Professional Learning from Classroom-Based Inquiries 9819950988, 9789819950980

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Jyoti Rookshana Jhagroo Patricia Martha Stringer   Editors

Professional Learning from Classroom-Based Inquiries

Professional Learning from Classroom-Based Inquiries

Jyoti Rookshana Jhagroo · Patricia Martha Stringer Editors

Professional Learning from Classroom-Based Inquiries

Editors Jyoti Rookshana Jhagroo Education Auckland University of Technology Auckland, New Zealand

Patricia Martha Stringer Auckland University of Technology Auckland, New Zealand

ISBN 978-981-99-5098-0 ISBN 978-981-99-5099-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5099-7 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Foreword

I have been working in the field of teacher education for many years, and this has led naturally to an interest in teacher learning, and how it may be enhanced. I have been fortunate to collaborate in this area, with colleagues in various countries such as USA, Mexico, Spain, Germany, Sweden, New Zealand, Zimbabwe, Rwanda and Nigeria, each of which has contributed different perspectives to my practice and research. My recent collaboration with New Zealand researchers Jyoti Jhagroo and Patricia Stringer has focused on practitioner inquiries in New Zealand and South African schools which are poles apart in terms of resource availability and teacher support. However, we have been struck by similarities in learning experiences of teachers who work in these diverse contexts. The study has helped us understand more about how teachers’ learning can be enabled by their participation in practitioner enquiries. We have also learnt that participation in these inquiries has led to an increase in the local knowledge generated by teachers that is applicable in their own setting, as well as to a wider community. We have realised how important it is that we have forums where teachers’ accounts of their own learning can be shared. I am very honoured by the request to contribute the foreword to this book which is comprised of narratives of authentic school-based practitioner inquiries written by 13 pre-service teachers from New Zealand. This book is a collection of accounts arising from one setting that of pre-service teachers who are carrying out practitioner research in their classroom. The accounts provide evidence of how the classroom has acted as a powerful learning site for the 13 pre-service teachers. There is no doubt that teachers who research their own practice become better practitioners. For many teachers, the interest in conducting research is because they want to become better teachers. For the authors, their practitioner research inquiries began with a motivation to learn more about their learners so that they could promote more equitable access to learning opportunities in their own classrooms. One of the important benefits experienced by teacher-researchers is that the gap between theory and practice is reduced as the teachers draw on relevant theory to provide insights into their practice. At the same time, they contribute to theory building; by reporting on their insights and learning, they are sharing this local knowledge to a wider community. In this way, they form an integral part of v

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creating new knowledge about practice rather than being consumers of knowledge for their practice. This book provides a repository for this local knowledge generated by these beginner teachers allowing them to share this valuable knowledge with other classroom practitioners. I think that the book offers much value in many different ways, however I will focus on three main contributions offered by this book: Firstly, the chapters illustrate how powerful the classroom can be when acting as a site for teacher learning. The use of the Teaching as Inquiry model provided space for the teachers’ personal reflections about their own learning. Across the chapters, each author has shared compelling accounts of their own insights that they gained as outcomes of their participation in the practice-based inquiry. In Chapter 1, Chung speaks about her own personal learning about how important it is that teachers know their learners, so that they can recognise their learners’ areas for improvement. Hammond, in Chapter 3, identifies specific ways in which his intervention, based on the novel idea of using zines to improve literacy skills of boys, would be improved. Hammond’s deep reflections will serve as useful advice for other teachers who may want to use this idea in their classrooms. Sometimes the critical reflections of the teachers have enabled them to interrogate established traditions. For example, Curtain in Chapter 4 shares some of her own learning about the inquiry-based approach. She reflected those learners who struggle academically may find inquiry-based learning challenging because it is directed by a learner-led philosophy. Hence, a learner who lacks self-discipline will find this approach challenging. Deverall in Chapter 2 noted that the ILE context of the class, where learners have three different teachers teaching in one space, acted against the growth mind-set approach that she used. Because there were different teachers, the language used with the learners was not consistent. Deverell’s advice is that a growth mind-set approach needs to be applied consistently across multiple learning spaces and teachers and over time, for it to properly take root. Hence, these chapters illustrate that as these teachers immersed themselves in the practitioner inquiry process, they engaged in critical reflections, and these have enabled them to provide feedback that curriculum designers will find useful in further curriculum revision processes. Secondly, the book adds to local knowledge in diverse areas, such as junior school teaching, teaching for social justice and language development. As teachers participate in the practitioner inquiry process and learn more about their practice, they construct a multi-faceted type of knowledge which is situated within their contexts. When teachers generate their own local knowledge, the next step is to share this knowledge with other participants within their professional learning community and beyond. The chapters in Part II provide insights into local knowledge generated in diverse areas, for example, the first three chapters provide more insight into the playbased approach in junior school. The authors present findings about the potential of the play-based approach in junior school in increasing engagement and motivation, in providing a rich environment for language learning as well as in promoting learner’s number knowledge while using an iPad intervention. Some chapters focus on the use of music, drama and visual arts, for example, Le Roux, in Chapter 5 looked at how music and visual art could be used to promote the development of soft skills. Other

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areas of interest covered in the inquiries are teaching for social justice, increasing learner engagement and motivation, gender, as well as language development. Thirdly, the focus on raising interest and improving equitable learning practices is an important feature of the book. Examples of the ways in which these teachers have worked to promote equitable learning opportunities are useful for other teachers and researchers. Some authors have focused on increasing engagement with learners while others have looked at the development of soft skills and motivation with learners. Issues of how language proficiency can enhance participation levels of students in the various disciplines have generated a large body of research across the world in different contexts. In this book, three authors focused their inquiries on language acquisition. While Hogg, in Chapter 9, focused on how language was used in the play approach, Walker, in Chapter 10, studied how English language acquisition could be promoted by the use of drama. Mehta, in Chapter 11, looked at how activities designed around the mystery box challenge were able to promote oral language fluency. Gender disparities in achievement have been noted in many studies across the world. In Part III, three authors have focused their inquiries on increasing engagement with learners in areas where gender-specific differences in engagement have been noted. Two authors focused their inquiries on increasing the engagement of boys in writing and literacy, while one author investigated the efficacy of a particular strategy in improving girls’ engagement in science. Tabuzo, in Chapter 12, confirmed that the Notice–Think–Wonder strategy could develop curiosity and science capabilities in year 7 girl learners by providing a platform for inspiring critical thinking and opportunities to extend their learning. Bond, in Chapter 13, focused on improving the engagement in writing of a group of boys. Bond provides details and reflections about her intervention which was successful in increasing the writing proficiency of each boy by at least one curriculum level. Auckland, New Zealand

Sarah Bansilal

Acknowledgements

The editors would like to acknowledge Auckland University of Technology for their support of this research project and providing the site for the Master of Teaching and Learning programme. They thank the pre-service teachers for generously sharing their inquiry research that has contributed to this collection as chapter authors. They are also grateful that they entrusted the editors to make the changes needed for the purpose of the book. A special thank you is also afforded to Sarah Bansilal who has provided the foreword piece as an introduction to the book.

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Introducing Our Collection of Practice-Based Inquiries

Teaching in the twenty-first century is anything but prescriptive. The learning milieu and participants within it, including teachers and learners, present an environment of complexity. Teachers learn to be responsive to their learners from and through their day-to-day practice (Oliver et al., 2018). Such learning may be informal, however engaging in formal and deliberate inquiry may lead teachers towards a more grounded understanding of their practice. In 2007, the ‘Teaching as Inquiry’ concept was introduced to New Zealand teachers in the New Zealand Curriculum (Ministry of Education, 2007). It offered a formal and deliberate frame for teachers to engage in inquiry of their practice. In this model, teaching and learning inquiry is seen as cyclic and requires teachers to engage in deep reflection to learn about their practice (Jhagroo et al., 2020). The Teaching as Inquiry model that is currently widely used by practising teachers was developed by Sinnema and Aitken (Ministry of Education, 2007). According to Sinnema and Aitken (2019), there are three components to the model for effective teaching and learning to emerge. The first is the ‘focusing inquiry’ component in which the teacher prioritises the needs of the students in order for them to learn. The second component is the ‘teaching inquiry’ that positions the teachers to look inward and consider their own knowledge needs for a pedagogical shift. The third component is the ‘learning inquiry’ that prompts teachers to critically reflect on their professional learning through the inquiry and the implications of that on their learners. While teachers construct knowledge pertinent to their practice, Sinnema and Aitken (2019) remind us about the fallibility of teaching inquiries and the need for teachers to be open-minded. This means that while teachers gain insight about their practice, they should be mindful of the local nature of this knowledge that may not be applicable to another group of students or learning contexts. In addition, the authors aver that having an open mind allows teachers to explore unfamiliar teaching strategies and approaches for learning. How teachers create an environment for learning can be challenging. Engaging in deliberate inquiries for ongoing professional learning offers a powerful approach to discover and rediscover what this might look like in their own teaching and learning environments (Jhagroo et al., 2020; Oliver et al., 2018). Oliver et al. (2018) asserted that inquiry in isolation is not xi

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as effective as inquiries that are supported by a professional learning community. Teacher inquiries are a fundamental part of being a teacher, therefore teacher education programmes have a responsibility to prepare pre-service teachers to engage with the concept of teacher inquiries for their professional learning. This book comprises a collection of inquiries of the Master of Teaching and Learning pre-service teachers in 2018 at Auckland University of Technology. These practice-based inquiries are a requirement of the Master of Teaching and Learning qualification with extensive supervision and feedback from the supervisors. The stages of preparation for the students involved formal lectures taught by course leaders. The editors were the course leaders. The course focused on unpacking practitioner inquiry and teachers as researchers, ethics of being an inquiring practitioner, collecting and understanding data, critically analysing and discussing the findings, and drawing conclusions from the finding. The pre-service teachers developed a draft of their inquiry projects. A group of project advisors worked closely with the course lecturers to understand the project expectations. An advisor was allocated to each pre-service teacher and supported them in a supervisory capacity throughout the inquiry. In addition, the inquiries were practice-based and completed while the pre-service teachers were on practicum. Practicum involved the pre-service teachers working in a supportive environment alongside an experienced classroombased professional learning mentor. Together the course leaders, project advisors, pre-service teachers and their peers, and the professional learning mentors formed the professional learning communities to support each pre-service teacher. The collection of inquiries in this book by the pre-service teachers demonstrates how they developed, implemented, and critically evaluated their inquiries. The editors of the book have collaborated with the pre-service teachers, project advisors, and practice-based professional learning mentors in schools to inform the development to completion of the inquiries. Practitioner inquiry, in this book, is defined as teachers asking questions about specific aspects of their practice that they have problematised in consultation with a range of resources and their professional learning community to create new understandings followed by application in their practice and consideration of their contributions with respect to professional learning and practice. Our aim in compiling this book is: • to provide pre-service teachers and teachers with actual classroom-based research inquiries for the purpose of professional learning. • to offer possible ways of documenting evidence-based practice to support preservice teachers, beginning teachers, experienced teachers. • to provide a platform for pre-service teachers to share local knowledge of their practice with other classroom practitioners. In this way, being an integral part of creating new knowledge about practice rather than consumers of knowledge for practice. There is an expectation in New Zealand and abroad that teachers engage in practice-based inquiry. However, each school’s engagement in inquiry is varied, whereby some schools may have a whole school inquiry focus and others may have an individual focus on inquiry. Consequently, the support for teachers to engage in

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inquiry is also varied and can be confronting for pre-service teachers and teachers alike (Stringer & Jhagroo, 2019). The book is organised into three themed parts titled: professional learning through inquiry, creating local knowledge through inquiry, and language acquisition and equitable pedagogies through inquiry. The collection of chapters in each part offers a kaleidoscope of inquiries that contribute to the themes. In Part I, Julia Chung, Julia Deverall, Ryan Hammond, and Sarah Curtain take us on an incredible journey through each of their inquiry chapters of their own practitioner wonderings and professional learning inquiries. Each inquiry positioned them at the core of inquiry as producers of knowledge rather than consumers of it and empowered them as pre-service teachers to direct their own professional learning. This empowering liberatory epistemology manifests in their attempts to clarify their own notions through the inquiries and developing deeper critical understandings of their practice (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009; Groundwater-Smith et al., 2015). Part II comprises four bespoke practice-based inquiries with each contributing to the creation of local knowledge. Kirsty Jade Olson, Ingrid Booth, Michaela Kim, and Loata Tiapapa draw on their own strengths and wonderings to inquire about their individual practice. By engaging in inquiries within their own classroom, the four pre-service teachers produce ‘local knowledge’ pertinent to their specific inquiry topic and their context of learning. The reflection of each pre-service teacher not only offered their inner thoughts about their learnings, but also indicated how their inquiries continue to inform their practice. While the local knowledge produced may inform the practice of other teachers, the fundamental benefit of inquiry is the potential the process must be informative and transformational to each pre-service teacher (Rinke et al., 2013). Timperley (2011) notes that the inquiry process can be disruptive for teachers, and it became apparent from the inquiries presented here that cognitive dissonance is necessary for professional learning to take place. Each pre-service teacher waded through their inquiries placing learners at the centre of their practice. Part III offers insight into the value for teachers to be able to cast a deliberate gaze on their own practice, and to question their practice from the perspective of second language learners, and equitable pedagogies. Practitioner inquiry encompasses both an inner and an outer gaze on a teaching and learning phenomenon (Sinnema & Aitken, 2015). Sarah Hogg, Olivia Walker, Bhavana Mehta, Andrio Tabuzo, and Vanessa Impey have each engaged with the notions of equitable pedagogies for their practice within an array of six individualised contexts of teaching and learning. The benefits of practitioner inquiry to the education context have been offered by Conner (2015, p. 197) as “an approach to teaching” with the intention to improve “the life chances of young people” and by Robinson and Lai (2006, p. 197) who posit that by the practitioners being at the core of the inquiry they are in the position to make a “discernible difference to the quality of teaching and learning”. The five inquiries within this part explicitly demonstrate each pre-service teacher’s commitment to equitable pedagogies and in ensuring that barriers to student learning are addressed. Unlike the ‘cause and effect’ replicable model of teaching and learning that positions

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the teacher as a technician (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009), the inquiries that the preservice teachers experienced in their programme of study urged them to consider holistic perspectives of teaching and learning. This book and its collection of inquiries make significant contributions to professional learning through inquiry. Firstly, the self-chosen individual practitioner journeys provide us with a range of inquiries, each highlighting professional learning and development, critical professional understanding, and growth in professional confidence, through conscious and deliberate reflection (Robinson & Lai, 2006). Secondly, choosing their area of inquiry is a powerful tool in, not only supporting the professional learning (Stringer & Jhagroo, 2019) of pre-service teachers, but also nurturing an open mind for them to be comfortable with the discomfort of the unfamiliar. Thirdly, as advocated by Jhagroo et al. (2020), and Oliver et al. (2018) teacher agency is a catalyst for transformational pedagogies when teachers decide on the form and purpose of inquiry that matters to them. In addition, having the pre-service teachers as authors not only provides a space for them to share their professional learning experience but, also, serves as an exemplar for other pre-service teachers and teachers to engage in deeper understandings of their own practice and produce local knowledge to inform the profession. Teachers as researchers allow them to be the producers of knowledge that emerges from their own practice rather than contributors of knowledge that is written by external researchers (Jhagroo et al., 2020). Finally, while this book adds to the extensive publications of reflective practice and practitioner inquiry, the voices of the teacher-researchers make this publication more accessible and relatable to practising teachers and pre-service teachers.

References Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. L. (2009). Inquiry as stance: Practitioner research for next generation. Teachers College Press. Conner, L. (2015). Teaching as inquiry with a focus on priority learners. NZCER Press. Groundwater-Smith, S., Ewing, R., & Le Cornu, R. (2015). Teaching challenges & dilemmas (5th ed.). Cengage Learning. Jhagroo, J., Bansilal, S., & Stringer, P. (2020). Teacher learning insights from two practice-based inquiries in South Africa and New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 1–17.https://doi.org/10.1007/s40841-020-00184-y Ministry of Education. (2007). The New Zealand curriculum. Learning Media. Oliver, M., Avramides, K., Clark, W., Hunter, J., Luckin, R., Hansen, C., & Barbara Wasson, B. (2018). Sharing teacher knowledge at scale: Teacher inquiry, learning design and the representation of teachers’ practice. Teacher Development, 22(4), 587–606. https://doi.org/10.1080/136 64530.2017.1381642 Rinke, C. R., & Stebick, D. M. (2013). “Not just learning about it but actually doing it”: The evolution of a teacher inquiry culture. Action in Teacher Education, 35(1), 72–84. Robinson, V., & Lai, M. K. (2006). Practitioner research for educators. Sage. Sinnema, C., & Aitken, G. A. (2015). Teaching as inquiry. In M. Hill & D. Fraser (Eds.). The professional practice of teaching in New Zealand (pp. 79–97). Cengage.

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Sinnema, C., & Aitken, G. (2019). Teaching as inquiry. In M. F. Hill & M. Thrupp (Eds.), The professional practice of teaching in New Zealand (pp. 133–150). Cengage. Stringer, P., & Jhagroo, J. (2019). Towards a more complete understanding of ‘Teaching as Inquiry’: Perspectives of beginning teachers explored. New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 54, 39–52.

Contents

Part I 1

2

3

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Professional Learning Through Inquiry

Incorporating Pretend Play to Increase Engagement and Motivation for Young Learners Who Are Reluctant to Explore Beyond Their Comfort Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Julia Chung Using Music as a Tool to Develop Growth Mindset Learning Habits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Julia Deverall

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Zines and Literacy: Enhancing Boys’ Engagement with Literacy Lessons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ryan Hammond

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How Can I Reimagine My Practice so That I Teach ‘Big Ideas’ Rather Than Subject-Specific Content? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sarah Curtain

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Part II

Creating Local Knowledge Through Inquiry

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Using the Arts in the Classroom to Promote Soft Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . Kirsty Le Roux

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Using Technology to Support My Teaching of Mathematics in a Play-Based Learning Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ingrid Booth

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Integration of Visual Arts and Social Studies Exploring Propaganda: Promoting Learners to Be Critical Thinkers Taking Social Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Michaela Kim

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Contents

Integrating Music/Song Lyrics into Literacy to Engage Reluctant Learners to Develop Critical Literacy and Awareness Around Global Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Loata Tiapapa

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Part III Language Acquisition and Equitable Pedagogies Through Inquiry 9

Does Putting Play at the Centre of the Curriculum Aid the Learning of Oral Language? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Sarah Hogg

10 Feeling in Silence: Using Drama to Promote the Language Acquisition and Well-Being of English as Additional Language (EAL) Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Olivia Walker 11 Mystery Box Design Challenge as a Pedagogical Tool to Enhance the Key Competency of Participation and Contribution in ESOL Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Bhavana Mehta 12 Using the “I Notice, I Think, I Wonder” Thinking Routine in Developing Curiosity and Science Capabilities in Year 7 Female Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Andrio Tabuzo 13 How Can I Increase Engagement in Writing, Specifically for Boys? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Vanessa Bond 14 Our Concluding Thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Patricia Martha Stringer and Jyoti Rookshana Jhagroo

Editors and Contributors

About the Editors Jyoti Rookshana Jhagroo is a Senior Lecturer and Director of Teacher Education at Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand. She teaches on undergraduate and postgraduate programmes in the School of Education and oversees leadership on the Bachelor of Education, Master of Teaching and Learning, Graduate Diploma Secondary and Bachelor of Arts in Education. She is a Researcher in the field of practice-based research with a specific focus on the scholarship of teaching and learning through lived experiences. Her practised-based research spans the lived experiences of immigrant students in the mathematics classroom, and the lived experiences immigrant teachers, the lived experiences of teachers as inquiring practitioners and the online learning experiences of mathematics education students in Ghana, New Zealand and South Africa. Patricia Martha Stringer has taught graduate and postgraduate teacher education programmes in Auckland University, Massey University and Auckland University of Technology. She has also lectured in the Master of Educational Administration course at Massey University. Her work experience in the primary sector includes that of teacher, senior manager and advisor to schools. She has had four years of tertiary experience as Assistant Professor at Emirates College for Advanced Education in Abu Dhabi, UAE. In this position, she taught Emirati students in teacher education programmes and conducted collaborative research projects in the field of education. In New Zealand, her research projects include: The inquiring practitioner: The lived experiences of Master of Teaching and Learning graduates; exploring schooluniversity partnerships as a framework for developing twenty-first-century teacher educators; and the role of professional development in supporting schools sustain changed focused collaborative inquiry.

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Editors and Contributors

Contributors Vanessa Bond Bucklands Beach Intermediate, Auckland, New Zealand Ingrid Booth Hingaia Peninsula School, Karaka, New Zealand Julia Chung Kaingaroa School, Kaingaroa, New Zealand Sarah Curtain Balmoral School, Auckland, New Zealand Julia Deverall Papatoetoe Central, Auckland, New Zealand Ryan Hammond Wellington, New Zealand Sarah Hogg Balmoral School, Auckland, New Zealand Jyoti Rookshana Jhagroo Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand Michaela Kim Murrays Bay Intermediate School, Auckland, New Zealand Kirsty Le Roux Whangapar¯aoa School, Auckland, New Zealand; London, UK Bhavana Mehta Balmoral School, Auckland, New Zealand Patricia Martha Stringer Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand Andrio Tabuzo Murrays Bay Intermediate School, Auckland, New Zealand Loata Tiapapa Moana Connect, Auckland, New Zealand Olivia Walker St Joseph’s Orakei, Auckland, New Zealand

Part I

Professional Learning Through Inquiry

The Teaching as Inquiry model is riddled with tensions that makes embedding it as part of daily practice a fraught experience for teachers. Difficulties experienced relate to gaps between theory and practice, between policy and practice, and research and practice. These tensions characterise aspects of teaching generally and demand careful analysis to not only identify gaps, but, also, reflect on how TAI can be implemented to maximise teaching and learning and interpret what this means for teachers on personal, practice and professional levels of practice. The tensions teachers face impact on how effectively and efficiently they use the model to engage in learning and professional development through inquiry. In the education sector, emergence of models aimed at teacher professional development sanctioned by policy-makers tends to glimpse over demands and nuances of context. Models such as TAI are critiqued from the viewpoint that they are driven by data and research but fail to sufficiently take into consideration the practitioner and application in the classroom. This book is not the place to debate elements that pose tensions except to say that challenges and difficulties are inherent at each stage of TAI. The book provides a portal into the narratives of the teacher practitioner authors from which we see acceptance and justification of TAI as a form of evidenced-based inquiry where adopting the model opens avenues for teacher professional learning and optimisation of goal achievement for learners. In Part I, Professional learning through inquiry, the authors share their individual inquiries as pre-service teachers. They are honest and revealing in their findings and willingly wade into emotional territory that learning engenders. They show how moving towards improvement essentially means choosing aspects of practice they want to leave behind and what they intend to take forward in manageable ways. Their narratives capture some of the joys and pain attributed to TAI when it comes to trying to make a difference. They speak of issues faced and how they coped in the letting go of habits/processes which are messy, cause disruption but are unavoidable if learners are to be placed at the centre of practice. In the respect, they position themselves as producers of knowledge rather than consumers of it. In Chapter 1, Chung’s inquiry titled, Incorporating pretend play to increase engagement and motivation for young learners who are reluctant to explore beyond

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their comfort zones, explores how pretend play can increase the engagement and motivation of young primary school learners so that they manage themselves in a play-based environment and attempt to try activities that are out of their comfort zone. This research utilises the Teaching as Inquiry model for not only the intervention but, also, the development of self as a reflective and adaptive teacher. Through a pretend play workshop-based intervention method, Chung collated observational notes, and student and team teacher voices from a year 1 and 2 class to evaluate and analyse the effectiveness of her intervention. She found that pretend play offers children not only an introduction to new learning but, also, opportunities to be scaffolded and supported by teachers in ways that are not directive and demanding. In Chapter 2 Deverall’s inquiry titled, Using music as a tool to develop growth mindset learning habits, posed the question related to how exploring music could serve as a tool to develop growth mind-set learning habits with six year 2 and 3 learners identified as having fixed mind-sets. Her intervention spanned the course of three weeks and involved students practising and persisting to learn a simple song on the ukulele. Her research revealed that development of growth mind-set skills relies on the use of specific language, reflection and ongoing education to effect brain growth. Deverall’s inquiry showed that engagement in music allows opportunities for students to persist and overcome challenges they would previously shy away from. In Chapter 3, Hammond’s inquiry titled, Zines and literacy: Enhancing boys’ engagement with literacy lessons, uses the Teaching as Inquiry model to investigate techniques for enhancing boys’ engagement in literacy learning. The article looks at ways to encourage boys to take ownership of their literacy output, including encouraging social connection and the introduction of visual literacy. Hammond’s inquiry introduced zines as a new literacy format which required the boys to experiment with visual elements of literacy while having an explicit audience in mind and encouraged them to conceive of literacy more broadly. In Chapter 4, Curtain’s question How can I reimagine my practice so that I teach ‘big ideas’ rather than subject-specific content? explored the use of inquiry-based learning for teaching ‘big ideas’ and utilising curriculum integration rather than subject-specific content. Her three-week intervention aimed at increasing engagement of three learners in a year 5 and 6 class and utilised the key competency ‘participation and contribution’ to track their progress. Her inquiry explored the role of the teacher as facilitator in a student-led domain. The results showed that students still need guidance and scaffolding from the teacher to develop skills needed for inquiry-based learning. Further, engagement of all learners not just those specifically chosen to participate in the inquiry increased throughout the intervention period as they gained depth of knowledge through curriculum integration. Related to teacher purpose, the need for balance was reinforced as crucial; that is, the teacher had to be both educator and facilitator in the inquiry-based learning process.

Chapter 1

Incorporating Pretend Play to Increase Engagement and Motivation for Young Learners Who Are Reluctant to Explore Beyond Their Comfort Zones Julia Chung

Developing the Inquiry

Learners A group of four Year 1 & 2 boys [aged 5 to 6 years]. Inquiry focus How can I improve the engagement of a group of boys to include involvement in a diverse range of exploration tasks?

Teaching approach/intervention Implementation of five 30 minutes pretend play workshops in a breakout room in an Innovative Learning Environment (ILE) classroom.

New Zealand’s Ministry of Education (2007) lists “managing self” and “relating to others” as key competencies that can be used to “live, learn, work, and contribute as active members of their communities” (p. 12). These two competencies are particularly important for learners attending future focused schools with Innovative Learning Environments (ILE) which require learning skills associated with self-regulation and collaboration/interaction with others. My practicum observations in such a school and in a junior class led me to consider implementing some sort of intervention J. Chung (B) Kaingaroa School, Kaingaroa, New Zealand e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 J. R. Jhagroo and P. M. Stringer (eds.), Professional Learning from Classroom-Based Inquiries, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5099-7_1

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that enhanced engagement and motivation for younger learners focused on how to self-regulate and interact with others. The inquiry focused on a small group of boys aged 5–6 years who spent most of their time on one activity. Unlike their peers, they did not rotate and participate in different activities on offer during class play-based workshop time. Trying to motivate them to engage in a wider variety of tasks whilst also undertaking activities of their own became the initial stimulus for this inquiry. Upon consultation with the ILE teaching team, it seemed essential to intervene in a way that the learners would have deemed “fun.” Here, the challenge I faced was finding a balance between encouraging students to embrace new activities/learning whilst not being put off the idea. In this regard, I found the concept of running pretend play workshops appealing. According to Bergen (2002), pretend play offers children opportunities to utilise objects or actions symbolically and provides an avenue for social interactions and negotiation by involving them in role taking, scripting, and improvisation. The cognitive strategies involved in pretend play such as collaborative planning, negotiating, and problem-solving link to the two key competencies of managing self and relating to others (Bergen, 2002). I envisioned that a teachersupported pretend play intervention in an environment which felt safe to extend and explore a range of activities might be suitable for this group of young learners reluctant to engage in a range of activities. I needed to create an environment for the children to harbour “positive feelings towards a task” which in turn fostered motivation and positively impacted their behaviour and performance (Whitbread & O’Sullivan, 2012, p. 202). For this inquiry, I introduced pretend play workshops in a safe setting so my learners would feel motivated to engage and explore a range of activities in their play-based ILE classroom. Apart from the inquiry intervention serving to support learner needs, I also considered how the research and implementation of the intervention would help me gain knowledge on developing key competencies to foster effective relationships with learners and expand my repertoire of behaviour management strategies.

Review of Literature Research and evaluation of a range of studies with a specific focus on engagement and motivational theory, pretend play, and key competencies were undertaken to inform this inquiry and guide and shape my approach in planning, implementing, and assessing benefits of the pretend play workshop intervention involved. Experts in the field of motivation believe in the power of positive support and encouragement. For example, Daniels and Arapostathis (2005) explain that disengagement and reluctance of learners are traceable to events where their practices are “unvalued or unacknowledged,” that is from the learners’ point of view, education is sending them the message “that what they bring to the learning experience is not desirable” (p. 38). Marks (2000) similarly points out that reluctant learners often start disengaging early in schooling when they are either not interested in what is taught

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or feel like they are not fitting into expectations that exist at the school. Rita Pierson (2013) also spoke of the power that teachers bring when they show support and belief in a child. Her view on “championing” a child is relevant for all ages of learners but for young learners it relates well to Te Wh¯ariki’s (Ministry of Education, 2017) first principle of “Empowerment – Whakamana” (p. 18). This principle supports a “curriculum that recognises and enhances [every child’s] mana and supports them to enhance the mana of others” which, according to Pierson, is done by respecting, valuing, encouraging, and supporting children (Ministry of Education, 2017, p. 18). Although praise, encouragement, and acknowledgement of student work may seem like extrinsic motivation, the feeling of competency a child can feel “is important for both extrinsic and for intrinsic motivation” (Deci, 1995, p. 64). By giving children the feeling of accomplishment, one also gives them the feeling of enjoyment and thus the extrinsic rewards of praise and acknowledgement could turn into intrinsic motivation to engage in the future learning and partake in a range of activities freely and of their own decision. Deci (1995) draws on the fact that “the feeling of being effective is satisfying in its own right” and for adults, it “can even represent the primary draw for a lifelong career” as people realise that with added effort put into accomplishing job tasks, the better they become and “thus the more intrinsic satisfaction they will experience” (p. 64). Deci et al. (1991) have described an ideal school system as one that succeeds in developing a genuine love for learning and ensures students have a sense of involvement in their educational enterprise. It is through this sense of inner satisfaction and determination that students gain an opportunity to engage in “problem solving, more efficient knowledge acquisition, and a strong sense of personal worth and social responsibility” (Deci et al., 1991, p. 326). Thus, as students begin to engage in learning for their own sake, their performance becomes tied to internal pleasure and satisfaction. Deci (1995) discusses the ideas of autonomy-support from teachers and interpersonal involvement from students and suggests that through a combination of these two elements, students are most likely to nurture their natural curiosity and their intrinsic motivation to learn and challenge themselves with new tasks. Deci (1995) spent time observing classrooms and noticed he himself felt good “when teachers responded to children by taking their perspective and encouraging their initiative,” but felt the reverse “when teachers were demanding and critical” (p. 143). He observed that “the students of autonomy-supported teachers were more curious and mastery-oriented, and they evidenced higher self-esteem” (Deci, 1995, p. 143). For teachers to become effective in developing motivated and engaged students, Deci (1995) found that allowing individuals or groups to play a part in decision-making was vital. Bergen (2002) claims that benefits of pretend play for the development of children in their early years are apparent, and development of cognitive ability comes through “joint planning, negotiation, problem solving, and goal seeking” (n.p.). Bergen (2002) confirms research studies have explored the “relationship of play to specific cognitive strategies such as self-regulation, narrative recall, divergent problem solving, and rule understanding” (n.p.). Fein (1981) also suggests that “according to Piaget, play becomes more realistic” for younger children but, as

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children grow and become more logical, it is natural for pretend play to fall away once a child reaches 6 years of age (p. 1097). In relation to my inquiry, it may be worthwhile considering difficulties older learners would experience in terms of the pretend play workshops implemented. Depth of research data on this topic can be somewhat problematic. Bergen (2002) identified that there has been a “lack of play opportunities in primary settings,” and because “the typical school environment does not allow sufficient time for children to engage in extended themes of social pretence,” this topic of pretend play in schools has not received extensive research (n.p.). Research reviewed by Bergen (2002) found that though pretend play was helpful in children recalling narrative structures over brief time periods, “there was no difference in recall at a later time when no prompts were used, and there was no difference in children’s ability to answer encoding and inference questions” (Bergen, 2002, n.p.). This signals the temporary effects that pretend play may have on children. Lillard et al. (2013) also recognised that there are lots of positive claims regarding pretend play but confirm that there is no definitive link between pretend play and its role in children’s development signalling the need for more research. The authors state that “existing evidence does not support strong causal claims about the unique importance of pretend play for development and that much more, better research is essential for clarifying its possible role.” (Lillard et al, 2013, p. 1). Furthermore, Lillard et al (2013) note that studies in this field are methodologically unsound and not useful due to correlational findings often discussed as if causal; pretend play is difficult to replicate and open to experimenter bias. Fein (1981) found two conditions necessary for successful pretend play: firstly, “an adult actively interacts with the children,” and secondly, “the adult’s interaction involves behavioural techniques or themes appropriate to sociodramatic play” (p. 1107). In line with these parameters, positive results were seen “in as few as four 15-min sessions with middle-class children,” and “in eight 20-min sessions with lower-class children” and in some studies pretend play training was conducted over several months (p. 1107). Albeit, Fein (1981) had knowledge of the socio-economic backgrounds of the children in his research but in terms of my inquiry, this is neither a known nor considered factor.

The Inquiry Approach As identified by Cochran-Smith and Lytle (2009), external educational researchers cannot be the ones teachers rely on to teach well and enhance the learning of students. What matters is the teachers that have the knowledge of a particular classroom and can gain first-hand knowledge of individual students’ background stories, their learning needs, and desires. An inquiry approach to teaching enables teachers as practitioners to identify areas where they need to intervene to make a real difference to student learning. For me, the Teaching as Inquiry model led me to seek knowledge and gain experience in the following three aspects of my practice:

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• Developing children’s key competencies in the classroom, • Effective relationship building with children encompassing not only building relationships but, also, managing behaviour, and • Designing and implementing an intervention whereby a group of boys who focused solely on activities available in the construction room (i.e. wooden blocks, toy cars) could be encouraged to explore a diverse range of other tasks (painting, clay, maths-based materials, writing, reading, natural materials, etc.) within the play-based environment. Given these considerations, I found myself asking “How can I improve the engagement of a group of boys in a more diverse range of exploration tasks?” The learners: The group chosen for my inquiry came about through multiple observations and through discussions with the Professional Learning Community (PLC) comprising of peers, my university-based teacher educators, and my schoolbased professional learning mentors. The identified learners included a handful of boys in a Year 1 & 2 play-based environment classroom. Some learners had known behavioural issues and some lacked self-confidence or confidence in certain academic areas of learning. Through observations, I noticed that these boys chose to go into the “construction room” first thing in the morning and tended to stay there unless asked to exit the room and find another activity to do. Most of their classmates was able to self-rotate and participate in different exploration tasks which meant these boys needed support in developing their competency in managing self. Additionally, I noticed that this group of learners were quite possessive of the toys within the construction room and got upset if someone took their toy resulting in instances where the boys hit each other or shifted blame or burst into tears. This behaviour indicated they needed support in developing the competency of relating to others. The selection process was confirmed when one of the teachers confirmed that there was a “need to further engage them,” as “most boys in the group gravitated towards the construction area and had literacy levels below expectation relative to time spent at school.” The dilemma was getting the balance between encouraging them to embrace the challenge of reading or writing whilst not putting them off these tasks either (PLM, personal communications, 8 August 2018). Intervention: My intervention involved implementing five 30-min pretend play workshops in the private breakout rooms in the ILE space. At each of these workshops, a new scenario was introduced where the learners were given the chance to take on a character or role and try out new skills or practice and master already known skills. The five newly introduced workshops students were able to attend included: • Superhero Pretend Play 1 where students would embody a superpower and could defeat villains only when working in collaboration with others with two or more superpowers. • Superhero Pretend Play 2 which was a student-initiated scenario extending from their immense enjoyment of the first superhero play.

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• Birthday Meal Pretend Play was another student-initiated scenario where they pretended to get a dining room and kitchen ready to host a birthday party for a teacher in the classroom. • Doctors Clinic Play where students were able to take turns being a doctor, nurse, receptionist, or patient and learn to work as a team—writing notes/verbalising thoughts. • Filmmaker Play where students were able to utilise digital technology (iPads) and embody the characters of director, cinematographer, camera assistant, and actor to create a movie. Before engaging in the workshops, I activated students’ prior knowledge through brainstorming and discussion and at the end of each session, everyone debriefed on what worked well and what could have been better. I also asked what they thought they could do next because, as Hattie (2012) suggests, “Where to next?” type questions not only assist, “in choosing the next most appropriate challenge” but, also, lead “to developing more self-regulation over the learning process, and greater fluency and automaticity” (p. 132). Due to the nature of pretend play and the importance of student voice to inform the inquiry, my data collection tools were qualitative consisting of personal observation notes, team teacher feedback and observations, and student voice elicited through spontaneous dialogue as well as purposefully conducted research interviews.

Inquiry in Practice Findings and discussion: Student voice formed an integral part of this inquiry therefore prior to the implementation of the workshops, I asked the four learners “Do I try new or different things without a teacher telling me to?” Student N replied, “I never like to try new things,” and Student B replied, “I can do other things.” Student H and Student Q both replied, “I don’t know.” I noted the negativity or uncertainty inherent in their responses. When asked “What do you think you’re really good at?” learners gave answers that included “Playing soccer,” “Going to the skate park,” and “Playing Rippa Rugby.” At the end of workshop three, learners were interviewed again. At this stage, when asked how they were enjoying the workshops and what they thought they learnt, they said that they were “fun,” and were “learning to work together.” At this point, I felt that the “learning to work together” may have been influenced by the wider classroom environment where the topic of the term focused on developing a classroom culture of contribution and kindness. The day after the filmmaker workshop I had a chat with the learners again and all four asked if we could do another workshop on filmmaking and try a different filmmaking task. I noted “We’ve had five workshops now, how do you think they went? Don’t forget to tell me why if you can.” Student N replied, “It was fun because me and H got to do the acting in the movie.” Student Q replied, “Really good because

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it was fun doing the movie and filming it with the iPad.” Student B replied, “Good,” and Student H replied, “We got to enjoy it.” From these responses I could see why previous research had trouble collating reliable and usable data about pretend play over a brief period of time as children tend to respond to the most recent event and causal claims are hard to justify (Lillard et al., 2013). To measure their self-awareness in relation to the key competency of relating to others, I asked each learner to think about the question, “How did I help others during the workshops?” Each learner was able to recall an instance where they felt they were working together with another. Their answers included, “For [teacher’s name]’s birthday, I set up the table,” “I helped them, and they helped me,” “When we were defeating the evil shark, I helped Student N with his tornado power with my own laser power,” and “When Student H didn’t know what to say for the movie and at the doctors, I helped him to say his things.” The fact that they were able to recall examples of relating to others relative to the first superhero workshop, third birthday workshop, and the fourth doctor workshop, indicated that this competency of working with others may have improved over time. With the help of others in the teaching team, I also formulated the question, “What could you use from the workshops in the classroom and outside?” Two students replied, “Numbers,” which was a surprise as I had not included any specific mathematics activities in the workshops, but the students had noticed counting during the doctor’s workshop when pricing out fees or counting out injection measurements with the fake needle or heart beats with the fake stethoscope. One student mentioned, “We could teach the others stuff and do workshops,” which may have been related to the student-led workshops that occur every Friday afternoon where students teach their own passions, interests, or strengths. This finding prompted me to think that the workshops touched on other cognitive functions which may result in higher engagement in, for example, curriculum subjects such as mathematics. However, due to the short duration of the research, this is a speculation which can only be confirmed in the future if workshops and further observations are conducted over longer periods of time. I also noted that the use of physical tools during pretend play helped learners become more engaged. Saracho (2002) states that “children need to have the opportunity to explore and dominate play objects to acquire a fundamental understanding of the physical characteristics of the materials. Through exploration children learn to assimilate and accommodate” (p. 434). By exploring new materials in the pretend kitchen and pretend doctor’s office, learners were able to assimilate new knowledge and skills for future activities outside workshop time. There were two teachers in my ILE space and their feedback suggested they were pleased to see that the selected group had fun and enjoyed their workshops. They were aware that the four learners were constantly asking me “Are we doing a workshop today?” on a near enough to daily basis and felt that the style of the workshops did not conflict with the existing classroom environment or learning structure. They mentioned that it was not only clear that the learners were enjoying themselves and willingly learnt new skills through the workshops, but they were also

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being taught in a way that met their needs. They explained that though the playbased and explorative nature of the current learning environment meets the needs of most children, this group required more support and guidance in helping them learn to manage themselves. Although I aimed to give the boys plenty of supported autonomy as Deci’s (1995) studies suggested, I may need to rethink about giving them greater autonomy so that they are placed in more challenging situations where self-management is at the fore. One of the professional learning mentors focused on the collaborative aspect of the workshops and here I observed that the level of collaboration and being able to relate to others significantly increased over the duration of the inquiry. Prior to the inquiry, all four learners were known for telling on others or getting incredibly upset when someone tried to play with a toy car/block they had in their possession. At least four or five times a day learners would come to me or the professional learning mentors in the classroom to complain when someone joined their construction zone. Postinquiry there was not a single instance when the boys came to report on someone, and the professional learning mentors and I observed all learners conversed and negotiated more with each other. Observations also confirmed that learners used spaces in the ILE that they had not used before. For example, following workshop three the professional learning mentors mentioned they observed the boys playing in the kitchen area quite calmly and tidied up afterwards. This was something they had not done previously as the area was often occupied by the girls. The findings showed that pretend play was a useful tool when it came to introducing new learning to the selected group of four learners. The learners felt more motivated to explore activities beyond the construction blocks and cars. Simply finding students engaged in house play in the kitchen was a type of success for the inquiry as previously the students would not have ventured into that exploration area. The workshops provided an avenue for the learners to be in a safe space where they could feel at ease to be whoever they pretended to be. I was also able to consider how to extend children’s imagination and “directly and indirectly encourage” a type of play that impacted “children’s play behaviour in the classroom,” and that impacted their “higher cognitive and creative processes” (Saracho, 2002, p. 436). Throughout the intervention, the level of enjoyment was a high factor for me because, as Deci (1995) points out, the necessity for children to have pleasure in what they are achieving is essential. I felt I instilled a sense of fun in completing a new activity or task as part of being a pretend character and this influenced their behaviour outside of the workshop.

Reflections on the Inquiry Limitations: Due to the existence of only qualitative data, this research is not quantifiable as solid numeral data is unavailable. Furthermore, due to time constraints, it was a brief study held over the space of three weeks. I was unable to implement all ideas for pretend play that both the learners and I devised and with the result I sensed the

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students’ disappointment at not having further workshops with me. A longer period would have allowed for more accurate qualitative and quantitative data collection in addition to ensuring learners engagement in extended beneficial workshops. Benefits: The benefits of the workshops have been clear in that findings show a change in the learner’s activities outside of workshop time. The aim of increasing motivation and engagement was visible in their interview responses and gains extended to different learning areas such as mathematics and trying new activities. As learners in the group were also challenging in terms of behaviour management, I became more skilled in this aspect of professional practice. Overall, through the inquiry process, I could sense a growing confidence in implementing new and untried workshops and almost getting into a state of pretend play myself as I took on a drama teacher role. This highlighted the highly beneficial aspect of integrating learning across the New Zealand Curriculum through an integrated approach. This inquiry served a dual purpose. Not only did the four learners experience tailored workshops to meet their needs, but the Teaching as Inquiry model proved highly beneficial for me as a practitioner. It has shown me how teachers can successfully impact children in specific ways taking into consideration their voices and involving others in the learning community, for example, teachers and advisors. A huge learning point for me during the process concerned understanding how vital it is that teachers to know their learners. At one stage I expressed my own uncertainty and worry to my professional learning mentors about the fact that I was running workshops that seemed contrary to the environment of exploration and selfagency. They assured me that I had identified the learners’ needs and recognised areas for improvement. If more scaffolding and teacher-initiated activities are what learners need then it is not wrong at all to provide this needs-based intervention for them.

Reflecting on Inquiry a Year on as a First-Year Teacher… Reflecting on inquiry a year on as a first-year teacher I can see how beneficial the inquiry model is as a learning tool when it comes to becoming an adaptable teacher. I also continue to see the worth of inquiry-based teaching for both learners and teachers. Currently, I am working in a team of three teachers in a collaborative space and constant reflections are a part of inquiry that results in frequent bouncing of ideas, reviews of practice, and adjusting quickly to change as needed. This means that learners benefit from a learning programme that is under constant review and I adapt to meet their needs and future development. Reflecting on my inquiry, I feel more communication within the teaching team could have benefited the study. Although I consulted my professional learning mentors at the time, I now find myself wishing that I had more input from them and the other teachers within the classroom to ensure I had considered different viewpoints and ideas on a more frequent basis. Another aspect of the inquiry I would change is the timeframe. Allowing time for more workshops, and more time for the

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learners to take hold of the ideas and concepts used in the workshops and implement them into everyday classroom life may have benefitted the learners. The idea that role play involves children feeling freer to try out new behaviours and engage in workshops once only may not have been enough. Finally, having had more experience in the classroom, I can see that specific praise and social coaching would have motivated the children further as they endeavoured to try new activities. As a teacher in a modern learning environment, I hope to include more inquiry in my practice; inquiry undertaken collaboratively means you and the team adopt a more flexible and adaptable mindset.

