, journals and recording equipment

4. Mentor Induction, Training and Support

– Effective processes for induction, training and ongoing development and support for mentors – Potential designation of ‘coordinating mentor’ or ‘senior mentor’ to provide or oversee induction, training and support, and undertake other functions as necessary – Continuous professional development opportunities for mentors

5. Mentor Selection and Accreditation

– Use appropriate selection criteria to support mentor recruitment – Highlight potential benefits of mentoring for mentors – Provide opportunities to gain accreditation for mentoring

6. Clarity and Consistency of Mentoring Roles – Specify mentor and mentee roles, responsibilities and entitlements, including requirements for minimum levels of contact and support between mentor and mentee – Provide a mentoring contract, or memorandum of understanding to encompass roles and responsibilities and shared ownership and ground rules (continued)

9.3 Organisational Commitment to Mentoring

165

Table 9.1 (continued) Design feature

Sub-features

7. Subject Specificity

– Provide mentees with same-subject specialist mentors, where possible, or those from cognate disciplinary backgrounds

8. Evaluating the Impact of Mentoring

– Evaluate mentoring provision to inform ongoing development and improvement

Source Adapted from Cunningham (2007)

prepared for the complexity of their role. They may not understand or fully appreciate their roles and responsibilities. In the absence of institutional commitment to mentoring, mentors themselves, may not experience personal or professional growth and development, which is critical to effective mentoring. Of course, as reiterated throughout this book, mentoring is not confined to practicum experience. It applies equally to induction, early career development and progression, and to a teacher’s continual professional development. It is not good practice to appoint just anybody to mentor a pre-service teacher as they engage in practicum as part of their initial teacher education. Neither is it right to ask just any veteran teacher to mentor a novice, or early career stage teacher. Indeed, a mismatch between mentor and mentee can result in a frayed mentoring relationship (Hudson & Hudson, 2017; Sparks et al., 2017; Tummons et al., 2016). In Chap. 6, Desimone et al. (2014) say that mentees value a mentor’s familiarity with, and proximity to the school. However, mentors need more than an understanding of the early childhood setting, primary school and children. The novice teacher must be able to confide in, and rely on the mentor (Martin et al., 2016) who must understand their role in supporting adult learners (mentees) as discussed in Chap. 4. The importance of the university/college, school or early childhood setting’s commitment to mentoring arises yet again. It is vital to ask whether a culture of mentoring exists within universities/colleges, schools and early childhood settings? A culture of mentoring is interlinked with organisational leadership. Indeed, Schein (2004) perceives leadership as central to organisational culture. In fact, he refers to leadership and culture as “two sides of the same coin” (p.10). In the context of creating a mentoring culture, somebody within the organisation, must understand the role and value of mentoring for both mentors and mentees, and the resulting benefits for a university/college, school, or early childhood setting. Leaders have the capacity to create and change culture as necessary (Schein, 2004). In the context of mentoring then, responsibility for creating optimal conditions for mentoring rests with organisational leaders, such as a school principal, an early childhood setting manager, university/college faculty management etc. So, let us now return to exploring the concept of a mentoring culture. Zachary (2005, p.4) describes it as a “vivid expression of organisational vitality”. She explains how mentoring values individual and organisational growth and development. In this sense, a mentoring culture applies to universities/colleges, school

166

9

Optimal Conditions for Mentoring

and early childhood settings. It therefore applies to any setting where mentoring occurs. A mentoring culture, which is integral to the optimal conditions for mentoring, enables employees at all levels within the organisation to manage their own growth and development more effectively (Zachary, 2005). What are the indicators of organisational commitment to mentoring? According to Kochan et al. (2015), the indicators include adequate numbers of caring and committed staff, sufficient funding, and visibility. In relation to staffing, Kochan et al., recommend having a person or a few people who monitor the mentoring relationship and outcomes. Mentor and Mentee Reflection Point

• Where does responsibility lie for ensuring sufficient numbers of staff and funding to support mentoring at a university/college, school or early childhood setting level? • Identify the benefits of having a person within a school or early childhood setting to monitor mentoring relationships and outcomes • Identify any disadvantages of this approach.

Zachary says that the relationship skills learned through mentoring strengthen relationships throughout the organization. The more these “relationships deepen”, the more ‘people feel more connected to the organization’ (2005, p.4). From the outset, we have portrayed mentoring relationships as personal and reciprocal. So, Heidrick and Struggles (2017) recommend that workplaces should set up a culture of mentoring “as an ecosystem to support formal structures”. Workplaces that establish a mentoring culture, and where there is a commitment to mentoring, “are well positioned to unlock the potential of mentorship in attracting, developing and retaining their workforce” (Ibid., 2017. p.3). Unlocking the potential of mentorship is essential within educational contexts. However, in returning to the relationship between organisational leadership and the optimal conditions for mentoring; lack of organisational commitment and support hinders mentoring functions (Kochan et al., 2015). In terms of leadership then, organisations should take deliberate steps to support the purposes of mentoring, and those engaged in the mentoring process (Zachary, 2012). The need for the ITE provider (university/college) to develop a collaborative relationship with partner schools and early childhood settings (Ellis et al., 2020) is essential here. As mentioned in Chap. 2, this is a core aspect of a mentoring architecture, that signifies organisational commitment to mentoring. The following self-evaluation questions are designed to prompt universities/ colleges, schools and early childhood settings to reflect on how they lead and support a mentoring culture within their organisation.

9.3 Organisational Commitment to Mentoring

9.3.1

167

Supporting a Mentoring Culture: Self-Evaluation Questions for Universities/Colleges

• What is our vision for developing a mentoring culture? • Do we have a clear strategy to develop the role of mentors that contributes effectively to our vision of teacher education (at primary or early childhood level)? • How do we ensure that mentors have the necessary skills, knowledge and understanding to be effective teacher educators? • How do we support and encourage senior mentors to contribute to the development of effective mentoring? • How do we use Professional Teaching Standards to support ourselves and our mentors to develop their skills, knowledge and understanding? • What strategies do we use to share good practice in mentoring? • How do we work with our partner schools and/or early childhood settings to support teacher-educators? • How do we work with our partner schools and/or early childhood settings to evaluate the quality of mentoring? • How do we ensure that information and evidence from the evaluation of mentoring informs our improvement planning? (Adapted from: Estyn, 2018).

9.3.2 • • • • • • • • • • •

Supporting a Mentoring Culture: Self-Evaluation Questions for Primary Schools/Early Childhood Settings

What is our vision for developing student teachers (primary or early childhood)? How do we show our commitment to developing student teachers? How do we select mentors to work with student teachers? How do we ensure that our mentors have the necessary skills, knowledge and understanding to be effective teacher educators? How do we evaluate the effectiveness of our mentors? How do we evaluate the impact of our involvement in Initial Teacher Education? How does our involvement with Initial Teacher Education contribute to our culture of professional learning and the development of our own staff? How do we create links between our work to develop teaching and the development of student teachers? How can we make the most of our partnership with the university/college to support the professional learning of our teachers? Do we have an overall view of the quality of mentoring in our school or early childhood setting? How do we work with our university/college partners to share this information? How do we share examples of best practice in mentoring, in school, in the early childhood setting? How do we work with our university/college partners to share this information?

168

9

Optimal Conditions for Mentoring

• How do we support mentors in need of development? • How do we use Professional Teaching Standards to support ourselves and our mentors to develop their skills, knowledge and understanding? (Adapted from: Estyn, 2018). We believe that organisational leadership, which translates to commitment to mentoring, and an enabling mentoring environment are synonymous. Both are intertwined with organisational ethos or culture.

9.4

Organisational Ethos

Ethos means custom or character in Greek. As originally used by Aristotle, ethos referred to a man’s character or personality (Kamaruddin, 2020). This was especially in relation to the balance between passion and caution (Ibid.). Today, the term ethos is used to refer to the traits, practices, beliefs, or values that distinguish a person, organisation, subculture or society from others. When used in the context of a supportive mentoring architecture, ethos is interrelated with organisational commitment to mentoring. According to Barth (2006), a collegial culture is: • A precondition for doing anything to strengthen practice and improve an organisation • Typified by professionals talking about practice, sharing their craft knowledge, observing and rooting for each other’s success (p.33). Culture is a critical part of organisational ethos. Although culture is focused on action, ethos goes deeper. Ethos is concerned with how people think and feel about their work and the values they believe in. Mentoring cannot be viewed in isolation from the culture of the university/college, school or early childhood setting. As mentoring can potentially enhance school development, it must move beyond individual endeavour, and become embedded into the school culture (Ulvik & Sunde, 2013). In relation to a supportive organisational mentoring architecture, collegial ethos encompasses many elements. These include support for mentoring, such as access to rooms for confidential discussions, and provision of resources for mentors (Cullimore & Simmons, 2010; Cunningham, 2007).

9.5 Physical Resources for Mentoring

169

Mentor Reflection Point

Provision of resources for mentors is considered an essential element in a supportive mentoring architecture (Cullimore & Simmons, 2010; Cunningham, 2007). • As a mentor, what resources could your university/college, school or early childhood setting provide to support you in your mentoring role? • Why are these resources important to you in your role?

9.5

Physical Resources for Mentoring

As you thought about the provision of resources for mentoring, did you identify the need for physical resources? Earlier, we mentioned how Hobson and Maxwell (2020) found little support for design feature 3: Physical Resources in Cunningham’s (2007) organisational architecture. We argue however, that the physical environment, in which mentoring occurs is particularly important. The physical environment for mentoring is both a logistical and a practical issue that can either support or impede mentoring. Chapter 2, which explores the mentoring process, reinforces the necessity for the mentor to think about where mentoring meetings will occur. It is pertinent to ask: Is there a safe space within the university/college, school or early childhood setting to meet the mentee, without interruption? Equally, it is important to consider whether the meeting space is accessible to a mentee with a physical disability, for example. Practice scenario 10, illustrates the challenge for Joshua, a final year pre-service primary school teacher, with a hamstring injury, when faced with a confined space during a mentoring meeting. Practice Scenario 10: The Physical Mentoring Environment

Kate, a school-based mentor-teacher is holding a second mentoring meeting with her mentee, Joshua, a final year student teacher. He is engaging in practicum placement in the school. Joshua has brought a hard copy of his professional development portfolio to discuss with Kate. Joshua shared the portfolio online with Kate the day before the mentoring meeting. However, he likes to have a hard copy during the mentoring meeting. He uses the portfolio to prompt his thinking, to illustrate certain points, and to support professional discussion. The meeting room, which is located off a corridor in the school is small. Joshua, who recently suffered a hamstring injury, struggles to make himself comfortable in the confines of the meeting room. He leaves his crutches on the floor alongside his chair but is conscious they are a safety hazard. Joshua

170

9

Optimal Conditions for Mentoring

finds the room unsettling. He feels uncomfortable about the physical proximity to Kate. He is worried about the lack of space (e.g., a table/desk) to lay out his portfolio. The room has clear ceiling to floor glass on three sides. The natural noise as teachers and children move about the school permeates the meeting room. Both Joshua and Kate find the noise and movement distracting. In addition, Joshua feels self-conscious as people walking along the corridor look into the meeting room. • How would you describe the physical mentoring environment described here? • How would you feel as a mentee in this scenario? • How do you think Kate feels? • What changes, if any, would you make to the physical environment described here so it is more conducive to mentoring? • What would your ideal physical mentoring environment look like?

Other indicators of a supportive organisational culture include promotion of professional learning communities (Ibid.). While indicators such as access to rooms for confidential discussions are vital, they are not always available, or may even be absent (Cullimore & Simmons, 2010; Cunningham, 2007). Their absence can, therefore, serve as an obstacle to mentoring. By contrast, when the organisational culture values, embraces and shows a commitment to mentoring, it thrives (Kochan et al., 2015). Interwoven with organisational commitment and ethos is the matter of time for mentoring. Regardless of context, time is one of the leading causes of stress for teachers (Clement, 2017; Greenberg et al., 2016). Consequently, finding time for mentoring can be challenging for teachers. It can be especially difficult for teachers who engage in mentoring on top of teaching responsibilities.

9.6

Time

Earlier, based upon the work of Garvey (2004), the present chapter highlighted three broad areas that either impede or support mentoring. These are practical or logistical issues, relationship issues (addressed throughout this book), and scheme and organisation issues, which have been discussed to this point in the present chapter. Practical or logistical issues include time management (Damar, 2013; Garvey, 2004; Heung-Ling, 2003). In Chap. 2, Bozeman and Feeney (2007) remind us that the mentoring process occurs over a sustained period. It requires both the mentor and the mentee committing time to the mentoring relationship and process. While beneficial, unsurprisingly, mentoring relationships take time to develop. Garvey (2004) summarises the challenge. He notes that mentors need time to develop their skills; mentoring relationships take time to develop, and mentees

9.6 Time

171

need time to learn, change and develop. In essence, the process of becoming a mentor is lengthy. It takes time, years, rather than months (Koballa et al., 2010). In their 2016 study, Langdon, Alexander, Farquhar, et al., identified time as a significant issue for mentors in the New Zealand early childhood context. They found that the need to meet often with their mentee, places additional time pressure and stress on the mentor. Why? It is because mentors must find time in their already busy schedule to support their mentee. As a result, mentors perceived mentoring as additional work (Ibid.). Mentor Reflection Point

Time is considered a significant issue for mentors. As you reflect on your own context, consider how time affects your mentoring role. • • • •

In what way, is time an issue for you? How does time affect you, as a mentor? How does time affect your relationship with your mentee? How could the issue of time be resolved in your particular context?