References Bergen, D. (2002). The role of pretend play in children’s cognitive development. Early Childhood Research & Practice, 4(1), 1–12. Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. L. (2009). Inquiry as stance: Practitioner research for the next generation. Teachers College Press. Daniels, E., & Arapostathis, M. (2005). What do they really want? Student voices and motivation research. Urban Education, 40(1), 34–59. Deci, E. L. (1995). Why we do what we do. Penguin Books. Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3–4), 325–346. Fein, G. (1981). Pretend play in childhood: An integrative review. Child Development, 52(4), 1095– 1118. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129497 Hattie, J. (2012). Visible learning for teachers: Maximizing impact on learning. Routledge. Lillard, A. S., Lerner, M. D., Hopkins, E. J., Dore, R. A., Smith, E. D., & Palmquist, C. M. (2013). The impact of pretend play on children’s development: A review of the evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 139(1), 1–34. Marks, H. M. (2000). Student engagement in instructional activity: Patterns in the elementary, middle, and high school years. American Educational Research Journal, 37(1), 153–184. Ministry of Education. (2007). The New Zealand curriculum. Learning Media Limited. Ministry of Education. (2017). Te Wh¯ariki. Learning Media Limited. Pierson, R. (2013, May). Rita Pierson: Every kid needs a champion [Video file]. https://www.ted. com/talks/rita_pierson_every_kid_needs_a_champion#t-446988 Saracho, O. (2002). Young children’s creativity and pretend play. Early Child Development and Care, 172(5), 431–438. Whitebread, D., & O’Sullivan, L. (2012). Preschool children’s social pretend play: Supporting the development of metacommunication, metacognition, and self-regulation. International Journal of Play, 1(2), 197–213.

Chapter 2

Using Music as a Tool to Develop Growth Mindset Learning Habits Julia Deverall

Developing the Inquiry

Learners: Six Year 2/3 students identified as displaying fixed mindset learning habits Inquiry focus: Changing mindsets - from fixed to growth Music as a tool to develop growth mindset learning habits

Teaching approach/intervention: Exploring music to develop growth mindset learning habits. Identifying students with fixed mindset habits and teaching them a song on the ukulele. Underpinning themes: Learning from mistakes or failures; importance of language; explicit teaching about the brain and growth mindset; and emphasising error reflection.

I often hear students saying, “I can’t do maths” or, “I’m not good at reading” and recall times I had similar thoughts as a student. Having had self-doubts, I empathise with the associated negative effect on well-being and achievement. First discovering the concepts of fixed and growth mindsets was enlightening for me as I had always known I held negative attitudes towards failure and mistakes, but had not realised others held differing attitudes which equate to growth mindsets and that I could change. According to Dweck (2006), those with growth mindsets believe intelligence and ability are malleable and can be improved through effort and persistence. Those with fixed mindsets subconsciously think the opposite; that is, intelligence and ability J. Deverall (B) Papatoetoe Central, Auckland, New Zealand e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 J. R. Jhagroo and P. M. Stringer (eds.), Professional Learning from Classroom-Based Inquiries, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5099-7_2

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are set without the possibility of improving (Dweck, 2006). The latter often avoid or give up during challenging tasks which can be highly limiting (Ricci, 2013). Dweck (2009) discusses research that “has shown that a growth mindset fosters a healthier attitude towards practice and learning, a hunger for feedback, a greater ability to deal with setbacks, and significantly better performance over time” (p. 1). People with fixed mindsets prefer tasks that make them look smart. Those with growth mindsets value and enjoy persistence and see mistakes as a chance to learn and improve, not a threat (Dweck, 2009). Having discovered these binaries, I became passionate about learning how to change my own mindset and encourage students towards adopting growth mindsets as well. In my practice, I identified many students displaying signs of a fixed mindset and observed the way their implicit beliefs affected their well-being, achievement, and resilience. I observed first-hand the way these students gave up or avoided challenges. I felt that conducting research and designing interventions that target fixed mindsets is essential when it comes to ensuring the well-being of learners and their confidence to take risks with their learning.

Review of Literature Yaeger et al. (2013) note that how with the right approach, students’ mindsets can shift resulting in an increase in resilience. Ricci (2013) confirms that with appropriate education and groundwork, mindsets can change. From the research I conducted on growth mindset development, four research themes emerged that contributed to the design of the intervention for this inquiry. The research themes were: teacher’s use of specific language/praise; explicit teaching about the brain; attention to error reflection; and opportunities for students to experience mistakes or failure. These are explored below. The importance of language—use of specific language/praise: Teachers can encourage a growth mindset through specific language and praise. Research (Cogdill, 2015; Davis, 2017; Davis & Persellin, 2017; Dweck, 2006, 2009, 2015; Yeager et al., 2013) shows that praising ability and talent is detrimental to students’ motivation and could encourage a fixed mindset. For example, praising students with comments such as, “wow you’re amazing, you’re the next Mozart” may encourage them to think “I shouldn’t try playing anything harder or they’ll see I’m no Mozart” (Dweck, 2006, p. 175). Researchers (Cogdill, 2015; Davis & Persellin, 2017; Dweck, 2006, 2009, 2015) suggest replacing labels such as “genius,” “smart,” and “talented” for words such as “hard-working” and “determined.” Dweck’s (2009) research with adolescents showed that when praised for ability, students wanted an easy task as opposed to a challenge that promotes learning. After trying difficult problems, these students lost confidence and enjoyment and their performance declined. By comparison, the group of students who were praised for their hard work and determination was eager to seek a new challenge (Dweck, 2009). Dweck (2006) discusses the power of the

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word “yet,” suggesting adding it to the end of a sentence. For example, “I cannot do this yet.” Teach students about the brain and growth mindset: Giving students opportunities to learn about the brain and how it works is another vital element when developing growth mindset skills. Research by Dweck (2009) shows how teaching students about the malleability of the brain enhances motivation and achievement. Yeager et al. (2013) confirm this noting: Students can be taught the science underlying people’s potential to change their academically and socially relevant characteristics, and they can be shown how to apply these insights to their own lives. When they are, it can have striking effects on resilience. (p. 303)

Yeager and Dweck (2012) confirm that teaching students how the brain develops like a muscle (growth through hard work and good strategies) allows students to view challenges as an opportunity to learn and grow, not as a threat. Ricci (2013) notes how students understanding of how the brain works means “failure is an easier pill to swallow…and deal more constructively with setbacks” (p. 69). Ricci recommends various ways of teaching students about the brain, including through literacy (shared books or researching people in history) or science. Education of the brain goes hand in hand with education about growth mindset. Without knowledge of the malleability of the brain, the concept of growth mindset would be impossible to grasp (Ricci, 2013). Further to this, without the opportunity to learn about growth mindset, I imagine students, like myself, would be unaware that there were different approaches in thinking. Ricci (2013) suggests school-wide growth mindset lessons not just for students but, “The entire school staff – administrators, teachers, support staff – as well as parents must truly believe that all students can be successful” (p. 9). Yeager and Dweck (2012) note that if students believe intelligence is something you either have or not, it makes sense for them to avoid looking “dumb” in situations by not taking risks (p. 62). Therefore, combatting this belief is essential. Error reflection: Ricci (2013) notes how students should see their errors as a chance for feedback and reflection leading to new learning. Making mistakes is a common human experience, however, it is often associated with shame or embarrassment particularly by those with fixed mindsets (Davis, 2017, p. 11). To encourage a growth mindset, Ricci (2013) notes that teachers should help students see errors as “data” instead of a reflection of low ability (p. 73). Errors can be used to encourage students to persevere through setbacks and must be considered an opportunity for growth. This can extend beyond the classroom, creating opportunities for success in other areas (Davis, 2017). Davis (2017) discusses how modelling reflection during practice by teachers allows students to hear the thought processes that are undertaken and encourages students to strategize in a similar way. Questions such as, “What did you hear?” “What could we improve?” or “turn to your partner and talk to them about how we could make that better” could encourage processes involved in error reflection (Davis, 2017, p. 11). Learning from mistakes or failure: Before students can be expected to change their mindsets, they need to be given opportunities where mistakes are experienced and

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accepted as inevitable. Without making and learning from mistakes, failure would remain a concept to avoid. Ricci (2013) describes failure as an “important life lesson” which should be celebrated in the classroom. Davis (2017) writes, “Struggle is one of the primary ways that growth mindset is developed: students figuring out the answer for themselves. Working through problems is how we learn” (p. 12). When considering situations that could offer students opportunities to make mistakes, but also see tangible results, my experience with music came to mind. Davis (2017) discusses the benefits of allowing opportunities for students to try new things in fun, non-threatening ways, and how music “…may be one of the most effective ways of learning that hard work can pay off” (p. 12). O’Neill (2011) confirms students who learn an instrument are more likely to realise that hard work pays off and their ability can improve with effort.

The Inquiry Approach Through my own observations and discussions with my professional learning mentor (PLM) and other teachers in the Innovative Learning Environment (ILE), I identified six learners for the inquiry. These students exhibited fixed mindset attitudes towards learning and challenges evidenced through comments like, “I find it scary when something is challenging.” My prior observations showed that they avoided potential failure situations and stuck to tasks they knew they would excel in, or simply gave up halfway through a challenge. Dweck (2006, 2009) confirms that these are signs of a fixed mindset. Throughout this process, my aim was to teach students that mistakes and failures do not represent themselves but are a steppingstone towards new learning. With this mindset, I hoped students would be persistent and work through challenges. Learners: I felt six students working in a safe learning environment would be ideal for the inquiry process. Brookfield (2017) discusses how safe and trusting environments are essential for students to take learning risks. I acknowledge this process could be frightening initially as these six students displayed fixed mindsets. By establishing a trusting, group environment, I hoped to create an atmosphere where they felt safe to make mistakes. This stance is supported by Dweck et al. (2014) who note that small group learning allows students to see their difficulties are shared and not unique to themselves. Intervention: My intervention drew on the four research themes explained earlier and my musical experience exploring music as a tool to develop growth mindset learning habits. The inquiry process involved identifying students within an ILE with fixed mindsets and teaching them a simple song on the ukulele. Davis (2017) notes how learning music in the beginning stages requires the acquisition of skills, including correct notes and fingering positions, so mistakes are inevitable and diligent practice is required. With practice, improvement is felt and heard by the player. My inquiry assumption was that progress would be tangible for students, resulting in a memorable experience which may encourage them to persist and work through future challenges.

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My research followed the Teaching as Inquiry model which involves teachers determining their students’ next learning steps (NLS) and identifying the knowledge/ skills students require to meet their goals. Teachers draw on research when creating interventions to target students’ NLS. Once interventions are implemented, they then determine the effectiveness of the intervention on students’ learning (Ministry of Education, 2009). Data collection was qualitative consisting of observations of student work, behaviour, discussion, and reflection. This approach gave me authentic insight into students’ NLS and progress. A key role during the intervention was to be deeply aware of the language I used to encourage risk-taking and persistence while working through mistakes. Observations were made throughout this inquiry. At each session, I noted students’ behaviour, responses, challenges, and the impact specific language and praise had on their willingness to persist. I was not focussed on their musical ability, but rather changes in their attitudes. Ongoing reflection provided opportunities for me to formatively assess how students were developing.

Inquiry in Practice Findings and discussion: The intervention took three weeks with the selected group of students meeting three times per week for 20–30 min. Of the six students, two were particularly set in their fixed mindsets and I will focus primarily on them (Students A and B) throughout this report. Throughout this section, I will report on the stand-out sessions (Sessions one, two, three, six, and nine), participant discussions, and my findings from the intervention.

Session one Session one was an introduction to the instrument and song. We discussed mistakes and challenges and I asked students how challenges make them feel and whether making mistakes is acceptable. This discussion was vital for me to gauge the extent of their fixed mindsets and showed them they were not alone in having such feelings (Dweck et al., 2014). Most said they felt nervous, scared, and worried when something is hard. Some chose to record their feelings in a group brainstorm (Fig. 2.1). I asked, “Do you think it’s OK to make mistakes?” Student B very quickly answered “No.” Student D said, “I think sometimes it’s OK,” then Student B changed her mind and said, “Yeah, it’s OK to make mistakes.” I asked Student B why she initially said no and changed her mind, but she could not explain. It was obvious they all had an idea of what the “right” answer was and gave answers that were not necessarily honest. Perhaps changing the question to, “think of a time when you made a mistake, how did you feel?” or, “Do you think it’s OK that you made that mistake?”

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Fig. 2.1 Feelings brainstorm and discussion

could have assisted in receiving more authentic, personal answers. However, their behaviour confirmed how fixed their mindsets were. Student B was uncomfortable having an independent answer or opinion. During this session, it was essential to create a safe environment. The first discussion about mistakes and challenges was successful and seen in the way students were eager to listen to each other, I chose to continue this approach. I asked the students, “Do you think everyone will find the same things challenging?” and the response was, “No.” When I asked, “What could we say or do to help someone who is struggling with something that we can already do?” students responded saying, “Encourage them,” “Tell them to keep going,” and “Tell them it will be ok.” Finally, I asked, “Do we laugh at them?” and they responded, “No, we should never laugh.” I introduced the first chord to students, and this proved challenging for all. I was keenly aware of my language encouraging the students to persist and I noticed all were engaged and eager to keep playing. I focussed on using words like “hard-working” and “determined” as per my research into the impact of language and praise (Cogdill, 2015; Davis & Persellin, 2017; Dweck, 2006, 2009, 2015). Had I focussed on ability and talent, I wondered whether these students would have been as eager to persist. Unfortunately, Student A missed the first session. I had previously noticed Student A’s tendency to avoid situations during a classroom art activity. He refused to do this and appeared visibly uncomfortable. He explained he hates doing art around others because he worries what it looks like when compared. Knowing how he compares himself meant I was conscious of how he would feel joining the group knowing the other students had started.

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Session Two In this first session that Student A joined, we read the book “Your Fantastic Elastic Brain” by JoAnn Deak which teaches students about parts of the brain and how learning new things helps the brain to grow. Before reading, I asked students to brainstorm everything they knew about the brain. Their responses were similar (Fig. 2.2). Student A was able to share further knowledge such as “The brain is the most important part of the body, most complex part of the body, it has long-term memory and short-term memory” (Fig. 2.3). I deliberately organised Student A’s first session to be about the brain as I knew he is interested in science and would feel comfortable sharing his knowledge in the learning environment before learning the instrument. The other students had already learnt a chord. Jumping straight into the ukulele could have put him off completely without allowing him to first feel safe in the group. I did not want him to feel as though he was far behind or not as good as the others. After reading the book, I asked students to write down one or two new things they learnt from the book about the brain. All had grasped the idea that the brain can grow and stretch and that persistence and trying new/challenging tasks helps the brain grow. Two responses were, “I didn’t know it could stretch to be very elastic” (Fig. 2.4), and “Trying new things and doing hard things is good for our brain and that helps it to grow more.” This session about the brain’s malleability confirmed Yeager and Dweck’s (2012) research that teaching students about the brain’s ability to grow through hard work can help students view challenges in a more positive light. All students were unaware that persistence through challenging tasks or trying new things is good for the brain. I was also able to reference this book in following sessions to remind students about the brain’s capabilities. During this session, I also introduced the concepts of growth mindset and fixed mindset. Despite the students’ understanding of the brain’s elasticity, growth and fixed mindsets were concepts that I had to re-visit several times for students to fully grasp. Fig. 2.2 Common prior knowledge of the brain among students

Fig. 2.3 Student A’s prior knowledge of the brain

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Fig. 2.4 Knowledge of the malleability of the brain post reading

Session Three Session three was the first ukulele session with all present. When student A first tried holding the ukulele, he quickly put it down and said, “I’m not doing it, I can’t do it, it feels too weird.” I focussed on the language I used to encourage him to persist, asking the rest of the group “How does it feel for all of you? Do you agree it feels weird?” All confirmed it was uncomfortable with one saying, “It just feels weird because we haven’t done it before.” I reminded Student A of the book we read and how learning new things is challenging at first but by persisting through the challenge we can improve. He proceeded to pick up the ukulele again and kept trying. At the end of this session, he was smiling and enjoying playing the instrument. I asked him how he felt at the end, and he said he felt “much better.” I congratulated him for taking a risk and for persisting through the challenge. I explicitly praised him for his determination instead of talent or ability which the literature (Cogdill, 2015; Davis & Persellin, 2017; Dweck, 2006, 2009, 2015) confirms encourages students to persist. I believe the focus on effort reduced Student A’s tendency to negatively compare his ability to others. Student A became eager to continue playing and often asked me when our next session would be.

Session Six The third and final chord was the most complex of the three and provided an opportunity to observe how students would persist through a more significant challenge. As expected, all found this extremely difficult. Student B gave up and focussed on the chords she could play however I noticed Student A closed his eyes and kept trying. He commented later that this allowed him to focus better and keep going even though it was hard. Students C-F had difficulty but were eager to practise. As this was a difficult session, I talked with students about how they felt and what they thought

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could help them persist through the challenging chord. Some responses were like the language I had used throughout each session such as, “I can’t do this yet” (Fig. 2.5). Student A said that telling himself to “Focus, focus, focus, focus” (Fig. 2.6) and closing his eyes helped him to concentrate and keep trying. I wondered whether he would have been as keen on persisting with this difficult chord if I had focussed on praising his ability. Davis (2017) notes errors are often viewed with embarrassment. As reflection became an integral part of the session I noticed, except for Student B, the others became less and less self-conscious of mistakes. After Session six, I spoke with Student B about how she felt in the lesson. She said, “I’m bad at it, it was too hard, I wanted to play the easy bits.” I reminded her of the book we read and suggested instead of saying “I’m bad at it,” she could change her mindset by saying to herself, “I can’t do it yet, but I’ll keep trying.” Student B said, “I have the bad mindset.” It seemed that at this late stage in the intervention, she was still strong in her fixed mindset. In following sessions, I encouraged students to sing and play at the same time. At this point, I noticed how Student B put down the ukulele and focussed purely on singing. She was very eager to participate through singing however very reluctant to play the ukulele. I chose not to pressure her to play and still saw her singing as positive participation. Nonetheless, this did show that she remained strong in her fixed mindset. Fig. 2.5 Examples of students’ strategies

Fig. 2.6 Student A’s strategy

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Session Nine In the final session, the group was able to sing and play the song twice. It was the first time Student B chose to sing without the ukulele. I did not pressure her to play but praised her for her singing efforts. The second time, she sang and played the ukulele without prompting. I praised her for her determination and noted she was visibly proud. Unfortunately, this was the last session. Due to her highly fixed mindset, I believe she requires more regular interventions immersed into all aspects of her learning. Were this to happen, I expect she would progress over time. In a final reflection, I asked students to reflect on the three weeks and think about what they found difficult, how they felt, and what they did when things were hard. I asked students to think of a challenging area in their learning and consider how taking the same steps could help them persist through the challenges. This reflection allowed me to extend students’ understanding and strategies beyond the intervention and into their individual challenges. As Davis (2017) suggests, modelling this for the students initially helps them make the connection between using their ukulele strategies and other challenges in their learning. Most students wrote about division and timetables being the focus in mathematics at the time. Student A said, “Long division and maths times tables are hard. I will practice more and tell myself to focus.” All other students talked about having a growth mindset and not giving up by reminding themselves that they cannot do it yet, but by practicing it will get easier. Due to the short time frame, I did not expect to see significant changes in mindsets. The point of this inquiry was not how well students could play the ukulele but to encourage students to participate in the process of learning something new with the hope of understanding how their brain works and how they can apply the same strategy to other areas of learning. After completing the inquiry, I observed students in their learning to determine if the intervention had had any effect on their mindset. I noticed Students C and E often saying, “It’s OK, keep practicing” to their friends or, “I’ll keep trying.” Student D’s mother advised they have a ukulele at home which he eagerly plays to his family to show them what he has been learning. She was pleasantly surprised to see him doing this. When setting new term goals, Student F chose to “Manage myself through challenges”—showing awareness of his need to work further on resilience and persistence. I noticed Student B still has a strong tendency to give up or avoid difficult tasks and requires explicit support to attempt challenges. I feel the intervention had the biggest impact on Student A. When first holding the instrument, he was very close to giving up but his new knowledge of the malleability of the brain, paired with explicit language targeting growth mindset, encouraged him to persist. By the end of three weeks, he was one of the more confident participants and was able to reflect on his progress from the first session. Following the intervention, one of his teachers advised she had observed him telling other students, “I can play the ukulele” clearly demonstrating his belief in himself. Despite this positive experience, I believe it will take time and more challenging experiences for a growth mindset to become a habit for him.

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From the students’ reflections during and after the process, I noted that all except Student B understood it was their effort that ignited their ability that caused the growth mindset beliefs to grow. However, after this short intervention, it would be unrealistic to expect the students’ mindsets to have shifted completely and immediately. Ricci (2013) describes fixed mindsets as “elasticity that continually wants to spring back” (p. 4) therefore students would need to make conscious efforts to maintain growth mindset beliefs. Music was a successful tool to begin developing growth mindset skills. As research showed, learning an instrument requires diligent practice. Without practice, the students would not have been able to play the song. When all students (including Student B) played and sang in the final session, it was visible to them how far they had come, and they were obviously proud of themselves. This study has shown some of the many benefits music offers in a learning environment. As someone who has experience with a fixed mindset, this inquiry has provided a great opportunity for me to strengthen my understanding and awareness of fixed and growth mindsets. Through extensive research, I feel I have strengthened my practice with an emphasis on promoting and developing growth mindset learning habits. I have become deeply aware of the effect language has on students’ motivation, persistence, and belief about themselves. Student A has shown me how a shift in language can encourage students to overcome challenges and, as the intervention progressed, I noticed my use of this language became more natural. Further, providing plenty of opportunities for students to reflect on their progress and challenges to assist them in moving forward rather than demonstrate avoidance or giving up. This is an area of my practice I have possibly overlooked in the past. I plan to research growth mindset development further with the hope of determining strategies to foster growth mindset habits with long-lasting effects.

Reflections on the Inquiry Limitations and benefits: The short time frame of the inquiry limited the extent to which the students’ mindsets could be affected permanently. I noticed students, particularly Students A, C, D, E, and F, show increasing signs of growth mindset development. However, I feel growth mindset development needs to be consistent and constant. Compared to the other students, Student B did not show signs that her mindset had developed enough due to this short time frame. Given the ILE context of the class, the students have three different teachers. In terms of language by the teachers in the space, there was inconsistency. The implication is that a growth mindset approach needs to be applied consistently across multiple learning spaces and teachers and over time for it to properly take root. During discussions, I noticed some students copied each other at first and were conscious of giving the “right” answer, particularly Student B. While this did give me insight into the extent of Student B’s fixed mindset, I was unable to get a straight answer as to how she really felt. Other students showed signs of increasing confidence

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in their own ideas; however, Student B was still highly influenced by the opinions of others. This limited my ability to draw accurate conclusions as her answers were not authentic or independent and raises the question as to whether there may be students who cannot successfully develop a growth mindset. This is a potential area for further study. This inquiry required students to constantly reflect on their feelings, challenges, and strategies. The dispositional focus of the school requires students to use language such as “challenges,” “persistence,” and “resilience” often, meant students already understood these concepts. The teachers in this ILE setting encourage students to reflect regularly, meaning students were familiar with reflective thinking. As the inquiry progressed, I was able to have detailed discussions with the students without having to explicitly support and scaffold them. Students would often approach me to share their reflection on the session without prompting. In other learning environments, it possibly could take longer to introduce these concepts to the students so they can regularly apply reflective thinking to the development of growth mindsets. Concluding comments: This intervention has confirmed how powerful language and praise can be in encouraging students to persist through challenges. Paired with reflection and the appropriate education of the malleability of the brain, most students showed persistence through challenges. Using music as a tool to create a situation where students were challenged proved to be successful as their progress over each session was visible to them and the result was enjoyable. The students came away from the intervention with a new skill that I encouraged them to remember was challenging at first but, their persistence meant they overcame their challenges. Students A and B were strongest in their fixed mindsets, as seen in their reluctance at times to participate. I was able to encourage Student A to persevere and saw his pride in the final session when reflecting on how far he had come. Reflection allowed students to explore strategies that can transfer into other areas of learning. Despite the positive progress students made during the intervention, further consistency and continuing sessions would ensure their mindset progress became habitual rather than a one-off experience.

Reflecting on Inquiry a Year on as a First-Year Teacher… Since completing this inquiry, I have continued to use the four research themes in my daily practice across all curriculum areas. Although over time I have seen a shift in mindset from most students, I have developed the view that a lack of stability in home life and/or mental well-being can be a significant barrier in developing growth mindset learning habits. I believe fixed mindset attitudes at home have hindered some students’ abilities to believe either that mistakes are acceptable, or that they can achieve. Students who have responded well to the language and reflection habits I used consistently over time were not struggling with mental well-being or strongly fixed mindset attitudes at home. I have no doubt that consistency of effort-targeted language, acceptance of mistakes, error reflection, and education about how the

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brain works is significant in developing a growth mindset, not only throughout their education but, also in other aspects of students’ lives. My next step is to identify students who would benefit from the consistency and influence of growth mindset attitudes at home, the objective being to work with the wh¯anau of these students to introduce them to the four research themes and ensure a more consistent approach. This could potentially allow for greater shifts in mindset over time.

References Brookfield, S. D. (2017). Becoming a critically reflective teacher (2nd ed.). Wiley. Cogdill, S. H. (2015). Applying research in motivation and learning to music education: What the experts say. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 33(2), 49–57. https://doi. org/10.1177/8755123314547909 Davis, V., & Persellin, D. C. (2017). Harnessing the power of failure in your music classroom: Grit, growth mindset, & greatness. Southwestern Musician, 85(7), 68–73. Davis, V. W. (2017). Error reflection: Embracing growth mindset in the general music classroom. General Music Today, 30(2), 11–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/1048371316667160 Deak, J. (2010). Your fantastic elastic brain. Little Pickle Press, Inc. Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. RandomHouse. Dweck, C. S. (2009). Mindsets: Developing talent through a growth mindset. Olympic Coach, 21(1), 4–7. Dweck, C. (2015). Carol Dweck revisits the growth mindset. Education Week, 35(5), 20–24. https:// doi.org/10.1177/1048371316667160 Dweck, C. S., Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2014). Academic tenacity: Mindsets and skills that promote long-term learning. Gates Foundation. Ministry of Education. (2009). Teaching as inquiry. http://nzcurriculum.tki.org.nz/Curriculum-sto ries/Case-studies/Teachers-as-learners-Inquiry/Teaching-as-inquiry O’Neill, S. A. (2011). Developing a young musician’s growth mindset: The role of motivation, self-theories, and resiliency. In I. Deliège & J. W. Davidson (Eds.), Music and the mind: Essays in honour of John Sloboda (pp. 31–46). Oxford University Press. Ricci, M. C. (2013). Mindsets in the classroom. Prufrock Press. Yeager, D. S., & Dweck, C. S. (2012). Mindsets that promote resilience: When students believe that personal characteristics can be developed. Educational Psychologist, 47(4), 302–314. https:// doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2012.722805 Yeager, D., Walton, G., & Cohen, G. L. (2013). Addressing achievement gaps with psychological interventions. Phi Delta Kappan, 94(5), 62–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2012.722805

Chapter 3

Zines and Literacy: Enhancing Boys’ Engagement with Literacy Lessons Ryan Hammond

Developing the Inquiry

Inquiry focus: Techniques for enhancing boy's engagement in literacy lessons. In particular, taking ownership of literacy output through engagement in social connection and experimenting with visual literacy.

Learners: Learners were selected from the school's gifted and talented (GATE) program (mixed gender) for writing. The group consisted of boys who had the technical abilities required for the project and who displayed lower comparable performance capabilities to girls in the group. Teaching approach/intervention: Introduction of zines as a literacy format that provided learners with opportunites to experiment with visual elements of text in a broader sense and with appeal directed to explicit audiences.

During my time in a teacher training course, I noticed something that I had long heard about—girls are stronger writers than boys. In New Zealand, girls, from an early age, tend to do better at reading and writing than their counterparts. Reasons for this are complex and hard to pin down. I wanted to look at ways of altering my teaching practice and introduce an intervention I hoped would spark the interest of boy writers participating in literacy at my partnership school. On a previous placement in a year two class the boys, on average, tended to have lower interest in reading than girls, especially during sustained silent reading time. The teacher’s introduction of books from the Dogman series led to a dramatic increase in their interest in reading. They were enamoured with the art style accompanying R. Hammond (B) Wellington, New Zealand © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 J. R. Jhagroo and P. M. Stringer (eds.), Professional Learning from Classroom-Based Inquiries, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5099-7_3

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the storyline. They studied the pictures and attempted to recreate them at any time available to them. I noticed that these boys connected strongly with the visual literacy elements of the stories such as flip pages and the comic book style layout. They needed pictorial representation to delve deeper into literacy. I considered ways I could foster this level of interest to enhance my literacy practice using zines as an intervening motivational tool. Zines, as a literary form, have an interesting history as part of subcultural movements. What makes them great for bringing into a classroom and teaching literacy is their endless flexibility. A zine can be political or social in nature. Zines have been used for spreading fandom (of Star Trek, or punk bands), political ideas (they were instrumental in some feminist scenes of the 1990s—fans of the feminist punk scene riot grrrl adopted zines) and are popular in DIY subcultures. The aforementioned history indicates flexibility of format that allows learners to make a zine that is completely unique and individual. One can make a zine about things one is most enthusiastic about. The format requires consideration of layout and organisation, and subsequent proper implementation requires robust planning. For me, the zine literary format combined all the strands of literacy whilst also incorporating the visual element I noted the boys enjoyed. I hoped it would be a fun, easy format for learners to express themselves in a literacy sense given the curriculum achievement objectives I wanted to achieve. Research that informs the intervention and details pertaining to the inquiry/data collection processes are outlined next. Findings from the implemented unit are discussed subsequently before briefly evaluating strengths and weaknesses of the intervention.

Review of Literature Roswell and Kendrick (2013) argue that in literacy education, written language has been prioritised in teaching over visual semiotics. In my experience through undertaking teacher training, I have seen this. Roswell and Kendrick write that this has an overall negative impact on learner education and believe that including “hidden” literacies (drawing, performances, and emerging multimedia literacies, such as film and video games) into literacy programmes would strengthen literacy programmes and help increase appeal and interest for boys. The authors refer to a segment from Tapscott’s study (2009) which argues that young learners (part of the “net gen”) have grown up ensconced in digital media. They have, from an early age, learnt how to read images and visual texts. Tapscott notes that they are more visual than their parents (I would extend this to every previous generation, given the complete ubiquity of screens and images in modern society). Further, Tapscott suggests that there is evidence that college-aged members of this generation learn better through visual imagery than text-based ones (2009). If Tapscott’s research is given credence, it is a necessity that literacy education needs to be expanded to include comprehensive teaching of visual language. Indeed, it becomes tantamount for the success of literacy in young learners. I argue that to make education feel important and relevant

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to learners, educators must embrace the findings of Tapscott (2009) and Roswell and Kendrick (2013). Duncan-Andrade and Morrell’s paper (2008) further reinforces the idea that, “tacit understandings of pop culture by adolescent boys” should be incorporated into literacy education” (2008, p. 588). These theoretical conceptualisations underpinned my inquiry unit and the scope of what I wanted to achieve. The approach to self-conception and efficacy outlined in Gibbons et al. (2018) was useful when it came to expanding my knowledge of reasons why boys may be less successful writers at an early age. They begin by quoting Weiss (1987, p. 88) that “self-concept is defined as the “descriptions or labels that an individual attaches to him or herself, such as physical attributes, behavioural characteristics, or emotional qualities” (Gibbons et al., 2018, p. 221). They write that those with higher selfconceptions tend to find motivation to persist in the face of obstacles—an important attribute to develop in learners to enable them to be successful. It follows that greater self-conception is also linked to willingness to participate and demonstrate perseverance. Self-conception, though not a major focus of my inquiry, speaks to the underlying motivation of learners and may be a factor that inhibits success of boys as writers. Harter (1996) believes that self-conception “plays a critical role in how children feel and behave” (p. 221). Reading Carroll’s (2016) article, Leveraging boys’ engagement with gaming for improving literacy, gave me some insights into how zines could effectively engage boys’ literacies and interests. The study found that 96% of United States of America youth played video games as did 92% of Australian youth. This number is similar in New Zealand. Carroll (2016) found that video games require elevated levels of literacy and creativity for success and that literacy in video games is inherently a social phenomenon. I witnessed this in the classroom with boys retelling and sharing their video game experiences with one another. The social infrastructure they participated in lent itself to my inquiry as zines are designed with a focus on distribution of messaging through social spheres. Another key point from the article is that literacy education must value the students’ worldview (Carroll, 2016). I interpreted this point as suggesting that literacy programmes needed to have a strong student voice component which the freedom of subject choice underpinning zines provides. Carroll’s article had interesting suggestions about boys’ literacy experiences that traditional education does not necessarily capture. Carroll (2016) writes that boys who did not identify as good readers and writers at school were making extensive contributions to online wikis and walkthroughs and forums about games. Further, boys were reading extensively in these areas too. This suggests that boys are sitting on a wealth of untapped literacy with links to metacognitive activities associated with gaming as they read and write about how to effectively enhance their abilities to play video games. According to the work of Carroll (2016) and Smith and Wilhelm’s (2009), boys learn best when learning is structured like a game, especially when it creates things like a sense of purpose, rules to define fair play, clear feedback system, and choice. These findings are similar to the findings of the 2007 report by the Ministry of Education (2007b) which provided insight on boys’ participation, engagement, and achievement in New Zealand schools.

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Franco and Unrath (2015) wrote about engaging boys as writers which provided insights into my approach. Their findings highlighted the importance of incorporating art and visual work (drawing) into writing. They argue that bringing art into literacy programmes had a “calming, centring” effect (p. 28) and enabled them to more effectively organise and develop ideas. Franco and Unrath’s writing further justified the idea that boys’ literacy is social in nature and grows from relationships. As outlined earlier, the idea of zines gives boys a tangible good to distribute amongst their friends with the potential to engage each other in conversation. The output can become something through which boys can strengthen their social bonds and help incentivise engagement with the literary process of designing and creating a zine. Collins (2017) conducted research in New Zealand into how the disparity in achievement between boys and girls in reading and writing has grown since 2010. Using national standards, 79.4% of girls achieved the standard whilst 63.4 of boys did. This data gave me justification for focussing my unit on the output of boys in a literacy programme. It was something I had previously observed, but data gleaned from Collins’ study highlights focussed attention on the need for an intervention that encourages boys to engage with literacy. Guzzetti et al. (2015) wrote about zines extending content knowledge. The main point that I took from this was that zines are a great tool for extending learners because they allow for multi-textual forms of writing (through the intersection of collage, imagery, graphics, drawing, and writing). This allows learners to explore literacy in non-traditional texts which other research outlined above suggests is a useful way for engaging boys in literacy. As I have argued, it allows learners to blend these forms and draw on their own strengths/social bonds to create zines that are personally meaningful, and which allows them to strengthen social bonds and creativity. Hayes et al. (2006) argue that pedagogy for literacy teaching needs to be more intellectually stimulating, connected to boys’ lives and the world beyond the classroom and more socially supportive with clear pathways to assessment aligned with curriculum goals. This, they note, is central to engaging boys. Zines allow boys to bring in their interests from outside the classroom and to take risks in the way they tackle projects. Drawing explicit links to curriculum goals is something that I was mindful of in terms of providing my boy learners with structure and purpose. The strong threads that emerge from the literature review incorporated into my intervention unit are that boys need literacy education to be social. Further, the approach allows them to draw on external interests and space to explore personal interests in an environment with clear goals and structure.

The Inquiry Approach I felt this inquiry would provide me with literacy tools to use as a classroom teacher. The inquiry process is an ongoing one designed to help improve my teaching outcomes. The first step in the inquiry process involved identifying a need and that

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meant altering my teaching practice to enhance literacy outcomes for boys. The second step was to conduct research to understand best practice in literacy and incorporate valid ideas into the programme I designed in accordance with my teaching style. The literature review provided me with ideas to incorporate into the unit with the intention of boosting boys’ interest and investment in literacy. The next steps involved enacting the intervention in the classroom, gathering data, and measuring the effect of the intervention on engagement and outcomes. I considered that towards the end point of the inquiry process, it may well be necessary to return to step one and repeat the cycle until the desired effect was achieved. The approach utilised for data collection was qualitative and focussed on direct observation. This seemed the natural and obvious choice as I wanted to see how the boys engaged in learning. Walker et al. (2015) note that, “teacher judgement of student behaviour and performance is an accurate, cost-efficient, valuable, and important test of a student’s school success” (p. 365). Part of the observation process included taking notes and reflecting on lessons during delivery and immediately afterwards to ensure that I had sound data to draw on. The intervening unit was scheduled to run once a week over the final seven weeks of Term three. I was unable to deliver one session which had to be cancelled due to school’s administrative requirements. The Learners: The learners that were selected attended the school’s gifted and talented (GATE) programme for writing. My rationale underpinning this surmounted to collaborating with learners that had the technical abilities required for the project but also ensured there was a disparity in group performance between the girls and the boys. This information was gleaned through observation of completed work and discussions with the teacher that led the group. The intervention involved teaching a new literacy medium (zines) to learners. It involved utilising strategies identified via research with links to visual literacy and social elements. The intervention aimed at assisting boys to conceive of writing as encompassing a broadened scope that could enhance engagement.

Inquiry in Practice Findings and discussion: Zines were a new format for the learners in the group. I established this at the outset of the first lesson where one of the learners in the group had made a zine in a French class and no one else had really heard of them. This was ideal for the sake of the intervention as I wanted to teach them about this new format and inform them about its strengths and limitations. In the first session, we looked closely at zines, their historical context and why we wanted to deliver messages through a zine. There was a discussion about how part of the zine is the writing, but equally important are the aspects of visual design language that must be incorporated. This was important because, as established in the literature review, the visual element of literacy is of crucial importance but is often overlooked in literacy education. I had brought zines with me so that the boys could

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examine and evaluate what was effective about them as well as consider choices the authors would have made. We discussed diverse ways of laying out a zine including comic, narrative, and more traditional magazine-style formats. I explained that they were to begin thinking about what they wanted to do for their zine but that this initial session was mostly focussed around discussing what a zine was and why they are useful in developing literacy. I wanted this first session to really front-load ideas I wanted the learners to achieve. The intent behind that was to ensure that they had a clear sense of purpose for the sessions that followed. I hoped this would help the boys focus on their learning and initiate thinking about their passions for inclusion into a zine. I made special note that the product would be reproducible, and they would have the chance to share this with their friends. This way I attempted to bring in that social element that Franco and Unrath (2015) and other scholars noted was essential in developing a literacy programme. The unit I developed aligned with the achievement objectives from the English strand of the curriculum. This was purpose driven in terms of design as I wanted to change and expand the learners’ knowledge of what it meant to be a writer and reader of English language content. For processes and strategies, one achievement objective particularly targeted by this unit is “recognises and understands the connections between oral, written and visual language” (Ministry of Education, 2007a). This aligns with suggestions of Hayes et al. (2006), who said that making clear links to assessments and curriculum outcomes helps boys invest in the learning. I thought about ways I could bring achievement objectives such as “seeks feedback and makes changes to text to improve clarity, meaning and effect” into the unit. This was demonstrated through evolution of ideas during the making of their individual zine. For example, student X wanted to create a gemstone fact file. We thought about ways we could make that idea more unique and challenging. During a feedback session, student Z asked him if he could rewrite songs to be about gems. He thought about that idea and settled on taking nursery rhymes and rewriting them about gemstones. I observed that this idea sparked his interest massively and it was a positive development of his thinking. It became a challenge for him to think of the best nursery rhymes to adapt. Carroll (2016) suggests that successful literacy programmes bring the learner’s interest into the activity and X found success through bringing his fascination with gemstones into the class. He worked on his idea, solicited feedback from others (for example, me and the classroom teacher), and grew his idea in a stronger direction. Another aspect of the English curriculum that the learners had a strong focus on through this process was extending and challenging their understanding of “purposes and audiences” (Ministry of Education, 2007a). Hayes et al. (2006) and Carroll (2016) both argue that bringing that social element into literacy is critical to engaging boys and social interaction helps give them a strong purpose as well. The learners were challenged to develop their unique personal zine with their audience in mind. We discussed who would read the zine and why, what readers would need to know, and other considerations. This enabled them to work through their ideas and extend them in productive and interesting ways. Many, like student X had an initial idea surmounting to writing a “fact file,” facts about animals from the Amazon or gems or

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sharks. Given that they had ready access to the internet, we discussed if those ideas would make interesting zines for their peers to read. I asked if everything in their zine was easily found via search engine, were they truly fulfilling the purpose of making a zine. I found this a useful line of questioning and engaging them in their idea and getting them to think about how it could be adapted to be unique and original. As part of bringing the visual element into the unit, one lesson focussed on what makes for an interesting front and back cover. I began by telling a brief story about going to a Zinefest in Wellington where there were tables and tables of zines. In that situation, the cover was the most important part eye-catching element. Using the ideas laid out in Roswell and Kendrick (2013), I knew that explicit teaching about visual elements had the potential to engage them in the unit. I encouraged the learners to have a discussion in pairs about book and magazine covers they had seen that were entrancing or eye catching. This was to encourage them to evaluate what visual elements were most effective based on their experience. This was then used to co-construct criteria for what we thought would make a great cover for their personal zine. They had to consider criteria such as font choice, colour, layout, and picture which, when combined, would constitute an eye-catching cover. The creation of criteria gave them a checklist of things to accomplish and as Smith and Wilhelm (2009) note provided a sense of purpose, rules, clear feedback system, and choice beneficial for engagement. An interesting observation I made was that even in the context of the gifted and talented (GATE) writing group, there was a clear disparity in production rates between boys and girls. One factor that contributed to this disparity was that the boys had a higher absentee rate due to illness and conflicts with other extracurricular activities. They tended to average one missed session more than the girls. By the end of the term, a considerable number of girls had finished or were close to finishing their zines compared to just one boy who was in a similar position. I also would attribute the output gap to different approaches to planning. As part of the teaching process, I made it clear that a strong plan would lead to a strong draft and the best way to do this was to write a plan for each page of the zine before beginning a drafting process for those pages. I realised, once we moved through the process, that the girls had understood the point and idea behind constructing a solid plan whereas the boys produced comparatively bare bone plans. This meant that their drafting process took them a lot longer as they were having to plan as they drafted. On reflection, this was a point that my intervention could have better targeted. Through conversations with the boys in the GATE group as well as boys from the wider year six cohort, I learnt that although they understood planning was a requirement, they had little appreciation of its point in terms of importance. They tended to write a plan and then move on with little reference to the plan. Although I modelled what a plan could look like, on reflection stronger, more explicit modelling of recalling the plan during a drafting process would have helped the boys see the value of planning in more detail. It is difficult to state the effectiveness of the intended outcome with regards to some of the learners because of the progress that they made. For example, student Q wanted to do his zine as a series of featured interviews with teachers in the school. This required him to go and interview the teachers which he was supposed to do

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during a morning tea or a lunchtime interval. Unfortunately, due to commitments Q and I had, it was difficult for me to track his whereabouts and offer support during intervals. He needed to get four interviews completed with five teachers. By term’s end, he had interviewed two teachers for his zine. I struggled to get that buy in to the project from him. I felt it important to give him the freedom to pursue that idea because he was keen on it, but the structure of his project proved a hindrance, and I was unable to address this issue in the time for the project. One zine “The Day in a Life of a Vegetarian,” by student U, did not meet what he wanted to achieve. He wanted to write a zine of vegetarian recipes which I suggested was the sort of thing that was easily found on Google. He planned to adapt his idea to make it stronger and more unique. We discussed writing stories about experiences of going places and not being served vegetarian food. He was excited about the possibilities of writing about being a vegetarian at such an early age and the difficulties this posed. I signed off on that idea as I thought it was interesting and would give him space to communicate his experiences through visual and written means. He completed most of his work outside of the class. At some point, during his work outside of class, he returned to his original idea. His zine had a decent front and back cover but only one short story on the first page about his experience following which he wrote about a vegetarian dish from five countries that he enjoyed. This led to pages with writing such as “Bubble tea (also known as pearl milk tea, bubble milk, and bubble tea) is created in Tainan and Taichung. Bubble tea is personally my favourite drink of all time mostly because of the super chewy bobas.” I was proud that he had completed the zine but felt that it had not pushed him enough either visually or with his written language. He eschewed visual elements writing the name of each dish in the colours of the country’s flag with little else in the way of visuals. This speaks to Roswell and Kendrick’s paper that suggests that written language is and has been privileged over visual (2013). U said he felt comfortable with the writing component and did not know how to incorporate visual elements into his design. Despite discussing the importance of ensuring strong visual elements are features of zines, he opted to leave these elements out. In the future, I would encourage learners to think of the visual as the primary element of zines with the written component being complementary, rather than the other way around, which is what U produced. Overall, the boys were challenged by zine formatting requirements and some success in incorporating ideas around structure and planning was apparent as evidenced by the final output (both the completed ones and the uncompleted ones). There is cause to have a more targeted approach to reduce gaps such as more focussed attention placed on planning and focussing on centrality of visual elements. The unit confirmed that boys’ engagement spiked by allowing freedom of choice of topic and ensuring the social element was fostered continuously.

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Reflections on the Inquiry Limitations, Benefits, and Concluding Comments There were things I learned over the course of this inquiry that will benefit me as a teacher. The importance of teaching visual literacy to complement more traditional teaching is going to be essential with today’s learners who are entrenched in visual literacy. For boys to succeed at literacy and work towards closing the gap with girls, they need cues incorporated from video games such as feedback mechanisms, rules, and choice. They also require literacy to be coupled with a social element as literacy is inseparable from their desire to socially connect with each other. This inquiry also had some limitations around their output and some of the unit could be retooled to be more explicitly taught. As noted, it was unfortunate that the learners were unable to complete the project in time. This is a reality faced by educators, as timetable changes require a flexibility that means that it is not always possible to complete work within desired period. This unit suggests the need to look deeper at the explicit teaching of planning. This would help provide an even clearer sense of purpose for learners as well as strengthening crucial skills. There was a difference in output between the girls and the boys with the girls coming much closer to completing the unit than the boys due to their stronger embrace and better understanding of planning. The boys’ plans tended to be simplistic which led to planning “on the fly,” rather than having a strong plan before commencing the draft. Discovering the importance of planning may have allowed them to work productively throughout the process. I think this process has shown the value of foregrounding a visual arts approach with literacy. The discussion around visuals was exciting and engaging for the boys though they tended to incorporate the visuals as a secondary element for the zines. This was a limitation of my approach as I had not stressed enough that visuals and writing should be partners and equal, or even that the visual element was the primary focus with writing secondary. The visual and social elements of the zine were the key aspects and in future, I would seek to make sure the boys understood that concept at every step of the process. Despite the unfinished nature of some projects, I observed creativity and passion coming to the fore in this project and excitement obvious in conversation the boys were having. I am interested in exploring how I can more strongly tie visual literacies into more traditional literacies as learners live in a very visual world. There are plenty of opportunities for me to explore this approach in future with the emerging digital technologies curriculum. An approach I would incorporate more readily in future is providing a checklist format for planning and drafting. I saw some success with that approach for drafting a front and back cover and think it is widely applicable. This calls back to research that boys’ literacy interests are multi-faceted and that incorporating cues from video games, such as strong feedback systems, rules, and clear purpose helps them feel connected to the work.

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The introduction of the new format had benefits for the learners as we had focussed conversations about the purpose of creating a zine and drew strong links to achievement objectives around audiences and style. The strong focus on who the audience was (i.e. their friends) gave them the requisite social ties providing them purpose as well as enhancing their understanding of the writing process. The zines were always designed with an audience in mind which changes the way they approached the writing as they had to consider what the people reading the zine wanted to know. This is an approach that will be influential in my literacy programme moving forward. This Teaching as Inquiry model has provided me with theoretical tools for approaching gaps in my teaching programme. I will be confident in adapting teaching and learning to incorporate new techniques and approaches with the goal of enhancing learning for everyone and making the learning process more meaningful. I will continue to look for ways to bring learners’ wider social worlds into my programme as this approach helps them value the learning opportunities.

Reflecting on Inquiry a Year on as a First-Year Teacher… Looking back, I can see Teaching as Inquiry is a useful framework to adapt and extend a teacher’s programme so that identified areas of need among learners are better addressed. It enables a teacher to be both more specific in their targets and interventions, as well as broader in their approach and flexibility to teaching. However, as a practising teacher, I did not consciously utilise the approach in the classroom. In Aotearoa New Zealand, teachers are tasked with delivering a rich day’s learning to an ever increasingly diverse class of learners, who are at different stages in their learning journey, with different needs, preferences, challenges, and backgrounds. I wouldn’t have it any other way, but it requires substantial planning and differentiation to truly engage all learners and provide them all the best opportunities to reach their goals and potential. I found that the enormous demands placed on teachers and their time hindered my ability and desire to go and read through academic literature, which I did not always have easy access to, in order to search for interventions that would enrich my teaching programme. During the early years of professional practice, much of my programme was still formative—teacher training was brief and there was much to be learned on the job. As a teacher, it is both admirable and desirable to reflect on job improvement and how to do things smarter, better, or more efficiently. For me, that extra work of looking to improve how I was teaching was necessarily a secondary consideration to the establishment of a strongly functioning classroom programme in the first place.

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References Carroll, J. (2016). Leveraging boys’ engagement with gaming for improving literacy. Literacy Learning: The Middle Years, 24(1), 53–64. Collins, S. (2017). Writing gap between girls and boys widens to new record in Education. New Zealand Herald. https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/writing-gap-between-girls-and-boys-wid ens-to-new-record/4BDPJM6FFXWQ53WOHFFXHO2N2Y/ Duncan-Andrade, J., & Morrell, E. (2008). The art of critical pedagogy: The promise of moving from theory to practice in urban schools. Peter Lang. Franco, M., & Unrath, K. (2015). The art of engaging young men as writers. Art Education, 68(3), 26–31. Gibbons, S., Ebbeck, V., Gruno, J., & Battey, G. (2018). Impact of adventure-based approaches on the self-conceptions of middle school physical education students. Journal of Experiential Education, 41(2), 220. Guzzetti, B., Foley, L., & Lesley, M. (2015). “Nomadic knowledge”: Men writing zines for content learning. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 58(7), 591–601. Harter, S. (1996). Historical roots and contemporary issues involving self-concept. In B. A. Bracken (Ed.), Handbook of self-concept: Developmental, social, and clinical considerations (pp. 1–37). Wiley. Hayes, D., Mills, M., Christie, P., & Lingard, B. (2006). Teachers and schooling making a difference: Productive pedagogies, assessment, and performance. Allen & Unwin. Ministry of Education. (2007a). The New Zealand curriculum. Learning Media Limited. Ministry of Education. (2007b). Boys’ achievement: A synthesis of data Report. Learning Policy Frameworks. Roswell, J., & Kendrick, M. (2013). Boys’ hidden literacies: The critical need for the visual. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 7, 587. https://doi.org/10.1002/JAAL.184 Smith, M. W., & Wilhelm, J. (2009). Boys and literacy: Complexity and multiplicity. In L. Christenbury, R. Bomer, & P. Smagorinsky (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent literacy research. Guilford. Tapscott, D. (2009). The next generation takes the lead. McGraw Hill. Walker, H. M., Marquez, B., Yeaton, P., Pennefather, J., Forness, S. R., & Vincent, C. G. (2015). Teacher judgment in assessing students’ social behavior within a response-to-intervention framework: Using what teachers know. Education & Treatment of Children, 38(3), 363–382. Weiss, M. R. (1987). Self-esteem and achievement in children’s sport and physical activity. In D. Gould & M. Weiss (Eds.), Advances in pediatric sport sciences, vol. 2: Behavioral issues (pp. 87–119). Human Kinetics.

Chapter 4

How Can I Reimagine My Practice so That I Teach ‘Big Ideas’ Rather Than Subject-Specific Content? Sarah Curtain

Inquiry focus Increase engagement of a group of learners in Inquiry Based Learning (IBL) when the focus area is not self-selected. Use the key competency, 'participation and contribution', to measure and track engagement. Broaden understanding of teaching through 'big ideas' not subject-specific content to enhance engagement in IBL.

Learners Three year 5/6 students with personality traits that extend from outward displays of selfassertiveness in learning to being reserved. Teaching approach/intervention Teaching using a 'big idea ' approach rather than subject specific content. Utilisation of the key competency, 'participation and contribution', to measure and track engagement in IBL.

Developing the Inquiry Inquiry-based learning (IBL) is a multifaceted pedagogical process that consists of generating learner curiosity by finding a ‘hook’ topic which then, as a class or individual, involves exploring various avenues of the learning area beyond what is considered traditional data (Gillies & Nicholas, 2015). Lehn (2018) notes that individuals learn best when placed in a minimally guided setting with opportunities S. Curtain (B) Balmoral School, Auckland, New Zealand e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 J. R. Jhagroo and P. M. Stringer (eds.), Professional Learning from Classroom-Based Inquiries, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5099-7_4

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to discover and explore new information for themselves. When utilising an Inquirybased approach, integration of disciplines across the New Zealand Curriculum (NZC) is an added benefit as teaching expands the boundaries of single-subject teaching and encourages learners to create meaning across the learning spectrum (Kidman & Casinader, 2017). Alongside this, teachers have less responsibility regarding creating content as the process is learner-led (Erickson et al., 2017). In some cases, the teacher presents a provocation to ignite an inquiry, or the class might have a group discussion about relevant topics of interest they wish to research. The purpose of this study is to improve my pedagogical practice by teaching through ‘big ideas’ rather than subject-specific content. This teaching approach has a range of names, including discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, and IBL. The practicum school I am based in is considered a full primary (new entrants to year eight intermediate) and specialises in teaching through IBL. Following discussions with members of the school community, I discovered that they only run one inquiry topic at any one time. Freedom of discovery is a key component of IBL. Staff had previously tried running multiple learner-led research projects simultaneously with IBL. Even though a substantial portion of teaching and learning involves learners being active participants, dependence on guidance and support from the teacher continues. A related challenge, according to my adjunct lecturer, means teachers experience difficulties associated with scaffolding multiple inquiries and supplying the necessary tools, materials, and resources for learning. For this reason, the teacher begins by overseeing a collaborative class brainstorm regarding areas and topics the learners might be interested in discovering followed by deciding on a final topic by voting or combining multiple learning areas that naturally fit together. Challenges juxtaposed with elements of IBL subsequently sparked my curiosity to discover more about learner reaction given their passion about a topic that did not get selected. All kinds of questions began surfacing in my mind following the introduction of this approach to teaching. How do learners remain engaged in a topic they did not originally want? What is the role of the teacher in this situation? How do they help to foster participation and engagement within the classroom? Research shows that when students are not particularly interested in a subject or do not find it intellectually stimulating, they find it difficult to demonstrate engagement, retain information, and stay focused (D’Mello & Graesser, 2012). According to Marsh (2008), engagement is measured when students’ conduct authentic learning that is collaborative within a range of multidisciplinary tasks and that emphasises exploration.

Review of Literature The purpose of this literature review is to establish the theoretical framework, definitions, and key terms connected to IBL and explore the role of the teacher as a facilitator in conjunction with student engagement. One limitation of the review is

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the lack of New Zealand based studies which meant broadening the scope to include a global environment. Inquiry-based learning (IBL) and student engagement: A substantial number of studies suggest the growth of various learning types being implemented throughout modern education (Gillies & Nicholas, 2015). Gone is the traditional method whereby the teacher does all the talking and students are expected to listen and follow instructions. Modern learning experiences are designed to cater for diverse students across the board (Gillies & Nicholas, 2015). Dewey’s earlier work saw him predict this shift in thinking and prompted the introduction of IBL which calls for education to transform the younger generation to respond to shifting economic, technological, and political demands of the twenty-first century (Dewey, 1938). Through the process of inquiry and discovery, students learn how to ‘think critically and creatively, and how to make discoveries—through inquiry, reflection, exploration, experimentation, and trial and error’ (Alberta Education, 2012). Erickson et al. (2017) attributes IBL as encouraging learners to experience a new level of complexity within their learning that shifts from earlier methods which are heavily structured. Rather than focusing on students’ ability to recall information or follow classroom procedures, this new style of learning/assessment asks students to demonstrate deeper understandings of real-world problems (Erickson et al., 2017). By doing so, student engagement is enhanced because it takes away the stress of having to memorise one correct answer and fosters teachers’ use of formative assessments to provide progress updates to address any gaps of knowledge. Aslan (2017) states that environments based on inquiry, encourage students to independently ask questions, participate in research, reflect, and clarify to strengthen the truthfulness of their comprehension and problem-solving capabilities. In contrast, Kidman and Casinader (2017) highlight that some students need frameworks for learning through focused attention on single-subjects, and IBL is not necessarily going to benefit all learning styles. Their research shows that inquiry should be combined with instructional lessons along with teacher direction to keep learners on the right track (Kidman & Casinader, 2017). They note that too much freedom may result in a lack of focus and distraction from the main purpose. They believe learning involves making observations, posing questions, planning investigations, analysing data, and proposing answers (Kidman & Casinader, 2017) and until students understand the process of inquiry, there must be guidance and scaffolding from the teacher. Role of the teacher: Research suggests that many teachers find the pedagogical approach of IBL demanding as it often remains unclear what they should be doing to foster this approach to education within the classroom (Gillies & Nichols, 2015). One study identified how it is difficult to find an appropriate balance when teaching between student-led, teacher-led, or a mixture of approaches (Dochy et al., 2003). Dewey did not believe in having the teacher simply stand in front of the class and be a vessel of knowledge transmitting the required information to be absorbed by students (Dewey, 1938). He suggested that education should be a partnership where teachers, being facilitators of inquiry, share in the responsibility designated to students to apply agency and research their own areas of interest (Dewey, 1938). This prevents IBL

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from becoming an ‘anything-goes’ or ‘free-for-all’ exploration with no clear sense of direction making learning difficult for teachers to assess. Aslan (2017) reinforces this approach and believes it empowers teachers so they feel prepared by the ‘unknown’ challenges an inquiry may pose. According to Weinbaum (2004), because teachers often conduct their own professional inquiries for pedagogical growth, they should see it as an opportunity to pass on their expertise and skill sets to students.

The Inquiry Approach This research utilises the ‘Teaching as Inquiry’ model whereby the teacher responds to the learning happening in the classroom and develops pedagogical or learningbased goals they would like to implement to improve student outcomes (Ministry of Education, 2007). Following their intervention, the teacher modifies their approach depending on the emerging needs of learners (Ministry of Education, 2007). The model is teacher driven with students participating when specific individual and/or class-based goals are identified. For the purpose of this research, three learners were selected from my year five and six placement class. Two had strong personalities, were self-assertive with their learning, and were enthusiastic about their desired areas of inquiry. Here, I was curious if their level of enthusiasm towards learning would maintain momentum if their inquiry topics were not self-selected. The third was selected because of his/her reserved nature; that is, tending to hold back from contributing, especially in group discussions, despite having a range of ideas. My Professional Learning Mentor (PLM) and I thought this contrast of personalities could be interesting to explore when observing participation given the nature of my inquiry. My intervention is focused on enhancing engagement of my selected learners who have interests by finding elements to combine with the class’s ‘big idea’. I saw an opportunity to apply this to my investigation by observing my priority learners whose ideas were not selected and monitoring their engagement throughout the class inquiry by utilising the key competency ‘participation and contribution’ (Ministry of Education, 2007). The Ministry of Educations’ five key competencies were developed to encourage teachers and learners to be aware of their educational capabilities and tendencies (Ministry of Education, 2007). I believe ‘participation and contribution’ will be an effective tool to measure engagement against when demonstrating how the learners are tracking throughout the inquiry as it is based on active and authentic learning. When facilitating the class discussion regarding the new inquiry focus, I looked for an idea that functioned as a metaphorical umbrella which allowed me to combine multiple desired curriculum areas from the student’s interests. This could minimise the outcome if the learner’s ideas were not selected, and their input was not deemed ‘good enough’ or worthy of being explored. By enhancing engagement of the selected

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learners, my assumption is that they will demonstrate the ability to engage in independent thinking processes, spark curiosity, and increase motivation by drawing on prior knowledge and experiences. Methods and procedures conducted within this study were qualitative; that is, observations were used to record the results. The context of the study is one class of Year 5 and 6 students, with a focus on monitoring engagement of three selected learners. Throughout my three weeks of full-control teaching, I recorded levels of engagement shown by the selected group over time following the application of the intervention. These initial observations were then compared against the key competency ‘participation and contribution’ to assess their growth within the class inquiry.

Inquiry in Practice Findings and discussion: The levels of engagement are specific to the selected learners because of the intervention of IBL. Due to the nature of IBL, minimal guidance was usually offered throughout the lessons as it is a predominantly student-led experience (Kidman & Casinader, 2017). Planning occurred following each inquiry lesson as I wanted the students to decide what direction to explore and from that point, relevant tasks and information were made available for them to pursue. Advocates of this pedagogical approach imply that teaching instructions should enhance learning strategies which learners can draw on from prior experiences to independently achieve their goals (Weinbaum, 2004) and, depending on each student’s capabilities, they are able to explore the area at greater depths or have support from the teacher in the form of workshops. Development of the ‘big idea’: The implementation of the big idea to be used as the intervention resulted from a class brainstorm where potential inquiry ideas were discussed. Because the class was previously exploring construction earlier in the term, the theme of construction remained a popular area of interest. There was a unanimous agreement that hands-on work was enjoyable for the learners, and they wanted to continue the momentum of tangibly making something. Minimal guidance was given during this discussion which meant students had to engage in thoughtful conversation to develop a new inquiry topic. A range of areas were identified by students including historical events or animals. However, over the course of the conversation, town planning was naturally introduced. The learners were drawn to this idea of looking at communities around the world and eventually building their own class community. A vote took place, and most of the interest went towards town planning. The intervention of a class brainstorm provided an opportunity for students to be the drivers of their own learning while taking responsibility for the content, which in turn increases their motivation towards the class inquiry (Aslan, 2017). It should be noted that this also reflects the philosophy of Reggio Emilia, which encompasses teachers who consider relevant interests of the class that is also developmentally

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appropriate. Once the big idea was chosen, I had to think about how this topic of town planning would enhance student thinking along with my own professional learning. Using student engagement to enhance planning: I wanted to maximise the topic throughout my full-control teaching by having town planning be the overarching theme of all curriculum areas. This meant the students were fully immersed in subject matter and gave the class creative freedom to take the topic in broad directions. From there, I could alter the content following each lesson and any formative observations I had recorded. An effective technique used at the beginning stage of the town planning inquiry was an ‘I wonder’ activity. This was a concept my PLM often used and was the chance for students to write on post-it notes their wonderings around concepts relating to town planning, and then place them all on a large piece of paper to use as potential avenues for exploration. Overall, I found that introducing the concept of town planning to the class through the activity of ‘I wonder’ was an effective way to develop their metacognitive consciousness and gather their prior knowledge around the inquiry. Curriculum integration of big idea: Inquiry is a stand-alone subject within my partnership school. Nonetheless, in this multidisciplinary approach, a benefit of teaching through one big idea is the opportunity to integrate the curriculum within planning to create cohesive content (Buch & Wolff, 2000). The subject of inquiry was where most of the preparation and development of building the town would take place. However, expanding the inquiry over various curriculum areas increased the exposure and depth of knowledge students were getting of the provided content. Within the subject of inquiry, multiple lessons involved defining ‘what is a community?’ along with its importance to each student. This was derived from one of the students I Wonder’ questions from the initial activity. They were able to identify what a community meant to them and create their own definition. Introducing the background of communities was an effective way to begin this inquiry topic and gave them a foundation to build from. Throughout the inquiry, we also examined eco-friendly cities around the world, and students were able to construct their own prototype of an eco-friendly item that should be placed into the community. For example, inner-city gardens, bike paths, robot-rubbish bins, etc. Other lessons that took place included looking at questionable laws from around the world, voting on the community’s name of ‘Greenville’ and mapping out on plywood board to prepare construction of an authentic town to be displayed in class. Integration of other curriculum areas involved mathematics, where we looked at creating nets into three-dimensional shapes. Birds-eye view mapping aided in the planning phase of Greenville and connected with the goal of building their own physical community. It prepared students with the hands-on skills of measurement and geometry. For the duration of writing, there was a vast amount of freedom for learners to produce their own fictional stories set in imaginary neighbourhoods. They also had the freedom to craft travel brochures on a city of their choice to allow them to explore communities on a global scale. Diary entries were written based on the children’s book Weslandia by Paul Fleischman, which is about a boy in the creation of an eponymous micro-nation during the summer in his backyard. An additional

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creative outlet was an art project of optical illusions that was inspired by the book Imagine a Place by Sarah L. Thomson, where students were encouraged to stretch their perceptions of reality within the world. As the class participated, collaborated, and discussed ideas in various experiences within the big idea of town planning, I observed they showed capabilities of working within an IBL environment. Student participation and contribution: I made it a priority to observe the engagement behaviours of three selected learners prior to the implementation of the intervention. During this time, I took notice of the learner’s engagement within the key competency of ‘participation and contribution’, which was at the forefront of my observations. The purpose of this was to examine how frequently students were partaking in discussions and exploration opportunities during inquiry lessons along with other curriculum subjects related to the big idea. The rationale was on the basis that the greater level of involvement the students demonstrated, or engaged, the greater amount of personal development and learning took place (Marsh, 2008). Following recorded observations, I would use their changes in behaviour to inform my planning within the intervention. Overall, I found that levels of engagement prior to intervention and post intervention increased. Student A is quietly capable and determined within her learning while striving to always produce the highest quality of work. Initially, during the class brainstorm for a new inquiry topic, this student suggested the area of historical events, particularly learning about World War II. Once town planning was selected, I was curious as to how her levels of engagement would be sustained since her original topic was not picked. However, because of her constant enthusiasm towards learning, I was pleasantly surprised about elevated levels of contribution within the inquiry she was demonstrating. Student A would participate in class conversations to share her perspective surrounding the planning of our class community. The writing activity of creating a travel brochure based on any city in the world was catered towards Student A so that she could use her passion for history to explore Warsaw, Poland. I was not surprised to discover Student A prefers independent literacy-based content such as reading and writing as these produced higher levels of engagement both before and after the intervention. Unlike Student A, Student B showed higher engagement within creative areas such as the arts and hands-on opportunities. Student B is an outspoken member of the class and will openly contribute ideas and suggestions he believes will enhance the learning experience. With regards to selecting the big idea, he was on-board for town planning as it connected with his artistic abilities and eye for detail. Because of the class’s broad imagination, the diary writing and fictional neighbourhood writing tasks were undertaken daily and significantly increased Student B’s engagement in class as it allowed him to completely immerse himself with creating narratives from another perspective. I often found myself having to extend the level of content for Students A and B as they demonstrated the ability to strive towards higher achievement. They required less teacher scaffolding and could be set an activity to independently focus on and explore beyond expectations. Both students showed cognitive engagement when asked to complete a reflection within the inquiry and could clearly articulate their learning from IBL.

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I was interested to observe Student C throughout the inquiry, as he is more reserved in nature compared to the previous two learners. This student is quietly conscientious and often needs prodding to share ideas. He showed a low willingness during the class brainstorm about selecting an inquiry topic and seemed happy to ‘go with the flow’. However, I made it a point to be aware of this student and ensure that I could find content that would cater to his reserved learning style within the big idea. By doing this, I believed I could facilitate other students in the class who showed low levels of engagement and created a universal design of learning (UDL) within my planning. A UDL covers a range of learning experiences (visual, audio, and written), expression (drawing, typing, acting, and crafts), and engagement techniques that flexibly cater to all learners at differing capabilities (Hall et al., 2012). In a comparable way to Student B, Student C showed increased levels of participation with hands-on content. The numeracy task of making three-dimensional shapes which would eventually link with building the community meant Student C could follow direct instructions. While IBL is predominantly student-led, I discovered that Student C required learning support that was fostered through highly structured model-teaching and explicit instructions. The more freedom I gave students, the more he struggled to stay on-task as he found the learning too vague and would not make any attempt to engage with the work. His confidence in class grew once I made the specific learning intentions clear and detailed what was required from him. Because town planning was integrated throughout each curriculum subject, Student C was able to experience a depth of understanding surrounding the inquiry which led to an overall rise of engagement. Overall, I witnessed exponential growth amongst the learners compared to the initial stages of the intervention. Regarding the key competency of participation and contribution, all three learners became active participants of class discussions and showed student agency towards expanding their knowledge in an unfamiliar subject area. Role of the teacher as a facilitator: The purpose of this intervention was also to broaden my pedagogical practice by teaching ‘big ideas’ compared to subject-specific content. I hoped to foster student engagement measured against the key competency of participation and contribution in class. Throughout the IBL approach, I learnt that this type of teaching is fuelled by student curiosity, and the planning is student-led. Initially, I entered the class with detailed plans that revolved around the big idea of town planning. But found it was only increasing my workload and I was in fact taking all the responsibility which ended up depriving students of rich educational experiences when they shared the planning process. As a result, I needed to ensure equal ownership and agency towards learning for both students and I (D’Mello & Graesser, 2012). There were times when students would connect with an idea, and I would find potential resources that could scaffold student learning. However, I wanted to allow students to make sense of the findings themselves. At the end of my fullcontrol teaching, I thought of myself as a co-inquirer who facilitated collaborative discussions and discovered new evidence alongside the students. While inquiry is directed by students, as noted, teacher-facilitation is equally important (Dewey, 1938). This is particularly the case for learners who require more structure within a lesson such as Student C. It was crucial to create a balance between

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exploration for learners and ensuring curriculum outcomes were met, expectations of quality were evident, and any learning needs or support for students were identified and addressed (Dochy et al., 2003). Therefore, I sourced areas of the curriculum that had potential to be appropriately integrated, along with learning outcomes for assessment and content. With regards to assessment, overall teacher judgements (OTJ) alongside individual self-evaluation from the students were formulated to coincide with formative observational notes that took place throughout the inquiry. Accumulating all the data and understandings of priority learners, along with using evidence from the work produced throughout the inquiry I was able to demonstrate growth of engagement following the intervention. Upon reflection, I believe I will introduce the concept of teaching through ‘big ideas’ and IBL in my pedagogy as it creates a unified classroom culture where both students and teacher are pursuing learning areas together.

Reflections on the Inquiry Limitations: I encountered several limitations throughout the intervention, the first being that the classroom culture already had an IBL philosophy. Because inquiry forms the foundation of my practicum school’s learning model, the students were already familiar with this style of curriculum integration. I do believe that even if the intervention took place in a traditional school, it has the potential to be successful since experiential learning is extremely beneficial for students (Erickson et al., 2017). Another limitation I found was that students who were struggling academically or had limited prior knowledge may find IBL difficult to adjust to. As highlighted earlier, IBL is extremely student-led and if a student lacks self-discipline they may end up finding this style of learning a challenge to overcome since the responsibility of learning falls on the individual (Dewey, 1938). For example, I was continually monitoring Student C and any others who were passive learners thus ensuring there was a structure that enabled them to move towards becoming more active participants. Benefits: Benefits of teaching through a ‘big idea’ and IBL were the noticeable increase of metacognitive awareness from students as they were able to think about their thinking and make inferences relating to their discoveries. Students gained confidence over the three weeks in their own ideas while having the freedom to explore avenues within town planning that interested them. They were able to state their own viewpoint and not copy other members of the class or assimilate exactly what they believed the teacher wanted them to say. It established a classroom culture of true individuals who had confidence, agency, and skills to draw their own informed conclusions about their findings (Kind & Kind, 2007). Another benefit was that it broke down the hierarchy and dissociation of subjects which can often limit student creativity by trying to make every student a carbon copy of the another (Robinson, 2006). IBL plays a vital role in promoting student creativity while at the same time expanding the knowledge and skills obtained during class (Kind & Kind, 2007).

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Finally, to reiterate, the intervention of teaching through a ‘big idea’ over a threeweek period had a positive impact on the three learners’ participation and contribution while being inclusive of all students. Concluding comments: In closing, the results of this intervention demonstrated that teaching through ‘big ideas’ rather than subject-specific content has a greater impact on student engagement compared to traditional teaching methods. If there is an allocation of time and opportunities available for learners to develop agency and explore their curiosities regarding the world around them, then it is possible that students transform from passive to active learners (Erickson et al., 2017). During the intervention, I developed a balance regarding my role as an educator and facilitator. I learnt that I should be enhancing student agency while scaffolding individuals who need additional support and structure as they work towards independence. The class’s interests were taken into consideration regarding planning and subject matter, which led to more meaningful and engaging experiential learning for all students.

Reflecting on Inquiry a Year on as a First-Year Teacher… The Inquiry was an excellent way to build foundational knowledge of how IBL can be implemented within the classroom. Since becoming a teacher, I have discovered that I have a passion for using IBL to broaden student knowledge and put the responsibility on them to take agentic ownership of their learning within a given topic. I am still exploring my role as a teacher in this environment and considering how much involvement or guidance is appropriate to maximise student enjoyment and success. Regarding using pedagogical inquiries within my practice, I have found the Teaching as Inquiry model beneficial as a tool for constant growth and reflection of my own practice. There are always areas I am looking to change or improve and using the Teaching as Inquiry model has enabled me to break down the process, develop strategies and apply positive change to improve my own practice.

References Alberta Education. (2012). Education annual report (US Report). https://education.alberta.ca/ media/1626431/alberta_education_annual_report_2012-13.pdf Aslan, S. (2017). Learning by teaching: Can it be utilized to develop inquiry skills? Journal of Education and Training Studies, 5(12), 190–198. Buch, N. J., & Wolff, T. F. (2000). Classroom teaching through inquiry. Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice, 126(3), 105–109. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASC E)1052-3928(2000)126:3(105) Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. Macmillan. D’Mello, S., & Graesser, A. (2012). Dynamics of affective states during complex learning. Learning and Instruction, 22, 145–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.10.001

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Dochy, F., Segers, M., Van den Bossche, P., & Gijbels, D. (2003). Effects of problem-based learning: A meta-analysis. Learning and Instruction, 13(5), 533–568. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-475 2(02)00025-7 Erickson, H. L., Lanning, L. A., & French, R. (2017). Concept-based curriculum and instruction for the thinking classroom. Corwin Press. Gillies, R. M., & Nichols, K. (2015). How to support primary teachers’ implementation of inquiry: Teachers’ reflections on teaching cooperative inquiry-based science. Research in Science Education, 45(2), 171–191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-014-9418-x Hall, T. E., Meyer, A., & Rose, D. H. (2012). Universal design for learning in the classroom: Practical applications. Guilford Press. Kidman, G., & Casinader, N. (2017). Inquiry-based teaching and learning across disciplines: Comparative theory and practice in schools. Springer. Kind, M., & Kind, V. (2007). Creativity in science education: Perspectives and challenges for developing school science. Studies in Science Education, 43(1), 1–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 03057260708560225 Lehn, W. G., & vom, D. (2018). Institutions, interaction and social theory. Macmillan International Higher Education. Marsh, C. J. (2008). Becoming a teacher: Knowledge, skills, and issues (4th ed.). Pearson Education Australia. Ministry of Education. (2007). The New Zealand curriculum. Learning Media Limited. Robinson, K. (2006). Do schools kill creativity? (TED Conferences Video). https://www.ted.com/ talks/sir_ken_robinson_do_schools_kill_creativity?language=en Weinbaum, A. (2004). Teaching as inquiry: Asking hard questions to improve practice and student achievement. Teachers College Press.

Part II

Creating Local Knowledge Through Inquiry

This part of the book offers a collection of practice-based inquiries that contribute to the creation of local knowledge. This concept of local knowledge emerges from deep and deliberate reflections of one’s own practice. As teachers develop reflective practices, they take ownership of their own practices and personal professional learning. We believe that transformative practice can be encouraged through systematic inquiry of practice teachers identify as areas to delve deeper into to gain further understandings. Practitioner inquiry is a familiar genre that has become part of the research tradition in teacher professional development programmes across the world, which takes a ‘teacher- as –inquirer’ approach that allows teachers to conduct research into their own practices. While the creation of local knowledge is beneficial in building teacher knowledge from their own teaching and learning context, the potential of such inquiries contributing to a wider professional conversation is evident in the four bespoke chapters generated from contexts and situatedness. In Chapter 5, Le Roux’s inquiry is titled, Using the arts in the classroom to promote soft skills. Key competencies and twenty-first-century skills are considered soft skills that are essential for children to develop to become successful members of society. This inquiry focuses on how the arts can be used in the classroom to promote and develop soft skills in particular, creativity, communication, critical thinking, relating to others and expression. To support and scope the parameters for this inquiry, Le Roux researched soft skills in terms of their importance in the classroom, contribution to student emotional well-being as it relates to the Hauora model, and music and visual art use for relating to others and expression. A focus group of six learners who, through teacher observation and self-reflection, were considered less confident in demonstrating soft skills use were selected for this inquiry. Through this inquiry, Le Roux produces local knowledge of her learners to feed forward into her practice. Data was collected during the inquiry through overall teacher judgements (OTJs), feedback forms and discussion sessions. Le Roux found that the arts, as an intervention, associated with her personal pedagogy and deep knowledge of her learners, promoted soft skills of creativity, communication, critical thinking, relating to others and expression.

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In Chapter 6, Booth’s inquiry is titled, Using technology to support my teaching of Mathematics in a play-based learning environment. Booth notes that while developing effective technological pedagogy can be a challenge, it is essential to realise that technology is here to stay, and as part of the learning context, it has the potential to enhance teaching and learning if used correctly. Her inquiry explored the use of iPads to support the teaching of basic number knowledge inspired by the play-based learning approach in a new entrant class of learners. This study followed the Teaching as Inquiry model (TAI) which focused on improving outcomes for students while guiding teachers as they learn from their practice. After gaining knowledge of her learners, Booth identified the teaching strategies to be used to support the learners to achieve their learning outcomes. In the learning inquiry phase, she looked at the results of the teaching and implications for future practice. The iPad intervention for this inquiry was implemented during mathematics classes over a period of three weeks. Findings from this classroom-based inquiry suggest that iPad application had a positive influence on learner’s number knowledge and problem-solving strategies, and that the pedagogical approaches used by the teacher for integrating iPads in the mathematics lesson contributed positively to these outcomes. This inquiry on the integration of mathematics learning through iPads integration has created local knowledge of junior classroom context of teaching. In Chapter 7, Kim’s inquiry titled, Integration of Visual Arts and Social Studies exploring propaganda: promoting learners to be critical thinkers taking social action explores how art depicted in propaganda stimulates critical thinking. The inquiry focuses on learners’ capability to express their own opinion about a social issue or social justice. The research was carried out by incorporating the ‘Teaching as an Inquiry’ model. The data was gathered from observations, learners’ works, interviews and notes made to track each learner’s progress to gain knowledge of each learner. The lessons conducted for intervention involved learners with middle achievement investigating how to facilitate their learning experiences better to stimulate critical thinking and self-efficacy using visual arts and social science curriculum. As an outcome of the project, learners created their own propaganda poster that showcased positive meaning and raising awareness of social concerns. This inquiry uncovers the journey of students viewing misleading or manipulative messages behind propaganda posters. As a result, the students learnt to use propaganda expression and art techniques in a positive manner to promote good behaviour/action or raising awareness of social justice issues. This inquiry adds to the conversation of local knowledge and pedagogies for social justice. In Chapter 8, Tiapapa’s inquiry titled Integrating music/song lyrics into literacy to engage reluctant learners to develop critical literacy and awareness around global issues examines the ways in which music and song lyrics can be used to engage reluctant learners to develop critical literacy and awareness of global issues. This study was guided by the Teaching as Inquiry model in producing local knowledge from one context of teaching and learning. Data was collected through observations, notes, student work samples, interviews and surveys from a Year 5 class. This intervention

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involved conducting a series of lessons utilising song lyrics as a non-traditional text to foster engagement and motivation to develop critical literacy. The inquiry reveals the potential music has, to build engagement, by captivating reluctant learners to effectively use music to consider different perspectives and probe deeper to explore hidden meanings in songs/lyrics.

Chapter 5

Using the Arts in the Classroom to Promote Soft Skills Kirsty Le Roux

Inquiry focus Key competencies and 21st century skills, often referred to as soft skills, are essential components to be successful members in society. This inquiry focuses on how the arts can be used in classrooms to promote and develop soft skills focused on enhancing creativity, communication, critical thinking, relating to others and expression.

Learners A group of learners who, through teacher observation and self-reflection, were found to be less confident in demonstrating these soft skills. Teaching approach/intervention Teaching approach used the arts as an intervention to promote development of soft skills aimed at enhancing creativity, communication, critical thinking, relating to others and expression.

Developing the Inquiry As I work towards becoming a teacher, I have had many moments to think about what is important to me and what core values I would like to bring to the classroom. The answer always seems to be that soft (life) skills are important. I strive to be a teacher that highlights the importance not just about academics, but, also, finding

K. Le Roux (B) Whangapar¯aoa School, Auckland, New Zealand e-mail: [email protected] London, UK © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 J. R. Jhagroo and P. M. Stringer (eds.), Professional Learning from Classroom-Based Inquiries, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5099-7_5

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what you enjoy, wanting to learn more, and having the opportunity to gain skills that you can use for the rest of your life. The New Zealand curriculum emphasises that learners ought to learn soft skills, referred to as key competencies (KC), to become active members of society (Ministry of Education, 2007). The five KCs in the curriculum include: managing self; relating to others; thinking; participating and contributing; and using language, symbols, and texts (Ministry of Education, 2007). These KCs are essential skills to becoming lifelong learners. twenty-first-century skills are another set of very important skills learners need. Specifically defining these skills is, however, complicated as there are different frameworks (Ananiadou, & Claro, 2009) and my research indicates that commonalities include communication, creativity, critical thinking, collaboration, and technical ICT skills as important. From the range of skills today’s learners need, this inquiry focuses on the promotion and development of relating to others (KC), communication, creativity, critical thinking (twenty-first-century skills (21st CS)), and expression (linking to Hauora model of emotional well-being). To bring these skills into the classroom as a focus, I chose to integrate them into critical art lessons that involved mainly music and visual arts components. I believe that Music can help evoke strong emotions and Visual Arts provide a good nonverbal way to communicate with people. I am interested in developing my art content and pedagogical knowledge and hoped that focusing on KC and 21st CS would make assessment in art more measurable.

Review of Literature For this inquiry, the foci I chose to investigate are soft skills and their importance in the classroom; emotional well-being as it relates to Hauora; and music and visual arts used for perspective and expression. Soft skills and their importance in the classroom: Competence is more than knowledge; it encompasses skills in life that help us understand complex situations and form our own ideas and attitudes (Ananiadou & Claro, 2009). Competencies can include, for example, creativity, critical thinking, problem-solving, decision-making, metacognition, ICT literacy, communication, collaboration, citizenship, and life/ career/personal and social responsibilities (Ananiadou & Claro, 2009). The above can be categorised into four areas: ways of thinking; ways of working; tools for working; and living in the world (Binkley, et al., 2012). Key competencies in the New Zealand curriculum are defined by the Ministry of Education (2007) as the capabilities of life and lifelong learning. The KC relating to others is considered important in the classroom as it helps learners become active members of society and lifelong learners (Ministry of Education, 2007). Becoming a lifelong learner is beneficial for social and physical well-being. In this regard, studies have found it helps individuals become social, active members of society, and self-motivated to better oneself which employers find desirable (Ates & Alsal, 2012). As an active member of society, communication is considered a key attribute (Ananiadou & Claro, 2009). The

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ability to communicate is a skill needed to become a lifelong learner (Ananiadou & Claro, 2009). In New Zealand, key competencies and twenty-first- century learning skills are important in terms of learning and teaching. Teaching twenty-first- century skills cannot be taught effectively without integration into academic areas such as literacy or Art (Ananiadou & Claro, 2009). Further, assessing learners on their ability to meet 21st CS is difficult. For a start, these skills are hard to define, and they are difficult to teach in isolation, independent of a learning area. As a result, Ananiadou and Claro (2009) note that it is best to assess skill acquisition indirectly through learning areas inherent in the curriculum. Assessment of soft skills connects more to forms of performance-based assessment whereby learners’ thinking is visible and feedback from teachers enables learners moves forward in terms of future learning (Binkley et al., 2012). Emotional well-being as it relates to Hauora: Creativity helps promote positivity and discovering ways to express emotions and thoughts on a regular basis has been attributed to helping people ‘feel better’ (Conner et al., 2018). What we understand to be a healthy person is shifting to include mental health components— social, emotional, and intellectual elements of an individual’s life (Burrows & Wright, 2004). This idea is supported by the World Health Organisation (Ministry of Education, n.d.). In New Zealand, a philosophy identified by M¯aori as Hauora encompasses this. Hauora is made up of four elements: Taha tinana (physical well-being), Taha hinengaro (mental and emotional well-being), Taha whanau (social well-being), and Taha wairua (spiritual well-being). The four elements of Hauora are commonly compared to the four walls of a whare, each wall representing a different aspect of an individual’s life and each just as important as the next (Ministry of Education, n.d.). Schools are considered one of the most influential institutions to have an impact on children’s beliefs of what is a healthy person and what healthy people do (Burrows & Wright, 2004). By implementing interventions associated with Hauora elements, schools can help reduce risks associated with mental health for young people (Burrows & Wright, 2004). The shift of this responsibility to schools has come about largely due to nationwide concern related to youth and psychological problems in New Zealand (Burrows & Wright, 2004). Some studies show that creative expression also benefits learners by lowering emotional and behavioural problems and boosting self-esteem, social behaviour, and resilience (Beauregard, 2014) and although results can be inconclusive, it is important to note that schools do have unique opportunities to offer mental health support for children in the classroom (Beauregard, 2014). Music used for perspective and expression: Music has a powerful impact on people to evoke emotions. Music is a significant vehicle of expression in the NZ curriculum (Ministry of Education, 2000). Learners can gain a deeper understanding of society and themselves through the interpretation of music (Ministry of Education, 2000). Many neuro-imaging studies have shown that listening to music can stimulate emotional and reward networks of the brain (Wilson, 2013). How we interpret music is influenced by what we understand about music patterns, movement association, our expectations and stimulation of sensations (Juslin & Vastfjall, 2008).

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Research conducted with Music, focusing on its effects on human development, has found a positive correlation with the development of language skills; that is, listening and reading (Hallam, 2010). This is especially the case for children who are actively engaged with Music (Hallam, 2010). A study conducted with 5-year-old Japanese children found that there is a stronger effect when a listener listens to a song that they personally enjoy and recognise (Schellenberg & Hallam, 2005). From this study, music was found to increase creativity and have a positive effect on emotions and cognitive ability (Schellenberg & Hallam, 2005). The link between music and emotional expression among children entering the adolescent stage shows that in this phase, music is used as a support system to cope with emotions of loneliness and belonging (Hallam, 2010). Music assists in the development of identity, social, and personal skills as well as emotional sensitivity (Hallam, 2010). In this inquiry, I wanted to show learners how different music could evoke a range of emotions and linking music in the teaching of other curriculum areas such as literacy, could perhaps create more meaningful experiences and deeper learning. This can be seen to be common practice evident in New Zealand primary schools (Ministry of Education, 2000). Visual art used for perspective and expression: Visual art in the classroom is an effective form of communication (Ministry of Education, 2000). It can help learners express their feelings, interpret the world around them, communicate stories, and express their identity. It also challenges them to investigate and evolve their skills (Ministry of Education, 2000). How we respond to visual art is influenced by knowledge of the world around us, personal experience, cultural knowledge, knowledge of the arts process, and factual knowledge (Schellenberg & Hallam, 2005). Therefore, to communicate a feeling or mood in a piece of visual art, an artist needs to think about how the beholder may perceive it. The Ministry of Education (2000) explains that visual arts encourage expression and help to promote emotional well-being and self-worth for learners. Visual arts can be used to also influence the attitudes of learners to understand that others can have different views/perspectives and we need to respect these views (Ministry of Education, 2000). Relating this to soft skills, visual arts help promote communication, critical views and judgements, initiation, flexibility, and exploration (Ministry of Education, 2000).

The Inquiry Approach Initially, my professional learning mentor (PLM) drew my attention to a group of Year 4 boys who seemed reluctant to participate in activities such as singing and dancing. On a few occasions, I observed that these boys seemed to get distracted from what they were asked to do during art sessions. My initial thoughts were that this group would be suitable for this inquiry. However, further analysis from a critical literacy art lesson taken as a lead up to the inquiry, indicated that many boys viewed

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themselves as being comfortable as an artist and their work seemed to reflect that they understood the concepts of expression and communication. They also seemed to want to partake in the activities. This made me rethink my decision. I decided to look at the rest of the class and their responses to critical literacy art lessons taken prior to the intervention. I found a different group of about six learners who had either personally voiced that they did not feel comfortable in art, were observed as too shy to partake, or had some trouble understanding the idea of expression and communication. I realised that this group of learners would be better suited for the inquiry and that this group would benefit the most from gaining the skills of communication, critical thinking, creativity, relating to others and emotional expression. Initial data was collected through a critical literacy art lesson facilitated by the adjunct lecturer. A story was read to the class, and learners were asked to pick a character at a certain point in the text and express their emotions visually using crayons. Learners were told to focus on texture, colour, and shape. From the initial representation, learners were asked to give one another feedback using the 2 stars and a wish format (2 things you like about the Art piece and 1 suggestion to move forward) before they did a second drawing in a follow-up lesson. The second attempt required learners to produce a more ‘abstract’ representation of the text. To conclude, I asked the learners to respond to the following sentences based on how they felt about themselves as an artist: ‘As an artist I feel…’ and ‘I would like to…’. From these initial lessons and learner feedback a group of learners were selected to participate in this inquiry. In the lessons that followed, music was introduced in place of a story. My aim was to observe group behaviour to see if they would become more confident in finding creative ways to express their emotions and think critically. I used OTJ’s and student voice/feedback by way of data collection. As part of this inquiry, six learners were observed, and qualitative data was collected. The reason for collecting qualitative rather than quantitative data was that this inquiry focused on soft skills which can be difficult to measure. Data collected can be traced to sources such as OTJ’s from both myself and my mentors in the classroom and student voice/opinions recorded in the form of feedback and interviews to better understand perceptions.