Mentors in New Zealand explained how the pressure of trying to do everything within a limited timeframe undermined their confidence (Langdon et al., 2016). Lack of time and organisational resources sometimes meant that: • Mentoring had to stop for a period of time, or was not available at all • Mentors needed to temper their feedback to mentees • Mentors tended to prioritise mentee’s feelings. They shied away from being too challenging. This, even though they wanted to provoke thinking and practice. In the Irish context, findings from an evaluation by Goodbody Economic Consultants (2011) on the Síolta Quality Assurance Programme2 (QAP) also highlighted time as a challenge in the mentoring process. Findings illustrate that: • Mentors adopted different approaches. These ranged from very directional and hands on to semi-directional, semi-supportive • Approaches adopted by mentors were influenced by the level of mentor resources made available. For example, the number of hours available to support the early childhood setting

2

Síolta (Irish word for seed) is the national quality framework in Ireland. The Síolta Quality Assurance Programme is a 12-step process where an ECEC setting carries out a range of activities, under the support and guidance of a trained mentor, known as a Síolta coordinator.

172

9

Optimal Conditions for Mentoring

• Levels of support and guidance mentors were able to deliver influenced the extent to which early childhood settings received help from the quality assurance process (Goodbody Economic Consultants, 2011). With regards to the time mentors had to support early childhood settings, participants stressed the challenges associated with lack of time, and appropriate spaces for mentoring. Beginning teachers (mentees) were especially vocal about their frustrations of having dedicated times and suitable places for mentoring. Eking out time for mentoring alongside everyday education and care demands was unquestionably problematic. This, despite some beginning teachers being offered online support systems in lieu of the formalized programme and requisite support. It was also harder for beginning teachers to perform the tasks they understood as central to induction and mentoring. These tasks included having professional conversations with mentors or crafting reflections. As a result, beginning teachers felt the pressures of time and space even more than the leaders/mentors. Kajs (2002) argues that in addition to time needed to provide adequate feedback, mentors need time with their mentees and other mentors to exchange ideas about their roles and expectations (cited in Forsbach-Rothman, 2007). Thus, signifying the need for peer support and/or communities of practice, which as discussed in Chap. 6 is especially beneficial for newly qualified early career stage teachers. Nimmo and Park (2009) note that when given time and opportunities to collaborate, and share their challenges, learners are more likely to demonstrate job satisfaction.

9.7

Mentor Preparation

Earlier in this book, we asked if being a good teacher equated with being a good mentor. Many researchers (e.g., Bullough, 2012; Ellis et al., 2020; Gareis & Grant, 2014; Schwille, 2008; Ulvik & Sunde, 2013), argue that being a good teacher is not necessarily the same as being a good mentor. Both Schwille (2008) and Gareis and Grant (2014) say that teaching children is not the same as teaching teachers. In other words, mentoring pre-service or newly qualified teachers requires a different skill-set and knowledge base. Mentors require subject knowledge (Ellis et al., 2020), and they need to know how to teach teachers (Gareis & Grant, 2014; Schwille, 2008). Key Learning Point

Having a mentor is not sufficient. As noted by Hobson (2009), mentoring itself, is not beneficial, rather, it is the quality of mentoring that matters.

While successful mentoring lies in the skills and knowledge of the mentor (Spooner-Lane, 2017); the knowledge base and practical skills of teaching and

9.7 Mentor Preparation Fig. 9.1 Mentoring spheres of knowledge. Source Schatz-Oppenheimer (2017)

173

Teaching Processes

Mentoring Processes

mentoring are separate and distinct entities (Ulvik & Sunde, 2013). They complement and challenge each other (Ibid.). Simply having experience as a teacher and a mentor is not sufficient (Ellis et al., 2020). Being an exemplary teacher does not equate to being an exemplary mentor (Ulvik & Sunde, 2013). Mentoring demands familiarity with the connection between theory and practice (Ellis et al., 2020; Schatz-Oppenheimer, 2017). It involves two principal spheres of knowledge (Fig. 9.1). The processes illustrated in Fig. 9.1 cover both theoretical and practical aspects, and the reciprocal relations between them (Korthagen, 2017 in SchatzOppenheimer (2017). Mentor-teachers are recognised by university-based educators as experts of practice. Likewise, university/college-based educators are recognised by mentorteachers as experts of practice. Why is this the case? Parker et al. (2021) attributes this recognition to the link between learning theory and implementing pedagogical strategies. Yet, while recognising that teacher-mentors are experts of practice; we cannot assume they have mentoring skills, or knowledge of mentoring processes. Based on their study of Norwegian teachers’ experiences of a formal mentoring programme, Ulvik and Sunde (2013) concluded that while mentor know-how is necessary, it is not sufficient to perform as a professional mentor. In 2014, the Teacher Education Ministerial Advisory Group (TEMAG) in Canberra, Australia issued a report on how initial teacher education in Australia would be improved to better prepare new teachers with the practical skills required for the classroom. Stressing the importance of training those involved in mentoring pre-service teachers, TEMAG recommended that: supervising teachers should have the training and skills required to effectively supervise and assess professional experience placements (p.xviii)

Although there is limited understanding of mentor education in schools (Ulvik & Sunde, 2013), mentor preparation either supports or undermines the mentoring relationship and process (e.g., Cunningham, 2007; Goodbody Evaluation Report, 2011; Hobson & Malderez, 2013; Hobson & Maxwell, 2020; Moloney & Pope, 2022; 2023). Even though co-operating mentor-teachers are generally willing to mentor student teachers, they are often ill-prepared for their role (He, 2010; Moloney, 2017; Moloney & Pope, 2022; 2023). In fact, based on their review of the literature, Ellis et al. (2020), suggest that experienced teachers who offer

174

9

Optimal Conditions for Mentoring

their services as mentors to pre-service teachers, generally, have little experience or training in the role. The process of becoming a mentor for newly qualified teachers is of the utmost importance (Bullough, 2012). Hobson and Malderez (2013) provide insight into the factors that undermine the potential of school-based mentoring in initial teacher education. They found that a lack of appropriate mentor training explained: • Why some mentors employed methods unconducive to mentees’ professional learning and development • Why some were unable to develop safe, trusting relationships, and • Why there was sometimes a lack of coherence between school-based mentoring and other aspects of Initial teacher preparation (Hobson & Malderez, 2013).

Mentor Reflection Point

Mentor preparation or training is critical to maximising the potential benefits of mentoring (Hobson et al., 2009). • What do you see as the benefits of mentor training?

Participation in mentoring training, education and development (MTED) has been found to have a positive impact on mentors across multiple domains (Table 9.2). Now, look at the benefits of mentoring training on mentor’s knowledge, skill, competency and practice, as identified within the literature (see Table 9.2). Did you identify any of these benefits? Table 9.2 Impact of mentoring training on mentors Knowledge and understanding, including of mentoring roles and effective mentoring processes (Hobson et al., 2019; Moloney & Pope, 2022; 2023) Confidence and self-efficacy relating to undertaking mentoring in general (Ibid.), and various aspects of the mentoring role (Hobson et al., 2019) Skills including critical reflection on their mentoring and their own professional practice, specific mentoring skills, and inter-personal communication skills (Hobson et al., 2019; Moloney & Pope, 2022; 2023) Behavioural change, such as active listening, and more effectively tailoring mentoring to mentee’s individual needs (Ibid.) Better alignment of their mentoring practice with the espoused mentoring model, framework or approach, such as developmental approaches to mentoring and coaching (Hobson et al., 2019) Professional lives more widely, including perceived improvements to their professional practice, enhanced status and influence, and increased satisfaction and pride associated with providing effective support to colleagues (Hobson et al., 2019; Moloney & Pope, 2023)

9.7 Mentor Preparation

175

Fig. 9.2 Impact of mentor training on mentees

Clearly, mentor training results in considerable benefits for the mentor. As discussed throughout this book, it also helps the mentee. Hobson et al., (2019) assert that the most notable mentee benefits relate to skills, effectiveness, retention, career progression and resilience, well-being and work-life balance. This is represented in Fig. 9.2. Finally, Hobson et al. (2019) found mentor training to have a positive impact on the organisation. Here, mentor training enhances • Professional learning cultures or communities of practice, and • Staff retention (Hobson et al., 2019, p.5). According to Hadi and Rudiyanto (2017), mentor training also reduces the risk of misunderstanding or confusion between mentors and mentees.

176

9

Optimal Conditions for Mentoring

Mentor Reflection Point

• Do you think mentor-training is necessary? • If yes, what should be included in mentor-training? • Who should be responsible for mentor-training (in the university/college, school or early childhood setting?) • When and how should mentor-training be delivered? (in the university/ college, school or early childhood setting?)

As you think about mentor-training, review the following checklist. Would you associate the strategies outlined with mentor-training?

9.7.1

Mentor Training Checklist

Strategy

Relevant to mentor training Yes

No

Attending seminars focused upon the practice of mentoring Reading research journals, or other texts in the area of mentoring Engaging in professional dialogue with other mentors Attending on-line mentoring workshops Reviewing videos of your own or others’ mentoring practise

You may have answered ‘yes’ to each of the strategies mentioned here. A word of caution however! It is important not to equate attendance with participation, reflection and action. To maximise the potential of seminars or workshops for example, it is not enough to simply attend. The potential benefits depend upon the mentor actively participating in seminars and workshops, reflecting upon the learning, and considering how to utilise learning to improve their practice. Ultimately, incorporating the learning into the mentoring process, enhances the mentee’s experience of mentoring. Findings from an Irish Study, suggest that mentors regarded the acquisition and improvement of their own teaching skills to be important in their role as mentors (Clarke et al., 2013). Reflecting on their own teaching, reflecting on, and sharing experiences with colleagues was also beneficial.

9.8 Characteristics of Effective Mentoring-Training

9.8

177

Characteristics of Effective Mentoring-Training

Hobson et al. (2019, p.5), suggest that effective mentor-training typically includes: • Opportunities to practise mentoring or particular approaches to mentoring, and explicit critical reflection on that practice • Opportunities for mentor networking, during and/or following initial training or preparation. Networking enables sharing and mutual interrogation of, and reflection on, mentoring practice • Sustained development activity, with initial training or preparation followed up by opportunities for further development and networking. As well as the elements outlined here, Lejonberg et al. (2018) say that mentors should discuss, and practice mentoring based on awareness of a wide range of approaches during mentor training. Whereas, Hobson (2016) stresses the critical importance of training in relation to judgementoring. All these elements are the visible manifestation of organisational commitment to mentoring, as discussed earlier. Drawing upon the work of Hobson et al. (2019), Table 9.3 provides typical examples of effective mentor training programmes. Based upon the discussion in Chap. 10, we suggest that mentor-training should also incorporate the ethics of mentoring. It seems prudent as well, to include mentor expectations. In point of fact, many authors (e.g., Hudson, 2013; Masters & Kreeger, 2017; Straus et al., 2013) argue that mentor expectations play a critical role in mentoring success. Mader et al. (2021) include four areas to address mentors’ expectations in their school’s mentoring programmes (see Fig. 9.3). Mentorship education can help mentors learn about and practice strategies for establishing good relationships, aligning expectations, and communicating effectively with mentees. All of these strategies may help to build a trusting, reciprocal relationship (Pfund et al., 2015). For example, Byars-Winston and Dahlberg, (2019) suggest:

Table 9.3 Examples of Effective Mentor Training Programmes Building, nurturing, sustaining and closure of mentoring relationships Structuring mentoring meetings and framing mentoring conversations Balancing support and challenge and (where needed) assessment roles of mentors Dealing with challenges and dilemmas experienced by mentors and mentees Supporting mentees’ development of reflective practice Empowering mentees and fostering independence Establishing and sustaining confidentiality in the mentoring relationship Tailoring mentoring to mentees’ individual needs Source Hobson et al. (2019)

178

9

Optimal Conditions for Mentoring

Fig. 9.3 Aspects of training to address mentor’s expectations

mentors’ provision of psychosocial support, such as telling personally relatable stories of when they have faced professional struggles or experienced professional failures, may help to create a safe space for mentee self-disclosure without crossing professional boundaries or compromising mentees’ right to privacy (Section 5; para 11)

Here again, we return to the issue of time—time to undertake training. As with the mentoring process, which can be compromised through lack of time, so too, the benefits of mentoring training, may not be realised if sufficient time has not been set aside for training.

9.9

Mentee Willingness to Engage in the Mentoring Process

It is thought that the success of the mentoring relationship depends to a significant extent on “the attitude of the beginning teacher mentee” (Roehrig et al., 2008, p.684.) This includes the degree to which, mentees take their professional learning and development seriously (Bubb & Earley, 2006). Moreover, as indicated by Valencic Zuljan and Vogrinc (2007), the beginning teacher mentee must be prepared to work outside their comfort zone (Senninger, 2000—see Chap. 6). Even with a supportive mentoring framework or architecture, individual mentees will engage with the opportunities provided through the mentoring relationship and activities in diverse ways. Successful mentoring depends on the full participation of mentors and mentees. However, mentee resistance to mentoring is a common theme within the literature associated with mentoring. In this respect, Hobson et al. (2009), clearly indicate that successful mentoring is primarily dependent on the mentee’s willingness to be mentored. While some mentees actively seek out opportunities for development, others’ engagement is minimal (Maxwell, 2010).

9.10 Overcoming Impediments to Mentoring

179

Mentor Reflection Point

Consider mentee’s reluctance to engage in mentoring. • Why might a mentee be resistant to mentoring? • How can you, as a mentor, support a reluctant mentee? • How can the organisational architecture help you to motivate a reluctant mentee?

Mentors play a key role in addressing mentee resistance. They do this by: • Enabling mentees to recognise the impact of their beliefs, dispositions, and prior experiences on their learning, and • Challenging them to break away from past beliefs and experiences (Maxwell, 2010). The mentor is at the core of the mentoring process and relationship. Not just in relation to what they bring to the process in terms of professional knowledge, skills and competencies, but equally, in terms of their disposition to mentor (see Chap. 4). It is essential that the mentor recognises and understands the realities and pressures for students engaging in practicum, entering the teaching profession for the first-time, or engaging in continuous professional development. As mentioned already, mentors must show energy, flexibility, and adaptability (O’Dwyer & McCormack, 2014). At the same time, they must have a social and emotional intelligence that understands the complexity of human interactions and behaviour change (Ibid.).

9.10

Overcoming Impediments to Mentoring

Generally, universities/colleges, schools and early childhood settings strive to ensure optimal conditions for mentoring. None the less, challenges may arise. As a mentor it may seem impossible to overcome some of these challenges, especially those associated with organisational leadership and culture. However, where a strong organisational leadership and culture exists, actions can be taken. The following table, adapted from the National Institute for Excellence in Teaching (2021, p.13) identifies a range of potential challenges to mentoring, and the associated action steps that can be taken when the organisation is committed to creating the optimal conditions for mentoring (Table 9.4).

180

9

Optimal Conditions for Mentoring

Table 9.4 Suggestions for overcoming challenges to mentoring Challenge

Action steps

The goals of mentoring are unclear and not linked to instructional improvement

Establish a clear purpose for mentoring–improving teaching and learning. Mentorship has a clear goal of improving instruction using a cycle of coaching and feedback

Mentorship responsibilities are an add-on to Invest in mentoring through funding teaching responsibilities without dedicated time dedicated time, which for the role Gives mentors dedicated time within their day for observing and supporting their mentee There is minimal training or guidance on how to Invest in mentoring training. This can be set or reach goals provided in-house or sourced externally by experts in the field Mentors are chosen based on who is available, rather than on best-fit for the mentee

Develop a clear job description, select the right people for the role, and remunerate mentors Purposely select mentors based on their effectiveness as a teacher and ability to work with adults Pair with a mentee from their field

Relationship building is left to chance

Allow time to establish the mentoring relationship at the start of the process

Feedback doesn’t provide detailed or actionable Establish the mentoring relationship as a feedback and is not connected to a path forward partnership for improvement Clarify the purpose of mentoring in terms of professional growth and actionable feedback Embed trust and relationship building into the mentoring training Student work is not systematically used by mentors in their coaching Support is one-size-fits-all or driven by the experience and teaching style of the mentor

Ground mentoring in student outcomes and the needs of the mentee Ground feedback in student work and data. Use a research-based framework when observing mentee’s practice. This helps mentors to understand the mentee’s strengths and respond to their specific needs

Support is given through a few isolated observations that do not build off one another

Use a cycle of coaching. Utilize an explicit coaching cycle where the new teacher is regularly observed and receives feedback

Mentors work independently with little interaction or collaboration

Create opportunities for mentors to collaborate. Collaboration at the school or early childhood setting strengthens practice and builds a community of teacher leaders (continued)

9.11 Chapter Summary Points

181

Table 9.4 (continued) Challenge

Action steps

School principals or early childhood setting managers are not substantively involved in the mentoring process. Mentors work independently and their work is not integrated with school/ early childhood setting level leadership

Support principals/managers to integrate mentors in the school/early childhood setting leadership structure Train principals/managers in mentoring best practices and support mentors in their work Recognise that the work of mentors is a key part of the school/early childhood setting’s organisational culture and Value mentors as valuable members of the school/early childhood setting leadership team

The work of mentoring is isolated from other school/early childhood setting initiatives, such as curriculum or evaluation system

Connect mentoring to school/early childhood setting priorities and initiatives Align mentorship to school/early childhood setting ongoing professional learning systems

Source Adapted from the National Institute for Excellence in Teaching (2021)

9.11

Chapter Summary Points

• Certain conditions must be in place to support the mentoring process. Organisational leadership, which establishes a supportive mentoring architecture within the university/college, the early childhood setting and primary school is paramount. • Without organisational leadership and commitment to mentoring, mentors may not be prepared for the complexity of their role; may not understand or fully appreciate their roles and responsibilities; and may not experience personal or professional growth and development themselves. • It is not good practice to appoint just anybody to mentor a student teacher as they engage in practicum as part of their initial teacher education. Neither is it right to ask just any veteran teacher to mentor a novice, or early career stage teacher. • Universities/colleges, early childhood settings and schools must take deliberate steps to support the purposes of mentoring, and those engaged in the mentoring process. This includes ensuring adequate staff and funding; access to appropriate meeting rooms for confidential discussions, and time for mentoring. • Being a good teacher does not equate to being a good mentor. Having a mentor is not sufficient. Mentor training and preparation is essential. • Mentor training results in considerable benefits for the mentor, and the mentee. The most notable mentee benefits relate to skills, effectiveness, retention, career progression and resilience, well-being and work-life balance.

182

9

Optimal Conditions for Mentoring

• Mentee attitude and willingness to be mentored plays a key role in a successful mentoring relationship. • Mentors play a key role in addressing mentee resistance to mentoring.

References Barth, R. S. (2006). Improving relationships within the schoolhouse. Educational Leadership, 63(6), 8–13. Bozeman, B., & Feeney, M. (2007). Toward a useful theory of mentoring: A conceptual analysis and critique. Administration and Society, 39, 719–739. Bubb, S., & Earley, P. (2006). Induction rites and wrongs: The ‘educational vandalism’ of new teachers’ professional development. Journal of in-Service Education, 32(1), 5–12. Bullough R. V. Jr. (2012). Against best practice—outliers, local studies and education research. Journal of Education for Teaching, 38(3), 343–357. Byars-Winston, A., & Dahlberg, M. L. (2019). The Science of Effective Mentorship in STEMM. Consensus Study Report. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Clarke, M., Killeavy, M., & Moloney, A. (2013). The genesis of mentors’ professional and personal knowledge about teaching: Perspectives from the Republic of Ireland. European Journal of Teacher Education, 36(3), 364–375. Clement, M. (2017). Why combatting teachers’ stress is everyone’s job. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas., 90(4), 135–138. Cullimore, S., & Simmons, J. (2010). The emerging dilemmas and challenges for mentors and mentees in the new context for training in-service teachers for the learning and skills sector. Research in Post-Compulsory Education, 15(2), 223–239. Cunningham, B. (2007). All the right features: Towards an ‘architecture’ for mentoring trainee teachers in UK further education colleges. Journal of Education for Teaching, 33(1), 83–97. Damar, E. A. (2013). ELT teacher trainees’ reflective feedback to their cooperating teachers. Journal of Education and Social Research, 7(3), 235–242. Desimone, L. M., Hochberg, E. D., Porter, A. C., Polikoff, M. S., Schwart, R., & Johnson, L. J. (2014). Formal and informal mentoring: Complementary, compensatory, or consistent? Journal of Teacher Education, 65(2), 88–110. Doan, L. K., & Gray, C. (2021). Mentorship as a strategy to address recruitment and retention in the early years sector. The Early Childhood Educator, 36(2), 20–25. Ellis, N. J., Alonzo, D., & Nguyen, H. T. M. (2020). Elements of quality pre-service teacher mentor: A literature review. Teacher and Teacher Education, 92, 1–13. Estyn (2018). The Professional Learning Continuum: Mentoring in Initial Teacher Education. © Crown Copyright 2018. Retrieved from https://www.estyn.gov.wales/system/files/2021-08/ Mentoring%2520in%2520initial%2520teacher%2520education%2520-%2520en.pdf Forsbach-Rothman, T. (2007). The mentor role: Is training necessary? Journal of in-Service Education, 33(2), 245–247. Gareis, C. R., & Grant, L. W. (2014). The efficacy of training cooperating teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 39, 77–88. Garvey, B. (2004). The mentoring/counselling/coaching debate. Development and Learning in Organizations, 18(2), 6–8. Goodbody Economic Consultants. (2011). Evaluation of Initial Implementation of Síolta—Final Report, December. Dublin: Department of Education & Skills. Greenberg, M. T., Brown, J. L., & Abenavoli, R. M. (2016). Teacher Stress and Health Effects on Teachers, Students, and Schools. Retrieved from https://www.prevention.psu.edu/uploads/files/ rwjf430428-TeacherStress.pdf Hadi, M. J., & Rudiyanto, M. (2017). Significance of Mentor—Mentee Relationship and Training for Effective Mentoring Outcomes. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED588854. pdf

References

183

He, Y. (2010). Strength-based mentoring in pre-service teacher education: A literature review. Mentoring and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 17(3), 263–275. https://doi.org/10.1080/136 11260903050205 Heidrick and Struggles, International Inc. (2017). Creating a Culture of Mentorship. Retrieved from www.heidrick.com Heung-Ling, Y. (2003). Mentoring student-teacher case studies. Early Child Development and Care, 173, 8. Hobson, A. J. (2009). Mentoring beginning teachers: What we know, and what we don’t. Teacher and Teacher Education, 25(1), 207–216. Hobson, A. J., Ashby, P., Malderez, A., & Tomlinson, P. D. (2009). Mentoring beginning teachers: What we know and what we don’t. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(1), 207–216. Hudson, P. (2013). Mentoring as professional development: ‘growth for both’ mentor and mentee. Professional Development in Education, 39(5), 771–783. Hobson, A. J., & Malderez, A. (2013). Judge mentoring and other threats to realizing the potential of school-based mentoring in teacher education. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 2(2), 89–108. Hobson, A. J. (2016). Judgementoring and how to avert it: Introducing ONSIDE mentoring for beginning teachers. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 5(2), 87– 110. Hudson, P., & Hudson, S. (2017). Mentoring pre-service teachers: identifying tensions and possible resolution. An International Journal of Teacher’s Professional Development, 22(1), 16–30. Hobson, A. J., Maxwell, B., Káplár-Kodácsy, K., & Hotham, E. (2019). The Nature and Impact of Effective Mentoring, Training, Education and Development (MTED), Education and Training Foundation. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346571261_THE_NAT URE_AND_IMPACT_OF_EFFECTIVE_MENTORING_TRAINING_EDUCATION_AND_ DEVELOPMENT_MTED Hobson, A. J., & Maxwell, B. (2020). Mentoring substructures and superstructures: An extension and reconceptualization of the architecture for teacher mentoring. Journal of Education for Teaching, 46(2), 1–23. Hudson, P., & Millwater, J. (2008). Mentors’ views about developing effective English teaching practices. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 33(5), 1–13. Kajs, L. T. (2002). Framework for Designing a Mentoring Programme for Novice Teachers. Mentoring and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 10(1), 57–69. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/136 11260220133153 Kamaruddin, A. B. (2020). Rhetorical Persuasion by Adapting Ethos and Pathos in Public Speaking. Elementary Education Online, 19(2), 85–93. Retrieved from https://www.ilkogretim-onl ine.org/fulltext/30.pdf Koballa, T. R., Kittleson, J., Bradbury, L. U., & Dias, M. (2010). Teacher thinking associated with science-specific mentor preparation. Science Education, 94(6), 1072–1091. Kochan, F., Searby, L., George, M. P., & Edge, J. M. (2015). Cultural influences in mentoring endeavours: Applying the cultural framework analysis process. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 4(2), 86–106. Korthagen, F. (2017). Inconvenient truths about teacher learning: Towards professional development. Teachers and Teaching, 23(4), 387–405. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2016.121 1523 Langdon, F. J., Alexander, P. A., Farquhar, S., Tesar, M., Courtney, M. G. R., & Palmer, M. (2016). Induction and mentoring in early childhood educational organizations: Embracing the complexity of teacher learning in contexts. Teaching and Teacher Education, 57, 150–160. Lejonberg, E., Elstad, E., Sandvik, L. V., Solhaug, T., & Christopersen, K. (2018). Developmental relationships in schools: pre-service teachers’ perceptions of mentors’ effort, self-development orientation, and use of theory. Mentoring and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 26(5), 524– 542. https://doi.org/10.1080/13611267.2018.1561011 Martin, K. L., Buelow, S. M., & Hoffman, J. T. (2016). New teacher induction: Support that impacts beginning middle—level educators. Middle School Journal, 47(1), 4–12. Mader, M., Stoeger, H., Veas, A., & Ziegle, A. (2021). How mentors think about the attainability of mentoring goals: The impact of mentoring type and mentoring context on the anticipated regulatory resources of potential mentors for school mentoring programs. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 1–10.