Inquiry in Practice Findings: Findings are presented in two sections: prior to the intervention and following introduction of the intervention. Prior to intervention: Data collected prior to the intervention was gathered to help identify the group and find potential ways in which to bring in the intervention of music. There were four sessions in which data was gathered in the form of observations, and student voices through focus group discussions. This included general class observations during morning warmup sessions, during arts painting sessions, first and second critical literacy arts lessons.

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Introduction of intervention: From the data collected prior to the intervention, four critical art lesson plans were created and aimed to focus on promoting soft skills of creativity, communication and expression, critical thinking and relating to others. Data collected from these lessons can be traced back to overall teacher judgement notes, teacher reflection, student voice, and feedback. The following excerpt is a reflection written the week following implementation of the critical art lessons: Over this week I have taken four art lesson plans that link into my inquiry project. In these lessons my focus was on expression through visual art and helping learners develop/ strengthen soft skills of creativity, expression, communication, critical thinking and relating to others. Here is the focus of each lesson Monday: Listening to three ‘western culture’ songs most likely to be familiar to learners, interpreting mood through a drawing using crayons. Initial attempt to express a mood whilst listening to music. Tuesday: Listening to three ‘cultural’ songs (Chinese, Pasifika, Te Reo) and interpreting through a drawing using vivid and dye. Second attempt to strengthen skills of creativity and critical thinking. Wednesday: Learners choosing own song to interpret. Planning ideas of messages mood and ways to communicate the message to the viewer. Starting to create final artwork (expression and communication). Thursday: Finishing own artwork. Walking around the class and interpreting each other’s art whilst providing feedback (relating to others, critical thinking) on how they interpreted and why. Sharing feedback and talking about the intended interpretations from artist. These lessons didn’t go exactly to plan but they turned out much better than expected. The learners really took to the ideas of expression and interpretation. It was amazing to be asked everyday if we were going to listen to more music and get a chance to draw. I believe that I was successful in my goal to help learners develop soft skills of creativity and critical thinking. I hope to take this into my future practice.

Examples of artworks: During this week, learners in and out of the focus group were observed and notes were taken on mainly their confidence and attitude towards the tasks at hand. Below are examples of the artworks [Figs. 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, and 5.4] produced by the members of the group during the week of the inquiry intervention. Analysis: From the artworks produced over the week, there was a clear development in the ability to express emotions. Looking at the process to create the initial

Fig. 5.1 Drawings by Student Eme

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Fig. 5.2 Drawings by Student F

Fig. 5.3 Drawings by Student T

Fig. 5.4 Drawings by Student J

art piece from the critical literacy art lessons and comparing that to the process for learners to create Art whilst listening to music, there was an obvious shift in attitude towards more positive participating and less distraction from peers. Learners used many creatively different ways to represent their interpretation of the music. When music was played in the class, learners would become silent, and concentration was visible. Overall, the mood of the class was one of positivity and calmness. Class interpretations: At the end of the inquiry intervention week, learners were asked to produce one final piece of Art using a song of their choice as inspiration. From this, learners were asked to walk around the room and interpret the message from their peer’s artwork, focusing on mood and method of expression (e.g. colour,

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Fig. 5.5 Photograph of students’ interpretations of the artwork

shape, and texture). Figure 5.5 is a photograph of the students’ interpretations of one artwork. Analysis: All learners expressed a sense of pride in their final artwork. After writing their interpretation of each other’s art on sticky notes, those who wanted to share, stood up and spoke to the class about their intended mood and how they chose to express it on paper. They then had a chance to analyse the feedback given by their peers to see whether they were successful in communicating their intended message/ mood. The majority felt that their peers correctly interpreted their art. Learners, without prompting, choose to give feedback at the end too, such as saying their peer’s artwork was, for example, creative, cool, and pretty. The general indication from the class was that they enjoyed the process and felt they understood the concepts of expression through art and critical thinking. The biggest note taken from my observations was the boost in confidence and change in attitude to partake in the activities. Feedback from the group: During the intervention week, the focus group members were bought together on two occasions to share their opinions and thoughts about the art lessons. This gave me a chance to find out what learners really enjoyed about the lessons and if I was successful in my efforts to help them understand concepts of critical thinking and using art to express emotions. Learners were also asked to fill out a feedback form that indicated how they felt towards statements such as ‘These lessons let me be creative’. Student voice was a focus in this inquiry as, besides teacher observations, this was one of the main sources of data that could indicate the success of the inquiry. Feedback from students was captured during two focus group sessions. During the first focus group discussion, the students’ responses to what they enjoyed about the art lesson were: Eme: Student T: Student F: Student J:

I liked the drawing I liked the music I liked the music I liked the drawing

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In addition, Student F felt expressed that the purpose of the art lessons was ‘to test our social skills’, whilst Eme felt that it was ‘to see how well we listen’. In response to the kind of music they preferred, all the students chose the second lesson. At the second focus group, the students’ responses about what they liked about the art lessons and what they had learned from the lessons were as follows: Emi:

We got to finish an art piece. We learned about what critical thinking is and how to draw emotions. Student F: I liked listening to music. Learned that it is easy to express emotions for others to see and this is a good thing. Student T: I liked the activities and the music. The students’ understanding about critical thinking was expressed by Emi as ‘Thinking in the mind of the artist’, by Student J as ‘serious drawing, listening to express our feelings’, and by Student F ‘to create a book of emotions’ (with reference to all the artwork produced). Analysis: Learners expressed that they enjoyed the art lessons and the music that had been selected at the beginning. All learners seemed to be excited to continue with their art and eager to have more lessons. Time to have feedback sessions was limited. Many learners seemed distracted during the feedback sessions, not fully understanding some of the questions and needing more explanation. Questions seemed to be too brief and needed to cover more ground to get valuable data. Students also provided feedback on their understanding, creativity, thinking, communication, expressing of emotions, and enjoyment. Overall, the feedback indicated that learners did enjoy the art lessons. All found that the lessons let them be creative and all enjoyed the use of art to express emotions. However, not all felt that the lessons helped them think deeper (think critically). I believe that this could be due to the fact they might have not understood what ‘think deeper’ meant. Analysis: Before the intervention of Music was introduced, Student F had demonstrated skills of communication, creativity, and expression. The intervention of introducing music and focusing on interpreting music and visual art assisted participant F to gain the skills of critical thinking and relating to others. Eme, before the intervention was very self-conscious about producing artworks. At times Eme was stuck on what to draw and how to express emotions and how to use art to communicate. After practicing skills of creativity, communication, and expression, participant Eme became much more confident in expressing ideas using art. Student T made huge improvements in demonstrating the skills of communication, creativity, and expression over the course of this inquiry. However, after the intervention was introduced and all the inquiry lessons were complete, there was still little understanding and evidence of critical thinking and relating to others. Student T is an ESOL learner who has been making great progress in English but most likely would need more time to be able to communicate his thinking and understand thinking of others. Student J was the only participant that had demonstrated skills of thinking critically and relating to others before the intervention of music was introduced. It was

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confidence that was missing. Student J seemed to be very unsure of how to express thoughts using art and did not want to speak out or ask for help. After the intervention of music was introduced and Emi had time to get more comfortable with depicting feelings onto paper, she also became more verbal in expressing her thoughts about her art and that of others. Discussion: My goal in this inquiry was to use the visual arts and music to help promote and develop key competencies found in the New Zealand curriculum, twenty-first-century skills and emotional well-being. Since this inquiry focused on measuring the growth and development of soft skills, I chose to not make judgements based on the learner’s artwork produced. This meant that the data collected was qualitative and focused more on observations (OTJ’s) of learner behaviour and attitude to the activities. Student voice was also a focus to gain a better understanding of what learners enjoyed and what they had learnt from the art lessons. I chose to focus on learner opinions and attitude because, as I found out in my secondary research, enjoying what you are doing and getting a chance to express feelings helps boost self-confidence, social skills, and resilience and helps reduce behavioural problems (Beauregard, 2014). Comparing the data collected from the initial critical literacy lessons to the data collected from the intervention week, there was a clear boost in confidence from the focus group members. This group of learners expressed pride in their work and wanted to share their thoughts and methods of expression used in their art. The classroom became a more positive environment where learners chose to focus on their art and enjoyed the process of creating it. Learners every day, those in the focus group and not, came to me and asked if we were going to do art and listen to more music. They enjoyed the experience. I am not surprised by the findings of this inquiry, as Conner et al. (2018) expressed, taking part in a creative activity daily helps create a positive attitude and mindset. This was what I had observed in the class with the learners, there was a change in behaviour when music came on. As you can see from the sample artwork above, expression of feelings is very visible, learners used many creative ways of expressing emotions (21st CS and emotional expression). Learners understood how and why we communicate through art, they successfully interpreted each other’s art and searched for the meaning behind the picture they saw, using critical thinking (21st CS) and relating to others (KC). As the Ministry of Education (2007) expresses, skills, such as these, help create lifelong learners and as Ates and Alsal (2012) explain, becoming a lifelong learner not only helps build up a person’s social skills and self-motivation, but is also a desirable attribute for employers. As a teacher in the classroom, having a positive class environment helped me become much more confident and relaxed during the Art lessons. I now feel confident in my ability to integrate KCs and 21st SC into the focus of lesson plans.

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Reflections on the Inquiry Limitations: One of the limitations in this inquiry is the fact that not all participants in the focus group were present during the duration of the inquiry. This was since each session was at a set time in the day during the week and learners in my partnership class had other commitments such as extracurricular activities they needed to attend to. This made it hard to track their progress from start to finish. It also made it hard to make sure they had the opportunity to gain the skills of expression, creativity, critical thinking, and communication. Another limitation was the research method of observation to assess the ability of learners to use soft skills. I believe that although it provided a great means to identify learners for the focus group and see their personal growth, the data collected was limited to my interpretation. This could mean there is potential for bias. A third limitation I have identified is the amount and scope of the questions asked in the face-to-face feedback sessions. I believe that the questions could have been broader and needed to cover more ground to make the data valuable. Time to do these sessions was limited too which made it hard to go in-depth with participants. Benefits: I believe that this inquiry provided a great opportunity for me to reflect on my practice and explore ways in which key competencies and twenty-first-century skills can be bought into the classroom. Throughout this experience, I have learnt a great deal more than what I set out to. I learnt that music is a powerful tool that can affect the mood of the classroom environment. I also learnt that although hard to measure, it is possible to promote soft skills in the classroom. I have continued to incorporate music into the classroom through other means and have continued to see its positive effects on learner’s moods. From my plans for each lesson, I learnt a valuable lesson that not everything will go as intended, and as a teacher, you need to be flexible and adaptable to make meaningful experiences. I have become comfortable with the idea that things may need to change on the spot to create opportunities for better learning experiences for the learners and myself. Concluding comments: From this inquiry, I have personally seen the effects music can have on expression, mood, and creativity. For learners, the intervention of music has helped boost confidence and creativity to find ways of communicating through visual art. Through the art lessons, learners have also gained better understanding of how to think critically. For my professional development, the success of this inquiry has boosted my confidence in incorporating soft skills into the classroom. I have continued to incorporate music in the classroom throughout the day and have found that for both the learners and I it promotes positive attitudes and a positive class environment. I will continue to investigate how I can incorporate music into other areas of my practice as I grow and develop my pedagogy.

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Reflecting on Inquiry a Year on as a First-Year Teacher… It has been over a year since I started my inquiry journey looking at how the arts can help promote soft skills such as those found in the key competencies and twenty-firstcentury skills. At the core of my practice, I still believe that as educators we teach learners more than just academic knowledge, we teach and model life skills that will help them grow into functioning members of society. Communication is a critical life skill, and, in my practice, I aim to give learners a range of experiences that encourage them to not only share their ideas but also listen to and respectfully respond to the ideas of others. The way in which learners receive information and express their ideas can vary. I have found that this means knowing the learner is critical. It is a process of teaching learners to think critically and to form ideas. They need a lot of opportunities to practise, and therefore I now use the ‘Think, Pair Share’ model frequently in my classroom as it gives learners a chance to generate, discuss, and refine ideas before they are shared. Regarding using visual art to express ideas and emotions, I have found it is important to teach basic art techniques to help equip learners. Focused art lessons on how to use colour and texture to help portray a feeling or idea give learners more agency and control over their work. I continue to see the benefits of playing music in the classroom as it is a fantastic way to create a positive learning environment. As part of our dance programme this year, I introduced cultural music and dance from around the world and found that different learners made connections to different music and dance styles. Once they made a connection to a particular dance style, I could see the change in their interest and participation. My next step is to inquire into the connection between dance and music and how it is used as a form of storytelling which engages both participating learners and learners as the audience.

References Ananiadou, K., & Claro, M. (2009). 21st century skills and competences for new millennium learners in OECD countries (OECD Education Working Papers, No. 41). OECD Publishing. Ates, H., & Alsal, K. (2012). The importance of lifelong learning has been increasing. ProcediaSocial and Behavioural Sciences, 46, 4092–4096. Beauregard, C. (2014). Effects of classroom-based creative expression programmes on children’s well-being. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 41(3), 269–277. Binkley, M., Erstad, O., Herman, J., Raizen, S., Ripley, M., Miller-Ricci, M., & Rumble, M. (2012). Defining twenty-first century skills. In Assessment and teaching of 21st century skills (pp. 17– 66). Springer. Burrows, L., & Wright, J. (2004). The good life: New Zealand children’s perspectives on health and self. Sport, Education and Society, 9(2), 193–205. Conner, T. S., DeYoung, C. G., & Silvia, P. J. (2018). Everyday creative activity as a path to flourishing. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 13(2), 181–189. Hallam, S. (2010). The power of music: Its impact on the intellectual, social, and personal development of children and young people. International Journal of Music Education, 28(3), 269–289.

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Juslin, P. N., & Vastfjall, D. (2008). Emotional responses to music: The need to consider underlying mechanisms. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 31, 559–621. Ministry of Education. (2000). The arts in the New Zealand curriculum. Learning Media Limited. Ministry of Education. (2007). The New Zealand curriculum. Learning Media Limited. Ministry of Education. (n.d). Health and physical education online: Well-being, Hauora. https://hea lth.University-of-Portsmouth.org.nz/Teaching-in-Heath-and-Physical-Education-HPE/HPEin-the-New-Zealand-curriculum/Health-and-PE-in-the-NZC-1999/Underlying-concepts/Wellbeing-hauora Schellenberg, E. G., & Hallam, S. (2005). Music listening and cognitive abilities in 10- and 11year-olds: The Blur effect. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1060(1), 202–209. Wilson, S. J. (2013). The benefits of music for the brain. Proceedings of the Australian Council for Education Research. https://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1204&context= research_conference

Chapter 6

Using Technology to Support My Teaching of Mathematics in a Play-Based Learning Environment Ingrid Booth

Inquiry focus The use of iPads to support the teaching of basic number knowledge inspired by the play-based learning approach

Learners Four New Entrants students Teaching approach/intervention Using the iPad application “Line ‘em Up” in a play-based environment

Developing the Inquiry The goal for education is to prepare learners for independent productive lives within society (Collins & Halverson, 2010). The inclusion of technology as a core strand in the New Zealand Curriculum (NZC) not only supplements traditional ways of teaching but also opens new and different ways of learning. The introduction of technology in early year’s education often generates very negative attitudes amongst teachers, either due to lack of knowledge or aversion to technology (Edwards, 2016). I. Booth (B) Hingaia Peninsula School, Karaka, New Zealand e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 J. R. Jhagroo and P. M. Stringer (eds.), Professional Learning from Classroom-Based Inquiries, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5099-7_6

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But, when one realises that learners’ negative attitudes towards mathematics appear to develop in the very early years of formal education and can lead to anxiety and negative achievement in mathematics in later years (Larkin & Jorgensen, 2016), it becomes imperative to intervene at an early stage in mathematical learning. Laying the core foundation for future success in mathematics, therefore, depends on developing pedagogies appropriate for the inclusion of technology (Hilton, 2018). Digital devices cannot be considered in isolation of the pedagogies already used in the mathematics classroom as they can influence the learner’s engagement and attitudes (Attard & Curry, 2012). Researchers have emphasised the need for effective pedagogies when using technology in the mathematics classroom (Attard & Curry, 2012). It requires a focus on integrating pedagogical knowledge, content knowledge, and technological knowledge to deliver content effectively and implement better practices (Niess et al., 2009). Integrating technology is not simply about technology, but rather understanding how and why it is used (Niess et al., 2009). Having an in-depth understanding of technology, I saw an opportunity to develop my mathematical technology pedagogy in my classroom which could develop learners with “capabilities for living and lifelong learning” (Ministry of Education, 2007, p. 12) along with positive attitudes towards mathematics. The purpose of this inquiry was to seek an approach of including the iPad application “Line em up” (LeU) to support the teaching of mathematics in a play-based learning environment. The theoretical framework used was the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge Framework (TPACK) which provides a framework for the integration of content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and technology into the teaching of any subject (Koehler, 2015).

Review of Literature There is evidence which points to the role of play in children’s development and learning (Chigeza & Sorin, 2016). Play-based learning is normally centred in early childhood and primary education with the guiding principle that children can learn from and make sense of the world around them through play (Briggs & Hansen, 2012). Play has always been a significant part of human life at all ages but playbased learning gathered momentum in the twentieth century through the early work of Montessori and Dewey (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016). Play is seen as a fun way of learning, advancing learner development. As digital technology has become a focus in schools, there are many reasons why iPad applications have the potential to foster learning. Wilson (2002) found that learners who engage using kinaesthetic approaches to learning showed greater cognitive development. Playing board games has shown a gain in mathematical knowledge, therefore, game-like apps played on iPads have the potential to create play-based learning experiences to improve learning. The mathematics and statistics learning area of the New Zealand Curriculum (NZC) focuses on equipping learners with effective skills to explore, interpret,

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explain, and make sense of the world we live in (Ministry of Education, 2007). Children as young as two develop purposeful counting and by five may recognise patterns to ten whilst understanding the cardinal system (Chigeza & Sorin, 2016). But children who are not exposed to number skills prior to beginning formal education are often those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds who have not developed the conceptual structure to support learning of mathematics (Cohrssen et al., 2013). We must not forget that learners develop at different rates and will not have the same level of mathematics skills. Bearing in mind these concerns, it is important to enhance the learner’s mathematical engagement and attitudes towards mathematics as early as possible. A fundamental component of learning mathematics is understanding number sense, as mathematics is part of life and is used by everyone every day (BriandNewman et al., 2012). Having number sense before entering school has been associated with mathematic achievement later in life, therefore, teaching number sense is key when delivering early numeracy programmes (Briand-Newman et al., 2012). Hattie (2012) showed that learners’ outcomes in mathematics are related to teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge. Furthermore, teachers’ confidence to teach mathematics has a marked effect on learners’ outcomes in mathematics. Hilton (2018) further highlighted the need for teachers to develop a mathematic pedagogy which incorporates technology rather than seeing technology as a separate pedagogy as this will influence the quality of teaching. Although some argue against the use of technology in the education setting, there is evidence to support gains in intelligence and problem-solving (Couse & Chen, 2010). A key question to ask when evaluating technology is “Who is doing the thinking?” Technology which encourages thinking and active involvement by learners can not only give teachers a window into learners’ development but can also foster positive attitudes towards mathematics across all ages (Fleer, 2013). There is evidence to support the fact that learners can be intrinsically motivated when using technology, spending more focused sessions learning compared to non-technology related activities (Couse & Chen, 2010). With the increased use of mobile technologies, there has been considerable interest in how iPad’s can be used to support learning in the formal context (Couse & Chen, 2010). Technology has changed significantly over the past two decades from pointand-click software designed to reinforce rote learning to software which encourages active thinking without the need for extrinsic motivation. Attard (2013b) cautions that the effectiveness of iPads for enhancing mathematical knowledge depends on the type of application used, not those based on games as they give learners little opportunity to develop problem-solving skills or reflect on their learning. Furthermore, Attard notes that iPad activities need to involve an appropriate level of challenge to ensure engagement. There is evidence to support technology in inclusion such as ease of access and portability (Fleer, 2013). Furthermore, technology creates a platform for creating content through collaboration. But Fleer cautions that we should not assume that learners will innately pick up the technical skills understanding that social practices are important when effectively integrating technology into teaching and learning.

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The Inquiry Approach There are numerous different educational philosophies which have influenced teaching and learning in the twenty-first century. Constructivism is a philosophy that views knowledge as a process that is shaped and structured by one’s experiences in different situations (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016). The constructivist teacher’s role is to act as the facilitator rather than simply the transmitter of knowledge (Hattie, 2012). The main activity in a constructivist classroom is problem-solving (Hattie, 2012). There is an overlap between a constructivist and social constructivist classroom with greater emphasis placed on learning through social interaction. Social Constructivist Learning Theory is largely based on the belief that learners create, invent, and develop their own knowledge and meaning through social interaction and prior knowledge (Chigeza & Sorin, 2016). Learners are thus positioned as active participants and decision-makers actively constructing their own understanding and contributing to the learning of others. Dewey emphasised the need for knowledge to be constructed through interaction within the surrounding environment (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016). Through social-negotiation, learners use culturally appropriate cognitive tools to participate in social activities, bringing diverse experiences and perspectives into their learning. Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) influences learning in terms of access to knowledge and support from more knowledgeable others (Sewell & St. George, 2016). The focus of ZPD is to keep the learner in their own ZPD as often as possible by providing them with culturally interesting problem-solving tasks which are slightly more difficult than they can do on their own (Sewell & St. George, 2016). Once a task has been completed collaboratively, the learner will most likely be able to complete the same task by themselves (Sewell & St. George, 2016). This process is then repeated with a higher level of task difficulty, focusing on the importance of effective content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge to support learning. But how do teachers bring together content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and technological knowledge? The TPACK framework supports the development of lesson plans which incorporate technology into the classroom in any subject without teaching technology per say (Koehler, 2015). As this inquiry relates to the integration of an iPad application into teaching and the teaching and learning of number knowledge in a play-based learning environment, TPACK becomes important to this inquiry to understanding the pedagogical reasoning in planning instructions that integrating technology. Furthermore, TPACK allows teachers to examine how to select and purposefully integrate technology into content-based learning activities (Harris & Hofer, 2011). TPACK is informed by four intersections of knowledge: • Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)—how to teach specific content-based material. • Technological content knowledge (TCK)—how to select technology which supports the content-based precepts.

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• Technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK)—how to use technology in teaching. • Technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK)—how to teach contentbased materials whilst integrating technology in ways that support the learner’s needs. The emphasis of this inquiry was on integrating technology into mathematical content-based learning, focusing content and technology around learning intentions and success criteria. According to Koehler (2015), quality teaching requires an understanding of the complex relationship between content, pedagogy, and technology to develop specific strategies to integrating technology into teaching and learning. If teachers are to effectively incorporate technology into the teaching of mathematics, they must have the capacity to apply their pedagogical content knowledge during teaching and learning (Niess et al., 2009). The TPACK framework was used to inform the planning and integration of technology into the teaching of number knowledge in a play-based new entrant classroom. The learners in this class had been at school for less than five weeks and the focus on their mathematics learning related to basic number knowledge from one to ten. Although the intervention was made available to all learners in the classroom as this leant towards inclusion of all learners, four learners with varying range of number knowledge were selected. The knowledge ranged from having no concept of numbers to being able to count from one to ten and identify a few numbers in this range. In alignment with the curriculum, new entrant learners’ number knowledge was assessed against the mathematics progressions developed using the Number Framework Knowledge Section of the NZC (Ministry of Education, n.d.) (see Table 6.1). The Number Framework provides an understanding of the NZC Mathematics and Statics strand in terms of how learners use a range of strategies to solve problems involving numbers (The Strategy Section) and key items learners know about numbers and can recall them quickly (The Knowledge Section) (Ministry of Education, n.d.). Prior to the implementation of the intervention, the learners were observed engaging with several different concrete mathematics activities, and they were formally accessed on their number knowledge (numbers 1–10). Several weeks after the implementation of the intervention the learners were once again formally accessed on their number knowledge. The group selected consisted of five learners who had just turned five. There was a Pakeha [New Zealand European] male and female, a M¯aori male, and a Korean male. The intervention used was the iPad application “Line ‘em Up” (Fig. 6.1) designed Table 6.1 Mathematics progressions—number knowledge

Knowledge section Number identification, sequencing, and ordering Read numbers to 10

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10

Count forward to 10

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10

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Fig. 6.1 LeU application on an iPad

to promote mastery of number knowledge and number order. The LeU application displays a random set of number tiles on a number line. Learners use their finger to drag one tile at a time onto the number line. If the tile is placed in the correct box, the tile is highlighted in green. If the tile is placed in an incorrect box, the tile is highlighted in red and will drop out of the box. The LeU application can record the number of times the learner places the tiles in correct or incorrect box. Four main themes were used to evaluate the LeU application, with primary consideration for effective integration into the mathematical content-base to be learned— affordance, collaboration, engagement, and personalisation. TPK decisions during planning need to be a balance between technology and pedagogy (Harris & Hofer, 2011). Whilst the affordance of the application was noted, this was not enough reason to plan for the application’s use. The use of the application to develop deeper understanding of the content and develop strategies to problem-solving was considered. Attard cautions that many applications based on drill and practice do not develop the skills required to solve problems. Problem-solving involves constructing new knowledge whilst solving problems collaboratively (Ministry of Education, n.d.). The use of the application was seen as a resource to enhance fine-motor skills, encouraging engagement, collaboration, and self-directed learning. The LeU application enhances fine-motor skills as it requires precision in finger placement, control of pressure, and timing of movements, all skills required for activities such as manipulating scissors or self-care (Axford et al., 2018). The challenges of sharing an iPad, such as dominance by one learner, can undermine learner motivation to use iPads, but collaboration can develop skills and social skills beyond the classroom (Alhinty, 2015). The LeU application allows for incidental collaboration, with the option for learners to share their thinking whilst scaffolding each other. It is important to establish the rules around the use of the iPads such as respecting and taking turns, ensuring the device’s potential is realised (Alhinty, 2015). Using the TPACK framework, the use of the application aligned well with the mathematical pedagogical content knowledge whilst providing learners with a different way of engaging with their learning. The LeU application can be used with an integrated blend of both digital and concrete technologies. Concrete materials

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are increasingly being digitised, limiting learners’ ability to enact with resources whilst restricting cognitive development (Larkin, 2016). This highlights the need for teachers to carefully evaluate application use in the classroom, ensuring a balance between concrete materials and digital applications (Larkin, 2016). The LeU enabled learners to approach mathematics in different ways, ensuring benefits of learning are more equitable and effectively distributed (Meyer et al., 2014). It is imperative to engage all learners, focusing on their strengths and weaknesses whilst providing multiple means of engagement, representation, and expression, ensuring each learner achieves to the best of their ability (Meyer et al., 2014). The LeU application can be personalised to meet the learning needs of the learners (Fig. 6.2). This intervention was implemented using a single iPad during daily mathematics learning three times a week over a period of three weeks. Twenty minutes was allocated to explicit whole-class teaching at the beginning of each mathematics lesson. Initially, the LeU application was modelled to the whole class. Since iPads had never been used in the classroom, the responsible use and sharing of the iPad was discussed. Sharing is the cornerstone of generosity for five-year-olds, and it still doesn’t come easily. The learners worked in groups as they rotated through four workstations. Approximately ten minutes were allocated for each rotation and the rotation was managed by the teacher. One station required teacher aide support as it involved an activity which focused on extending the learner’s number knowledge and had a specific emphasis on learning how to correctly form numbers.

Fig. 6.2 LeU application settings

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Inquiry in Practice During the first week, the teacher spent time supporting each group as they engaged with the application, encouraging sharing, and supporting each other. The learners took turns to place a single tile in a box on the number line. During the second week, the teacher introduced a printed number line during whole class learning. The teacher modelled the use of the number line to each group and encouraged the learners to support each other by pointing to the number on their printed number line rather touching the device. The teacher discussed the concept of “before” and “after” and encouraged the learners to use these concepts when supporting each other. Each learner had an opportunity to place all the tiles on the number line. By the third week, the teacher just observed the learners. The teacher also introduced the learners to a new group activity which simulated the iPad application. Using number tiles and a paper number line, the learners placed numbers in the blank spaces on a paper number line. During the three weeks of the intervention the teacher spent additional one-onone time with the four learners, observing the learners as they engaged with the LeU application and informally accessing their number knowledge and the concepts of “before” and “after”. For this inquiry, qualitative methods (observation, documentation) were used. During the sessions, the teacher observed the learners as they dragged the tiles onto the number line and randomly engaged in conversation to assess their number knowledge. The qualitative data helped to provide context to the quantitative data offering a more complex picture of what materialised with the iPad intervention.

Findings During the implementation of this intervention development, learners’ thinking and number knowledge were noted. Although key competencies were not the focus of this inquiry, it became very apparent self-management, participating, and sharing and relating to others contributed towards enhancement of their learning and metacognitive awareness. Prior to the intervention, Learner A always counted “3, 5, 7” followed by a random set of numbers and struggled to remain focused, often making strange noises. Learner B babbled and was unable to express himself in either his home language (Korean) or English. He was able to rote count from one to ten but could not identify any numbers. Learner C could count from one to ten and recognised some numbers. Learner D could count from one to ten but was unable to identify any numbers. All the learners were observed randomly inserting numbers into a wooden puzzle (Fig. 6.3). The learners made no connection between the number on the puzzle piece and the position on the puzzle board. The learners were using the shape of the puzzle piece to find the correct positions for the puzzle pieces.

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Fig. 6.3 Number puzzle

During the first week of implementation, the teacher observed the learners making random selections when dragging the tiles onto the number line. The learners had no understanding of the concept of “before” or “after” which meant they did not look at the numbers that were already on the number before placing their tile. Sharing did not come easily to all the learners in the class, and several learners felt the need to move the tiles for the user. The learners were highly motivated to engage with the application, remaining at the workstation observing the learner engaged with the device. During one-on-one sessions with the learners, the teacher talked about the concept of “before” and “after”. The reported feedback from the LeU application confirmed that all the learners made numerous attempts to place the number tiles in the correct position on the number line. When the teacher asked them what number they were placing on the number line, only Learner D was able to identify the number. During the second week, the teacher observed the learners listening to each other and thinking about where to place the tile rather than making random choices. As each learner completed the activity, the teacher noticed several learners using the concept of “before” and “after” as they supported each other. Learners remained engaged in the activity, pointing to the number on their paper number line and talking to the user engaged with the device rather than moving the tile for the user. Learner B did not wish to use the number line and was unable to communicate with the group and required teacher support. During one-on-one time with the learners, the teacher observed the learners using the printed number line when placing a tile on the number line. Learner A continued to count from three and was unable to identify any numbers, randomly placing the tiles. Learner B continued to randomly place the number on the number line and was reluctant to use the paper number line. The reported feedback from the LeU application confirmed that Learner A made numerous attempts to place the number tiles in the correct position on the number line. Learner C showed a great improvement in number knowledge, placing most of the tiles in the correct position on the number line, but at times struggled to differentiate between the numbers six and nine. Learner D’s accuracy in placement of the tiles improved dramatically

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along with the time it took her to place the tiles. The reported feedback from the LeU application confirmed that Learner C and Learner D were able to correctly place most of the number tiles in the correct position on the first attempt. During one lesson, the teacher did not place the paper number lines out at the iPad station. The teacher observed a learner fetching the paper number lines and handing them out to each learner. The learners then used the paper number lines to support their learning. During week three, the teacher observed the learners sharing and taking turns as they supported each other. Most of the learners used the paper number, pointed to the number represented on the tile. Learner B showed patience as he waited for his turn and passed on the device once he had completed his turn. Although he did not use a paper number line, he remained engaged whilst the others had their turn. During one-on-one time with the Learner A, the teacher observed a vast improvement in the learner’s number knowledge, counting from one to ten and identifying several numbers whilst using the paper number line before placing the tile on the number line. Learner B was able to identify several numbers and began to use the paper number line when placing the tiles on the number line. Learner C was able to place most of the tiles correctly on the number line and showed some understanding of the concept of “before” and “after”. Learner D was able to place the tiles on the number line very quickly and recognise all the numbers from one to ten without the use of a paper number line. The reported feedback from the LeU application confirmed that all the learners were able to correctly place more number tiles in the correct position on their first attempt. The formal assessment results indicated that all the learners had enhanced their number knowledge and were able to effectively work as a group. Learner A was not only able to count from one to ten but was also able to identify several numbers. Learner C and Learner D were able to identify all numbers from one to ten. Learner B was able to identify several numbers. The learners were observed placing all the number puzzle pieces in the correct sequence as they identified each number.

Discussion The purpose of this inquiry was to understand how iPads can be successfully integrated into a play-based learning environment to support the learning of number knowledge. All learners had previously been formally assessed on their ability to count from one to ten and number identification. Previous assessments and observations indicated that the learners had limited number knowledge. The qualitative data from this inquiry and the formative assessments indicated that all the learners had enhanced their number knowledge. The TPACK framework was used to examine the purposeful integration of technology into content-based learning activities using the four intersections of knowledge: PCK, TCK, TPK, and TPACK. Knowledge of teaching Content (PCK): The curriculum content drove this selection of application to incorporate into this learning activity. This was evident in week two when the teacher introduced the group paper number line activity. The learners

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were able to effectively engage with both activities and enhance their number knowledge whilst using similar problem-solving strategies such as the concept of “before” and “after”. Questioning can be a way of justifying learners thinking and it gives them deeper mathematical understanding (Herbal-Eisenmann & Breyfogle, 2005). By asking open-ended questions such as “what number is that number?”, the teacher engaging in a cognitive activity to which they may not have initially responded. The teacher then funnelled the question by using a paper number line counting with the learner, pausing before reading out the number under discussion. This allowed the teacher to scaffold their learning and it helped the learners to make conceptual connections and draw out their thinking (Herbal-Eisenmann & Breyfogle, 2005). A fundamental component of learning mathematics is understanding number sense as mathematics is part of life and used by everyone every day (Briand-Newman et al., 2012). All the learners’ number knowledge increased over time. This indicates that the teacher used this iPad application to enhance content knowledge rather than as a main teaching method. The outcome from this inquiry further indicates that the teacher knew the learners and the content was appropriate for this group of learners. This aligns with the work of Hattie (2012) that noted that learners’ outcomes are related to teacher’s content knowledge. Knowledge of content-appropriate technology selection (TCK): From the onset of this inquiry, the teacher envisaged having the LeU application setup in the daily mathematics rotation. The iPad was not going to be used as part of a reward system and was only accessible during mathematics lessons. The learners were able to effectively engage with the LeU application, but their lack of knowledge hindered their ability to accurately place the number tiles in the correct position on the number line. As the inquiry progressed and all the learners’ number knowledge increased, they were able to accurately place the number tiles in the correct position on the number line. Another affordance of the LeU application was identified. It provided instant feedback to the learners and teacher in terms of which numbers were correctly/ incorrectly placed on the number line and the number of times the learners took to place the number on the number line. This encouraged the learners to think about the concept of “before” and “after” when placing the tiles on the number line. Knowledge of teaching with technology (TPK): The teacher used the same mathematics pedagogy to engage the learners, enhance their number knowledge, and self-directed learning rather than create a new technological pedagogy. The introduction of the paper number line not only allowed the learners to identify numbers and learn the concept of “before” and “after”, but it also provided a vital link between the digital pedagogy and mathematical pedagogy, allowing for the transfer of content knowledge between the digital device and concrete concepts. From the observations, the teacher noted that the learners were more thoughtful and deliberate as they solved number problems and identified numbers. The concept of taking turns and sharing is a strategy used in all areas of teaching and learning, and this was evident as the learners engaged with the LeU application. Rather than being used as an extrinsic reward, the LeU application was integrated into learning, and the learners were intrinsically motivated to engage with the LeU application.

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This is evidence to suggest that the teacher had in-depth understanding of contextual consideration required to teach with technology as a learner led approach to learning. Knowledge for curriculum-based technology integration (TPACK): Overall the teacher matched the curriculum content with pedagogy to best match and support the integration of technology with a focus on enhancing learner outcomes. Although arguments over impact and effectiveness of digital technology with young children are ongoing, what is widely accepted is that digital technology is here to stay and we as educators must find ways to enrich rather than hinder learners play experiences (Collins & Halverson, 2010). The teacher modelled how to engage with the LeU application and all new play-based activities that were introduced. Attard and Curry (2012) noted the importance of teachers scaffolding learning whilst being aware of using effective pedagogical processes which are age appropriate, support the learning intentions, and meet the needs of the learners (Larkin, 2014). The level of engagement from the learners, along with the individual and collaborative working, indicated that the application has the potential to enable social interaction. Cognitive risk taking and evidence to engage with the LeU application were also evident. Learning in multiple ways allowed the learners to relate seamlessly between technology and concrete concepts, enhancing their mathematical thinking. Qualitative data from this inquiry suggest the use of LeU application was age appropriate and had a positive impact on learning. Exploring in collaborative groups and sharing in a safe environment was conducive to seamlessly integrating technology into the teaching and learning of mathematics in a play-based environment. Technology became part of the class culture with learners willing to share and follow the rules around the use of the iPad.

Reflections on the Inquiry Limitations: Since the iPad was not used in isolation, there is no conclusive evidence which indicates that the iPads alone contributed to the learners enhancing their number knowledge. Furthermore, there is no evidence to suggest that the iPads hindered the learner’s enhancement of their number knowledge. Although having access to only one iPad device limited the amount of time the learners had to engage with the application, the teacher sees the potential to further enhance the learning of mathematics in a play-based environment through the integration of the appropriate iPad applications in different areas of learning. The PLM indicated that she would consider using more applications during mathematics lesson time and possibly more curriculum areas. The Professional Learning mentor [PLM] also envisaged access to the device during times of pure play where the learners can be self-directed. Concluding comments: Dewey believed that a child’s interest and experiences are fundamental to their learning (Dewey, 1910). His philosophy is one that we construct knowledge through interaction and connection with our environment. This philosophy is conveyed in this inquiry as the learners worked in small groups participating in open discussion. The teacher enabled the learners to take an active role

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in constructing their own knowledge. The teacher did not view technology as a separate pedagogy, but rather incorporated technology into the existing lesson plan, focusing on the what and the how of teaching and learning number knowledge. The teacher’s pedagogical knowledge was of greater importance than the application in terms of engaging the learners and ensuring learning. The data from the observations further enhanced the importance of the teacher’s pedagogical knowledge. This further reflects that the teacher used digital pedagogical content knowledge to meet the needs of the learners. The TPACK framework allowed the teacher to make deliberate decisions such as the selection of the application based on intentional learning and the needs of the learners. The teachers planning, and management of the LeU application varied and developed as the inquiry developed, making changes to ensure the focus remained on teaching and learning mathematics. The TPACK framework allowed for variations and flexibility, focusing on themes which supported the integration of the teacher content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and technical knowledge.

Reflecting on Inquiry a Year on as a First-Year Teacher I have been teaching year 3 students, the majority of whom disliked mathematics and felt that they did not have the skills to be “good” at mathematics. Due to difficulty in gaining access to applications on the iPad, I have chosen to rather use specific free website which can be gained through any computer browser. I have used these websites to enhance the learner’s knowledge of their times tables and basic facts. The most significant outcome has been watching the learners delight in their own success as they engage with the application to mark their work. They have not only enhanced their mathematics knowledge, but furthermore have developed the skills to navigate the internet independently and now use other websites such as “Bookcreator” to publish their information reports. As a teacher, I can confirm that by integrating technology into the classroom and aligning it with pedagogy, technology can be used to support learners understanding of mathematical concepts. This is unlike the Digital Technologies programme we are working through at our school which tries to force technology into our teaching rather than using it as part of our existing pedagogy.

References Alhinty, M. (2015). Young language learners’ collaborative learning and social interaction as a motivational aspect of the iPad IEEE. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, 10(2), 24–29. https://doi.org/10.1109/IMCTL.2014.7011106 Attard, C. (2013a). Teaching with technology: IPads and primary mathematics. Australian Primary Mathematics Classroom, 18(4), 38–40.

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Attard, C. (2013b). Introducing iPads into primary mathematics pedagogies: An exploration of two teachers’ experiences. Proceedings of the 36th Annual Conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia. Attard, C., & Curry, C. (2012). Exploring the use of iPads to engage young students with mathematics. Proceedings in the 35th Annual Meeting of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, Singapore. Axford, C., Joosten, A. V., & Harris, C. (2018). iPad applications that required a range of motor skills promoted motor coordination in children commencing primary school. Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, 65(2), 146–155. https://doi.org/10.1111/1440-1630.12450 Barker, M., & Buntting, C. (2016). How do people learn? Understanding the learning process. In D. Fraser & M. Hill (Eds.), The professional practice of teaching in New Zealand (5th ed., pp. 23–55). Cengage. Briand-Newman, H., Wong, M., & Evans, D. (2012). Teacher subject matter knowledge of number sense. Proceedings in the 35th Annual Meeting of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, Singapore. Briggs, M., & Hansen, A. (2012). Play-based learning in the primary school. Sage. Chigeza, P., & Sorin, R. (2016). Kindergarten children demonstrating numeracy concepts through drawings and explanations: Intentional teaching within play-based learning. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 41(5), 65–77. Cohrssen, C., Church, A., Ishimine, K., & Tayler, C. (2013). Playing with maths: Facilitating the learning in play-based learning. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 38(1), 95. Collins, A., & Halverson, R. (2010). The second educational revolution: Rethinking education in the age of technology. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26(1), 18–27. https://doi.org/10. 1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00339.x Couse, L. J., & Chen, D. W. (2010). A tablet computer for young children? Exploring its viability for early childhood education. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 43(1), 75–98. Dewey, J. (1910). How we think. http://aut.ac.nz Duchesne, S., & McMaugh, A. (2016). Educational psychology: For learning and teaching. Cengage Learning. Edwards, S. (2016). New concepts of play and the problem of technology, digital media and popular-culture integration with play-based Learning in early childhood education. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 25(4), 513–532. Fleer, M. (2013). Digital positioning for inclusive practice in early childhood: The cultural practices surrounding digital tablets in family homes. Computers in New Zealand Schools: Learning, Teaching, Technology, 25(1–3), 56–76. Harris, J. B., & Hofer, M. J. (2011). Technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) in action. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 43(3), 211–229. https://doi.org/10. 1080/15391523.2011.10782570 Hattie, J. (2012). Visible learning for teachers: Maximizing impact on learning. Routledge. Herbal-Eisenmann, B. A., & Breyfogle, M. L. (2005). Questioning our “patterns” of questioning. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, 10(9), 484–489. Hilton, A. (2018). Engaging primary school students in mathematics: Can iPads make a difference? International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 16(1), 145–165. Koehler, J. (2015). Context and technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK): A systematic review. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 47(3), 186–210. Larkin, K. (2014). iPad apps that promote mathematical knowledge. Yes, they exist! Australian Primary Mathematics Classroom, 19(2), 28–32. Larkin, K. (2016). Mathematics education and manipulatives: Which, when, how? Australian Primary Mathematics Classroom, 21(1), 12–17. Larkin, K., & Jorgensen, R. (2016). “I hate maths: Why do we need to do maths?” Using iPad video diaries to investigate attitudes and emotions towards mathematics in Year 3 and Year 6 students. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 14(5), 925–944.

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Meyer, A., Rose, D. H., & Gordon, D. (2014). Universal design for learning: Theory and practice. Cast Professional Publishing. Ministry of Education. (2007). The New Zealand curriculum. Learning Media Limited. Ministry of Education. (n.d). What is the number framework? https://nzmaths.co.nz Niess, M. L., Ronau, R. N., Shafer, K. G., Driskell, S. O., Harper, S. R., Johnston, C., Browning, C., Ozgun-Koca, S. A, & Kersaint, G. (2009). Mathematics teacher TPACK standards and development model. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9(1). Sewell, A., & St. George, A. (2016). Developing a community of learners. In D. Fraser & M. Hill (Eds.), The professional practice of teaching in New Zealand (5th ed., pp. 240–260). Cengage. Sinnema, C., & Aitken, G. (2011). Teaching as inquiry in the New Zealand curriculum: Origins and implementation. In J. Parr, H. Hedges, & S. May (Eds.), Changing trajectories of teaching and learning (pp. 29–48). New Zealand Council for Educational Research. Wilson, M. (2002). Six views of embodied cognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9, 625–636.

Chapter 7

Integration of Visual Arts and Social Studies Exploring Propaganda: Promoting Learners to Be Critical Thinkers Taking Social Action Michaela Kim

Inquiry focus Explores how propoganda art stimulates critical thinking whereby learners are able to express their own opinion about a social issue and become inspired to engage in social justice action. The inquiry explores learner motiviation and self-efficay through engagement in the Visual Arts and Social Studies curriculum.

Learners Four middle school learners categorised as 'average' achievers. Teaching approach/intervention Critical thinking (discussion and expression of viewpoints) introduced through examination of wartime propoganda posters and their maniplulative and persuasive influences (positive and negative) exerted on people. Design and creation of posters which explores contemporary social issues and inspires calls for social action in the school community context was an essential part of the applied approach to teaching/learning.