184

9

Optimal Conditions for Mentoring

Masters, K. S., & Kreeger, P. K. (2017). Ten simple rules for developing a mentor–mentee expectations document. PLoS Computational Biology, 13(9), 1–4. Maxwell, B. (2010). Teacher knowledge and initial teacher education in the English learning and skills sector. Teacher Education, 21(4), 335–348. Moloney, M. (2017). An exploration of the evidential base for Early Childhood Education and Care professional practice placement in Higher Education Institutes in Ireland. Retrieved from https://dspace.mic.ul.ie/handle/10395/2597 Moloney, M., & Pope, J. (2022). Professional mentoring for early childhood practice: Enhancing educators’ capacity to support the professional formation of early childhood educators. In 74th World Assembly and OMEP International Conference, Athens Moloney, M., & Pope, J. (2023). Willing and Unable or Willing and Able? Insights from an evaluation of a mentoring training programme for early childhood teachers in Ireland. International Journal of Primary, Elementary and Early Years Education, 3–13. https://doi.org/10.10180/030 04279.2023.2236118 Nimmo, J. W., & Park, S. (2009). Engaging early childhood teachers in the thinking and practice of inquiry: Collaborative research mentorship as a tool for shifting teacher identity. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 30(2), 93–104. O’Dwyer, M., & McCormack, M. (2014). Addressing the gaps between training and practice. Evaluation of the South Dublin national early years access initiative. Retrieved from https:/ /www.earlychildhoodireland.ie/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/SD_NEYAI_Report_LoRes_ FINAL_FOR-PRINT.pdf Parker, A. K., Zenkow, K., & Glaser, H. (2021). Preparing school-based teacher-educators: Mentor teachers’ perceptions of mentoring and mentor training. Peabody Journal of Education, 96(1), 65–75. Pfund, C., Branchaw, J. L., & Handelsman, J. (2015). Entering Mentoring Version 2. W.H. Freeman. Roehrig, A. D., Bohn, C. M., Turner, J. E., & Pressley, M. (2008). Mentoring beginning primary teachers for exemplary teaching practices. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24(3), 684–702. Schatz-Oppenheimer, O. (2017). Being a mentor: Novice teachers’ mentors’ conceptions of mentoring prior to training. Professional Development in Education, 43(2), 274–292. Schein, E. H. (2004). Organisational Culture and Leadership (3rd ed.). Jossey Bass. Schwille, S. A. (2008). The professional practice of mentoring. American Journal of Education, 115, 139–167. Senninger, T. (2000). The Learning Zone Model. https://www. thempra.org.uk/social-pedagogy/ key-concepts-in-social-pedagogy/the-learning-zone-model/ Sparks, J., Tsemenhu, R., Green, R., Truby, W., Brockmeier, L. L., & Noble, K. D. (2017). Investigating new teacher mentoring practices. National Teacher Education Journal, 10(1), 56–65. Spooner-Lane, R. (2017). Mentoring beginning teachers in primary schools: Research review. Professional Development in Education, 43(2), 253–273. https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2016. 1148624 Straus, S. E., Johnson, M., Maruez, C., & Feldman, M. (2013). Characteristics of successful and failed mentoring relationships: A qualitative study across two academic health centres. The Journal of Teaching and Learning Resources, 88(1), 82–89. TEMAG Teacher Education Ministerial Advisory Group (2014). Action Now: Classroom Ready Teachers. Department of Education, Australia. Tummons, J., Kitchel, T., & Garton, B. L. (2016). Expectation congruency and psychosocial support in formal agriculture teacher mentoring relationships. Journal of Agricultural Education, 57(4), 68–85. Ulvik, M., & Sunde, E. (2013). The impact of mentor education: Does mentor education matter? Professional Development in Education, 39(5), 754–770. Zachary, L. J. (2005). Creating A Mentoring Culture: The Organization’s Guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Zachary, L. J. (2012). The Mentor’s Guide Facilitating Effective Learning Relationships (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Zuljan, M. V., & Vogrinc, J. (2007). A mentor’s aid in developing the competences of teacher trainees. Educational Studies, 33(4), 373–384.

10

Ethical Mentoring

In the main, mentor–mentee relationships are positive, and work well. However, they may experience ebbs and flows. From the outset, this book portrays mentoring relationships as highly relational. They are characterized by mutual trust and respect. At times, tensions and ethical dilemmas may occur within mentoring relationships. Such tensions, and ethical dilemmas are nested in interpersonal relationships (Hansman, 2009). This chapter explores the concept of ethical mentoring. In doing so, it examines the factors that give rise to ethical dilemmas, tensions and conflicts in the mentoring relationship and process. As discussed throughout the chapter, and in keeping with the discussion of mentoring in Chap. 2, context matters. Simply put, ethical dilemmas may be context specific, depending on who mentors, and at what stage in the teacher’s professional formation mentoring occurs. The chapter begins by attempting to define ethical mentoring. It then discusses a range of factors that give rise to ethical dilemmas in the mentoring relationship, as follows: • Power imbalance in the mentor–mentee relationship during initial teacher education • Ethical mentor maxims, including do no harm, communicate honestly; examine power and privilege autonomy; confidentiality, competence and availability • Mentor availability and the time required for mentoring • Mentor competence • Confidentiality as a core tenet of the mentoring relationship.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. Moloney et al., Professional Mentoring for Early Childhood and Primary School Practice, Springer Texts in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37186-8_10

185

186

10.1

10

Ethical Mentoring

What is Ethical Mentoring?

Do you engage in ethical mentoring? Do you know what it involves? Each of us in our own way, have our own ideas about, and perceptions of ethical mentoring. Plaut (1993) proposes that a mentoring relationship must always be considered a ‘fiduciary’ relationship (p.213). Simply put, this means that a person or organisation acts on behalf of another person, putting their interests first. Plaut then, defines ethical mentoring succinctly, in terms of a “special relationship in which one person accepts the trust and confidence of another to act in the latter’s best interest” (p.213). Thus, the “fiduciary [mentor] must act with the utmost good faith and solely for the benefit of the dependent party” (p.213). Are you a fiduciary mentor? Are ethical considerations to the forefront of your mind as you engage in mentoring? Suggesting that ethical considerations must remain forefront in mentors’ minds, Hansman (2009) proposes three key maxims for mentors: Do no harm; communicate honestly; examine power and privilege. Focusing specifically upon mentoring pre-service teachers and drawing upon Johnson’s Preliminary Code of Ethics (2017), we add the following maxims: autonomy; confidentiality, and competence. Fig. 10.1, which draws these various maxims together, also includes ‘availability’, which we believe is especially salient. In terms of Do no harm, (also known as beneficence) this requires that the mentor avoids inflicting any harms that potentially arise from the nature of the mentor’s role (Moberg & Valasquez, 2004). As discussed later, mentoring relationships may involve power relations between the mentor and mentee. Such power relations render the mentee vulnerable. The maxim Do no harm, therefore, obligates the mentor to promote the mentee’s best interests, understand the unique needs of each mentee, and be diligent in providing knowledge, wisdom, and developmental support (Johnson, 2017, p.114). It requires that mentors avoid harming the mentee through exercising their power (Moberg & Valasquez, 2004). To Communicate Honestly, means that the mentor and mentee must clearly and openly discuss, define, and agree their relationship. They must communicate, negotiate, and agree expectations and goals, and how these will be achieved during the mentoring process (see Chap. 4). Autonomy implies that mentors must endeavour to strengthen mentees’ knowledge, maturity, and independence. They work to facilitate rather than impede a mentees’ ability to exercise autonomous judgment and reasoning. Mentors avoid promoting intellectual or relational dependency and encourage mentees to demonstrate creativity, progressive independence, and a sense of self as a professional (Johnson, 2017, p.115). We now turn our attention to the remaining maxims, beginning with Power and privilege. Hansman (2009) says that mentors have power and privileges that are not available to their mentees. Accordingly, they must “carefully consider how their power can be helpful or hurtful in their work with protégés” (p.62).

10.1 What is Ethical Mentoring?

187

Fig. 10.1 Key ethical maxims in mentoring

This means that they must deliberatively use their power in positive actions for the good of their mentees and their work together. This may include ending the mentoring relationship and helping mentees find a mentor who is more able to help them toward their goals (Hansman, 2009, p.62)

Let us examine more closely now, how the power imbalance in the mentor–mentee relationship during initial teacher education, can: • Erode trust in the relationship • Undermine mentee confidence, and even • Disrupt the pre-service teacher’s (mentee’s) career trajectory.

188

10.2

10

Ethical Mentoring

Power Imbalance in the Mentor–mentee Relationship

According to Tyrer (2022, p.4), mentoring involves “complex webs of power relations, linked to the different roles undertaken by mentors and mentees”. Think about the different roles undertaken by mentors and mentees during initial teacher education. Think about who mentors. What power relations might be involved in mentoring a pre-service teacher during initial teacher education? In Chap. 2, Kemmis et al. (2014) identified three mentoring archetypes: supervision, support, and collaborative self-development. Others however (e.g., Walkington, 2005; Hudson and Millwater, 2008), associate supervision with assessment. In their view, supervision is about assessment performance, whereas mentoring is not. Mentoring is about building trust and respect within the mentoring relationship (Ibid.). As discussed in Chap. 2, mentoring involves inspiring, demonstrating and making visible, aspects of being a teacher, socialising the mentee into the teaching profession, providing psychological support, and so on (e.g., Hobson & Malderez, 2013). In the context of Initial Teacher Education, the university/college-based mentor fulfils a dual role, that of mentor, and assessor. The latter role is associated with observing, reflecting on, and assessing the mentee’s performance in line with programmatic criteria and external standards (i.e., National Teaching Standards. See Chap. 1 for examples. As assessor, the university/college-based mentor: • Uses observations and reflections to make informed decisions about the mentee’s progress, and • Awards criteria-based grades contingent on the mentee’s performance. Herein lies a challenge. Although mentoring is described as non-hierarchical (e.g., Ambrosetti & Dekkers, 2010; Hobson, 2016), the mentor’s greater experience and knowledge, and standing within the educational community (e.g., the university) creates a power imbalance. The assessment role further exacerbates hierarchical power relations. As assessors, university/college-based mentors have considerable power over the mentee. Hierarchical relationships make it “difficult to establish relational trust and for mentees to openly share their professional learning and development needs with mentors” (Hobson, 2016, p.101). The mentor’s role in assessment may lead to feelings of anxiety among mentees. For example, graded observation (a core aspect of initial teacher education), induces anxiety for pre-service teachers (O’Leary, 2020). Pre-service teachers view graded observation as a performance management practice to assess their teaching ability (Ibid.). Researchers (e.g., Hobson, 2016; Hobson & Malderez, 2013) advise against judgemental mentoring (see Chap. 7). None the less, outcome driven assessment of mentee’s teaching, coupled with the need for mentors to prioritise compliance with programmatic criteria and external standards (Tyrer, 2022) inevitably results in a judgemental approach (Hobson, 2016). In turn, this may lead to tensions and an erosion of trust in the

10.2 Power Imbalance in the Mentor–mentee Relationship

189

mentor–mentee relationship. Moberg and Valasquez (2004) say the mentor’s superior power places a greater responsibility on the mentor to ensure the relationship does not become abusive or otherwise, dysfunctional. It is the power difference between the mentor and mentee “that is the major determinant of the locus of ethical responsibility” (Ibid., p.100). We now meet Shayla, a final year pre-service teacher, undertaking the last practicum, as part of her Initial Teacher Education. As you will see, Shayla engages in ‘Strategic silence’ throughout the mentoring meeting with her university-based mentor. Practice Scenario 11: Reluctance to Engage in Dialogue

During her final year of study, Shayla is undertaking an ‘infant practicum,’ the last before her graduation. She is meeting her university-based practicum mentor, Eugene. During practicum, Eugene paid two visits to Shayla’s host school. On both occasions, Eugene observed Shayla’s teaching, and engaged in brief on-site discussions following observations. Shayla is nervous. She feels the meeting today is high stakes. She is expecting Eugene to discuss her progress. At the outset of the meeting, they have a general chat about Shayla’s practicum experience overall. Eugene then asks Shayla how she feels about teaching infants. He makes several attempts to draw Shayla into a discussion of young children’s need for play-based learning, and how a subject-based curriculum might not support this. Shayla is unusually noncommittal throughout the discussion. Other than an occasional ‘I see your point,’ or ‘children may need the structure of subjects to progress their learning,’ she maintains a ‘strategic silence’ (Hobson & McIntyre, 2013, p.352). As her mentor, Eugene is surprised by Shayla’s lack of interaction, as in both previous meetings, they had engaged in co-professional dialogue. • Why do you think Shayla maintains a strategic silence during her meeting with Eugene? • How can this impasse in the relationship be addressed? • Could Eugene have taken any steps earlier in the mentoring relationship to allay Shayla’s concerns?

Tyrer (2022) tells us that mentees are keenly aware of the power differential between them and their mentor. This is especially so when the mentor undertakes an assessment role. Mentees know how their individual performance relates to the wider Higher Education/University agenda, i.e., National Teaching Standards. Rather than risk engaging in dialogue, therefore, they may opt for ‘strategic silence’ (Hobson & McIntyre, 2013, p.352), which reinforces a monological approach to feedback (Jones et al., 2021).

190

10

Ethical Mentoring

During feedback conversations with their mentor, mentees can be reluctant to engage in dialogue or critical reflection (Tyrer, 2022). They may fear that any intellectual disagreement with their mentor could jeopardise their practicum (Ibid.). By extension, in the absence of a strong mentoring culture, which involves mentor preparation, with a focus upon non-judgemental, and ethical mentoring, we feel, that any disagreement with their university-based mentor could potentially jeopardise a mentee’s teaching career (see ethical dilemma below). Practice Scenario 12: Mentee Truth and Mentor Ethical Dilemma

In this scenario, we return to Shayla’s meeting with her mentor, Eugene. This time however, rather than maintaining a ‘strategic silence’ (Hobson & McIntyre, 2013), Shayla expresses her real views about infant teaching. When asked about play-based versus subject-based learning, Shayla tells Eugene, that ‘play-based learning is over-rated. It’s a load of rubbish. Children are spoilt. There is too much pandering to their needs. They come to school to learn not to play. If they’re not ready to learn the way I teach, they should not be in school’. Eugene is shocked by Shayla’s comments. His instinct is to admonish Shayla for her negative view of children, and her view of her own teaching prowess. He questions whether Shayla is suited to teaching. In this relationship, Eugene who is in a position of power, faces an ethical dilemma. • Can you identify the ethical dilemma facing Eugene? • How could the ethical dilemma outlined here, jeopardise Shayla’s teaching career? • What steps should Eugene take to address this ethical dilemma (i.e., to ensure he does no harm?) It is clear from this scenario, that Shayla has little understanding of how young children in the infant classes of school, learn and develop. There is evidence also, that perhaps, she does not respect young children, and holds a negative image of them. Using your ethical radar, either as a mentor or a mentee, consider the following: • Has Shayla behaved ethically in the present, or the previous scenario? • What are the implications of her behaviour for her future relationships with young children, and their experience of her teaching? • How do you feel about Shayla’s fitness to teach?

Using Plaut’s (1993) definition of mentoring, Eugene must act in Shayla’s best interests. He must put Shayla’s interests first. Furthermore, using the mentoring maxims outlined in Fig. 9.3, Eugene must communicate honestly with Shayla. He must adopt a mentee-centric approach. This means he must put aside the power

10.2 Power Imbalance in the Mentor–mentee Relationship

191

relations in the relationship and consider how best to support Shayla. While it would be easy for Eugene to ‘judge mentor’ (Hobson, 2016; Hobson & Malderez, 2013), he must remember that although Shayla is a final year student, she is still learning. Shayla still requires support. Eugene must draw upon his Emotional Intelligence (see Chap. 4), and not let his emotional response to Shayla’s comments affect the mentoring relationship. As established in Chap. 4, emotional intelligence, characterised by self-awareness and the ability to read others’ emotional states is a key component of mentorship (Goleman, 1995). Rather than react negatively, and risk undermining the mentoring relationship, Eugene might consider postponing the feedback meeting to another day. What might the benefits of this approach be? Eugene can take a range of other actions, including: • Reflecting with Shayla about her image of the child, as well as her understanding of education, and teacher-beliefs • Encouraging Shyla to engage with the theory and literature concerning children’s learning through play • Extending Shayla’s practicum so she gains more hands-on experience of working with infants. The purpose being to increase Shayla’s knowledge and understanding of how these young children learn, and to enhance her teaching proficiency • Seeking the opinion of another mentor to ensure objectivity, and that Shayla gets the support she needs • Establishing a community of practice with Shayla’s peers so there are opportunities for her to learn from and with other pre-service teachers. The measures outlined here, would scaffold Shayla’s continued professional formation as a teacher. They would afford an opportunity, for her to reflect on her attitude, enabling her to identify and address any ethical issues relating to her values and beliefs with regards to teaching infants. To recap, positive mentor–mentee relationships are socially constructed through open communication with supportive, friendly, and personally non-judgmental environments, developed through respect and trust (Hudson, 2013). These relationships are reciprocal. The mentee contributes as a significant partner in the mentoring relationship (Hudson, 2013). This may not always be the case, however, as evidenced through Shayla’s interactions with her mentor. There may also be occasions when the mentor behaves inappropriately. Mentors may engage in ‘gating out’ which effectively excludes the mentee from the mentoring relationship (Anderson & Shore, 2008). To demonstrate this point, we return to Gosia, a final year Early Childhood student, whom you met initially, in Chap. 4. Practice Scenario 13: Discouraging the Mentee’s Career Choice

During a previous mentoring meeting, Gosia, informed her university mentor, Joy (a former early childhood teacher), that she intends to undertake

192

10

Ethical Mentoring

post-graduate study following her graduation. Her intention is to be become a ‘primary school teacher’. She told Joy, it is a ‘lifelong ambition’. Joy reacted negatively to Gosia’s revelation. She adopted a hostile tone, telling Gosia, she had ‘wasted her time’. She went on to tell Gosia, that she was ‘disappointed’ with her decision ‘to move to the dark-side’. She further told Gosia, ‘you are not cut-out for primary school teaching. You don’t have any of the skills necessary to teach in a primary school. You need to put that nonsense out of your head’. It is now 3 weeks since the meeting. Although Gosia has repeatedly requested a follow-up meeting, Joy has uncharacteristically, not responded to her emails. Gosia feels isolated and let down. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Can you identify the conflict of interest in this situation? Did Joy behave ethically in this situation? Why do you think Joy behaved the way she did? What could Joy have done to maintain a positive mentoring relationship with Gosia? 5. How can Joy reestablish trust and respect in her relationship with Gosia? 6. Should Joy reestablish the mentoring relationship?

In this scenario, the mentor, Joy, discourages her mentee, Gosia from pursuing a particular career choice. She hints that Gosia’s talents are incompatible with primary school teaching, noting ‘you are not cut-out for primary school teaching. You do not have any of the skills necessary’. In the scenario presented here, the mentor, Joy, was not mentee centric. She clearly behaved unethically. Mentor Reflection Point

Anderson and Shore (2008, p.8) say that “gating out and redirecting mentees” who are not suited to a particular field is a ‘fundamental ethical obligation. • Can you think of any context where gating out or redirecting a mentee would be appropriate? • How could a mentor redirect a mentee in a way that is mentee-centric and supportive?

Remember, ethical mentoring is critical. An ethical mentor focuses on “helping people think through situations, where they have recognized the potential for conflict of values, or ethical lapses. Ethical mentors help people develop their ethical awareness, so they are better able to foresee and avoid ethical dilemmas…” (Clutterbuck, 2013, para 4).

10.4 Mentor Availability and Competence as Ethical Considerations

10.3

193

Power-Differential Beyond Initial Teacher Education

Although it is relatively straightforward to identify the power-differential between a university-appointed mentor, and a mentee, it is important to be aware that practicum is not the only area where such a power-differential may exist. Remember, mentoring extends beyond initial teacher education, into schools and early childhood settings following graduation. You may recall that mentoring plays a key role during the induction process. It helps to socialise the newly qualified teacher into the teaching profession. In such circumstances, a school principal for instance, may serve as a mentor to the newly qualified teacher. This means that the line manager mentors the newly qualified teacher. Can you see any potential challenges in such a mentoring relationship? To begin, there is an obvious and inevitable power imbalance between the mentor and the mentee. As indicated earlier, this can result in a lack of trust on the part of the mentee. Hobson (2016) says that a line-management role requires the mentor to engage in formal evaluation of the newly qualified teacher’s work. As a result, the mentee (newly qualified teacher) “may be subject to greater surveillance of their teaching” (Tyrer, 2022, p.4). Consequently, the mentee may be more “inclined to ‘play the game’ in the feedback process, remaining relatively compliant rather than openly challenging the mentor’s feedback” (p.4). However, there is an alternative perspective. As noted by Tyrer, a line manager (In this case the school principal), may have a greater vested interest in a mentee’s progress. In which case, they may be able “to build rapport and allocate more time for feedback than an overworked colleague” (p.4). The issue of mentor availability is therefore an ethical consideration, as is mentor competence.

10.4

Mentor Availability and Competence as Ethical Considerations

As discussed in Chap. 9, while time is a core aspect of an effective mentoring architecture, many primary school or early childhood setting-based teachermentors undertake mentoring duties in addition to teaching responsibilities. This means that teacher-mentors must find time in their already busy schedules to meet with and support their mentee. Mentoring can, therefore, be perceived as additional work (Langdon et al., 2016). Chapter 9 describes how, the pressure of trying to do everything within a limited period undermines mentor confidence. The following reflection point highlights some challenges resulting from time pressures, as reported by Langdon et al. (2016).

194

10

Ethical Mentoring

Reflection Point

Based on their research with mentors in New Zealand, Langdon et al. (2016) reported that due to time pressures: • Mentoring had to stop temporarily. Sometimes it was not available at all • Mentors tempered feedback to mentees. They also shied away from being too challenging, even though they wanted to provoke their mentee’s thinking and practice (see Chap. 9 for a more in-depth discussion) As you reflect on these findings, consider how the issue of time for mentoring calls ethical mentoring into account.

Tensions can also occur when the mentor is not prepared for their mentoring role. Grossman (2010) highlights the influential nature of the mentoring role. Clearly pointing to power relations in the mentoring relationship, Grossman notes that the mentor determines the extent to which, a pre-service teacher is involved in teaching during practicum. Additionally, the teacher-mentor provides feedback, an important aspect of learning to teach (Grossman, 2010). Critically, in the words of Weiss and Weiss (2001, p.134), teacher-mentors decide “what student teachers learn by the way they mentor”. As stated elsewhere, a good teacher is not necessarily, a good mentor. Mentors must know how to teach teachers (Gareis & Grant, 2014; Schwille, 2008), for as noted by Hobson (2009), mentoring itself, is not beneficial, rather, it is the quality of mentoring that matters. Thus, the “negative side-effects of mentoring can be attributed, in part at least, to problems of mentor selection and preparation” (Hobson, 2009, p.214). It is tempting to think that mentoring does not require particular skills or knowledge. How difficult can it be? Let us pause for a moment and consider the key role that University/college-based mentors play in assessing a student–teacher’s performance, awarding criteria related grades—effectively determining whether they progress through their initial teacher education programme. They bear inordinate responsibility. Therefore, mentor preparation is vital. Hudson (2014) reminds us of the perils associated with a lack of mentoring knowledge and skills. He says it can result in some mentors having difficulty failing a student teacher. Here again, a comprehensive mentoring culture within the organisation is imperative. Within such a culture, the organisation takes seriously its ethical responsibility toward preparing its mentors for the complexity of the mentoring role. The organisation will ensure that mentors are aware of, understand and know how to apply professional practice standards and grading criteria for example. Where a strong mentoring culture exists, a mentor will have “a clear awareness of the level that is expected to pass” a student teacher, and ‘will know whom to contact’ when there are issues or concerns about a student (Hudson, 2014, p.22). In challenging situations, Hansman (2009) equally supports the notion that

10.5 Confidentiality as an Ethical Consideration

195

mentors should find and ask for help. To negate mentor–mentee tension, thirdparty mediation is essential when pre-service teachers are deemed unsuitable for the teaching profession (Hudson, 2014). Mentor Reflection Point

• When you think about mentoring, are issues of time and competence to the forefront of your mind? • Do you think of time and competence in terms of ethical considerations? Should you, for instance, agree to mentor a pre-service teacher knowing you will struggle to fulfil your mentoring duties while balancing your teaching responsibilities? • Should you agree to mentor a pre-service teacher knowing that you lack the knowledge and skills necessary to support, nurture, motivate and challenge them? • What if you have no choice but to mentor even though you lack the necessary knowledge and skills? How might such a situation occur? • What would prevent such a situation from arising (i.e., feeling compelled to mentor despite lacking the necessary knowledge and skills).

The following self-evaluation, Am I ready to mentor? diagram (Fig. 10.2), will help you make an ethically informed decision about taking on mentoring responsibilities. Johnson tells us that while “competence does not imply perfection, it does imply a clear ethical obligation that one has the necessary knowledge, skills, abilities and values to provide effective services” (2017, p.109). In relation to mentoring, he says “it is quite often the case, that people learn by osmosis, or perhaps by experiencing a positive mentoring relationship as a mentee” (p.109). Quite frankly, learning through osmosis is simply not good enough when one considers the ‘power’ a mentor has over the pre-service teacher during initial teacher education, or during induction, in circumstances where the school principal serves as a mentor to a newly qualified teacher.

10.5

Confidentiality as an Ethical Consideration

Confidentiality is a core tenet of mentoring relationships. It refers to a general standard of professional conduct that requires professionals not to discuss information about those they mentor with others, except under certain circumstances agreed by both parties (Fisher, 2013 in Johnson, 2017, p.110). When the mentor and mentee assure each other of the confidentiality of their discussions, a relationship of trust and confidence is more likely to develop. An assurance of confidentiality cannot be assumed. Rather, it must be given. When should this

196

10

Ethical Mentoring

Fig. 10.2 Am I ready to mentor?

occur? Think back to the stages of the mentoring process identified in Chap. 4. Stage 2, the negotiating stage involves the first (introductory) meeting between the mentor and the mentee. Each partner to the mentoring relationship has a responsibility to maintain the confidentiality of discussions. Any breach of confidentiality is a serious ethical misdemeanour. It has far-reaching implications that may go beyond the mentor–mentee relationship. Although confidentiality is central to the mentoring relationship, Johnson asserts that “from time to time, most mentors will struggle with ethical tensions and quandaries linked to whether to keep information disclosed to them by the mentee in confidence” (p.110). Such a challenge exists for Cassie in practice scenario 14. Practice Scenario 14: Ethical Dilemma

During a mentoring meeting, James a first-year pre-service early childhood teacher, tells his mentor Cassie, he is feeling overwhelmed by the workload associated with his degree programme. He is struggling to balance his parttime job and his study. He describes his mood as black and says that some days he does not even want to get out of bed. Later that day, in the staff lounge of the university, Marcus, one of James’ lecturers, tells Cassie of his concerns for James’ mental health. He has noticed an irregular pattern of

10.5 Confidentiality as an Ethical Consideration

197

attendance, and a drop in his grades over time. Cassie relays her earlier conversation with James. She confirms his concerns. They both agree to be extra vigilant in relation to James. As an interim measure, they agree that Marcus will email contact details for counselling supports in the university to all preservice early childhood teachers. So that James will not link the email back to his discussion with Cassie, they agree that Marcus will use the upcoming end of semester exams as the rationale for circulating the information. • • • •

Did Cassie behave ethically? What motivated Cassie to tell Marcus about her discussion with James? How do you feel about their agreed course of action? Would you act differently? What would you do?