Developing the Inquiry The Ministry of Education (2007) aspires to create critical learners who can articulate their opinion and extend their values by taking social action as outlined in the New Zealand Curriculum. The notion of ‘critical thinking’ is an essential cognitive skill to acquire from an early age. This skill can be described as a method of tackling and resolving a problem with justifiable and coherent reasoning. The process M. Kim (B) Murrays Bay Intermediate School, Auckland, New Zealand e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 J. R. Jhagroo and P. M. Stringer (eds.), Professional Learning from Classroom-Based Inquiries, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5099-7_7

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involves using information, text, or data to assess and weigh different perspectives and opposing outcomes to make responsible and appropriate decisions (Florea & Hurjui, 2015). In terms of attesting to the significance of ‘visual literacy,’ research findings show that twenty-first-century learners’ ability to critically think is effectively enhanced by the integration of curricular, specifically Social Studies and the Visual Arts (Vitulli & Santoli, 2013). Furthermore, both Social Studies and the Visual Arts require teaching in schools starting early in the primary school years. Visual Arts: The New Zealand Ministry of Education (2007) defines visual art as an agent for sparking innovative action and response as it incorporates creativity, linking cognition, senses, and emotions through both personal and mutual experiences and encounters with social issues. Visual Art allows the learners to form a strong connection with creativity so that they can flourish with their imaginative ideas. This may extend learners’ capabilities to delve further and uncover ethical dilemmas, consider various viewpoints, form personal interpretations, and become aware of societal issues with no clear answer (Schiller & Einarsdottir, 2009). Social Studies: The Social Science curriculum aims to improve learners’ understanding/ability to acquire knowledge, actively join and support ‘local, national, and global communities’ in relation to critical involvement in social concerns and justice (Ministry of Education, 2007, p. 30). Abbiss and Kingston (2016) draw attention to ‘social inquiry’ which promotes social responsibility, citizenship goals, and participation in social action regarding real problems and issues challenging society. Social inquiry allows students to think critically and make decisions related to diverging views, values, and responses that impact transformation of society. Research findings imply that the effectiveness of integrating these two curriculum areas heightens learners’ creative and critical thinking. Taylor et al. (2014) note that this approach guides learners to engage and identify different values of diverse cultures and heritage. My initial observation and conferencing with the learners highlighted their great interest in the Visual Arts and confirmed they had some understanding of social justice issues. This sparked the learner-centred inquiry which adopts a social justice perspective utilising the theme of ‘propaganda.’ Both curriculum areas and critical literacy were used as tools for expressing an opinion regarding a social issue. The learners for this project were students operating at middle-achievement levels who may easily be unnoticed in a classroom context albeit intended or not. Consequently, a major aim was to measure and improve motivation and self-efficacy of these learners.

Review of Literature Inclusive classroom through cooperative Learning: In 1996, the New Zealand government presented the Special Education 2000 policy that endeavoured to accomplish ‘a world-class inclusive education system that provides learning opportunities of equal quality to all students’ (Ministry of Education, 2010, p. 214). This goal is

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supported by a ‘cooperative learning’ approach defined as a teaching method whereby learners with different abilities and achievement work with each other shouldering responsibility for their own and group accomplishment (Medcalf, 1995). ‘Cooperative learning’ is known to assist all learners to enrich their academic and social learning abilities. The approach creates an inclusive environment where unnoticed or disregarded learners can actively be involved in discussion and interaction (Brown, 2010). Learners need a safe learning environment where they can articulate their ideas and flourish. As the cooperative learning approach provides a foundation for learners to view each other as a team, I incorporated team building activities and experiences in my lessons. The inquiry lessons were designed for learners to help each other strive towards a common goal like communities or groups working together to engage in social action. Experiential Knowledge and Learning: It has been stated that current mainstream education lacks association to the daily lives of students resulting in learners becoming passive receivers of the knowledge. Experiential knowledge described in terms of ‘critical pedagogy’ embraces the feeling of acceptance and making connections through sharing of both teacher’s and learners’ own experiences (Medina, 2012). The inquiry lessons were structured so learners could encounter teachers’ own experiences and, also, pathways to relate back and discuss events in their own lives. This facilitated reflection on changes in the community and society could be achieved. ‘Experiential learning’ theory utilised in lessons is proven to alter learners’ knowledge through gaining experiences (Kolb, 1984). To stimulate the learners with new information and fresh knowledge, I included experiences that the learners were invited to participate in. Through experiencing and participating directly, learners could sense different perspectives and understandings. Art is a powerful mechanism to strengthen forms of connection between the creative world and real-life situations and reflect on diverse perspectives and opinions. As Korn (2004) notes, the imagination of children is not an escape from reality but a crucial act in making sense and meaning of the world. Vygotsky (1987) states that creative cognition is a fundamental element of realistic thought process. Art and critical theory in relation to propaganda: Eisner (1998) stated that the arts are pre-existed ‘written history’ mirroring the effort of humans to portray their experiences, ambitions, and worries through pictorial images and actions involving dance, drama, music, poetry, and storytelling. Art plays a vital role in terms of critical thinking as it triggers the learners’ creativity and imagination. Through art and critical thinking, learners are curious and generate insightful questions and perceptions (Korn, 2004). The purpose of critical thinking regarding art is to recognise the way it can spark social awareness and inspire social justice action (Cary, 2004). This is supported by Zwirn and Libresco (2010) who explain that pictures and artworks used for social studies lessons are important and can encourage varying perceptions on a historical occurrence. This can affect learners psychologically and emotionally as they view, understand, and empathise with past societal issues and incidents. Moore (2010) emphasises that art was utilised to make an impact on people’s belief, actions, and perception. Furthermore, he describes propaganda art as a persuasive stimulus

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intended to make social and political transformation. These concepts influenced my lessons on ‘propaganda.’ Learners’ creativity was encouraged by dissecting elements contained in a propaganda poster and imagining how they might feel and what actions they would take if they were in the situation. The learners were given opportunities to put themselves in the shoes of a person from the past and then subsequently analyse current social problems critically and engage in responsive and ethical problem-solving. Promoting Motivation and Self-efficacy: Learners’ motivation to learn has a close association with ‘the learner’s self-concept and sense of self-efficacy’ (Ministry of Education, 2006, p. 22). Lavasani et al. (2011) outline that self-efficacy is affected by self-regulation methods through intrinsic motivation. They expand saying that the learners with high self-efficacy tend to be hard-working students who are determined and persevere when solving cognitive problems. Herrington et al. (2003) highlight that for students to learn effectively, learning needs to promote their capability through high self-efficacy. This is achieved through ‘authentic learning experience.’ It includes opportunities for learners to analyse and look at various points of view using numerous resources, working together, and reflecting. Gelineau (2004) also implies how art promotes self-efficacy which increases learners achieving successful performance. This measure of the students’ motivation and self-efficacy would support and assist the beneficial aspect of integrating art and social studies curriculum areas. It is important to understand ways we can boost learner motivation by listening and incorporating their interests into lesson planning. Prior to selecting learners for my inquiry, I had an extensive discussion with my classroom teacher as my Professional Learning Mentor (PLM), Adjunct Lecturer who is a senior teacher at the school, and Principal to acquire knowledge about the school’s values and culture, classroom setting, teaching pedagogy, and the learners. To gain a better understanding of the learners in my class and to know their interest, I also interviewed them. Most were interested and enjoyed creating art. Several elaborated on their experience of a class inquiry about famous artists and various art movements in history. This showed that they had prior knowledge about art related to history and social issues, but their understanding was not in depth. Also, during shared reading, and guided reading sessions I discovered that my learners had some understanding of social issues but lost interest gradually and in discussions needed more engagement in critical thinking. I had multiple PLC meetings with my PLM, adjunct lecturer, mentor lecturer, the principal, and other related staff members. At these meetings, I had a chance to present and explain my inquiry. Rich conversations flourished creating a space for various open suggestions on teaching pedagogies that could be applied in the school context.

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The Inquiry Approach This inquiry research applied the ‘teaching as inquiry’ model. It runs as a continuous loop or cycle as teachers investigate to produce an achievement of a goal or influence the learners to perform successfully (Ministry of Education, 2007). For ‘Effective pedagogy’ to work, teachers need to question, research, and analyse the prime concern for learning. The inquiry model explores the implication of changes that would influence learners. Successful ‘Teaching as Inquiry’ projects not only means learners achieve success but, also, teachers impart beneficial change (Aitken & Sinnema, 2008). Throughout my experience in schools, I noticed greater amount of attention and effort is given to learners who perform at the low or high academic achievement levels. However, this raises questions about reduced attention given to learners who perform at average level, that is, the so-called ‘good’ students. Learners at this level may easily be unnoticed albeit intended or not. This creates disparity in the classroom as all the learners need to be ‘prioritised’ for a good education suited to their level. Prast and de Weijer-Bergsma (2015) explained differentiated strategies such as goal setting for individual learners and monitoring/analysing their ongoing progress. Catering for students at various levels has a positive influence on students’ achievement. In terms of my study, I selected four students working at a middle-achievement level and focused on ways I could facilitate their learning experience by stimulating their critical thinking and self-efficacy through Visual Arts and Social Science. I settled on exploring how propaganda intended to direct and persuade people to engage in war could be a psychological mechanism involving a struggle between fear, patriotism, and having pride in their country. Propaganda is identified as a procedure of planting and growing a certain idea intended to deliberately persuade and manipulate people’s thoughts and behaviours as per desired information (Soules, 2015). The concept of propaganda can implement negative connotations as it can easily influence and control the viewer to believe in false attributes. Considering the effects propaganda posters have, there is potential for them to be used to create or promote positive outcomes. This is the core of my intervention. My lessons always began with an experience designed to spark learner interest by focusing on the main theme; that is, the propaganda and social issue involved. I used the first session to gradually establish the idea that the media we are exposed to can be manipulative and biased. Therefore, learners needed a critical eye and mindset to view information aligned with their values. The first session focused on analysing past war propaganda and the second was relating and connecting this to current media. In terms of outcome, learners produced propaganda posters outlining their own critical mindset in terms of social action to promote a positive aspect or raise awareness of a negative societal issue. This links with my goal where art is involved in social action. Dewhurst (2014) explains that artists always have partaken in the key roles of honouring, critiquing, and influencing society. He states that ‘As social figures, artists have often been seen as moral or cultural visionaries offering critical

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commentary on a society’s values or actions and therefore capable of powerful social and political influence’ (p. 7). The learners were selected through classroom observation, formative assessment data such as Overall Teacher Judgement (OTJ) and PLM’s observational notes. All learners in the group were at the average level for both literacy and mathematics and were reading at 9.5–10.5 level which is the early level 3 of the New Zealand Curriculum and were at early to average stage 6 for mathematics. The measure of motivation and engagement was undertaken through observation, taking notes on their behaviour, considering their comments, reflecting on their written work, and artwork, and referring to OTJs. To evaluate critical thinking, Ruggiero’s (2012) criteria were utilised and modified to suit my teaching and learning space. The behaviour and attributes of a critical thinker included: • Being truthful to oneself, accepting one’s weakness and differences • Viewing issues and concerns with interest showing eagerness to push for the challenge • Willingness to learn, be curious, and putting effort and time to solve problems • Reasoning with evidence • Showing interest in unfamiliar perspective and willingness to acknowledge and listen to other views, and • Maintaining a stance and not being swayed by controversial views or biased perspectives.

Inquiry in Practice Findings and discussion: Throughout this inquiry, it was clear that learners were able to articulate their critical thinking by actively being involved in critical discussion. Learners showed excitement and engagement as they were unfamiliar with the social experiences and the integrated nature of the Visual Art and Social Studies, and I noted these responses expressed during the activities and tasks. Theories in relation to ‘cooperative learning,’ ‘critical theory,’ and motivation were used during the lessons. Learners were quick to receive latest information about propaganda and were able to relate it to their own personal lives. Evident through observation, OTJs, written work, and teacher/learner conferences indicated significant improvements in terms of confidence levels and thinking critically. During interviews conducted after the inquiry project, all learners mentioned that they enjoyed the different activities incorporated in the lessons. All enjoyed the activity called ‘fast finder’ aimed to create movement and fun engagement as each learner was given a role to represent in their group. Learners then needed to perform tasks and the fastest group to accomplish all given tasks was the winner. According to Hattie (2012), cooperative learning activities are effective as they bring about togetherness and working constructively with others. Further, Hattie states that cooperative learning increases the learners’ ‘verbal problem-solving, categorising, spatial problem-solving, retention, and memory’ skills (Hattie, 2012, p. 88). This was

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clearly demonstrated by all as they showed motivation and engagement by actively being involved in the tasks. The ‘Bus-stop’ brainstorming activity enhanced everyone working together to brainstorm the meaning of key vocabulary such as: ‘manipulate,’ ‘persuade,’ ‘slogan,’ ‘stimulate,’ and ‘impact.’ Here, everyone collaboratively worked together to provide meanings for each word. It was apparent that they were not familiar with what some words meant at the beginning but during group discussion, they gained a better understanding and built up their own vocabulary knowledge through use and making it their own words. Providing learners with opportunities to share their thoughts and interpretations worked better than the teacher going through each meaning one by one (Fig. 7.1). During the interview, Learner B said, ‘I liked how we got to do the activities that we do not normally do. I enjoyed the fast-finder game because I like working in a team and we won.’ This indicates that motivation to learn is enhanced when there is an element of team building included. Learners A and D participated well throughout all tasks and commented they would like to do these types of activities again. I found that the main reason for this was that learners were excited by a sense of competition and accomplishing the task as a team. An inclusive environment of respect and working together for the same goal proved motivational. For most Year 5 learners in the classroom, the term ‘propaganda’ was unfamiliar and even though some had heard of it they could not explain the meaning. Students need to learn Social Studies as it links to citizenship education which embraces participation in a multicultural society where knowledgeable and justified choices need to be made (Mutch et al., 2016). I have come to realise that through such experiences at my practicum schools, learners lack opportunities to explore the social studies

Fig. 7.1 The bus-stop brainstorm activity

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curriculum. Perhaps core subjects such as Mathematics and English are given priority over other curriculum areas. All learners found the new format of learning through an integrated Social Studies and Visual Art approach fascinating. The learners were eager to find out the meaning of propaganda and were shocked to discover underlying messages that propaganda can contain. Not everyone could relate to war propaganda straight away as they had not experienced war or thought about it before. However, during the discussion, Learner D said, ‘It is quite sad that they are advertising for people to join the war. I never want war to happen.’ This sparked rich conversations to occur among the group as Learner D’s words started to make meaning and other students agreed with her saying that they would not want to risk their lives to go to war while acknowledging how people at that time had no choice of avoiding going to war. Learner B stated that even though it was sad, it was a patriotic act to go to war. Learner B was able to not only understand and respect the other people’s ideas but, also, express their opinion with reasoning. This conversation opened opportunities for critically thinking not only about the topic or situation but, also, in terms of cognitive development whereby students were relating events to their own life and perception. The learner’s critical discourse produced multiple perspectives on the notion of propaganda related to the mass media. Moon (2008) asserts that the critical thinking encompasses the notion of ‘reflection’ and ‘argument.’ She explains that ‘reflective thought deals with the process of compound concerns and problems. In addition, the term ‘argument’ in terms of critical thinking is focusing on the “good” processing of evidence’ (p. 129) instead of concluding or making the last decision. This act of critical thinking was visible through observing the learners’ behaviours and in discussions. The class talked about negative aspects of propaganda and misleading information of mass media today. As learners talked about biased information and what actions we need to take to stop ourselves manipulated they showed various aspects of critical thinking. Learners B and C shared similar approaches of ‘reflecting’ when critical thinking. They shared their reflections with the class. Both reflected on their past and the changes that they would make now as they learnt to become critical viewers. This was a huge improvement as they were reluctant to share their opinion and found it hard to articulate their thoughts clearly beforehand. Learners A and D dealt with their critical thinking from an ‘argument’ perspective. Both considered the need to accept different opinions but with their own reasoning they discussed how art is a powerful component in promoting propaganda. Through critical discussions, all built confidence and self-efficacy to speak up. Learners underwent two different experiences that enhanced their abilities to think about how socially attached and influenced we are as human beings. For example, most learners in the classroom were given a piece of paper asking them to ‘quickly stand up and sit down when they heard a beep sound’ and only four of them had a paper stating, ‘smile and have a nice day.’ When the beep sound played, the three out of four people stood up like the rest of the students. This showed how socially influenced we are by each other and re-acknowledged the power of propaganda. In a conference with the learners, all commented that they have found the experiences

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‘fun and exciting.’ Learner A especially showed a strong connection expressing his curiosity in the ways people relate and impact each other. Integration of the Visual Arts and Social Studies approach and using the societal theme of propaganda effectively promoted students’ critical thinking and decisionmaking related to perceiving and expressing viewpoints and beliefs. This is supported by Burnstein (2014) who states that the integration of curricular provides an opportunity for understanding multicultural perspectives. Physical presentation of visual artworks in the classroom is important as it introduces culture awareness in the class more so than conventional textbooks. Viewing various propaganda themes from past to present elicited a creative response and supported the students to create their own propaganda responding to social issues in line with their interest. As Charland (2011) states, this type of inquiry supports social change and being critical citizen who are fully aware of global and societal issues. All learners flourished when they not only, brainstormed ideas but also created their own personal poster using propaganda techniques and effective artistic elements to engage viewers. Learner C shared her personal stories when she chose ‘bullying’ as her poster topic. She stated, ‘I created this art poster because I did not want anyone to be bullied.’ Learner B focused on being positive. She commented, ‘I wanted to say to people that whenever you are feeling down, think of the happy memories and others who love them.’ Both showed they were responsible members who connect, cater, and empathise with the social justice issues. They explained their artworks with confidence and self-efficacy as they believed they could make a social change (Fig. 7.2).

Fig. 7.2 The propaganda posters created by Student C (left) and Student B (right)

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Reflections on the Inquiry The main limitation of this inquiry is that it was conducted over a period of two days, and I amended lesson content to fit the schedule. Perhaps having more time might have provided the opportunity for me to delve deeper into the area of social justice. In addition, I was in a co-teaching collaborative space which may have affected the relationship between the students and myself as the teacher. Despite this, learners were enthusiastic and actively participated in activities. Their cognitive skills and self-efficacy through reflecting on their interest and strengths developed. The benefits are that learners are developing understandings of how to interpret information or pictures without manipulation or being swayed by negative connotations. They demonstrated skills of using art as another form of their communication. My professional learning from this inquiry is that I can consider addressing a topic like propaganda that may be negatively perceived to promote a positive result. The adaptation of teaching an integrated Visual Art and Social Science curriculum needs to be actively pursued as children are provided with opportunities to be imaginative, open-minded, and critical citizens.

Reflecting on Inquiry a Year on as a First-Year Teacher… The journey as a first-year teacher and performing as an inquiring practitioner has meant that I have learnt and acquired knowledge and strategies that help me know about what interests and engages my learners. With great support from my colleagues, I was able to engage in insightful conversations and attend seminars which helped my professional learning. My inquiry project at AUT is linked with the concept of ‘Art and Propaganda.‘ The inquiry explored social justice issues and how art plays a role in depicting the notion of propaganda. I was significantly influenced by the nature of this inquiry and have integrated Art into various curriculum areas as it increases students’ self-efficacy, creativity, and motivation. Through this teaching approach, students display different ways of expressing themselves and enjoy taking ownership of their learning. Because many learners are exposed to long durations of screen time, my major goal for this year was to give opportunities whereby they could try various hands-on activities through arts and craft linked with multiple curricula. My learners have shown enthusiasm and built the confidence to articulate their understanding and perspectives through a critical lens.

References Abbiss, J., & Kingston, H. (2016). What is this subject called social studies? In M. Harcourt, A. Milligan, & B. Wood (Eds.), Teaching social studies for critical, active citizenship in Aotearoa New Zealand (pp. 1–19). NZCER Press.

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Aitken, G., & Sinnema, C. (2008). Effective pedagogy in social sciences/tikanga a iwi. Wellington: Ministry of Education. Bie, Y. (2016). The visual arts influence in Nazi Germany. In SHS Web of Conferences (Vol. 25, p. 02022). EDP Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/20162502022 Brown, D. (2010). Cooperative Learning. In V. Green & S. Cherrington (Eds.), Delving into diversity: An international exploration of issues of diversity in education (pp. 21–34). Nova Science Publisher. Burnstein, J. (2014). Integrating arts: Cultural anthropology and expressive culture in the social studies curriculum. Social Studies Research and Practice, 9(2), 132–144. Cary, R. (2004). Art and Aesthetics. In J. L. Kincheloe & D. Weil (Eds.), Critical thinking and learning: An encyclopaedia for parents and teachers (pp. 53–57). Greenwood Press. Charland, L. C. (2011). Moral undertow and the passions: Two challenges for contemporary emotion regulation. Emotion Review, 3(1), 83–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910380967 Dewhurst, M. (2014). Social justice art: A framework for activist art pedagogy. Harvard Education Press. Eisner, E. W. (1998). Does experience in the arts boost academic achievement? Arts Education Policy Review, 100(1), 32–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/10632919809599448 Facione, P. F. (2011). Critical thinking: What it is and why it counts. Measured Reasons and The California Academic Press. Florea, N. M., & Hurjui, E. (2015). Critical thinking in elementary school children. Procedia-Social and Behavioural Sciences, 180, 565–572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.02.161 Gelineau, P. (2004). Integrating the arts across the elementary school curriculum. Wadsworth Thomson learning. Hattie, J. (2012). Visible learning for teachers: Maximizing impact on learning. Routledge. Herrington, J. A., Oliver, R. G., & Reeves, T. (2003). Patterns of engagement in authentic online learning environments. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 19(1), 59–71. Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Prentice-Hall. Korn, C. (2004). Art Education, Young Children, and Critical Thinking. In J. L. Kincheloe & D. Weil (Eds.), Critical thinking and learning: An encyclopaedia for parents and teachers. Greenwood Publishing. Lavasani, M. G., Mirhosseini, F. S., Hejazi, E., & Davoodi, M. (2011). The effect of self-regulation learning strategies training on the academic motivation and self-efficacy. Procedia-Social and Behavioural Sciences, 29, 627–632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.11.285 Ministry of Education. (2006). Effective literacy practice in year 5 to 8. Learning Media. Ministry of Education. (2007). The New Zealand curriculum. Learning Media. Ministry of Education. (2010). The review of special education 2010: Public response summary. Crown. Medcalf, J. (1995). Cooperative learning and peer tutoring: Strategies for inclusive education. Reading Forum, 2, 11–19. Medina, Y. (2012). Critical aesthetic pedagogy: Toward a Theory of Self and Social Empowerment. Peter Lang. Moon, J. A. (2008). Critical thinking: An exploration of theory and practice. Routledge. Moore, C. (2010). Propaganda prints: A history of art in the service of social and political change. A&C Black. Mutch, C., Perreau, M., Houliston, B., & Tatebe, J. (2016). Teaching social studies for social justice: Social action is more than ‘doing stuff’. In M. Harcourt, A. Milligan, & B. E. Wood (Eds.), Teaching social studies for critical, active citizenship in Aotearoa New Zealand (pp. 82–101). NZCER. Prast, E. J., & de Weijer-Bergsma, V. (2015). Readiness-based differentiation in primary school mathematics: Expert recommendations and teacher self-assessment. Frontline Learning Research, 3(2), 90–116. Ruggiero, V. P. (2012). Beyond feelings: A guide to critical thinking. McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.

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Russell-Bowie, D. (2012). Developing preservice primary teachers’ confidence and competence in arts education using principles of authentic learning. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 37(1), 60–74. https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2012v37n1.2 Schiller, W., & Einarsdottir, J. (2009). Special issue: Listening to young children’s voices in research—changing perspectives/changing relationships. Early Child Development and Care, 179(2), 125–130. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430802666932 . Soules, M. (2015). Media, persuasion, and propaganda. Edinburgh University Press. Taylor, J. A., Monck, T., & Ayoub, S. (2014). Arts integration in the social studies: Research and perspectives from the field. The Councillor: A Journal of the Social Sciences, 75(1), 23–49. Vitulli, P., & Santoli, S. P. (2013). Visual arts and social studies: Powerful partners in promoting critical thinking skills. Social Studies Research and Practice, 8(1), 117–134. https://doi.org/10. 1108/SSRP-01-2013-B0009 Vygotsky, L. (1987). Lecture 5: Imagination and its development in childhood. In R. W. Rieber, & A. S. Carlton (Eds.). The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky, Vol. 1 (pp. 39–349). Plenum Press. Zwirn, S., & Libresco, A. (2010). Art in social studies assessments: An untapped resource for social justice education. Art Education, 63(5), 30–35. https://doi.org/10.1080/00043125.2010. 11519085

Chapter 8

Integrating Music/Song Lyrics into Literacy to Engage Reluctant Learners to Develop Critical Literacy and Awareness Around Global Issues Loata Tiapapa

Inquiry focus: Can music and/or song lyrics help engage learners to develop critical literacy and build awareness towards global issues? This inquiry examines ways in which music and song lyrics engage reluctant learners to develop critical literacy skills and advance their awareness of global issues.

Learners: Following a series of classroom observations, students who lacked motivation or interest in literacy, demonstrated low levels of selfefficacy, were easily distracted, off-task and unwilling to participate in activities were identified as learners for this inquiry. Teaching approach/intervention: Teaching approach focused on utilizing song lyrics as a non-traditional text to help foster engagement and motivation to developing critical literacy.

Developing the Inquiry The New Zealand Curriculum (Ministry of Education, 2007) envisions a future filled with learners who can think ‘critically, creatively, and reflectively in order to develop the ability to express their own values and explore empathy towards others (p. 10).’ Critical literacy can help implement this as it enables us to make sense of the world through ‘providing opportunities for learners to disrupt the commonplace L. Tiapapa (B) Moana Connect, Auckland, New Zealand e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 J. R. Jhagroo and P. M. Stringer (eds.), Professional Learning from Classroom-Based Inquiries, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5099-7_8

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by exploring and challenging multiple viewpoints, questioning the validity of the information, focusing on relevant issues and promoting social justice’ (Julien, 2016, p. 3). Motivation is essential to encourage learners to become critically literate. This can be accomplished by using a variety of engaging texts and teaching techniques (McLaughlin & DeVoogd, 2004). Julien (2016) confirmed that incorporating texts related to the world of the learner is important. In addition, music can have positive effects in the classroom and provide opportunities for learners to hear from ‘voices’ that are not always available in ‘traditional written texts.’ Literacy texts provide a platform for teaching across curriculum areas and this integration can serve as a motivational strategy to enhance the interests of reluctant learners. Identified through classroom speeches, students in my class were interested in water pollution, environmental sustainability, and promoting health and wellbeing. Observations and informal conversations indicated that they were not only intrigued by global issues but, also, demonstrated a passion for music. Therefore, it made sense to use music as a medium to develop critical literacy and build awareness of global issues. According to the 2015 statistics for New Zealand Broadcasting Standards Authority (NZBSA), 52% of children aged 6–14 years stream or listen to music daily. The most popular stations amongst 12–14 years olds include Edge radio, More FM, and Mai FM. These stations highlight genres such as hip hop, R&B, and pop music. These statistics along with the preliminary data I gathered helped to guide the scope of my inquiry whereby music was integrated into the literacy programme. I wanted to investigate if introducing music/song lyrics as a new form of text in the literacy programme would help reluctant learners develop critical literacy and awareness of global issues. My rationale for this inquiry links to the interests and needs of my learners and provides opportunities for research in an area of teaching and learning that has not been widely used or explored.

Review of Literature Differentiated planning and teaching is a common practice amongst New Zealand teachers based on the premise that each child does not learn in the same way. According to Richardson (2011), reading differentiation can be achieved in three main areas: content, process, and product. Richardson (2011) explains that content is the information we teach, process is how students will learn the material, and product is the way students will demonstrate their understanding of the material. Teachers do this quite naturally when they give students more time to finish tasks, utilise different assessment tools, and provide choice of text for reading. With respect to my inquiry intervention, I created an authentic lesson that catered to the interests of my learners and offered them different options on how to make meaning of text. I did this by using a range of written and visual texts and encouraged Think, Pair, Share (TPS) opportunities for discussion and group interaction.

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The English language learning progressions for year 5–8 learners (Ministry of Education, 2008) suggest that educators select text that contains simple and compound sentences with repetition, such as songs, rhymes, and raps. Walton (2014) found that songs help facilitate memorising because of students’ abilities to easily retain the lyrics after a few repetitions. Songs can assist ESOL learners with pronunciations of words through the assistance of the rhythm and melody created by the artist. According to Stygles (2014), sometimes an effective approach for teaching reading requires teachers to provide obvious but unique opportunities. In this regard, song lyrics are ‘easier’ texts that can scaffold and motivate learners around concepts and themes that may be often considered ‘boring.’ Topics may include war, history, and beliefs. Learning with lyrics allows students to gain a sense of belief that they can read and strategically decipher hidden meanings in texts. Critical literacy is the ability to actively engage with text in a reflective and analytical manner to better understand power, inequality, and social injustices in human relationships (Coffey et al., 2013). Here, text is used as a ‘vehicle to enable people to interpret messages in the modern world through a critical lens’ (Coffey et al., 2013). According to Joseph and Trinick (2016), educators recognise the benefit of song as an effective medium for teaching and learning. Music can be used as a primary source document to provide students with cultural understandings and powerful perspectives on moments and eras in history. Music can be used as a medium to stimulate critical thinking. For example, songs, lyrics, or poems written by slaves during civil wars provide ‘exposure to unheard voices or perspectives that are often neglected in textbooks’. Music is a universal language that can promote literacy growth and development in emergent literacy learners (Joseph & Trinick, 2016). New Zealand’s Ministry of Education (2015) reinforces the idea that ‘effective teaching practice involves using and creating rich texts that relate to students’ interests and draws on their social and cultural identities to motivate and challenge them as learners’ (p. 12). Stygles (2014) states that carefully selected song lyrics contain ‘universal messages and metaphorical meanings, offering readers an alternative approach to reading instruction’ (p. 10). Interaction with song lyrics means students can gain background knowledge on topics without extensive pre-teaching. For example, song lyrics such as Michael Jackson’s ‘Man in the mirror,’ Macklemore and Ryan Lewis’ ‘Same Love’ and ‘Black eyed Peas’ ‘Where is the Love,’ are used in the media as a tool to promote equality and protest or expose social injustices (Joseph & Trinick, 2016). Lyrics of topical issues can help increase student motivation and interest towards social studies and global issues. Further, it gives educators the opportunity to tap into the world of the student, encouraging them to be critical about what they hear, read, and see around them. Unlike traditional texts, music can reinforce stronger links between reader and the text; develop deeper connections stimulated by the emotions conveyed in the melody and lyrics. As a result, readers build curiosity through the lyrics and are motivated to explore nonfiction texts to clarify any wonderings (Stygles, 2014). Engagement is a robust indicator of student learning, retention, and achievement (Parsons et al., 2014). Researchers found that student engagement occurs in three

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dimensions known as affective engagement, behavioural engagement, and cognitive engagement. Affective engagement refers to the interests, curiosity, and eagerness towards specific topics or tasks. Behavioural engagement is active participation in class activities and ability to stay on task. Cognitive engagement enables learners to immerse themselves in metacognitive and self-regulated learning (Parsons et al., 2014). These dimensions helped guide my assessment of student engagement in critical literacy through music and song lyrics. Vygotsky’s (1978) social constructivist theory claims that developmental growth occurs in social environments, and knowledge is acquired by interacting with others. Using music and song lyrics to connect with my learners would enable me to influence and foster engagement through environments that nurture collaborative relationships, encourage positivity, and connect learning to student led interests and experiences. Aligned with Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), the approach taken in this inquiry encouraged learners to scaffold and help each other through the transmission of knowledge and experiences. Learners were expected to learn at their own rate. As a facilitator, I scaffolded students to use their own schemas to make sense of the lyrics whilst prompting them with carefully constructed questions to deepen their understanding of hidden messages in the text. Collaborative discussions and group activities were used to promote a safe space for learners to share their opinion in a Vygotskian manner.

The Inquiry Approach My research connects with the cyclical nature of the Teaching as Inquiry model. The cycle assists teachers to identify outcomes that support their students achieve the desired goal using a range of resources and knowledge. Teachers need to evaluate if current strategies are still effective and then propose new strategies to better support learners. The model requires teachers to monitor and gather information about whether the strategies are working, and then use this information to decide on future steps to further improve student achievement and their practice (Ministry of Education, 2007). Based on a series of observations, learners who displayed low motivation or interest towards literacy and who displayed low levels of self-efficacy were selected. They were easily distracted, off-task, or unwilling to participate in classroom activities. Sewell and St George (2000) found that students who demonstrated higher self-efficacy beliefs were actively involved in their studies through engaging in critical thinking and debating with their peers. The four students selected lacked selfefficacy and I wanted to see if integration of music with exploring rich social justice themes could help improve their engagement in literacy learning. Out of the four, two students were identified as English Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL), and so, cementing the relevancy of using song lyrics to foster and retain information, engagement and deeper thinking was important.

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The rationale for using music as the vehicle to foster engagement in literacy was chosen because it aligned with the interests of students aged 6–14; that is, the age bracket of my year 5 learners (NZBSA, 2015). An article by Blackburn (2017) found that 79% of students and workers listen to music whilst completing work as it improves productivity and focuses attention towards completing tasks; an area that my priority group struggled in. Initial observations and guided reading sessions indicated my learners purposely distracted others because they appeared ‘bored.’ I asked one student why she thought she acted this way. The student revealed that the text was uninteresting, and she would have preferred to read about water pollution or war. I then consulted members of my class to inquire about their interests and topics they would like to read about. Social justice themes, music, and creative approaches emerged as topics of interest. My students’ passion for music had been noticed through their participation in the school choir and desire to listen and stream music outside of school. I felt that as a responsive teacher, fostering learning could be enhanced by incorporating my students’ interest of music and merging it with literacy. It could also become an intrinsic motivator facilitating them to be engaged and develop critical literacy. For this reason, the choice of song needed to be carefully selected to offer as much opportunity to promote critical thinking. I felt selecting a song within the popular genre of pop, hip hop, or R&B with reference to social justice themes would enable me to help foster engagement, motivation, and critical thinking. My research question was ‘Can using music and/or song lyrics in literacy help engage reluctant learners to develop critical literacy and build awareness towards global issues?’. My intervention involved conducting a lesson where students were given the opportunity to build critical literacy by deconstructing song lyrics and music videos. The lesson was undertaken over a period of two days and consisted of two 45min sessions per day. The focus was on assisting students to build engagement and motivation towards literacy through integration of the curriculum. I selected the song ‘Where is the love?’ because it had history and explored social themes with a hip hop, R&B, and pop flavour; genres popular amongst adolescents according to NZBSA (2015). Interestingly, this song had been first released in 2003 and then remastered with a newer version in 2016. In 2003, The Black Eyed Peas released the song in response to the 9/11 terror attacks. The band then remade the song in response to the numerous events of unrest and attacks in Syria, Dallas, and Paris (Yee, 2016). This song served as a great platform for students to broaden their worldview with artists they could relate to. I saw the need for students to make their own connections and find their own answers as to why they thought this song needed to be released twice. Before deconstructing the song lyrics, prior knowledge was gathered through a bus stop rotation brainstorm technique whereby students contributed their thoughts, made their own connections, and offered their opinion about newly introduced vocabulary that included: discrimination, use of chemical gas, love, unity, equality, and war. These words would resurface during the follow-up deconstruction of the song. Building a safe environment to foster open communication was considered vital.

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The deconstruction of the song was organised into three different segments. Firstly, students listened to the audio of the song to understand the purpose or main themes. After listening to it once, students heard it again and this time used an activity sheet with prompts to narrow and record their thinking. This activity used the ‘I hear, I think so now that makes me wonder’ thinking technique, to help them scaffold their thought process to make inferences and critique the text. This technique helped transcend students’ low-level observations to higher metacognitive thinking (Lowe et al., 2013). The ‘I see, I think, I wonder’ technique is commonly used to develop scientific capabilities and I recrafted this to suit my inquiry. For the next step, students listened to the song again this time deconstructing the lyrics using the ‘I read, I think so now I understand’ technique. Reading the lyrics enabled students to clarify any wonderings and strategically analyse the lyrics to find hidden meanings or purpose of the artist. For my ESOL learners, this approach assisted them make the connection between what the word sounds like and what it looks like hence building their vocabulary and retainment of information. The final segment of the lesson encouraged students to use their inferences from the lyrics and compare it to the music video, thinking more about the suitability of the video in conducting the message of the lyrics. The exploration of the video and lyrics gave students the opportunity to create meaning using the three strands of the English curriculum: listening, reading, and viewing (Ministry of Education, 2007). Hong and Riper (2016) found that guided video analysis provides teachers with the opportunity to ‘collaborate and gain interdisciplinary awareness in working with diverse students’ (p. 102). However, it is important that teachers use questions to guide learners to pay closer attention to specific aspects of the videos to help lead to richer peer discussions. As stated earlier, differentiation can help me better cater to my learners and help foster their engagement. As a result, I created different ways in which students can illustrate their understanding of the text through creative and critical responses. These responses included: • Creating a dance and utilising movement to capture the main ideas. • Creating a poster to highlight or raise awareness regarding an important lyric or theme. • Critically arguing why, a specific theme should have more awareness. Each of these options gave my learners the opportunity to tap into their strengths to best demonstrate their understanding of the text. For this inquiry, I collected both quantitative and qualitative data to determine the effectiveness of incorporating music into literacy to help build motivation and engagement. Engagement was monitored on a spectrum as stated in Table 8.1 below. The behaviours outlined in the table were adapted from Parsons et al. (2014) study on student engagement. The quantitative data included observations, anecdotal recordings of students showing evidence of participating in discussions, on task behaviour, work effort to complete follow-up tasks, and enjoyment in the lessons shown by their expressions and positive attitude. Other evidence gathered included notes and work by students,

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Table 8.1 Engagement spectrum High Engagement

• Affective Engagement: ◯ Puts in high effort into completing tasks ◯ Shows motivation and attention towards participating ◯ Evidence of enjoyment displayed through the body language, gestures, or positive attitude • Behavioural engagement: ◯ Actively participating in discussions ◯ Completing set work • Cognitive engagement ◯ Willingness to be challenged and self-regulated to seek out more information if needed ◯ Asks for clarification when needed • Exceeds expectations on set tasks

Low Engagement

• Fails to complete assigned tasks and follow-ups • Low self-efficacy often gives up before giving things a worthy try • Displays boredom through the lack of engagement, body language, or expression. (i.e. slouched over or sleeping, uninterested in listening) • Easily distracted or causes disruption for others

whole class feedback surveys, and qualitative evidence gathered from individual interviews.

Inquiry in Practice Findings and discussion: Prior to beginning my inquiry my priority learners showed lack of engagement and interest towards their literacy lessons that used text about topics unrelated to their interest. After implementing my intervention, I discovered improved levels of engagement amongst all my learners. During the bus stop brainstorm, I observed students who normally do not share often start to express their feelings and opinions. The opportunity to work in a safe and relaxed environment helped these learners share their thoughts with their peers. The bus stop warms up bolstered students’ confidence to work with others. In addition, it also helped develop vocabulary by exposure to new words and their literal and colloquial meanings. Introducing the song caused a lot of students to feel intrigued which was demonstrated in the eagerness to hear the lyrics quietly. This behaviour was particularly seen with my group being on task and carefully trying to the decipher the song. This was unexpected behaviour because in the past, each student struggled to maintain silence during activities, especially those that involved creative methods for expression like dance, art, or music. The purpose of my lesson was to not only get students to question the music and world around them but, also, find hidden messages and meaning in certain songs. Where is the love, had lyrical messages that students might not have realised without

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closely analysing the song lyrics. This was evident in a student’s initial response to the ‘I hear’ prompt as this comment indicates, ‘I hear rapping, this is bad and inappropriate with curse language.’ The student revealed a stigma regarding their view on rap. Because this song has rap in it, the student assumed the song must be about cursing and inappropriate themes that are usually seen in recent popular music. The student’s view on rap from their past experiences or interactions created a negative image around this genre. ‘I think it’s describing war, children getting hurt in a place with no peace’ response reveals a student listening to the audio by taking a different perspective on the song. It is interesting to see the contrast in what we hear, when we only have our prior knowledge and willingness to listen, to interpret the audio. After collecting students’ notes from reading the lyrics, I noticed students making deeper connections as the findings presented in Table 8.2 reveal. The findings presented in Table 8.2 provide evidence of students using the lyrics to scaffold their own critical thinking which then enable them to make inferences. For example, ‘chemical gases filling the lungs of little ones’ was linked to chemical warfare affecting the survival of children around the world. Interestingly, this student showed evidence of synthesising their prior knowledge of chemical gases being toxic and the text revealing the potential harm on children. Understanding this made them worry about the dangers around them such as smoking, as it has the potential to harm or pollute the lungs of young ones. Therefore, the student has picked on the purpose of the song to raise awareness to influence change and spread the ‘love.’ The first lyric, ‘most of us only care about money makin’ was interpreted to describe how the world prioritises money even above the lives of others. It provided Table 8.2 Collection of the reading responses to I read, I think, so now I understand I read…

So, I think…

And now I understand…

‘Most of us only care about money makin’ ‘The word is addicted to the drama’

This is true, selfish idiots only care about money, they would rather kill to get money I think the world is addicted to the drama, which refers to people constantly wanting all eyes on them, desiring to be the centre of attention

Everything stated is true about the things happening around us. I hope more people realise the importance of this

‘Chemical gases filling the lungs of little ones’

It is talking about children suffering because of war and chemical gases. It also makes me think about the toxic gases some children already experience with adults around them smoking

That children are in danger; war makes it even harder for some to survive They use a lot of the same words in each paragraph to spread the word about love

‘I read things that tell me the whole world is getting more bad a lot of points and bad things.’

That we should stop fighting and love, kindness and caring for the younger ones

That the singers are trying to say that we should take care of others and show kindness

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me with clear indicators that students were trying to carefully deconstruct the meaning using metacognitive strategies. The commonalities amongst all three interpretations show evidence of students developing a world view and desire to enact social action. The students’ annotations of the lyrics illustrated a variety of perspectives that each learner brought to the lyrics and has been influenced by his/her own values. The sample below [Fig. 8.1] captures the nature of creative responses. It revealed to me how passionate my learners were by showing evidence of cognitive and behavioural engagement taken to complete their assigned tasks and engagement in discussions. After several weeks of marking learners’ literacy books, I could see that a lot of the tasks set for them were not being completed or even started. Thus, seeing this new approach had improved their effort to completing set tasks at a high standard, I believed was a good indicator to the effectiveness music has in re-engaging reluctant learners to literacy. In addition to my group, these sessions were extended to all students in two classes my students were in. I conducted two class surveys utilising a simple but effective thumbs up, in the middle, or down measure to indicate if students understood/did not understand the concept. The English Learning Language Progressions (Ministry of Education, 2008) suggest that ESOL learners use gestures, facial expressions, or short phrases to indicate if they understand or do not understand. I used this measure to ascertain student enjoyment of the lesson. Twenty-four students out of twenty-eight in my first class provided a thumbs up meaning they enjoyed the lesson thoroughly,

Fig. 8.1 Group’s creative response samples

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learnt something new, and would like to do something similar in the future. Four students stated that they thought the lesson went okay but did not really care what would happen next. For the other class, twenty-nine students provided a thumbs up attesting to clear enjoyment of the lesson. From this, I can claim that music did foster engagement by easily captivating my learners’ interests. Throughout my intervention, I observed how each learner in my group demonstrated evidence of affective, behavioural, and cognitive engagement (Parsons et al., 2014). Overall, the behavioural engagement of my priority learners increased as shown by at least ten anecdotal recordings of each of them being observed on task and working. As mentioned earlier, this was an improvement given previous observations taken prior to my inquiry which showed a lack of concentration and focus to stay on task and not be distracted by peers or objects around them. My data also showed that students A, B, and C participated in offering their contribution to discussions more than seven times whereas, student D only engaged in conversations three times. Student D had shown willingness to listen to others but lacked the confidence to speak with his group members. This may have been because of the grouping dynamics where he may have felt unheard if he shared his opinion or less knowledgeable about certain concepts. After two weeks, I decided to interviews student B, C, and D. Student A had been unavailable due to other commitments. Student B mentioned her immense enjoyment of the lesson which was demonstrated through her eagerness to sing along whilst reading the lyrics. Student B recalled the main themes of the song that included love, discrimination, and terrorism. Upon analysing both versions of the song in the music video, Student B felt that the 2016 version was more impactful. Seeing images of children in pain alongside the tone and lyrics of the song helped the student build empathy towards the victims. She commented, I really liked your teaching and the song lyric idea and the way you teach song lyrics, doing the words first like discrimination helped me a lot. I would enjoy doing this more in the future. This feedback highlights the effectiveness of activating prior knowledge by building on the vocabulary before deconstructing the lyrics to strategically decode the meaning in the text. Student B also mentioned that because of this lesson she started helping homeless people more often by giving them any spare money. She shared her desire to help others more actively which shows her cognitive engagement to self-regulate and desire to participate in social action. Students C and D are both ESOL learners but were able to retain all the information learnt from the lessons even after two weeks. Student C mentioned that knowing R. Kelly’s, The World’s greatest and Where is the love made it easier for him to stay focused. The songs were interesting because it was like the music to which he would personally listen. This information helps reinforce the idea that powerful learning occurs when it relates to the world and interest of our learners (Hattie, 2008). Student C mentioned that some of the images shown he never knew were real events happening around him. This shows the power lyrics and music videos. It has the capacity to broaden the worldview of students whilst inspiring them about hope, love, and social actions to create change. Likewise, Student D also enjoyed reading the lyrics instead of journal books because it was more interesting and easier

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to remember. He also mentioned how creative the lesson was as he never knew you could use the same reading skills with lyrics. Collectively, each student provided similar feedforward comments noting that lessons on lyrical deconstruction should be explored much longer with even more songs on offer. The only improvement they would make is being able to watch the music videos at least twice to capture the full experience and meaning of the songs.