There are no easy answers here. What is apparent is that both Cassie and Marcus were acting in James’ best interests. Let us return to the concept of the ‘fiduciary mentor,’ described by Plaut (1993) as somebody who acts with “the utmost good faith and solely for the benefit of the dependent party” (p.213). As you reflect on Cassie and Marcus’ actions, consider whether they acted in good faith and solely for James’ benefit. In the context of mentoring relationships, Johnson (2017, p.110) says that “maintaining confidentiality demonstrates respect for the mentee, as well as discretion, respect and trustworthiness on the part of the mentor”. We invite you now, to review the following scenario. As before, it involves James and his mentor, Cassie. Practice Scenario 15: Breach of Trust

Following her meeting with James, Cassie meets a colleague in the staff lounge. They chat about their busy work schedules and the complexity of mentoring. Cassie tells her colleague that the role is increasingly demanding. ‘We need to be counsellors as well as everything else’. She proceeds to relay verbatim her earlier discussion with James. Her colleague informs Cassie that James is her next-door neighbour. As she probes for more information, Cassie tells her how James’ performance overall is weak, and she will be ‘surprised if he completes his degree’. Did Cassie behave ethically? What motivated Cassie to tell her colleague about her discussion with James? How would you rate Cassie’s mentoring competency in this scenario? What are the potential issues arising from Cassie’s breach of confidentiality?

198

10

Ethical Mentoring

While the scenarios presented here focus upon breaches of confidentiality on the part of the mentor, it is important to remember, that, the mentee equally commits to upholding confidentiality. It is vital therefore, that the pre-service teacher does not disclose details of confidential conversations they may be privy to within the school or early childhood setting. Neither do they divulge details of children’s lives or circumstances, except where these are relevant to discussions with their mentor. In such circumstances, the mentor upholds their obligation to maintain confidentiality. Both mentors and mentees, as well as teachers and children in partner schools and early childhood settings are entitled to work in an environment where they feel safe to go about their normal activities, without fear of being judged, or spoken about to others. That is not to say that where a student observes negligent behaviour during practicum, that raises child protection concerns, that they remain quiet. In any such circumstances, they are obligated to advise their mentor in confidence of what they have observed, and/or bring their concerns to the attention of the Designated Liaison Person within the university/college, who will take the next appropriate steps. From an ethical perspective, the student must not discuss or disclose these observations or concerns to a fellow student, a friend, family member etc. Ethical mentoring applies equally to mentors and mentees. Ethical awareness commences way before practicum begins. It imbues all aspects of teacher professional formation, and it behoves mentors and mentees to be attuned to ethical behaviour at all times, and at all stages of their career. Their ethical radar must be permanently switched on.

10.6

Chapter Summary Points

• Ethical considerations must remain to the forefront of mentors’ and mentee’s minds throughout Initial Teacher Education and throughout their teaching career. • Mentors and mentees may face many ethical dilemmas. Specific ethical mentor maxims that should be observed include: do no harm, communicate honestly; examine power and privilege; autonomy; confidentiality, competence and availability. • Ethical mentors focus on helping people think through situations where they have recognized the potential for conflict of values, or ethical lapses. In this way, they help people develop their own ethical awareness, so they are better able to foresee, address and avoid potential ethical dilemmas. • A power imbalance may exist in the mentor–mentee relationship during initial teacher education, and during induction. The mentor’s superior power places a greater responsibility on the mentor to ensure the relationship does not become abusive or otherwise, dysfunctional.

References

199

• The power difference between the mentor and mentee plays a significant role in determining the locus of ethical responsibility. • Time to mentor and mentor competence are important ethical considerations that can significantly impact the mentoring relationship. • Confidentiality is a core tenet of the mentoring relationship. An assurance of confidentiality cannot be assumed, it should be given. • Mentors and mentees must have their ethical radar permanently switched on.

References Ambrosetti, A., & Dekkers, J. (2010). The interconnectedness of the roles of mentors and mentees in pre-service teacher education mentoring relationships. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 35(6), 42–55. Anderson, D. A., & Shore, W. J. (2008). Ethical issues and concerns associated with mentoring undergraduate students. Ethics and Behaviour, 18(1), 1–25. Clutterbuck, D. (2013). Step Forward the Ethical Mentor. Retrieved from https://davidclutterbuc kpartnership.com/step-forward-the-ethical-mentor/ Gareis, C. R., & Grant, L. W. (2014). The efficacy of training cooperating teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 39, 77–88. Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ for Character, Health And Lifelong Achievement. New York, NY: Bantam Books. Grossman, P. (2010). Policy brief: learning to practice: the design of clinical experience in teacher preparation. In Partnership for Teacher Quality. Available at: http://wwww.neanh.org/assets/ docs/Clinical_Experience_-_Pam_Grossman.pdf Hansman, C. A. (2009). Ethical issues in mentoring adults in higher education. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 123, 53–63. https://doi-org.libraryproxy.mic.ul.ie/10.1002/ ace.343 Hudson, P., & Millwater, J. (2008). Mentors’ views about developing effective English teaching practices. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 33(5), 1–13. Hobson, A. J. (2009). Mentoring beginning teachers: What we know, and what we don’t. Teacher and Teacher Education, 25(1), 207–216. Hudson, P. (2013). Mentoring as professional development: ‘growth for both’ mentor and mentee. Professional Development in Education, 39(5), 771–783. Hobson, A. J., & Malderez, A. (2013). Judge mentoring and other threats to realizing the potential of school-based mentoring in teacher education. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 2(2), 89–108. Hobson, A. J., & McIntyre, J. (2013). Teacher fabrication as an impediment to professional learning and development: the external mentor antidote. Oxford Review of Education, 39(3), 345–365. https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2013.808618 Hudson, P. (2014). Feedback consistencies and inconsistencies. European Journal of Teacher Education, 37(1), 63–73. Hobson, A. J. (2016). Judgementoring and how to avert it: Introducing ONSIDE Mentoring for beginning teachers. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 5(2), 87– 110. Johnson, W. B. (2017). Ethical considerations for mentors: Towards a mentoring code of ethics. In D. A. Clutterbuck, F. Kochan, L. G. Lunsford, N. Dominguez, & J. Haddock-Millar (Eds.), The Sage Handbook of Mentoring (pp. 105–118). London, UK: SAGE Publications.

200

10

Ethical Mentoring

Jones, L., Tones, S., Foulkes, G., & Jones, R. C. (2021). Associate Teachers’ views on dialogic mentoring. Teachers and Teaching, 27(1–4), 181–192. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2021. 1933421 Kemmis, S., Heikkinen, H., Fransson, G., Aspfors, J., & Edwards-Groves, C. (2014). Mentoring of new teachers as a contested practice: Supervision, support and collaborative self-development. Teaching and Teacher Education, 43, 154–164. Langdon, F. J., Alexander, P. A., Farquhar, S., Tesar, M., Courtney, M. G. R., & Palmer, M. (2016). Induction and mentoring in early childhood educational organizations: Embracing the complexity of teacher learning in contexts. Teaching and Teacher Education, 57, 150–160. Moberg, D. J., & Valasquez, M. (2004). The ethics of mentoring. Business Ethics Quarterly, 14(1), 95–122. O’Leary, M. (2020). Classroom Observation. Routledge. Plaut, S. M. (1993). Boundary issues in teacher-student relationships. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 19(3), 210–219. Rockson, T. (2015). BUT. https://www.pinterest.ie/tayorockson/ Schwille, S. A. (2008). The professional practice of mentoring. American Journal of Education, 115, 139–167. Tyrer, C. (2022). Untangling the complexity of mentoring feedback in post-compulsory initial teacher education in the UK. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 47(1), 31–44. Walkington, J. (2005). Mentoring preservice teachers in the preschool setting: Perceptions of the role. Australian Journal of Early Childhood, 30(1), 28–35. Weiss, E. M., & Weiss, S. (2001). Doing reflective supervision with student teachers in a professional development school culture. Reflective Practice, 2(2), 125–154.

Concluding Chapter

11

The key aim of this book was to marry the theory and practice of mentoring in an accessible way throughout the book. We began by engaging with the vast array of literature and research in the area of mentoring. The sheer volume of material available on the topic of mentoring can be overwhelming, and some of the literature can be very theoretical, and some relates more to a business context rather than education. We appreciate that mentors are busy people with many commitments. Searching through literature is a luxury that most do not have the time for. Did you notice that the issue of time featured across several chapters of this book? With you, the reader in mind, we took it as our task to distil (or deconstruct) the relevant literature and theory. The intent was to provide an accessible and practical insight into mentoring, rather than an exhaustive theoretical compendium. We recognise that mentoring can occur through a variety of contexts. As reiterated throughout the book, it occurs during initial teacher education, when inducting a novice teacher into the profession, and it is also used as a vehicle for CPD within a school or early childhood setting. Perhaps you knew this already. However, you will have gleaned insights into key mentoring concepts, as you engaged with the material in the book. Using a combination of practice scenarios, reflection points and key learning, we considered these core concepts through several lenses. We viewed mentoring from the perspective of the teacher-mentor, considering the optimal conditions for mentoring, and how they affect your mentoring practice. We also considered mentoring from the perspective of the mentee, especially the pre-service and the novice teacher, attempting where possible, to put ourselves into your shoes, or in the shoes of a mentee. For the entirety of the book, we drew on our own experience as mentors and of being mentored, to inform our reflections, and how we developed and presented practice scenarios, and reflection points. As we conclude the book, we especially hope that it will inspire and motivate mentors and mentees alike to reflect on the core aspects of mentoring and consider how they relate to your own practice, in the past, at present and how they might inform your practice in the future. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. Moloney et al., Professional Mentoring for Early Childhood and Primary School Practice, Springer Texts in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37186-8_11

201

202

11

Concluding Chapter

Fig. 11.1 What? So What? Now What? Rolfe, Freshwater, & Jasper ‘What’ Model (2001)

Having addressed a multitude of information about mentoring throughout this text, we thought it would be useful in this final chapter, to take stock and reflect. As mentioned in Chap. 1, reflective practice permeates the text from beginning to end. In this respect, it is fitting that we conclude with a critical reflection of key points within the text, and consider their relevance in the here and now, but also in the future. Remember how, in Chap. 8 we introduced some of the most common models of reflection, noting how they work in different contexts, times or situations. In selecting a suitable model of reflection for this final chapter, we were cognisant of our own advice, not to choose a model of reflection at random. Through our own community of practice (CoP), which motivated and inspired us in the writing of this book, we carefully considered which model would be most appropriate for this final reflective chapter. Given the task at hand, we considered that the What, So What, What Next model (Rolfe et al., 2001) would be most useful (Fig. 11.1). We now use this model of reflection to ask What? What key areas/concepts were addressed through the book? We than ask, So what? What are the implications of these concepts for mentoring, what can we learn from them? Finally, we ask, Now What? Are there lessons we can take forward into the future? Maybe there are aspects of your mentoring practice that require attention and revision.

11.1

What? What Key Concepts Were Addressed?

From the many concepts addressed throughout the book, we have chosen to discuss the following at this point. What is mentoring? What core messages can be gleaned in relation to mentoring as a relationship and as a process? Universal design for learning is central to our reflection here. In this section, we also reflect on the complexity of mentoring, mentoring models, reflective cycles and models, and optimal conditions for mentoring. Before looking at these various areas, we begin first, with a reflection on terminology.

11.1 What? What Key Concepts Were Addressed?

203

11.1.1 The What of Terminology A variety of terminology or nomenclature permeates the international literature. In fact, in Chap. 1, we mentioned the diversity of terms used to describe an early childhood teacher (i.e., practitioner, educator, childcare worker). As with all aspects of the text, we reflected carefully upon the diversity of terminology relating to mentoring as we developed practice scenarios, reflection points etc. You may have an affinity for certain terminology. Maybe there is terminology that you are most comfortable with in your practice context or jurisdiction. You may use the term student teacher rather than pre-service teacher, practitioner or educator, rather than early childhood teacher, protégé rather than mentee, placement or field experience, rather than practicum etc. National policy may require specific terminology or use terms that are pertinent in your own country context. Similarly, some of the practice scenarios may be very relevant to you or ‘speak to you’ as they relate more directly to your own context or experience more than others. Irrespective of nomenclature or specific contexts, new or different language and contexts may prompt critical reflection, leading to broader insights and perspectives. The issue of diverse terminology and discourse also arose throughout the chapters in many guises. For example, the language and phraseology we use as mentors during feedback warrants careful consideration. It is critical that we think about the nature of our feedback. Do we offer clear, specific, constructive and motivating feedback? Do we avoid jargon, and colloquialisms for example? How do mentees feel when they leave a feedback meeting? The importance of tone and body language was also highlighted as more significant than actual words used in the 7–38–55% Mehrabian pie chart! We convey so much through tone and stance. Standing with hands on hips, using a clipped authoritative tone can irreparably damage the mentoring relationship. Chapter 3 addresses the challenges in deciphering the terms of coaching and mentoring. Therefore, with regards to coaching and mentoring, we must ask: what are we doing and when? We must also appreciate, that at times, mentoring and coaching overlap and occur simultaneously, depending on the context. The attributes identified as important for an effective coach could also be ascribed to an effective mentor. For example, affective domains: being patient, supportive and respectful are especially salient.