Reflections on the Inquiry A limitation of my intervention is the lack of conclusive data I was able to gather. Unfortunately, I did not have enough time to fully expand on specific concepts and themes in the lyrics that may have inhibited students’ opportunity to develop critical literacy. In doing so, I could not fully grasp the extent music has when it comes to assisting students to move from low-level to higher levels of thinking. The condensed sessions of two 45-min sessions, one after the other made it difficult to explore specific themes within the text for longer periods of time. Students’ restlessness needed to be acted on by using more songs and thus lessening the depth I was able to cover with one. Moreover, to cover as much information as possible I had to rush a lot of content knowledge and historical background in a condensed period that may have been overwhelming for my learners. There was clear evidence that the lyrical content of the song sparked curiosity towards global issues. Students actively sought ways to enact social action through their follow-up responses and their desire to help others outside of the classroom. The contents of the music video influenced the learners by exposure to authentic images; they gained new perspectives of what life would be like for someone who lived in bleak circumstances. Students noted that the lyrics and music videos offered them a glimpse into what is happening around them and it helped them gain a broader world view. They said they developed empathy for others. Additional benefits of using song lyrics were the power to help foster long-term memory. As noted in interviews, even after 2 weeks, students were able to recollect the learning objectives, factual information, and purpose of the text. In contrast to this, I had noticed that the students were not as capable of remembering as much information from a school journal in previous reading sessions. This indicates that the rhythmic repetitions of the lyrics accompanied by the melody of the music made it easier for students to remember key information from the text. The lyrics also offered students many opportunities to make their own inferences and informed connections. For my ESOL learners, having the artist sing the lyrics helped them learn the pronunciation of complex words. The connection between the lyrics in the video, especially the 2016 version, offered them opportunities to explore the meaning and importance of the lyrics related to relevant injustices around the globe. Retrospectively, I needed more time to carefully analyse the lyrics accompanied by thorough research regarding the overall theme and the context of the song. This is important for me to understand the relevance of the song in terms of the period and

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the extent the lyrics have to promote critical thinking. Although my students did have the opportunity to record their responses to the lyrics in different ways, I believe for future practice there needs to be a written component for them to effectively articulate their critical thoughts. To conclude, I think this inquiry has shown the potential music and song lyrics have to promote critical thinking and foster engagement in literacy. It is an approach that can easily captivate reluctant learners if it is within the bounds of a genre or topic, they are interested in. The lyrics enabled my learners to interpret messages to make connections to the modern world through a critical lens. For further research similar interventions require more time to have impact. Nonetheless, the integration of the curriculum areas has enabled my learners to become critical, informed, and responsible citizens in society.

Reflecting on Inquiry a Year on as a First-Year Teacher… In 2019, as a first-year teacher, I still believe that integrating music and song lyrics into literacy can help engage reluctant learners to develop critical literacy and awareness around global issues. I can remember vividly the terror attacks that took place in Christchurch on 15 March 2019. The shootings of Muslims at two Christchurch mosques introduced my learners (through the media) to the horrors of violence that sparked movement and support across Aotearoa to stand in solidarity with Muslims. The effects of the shootings on my class were emotional especially because I had a student whose family member participated in the shootings and was injured as a result. Having Muslim students and the narrative of discrimination being the spark of many conversations, I saw this as an opportunity to re-explore social justice themes by using song lyrics as the vehicle of exploring new vocabulary such as solidarity, unity, discrimination, and terrorism. Using the same example ‘Where is the Love’ by the Black Eyed Peas proved to be a timely and appropriate choice for current events occurring in our country, New Zealand. Using a Bus Stop brainstorm, deconstructing the lyrics, and exploring two different music videos from two separate time periods highlighted the issues in our country as well as focused our responses as aroha and support for the Muslim students in our school. We explored the lyrics of Where is the love’ through the ‘I read; I think so now I understand approach. When deconstructing the music videos, we used the ‘I see, I hear, and I wonder’ approach. The effects of song lyrics to the crisis in Christchurch as well to engaging my priority learners of Pasifika boys proved to be an impactful and suitable approach to developing critical literacy. Needs restructuring, the parents within our community felt indebted to giving their children the opportunity to learn in an authentic way that was meaningful and related to the world of the learners. Thus, in doing so, this sparked social action where my students collectively wanted to show their stand in solidarity by providing letters of support to a local mosque (Fig. 8.2).

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Fig. 8.2 Images of student action to stand in solidarity with our effected Muslim community, March 2019

In addition, as the ‘Tik Tok’ app has taken off amongst my students in 2019, the memorising of song lyrics and being exposed to a wide range of music genres was evident amongst my pupils. Music was not only enjoyable but also lead to a stronger recollection of vocabulary learnt in our lesson. For many of my low ability learners comparing the lyrics and audio helped to improve pronunciation of complex vocabulary as well as helped with memorising the meaning of complex concepts such as discrimination, unity, and solidarity. Moving forward the findings of my inquiry helped to better prepare myself as firstyear teacher on how to approach social justice themes in a way that it is appropriate and relevant to the world of my learner. I have continued to utilise audio to increase engagement in reading and developing comprehension strategies of my low ability learners within my own classroom. I also found the benefits of being able to unpack concepts and themes over a week more suitable to the needs and understanding of my learners in comparison to the two 45-min sessions during my research inquiry.

References Blackburn, H. (2017). Music in the classroom. International Journal of the Whole Child, 2(1), 26–33. Coffey, H., Davila, L., & Kolano, L. (2013). Understanding dialect and developing critical literacy with English language learners. Multicultural Learning and Teaching, 8(1), 115–132. Fraser, D. (2013). Curriculum integration. Connecting curriculum linking learning, pp. 18–33. Hong, C. E., & Riper, I. V. (2016). Enhancing teacher learning from guided video analysis of literacy instruction: An interdisciplinary and Collaborative Approach. Journal of Inquiry & Action in Education, 7 (2). https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1133602.pdf Hattie, J. (2008). Visible learning for teachers maximizing impact on learning. Taylor & Francis Limited. Joseph, D., & Trinick, R. (2016). Promoting cultural understandings through song across the Tasman: pre-service primary teacher education. Intercultural Education, 27(2), 201–215. https:// doi.org/10.1080/14675986.2016.1145394

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Julien, C. J. (2016). Incorporating critical literacy strategies through the use of music/song lyrics to enhance social studies instruction. [Master’s thesis, St John Fisher College]. https://fisherpub. sjfc.edu/education_ETD_masters/357/ Levy, H. (2008). Meeting the needs of all students through differentiated instruction: Helping every child reach and exceed standards. The Clearing House, 81(4), 161–164. https://doi.org/10.3200/ TCHS.81.4.161-164 Lowe, G. M., Prout, P., & Murcia, K. (2013). I see, I think I wonder: An evaluation of journaling as a critical reflective practice tool for aiding teachers in challenging or confronting contexts. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 38(6), 1. https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2013v38n6.6 Marinak, B. A., Gambrell, L. B., & Mazzoni, S. A. (2012). Maximizing motivation for literacy learning: Grades K-6. Guilford Press. McLaughlin, M., & DeVoogd, G. L. (2004). Critical literacy: Enhancing students’ comprehension of text. Scholastic. Ministry of Education. (1994). English in the New Zealand Curriculum. Learning Media Limited. Ministry of Education. (2007). The New Zealand curriculum. Learning Media Limited. Ministry of Education. (2008). The English language learning progressions Year 5–8. Learning Media Limited. Ministry of Education. (2015). The New Zealand Curriculum. Ministry of Education. Morrell, E., & Duncan-Andrade, J. M. (2002). Promoting academic literacy with urban youth through engaging hip-hop culture. English Journal, 91(1), 88–92. New Zealand Broadcasting Standards Authority. (2015). Children’s media use study: How our children engage with media today. https://www.bsa.govt.nz/oldsite/assets/Research/Childrens_ Media_Report_2015_FINAL_for_publishing_2.pdf Parsons, S. A., Nuland, L. R., & Parsons, A. W. (2014). The ABCs of student engagement. Phi Delta Kappan, 95(8), 23–27. Richardson, J. (2011). Differentiation in reading: meeting the needs of all students. Unpublished research. Liberty University. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED525039.pdf Stygles, J. (2014). Building schema: Exploring content with song lyrics and strategic reading. Language and Literacy Spectrum, 24, 101–114. Sewell, A., & St George, A. (2000). Developing efficacy beliefs in the classroom. The Journal of Educational Enquiry, 1(2), 58–71. Vygotsky, L. (1978). Interaction between learning and development. Mind and Society. Walton, P. D. (2014). Using singing and movement to teach pre-reading skills and word reading to kindergarten children: An exploratory study. Language and Literacy: A Canadian Educational E-Journal, 16(3), 54–77. Yee, L. (2016, September 2). Black eyed peas remake ‘where is the love’ following the terror attacks. https://variety.com/2016/music/news/black-eyed-peas-where-is-the-love-rem ake-terror-attacks-1201850207/

Part III

Language Acquisition and Equitable Pedagogies Through Inquiry

This part of the book presents a collection of inquiries that focus on language acquisition challenges and equitable pedagogies. Reflections of each teacher present insights on how they attempted to address either a language challenge or a gender inequity in their classroom context. The idea of teacher reflections has been well established in literature and discourses, as both, a process and a tool to understand one’s teaching. They are commended for introducing research-informed interventions and pedagogical strategies to address a hunch that they had to support their learners. While their inquiries were carried out as pre-service teachers, the analytical and evidencebased skills that they developed are bound to be carried into their practice in support their ongoing professional learning through inquiry. Through this inquiry stance, the teachers were empowered to engage in their own autonomous inquirers and have the freedom to situate their learning within their practice. In Chapter 9, Sarah Hogg’s inquiry is titled, Does putting play at the centre of the curriculum aid the learning of oral language? Play-based learning is a widely used pedagogy in Early Childhood Education (ECE), with growing interest in junior primary schools. The inquiry was inspired by Reggio Emilia philosophy to support the learning of oral language. Hogg selected a group four Year 0–1 students for her inquiry. Data collection included authentic teacher student interactions, involvement and well-being was determined using the Leuvin Involvement Scale and Leuvin Well-Being Scale, and audio recordings of learner voices. Hogg found that the playbased environment provided a rich language learning experience and a stimulating learning environment. In Chapter 10, Olivia Walker’s inquiry is titled, Feeling in Silence: Using Drama to promote the Language Acquisition and Well-being of English as Additional Language (EAL) learners. This study is pertinent to increasing number of English language learners in schools. Walker uses drama in an innovative learning environment to focus on language development and well-being in a group of five learners. Data was collected prior to the commencement of the inquiry and during the inquiry. This included an assessment of the learners’ listening and speaking skills. Walker not only reflects on her own professional learning through her inquiry, but also on the benefits in empowering students to learn and not be silenced.

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In Chapter 11, Bhavana Mehta’s inquiry is titled, Mystery box design challenge as a pedagogical tool to enhance the key competency of participation and contribution in ESOL learners. This out-of-the-box strategy, as described by Mehta, offered a group of three Year 7/8 intermediate school English a second or other language students an opportunity to develop their competency in participation and contribution. Data collection involved observations of learners and a focus group discussion with the learners. Mehta concludes with an affirming statement that mystery box challenges have the potential to build student confidence, self-efficacy and interactions that support ESOL learners’ language acquisition as they find their place in the New Zealand classroom. In Chapter 12, Andrio Tabuzo’s inquiry is titled, Using the “I Notice, I Think, I Wonder” thinking routine in developing curiosity and science capabilities in Year 7 female learners. Tabuza provides a compelling rationale for the gender differences in science as the basis for this study. Five year 7 intermediate schoolgirls were chosen for the inquiry which took place in the school science laboratory. Data collection comprised student-teacher co-constructed dialogue, student notes, observed behaviour, work outputs and audio recorded conversations. Tabuza offers that the ‘I Notice, I Think, I Wonder’ intervention as a pedagogical strategy has shown positive indications towards equity in science education and the development of curiosity and capability in his group of learners. In Chapter 13, Vanessa Bond’s inquiry is titled, How can I increase engagement in writing, specifically for boys? This study focuses on a group of five-year 7 boys while implementing her intervention with the whole class. The intervention was deliberately crafted pedagogical approach in hooking the learners through their interests, supporting the learners through structured workshops and providing time for independent writing. Data collection involved observation of learners learning and teacher judgements about learner engagement levels. Drawing from her professional learning and reflections on the group of boys in this inquiry, Bond advocates that with the right approach, support and scaffolding, learners can be equitably engaged in writing.

Chapter 9

Does Putting Play at the Centre of the Curriculum Aid the Learning of Oral Language? Sarah Hogg

Learners Four 5 year old Year 0 -1 learners Inquiry focus Does putting play at the centre of the curriculum aid the learning of oral language?

Teaching approach/intervention Play provocation with the whole class often based around I see, I think, I wonder thinking technique

Developing the Inquiry Oral language is a foundation of literacy including being able to listen, talk, view, draw, and appraise information as important forerunners to building reading and writing skills. Being able to deal adeptly with social situations and create your own meaning of the world requires oral language skills (Peterson & Greenberg, 2017). Although oral and written language are different modes of communicating, they are equally important (Hill, 2010). Te Wh¯ariki, the Early Childhood Education (ECE) curriculum, and The New Zealand Curriculum both include a framework S. Hogg (B) Balmoral School, Auckland, New Zealand e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 J. R. Jhagroo and P. M. Stringer (eds.), Professional Learning from Classroom-Based Inquiries, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5099-7_9

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for oral language development aligned with academic goals (Ministry of Education, 2007, 2017). The New Zealand Curriculum also includes language within the Key Competencies or aptitudes necessary to live a fulfilling life in New Zealand. Play-based learning is a widely used pedagogy in Early Childhood Education (ECE), however, there has been less but now growing use of this pedagogy in junior primary schools (Jay & Knaus, 2018). The school where this inquiry occurred has recently introduced play-based learning into a selection of Year 0–2 classrooms. As play can engage learners intellectually, socially, emotionally as well as linguistically (Duncan & Lockwood, 2008), it is postulated that it can aid language development in a multifaceted way (Hill, 2010). Introducing strong continuity between ECE settings and school is also an important consideration for the uptake of play in new entrant classrooms (Hunkin, 2014). Children build a way of knowing and understanding in ECE settings which, without continuity, can create a barrier when transferring their knowledge into the school setting (Brostrom, 2005; Dockett & Perry, 2007). Those who are most disadvantaged due to the lack of continuity have the highest propensity for this to occur, and this reduces their skills and knowledge when the same level of support systems that were available in the ECE setting are potentially no longer available at school (Pianta & Rimm-Kaufman, 2006). Understanding oral language usage in the play-based classroom is vital for educators to be able to discern the level of learning and be able to assess the effectiveness of teaching approaches and the environment on learners’ interactions. The currently used oral language assessment tools in school require the learner to be removed from any authentic classroom interactions and assessed individually thus providing a narrow band of information about children’s language. A more authentic approach would be to assess the language as it is happening in the classroom which is the premise of this research to better understand the use and development of oral language in school.

Review of Literature Inquiry-Based Reggio-Inspired Play-Based Pedagogy Play-based learning is a widely used pedagogy commonly found in Early Childhood Education (ECE); however, there has been slower uptake of play-based learning in junior primary schools partly due to the requirements and expectations of meeting a more formalised curriculum and lack of play equipment being available (Jay & Knaus, 2018). How learners learn in play is still being established as is how they play in learning. It is important that finding alternative ways of thinking about play in schools is considered as play and learning are both a huge part of children’s lives leading to knowing and understanding (Pramling Samuelsson & Johansson, 2006). The school in which this inquiry is situated is inspired by Reggio Emilia philosophy. As signalled earlier, it has recently introduced a play-based pedagogy into the

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Year 0–2 classrooms. Reggio Emilia is often described as an emergent curriculum as the direction and development of the curricula are not set in advance of teaching (Wien, 2008). Learning and development are created and explored through projects that ignite children’s interests so they can create their own theories and understanding of the world (Wien, 2008). Defining play is quite complex as what could be included as playful learning or play are wide reaching and multidimensional; that is, we still are not able to produce a definitive definition of play as it is such a complex form of knowing and being (Duncan & Lockwood, 2008). We, therefore, use the term play generically to encompass a number of different activities and behaviours (Briggs & Hansen, 2012). Table 9.1, developed from the work of Briggs and Hansen (2012), Duncan and Lockwood (2008), and Kieff and Casbergue (2000), details different ways that play could be categorised and linked to various learning theories, psychologists, and researchers. It is important that schools consider continuity from Early Childhood Education (ECE) into primary school life (Hunkin, 2014). Transitioning to primary school can be the time where learners are confronted with formal teaching and learning for the very first time and it could contrast sharply with what they have been experiencing at home or in ECE. Learners can be faced with the compartmentalisation of play in school and the number of adults who are available to help is vastly different which could potentially lead to less social support and learning spaces with larger groups of young children (Fabian & Dunlop, 2002). If the two settings are vastly different it can affect the ability of the learner to transfer their ways of being and knowing that they have developed prior to moving into a primary school setting (Brostrom, 2005; Table 9.1 Types of play and their link to learning theories Type of play

Link to theorist

Functional play Motor skills are learnt through repeated actions

Sigmund Freud Erik Erikson

Freud said that it was possible for children to feel a sense of achievement in functional play which makes for a happier child

Constructional play Children use the contents of their environment to create

Jerome Bruner

Bruner found that play helps children to problem solve with block playing leading to thinking inventively and with logic

Symbolic play Make believe play with imaginary objects

Jean Piaget Piaget indicated that children learn the meaning of symbols (or one thing standing for another) in this Lev type of play Vygotsky

Socio-dramatic play Role play is used with plenty of imagination and make believe

Sara Smilansky Lev Vygotsky

Sara Smilansky postulated this increases creativity, the growth of intellect, and children’s skills in social situations

Games with rules Jean Piaget Piaget found that children could create a unanimous set of rules for play even with differing Children interact with others opinions in a particular play event with a set of rules

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Dockett & Perry, 2007). If the learner or the learner’s family cannot settle into their new environment, then the transition from ECE to school can be compromised and this can create a new and unsteady path for learning (Bohan-Baker & Little, 2004; Dockett & Perry, 2004). Children from disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds have a higher propensity for this to occur if they have the support systems, skills, and knowledge that were once available to them changed and taken away by being in a different environment (Pianta & Rimm-Kaufman, 2006). There is also a difficulty that the two childhood education systems do not share the same curriculum with the Early Childhood Education using Te Wh¯ariki and primary schools using The New Zealand Curriculum (Ministry of Education, 2007, 2017). Transition to school can be ameliorated by putting in place an environment and way of knowing that feels familiar or with transition activities; that is, the greater the number or extent to which the environment is familiar the better equipped the learner is to face new challenges of school (Dockett & Perry, 2007).

Oral Language Development Being Crucial to Literacy Development Literacy is highlighted as an important academic goal in both The New Zealand Curriculum (NZC) and the Early Childhood Education Te Wh¯ariki curriculum (Ministry of Education, 2007, 2017). The New Zealand Curriculum discusses use of language within the Key Competencies which are described as aptitudes necessary for becoming a lifelong learner and needed for living in New Zealand successfully. Oral language is also included in NZC within the English language area described as a mode of making meaning (Ministry of Education, 2007). Communication is one of the five curriculum strands that weaves together with the principles in Te Wh¯ariki to empower children in learning (Ministry of Education, 2017). Play-based learning activities could be well suited by creating interactions that help children learn oral language (Kieff & Casbergue, 2000). Both speaking and listening within oral language create the starting point or foundations for emergent literacy (Heppner, 2016). Emergent literacy theory suggests that there is also a natural learning of language and that children become literate long before they can read and write (DeZutter, 2007; Teale & Sulzby, 1986). Socio-dramatic play is often thought to be a successful way for learners to interact and grow their oral language skills (Kieff & Casbergue, 2000). Oral language is the foundation for learning written language and the two are closely related (Ministry of Education, 2016). Speaking and listening are, therefore, necessary in the classroom for children to continue their literacy learning. Language can be enriched when individuals interact with supportive educators and peers providing feedback and encouragement (Konza, 2011). Understanding oral language usage in the play-based classroom is vital for educators to comprehend learning that is occurring in context and then to be able to assess the effectiveness of teaching methods. The currently used oral language assessment tools

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in school require the learner to be removed from any authentic classroom interactions and assessed individually providing a narrow band of information about children’s language. A more authentic approach would be to assess the language as it happens in the classroom and this research seeks to better understand the use and development of oral language in situ. When transitioning to school the expectation is often for the learner to be able to clearly express their needs and understand most of what is being said to them (Heppner, 2016). A lack of language skills can mean the learner will struggle to socialise and follow classroom routines and, there is a close association between language skills and social and emotional development (Heppner, 2016). Being able to use language to help in the regulation of behaviour and emotions will increase learners’ abilities to make friends (Im-Bolter & Cohen, 2007). It has been shown that the reverse is true and that those learners with reduced language skills, particularly social skills, have a higher likelihood to have behavioural difficulties (Clegg et al., s 2015). It is important therefore that learners are placed into a schooling environment that allows them to fully develop oral language skills. Using play-based pedagogy is a way to increase continuity between ECE settings and school and has the potential to benefit all Year 0–2 students’ entry to school (Kieff & Casbergue, 2000).

The Inquiry Approach This research follows the Teaching as Inquiry model where individual teachers highlight goals for their students and look at the knowledge and skills the students need to achieve them. The process is driven by evaluation of teaching methods and the impact of the teaching to make decisions as to whether the teaching strategies have been successful. The data collection approach of this research is qualitative (verbatim capture of language from audio files) which was coded into quantitative information (information about qualities that can be measured and presented in numeric format). Four students were selected for this inquiry including a learner whose first language was not English and would have been included as a priority learner under the definition by the Education Review Office (ERO) (Education Review Office, 2013). In addition, the group included a learner who had been identified as needing assistance with writing. Two students had more recently joined the school and one was in the lower ability group for reading, and the other was in the highest ability grouping for reading. This provided a good cross-section of learners from the classroom setting. Before each play-based learning session, a 15–20-min play provocation was implemented with the whole class based around I see, I think, I wonder thinking technique. The classroom is inquiry-based as well as play-based and the provocation was based on the class wide inquiry which ranged from topics such as investigating balance to dissolving and symmetry. A rich learning environment was created by including resources for play based on the inquiry provocation and the learners would be invited to engage in investigating, creating, and testing theories about these topics. Learners were also free to play with available resources located in, for example, the

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family area, the construction zone, the make-it table creating items from cardboard and other household items, work with small manipulatives such as Lego and mobile, draw or paint, or read in the library corner. Outside space was also utilised to provide an area for learners to play with water or paint/create play picnics for groups. The learners were not directed to any play area or resources and could choose how they interacted with resources provided they adhered to school/class rules.

Inquiry in Practice Data collection involved authentic language interactions with learners in the classroom. An oral language assessment tool published in June 2018 was used and that allowed for assessment of language use in situ. To ensure consistency in data collection, oral language was captured in the first 20 min of the play sessions and was captured over two 10-min period periods. Initial data capture was performed sitting with learners as they played. However, as teacher presence was noted as having an influence on learners’ language, subsequent language capture was performed solely through audio recordings on a mobile phone with data analysis occurring later. There was little to no teacher interaction with learners during the latter 10 min of language capture. An assessment of learners’ involvement and well-being was made using the Leuven Involvement Scale and Leuven Well-Being scale (Laevers, 2015). Wellbeing is a measure of how at ease, spontaneous, and free of tension the individual appears and is important for good mental health (Laevers, 2015). It has a link with self-confidence, self-esteem as well as resilience (Laevers, 2015). Involvement is a measure of engagement in activities with deep involvement being necessary for full development and deep learning (Laevers, 2015). Language analysis from the audio recordings was made for the learners over a 10-min period. Identification of learners’ voices was easily made from the audio recording as a considerable amount of time had been spent in the classroom with the individual learners. The exact utterances of the learners were written down verbatim onto the record sheets with audio files repeatedly checked to ensure the information had been captured correctly. The utterances were then subsequently coded against the categories of learning, imaging, own needs, directing, getting along, expressing disagreement, and ‘real-life’ (Peterson et al., 2018). For each learner, an audio recording was made on two separate occasions, at the same time after the whole class play provocation and the coded results of these two occasions combined. This was performed more than once to increase the reliability of the data by increasing the size of the data sample pool (Sagor, 2000). The data was pooled together to provide verbatim examples of language for each of the specific codes for language use which are included in Table 9.2 (Peterson et al., 2018). The areas of play where the learners were interacting included project artwork outside (painting), painting with watercolours, drawing on the art table in the classroom, and playing with manipulatives such as Mobilo and Lego.

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Table 9.2 Broad language categories and specific codes for language use, with examples from analysis of learners A–D Categories and codes

Examples of language from analysis

Language for own needs Describing own actions

I’m doing dots on my picture

Asking for assistance or information

I don’t know can you tell me?

Asserting ownership of an object or space

I need that as I am going to put colours all over it

Attempting to get others attention

Name…, look at these pencils

Expressing a need or desire

I need it

Asserting own role

Do this, like me

Language for learning Giving rationale for actions or suggestions

I need to wash my hands. They are dirty

Planning what to do, or talking through a problem

Do you want the heat shields like this, or like this?

Making a judgement about the situation (evaluative talk)

That one is bigger than my piece

Giving information, explaining, or elaborating (non-evaluative talk)

They hunt at midnight sometimes

Language for getting along Inviting collaborative action or peers to go along with the storyline/topic

Do you want to paint here too?

Accepting a peer’s correction

Yes, I am listening

Negotiating to get object/clothing/turn

Where is mine? Do you have it?

Offering help, advice, an object, or sharing something

Do you want it a little bit smaller?

Accepting help, advice, an object, or sharing something

Yes please

Complimenting peers

It’s so pretty. I like the colour

Being polite

Thank you

Language for expressing disagreement Excluding peers

I don’t want people to get the F1 engines

Persisting or convincing others

You can use them after I give them to you

Rejecting a storyline, topic, or role

No, cats have great eyesight

Correcting or showing disapproval of a peer’s behaviour

Hey, no don’t do that

Rejecting help, advice, an object, or sharing

No, I am

Language for directing Directing a peer’s behaviour using an imperative

Wake up now (continued)

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Table 9.2 (continued) Categories and codes

Examples of language from analysis

Directing a peer’s behaviour using softer language

I didn’t do that. I will show you what I did

Language for imaging Playing with sounds or words to accompany actions or feelings

Hyena, high, high, hyena. Day, d-ay, d-ay, ay, ay,

Affirming the storyline, topic, or role

Student 1: They hunt at midnight sometimes Student 2: They also hunt at the morning to get breakfast

Introducing new narrative or topic

Student 1: We are the Mums and Dads Student 2: They have been camping

Moving the story or topic along

Student 1: They also hunt at night to get dinner Student 2: They can see in the dark in a cave

Language for real-life Expressing emotion

I am so excited

Showing an interest in peer’s story or topic of Student 1: Do you know why I don’t use pink? conversation by asking or answering questions Student 2: That’s because you hate pink

Findings and Discussion It was evident from the combined coded language results that there is a real richness of oral language being used in the play-based learning session. Previous researchers found that dramatic play and construction were the two contexts where learners could explore the full range of language for all coding purposes (Peterson et al., 2018). The learners in this inquiry did not interact in socio-dramatic play of any real consequence during the language capture time and did not participate in the construction zone and despite this, the richness of the language is apparent from the examples in Table 9.2. Three codes were removed from Language for ‘real-life’ code from the coding categories set out by Peterson et al.: ‘explaining real-life social rules,’ ‘narrating real-life events,’ and ‘narrating similar real-life story / event to affirm a peer’s experience’ (Peterson et al., 2018). No language was captured that could be included in these codes. It was interesting to note from the audio recordings the depth and breadth of language that could be used in the play settings, with a discussion around big cats hunting activities taking place during a drawing and painting session. The open-ended possibilities for the use of the resources in the classroom allows learners to explore language widely. During analysis, I noticed that learners would often repeat sentences or language up to three times and they were using or repeating phrases that had been said by the teacher in the play provocation. The repeated phrases were not from the most recent play provocation but from days earlier. Repetition has an important function in learning in the sense it accesses memory which then starts the process of shaping networks of neurons to this new activity (Della Sala & Anderson, 2012). If the word

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or skill is practised, the neural networks get stronger creating better connections. This means that the stimulation of only one neuron in the pathway can create a trigger an effect where the next one fires. Having learning based in a play-based setting where learners can make connections and contextualise learning to real-life allows for greater neural pathways to be created (Sánchez, 2017). By learning in a play-based environment the learners were allowed the capacity to try out and repeat words or phrases thus creating a climate that allows for good language learning and experimentation. As can be seen from the data in Table 9.3, the highest percentage of language use from the analysis was language for own needs. Language for own needs would have included talk about what they were doing to get peer attention during play, asking for materials, or seeking affirmation (Peterson et al., 2018). It is not surprising the learners were negotiating how they would use the resources in the room and with what they would play. This is in line with the results from language analysis performed by Peterson et al. and it is reassuring that similar results were achieved (Peterson et al., 2018). The researchers noticed from their longer videos that there was a difference in language from the beginning to the end of the play session (Peterson et al., 2018). In this research, it was noticed that language for learning and language for imaging were used most frequently. Language for learning included most frequently providing information about a topic, explaining, or elaborating on something, and planning what to do or talking through a problem. There can sometimes be a concern about play-based learning as it can lead to disruptive behaviour over the use of resources with learners vying for use of the same play materials in the classroom. It is reassuring to note therefore that the amount of language for expressing disagreement is relatively low from the analysis. This could be because of the timing of data capture as this was within the first 20 min of play but, it is also in line with Peterson et al. (2018) research analysis of language. Although not measured during this inquiry, the learners were contributing to their literacy learning with the development of fine motor skills. Fine motor skill Table 9.3 Percentage of language-by-language category for each learner from A–D, and for the research group as a whole Use of language Learning

Learner A (%) 27

Learner B (%) 24

Learner C (%) 27

Learner D (%) 28

Overall percentage across all learners (%) 27

Imaging

7

8

2

19

9

Own needs

42

19

38

19

29

Directing

4

4

0

6

4

Getting along

13

28

29

15

21

Expressing disagreement

7

13

2

11

8

‘Real-life’

0

4

2

2

2

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develop is a key focus for ECE educators and potentially those in the Year 0–1 classroom (Peterson et al., 2016). Building and developing a grip on writing material or paintbrushes, or small manipulative can facilitate learning to write. There is plenty of scope for fine motor skill development in the play-based environment which, in this inquiry, has proceeded hand in hand with oral language development. By providing playdough, markers, paints, pencils, and other creative media tools, learners were able to create marks on the page including letters and numbers and improve their fine motor skills (Peterson et al., 2018). Learners who struggle with handwriting can be supported with improvement of fine motor skills by using pencils and forming letters (Graham et al., 2000). Modeling written language also has its place and teachers can, within play, model writing by scribing for the learners or engage in teacher/learner co-construction of writing narratives from play (Peterson et al., 2016).

Evidence of Key Competencies from Oral Language in Play-Based Learning There are five Key Competencies identified in the New Zealand curriculum [NZC]: thinking, using language, symbols, and texts, managing self, relating to others, participating, and contributing (Ministry of Education, 2007). The Key Competencies from the NZC have been aligned with the language categories from this inquiry and Peterson et al. and there has been cross over between the language categories and how they fit with the Key Competencies. What is evident, is that all Key Competencies fit within the language that can be seen in class during play-based learning and therefore learning that is taking place in the classroom. The extent to which Key Competencies are developed is determined by the nature of play and the extent to which each learner participates in play in the classroom. Even language categories such as language for expressing disagreement have a fit with ‘Relating to others’ as learners need to develop an understanding of diversity of thinking from a range of different people and be able to negotiate and share their point of view [Table 9.4]. This is in line with previous research indicating that play can develop content knowledge as well as social skills, dispositions to learn, and social skills (Wood, 2013) (Table 9.5). A person who is very involved in an activity has narrowed their attention to one limited circle—their work (Laevers & Declercq, 2018). Involvement is linked with strong motivation, and it only occurs in the area where the person’s capabilities match the activity i.e. the zone of proximal development (Laevers, 2015). Mental activity is intense, and the person is functioning at their most capable. A person with good well-being feels at ease and is self-confident and enjoys interacting with others (Laevers & Declercq, 2018). The levels of well-being tell us whether learners are feeling secure in their mental health. The red zone for involvement and well-being would be more than one score three or less, with the amber zone being a score of 3 (Laevers & Declercq, 2018).

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Table 9.4 Key Competencies aligned with Language Category Key Competency

Language category

Thinking

Language for learning, Language for imagining, Language for directing, Language for ‘real-life’

Using language, symbols, and texts

Language for learning, Language for own needs, Language for getting along, Language for expressing disagreement, Language for directing, Language for imaging, Language for ‘real-life’

Managing self

Language for own needs, Language for learning, Language for getting along

Relating to others

Language for expressing disagreement, Language for own needs, Language for getting along, Language for directing, Language for ‘real-life

Participating and contributing

Language for getting along, Language for learning, Language for imaging, Language for ‘real-life’

Source Involvement and well-being during play-based learning

Table 9.5 Involvement and well-being scores, from Leuven Involvement Scale Leuven Learner Involvement A Scale score Well-being

Learner Learner A B

Moderate High (3) (4)

Involvement High (4)

High (4)

Learner Learner B C

Learner Learner Learner C D D

Extreme High high (5) (4)

Moderate High (3) (4)

High (4)

Moderate (3)

High (4) High (4)

Moderate High (3) (4)

High (4)

High (4)

One of the learners (Learner C) is in the red zone scoring two level 3 on the first language observation. This was an observation and recorded manually before it was realised the effect teacher presence was having on the language use of the group. This is one of the learners who has English as an additional language, and it could be seen that the learner was not as involved as normal when the teacher was in proximity. The learner’s everyday classroom best friend was not in school that day and it is possible that the presence of the teacher during language data collection also influenced involvement and well-being. It was also clear from the data on this day the amount of language this learner used during this observation time was lower compared to the other time slots where language was captured, reducing the amount of language spoken overall but particularly within use of language areas own needs and getting along. As the learners can freely choose what areas of play and learning they would undertake in the classroom, it is not surprising that involvement and well-being are ranked as being high in a lot of the observed play sessions with the four learners. The element of choice that learners have over their activities giving them control of their learning and their environment could be fulfilling and positive for them, and

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the fact that the observations were taken at the beginning of the play sessions before any signs of boredom of surroundings or activity set in could explain this data.

Reflections on the Inquiry Literacy is an important learning area in school with lower literacy skills being linked to poor outcomes in school achievement, employment, self-esteem, and mental health amongst other markers (Konza, 2011). It is important therefore to understand how children learn and use oral language best and how educators can support literacy learning in the classroom (Heppner, 2016). It can be seen from the analysis in the inquiry that a play-based learning environment can provide rich language experiences for learners to allow them to develop their oral language skills over a broad range of categories. I believe that there are strong links between the language categories found in the classroom and the Key Competencies in the New Zealand Curriculum (Ministry of Education, 2007). An important consideration for a play-based learning environment is that it provides a form of continuity between Early Childhood Education and Year 0–2 in primary school which can have an ameliorating effect on some of the negative associations that can happen when learners transition to school (Brostrom, 2005). The level of involvement and well-being for learners during play was mostly high indicating that learners were content and felt secure in their learning but were being academically stretched by what they were doing. It would be interesting to have data to see the engagement of learners during the play-based provocation which could have been assessed by observation during the teaching time. None of the learners during the capture of language went to the areas of the play that had been set up from the inquiry that was running in the classroom, so it was not possible to make a measurement of language associated with the inquiry-based play-provocation. The role of the teacher in the play-based learning environment is key, as they can assist in further developing the areas of play and narratives with learners by using gently scaffolding techniques such a modelling, or dialogue with learner with probing but open-ended questions (Heppner, 2016). It would also have been interesting to see how the language use differed over the course of a play session, as this data analysis was only performed in the first 20 min of play.

Reference Lists Bohan-Baker, M., & Little, P. (2004). A review of current research and promising practices to involve families. Harvard Family Research Project. Briggs, M., & Hansen, A. (2012). Play-based learning in the primary school. SAGE. Brostrom, S. (2005). Transition problems and play as a transitory activity. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 30(3), 17–25.

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Clegg, J., Law, J., Rush, R., Peters, T., & Roulstone, S. (2015). The contribution of early language development to children’s emotional and behavioural functioning at 6 years: An analysis of data from the Children in Focus sample from the ALSPAC birth cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 56(1), 67–75. Della Sala, S., & Anderson, M. (2012). Neuroscience in education: The good, the bad, and the ugly. Oxford University Press. DeZutter, S. (2007). Play as group improvisation: A social semiotic, multimodal perspective on play and literacy. Information Age Publishing. Dockett, S., & Perry, B. (2004). Starting school: Perspectives of Australian children, parents, and educators. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 2(2), 171–189. Dockett, S., & Perry, B. (2007). Children’s transition to school: Changing expectations. Open University Press Duncan, J., & Lockwood, M. (2008). Learning through play: A work-based approach for the early years. Continuum International Pub. Group. Education Review Office. (2013). Accelerating the progress of priority learners in Primary Schools. http://www.ero.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/Accelerating-the-Progress-of-Priority-Learners-in-Pri mary-Schools-May-2013-web.pdf Fabian, H., & Dunlop. A. (2002). Transitions in the early years: Debating continuity and progression for young children in early childhood education. Routledge Farmer. Graham, S., Harris, K., & Fink, B. (2000). Is handwriting casually related to learning to write? Treatment of handwriting problems in beginning writers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 620–633. Heppner, D. (2016). ‘Then what happened?’ Studying emergent literacy in the narrative play of preschool children. Language & Education: An International Journal, 30(5), 459–477. Hill, S. (2010). Oral language play and learning. Practically Primary, Australian Literacy Educators’ Association 15(2). Hunkin, E. (2014). We’re offering true play-based learning: Teacher’s perspectives on educational dis/continuity in the early years. Australian Journal of Early Childhood, 39(2), 30–35. Im-Bolter, N., & Cohen, N. (2007). Language impairment and psychiatric comorbidities. Paediatric Clinics of North America, 54(3), 525–542. Jay, J., & Knaus, M. (2018). Embedding play-based learning into junior primary (year 1 and 2) curriculum in WA. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 43(1), 112–126. Kieff, J., & Casbergue, R. (2000). Playful learning and teaching. Allyn and Bacon. Konza, D. (2011). Research into practice. Understanding the reading process. Department of Education and Children’s Services. Government of South Australia., 1, 1–8. Laevers, F. (2015). Making care and education more effective through wellbeing and involvement. Centre for Experiential Education, University of Belgium. Laevers, F., & Declercq, B. (2018). How well-being and involvement fit into the commitment to children’s rights. European Journal of Education, 53(3), 325–335. Ministry of Education. (2007). The New Zealand Curriculum. Learning Media. Ministry of Education. (2016). Effective literacy practice in years 1 to 4. Learning Media. Ministry of Education. (2017). Te Wh¯ariki: he wh¯ariki m¯atauranga m¯o ng¯a mokopuna o Aotearoa: early childhood curriculum (Revised edition. ed.). Learning Media. Peterson, S., Eisazadeh, N., Rajendram, S., & Portier, C. (2018). Young children’s language uses during play and implications for classroom assessment. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 2, 23. Peterson, S., & Greenberg, J. (2017). Teacher intervention to support oral language and literacy in dramatic play contexts. Texas Journal of Literacy Education, 5(1), 10–23. Peterson, S., McIntyre, L., & Forsyth, D. (2016). Supporting young children’s oral language and writing development: Teachers’ and early childhood educators’ goals and practices. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 41(3), 11–19. Pianta, R., & Rimm-Kaufman, S. (Eds.). (2006). The social ecology of the transition to school: Classrooms, families and children. Blackwell Publishers.

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Pramling Samuelsson, I., & Johansson, E. (2006). Play and learning - inseparable dimensions in preschool practice. Early Child Development and Care, 176(1), 47–65. Sagor, R. (2000). Guiding school improvement with action research. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Sánchez, H. (2017). The education revolution: How to apply brain science to improve instruction and school climate. Sage. Teale, W., & Sulzby, E. (1986). Emergent literacy: Writing and reading. Ablex. Wien, C. (2008). Emergent curriculum in the primary classroom: interpreting the Reggio Emilia approach in schools. Teachers College Press. Wood, E. (2013). Play, learning and the early childhood curriculum (Third edition ed.). Sage.

Chapter 10

Feeling in Silence: Using Drama to Promote the Language Acquisition and Well-Being of English as Additional Language (EAL) Learners Olivia Walker

Inquiry focus Language acquisition, wellbeing, selfexpression, and dispositional development of EAL learners

Learners Five Years 1 and 2 EAL learners in an Innovative Learning Environment (ILE) Teaching approach/intervention The use of dramatic conventions in teaching the verbal and body language surrounding basic states of emotion

Developing the Inquiry In the last decade, the number of school learners accessing English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) funding in New Zealand has increased by over 50 per cent, from 27,250 in 2007 to 41,000 in 2017 (Bonnett, 2017). As a result of undertaking a Teaching and Learning Master’s programme in Auckland this year, I O. Walker (B) St Joseph’s Orakei, Auckland, New Zealand e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 J. R. Jhagroo and P. M. Stringer (eds.), Professional Learning from Classroom-Based Inquiries, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5099-7_10

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have been exposed to ethnically diverse student populations and realized the demand for classroom teachers to understand how EAL learners acquire English language. This inquiry was undertaken within an innovative learning environment (ILE) classroom, situated within a rapidly developing, ethnically diverse Auckland suburb. At the time of the research, twenty-four out of fifty-three students in the ILE classroom space were identified as EAL learners. All students are qualified for some form of ESOL funding, with 12 receiving specialist oral language support twice a week. The remaining students received limited in class support with a teacher aid. However, it is important to note that much of their time at school was spent immersed in an English-medium classroom with their classroom teacher. As an emerging educator, practicing within the context of a society projected for substantial ethnic growth, I acknowledged the responsibility to develop my practice in support of ethnically and linguistically diverse learners. This aligns with recent findings of the Education Review Office (ERO) outlining an “overall need for schools and early learning services to improve their response to culturally and linguistically diverse learners and to support their acquisition of the English language” (ERO, 2018, p. 6).

Review of Literature The area of additional language acquisition and dramatic pedagogy has been widely researched both independently and as a collective. Despite this, many primary teachers in New Zealand lack the professional development, pedagogical content knowledge, and confidence to promote learning in these areas for immigrant children (Education Review Office, 2018; Irwin, 2018). Drama to promote Language Acquisition: Many educational theorists believe that learning is not the passive reception of information but, an active process in which the learner utilizes their social, cultural, and biological environments to make meaning (Dewey, 1938; Jonassen & Rohrer-Murphy, 1999; Piaget, 1936; Vygotsky, 1978). This self-directed “creation of shared knowledge and understanding is rarely, if ever, a matter of simply pooling information… it has to be generated by working with information” (Barnard, 2009, p. 67). Drama is a curriculum area that enables learners to actively manipulate knowledge and make meaning from their ideas and experiences. Language acquisition theorists agree that academic achievement is promoted when educators drive and facilitate learning through the creation of art and acting on social realities that are prevalent within their students’ lives (Barnard, 2009; Cummins, 2002). Regarding the literary component of language acquisition, drama is undervalued as a tool for contextualizing language (as opposed to merely practising sounds and words in isolation). Within a drama programme, learners may connect the verbal communication involved in vocabulary, grammar, and structure with non-verbal communication of gesture, facial expression, and movement (Baldwin & Fleming, 2003; Burke & O’Sullivan, 2002; Hendy & Toon, 2001). Dramatic conventions also

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provide an effective means of scaffolding learners from diverse language backgrounds through the effective and tactful use of the language they are acquiring. This is essential as they learn to cope with the “interactional, task-performance and cognitive-academic demands of the mainstream classroom” (Barnard, 2009, p. 10). There are many components to achieving success within additional language acquisition; that is, through effective, culturally competent pedagogy; learner motivation and engagement; and even dispositional readiness in areas such as social confidence and resilience (Barnard, 2009; Cummins, 2002; Education Review Office, 2018; Igoa, 1995; Lindsay & Knight, 2006). This has forced me to consider the significance of the “how” of my inquiry process, rather than being driven by the “why.” How can I establish an environment and relevant, effective pedagogy to support and fuel the learning of my priority learners? This ideology has transformed the nature of my inquiry from an objectivized, academic approach, to a holistic, living, and breathing process driven by learner well-being and dispositional readiness. It involves valuing learning through drama and the strands within the Te Wh¯ariki Early Childhood Curriculum. Teaching this way supports the development of “knowledge, skills, attitudes and dispositions that support lifelong learning” (Ministry of Education, 2017, p. 7). Drama to promote the well-being of EAL learners: I have always believed that our emotional well-being and capacity to learn are inherently linked. This has challenged me to consider the rigidity and procedural nature of many EAL programmes, and how this may only be of benefit to the child who is “ready” to learn. Immigrant learners in mainstream classrooms (especially those with very minimal English) have the potential to feel “isolated from their peers, ignored, marginalized, and even alienated,” (Cummins, 2002, p. 11). When children feel uncomfortable and stressed by their environment, the brain activates their sympathetic nervous system, activating their “fight or flight” response. The part of the brain that is responsible for both fear and memory is called the amygdala. When “the amygdala is in this state of stress-induced over-activation, new sensory information cannot pass through it to access the memory and association circuits”—and hence, learning and retention are significantly minimalized (Willis, 2014, para. 8). Aligning my practice with the Te Wh¯ariki Early Childhood Curriculum and specifically the strand of Well-being-Mana atua, allows me to be more responsive to the diverse needs of my EAL learners (Ministry of Education, 2017). While we may assume an EAL learner’s linguistic ability is minimal, their lack of participation in formalized English lessons may in fact be a result of personality traits, culture shock or other learning related discrepancies (Barnard, 2009). “Drama is a multi-sensory medium that provides an experiential structure for exploring text via visual, auditory, and kinesthetic means;” not only can this motivate and cater to a diverse range of learning styles and preferences, but also provides a platform for “the mind, body, and emotions to function together rather than separately, enabling children to make all-round and interconnecting sense of their experiences and learning” (Baldwin & Fleming, 2003, p. 6). Teaching English as an additional language through this curricular area allows learners to freely develop their ideas and create together within the conventions and structures that drama as an art form provides. These values align

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with whole language philosophies and the idea that learning a language needs to be contextualized and experiential (Cambourne, 1988). Exploring the language and well-being development of EAL learners through drama provides a tool for “cultural, academic, and psychological interventions that facilitate learning” as students make the transition to a new language and culture (Igoa, 1995, p. 12). Multicultural education researcher, Cristina Igoa, believes that children are “unable to truly benefit from a dialogue with their new reality until they have had the opportunity to express the intricacy of their inner world” (Igoa, 1995, p. 9). Instead of allowing a child’s emergent abilities to limit them, how might we facilitate a medium for their self-expression? Drama, as an art form is often endorsed for promoting social confidence and self-expression. Within this inquiry, learning is considered an active and personalized process, where drama is explored as a medium for holistic development.

The Inquiry Approach “Since any teaching strategy works differently in different contexts for different students, effective pedagogy requires that teachers inquire into the impact of their teaching on their students” (Ministry of Education, 2007b, p. 35). This research follows the Teaching as Inquiry model, a cyclic process that involves identifying a group of priority learners, developing an intervention to meet their learning needs, assessing the effectiveness of the intervention, and establishing a new line of inquiry or next learning steps for the students. The inquiry was driven by a whole language approach utilizing an integrated arts curriculum to facilitate language acquisition, self-expression, and dispositional development of EAL learners (Baldwin & Fleming, 2003; Cambourne, 1988; Igoa, 1995). Children from diverse language backgrounds face not only linguistic challenges but also difficulties adjusting to unfamiliar learning communities (Cummins, 2002). This inspired me to work in tandem with the Te Wh¯araki Early Childhood Curriculum and specifically through the “Wellbeing-Mana atua” strand. For this inquiry, I identified five learners who were unable to participate effectively in most classroom activities due to the language barrier and a lack of social confidence. These learners were identified through observation and liaison with those responsible for their learning within the classroom, including consultation with the ESOL specialist teacher. The participants (three native Korean speakers and two native Mandarin speakers) were between the ages of 5 and 7 and four of them had been in New Zealand for less than one year (Table 10.1). These students failed to communicate their ideas and feelings with peers and educators, often expressed frustration in everyday activities and disengaged in lessons. “My Emotions” was the title of my inquiry. My aim was to develop a dramabased intervention to establish a medium for students to express the intricacy of their inner world (Igoa, 1995). Deciding upon the context for these sessions, the vocabulary surrounding emotion was identified as a next learning step for this group

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Table 10.1 Profile of the five participants Participant (Pseudonym)

Gender:

Country of Birth

Age:

Arrival in NZ:

Native Language:

School Year:

Min

Female

Korea

6

Early 2018

Korean

1

Kwan

Male

Korea

7

Mid 2017

Korean

2

Jae-yong

Male

Korea

6

Mid 2018

Korean

1

Cara

Female

New Zealand

6

2015

Mandarin

2

Yvette

Female

China

6

Late 2017

Mandarin

1

of students all of whom struggled to communicate their ideas and feelings with peers and educators. The context of emotion also promotes learning through a “foundation of remembered and anticipated people, places, things and experiences” (Ministry of Education, 2017, p. 26). This is outlined within Te Wh¯ariki as a factor in nurturing confidence to engage in new settings. Emotion transcends verbal language, and many emotions are shared across cultures. Hence, I believed this context would provide a personalized, remembered platform for additional language learning within an unfamiliar environment. The “My Emotions” intervention consisted of a unit of six sessions. Within the first four sessions, four diverse states of emotion were explored to immerse students in topic-relevant vocabulary. These were: happiness, sadness, fear, and anger and were situated in a dramatic context that allowed learners to explore their meaning. Each session involved exploration of an emotion through the dramatic techniques (facial expression, gesture, voice, and movement). One dramatic convention was utilized in each session (mime/teacher in role/freeze-frame/role-play) promoting the recognition and use of the learned verbal and body language in context. In the fifth session, we investigated the text “In My Heart: A Book of Feelings (Growing Hearts)” by Jo Witek and used our dramatic knowledge to reflect on our own emotions (with all four emotions explored collectively). The final session involved student reflection through the visual arts surrounding things that made them feel happy and things that made them feel calm. Students used these reflections to create their own “Feelings Toolboxes” (Fig. 10.2). These were then taken home to share with friends and family members. To bridge the gap between my teaching intervention and the classroom, I also planned to consciously reinforce session vocabulary within the wider classroom environment through questioning, (e.g. “How do you feel about your writing today?”). As the children’s vocabulary increased, I hoped they would begin to explain their emotions using this as a tool for self-management and reflection.

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Inquiry in Practice Data was gathered prior to and following my intervention as a formalized means of gaining student voice. The questionnaire used posed three questions derived from twenty-first-century learning dispositions and were translated into the students’ native language (through a verbal translator) where necessary. 1. Reflecting—How do I feel about learning English? 2. Social Confidence—Do I learn with my teacher and classmates? 3. Playfulness—Do I have fun when I’m learning English? I also gathered baseline data as a diagnostic measure for the specific language used throughout our sessions, and post data helped me reflect on the learning and evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention. Listening skills were assessed through sharing topic-specific vocabulary with students and asking them to represent the spoken word through a drawing. Speaking skills were assessed through sharing emotive images with students and questioning the emotion represented.

Findings and Discussion The implementation of the “My Emotions” intervention outlined above resulted in two distinct areas of progress: language acquisition and dispositional development. By the end of the intervention, learners demonstrated considerable development in their dispositional skills and subsidiary progress in their language skills. This discussion assesses individual and collective data, experiences, and observations attained within small group sessions and the wider classroom environment. I have made links to how educational theory has contributed to these outcomes. Additional Language Acquisition: The speaking and listening data gathered prior to starting my inquiry indicated that students had very low to intermediate levels of understanding surrounding four basic states of emotion; happiness, sadness, fear, and anger. With the speaking test, students were shown fourteen picture cards each portraying a child expressing one of these four emotions. They were assessed individually, and it needs stating that students had never seen these images prior to testing. I showed them a picture card and inquired, “How do you think the person is feeling?”. In the pre-testing process, I was met with confusion by all students and so modelled the first answer. Four of my participants confidently identified the emotion, “happy,” with two others able to identify the emotion, “sad.” Throughout this process, I noticed that all but one of the students kept their heads bowed and spoke very quietly as if they were uncertain about sharing their answers. East Asian cultures are known to place most emotional importance on the eyes when expressing and recognizing emotions and direct and prolonged eye contact can be regarded inappropriate and impolite (Engelmann & Pogosyan, 2013). Hence, I did not consider these behaviours alone to be an assessment of confidence. One of the students, Min, was too shy to answer

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15 10 5 0 Min

Kwan

Jae-yong

Pre-test 12/09/2018

Cara

Yvette

Post-test 27/09/18

Fig. 10.1 Pre-Post intervention speaking data

any questions, even with an interpreter present. This is markedly different to the post-testing results, where Min was able to recognize all four emotions, identifying twelve picture cards overall. Examining pre- and post-speaking data indicates all learners made moderate to considerable improvements in this area (Fig. 10.1). By the end of the inquiry, four students were able to confidently identify all four states of emotion with one student identifying three. One of the most noticeable differences was the way in which students presented their answers in the post-testing process. The students that were able to identify all four states of emotion did so with heightened confidence and playfulness, often sculpting their facial expression and voice to match the emotion represented in the picture. Students also demonstrated an essential shift through the listening data. Prior to the inquiry, students were asked to “Draw something that makes you feel happy,” with four out of five able to draw an emoticon that represented the word, “happy” but not something that specifically made them feel happy. This was also reflected in their representation of the word, “Sad” (Fig. 10.2). At the end of the inquiry, students were able to actively transfer this knowledge of an emotion to reflect on how it related to themselves. When I asked learners to “Draw something that makes you feel happy,” for their feeling’s toolkits, I was pleased at the responses this elicited (both pictorially and verbally). Jae-yong drew a picture of lollies and balloons while Yvette drew lollipops, friends, flowers, and happy hearts, using the corresponding vocabulary to describe their drawings (Fig. 10.3). I noticed the transition of knowing what an emotion may objectively look like in cartoon or stick figure form, to reflecting on and questioning what an emotion feels like to them personally. This demonstrates a shift from an objective understanding of the emotion, their personal feelings and emotions to a subjective, reflective outlook on the situation. I noticed this transition outside the world of the inquiry as learners began to discuss their feelings with me, both prompted and unprompted. Min and Yvette approached me one morning with big smiles on their faces to inform me that they “feel happy” because, Yvette noted, “I am going to Min’s house today.” However, the boys in the inquiry group were more hesitant to share their feelings. If I noticed them having

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Fig. 10.2 Listening pre-data

fun or looking uncertain throughout the day, I was available to approach them and question how they were feeling. Their responses were often one-word answers. Kwan tended to respond with “happy” in what I perceived as an attempt to say the right thing and dismiss my efforts. While Jae-yong, the participant with the least Englishspeaking proficiency, resorted to copying Kwan or responding in Korean. The inquiry has excavated the importance of not only exploring the meaning of diverse states of emotion and how they might make us feel but, also, opening the conversation and creating an environment where students of diverse cultures and abilities feel safe to explore and process both positive and negative emotions. The creation of our “Feelings Toolboxes” provided an outlet for this exploration and associated conversation (Fig. 10.3). This was manifested through one of the student’s real-world experiences. One morning, Yvette was playing with a close friend (also Mandarin speaking but fluent in English) and an argument ensued. This resulted with Yvette in tears, and the other student ran to find me. The argument had transpired in Mandarin, so no one was certain of what had been said. While the other child suggested it was something that did not involve her, Yvette’s body language suggested otherwise. I was working nearby and asked Yvette how she was feeling to which she responded, “Sad.” I consoled her and asked her if she wanted to help me with a special project. Together, we painted our feelings toolkit images

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Fig. 10.3 Feelings toolboxes

with purple and green dye—a task I hoped might mindfully distract her from her sadness. When we finished, she was still clearly distressed. Thinking on my feet, I grabbed her own feelings images (earlier in the day, she had drawn these as things that made her feel happy for our post-listening assessment). Presenting her with her drawings, I questioned whether any of these items would make her feel happy again. She pointed to a flower drawing, so we went outside and picked a “pretty flower” together. Immediately, she smiled, and her mood began to lift. Taking the flower inside, she continued to explore it, first with a magnifying glass and then on top of the lightbox. Exploring the states of emotions—“sadness” and “happiness”—through drama enabled Yvette to develop a comprehensive understanding of these emotions; enough to recognize this feeling within herself and use the appropriate language to share her feelings with me. This aligns with research that suggests drama provides a tool for learners to connect verbal communication involved in vocabulary, grammar, and

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structure with non-verbal communication of gesture, facial expression, and movement (Baldwin & Fleming, 2003; Burke & O’Sullivan, 2002; Hendy & Toon, 2001). This is also a clear representation of how achievement is promoted when educators drive and facilitate learning through the creation of art and acting on social realities that are prevalent within their students’ lives (Barnard, 2009; Cummins, 2002). Dispositional Development & Well-being: Prior to implementing my intervention, I observed the learning behaviours of EAL learners within the wider classroom environment to ascertain whether these behaviours reflected the philosophies of language acquisition theorists such as Barnard, Cummins, and Igoa (Barnard, 2009; Cummins, 2002; Igoa, 1995). Indeed, I noticed clear reflections of their theories in the students’ reality. Immersed in a wildly different culture and learning community, EAL learners appeared to have much lower levels of social confidence than their New Zealand peers and often displayed confusion, frustration, and disengagement from everyday classroom activities. Within the play-based environment of my practicum classroom, I also noticed they tended to gravitate towards similar tasks each day with the same small group of native speaking friends. Their classroom experiences were very much driven by their own comfort zones. The student voice gathered prior to commencing the inquiry reflected these observational judgements. In the pre-inquiry questionnaire, all priority learners noted they enjoyed working with close friends (of the same native language)—with three out of five students noting they preferred working with friends back in their home country. Yvette responded, “I don’t mind being at school in New Zealand but in China, I like it better.” When asked if they had fun learning English, the consensus was, “sometimes.” I acknowledge this was stated in the presence of an educator and may be a false representation of the students’ true beliefs. Kwan responded, “English is sometimes fun. I like playing with my Korean friends and with toys. I like fun and games.” In response to this qualitative data, I identified three dispositional qualities I believed would promote the well-being of these students within an English-medium classroom: playfulness, social confidence, and self-reflection. I have always held the concept of “fun” and playfulness in high regard, especially considering the age of my inquiry participants. I knew that if the task was not understood and/or perceived as too difficult or threatening, this would compromise their involvement. I hoped that drama, in a relaxed space, free of the threat of performance, would provide a vehicle for the involvement of diverse EAL learners. The My Emotions intervention involved scaffolding students through conventions such as mime, role-play, and freeze frames where language was not required for involvement but could be built upon as their confidence evolved. For example, a task within our first session involved passing around an image of a present, miming unwrapping it and showing what we were happy to find inside. While some learners felt comfortable making playful noises as they unwrapped (such as paper ripping, giggles, and noises that represented their item such as car noises as they pushed it along), the task provided less confident students with the opportunity to be involved without the additional fear of using their voice.

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Throughout the intervention, students were able to use universally identifiable sounds for meaning through dramatic play (such as a water noise as they mimed turning on a tap or a monster’s heavy footing and growl as they role-played a monster) (Hendy & Toon, 2001). Once they felt comfortable joining in (which all students did by the second session), they began to express themselves through increasing use of verbal language. Structuring sessions in this way emphasized playful learning and scaffolded student’s confidence and language acquisition in tandem. While I acknowledge the content of English language learning programmes is significant, I believe dispositional readiness and well-being of EAL students to learn and engage are often overlooked. Social confidence can play a significant role in the suppression of EAL learners within the English-medium classroom. One of my inquiry participants, Min, presented extremely low levels of social confidence at the beginning of the inquiry. The only time I had ever heard her speak was in response to the morning roll call when she responded a short and muffled, “here” with prompting from the classroom teacher. During the pre-testing process, her body language demonstrated her as being very shy as she kept her head low and fidgeted with her hands. Although I acknowledge that culturally, eye contact may be considered disrespectful, Min did not answer questions during the pre-inquiry questionnaire and pointed to uncertain emoticon when asked how she felt about learning English. She understood some of what I was saying but did not feel comfortable sharing her thoughts with me. Consulting with those responsible for her learning, I discovered this was normal behaviour and she had barely said a word to them since her arrival. This perception was reinforced at lunchtime when two older Korean girls came to our learning common, hand in hand with a tearful Min. They noted, “Min is sad every day because her friends are always mean to her, but she is too shy to tell you.” In the first session of the inquiry (present miming), Min stayed quiet. She was very ambivalent to unwrap the present, so I mimed doing this for her then asked what was inside. Receiving no answer, I started playfully probing for specific objects. She nodded for a puppy. During the second session, she was much more involved. While role-playing she turned to Yvette and said, “Look Yvette, sad eyes.” With a sad expression on her face. When asked, “Do you ever feel sad?” She nodded and bowed her head, demonstrating an extended understanding of the emotion. The following day, Min approached me with a big smile and said, “Happy.” I noticed that Min was growing increasingly socially confident with each session and that she was really encouraged by the playfulness of Yvette and a couple other students during our sessions. By our fourth session, she demonstrated well thought out, expressive emotions and was beginning to use vocabulary I had yet to hear. As demonstrated in Fig. 10.1, she demonstrated considerable growth in her speaking skills which I attributed to dispositional growth specifically in the area of social confidence. I noticed that drama created a space where students could be silly and, in turn, feel more comfortable putting themselves out there and making mistakes (an essential component of learning). Because the class seemed less formal, everyone could relax. When students are having fun, they are more open to acquiring skills and have increased confidence in experimenting with the new language (Burke &

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O’Sullivan, 2002). I also noticed that as they acquired new language skills, they were more willing to continue learning. All students expressed great excitement at decorating their “Feelings Toolbox’ with stickers and crafts. This was done individually, and I questioned learners throughout the process about their drawings and what they might use them for in an attempt to augment the reflective process. Making learner’s experiences and ideas a vital part of the inquiry provided space for them to express the intricacy of their inner world (Igoa, 1995). Instead of allowing a child’s emergent abilities to limit their response, the arts facilitated a medium for self-expression, reflection, and the sharing of ideas. Min expressed a lot of excitement when decorating her “Feelings Toolbox,” a smile from ear to ear, as she giggled and danced about. When finished, she looked at her own with pride and exclaimed, “It’s beautiful!” Yvette felt a great connection to her own and questioned, “Can we take them home?” I was unsure if the boys in my group would celebrate decorating their “Feelings Toolboxes” but they participated in the process and were proud afterwards holding them to their chest and making silly faces. I perceived an overall sense of pride from all learners when they were finished, walking round with their toolboxes to show off their efforts to friends.

Reflections on the Inquiry Limitations of this intervention are that the outcomes cannot be conclusive as language and dispositional capabilities are continuously developing, especially in year one and year two learners. The classroom culture in which this inquiry was situated already had a play-based philosophy; however, I believe this intervention, using dramatic pedagogy, would have been successful in any school context within a junior school classroom. There may however prove to be limitations as to how learners engage with the material in a classroom void of arts practices. The structure of this approach did not allow me to explore the three key components of a drama programme: language, movement, and theatre. However, I do believe that if the inquiry was to progress further, there would be room for the exploration of the “theatre” component with time. To ensure the development of dispositional qualities, I believe that the intervention should not stop after the “My Emotions” sessions. For students to truly achieve a state of well-being and confidence within their learning space, questioning, and reflection needs to be consistent and ongoing or there is the potential their social confidence may regress. One of the beneficial outcomes of the intervention is that EAL learners can effectively engage in a drama programme as young as six years old. In terms of my teaching practice, I gained pedagogical knowledge around how to work with EAL learners and am motivated to continue to do so. I also gained dramatic pedagogical content knowledge that may translate to all curriculum areas. Additional benefits of the “My Emotions” intervention was the increase of reflective awareness in students. As they began to understand emotions, they became more able to articulate how

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they felt. Further, students developed heightened confidence and playfulness around sharing their own ideas and not just copying what others have said before them. This establishes a space for diverse individuals who can have the confidence to enjoy, question, and reflect on their learning. The learning that arose from the intervention was a product of focusing on the students’ language acquisition and well-being in tandem. Dramatic pedagogy supported this learning by providing a platform for “the mind, body, and emotions to function together rather than separately, enabling students to make all-round and interconnecting sense of their experiences and learning” (Baldwin & Fleming, 2003, p. 6). Dramatic pedagogies assist in the creation of an engaging space where both language acquisition and dispositional qualities are nurtured. The results of this inquiry are indicative of how dramatic pedagogies, grounded in play-based learning environments, can increase playfulness, social confidence, and reflective abilities of EAL learners. Working alongside the Te Wh¯ariki Early Childhood Curriculum, the inquiry transitioned from an educational to social justice positioning. The more time I spent with the participants and exploring the intricacies of their inner world, the more they engaged in the learning process and experienced holistic growth. Drama also puts the teacher in a vulnerable position where we must contribute, communicate, and extend the boundary of our imagination. This has led me to consider how we, as educators, can drive both content and relationship fuelled units through the lens of dramatic pedagogy and the Te Wh¯ariki Early Childhood curriculum. In a society projected for substantial ethnic and linguistic growth, it is important that EAL learners receive English language learning support from their classroom teacher. As educators, we must also acknowledge our responsibility to ensure diverse learners are empowered to learn, and not silenced within the classroom.

Reflecting on Inquiry a Year on as a First-Year Teacher… Nearly a year following my inquiry, this time for reflection could not have presented itself at a more pertinent moment. In my current single cell classroom, I have been blessed and challenged by an EAL learner who struggles with social confidence and self-expression. The implications of this have proved to be both behavioural and learning related and affected not only the EAL learner but, also, the mechanics of the wider classroom. The learner is highly capable yet chooses to express himself via a selection of nonsensical noises and language. This affects his participation and contribution in class as others are unaware of how to react and respond within a culture of deeply embedded behavioural norms. As a beginning teacher, I acknowledge not enough time has been spent fostering learner well-being with an unspoken pressure given to academic achievement. Reflecting on this inquiry has forced me to remember that reading writing and maths are only one portion of the curriculum, and although significant, they are not the only

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“results” we must consider important. I believe the involvement of drama within the classroom may be exactly what my current classroom needs. Moving forward, I am challenging myself to establish drama as an integral part of our daily learning. I intend for drama to facilitate a medium where social and behaviour norms are in question and generate a safer, freer space for the selfexpression of not only my EAL learner but all learners within the class. The ideal outcome of this would be to establish a creative platform where all learners are free to develop their ideas and create together.

References Baldwin, P., & Fleming, K. (2003). Teaching literacy through drama: Creative approaches. Routledge Falmer. Barnard, R. (2009). Submerged in the mainstream? A case study of an immigrant learner in a New Zealand primary classroom. Language and Education, 23(3), 233–248. Bonnett, G. (2017, July, 14). Teachers ‘taking on’ underfunded ESOL without training. New Zealand Herald. https://www.radionz.co.nz/news/national/335093/teachers-taking-on-underf unded-esol-without-training. Burke, A., F. & O Sullivan, J. (2002). Stage by stage: A handbook for using drama in the Second Language Classroom. Heinemann. Cambourne, B. (1988). The whole story: Natural learning and the acquisition of literacy in the classroom. Scholastic. Carr, M. (2006). Learning dispositions and key competencies: A new curriculum continuity across the sectors? SET: Research Information for Teachers, 10, 21–26. Cummins, J. (2002). Language, power, and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Multilingual Matters Ltd. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. Macmillan. Education Review Office. (2018). Responding to language diversity in Auckland. http://www.ero. govt.nz/publications/responding-to-language-diversity-in-auckland/ Engelmann, J. B., & Pogosyan, M. (2013). Emotion perception across cultures: The role of cognitive mechanisms. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 118. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00118 Hendy, L., & Toon, L. (2001). Supporting drama and imaginative play in the early years. Open University Press. Igoa, C. (1995). The inner world of the immigrant child. Lawrence Erlbaum. Irwin, M. R. (2018). Arts shoved aside: Changing art practices in Primary Schools since the introduction of National Standards. International Journal of Art and Design in Education, 37, 18–28. https://doi.org/10.1111/jade.12096 Jonassen, D. H., & Rohrer-Murphy, L. (1999). Activity theory as a framework for designing constructivist learning environment. Educational Technology, Research and Development, 47, 61–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02299477 Lindsay, C., & Knight, P. (2006). Learning and teaching English: A course for teachers. Oxford University Press. Ministry of Education. (2007a). The New Zealand curriculum. Learning Media Limited. Ministry of Education. (2007b). The New Zealand curriculum for English-medium teaching and learning in Years 1–13. Learning Media Limited. Ministry of Education. (2009). Supporting English language learning in Primary Schools: A guide for teachers of years 1 and 2. Learning Media Limited. Ministry of Education. (2017). Te wh¯ariki: He wh¯ariki m¯atauranga m¯o ng¯a mokopuna o Aotearoa: Early childhood curriculum. Ministry of Education.

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Piaget, J. (1936). Origins of intelligence in the child. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press. Willis, J. (2014). Brain-based learning: The Neuroscience behind stress and learning. George Lucas Educational Foundation. Retrieved May 17, 2018, from https://www.edutopia.org/blog/neuros cience-behind-stress-and-learning-judy-willis. Witek, J. (2014). In my heart: A book of feelings (Growing hearts). Abrams.

Chapter 11

Mystery Box Design Challenge as a Pedagogical Tool to Enhance the Key Competency of Participation and Contribution in ESOL Learners Bhavana Mehta

Inquiry focus Supporting participation and contribution [key competencies] of ESOL learners through mystery box design challenge

Learners Three non-participating ESOL learners in an intermediate classroom Teaching approach/intervention Negotiating roles with each group member, contributing towards the group's design, and taking responsibility for presenting with group members in class.

Developing the Inquiry This paper offers an innovative approach using mystery box design challenge to develop and refine the key competency of participation and contribution in ESOL learners. DTP is a team-based model comprising five steps—empathise, define, ideate, prototype and test (Shively et al., 2018). DTP supports interdisciplinary problem solution approach where empathy is at the centre of the design process, a prototype is made keeping the end user in mind (Lake et al., 2018). The concept of mystery box design challenge is situated in the DTP model. In the mystery box design challenge, groups of learners with mixed abilities are challenged with a design task kept in a flipped black box which is called mystery box. Learners brainstorm, B. Mehta (B) Balmoral School, Auckland, New Zealand e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 J. R. Jhagroo and P. M. Stringer (eds.), Professional Learning from Classroom-Based Inquiries, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5099-7_11

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communicate and discuss multiple viewpoints to solve the design challenge with the prescribed criteria. Each group makes a prototype and presents the peculiarities of their prototype in class. This is a forum open for peer suggestions, ideas and critique. Prototypes may be improvised based on suggestions and comments received from peers during class presentation. It was noticed that the ESOL learners in every group were being overshadowed by proficient speakers of English language while presenting the prototype. The mystery box design challenge aimed at providing a challenging context for all learners to work with peers, communicate and put forward personal viewpoints for varied issues facilitating well-supported language learning within the concept of tuakana teina (Ministry of Education, 2003). As the teacher researcher, I noticed that ESOL learners were meek participants and were disengaged throughout the challenge. Based on my own experience of being an ESOL learner, I could relate to the disengaged and meek ESOL learners. I wished to bring them out of their silent zone by facilitating an opportunity for them to speak in class and participate with fellow class students in a fun-filled atmosphere. Following the teaching as inquiry model, roles/designations were introduced for each member in the design task group to enhance the key competency of participation and contribution for ESOL learners. Each group member was held accountable for contributing and participating according to their negotiated role/designation within their group. The introduction of designation/role in the mystery box design challenge was introduced as transformative pedagogy where contexts are created for learners to develop capacities as beings-in-relation as well as beings-in-becoming through designing the outcome for the challenge (Farren, 2016). I proposed to facilitate an opportunity for a supported, connected, contributing and collaborative class community during the mystery box design challenge. Overall Teacher Judgements (OTJs) and a focus group interview with participants formed the main source of data collection and analysis (Cohen et al., 2018). The findings presented will have implications that may be useful to future researchers who may wish to research the impact of mystery box design challenge for ESOL learners in intermediate class.

Review of Literature Design Thinking Process (DTP) is a team-based model comprising five steps— empathise, define, ideate, prototype and test (Shively et al., 2018). The development of Design Thinking Process model may be considered with the creation of first Apple computer mouse, designed with the coalition of Apple company engineers and members from Stanford University (Waidelich et al., 2018). It supports interdisciplinary problem solution approach for a design process, empathy is the centre of the design process and designers design the product keeping the end user in mind (Lake et al., 2018). Research studies have been conducted for examining the impact of DTP in business and management (Wrigley & Judy, 2017), engineering (McKilligan et al., 2017), product design, sustainability

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(Shapira et al., 2017), creativity and critical thinking (Shively et al., 2018), in teaching and learning (Ling Koh et al., 2015). The concept of mystery box design challenge is situated in the DTP model (Ling Koh et al., 2015). The solutions for the mystery box design challenge are devised on engineering design principles (Dym & Little, 2004). Learners are offered a real-life problem to design a prototype keeping in mind the end user, for example, to design a T-shirt for a young adolescent with no arms. The resources and the challenge are covered in a flipped black box on the table, called the mystery box. For every new mystery box design challenge, the teacher facilitates groups of learners in such a way that every learner has an opportunity to work with new members in class, thus developing adaptability and flexibility skills in learners for future (Trilling & Fadel, 2009). This provides an opportunity for the teacher to form mixed ability groups in class for problem-solving and develop people skills in learners that are pivotal in shaping learners’ attitudes to work in varied groups (Bailey & Bridges, 2017). Boaler (2015) emphasises that mixed ability grouping in class fosters reasoning and problem-solving in learners. Her research further consolidates that when learners take charge for solving a problem themselves, they develop thinking and reasoning skills. The positive impact of such collaborative problem-solving approaches develops a growth mindset in personal and professional life. The mystery box design challenge is a partnership of John Dewey’s experiential learning (Bynum, 2015) and Paulo Freire’s critical discourse (Dale & Hyslop-Margison, 2012). The learners are highly engaged and active thinkers during this challenge and the class ambience is enriched with discussions. This approach is also seen as transformative as it changes the learners’ position as an active participant in that moment through experiential learning (Daniels, 2016). Communication and play have been long emphasised in the works of Vygotsky (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016). Peer participation is also pivotal for optimal learning (Pritchard, 2014). Learners participate according to their abilities and feel connected and a contributing member of the class community. It aids in the holistic development and well-being of learners (Bynum, 2015). Communication, connection, critical and creative thinking and innovation—all flow naturally within this approach (Dym & Little, 2004). Learners present the prototype to the class stating what makes their product unique. They improvise or test the prototype based on questions, suggestions or further discussion during class presentations. As suggested by Hattie (2012), good questioning skills are of utmost importance for optimal learning. Questioning skills used were sieved through the 5 steps of the DTP model—empathise, define, ideate, prototype and test (Shively et al., 2018). Learners ask questions if one of the steps is not clear in the prototype. Ministry of Education (2007, p. 13) states that the key competency of participation and contribution helps learners to develop a sense of belongingness and selfconfidence to participate in new contexts. Learners efficiently learn in small familiar groups to verbalise their thoughts and express views in a collaborative environment (Lilliedahl, 2018). Daniels (2016) rightly illustrates that new knowledge is socially

146 Table 11.1 Year 7/8 ESOL funded students in Auckland (Ministry of Education Data Counts, 2018)

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2016

2017

2018

Year 7

725

887

1019

Year 8

719

787

853

Total

1444

1674

1872

constructed through interaction and learners’ prior knowledge. Trilling and Fadel (2009) emphasise the role of accountability and productivity for developing twentyfirst-century skills. Development of twenty-first-century skills is facilitated through the Design Thinking Process approach (Lake et al., 2018). Learners who participate and contribute in communities develop responsible behaviours for maintaining social, cultural, physical and economic environments (Hipkins, 2017). Ministry of Education Data Counts show annually increasing number of English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) learners in Auckland schools and colleges. Data for year 7 and 8 ESOL students in Auckland from the Ministry of Education Data Counts shows an increase in numbers as follows (Table 11.1). The Ministry of Education (2009, p. 7) states “oral language underpins all learning and all social interaction”. ESOL learners generally take a back seat in presentations due to oral language barriers (Gill, 2016). This also hampers their social interaction and peer participation in school communities (Zaid et al., 2016). Language learning becomes natural for ESOL learners in an empowering environment (Ministry of Education, 2003). ESOL learners’ association with broader social context is deemed vital for learning language (Lightbown & Spada, 2006). Peer presentations in a relaxed environment elevate the ESOL learners’ engagement for language learning (Mabuan, 2017). Lightbown and Spada (2006) state that ESOL learners learn languages when they feel connected, valued, respected and not judged. As outlined in Te Wh¯ariki, at every stage the learners’ mana is at the centre of teaching and learning (Ministry of Education, 2017). As the whakatauki (M¯aori proverb) describes, “He waka eke noa” meaning we are all together in this learning vessel, ESOL learners need to feel that connection and belongingness for deep learning (Crooks et al., 2016). Teacher skills: Teacher skills are vital for ESOL learners’ deeper learning (Hansen, 2001). Teachers need to be adaptive and reflective of their own practice all the time following the teaching as inquiry model (Education Review Office, 2011). The teacher’s adaptability and responsiveness in responding to language learning needs help ESOL learners establish self-esteem and confidence (Education Review Office, 2012). When teachers in schools practice collective efficacy for learners, learners develop self-efficacy in reciprocity (Bertrando et al., 2014). Teachers’ knowledge to employ Design Thinking Process as a pedagogical tool is highly beneficial to all learners at any age (Ling Koh et al., 2015). Teacher’s guidance, positive reinforcement and appreciation work as catalysts for learners (Ritchhart et al., 2011). Teachers must know when to step back and when to intervene in learners’ learning journey (Education Review Office, 2013).

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An important part of my inquiry involved my continuous discussions with my professional learning mentor. She shared her ideas about how she incorporated the mystery box approach in her classroom practice.

The Inquiry Approach My methodology was a qualitative interpretivist approach within the teaching as inquiry model. As the teacher, I relied on my observations of the learners in the classroom and interpreted the learners’ voices during the focus group interview. In the classroom teaching and learning environment, I noticed that the mystery box design challenge was an activity where ESOL learners did not participate with enthusiasm. This inference was drawn from careful observations during professional practice days at my practicum school (Cohen et al., 2018). This may have been due to English language barriers (Ministry of Education, 2003). I noticed that the ESOL learners were being overshadowed by proficient speakers of English language while presenting their ideas (Gill, 2016). ESOL learners seemed to do mechanical jobs like holding the tape, putting things in place, sharpening the pencils and such tasks. They looked disengaged most of the time. There was no creative input from their side. They seemed to be meek participants. I was interested in delving deeper into this concern to enhance my professional learning and ESOL learners’ participation and contribution skills. I focussed my inquiry on this aspect of the mystery box design challenge and planned an intervention for ESOL learners so their contribution and participation would be explicitly visible leading to optimal learning. I to offered roles/designations to each member in the mystery box design challenge group in accordance with the teaching as inquiry model (Education Review Office, 2012). Every group member was encouraged to contribute and participate in designing and presenting the prototype to the class. The intervention aligned with transformative pedagogy as it had the potential to create conditions for learners to develop capacities as beings-in-relation as well as beings-in-becoming through these roles/designations (Farren, 2016). The intervention facilitated collaboration for presentation, designing, the discussion of diverse issues, and offered a common context to work on for ESOL learners along with other learners in their group. Learners: Three ESOL learners with different learning needs were selected as per the purpose of this inquiry study. L1 had processing concerns, though the learner is 11 years old his cognitive development is that of an 8-year-old and required additional time to process information (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016). He understood information through pictures. He was a visual learner (Pritchard, 2014). In addition to severe language concerns, L2 struggled with social skills (Ministry of Education, 2003). He needed a context to gel with friends, choosing him as a to focus on, was to motivate his interactional skills by providing him a designated role and context in the mystery box design challenge (Gill, 2016). L3 learner is a confident learner but has concerns with English vocabulary, he has concerns with language fluency (Littlewood & Yu, 2009).

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Intervention: What I did differently in this teaching and learning environment is I asked group members to negotiate roles within their respective group for the mystery box design challenge. Once roles were finalised, each group member was responsible for presenting what they had contributed towards designing the product prototype to the class. Time was allotted for peer evaluations and question/answers at the end of each presentation. The person responsible for the role answered queries raised for their input and I observed the learners during this time.

Inquiry in Practice My observations and the focus group interview with the learners comprised my data collection tools (Cohen et al., 2018). Interaction with the learners during focus group helped in knowing how they felt post-intervention. The focus group interview was audio recorded and transcribed by me to know the emerging themes and code data accordingly. I believe learners’ voices are vital for recording learners’ learning journeys (Ministry of Education, 2017). Observations guided me in interpreting what was happening at that time. Observation data was collected as anecdotal notes during the product prototype presentations in class, keeping in mind the participation and contribution skills of research participants. Interpretations may have many layers, and I may have lost some vital information during observation (Cohen et al., 2018). Missing out on some key findings was a constant concern I faced during the data gathering and data analysis. As the data comprised my interpretation of what was going on, the findings may have multiple levels of interpretation.

Findings and Discussion The learning needs of each of the three ESOL learners were explored closely. The three learners were working on designing a home for a homeless person. They were placed in different groups. The intervention offered learning opportunities for each learner. For example, L3 was learning more verbs, English material names thus enriching his vocabulary as well as language skills. L3 negotiated his role to be an architect and participated with zeal and enthusiasm. He worked out a plan for the home. He used tools to plan the home for homeless person (Fig. 11.1). L3 used his prior knowledge to disseminate his role and responsibility. The designation negotiation motivated him to take an active role in the design challenge. During the observation I noticed L1 and L2 did not negotiate for the roles, they just took what was offered to them in the group. L2 helped in making plastic windows for the product prototype so sunlight could enter in the house. This was an idea that no one else thought about in it in his group, so his group cheered for him and he was extremely proud that his work

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Fig. 11.1 Plan of home created by L3

was acknowledged. When his friends asked him how you thought about the plastic windows? He proudly replied, “You told me I am an engineer right now, so I have to think like an engineer”. L1 was not found adding anything creative to his group, but I noticed his enthusiasm in the activity. He was assigned the role of a manager to oversee the whole working of the product prototype. He exhibited enhanced agency in the whole process. During class presentations, L1 was encouraged to describe his contribution to the prototype. He was a bit reluctant to speak but spoke very patiently as he made attention to his pronunciation and word choice. L2 contributed orally in lower voice, while his group members prompted him with vocabulary. L3 presented clearly, with projected voice and used appropriate vocabulary, including terms like measurement, periphery, while calculating the floor area. All 3 learners mentioned the uniqueness of their product prototype to each other. A focus group interview was conducted on another day in a separate school resource room. They all agreed to have enjoyed the introduction of roles and responsibilities in working together as a group.

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With a big smile L3 said—You get to use your creativity and you feel like a leader and happy. L1 mentioned—fun, exciting, amazing talking was best part. You get to do things. I don’t know it is just so much fun. I like to do it every time. L2 stated—talking designing making with friends like interesting, fun. One theme that was common for all of them was the fun factor being with friends, connecting with friends over a common context and they did not find language as a barrier for communication in this activity. L1 and L2 mentioned they liked the mystery box design challenge as there was nothing to write, it was about speaking. L3 mentioned he felt proud to be an architect. The findings suggest that oral language acquisition should be given priority (Education, 2009). The data suggests that participants enjoyed working in groups to co-create knowledge and brainstorm ideas (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016). They enjoyed being empowered with designated roles and responsibilities as it gave them an opportunity to participate, contribute and employ their creative skills (Cornett, 2011). Participants agreed that when they have roles, they get an equal opportunity to discuss, talk and give idea to friends (Bynum, 2015). The mystery box design challenge was designed to develop the key competencies in learners. Using the teaching as inquiry model, as the inquiring practitioner, I focussed on the development of ESOL learners’ participation and contribution skills. The data analysis suggested teacher’s skill to employ DTP as foundational (Lake et al., 2018). Dym and Little (2004) detail the attributes and skills for a learner’s learning. Teacher’s belief in every learner helps the learner in setting higher achievement goals and expectations (Hattie, 2012). Rich positive relationship with learners were also a key point for this research (Ministry of Education, 2011). Accurate task planning for mystery box design challenges is only possible when the teacher knows the learners. The teacher’s ability to step back when the learners are struggling is a key attribute for learners’ learning. This research further suggests that ESOL learners thrived in a small group with a common interest (Lightbown & Spada, 2006). The learners develop resilience, adaptability and flexibility by working with mixed ability groups in the mystery box design challenge. These are essential skills for twenty-first century (Trilling & Fadel, 2009). Learner voices clearly increase the need for innovative practices in teaching ESOL learners in intermediate classes. Participants enjoyed autonomy and empowerment. They were good with reasoning when language was not compulsorily monitored by an adult (Education, 2009). They welcomed the concept of tuakana teina in this approach (Ministry of Education, 2011) which involved learning from their peers. The tuakana–teina relationship is an important M¯aori concept that embraces a buddy model with an expert tuakana (brother/ sister/peer) helping a less expert teina (younger sibling/peer) (Ministry of Education, 2011). The research study suggests that it is vital for educators to adapt and try new adaptive pedagogies to cater to the varying learning needs of ESOL learners. This study offered a pedagogical approach that was effective in supporting the participating and contribution of ESOL students through the mystery box challenge.

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Reflections on the Inquiry I believe my intervention served is associated with the universal design for learning for the ESOL learners, as it provided experiential hands on learning (Kolb & Kolb, 2017), a context for discussion and participation (Gill, 2016), and an opportunity to learn new vocabulary, verbs and sentence structures using teaching as inquiry model (Ministry of Education, 2017). It also contributed to my own professional learning and understanding of the learners in my classroom. Limitations: The research study is limited in scope as the participants were a small number and the research study only focussed on one classroom. As the teacher researcher had spent considerable amount of time with the research participants, rich connections and positive relationship were already made prior to commencing research study, which is typical of practitioner research. Time has been another constraint for this study as the researcher may have been able to consolidate findings over a greater span of time by observing more mystery box design challenge activities in different classes at different age levels. Benefits: I believe the mystery box approach facilitated the development of key competency of participation and contribution in ESOL learners. This experience will lead ESOL learners to confidently contribute and participate in such other situations thus developing twenty-first-century skills needed for future (Trilling & Fadel, 2009). Concluding comments: The research concludes that Design Thinking Process integrated in all curriculum areas may serve as a platform for ESOL learners to willingly participate as active members of the class community. This results in greater engagement for English language acquisition. Innovative pedagogies and approaches that focus on ESOL learners’ participation and contribution in class are required. We need out-of-the box strategies like mystery box design challenge to develop the key competency of participation and contribution for ESOL learners. This approach has the potential to build confidence, self-efficacy and peer interaction, thus helping the ESOL learners to settle in diverse New Zealand intermediate classrooms.

Reflecting on Inquiry a Year on as a 1st-Year Teacher… Teaching as Inquiry (TAI) cycle is a valuable framework as I feel empowered with the stepwise guideline it provides and situated within the principles of AKO. This year, I have deepened my knowledge about what matters for my learners and where I should direct my energy and time through undertaking focussed inquiry. At the same time, I have learnt to develop a variety of interventions that have been useful for my learners. The TAI cycle has fostered my critical thinking in many ways. I don’t think I would have been able to find a solution to facilitate the learning of my ESOL learners if I did not receive support from my professional learning community. I realised that the ESOL learners were struggling and the guidance I received from my colleagues facilitated the design of my intervention.

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Reflecting on my inquiry, I think it has been useful that I was introduced to the TAI cycle in my teacher education programme of study. Throughout my first year of teaching year, I have used TAI cycle to improve my practice in areas, such as classroom management, resource management and data management. The cycle guides me in noticing, being vigilant, finding gaps in my practice, prioritising action plans, thinking and designing appropriate interventions and reviewing them at intervals to discover what works and what needs to be changed. TAI has helped me build rich relationships with the professional learning communities in my school. Teaching is a highly collaborative effort. It cannot be done successfully in isolation and engagement in TAI has meant I have sought help and support from other professionals to improve and grow professionally.