11.1.2 The What of Mentoring From the outset of this book and from our extensive review of the literature, combined with our own experiences of mentoring- either as mentors or mentees in different contexts, it was evident that even the term ‘mentoring’ can conjure up different meanings. There is no doubt that mentoring means different things to different people. It can also differ depending on the context, timing, and institutional, school or early childhood setting support structures. Kemmis et al. (2014) identified three mentoring archetypes: supervision, support and collaborative selfdevelopment. As discussed, each mentoring archetype has a different purpose, and

204

11

Concluding Chapter

seeks to achieve different outcomes. In practice, mentoring may include elements from more than one archetype (Kemmis et al., 2014). The purpose of mentoring can be determined by those involved and can therefore vary as a multi-dimensional construct. However, what is common and what we stress in this book is that mentoring is an integral aspect of teacher professional development. It should, therefore, be viewed and valued across the education continuum from early childhood to primary, as well as the continuum within education, from initial teacher education through induction to continuous professional development. With regards to the What of mentoring, the term is invariably described as both a relationship and a process. The importance or centrality of relationships is therefore interwoven throughout each chapter. A core aspect of mentoring as proposed by Kim (2016) is that it reflects a unique interpersonal relationship between individuals. Thus, indicating that the mentor–mentee relationship must be reciprocal (Chu, 2014). The mentor–mentee relationship is characterised by a sense of mutual trust and respect. Through open and honest communication, it can foster emotional, cognitive and possibly spiritual transformation (e.g., Kim, 2016; Straus et al., 2013) as well as perseverance (Yale University, 2022). Chapter 4 encapsulates this aspect of mentoring by highlighting the shared core and unique skills required by both mentors and mentees. For many reasons, it seems that the concept of mentoring can stir up a range of emotions. Emotional intelligence is therefore crucial. As previously mentioned, empathy, which is closely aligned with emotional intelligence is essential. Considering the perspectives of others in our own actions, consolidates the mentoring relationship. Mentoring can build and enhance emotional or psychosocial behaviours, such as understanding, teamwork and motivational skills most effectively within a positive environment of relationships. As highlighted in Chap. 2, Nolan (2017) references a move away from the traditional position of expert/ novice roles in mentoring, to a more collaborative approach. In this collaborative approach, mentors and mentees work together to co-construct learning. How do you view the co-construction of learning in the mentoring process? In Chap. 2, we asked you to think about who mentors. As mentioned, the mentee is generally portrayed as a younger or more inexperienced individual just beginning their career. Having engaged with the material in the book, what do you think? Is a mentee always a younger and more inexperienced person? Could the novice teacher (recent graduate) who can empathise with the pre-service teacher, be a mentor? Chapter 4 suggests that mentoring includes the facilitation of adult learning techniques such as guided self-reflection. This chapter also suggests that mentoring and learning work best when it is relevancy-oriented, connected to real-life experience, goal-oriented, and when it is learner-led (Knowles, 1984; Prakash et al., 2019). The relationship between the mentor and mentee includes, yet surpasses information, advice, or monitoring (Cox & Orehovec, 2007; Glass & Walter, 2000). The purpose is not to evaluate, or judge. Instead, the overall purpose is to develop the mentee’s practice, and professional development. Mentor characteristics are important here. Among the many discussed in the book, interpersonal

11.1 What? What Key Concepts Were Addressed?

205

skills, which encompass the ability to be compassionate, trustworthy, flexible, patient, gentle and authentic (Hurst & Reding, 2002) are paramount. Other essential characteristics include active listening, reflective conversations, awareness of different learning styles and teacher development (Rodd, 2006). Alongside this, mentors also benefit considerably from the mentoring process. Depending on their willingness, mentors can learn from pre-service and newly qualified teachers. In your opinion, what can mentors learn from pre-service or novice teachers? What supports or impedes this mutual learning? Through peer mentoring and communities of practice, shared experiences and collaborative learning can provide and sustain rich experiences for all those involved. Mentoring is also described as a process, and not necessarily a linear one! It is not always a straightforward process; it is complex and multidimensional. Throughout the book, we have explored this process and the various stages or pressure points where there is potential danger to de-rail. We appreciate that there can be challenges associated with the mentoring process, some of which, can be alleviated by creating optimal conditions for mentoring. More about this later.

11.1.3 The What of the Complexity of Mentoring The complexity of mentoring is noteworthy. Mentoring does not just happen. It is a mistake to assume that anyone can mentor. Far from a simple linear process, working as a mentor is complex. There is no single role, or definitive list of mentor roles. In fact, mentors adopt a variety of supportive roles or stances. Hobson and Malderez (2013) provide the following insight into the multiple roles and stances involved: Those of educator (which involves, for example, listening, coaching and creating appropriate opportunities for the mentee’s professional learning), model (Inspiring, demonstrating and making visible aspects of being a teacher), acculturator (helping the mentee into the full membership of the particular professional culture), sponsor (opening doors, and introducing the mentee to the right people), and provider of psychological support (providing the mentee with a safe place to release emotions or ‘let off steam’) (p.62).

In tandem with this, Jones et al. (2019) remind us that mentoring is not realised through isolated weekly observations of practice; whereas Donnellan (2020), says it is not about offering quick-fix solutions. There is no doubt that regardless of where they come from (a school, early childhood setting, university), mentors require considerable knowledge and skills across multiple domains. Mentoring also requires mentor commitment, perseverance etc. Mentors may not necessarily have the knowledge and skills required. They may not be able to commit the time required. A key message emanating from the literature is that a good teacher does not necessarily make a good mentor. Equally, a university lecturer does not automatically transfer to an effective mentor.

206

11

Concluding Chapter

11.1.4 The What of Universal Design for Learning in Relation to Mentoring A key premise of this book was to embed the principles of universal design for learning throughout. As we wrote this text, we became acutely aware, that while UDL may not immediately come to mind when thinking about mentoring, it does in fact play a crucial role in the mentoring process, and in maintaining the mentoring relationship. UDL features in so many ways throughout the mentoring process. These range from a mentee’s ability to access meeting spaces, to accessing information, concepts and ideas, planning and executing learning tasks, to getting and staying engaged in learning through practicum and mentoring. In other words, the what, the how, and the why of learning cannot be treated as a discreet domain. Instead, it infiltrates every aspect of the mentoring process, directing the mentor to adapt a holistic approach to mentoring, to be mentee-centric. Chapter 3 which focuses on coaching and mentoring highlights the need to rephrase or demonstrate if a mentee does not appear to understand initial guidance. Other strategies include moderating tone and pitch. The ultimate aim is to ensure that the mentee feels supported, and understands the message sufficiently to act upon it. Empathy has been identified as central to the mentoring relationship. As a mentor, it is important to respect the mentee as an individual. Consider their learning zone, and even more importantly, think about how you can help them to avoid slipping into the panic zone. This panic zone will be different for every mentee (and indeed for every mentor). For some mentees, panic may set in when confronted with engaging in practicum, for others, it may be triggered by attending a mentoring feedback meeting. For others, transitioning from university to their first post as a teacher, may result in panic. Do we, then, have a responsibility to consider what we can do to help the mentee? Can we tailor how we approach certain situations or offer feedback with a particular individual mentee to the forefront? What may be an effective approach for one mentee may not be as effective for another. In other words, mentoring is not static or linear. Instead, a skilled mentor knows intuitively when to switch between models and modes. Here we recall Hudson’s (2004) five factor model of mentoring, in which, he references personal attributes, pedagogical knowledge, modelling, feedback and systems requirements.

11.1.5 The What of Mentoring Models When it comes to the different aspects of mentoring, within the literature, many different models, cycles or approaches are presented. None-the-less, while these various models can be adopted at different times depending on different contexts, and mentee perspective and needs, in the case of practicum, a formal approach to mentoring is the norm. As discussed, a formal approach to mentoring is instigated by the ITE provider. Therefore, a triadic model of mentoring, involving a cooperating teacher, a university/college-based mentor and the pre-service teacher

11.1 What? What Key Concepts Were Addressed?

207

is common. This model, which involves multiple interactions requires careful handling, to prevent the mentee becoming overwhelmed and edging toward the panic zone. Informal mentoring features prominently in the literature. It is more than likely, we can all envisage ourselves as peer mentors, taking the mentee under our wing, socialising them into the teaching profession and nurturing their development. Mentees may seek out other individuals within the school or early childhood setting for support and advice (e.g., Mazerolle et al., 2016; Nottingham et al., 2017). Occasionally, during the career continuum, mentors and mentees come together because of shared interests, personal or professional goals (Nottingham et al., 2017). Perhaps this is something you have experienced as a mentor?

11.1.6 The What of the Ethics of Mentoring As we mentioned, complexities, dilemmas and tensions can arise in the mentoring relationship and the process of mentoring, that may need to be addressed. While Chap. 10 specifically focused on ethical mentoring, as with other concepts, it cannot be dealt with as a discreet entity. Therefore, as you saw, ethical considerations arose throughout the book within the practice scenarios. Reflective points have also raised many interesting and at times, challenging issues to consider. We stress that ethical considerations must remain to the forefront in mentors’ minds. Critically, the maxims of doing no harm, communicating honestly, examining power and privilege, autonomy, confidentiality, competence and availability should be observed. Confidentiality is a standard ethical principle and is a core tenet of mentoring relationships. However, this cannot be assumed but rather it must be assured within the relationship. This assurance can consolidate the environment of trust and respect. However, there may be situations where maintaining confidentiality may need to be breached. It is important to stress here, that any breach of confidentiality should occur only, if it is a matter of a duty of care. We also highlighted the obvious and inevitable power imbalance between the mentor and the mentee in contexts where the mentor is involved in assessing the pre-service teacher. This can involve awarding a grade or a formal judgement on the mentee. Tensions can also occur when the mentor is not prepared for their mentoring role. At the most fundamental level, it is for each of us to consider, if we are indeed ready to mentor.

11.1.7 The What of Reflection As stated earlier, the relationship between the mentor and mentee includes, yet surpasses information, advice, or monitoring (e.g., Cox & Orehovec, 2007). Notwithstanding the centrality of reflective practice as a key teacher skill, as ascribed through national policy documents, we concur with Šari´c Šteh (2017), in suggesting that critical reflection requires attention in teacher professional formation. It is during ITE that we prepare pre-service teachers to engage in critical

208

11

Concluding Chapter

reflection on their own teaching practice. They do not learn how to reflect through reading, nor through engaging in the practice of teaching. On the contrary, as mentees, they depend on their mentor to model what reflection is for them. An effective mentor is a reflective mentor. Rather than advocating for a particular approach, therefore, we have presented some of the more commonly used models. While these are referenced through various chapters, they are explored in depth in Chaps. 7 and 8, which address feedback and reflective practice respectively. Our aim was to encourage you to reflect on what models you have used, are using now or those that could be useful in the future. When considering which reflective model or cycle to utilise, it is important to remember that this is not a ‘one-size fits all’ approach. Therefore, while you may find that you repeatedly adopt one model, in a standardised way, this may not be the best strategy when it comes to universal design for learning. You may have to adapt your approach or model, depending on the context, and bearing in mind the perspective of the mentee and their needs. Throughout the book, we have referred to reflective practice and encouraged you to engage in reflection using various signposts and prompting questions. Cultivating reflective practice is an important aspect of mentoring. As mentors, it is essential that we recognise that reflection is a skill that needs to be nurtured. For example, in this concluding chapter, we are reflecting on the book using the Rolfe, Freshwater, & Jasper ‘What’ Model (2001). This model suits our purposes in the task at hand. However, you may decide that Schon’s model, for example, may suit you better. Maybe you have reflected ‘in action’ while you were readingperhaps you have generated notes, had some illuminating, ‘a ha’ moments, and you are even thinking about changes to your practice that can happen straightaway. As we consider the ‘so what’ and ‘what now’ in the next sections, if you are more inclined to engage in reflection using Schon’s model, consider your reflection ‘on action’ and how the text of the book or practice scenarios sparked reminders of experiences for you personally. You might also consider what steps you might take now or into the future.

11.1.8 The What of Optimal Conditions for Mentoring As we reflect on the process of mentoring and the demands it makes on the mentor, we must restate that certain conditions must be in place to support mentoring. You might be asking why we included a chapter on optimal conditions for mentoring. In addressing the conditions required for mentoring, our intention was to provide a more solution-focused approach rather than dwell on the possible barriers. Against the backdrop of Cunningham’s supportive mentoring framework, Chap. 9 identifies a range of features that support the mentoring process. Do you recall what these are? Cunningham (2007) originally identified what he referred to as 8 design features. Following research across all nine regions of England in 2020, Hobson and Maxwell (2020) confirmed four of the eight design features from Cunningham’s framework; Institutional commitment, mentoring induction,

11.2 So What?

209

training and support, clarity and consistency of mentoring roles, and subject specificity. They found partial support for the following features: institutional ethos, mentor selection and accreditation. While they did not find evidence to support the need for physical resources for mentoring, in our view, this is an oversight. In addition, we suggest the need to add mentor disposition. Why do you think we did this? Time is a critical factor that impedes or supports mentoring. As indicated, mentoring is demanding. It requires time and commitment. The reality for many though, is that mentoring places additional times pressures on already busy teacher-mentors. Sometimes, it is not easy to find time in an already busy schedule to support our mentees. Other than logistical concerns as outlined here, Garvey (2004) summarises the challenge of time. From his perspective, mentors need time to develop their skills; mentoring relationships take time to develop, and mentees need time to learn, change and develop. In essence, the process of becoming a mentor is lengthy. It takes time, years, rather than months (Koball et al., 2010). Before exploring the So what and What Now, it is time to ask: Have we forgotten anything? What do you think? Can you think of anything, we might have overlooked?

11.2

So What?

So, what? What does it all mean? Why are all these core areas important? For us, and we hope for you, the ultimate beneficiaries of good mentoring are the children in our schools and our early childhood settings. Within our own CoP, this is what has sustained us, as we grappled with all of the key ‘what’ areas. Our reflections have sparked much discussion and indeed debate. Sometimes we have generated more questions than answers. This too, has been part of our learning journey. In fact, it has further motivated us to regroup again as our community. As we selfreflect and continue to share prior experiences, we consider what we may have changed or approached differently. As the saying goes: hindsight is 20/20 vision! We know that we cannot change the past, but we can reflect and learn from it. We can also encourage fellow mentors and the mentees that we work with to engage in critical reflection in an authentic and meaningful way. In terms of universal design for learning, we have questioned how we centralised the mentee within our past practice. As mentioned previously, through our reflections and our writing, our awareness of embedding UDL into our mentoring practices has been heightened. What has this meant for us as mentors? We considered our approach to mentoring, reflective practice and feedback for example. What models have we been more inclined to use and why? Did we have a rationale? Did we use a model because it was convenient, or because, that was what we always did? We also queried whether we varied the approach depending on the context or the mentee and their practice? Or did we adopt a standardised approach? And if we did, why? In terms of how we communicate, we considered the role of non-verbal communication and our interpretation and implementation of active listening. We too are

210

11

Concluding Chapter

guilty of becoming distracted during mentoring meetings. Distractions can vary, and they can in fact, be linked to pressures of time. So, in addition to being distracted by a ringing phone or incoming emails, we too, can clock-watch during a mentoring meeting. We can be preoccupied by the next item on our ‘to do’ list or thinking about our next meeting. All of these factors can remove us from the mentoring relationship, where we are physically present, but may be mentally absent. With regards to verbal feedback, we have considered aspects such as the timeliness, the clarity and the constructive nature of our communications. We have evaluated our written feedback through a UDL lens. We are more conscious than ever of the need to consider our communication, and our feedback from the perspective of the mentee. Our empathetic radar has been activated! So, what about our evaluative role? As this is driven by national standards, and is a core aspect of our role, it creates a tension for us. We have considered the power dynamic in our previous mentoring relationships and the juxtaposition between mentoring and assessing. We are still considering how to reconcile this! Currently, our reflections direct us toward our communication strategies, providing constructive reciprocal feedback, and nurturing mentee reflection. We have considered the concept of ethical mentoring and acknowledge that we have experienced ethical dilemmas and tensions in our mentoring roles. No doubt, we will experience them again. However, we are resolute though in our determination to keep ethical considerations at the forefront of our minds, throughout the mentoring process. Mentor Reflective Point

So, what are your takeaway points? What does all this information mean for your mentoring practice?

11.3

Now What?

Now within our CoP, we consider the future, where to go from here? How we can incorporate this key learning into our practice going forward, so that we can be the best mentors that we can be. We consider how our learning sits within the current and indeed future policy landscape. How will we navigate the power dynamic and the ethical considerations of time and availability to mentor in line with everincreasing demands on our time? How will we prioritise the learning needs of all mentees in an increasingly diverse population? How will we promote mentee autonomy and a sense of personal responsibility in an ever-increasing neoliberal, more market driven approach to education? How do we remain mentee-centric? How will we support a mentoring culture? We consider how fortunate we are to work within a supportive mentoring architecture that spans early childhood and primary education. In the context of an institutional ethos and mentoring culture, our mentors are prepared for mentoring. Mentors meet frequently, consult, reflect, seek advice and so on. While our

11.3 Now What?

211

evaluative role can be challenging, we are aware of, understand and know how to apply professional practice standards and grading criteria. Equally, in our specific context, we know whom to contact when there are issues or concerns about a student. As we reflect however, we ask if all mentors we work with are clear about their roles and responsibilities. In the busyness of the work environment, are there aspects of the mentoring process that have been overlooked? We have repeatedly said that mentoring cannot be left to chance. As mentioned, even mentors need mentoring. This is a salutary lesson for all. What now? Where to from here? There is much to think about! From our perspective, being open to reflecting on our own approach to mentoring is a critical first step in enhancing our practice. So, what are the next steps? They can be small steps, or they can be great strides! What is important though, is that you do not feel over-whelmed and fall into the panic zone. Is there a culture and ethos of mentoring in your organisation, school, or early childhood setting? If the answer is no, what can you do? Is there somebody you can speak to? To foster an environment in which successful mentoring takes place, the development of a culture of mentoring is necessary, where inquiry, curiosity, and critical reflection is key. Remember, you can do this by modelling reflective practice yourself in dialogue with colleagues, maybe in the staff room as you enjoy a coffee and chat, or during a staff meeting. Maybe you can create an opportunity to instigate a community of practice focussed on mentoring in your school, or early childhood setting. With regards to your mentees, in addition to modelling reflective practice, you can provide accessible documentation or signposts during feedback. This sends a clear message to the mentee that you care and that you are interested in them and their professional formation, that you want them to be the best teacher that they can be. Such modelling is vital for the future of mentoring. For, the pre-service teachers, you mentor today, will be the mentors of tomorrow. If you feel unprepared for your mentoring role, what steps can you take? Remember, as discussed in this text, mentor training/preparation does not have to be formal. In fact, a bottom-up informal approach, such as peer mentoring, or establishing a CoP is a feasible option. Personally, for us, our CoP has enabled some of the best CPD we have ever undertaken. We are not biased! The old adage that the best way to eat an elephant is one piece at a time comes to mind here. So, the ‘now what?’ goal setting needs to be broken down into manageable parts that can be achieved. In your current role or in the future, what are the key points from the book that you would like to influence/incorporate into your practice? We leave you with these final reflective questions: • • • • •

Now what? What can you identify as your next steps? Are they short term steps or goals? Are they long term steps or goals? Have you a combination of both? Are there elements of your current practice, you can share with others in your particular context?

212

11

Concluding Chapter

Fig. 11.2 Next steps?

We hope the answers, and the steps you decide on, will take you on a productive learning journey, that will reap benefits for you, your mentees, your school/early childhood setting/organisation, and above all, the children, for whom we do this work. It might be useful to identify three ideas or possible next steps to take, and suggest potential actions to help you put these steps into action (Fig. 11.2).

References Chu, M. (2014). Developing Mentoring and Coaching Relationships in Early Care and Education. New Jersey: Pearson. Cox, B. E., & Orehovec, E. (2007). Faculty-student interaction outside the classroom: A typology from a residential college. Review of Higher Education, 30(4), 343–362. Cunningham, B. (2007). All the right features: Towards an “architecture” for mentoring trainee teachers in UK further education colleges. Journal of Education for Teaching, 33(1), 83–97. Donnellan, A. (2020). An Exploration of How the Mentoring Component of the Leadership for Inclusion in the Early Years (Linc) Programme Supports the Adult Learner. Unpublished thesis (Masters), Mary Immaculate College, University of Limerick. Garvey, B. (2004). The mentoring/counselling/coaching debate. Development and Learning in Organizations, 18(2), 6–8. Glass, N., & Walter, R. (2000). An experience of peer mentoring with student nurses: Enhancement of personal and professional growth. Journal of Nursing Education, 39(4), 155–160. Hobson, A. J., & Malderez, A. (2013). Judge mentoring and other threats to realizing the potential of school-based mentoring in teacher education. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 2(2), 89–108. Hobson, A. J., & Maxwell, B. (2020). Mentoring substructures and superstructures: An extension and reconceptualization of the architecture for teacher mentoring. Journal of Education for Teaching, 46(2), 1–23. Hudson, P. (2004). Specific mentoring: A theory and model for developing primary science teaching practices. European Journal of Teacher Education, 27(2), 139–146.

References

213

Hurst, B., & Reding, G. (2002). Teachers Mentoring Teachers: Fastback 493. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa International. Jones, L., Tones, S., & Foulkes, G. (2019). Exploring learning conversations between mentors and associate teachers in initial teacher education. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 8(2), 120–133. Kemmis, S., Heikkinen, H., Fransson, G., Aspfors, J., & Edwards-Groves, C. (2014). Mentoring of new teachers as a contested practice: Supervision, support and collaborative self-development. Teaching and Teacher Education, 43, 154–164. Kim, H. (2016). Mentors. Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/hdf_facpubs/39/ Knowles, M. S. (1984). Andragogy in Action. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Koballa, T. R., Kittleson, J., Bradbury, L. U., & Dias, M. (2010). Teacher thinking associated with science-specific mentor preparation. Science Education, 94(6), 1072–1091. Mazerolle, S. M., Barrett, J. L., Eason, C. M., & Nottingham, S. (2016). Comparing preceptor and student perceptions on mentoring characteristics: An exploratory study. International Journal of Athletic Therapy and Training. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijatt.2015-0066 Nolan, A. (2017). Effective mentoring for the next generation of early childhood teachers in Victoria, Australia. Mentoring and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 25(3), 272–290. Nottingham, S. l., Mazerolle, S. M., & Barrett, J. L. (2017). Promising and established investigator’s experiences participating in the national athletic trainer’s association foundation research programme. Journal of Athletic Training, 52(4), 368–376. Prakash, R., Sharma, N., & Advani, U. (2019). Learning process and how adults learn. International Journal of Academic Medicine, 5, 75–79. Rodd, J. (2006). Leadership in Early Childhood (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Open University. Rolfe, G., Freshwater, D., & Jasper, M. (2001). Critical Reflection in Nursing and the Helping Professions: A User’s Guide. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Šari´c, M., & Šteh, B. (2017). Critical reflection in the professional development of teachers: Challenges and possibilities. Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal, 7(3), 67–85. https:// files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1156912.pdf Straus, S. E., Johnson, M., Maruez, C., & Feldman, M. (2013). Characteristics of successful and failed mentoring relationships: A qualitative study across two academic health centres. The Journal of Teaching and Learning Resources, 88(1), 82–89. © Yale University. (2022). Step 3. What Makes A Mentoring Relationship Successful. Retrieved from https://fly.yale.edu/mentorship/self-directed-mentoring-program/step-3-what-makes-men toring-relationship-successful

Bibliography Australian Children’s Education and Care Quality Authority (ACEQUA). (2017). Annual Report 2016–2017. Retrieved from ACECQA-AnnualReport-20162017.pdf (https://www.acecqa.gov. au/sites/default/files/acecqa/files/Annual%20Report/ACECQA-AnnualReport-20162017.pdf) Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL). (2017). Teacher Self-Assessment Tool. Retrieved from https://www.aitsl.edu.au/docs/default-source/default-document-library/ teacher-sat-user-guide.pdf?sfvrsn=2bded3c_2 Bar-On, R. (1997). Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i): A Test of Emotional Intelligence. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Multi-Health Systems. Beutel, D., & Spooner-Lane, R. (2009). Building mentoring capabilities in experienced teachers. The International Journal of Learning, 16, 351–360. Cambridge Assessment International Education. (2022). Getting Started With Reflective Practice. Retrieved from Getting started with Reflective Practice (cambridge-community.org.uk) (https:/ /www.cambridge-community.org.uk/professional-development/gswrp/index.html#group-Ref lective-practice-in-practice-KagSxPuxXe) Chao, R. (2009). Understanding the Adult Learner’s Motivation and Barriers to Learning.

214

11

Concluding Chapter

Cherniss, C., Goleman, D., Emmerling, R., Cowan, K., & Adler, M. (1998). Bringing Emotional Intelligence to the Workplace. New Brunswick, NJ: Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations, Rutgers University Daly, C. (n.d). Foundational Theories of Mentoring: Educative Mentoring. © UCL Institute of Education. Retrieved from https://www.futurelearn.com/info/courses/early-career-teacher-ind uction-getting-ready-for-the-early-career-framework-england-/0/steps/237217 Desimone, L. M. (2009). Improving impact studies of teachers’ professional development: Toward better conceptualizations and measures. Educational Researcher, 38(3), 181–199. https://doi. org/10.3102/0013189X08331140 Government of Ireland. (2018). First Five: A Whole-of-Government Strategy for Babies, Young Children and Their Families 2019-2018. Dublin: Government Publications Office. Harrison, J., Dymoke, S., & Pell, T. (2006). Mentoring beginning teachers in secondary schools: An analysis of practice. Teaching and Teacher Education, 22(8), 1055–1067. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (2001). Chapter legitimate peripheral participation in communities of practice. In Supporting Lifelong Learning. Routledge Nevin, M. (2020). A Guide to Giving Better Feedback. Retrieved from https://marcnev.in/a-guideto-giving-better-feedback Pfund, C., Pribbenow, C. M., Branchaw, J., Lauffer, S. M., & Handelsman, J. (2006). The merits of training mentors. Science, 311(5760), 473–474. Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 9, 185–211. Scottish Teaching Council. (2016). Professional Standards for Teachers. Retrieved from https:// www.gtcs.org.uk/professional-standards/professional-standards-for-teachers/ Teacher Education Ministerial Advisory Group (TEAG). (2014). Action Now: Classroom Ready Teachers. Retrieved from http://www.studentsfirst.gov.au/teacher-education-ministerialadvisory-group Teaching Council New Zealand. (2016). Standards for the Teaching Profession. Retrieved from https://teachingcouncil.nz/assets/Files/Code-and-Standards/Standards-for-the-Teaching-Profes sion-English-two-pages.pdf Zey, M. G. (1991). The Mentor Connection: Strategic Alliances in Corporate Life. Transaction Publishers.