References Bailey, C., & Bridges, D. (2017). Mixed ability grouping: A philosophical perspective. Routledge. Bertrando, R., Eisenberger, J., & Conti-D’Antonio, M. (2014). Self-efficacy: Raising the bar for all students. Routledge. Boaler, J. (2015). The elephant in the classroom : Helping children learn and love maths. Souvenir Press. Bynum, G. L. (2015). Conceptions of childhood in the educational philosophies of John Locke and John Dewey. Forum on Public Policy. Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morriosn, K. (2018). Research methods in education. Routledge. Cornett, C. (2011). Creating meaning through literature and the arts—arts integration for classroom teachers (4th ed.). Pearson. Crooks, T., Grima, G., & Carr, M. (2016). Assessment for learning: Promoting children’s rights and social justice. In C. Dalli & A. Smith (Eds.), Research, policy and advocacy in the early years. New Zealand Council for Educational Research Press. Dale, J., & Hyslop-Margison, E. J. (2012). Paulo Freire: Teaching for freedom and transformation. Springer. Daniels, H. (2016). Vygotsky and pedagogy (Classic ed.). Routledge. Duchesne, S., & McMaugh, A. (2016). Educational psychology for learning and teaching (5th ed.). Cengage Learning. Dym, C., & Little, P. (2004). Engineering design: A project-based introduction. John Wiley. Education Review Office. (2011). Directions for learning: The New Zealand curriculum principles, and teaching as inquiry. http://www.ero.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/Directions-for-LearningMay11.pdf Education Review Office. (2012). Teaching as inquiry: Responding to learners. http://www.ero. govt.nz/assets/Uploads/Teaching-as-Inquiry-Responding-to-Learners.pdf Education Review Office. (2013). Accelerating the progress of priority learners in primary schools. https://ero.govt.nz/sites/default/files/2021-05/Accelerating-the-Progress-ofPriority-Learners-in-Primary-Schools-May-2013-web.pdf Farren, p. (2016). Transformative pedagogy in context: Being and becoming. World Journal on Educational Technology, 8(3), 190–204. Gill, C. (2016). Maximising Asian ESL Learners’ Communicative Oral English via Drama. Advances in Language and Literary Studies, 7(5), 240–246. Hansen, D. (2001). Teaching as a moral activity. In V. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (4th ed. pp. 826–858). American Educational Research Association. Hattie, J. (2012). Visible learning for teachers: Maximizing the impact on learning. Routledge.

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Hipkins, R. (2017). Weaving a coherent curriculum: How the idea of ‘capabilities’ can help. Proceedings of the 3rd European Conference of Curriculum Studies of Scotland. http://www.nzcer.org. nz/system/files/Weaving%20a%20coherent%20(v5).pdf Kolb, A. Y., & Kolb, D. A. (2017). The experiential educator. EBLS Press. Lake, D., Ricco, M., & Whipps, J. (2018). Design thinking accelerated leadership: Transforming self, transforming community. The Journal of General Education, 65(3–4), 159–177. Lightbown, P., & Spada, N. (2006). How languages are learned (3rd ed.). Oxford. Lilliedahl, J. (2018). Building knowledge through arts integration. Pedagogies: An International Journal, 13(Special issue: Arts Integration), 133–145. Ling Koh, J. H., Chai, C. S., Wong, B., & Hong, H.-Y. (2015). Design thinking for education conceptions and applications in teaching and learning. Springer. Littlewood, W., & Yu, B. (2009). First language and target language in the foreign language classroom. Language Teaching, 44(1), 64–77. Mabuan, R. (2017). Developing esl/efl learners’ public speaking skills through pecha kucha presentations. English Review: Journal of English Education, 6(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.25134/ erjee.v6i1.765 McKilligan, S., Fila, N., Rover, D., & Mina, M. (2017). Design thinking as a catalyst for changing teaching and learning practices in engineering. Proceedings of the Frontiers in Engineering Conference USA. https://doi.org/10.1109/FIE.2017.8190479 Ministry of Education. (2003). Effective literacy practice in years 5 to 8. Learning Media Limited. Ministry of Education. (2007). The New Zealand Curriculum. Learning Media Limited. Ministry of Education. (2009). Learning through talk. Learning Media Limited. Ministry of Education. (2011). Tataiako—Cultural competencies for teachers of Maori learners. Learning Media Limited. Ministry of Education. (2017). Te Wh¯ariki: he wh¯ariki m¯atauranga m¯o ng¯a mokopuna o Aotearoa: Early childhood curriculum. Learning Media Limited. Ministry of Education. (2018). Data counts. Learning Media Limited. Pritchard, A. (2014). Ways of learning (3rd ed.). Routledge. Ritchhart, R., Church, M., & Morrison, K. (2011). Making thinking visible: How to promote engagement, understanding and independence for all learners. Jossey-Bass. Shapira, H., Ketchie, A., & Nehe, M. (2017). The integration of design thinking and strategic sustainable development. Systematic Leadership towards Sustainability. Journal of Cleaner Production, 1(14), 277–287. Shively, K., Stith, K., & Rubenstein, L. (2018). Measuring what matters: Assessing creativity, critical thinking, and the design process. Gifted Child Today, 4(3), 149–158. Trilling, B., & Fadel, C. (2009). 21st century skill: Learning for life in our times. Jossey-Bass. Waidelich, L., Richter, A., Kolmel, B., & Bulander, R. (2018). Design thinking process model review. Proceedings of the International Conference on Engineering, Technology and Innovation in Germany. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICE.2018.8436281 Wrigley, C., & Judy, M. (2017). Design and design thinking in business and management higher education. Journal of Learning Design, 10(1), 41–54. Zaid, S., Zakaria, M., Rashid, R., & Ismail, N. (2016). An examination of negotiation process among ESL learners in higher institution. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature, 5(6), 228–234. http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.aut.ac.nz

Chapter 12

Using the “I Notice, I Think, I Wonder” Thinking Routine in Developing Curiosity and Science Capabilities in Year 7 Female Learners Andrio Tabuzo

Inquiry focus: Explore the use of the thinking routine 'NoticeThink-Wonder' (NTW) in developing curiosity and Science capabilities of Year 7 female learners.

Learners: Five, Year 7 female students were identified as targeted learners based on their assessment of Science capability scores, formative assessments from overall teacher judgment and a curiosity ratings survey. Teaching approach/intervention: The thinking routine, "Notice-Think-Wonder' (NTW) is generally used as a lesson starter activity to generate engagement. For the purposes of this inquiry, NTW was used as a platform to stimulate critical thinking, discussion, curiosity and Science capabilities / behaviours.

Developing the Inquiry Focusing Inquiry: Science educates about the workings of the physical and natural world, and beyond (ERO, 2010). In recent years, environmental change, genetics, sustainability, and health have been major themes discussed in the community. Scientific knowledge is needed to transform learners into active, critical participants in

A. Tabuzo (B) Murrays Bay Intermediate School, Auckland, New Zealand © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 J. R. Jhagroo and P. M. Stringer (eds.), Professional Learning from Classroom-Based Inquiries, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5099-7_12

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these discussions. Problem-solving skills inform decision-making in numerous applications (Ministry of Education, 2007). Science underpins future careers not just in scientific work but, also, in other fields such as medicine and engineering which require scientific knowledge and skills (ERO 2010). It is important to develop learners who are capable of sustained interest in science throughout their schooling. Science is built on curiosity (Luce & Hsi, 2014). However, the ERO 2010 report identified a reduction in student ‘curiosity’ from Years 7–10. This is considered a critical age to have a decline because experiences encountered before age 14 shape dispositions towards future study of science. Curiosity, after all, is intrinsic motivation and key in encouraging active learning and exploration (Oudeyer et al., 2016). Therefore, curiosity must be fostered to have engagement and achievement in science. Gender differences exist in science achievement (Ministry of Education, 2009). At secondary level, boys outperform girls on literacy measures involving earth and space systems and physical systems while girls and boys are about the same on living systems (Ministry of Education, 2009). Studies show that despite equal achievement in science education, girls tend not to identify with science, and this impacts their future directions (Ministry of Education, 2009). Female students are less likely to study Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) subjects in their later academic life (Bolstad & Hipkins, 2008). In my class, data showed high engagement in science but, as evident in the survey in relation to career choice, most students were either unsure or had not considered Science as a career. The survey of female students in the class revealed that most had little or no interest towards a career within the scientific field. In addition, regarding science activities they wanted to pursue at school, the common theme was experiments that are flashy and fun. These nationwide trends and data from the class survey do not mean that students lack curiosity or capabilities rather, they emphasise the importance of reinforcing the cultivation of curiosity and science capabilities in learners. In terms of this inquiry, developing curiosity and science capabilities is the focus.

Review of Literature Science Capabilities—Students as young scientists: The overarching new strand in the New Zealand Curriculum is the Nature of Science (NOS). It focuses on learners’ acquisition of dispositions, scientific skills, and knowledge (Ministry of Education, 2007). NOS is intended to provide insights into how Science is more than just a body of knowledge but, also, a framework of capabilities that current and future scientifically literate citizens must have. To achieve the goal, the NOS strand aims to provide students with realistic experiences on how scientists work and what a career in the scientific field would feel like. Furthermore, it lays out how careers in science serve an important role in the society (Hipkins, 2012). To have a working knowledge of science, five basic capabilities are needed: gather and interpret data, use evidence, critique evidence, interpret representations and engage

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with Science (Ministry of Education, 2007). To develop these capabilities, teachers can use pedagogical approaches that would immerse learners in realistic and novel learning experiences in relation to Science. Experiential learning theory by Kolb (1984) focuses on the process of learning for the individual rather than on the outcome. Through the process of immersion in the experience, learners get to do the actual tasks rather than reading about it. For learners to be successful experiential learners, Kolb states that learners should have abilities linked to elements. First, learners must be actively involved in the experience to ensure engagement. Second, to develop metacognition, learners should also be questioning and reflective of the task rather than simply experiencing it (Felicia, 2011). Third, learners should be analytical and critical to be able to rationally conceptualise their experience. Finally, learners must apply these concepts to broader ideas. Curiously, these elements associated with experiential learning could be linked to science capabilities in terms of critical thinking, application of learning to problemsolving activities, and broader scientific concepts. The pedagogy and experiential tasks that used in this inquiry actively involve not just the capabilities but, also, the aforementioned four abilities. However, before considering these four associated elements of experiential learning, there exists a fundamental need to develop in the learners an intrinsic motivation to learn (Moon, 2004); after all, learning should be pulled in by the learners not pushed from the outside by the teachers. Curiosity: Curiosity is one of the drivers of scientific advancement (Rowson, 2012). Children are naturally curious (Engel, 2009) and inquisitive about the workings of the world. As curiosity is linked to student engagement, especially emotional engagement that would include a sense of collective enthusiasm around tasks or objects, it is highly important to develop curiosity as an intrinsic motivator for scientific investigations (Fredricks & McColskey, 2012). Several studies have found that the level of curiosity is positively linked to higher academic success (Arnone et al., 1994). Curiosity is also positively correlated with inquisitiveness and assessing which questions are effective (Jirout & Klahr, 2012). It is important to define what curiosity looks like so that it can be recognised when it’s demonstrated by the learners. Piaget (1969) defined curiosity as an emotional need to provide explanation for events. This was extended by Markey and Lowenstein (2014) as intrinsic motivation to gain specific information. Scientific curiosity is an intrinsic motivation to demonstrate ‘information-seeking behaviours’ (Weible & Zimmerman, 2016). These identifiable and observable behaviours include focused attention, critical thinking, connection-making, and persistence (Silvia, 2006). The interpretation of curiosity used in this inquiry is the definition by Kashdan et al. (2009) which states curiosity has two main components: stretching and embracing. Stretching is the active pursuit of novel knowledge or experiences to have an undeterred exploration of a topic. Embracing relates to the persistence to be subjected to potentially unpredictable and uncomfortable experiences to gain understanding. Science teaching is more than the passive transmission of knowledge from teacher to student and does not always lead to successful learning and curiosity (Osborne & Dillon, 2010). Teachers can develop curiosity through deliberate teaching

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and learning activities that would encourage exploratory behaviours and thinking (Lawson, 2010). Curiosity can be cultivated by strategies that promote thinking routines aimed to enhance mental attention focus (Rowson et al., 2012). Subsequently, for this inquiry, the ‘I Notice, I Think, I Wonder’ (NTW) pedagogical approach seemed a suitable thinking routine to utilise. The NTW thinking routine triggers broad-range student curiosity through the power of in-depth observation of a wide-range of stimuli (Ritchhart et al., 2013, p. 55) and paves the way for inquiry, student-led learning (Perkins et al., 2000). The observations serve as basis for critical analysis and evidence-based synthesis. NTW moves thinking from low-level observations to high-level thinking skills (Lowe et al., 2013) which are steps for furthering development of science capabilities. The first step of the NTW thinking routine involves selecting appropriate content and allowing sufficient time for noticing details. In the ‘Notice’ stage, learners state what they observed without prior interpretations and observing is a basic but fundamental skill (Goh & Chia, 1986). Observing forms the basis of other scientific skills and promotes curiosity (Khanam, 2002). The ‘Think’ stage involves several high order thinking skills. Rather than simply guessing, the learners’ interpretations are encouraged through use of evidence (Ritchhart et al., 2013, p. 56). After gathering interpretations, students critically analyse the information and synthesise concepts to reveal personal insights (Williams, 2015). Finally, ‘Wonder’ is where students delve deeper into their thinking by questioning their assumptions. For example, learners may question how their synthesis relates to another concept. Wonderings essentially could be questions that extend insights to look at connections to bigger concepts or ideas (Ritchhart et al., 2013, p. 57). Because these steps operate well with the five science capabilities and elements of experiential learning, the NTW thinking routine holds potential as an effective preliminary task prior to providing rich experiences to the learners. In addition, because this is a thinking routine, it could be flexibly used throughout the inquiry process as a tool that stimulates critical thinking, active observation, questioning, and as a group discussion framework. The ‘I Notice—I Think—I Wonder’ thinking routine was chosen as the intervention for this inquiry.

The Inquiry Approach This inquiry uses the teaching as Inquiry model by Sinnema and Aitken (2008). The first step is to identify gaps in students’ learning or in one’s practice to create a goal for the learners. Teachers then evaluate the effect of current practice and research practices or pedagogies (intervention/s) that can fill in this gap. After implementing the intervention/s, teachers assess effectiveness by gathering supporting data by way of evidence. Data Collection: The qualitative data used in this inquiry included student/ teacher co-constructed dialogue, student notes, observed behaviour, work outputs, and recorded conversations. The gathered evidence was then evaluated against

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Bull et al.’s (2014) Science Capability Development Criteria which involved gathering and interpreting data, using evidence to support ideas, critiquing evidence, making sense of representations about scientific ideas, and engaging with science. Behaviour and dialogue and curiosity components of stretching and embracing were identified against these capabilities. The behaviours included: • • • • • • • • • •

Makes careful observations [Gathering and interpreting data] Describes observations using objective language [Gathering and interpreting data] Proposes explanations (I think because…) [Using evidence to support ideas] Understands that explanations can change when new evidence comes to light [Using evidence to support ideas] Asks other students about what they think/found [Critiquing evidence] Suggests ways to strengthen investigations [Critiquing evidence] Uses specific language to describe their observations and communicate ideas [Making sense of representations about scientific ideas] Makes sense of representations, such as text types, models, diagrams [Making sense of representations about scientific ideas] Initiates discussions with ‘wondering questions’[Engaging with science] Builds on others’ ideas Makes connections [Engaging with science].

Learners: To narrow down the number of participants, several assessments were considered the first of which was assessment of science capabilities. As the first capability was assessed and as this was considered limiting, formative assessments from overall teacher judgement were also considered. In relation to assessment of curiosity, a survey was implemented. As measure of scientific curiosity is heavily debated, several considerations were undertaken. First, the survey should be a valid measure of scientific curiosity for the target demographic. Second, the survey should measure the identified behaviours: stretching and embracing. Finally, in terms of duration, it should not be long. The 12-item survey by Weible and Zimmerman (2016) was administered. From these datasets combined with overall teacher judgement which took into account formative assessments and the social interactions within the classroom, participant selection was narrowed down to five female learners. Intervention: ‘I Notice, I Think, I Wonder’ thinking routine. NTW was used after the students were presented objects, pictures, diagrams, and after experiments. For example, to start the inquiry session, the students were presented with a before and after pictures of bleached corals, followed by actual eroded shells. The students were then given graphic organisers to visualise how their thinking develops in complexity—from descriptive to analytical (Lowe et al., 2013). By using the NTW strategy, students were constantly tasked to gather and interpret data and use evidence through the ‘Notice’ and ‘Think’ stages. In terms of ‘Wonder’, learners critiqued evidence—the validity or connections to other science issues (they engaged with Science). Students also express their initial thinking through modelling. NTW is traditionally used as a written tool (as a graphic organiser) followed by discussion. However, in this inquiry, it was used consistently throughout the session

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wherever appropriate to simulate ‘science-talk’ since its structure could facilitate group discussions. NTW talks were further supported by teacher questioning. In addition to the intervention, the inquiry took place in the school laboratory with the learners wearing laboratory coats. As this inquiry aims to develop science capabilities through experiential learning, working in an authentic setting may be contributed to supporting learning. Bajaj (2017) found that there is a link between achievement and usage of laboratory in students. Furthermore, many studies support the importance of the laboratory in science learning (Bajaj, 2017; Yadav & Mishra, 2013, pp. 1–6; Ojediran et al., 2014).

Inquiry in Practice Findings and discussion: The intervention ‘I Notice—I Think—I Wonder’ affected the students positively. The use of the thinking routine enabled the learners to show curiosity and demonstrate use of science capabilities in authentic contexts. The discussion is divided into two parts. First, the effect of the intervention on developing curiosity is explored. Second, NTW links to the five science capabilities are examined. Developing Curiosity—Stretching: During NTW, students showed active participation to learn and experience which is a sign of stretching (Kashdan et al., 2009). This was shown in multiple ways. First, the students were engaged with the subject matter and were excited to begin the sessions. Retrospectively, this could be because of the novelty of working in a laboratory and with their ideas of science as experiments with ‘whizz and bang’. This was considered in planning to give students opportunities to demonstrate stretching behaviours in a more focused manner. Second, throughout the thinking routine involving ‘Notice’ and ‘Think’ stages, the learners showed active participation by gathering notes, making observations of the stimulus, and then interpreting it. The learners showed engagement in the process of using all available senses. Some of the learners even wanted to taste the shells which were fortunately stopped. In ‘Wonder’, the learners demonstrated stretching as they critiqued their or others’ insights and updated their mental models. It is also notable that learners showed active engagement throughout the sessions and the experiments because they asked for the slides. This showed independent and self-motivated stretching which is a hallmark of curiosity. Developing Curiosity—Embracing: Embracing was shown in different ways. First, the learners persisted with complex ideas to gain deeper understanding. Second, the learners demonstrated commitment to not only participate in an experiment that would have normally taken a week but, also, embrace the rigorous observation and analysis that came with it. The learners embraced working with peers who were not part of their usual circle of friends. Examples of embracing go hand in hand with stretching. As the learners’ ideas were analysed and evaluated by their peers during the ‘Think’ and ‘Wonder’ stages, they risked being corrected. Embracing here is shown in the acceptance of their own

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knowledge gaps and taking on board additional suggestions. These behaviours by learners demonstrated persistence. Developing Science Capabilities Gathering and interpreting data. You observe as much as you can.—Student D, on how to observe extensively.

The learners demonstrated acts of gathering and interpreting data through the ‘Notice’ stage. Before presenting prompts, a discussion was held on how to observe. The learners responded by noting that observation should be done with all the senses. Through these discussions, the learners were primed to explore different ways to gather data. Learners independently used different modes of observation when presented with different prompts. When presented with an image, students requested magnification of the image and removing obtrusive text boxes from the picture. When presented with bleached and normal seashells (Fig. 12.1), learners compared them by smell, texture, visual magnification, use of digital microscopes and snapped or smashed the shells to determine strength. Students also gathered accurate data through usage of scientific tools, such as pH metre, scientific weighing scales, and microscopes. During the experiment, students were constantly taking careful notes on the process and the outcomes. This signalled the intensity and scope of observations they were making. The use of all senses and additional equipment helped develop students’ conceptualisation (Silva et al., 2016). This aligns with the first half of Bull et al.’s (2014) criteria of Capability 1—Making careful observations. Sample B is softer; sample A is rougher.—Student I.

To interpret these observations, the students used objective language which is the second indicator of Capability 1. The learners were able to express their findings using descriptive language to describe attributes of the stimulus, such as their comments on its size, smell, texture, and general appearance. Furthermore, they also described parts of the stimulus even if they did not know how to say it. For example, a student described floating calcium pieces as ‘particles’. Students also asked the origin of the seashells. This signalled to me that they were extending their observation by asking questions. These behaviours are all components of Capability 1 (Bull, 2015). In addition, students were presented with two photos that represented a plant before and after ocean warming and ocean acidification from extracted from State of Public Health in the Caribbean Report 2017–2018. Using evidence to support ideas: These tiny ones… they’re probably like baby mussels or something.—Student D, referring to smaller sample shells. Carbon dioxide! Carbon dioxide makes water acidic!—Student I, connecting prior knowledge of respiration to the concept of acidity.

The learners used evidence to support ideas to come up with inferences during the ‘Think’ stage. The students were able to use different sources of information, not just from observations but, also, from prior knowledge. This was particularly pleasing to observe since they were able to pick relevant data from multiple sources and weave this into strong evidence-based synthesis. Furthermore, students built

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Fig. 12.1 Sample seashells. On the left are the shells purposely placed into acid. On the right are control shells

on explanations of each other through collaboration and sharing of knowledge and insights. For example, when bromothymol blue changed to yellow (became acidic) when breathed into, Student I deduced that carbon dioxide (CO2 ) from our breath makes water acidic. The other students extended this conceptualisation of the process of acidification further by inferring that other sources of CO2 such as smoke from factories can add to this problem. It could have been tempting for students to not use reliable data and make hasty assumptions instead of using critical thinking. This was quickly remedied through questioning techniques. For example, when students were presenting their thinking, they were asked on what were they are basing their thinking on. For instance, students inquired if the pictures and the shells were of the same origin. Based on the conversations that ensued afterwards, I believed students were using critical thinking to avoid resorting to false conclusions. These behaviours are consistent with Bull et al.’s (2014) criteria for Capability 2. The development of this capability is crucial for scientific thinking. Science does not rely on observation alone to gather data but also from making inferences based on phenomena that cannot be observed (Hanuscin & Rogers, 2008, p. 56). Critiquing evidence: This is really confusing cause’ these two are the same type of shells and this one is rougher than this one.—Student S, commenting how two shells of same origin could be so different.

Critiquing evidence is the scepticism that learners demonstrate towards the quality of data and explanations (Ministry of Education, 2007). Rational scepticism is a characteristic of a scientifically literate citizen (Osborne, 2010, p. 10). These scepticisms can take form as arguments, debates, or critical questioning. Several studies

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have confirmed that participating in these conversations develops scientific reasoning (Klahr & Nigam, 2004, pp. 661–667; Zohar & David, 2008; Shayer & Adey, 1993) which stems through a metacognitive process of comparing different viewpoints that are expressed through conversations (Osborne, 2010). By way of example: Teacher: How did it become acidic? (Pertaining to experiment with CO2 and wave action). Students: “Because of the vinegar” Teacher: “But did I put the vinegar in the water?” Student I: “No… the WAVES did it!”—on realising that wave action can take up atmospheric CO2 . Student D: “Well, kind of the wind… It’s more the wind. The wind kind of causes it to, uh, spread through the ocean.”—arguing with Student S on how CO2 spreads through the ocean. In this study, the learners were also given chances to have critical conversations through Think, Pair, and Share routines and as with the ‘I Notice—I Think—I Wonder’ done in a co-constructed, dialogue format, students were able to judge evidence and insights from their peers. Critiquing evidence through discussion enabled the learners to extend their ideas and gather more information or rectify their own or others to synthesise new understanding (Gallas, 1995, p. 11). This capability was engaged continually throughout the inquiry to further develop the ability to evaluate the validity of information as it emerged. Making sense of representations about scientific ideas: Waves make the carbon dioxide go into the water which makes… acidic.—Student S

Because NTW was also used as a dialogue routine, learners were expressing their inferences and conclusions in their conversations. The causal language used by the learners expressed a form of representation of processes. It is also notable that they were starting to use precise language in these discussions by incorporating scientific terminologies, such as acid, pH, particles, and hydrogen. However, as learners dealt with more increasingly complex phenomena and increasing amount of data, they realised that this information could be organised and communicated more efficiently (Almarode et al., 2018, p. 117). Learners demonstrated the capability to interpret and present scientific ideas collected during Notice and Think in a variety of ways (Hipkins, 2014). Drawing models holds as much potential as writing does (Doris, 2010, p. 110) and these models are used to develop concrete conceptualisations of phenomena that could not be directly observed in class. For example, to interpret CO2 dissolution by water wave action, Students D and F drew waves and steam dissolving in seawater (Fig. 12.2). Modelling also functioned as a platform to discuss ‘I Wonder’ about ideas (Coll et al., 2011), thereby integrating Capabilities 1–4. Furthermore, students showed the capability to update their model as new information arrived. This behaviour demonstrates the combination of the preceding capabilities working together. Learners tried to reconcile new evidence-based insights with their initial model (Doris, 2010, p. 60) as the comment captures:

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Fig. 12.2 A student’s model of how smoke dissolves in water and the flow on effect impact on marine creatures in the food web

Engaging with science: “Is it also because of global warming?”—Student M, wondering about the relationship of global warming to bleached corals.

Engaging with Science is a holistic approach to using the capabilities in authentic contexts (Hipkins, 2014). The capabilities are not separate skills or a set of steps to follow, but rather an interacting set of behaviours (Bull, 2015). Using these capabilities in conjunction with observing, inferring, critiquing, and communicating ideas, helps learners become critical thinkers. Through ‘I Notice—I Think—I Wonder’, the learners were able to engage in science holistically. The most striking observation was the connection of brand-new concepts to prior knowledge. In the example below, students D and F visualised the relationship of mussel decalcification to the concept of food webs (Figs. 12.2 and 12.3). By applying learning to different concepts, the learners were participating in scientific discussions using evidence. They built on each other’s insights by noticing ideas that either aligned or were in contrast to their own. They critically thought about its merits and wonder at its applications. In addition, the learners also showed accountability of human action by commenting “We could change our ocean so much that shells will be able to dissolve.” This is evidence of being engaged with science, participating in

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Fig. 12.3 Students C and F connecting concept of Ocean Acidification to the concept of food chain/ web

scientific discussions using empirical evidence and at times talking action (Hipkins, 2014).

Reflections on the Inquiry Limitations: A major limitation for this study was the degree of authenticity of the experiences. The participants may have encountered barriers to expressing themselves fully due to social factors. One, as they were not with their usual peers, there could be awkwardness stifling their expression of thoughts and feelings. Two, the effect of being in a study could be a factor. Third, because the study was done only with girls outside of the normal room context, it does not tell me how they would work with male peers, especially in a male voice-dominated class. This third factor could be a next step for this inquiry. As this is a phenomenological study, the observations required the interpretation of the researcher and bias would be difficult to detect. The interpretation of the students’ behaviours could be influenced by the researcher’s assumptions and preconceived ideas. Benefits: Researching about the positive effects of the NTW routine showed applications to different aspects of my practice. It supports metacognition by scaffolding the learner’s thinking from low to high level. As a thinking routine, it can be a tool that students use to observe, think, and wonder in many applications. It is flexible

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to use in a written format, conversation structure, or through modelling. There is potential that it could be used in other learning areas to generate interest with any stimulus, songs, pictures, videos, written text, or even a mathematical prompt. This can be complementary to the routine Think, Pair, and Share if NTW would be done collaboratively. By doing so, the students can co-construct models. During sharing, students can justify their insights and also be exposed to alternative explanations. NTW can also assist learners to express their ideas. This strategy is open-ended and engages the learners’ prior knowledge, builds on their observations, provides a platform for analysis, and extension. All these higher levels of thinking can be achieved with minimal prompts or questioning from the teacher. Thus, NTW scaffolds learners to develop their independent thinking skills across different ability levels. All levels of learners have the opportunity to extend their learning and be scaffolded at the same time through use of the routine. Concluding comments: The language, behaviour, and concrete outcomes demonstrated through the ‘I Notice—I Think—I Wonder’ thinking routine showed it supports the development of science capabilities and curiosity. As learners progressed through the lessons, using the thinking routine enabled cross-links within the five science capabilities. To conclude, the inquiry confirmed that the ‘I Notice—I Think— I Wonder’ thinking routine develops curiosity and science capabilities in year 7 female learners. The thinking routine supports these goals by providing a platform for inspiring critical thinking and opportunities to extend learning. Because the learners can carry this thinking tool with them, they would be ready, willing, and capable of using the science capabilities in authentic contexts which reflects the goal of the Science Curriculum (Ministry of Education, 2007).

Reflecting on Inquiry a Year on as a 1st-Year Teacher… The ‘I Notice, I Think, I Wonder’ thinking routine is used in different learning areas. For reading, it is used to develop critical thinking. For Mathematics, it became a platform for wondering about the application of Maths to real-world examples. For Science and Social Studies, the approach complimented inquiry-based learning. In all learning areas, I observed the routine encourages student voice and curiosity to explore topics further. Students who gave me feedback on my lessons confirmed these observations. What is interesting are the ‘Noticings’ and ‘Wonderings’ students come up with. Over the course of many lessons, I realised their ability to ‘Notice’ and ‘Wonder’ reflects the knowledge they have or are in pursuit of and their interests they have. For example, in my recent Math lesson, I played a video depicting a hotdog eating contest. Students then posed different questions relating to patterns in the hotdogs consumed, calorie intake, and the capacity of the human stomach to digest this food. This thinking routine brings out the prior knowledge and interests students have. However, some students can use this routine to ask inappropriate questions to get

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peer attention. Here, I need to further develop the skill to steer the focus of students on the ‘Wonder’ stage that tie in the learning intention(s) without stifling the curious mind of other learners.

References Aitken, G., & Sinnema, C. (2008). Effective pedagogy in social sciences/tikanga a¯ iwi: Best evidence synthesis iteration. Ministry of Education. Almarode, J., Fisher, D., Frey, N., & Hattie, J. (2018). Visible learning for science, grades K-12: What works best to optimize student learning. Sage. Arnone, M. P., Grabowski, B. L., & Rynd, C. P. (1994). Curiosity as a personality variable influencing learning in a learner controlled lesson with and without advisement. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(1), 5–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02298167 Bajaj, S. (2017). A study of impact of laboratory on academic performance of 9th class students in science subject. The International Journal of Indian Psychology. Bolstad, R., & Hipkins, R. (2008). Seeing yourself in science. New Zealand Council for Educational Research for the Royal Society of New Zealand. Bull, A. (2015). Capabilities for living and lifelong learning: What’s science got to do with it? New Zealand Council for Educational Research. Bull, A., Joyce, C., & Hipkins, R. (2014). Constructing your primary school’s science curriculum: Confident, connected, lifelong learners: What’s science got to do with it? New Zealand Council for Educational Research. Coll, R. K., & Lajium, D. (2011). Modeling and the future of science learning. In M. S. Khine & I. M. Saleh (Eds.), Models and modeling cognitive tools for scientific enquiry (pp. 3–21). Springer. Doris, E. (2010). Doing what scientists do: Children learn to investigate their world. Heinemann. Engel, S. (2009). Is curiosity vanishing? Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 48(8), 777–779. https://doi.org/10.1097/chi.0b013e3181aa03b0 Education Review Office. (2010). Science in years 5 to 8: Capable and competent teaching. http:// www.ero.govt.nz/publications/science-in-years-5-to-8-capable-and-competent-teaching/. Felicia, P. (2011). Handbook of research on improving learning and motivation through educational games: Multidisciplinary approaches. Information Science Reference. Fredricks, J. A., & McColskey, W. (2012). The measurement of student engagement: A comparative analysis of various methods and student self-report instruments. In Handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 763–782). Springer. Gallas, K. (1995). Talking their way into science: Hearing children’s questions and theories, responding with curriculum. Teachers College Press. Goh, N. K., & Chia, L. S. (1986). Teaching observational skills in science. Teaching and Learning, 7(1), 59–65. Grossnickle, E. M. (2014). Disentangling curiosity: Dimensionality, definitions, and distinctions from interest in educational contexts. Educational Psychology Review, 28(1), 23–60. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10648-014-9294-y Hanuscin, D. L., & Rogers, M. A. (2008). Learning to observe and infer. Science and Children, 45(6), 56. Hipkins, R. (2012). Building a science curriculum with an effective nature of science component. New Zealand Council for Educational Research. Hipkins, R. (2014). Unlocking the idea of “capabilities” in science. New Zealand Science Teacher, 133, 4–7. Jirout, J., & Klahr, D. (2012). Children’s scientific curiosity: In search of an operational definition of an elusive concept. Developmental Review, 32(2), 125–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2012. 04.002

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Kashdan, T. B., Gallagher, M. W., Silvia, P. J., Winterstein, B. P., Breen, W. E., Terhar, D., & Steger, M. F. (2009). The curiosity and exploration inventory-II: Development, factor structure, and psychometrics. Journal of Research in Personality, 43(6), 987–998. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.jrp.2009.04.011 Khanam, N. (2002). Use of “observation skills” as a teaching/learning strategy in primary science classroom (Unpublished master’s thesis). Aga Khan University. Klahr, D., & Nigam, M. (2004). The equivalence of learning paths in early science instruction: Effects of direct instruction and discovery learning. Psychological Science, 15(10), 661–667. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00737.x Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Prentice-Hall. Lawson, A. E. (2010). Teaching inquiry science in middle and secondary schools. Sage. Lowe, G. M., Prout, P., & Murcia, K. (2013). I see, I think I wonder: An evaluation of journaling as a critical reflective practice tool for aiding teachers in challenging or confronting contexts. Australian Journal of Teacher Education,38(6). doi:https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2013v38n6.6 Luce, M. R., & Hsi, S. (2014). Science-relevant curiosity expression and interest in science: An exploratory study. Science Education, 99(1), 70–97. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21144 Markey, A., & Loewenstein, G. (2014). Curiosity. In International handbook of emotions in education (pp. 228–245). Routledge. Ministry of Education. (2007). The New Zealand Curriculum. Learning Media Limited. Ministry of Education. (2009). A focus on science achievement and engagement. Learning Media Limited. Moon, J. (2004). A handbook of reflective and experiential learning: Theory and practice. Routledge. Ojediran, I. A., Oludipe, D. I., & Ehindero, O. J. (2014). Impact of laboratory-based instructional intervention on the learning outcomes of low performing senior secondary students in physics. Creative Education, 5(04), 197–206. https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2014.54029 Osborne, J. (2010). Arguing to learn in science: The role of collaborative, critical discourse. Science, 328(5977), 463–466. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1183944 Osborne, J., & Dillon, J. (2010). Good practice in science teaching: What research has to say. Open University Press. Oudeyer, P., Gottlieb, J., & Lopes, M. (2016). Intrinsic motivation, curiosity, and learning. Motivation—theory, neurobiology and applications, 257–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.pbr.2016. 05.005 Perkins, D., Tishman, S., Ritchhart, R., Donis, K., & Andrade, A. (2000). Intelligence in the wild: A dispositional view of intellectual traits. Educational Psychology Review, 12(3), 269–293. Piaget, J. (1969). Psychology of the child. Basic Books. Piaget, J. (2015). The psychology of intelligence. Routledge. Ritchhart, R., Morrison, K., & Church, M. (2013). Making thinking visible: How to promote engagement, understanding, and independence for all learners. Jossey-Bass. Rowson, J., Young, J., Spencer, N., Lindley, E., & Gecius, E. (2012). The power of curiosity: How linking inquisitiveness to innovation could help to address our energy challenges. RSA Social Brain Centre Report. Shayer, M., & Adey, P. S. (1993). Accelerating the development of formal thinking in middle and high school students IV: Three years after a two-year intervention. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 30(4), 351–366. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.3660300404 Silva, M. J., Aboim, S., Teixeira, S., Pinto, J. A., and Pereira, T. (2016). Using senses and sensors in the environment to develop abstract thinking: Evaluating the utility and usability of electronic sensors. In M. J. Marcelino, A. J. Mendes & M. C. A. Gomes (Eds.), ICT in Education 133–149. Springer International Publishing. Silvia, P. J. (2006). What is interesting? Exploring the appraisal structure of interest. Emotion, 5(1), 89–102. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.5.1.89

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State of Public Health in the Caribbean Report 2017–2018. https://carpha.org/Portals/0/Doc uments/CARPHA_SoPH_2017_2018_Chapter_2_Caribbean_Vulnerabilities_to_Climate_C hange_and%20Variabilities.pdf. Weible, J. L., & Zimmerman, H. T. (2016). Science curiosity in learning environments: Developing an attitudinal scale for research in schools, homes, museums, and the community. International Journal of Science Education, 38(8), 1235–1255. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2016.118 6853 Williams, R. B. (2015). Higher-order thinking skills. Skyhorse Publishing. Yadav, B., & Mishra, S. K. (2013). A study of the impact of laboratory approach on achievement and process skills in science among is standard students. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 3(1), 1–6. Zohar, A., & David, A. B. (2008). Explicit teaching of meta-strategic knowledge in authentic classroom situations. Metacognition and Learning, 3(1), 59–82.

Chapter 13

How Can I Increase Engagement in Writing, Specifically for Boys? Vanessa Bond

Learners Year 7 boys in the classroom with lower academic achievement and lack of engagement in writing. inquiry focus: Increasing engagement of boys in writing.

Teaching approach/intervention: Motivate or 'hook' students' interest through prewriting activities to stimulate engagement prior to writing commencement. Support students with topic of choice and assist in getting started. Facilitate workshops for priority learners as additional support structure.

Developing the Inquiry Writing is an important skill that all learners need to be able to communicate. It is a crucial part of the New Zealand Curriculum within the English learning area and ‘enables learners to be participants in the world they live in’ (Ministry of Education, 2015). Writing provides learners with an opportunity to say something and to gain the belief that what they have to say is important (Loane & Muir, 2010). During my two practicum experiences, I spent time observing a variety of ways students engaged V. Bond (B) Bucklands Beach Intermediate, Auckland, New Zealand e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 J. R. Jhagroo and P. M. Stringer (eds.), Professional Learning from Classroom-Based Inquiries, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5099-7_13

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while learning. One of the observations that struck me was the way boys engaged with writing. For both practicums, I experienced very different school environments; one was a classroom with year two and three children in a modern learning environment [MLE], and the other was a class with year 7 students in a traditional single cell environment. Despite the contrasting environments, I noticed a lack of engagement when it came to writing, particularly for boys. Research shows that lack of engagement is not limited to the boys in the classes. It is a world-wide issue (Marsh, 2008). In New Zealand particularly, although the gender gap between the decreases with age when it comes to reading, with writing it increases (Ministry of Education, 2007). Furthermore, there are lower qualification achievement rates and higher rates of dropout for boys (Ministry of Education, 2007). When it comes to boys, their lack of achievement is often driven from a lack of interest and enthusiasm (Garlid, 2014). Boys seem more likely to self-sabotage their academic success and also have higher rates of self-handicapping (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016).

Review of Literature Importance of Writing in today’s society: One of the visions of the New Zealand Curriculum is for young people ‘who will be confident, connected, actively involved, and lifelong learners’ (Ministry of Education, 2015, p. 8). Writing is an important part of communication and provides students with a voice. When students feel that their voice is heard and listened to, they can grow in confidence (Loane & Muir, 2010). Writing is part of the English learning area in the New Zealand Curriculum. English provides students with important skills that allow them to communicate and therefore participate in the world that they live. The New Zealand Curriculum also mentions ‘enjoy’ when it discusses its overarching goal for students in English. This is an important word because it goes beyond simply using and understanding. Students should be able to gain a level of enjoyment from the English language and the way they use it to communicate (Ministry of Education, 2015). Writing provides students with an opportunity to say something. It is an important skill that helps them to not only communicate but also make sense of the world around them. Writing is more than ‘getting the words right’, it allows students to realise they have something worth writing about (Loane & Muir, 2010). Boys and their writing achievement: The ‘problem’ of boys and their lack of engagement in writing is not just a New Zealand issue. In the Western World, there is a ‘literacy crisis’ in which boys do not achieve as well as girls in writing (Marsh, 2008). According to Garlid (2014), girls’ oral communication and language skills may be attributed to the development of parts of their brain earlier than in boys. Initially, boys appear to achieve lower than girls for both reading and writing and over time the reading gap closes. However, when it comes to writing, the achievement gap between boys and girls increases over time (Ministry of Education, 2007).

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In New Zealand, there are alarming statistics arounds boys and their achievement in school. There are lower rates of achievement for boys in both reading and writing and higher rates of disengagement from school in general. Boys are more likely to leave school early, without University Entrance/NCEA and without moving onto higher level education (Ministry of Education, 2007). Motivation and lack of engagement are of particular importance in this discussion. Boys have deteriorating interest as their schooling continues and therefore a lack of enthusiasm (Garlid, 2014). As noted earlier, boys are also more likely to ‘selfsabotage’ and ‘self-handicap’ themselves when it comes to their learning. This results in self-created barriers that allow them to make excuses for failures. This negatively affects their engagement, and in turn this lack of engagement has an impact on dropout rates (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016). Importance of Engagement: Engagement can be difficult to measure. It reflects how a person undertaking a task, connects to that task (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016). There are many elements which can affect levels of engagement. Students will be engaged when they are interested in and find relevance in the task they are doing (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016). According to Hattie (2012), ‘Learning occurs if the students complete the task, show interest and engagement’(p.37). Hattie believes that engagement is necessary for learning to happen. This means that in every aspect of teaching, students need to be engaged (Hattie, 2012) as this in turn impacts achievement. Increased engagement and excitement will allow students to reach their potential (Ministry of Education, 2007). Marsh (2008) believes students are engaged when they are ‘conducting authentic and multi-disciplinary tasks, participating in interactive learning, working collaboratively, learning through exploration’ (p. 104). Leuven’s Engagement Scale is one of the most popular ways of measuring actions, starting at Level 1 which is not engaged, and moving up to Level 5, highly engaged. Laever’s (2015) scale is outlined below: 1. No activity 2. Limited action, interruptions 3. Learner is doing something, lack of concentration/motivation. Could be described as ‘routine’ 4. ‘Intense mental activity’ 5. Absorbed in the activity, learner is completely engaged. Ways to increase boys engagement in Writing: There are many different ways to increase engagement. The environment can have a big influence. When it is a supportive, comfortable environment student’ well-being is fostered. It is important that the needs of students are being met and that planning allows students’ interests to play a role in their learning (Marsh, 2008). Franco and Unrath (2015) propound that understanding and accepting the interests and passions that boys have is a good place to start with their engagement in writing. It is also important to ensure that the classroom is a safe environment where boys receive support and the opportunity to share ideas and thoughts with other boys. Boys feel safer sharing with other boys as they feel they are more likely to be understood, have the same sense of humour, and be respected (Franco & Unrath, 2015).

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There are often topics that boys are interested in that are not deemed ‘acceptable’ for the classroom, and therefore, they lose interest. Providing boys the opportunity to choose a topic of their choice, without limitations, one they are interested in is one way to increase engagement (Garlid, 2014). When students find the task they are working on interesting and relevant they will be more likely to be engaged in their work (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2016).

The Inquiry Approach I conducted this classroom-based research by following the ‘teaching as inquiry model’ (Ministry of Education, 2007). The starting point for this model is understanding what the learners already know and in what direction they need to go next. From here, teachers evaluate what they are currently teaching and how it is impacting their learners. Teachers can evaluate what they could do differently (interventions) to attempt to promote positive change in not only the learners, but also their own teaching. Once selected interventions have been implemented, the inquiry process is completed by gathering evidence on the impact the interventions had on learners (Laevers, 2015). For this inquiry, I used qualitative data. To gather this data, I observed the students learning and how they worked, and made judgements about their engagement levels. I also looked closely at the work they had produced and whether they had taken opportunities to share their writing with other students. Learners: When choosing the group of learners, I used the students’ writing samples. Overall teacher judgements (OTJs) from my professional learning mentor as well as initial observations that I took during my first few weeks in the class. For my inquiry, I focused on a group of five learners, all boys. Intervention: The intervention I decided to introduce involved not only the group of boys that I had focused my inquiry on, but also the rest of the class. I had decided to focus my inquiry on explanatory genre as the writing topic. I planned a series of sessions that provided opportunities to: 1. Hook the learners into the writing: Through pre-writing activities, I enabled students to get interested and engaged before we started writing. 2. Support the learners with their topic choice and help them get started: In this respect, I ran workshops for my inquiry group to provide support when choosing topics. 3. Provision of time allowed the learners to work independently on their writing.

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Inquiry in Practice Findings and discussion: The first stage of my inquiry was to explore ways to hook my learners into explanatory writing. Creating interest in your topic writing is key if you want students to be engaged (Loane & Muir, 2010). There are many ways to do this, including collaboration, exploration, and discussions (Marsh, 2008). The purpose of a hook is to engage students in their writing, so they are motivated to write (Loane & Muir, 2010). As I was focusing my inquiry on explanation writing, which can be considered a very structured piece of writing, it was important to hook the students without them realising it was for this style of writing. The first session was dedicated solely on the ‘hook’ and getting the students to talk about how things work. I brought in a small bike, a can opener, a potato peeler, and an egg beater and invited the learners to go around all objects and look, feel, discuss how each one worked. During this time, I noticed that all the learners were engaged in discussion. Following this, I asked the students to complete 15 min of writing related to one of these objects and how it worked. This piece of writing became my ‘pre-assessment’ to inform my practice and my planning. During this time, all my inquiry group (and the rest of the class) were fully engaged with their writing. The students’ writing provided very relevant information for me as a teacher. The first thing I noticed was that all the students had attempted to write an explanation about how their chosen object worked. The lack of flow and structure of the writing became an apparent teaching focus and informed the next steps in my planning. The aim of my second session was for the students to understand what parts make up a piece of explanation writing. As my focus was on engagement, I split the class into five groups with 5 or 6 students per group. We chose the small bike to focus on and each group was expected to work on a particular section. These sections were: definition, parts, process, special features, and application. We briefly discussed what each section of explanation writing was then each group went away to brainstorm everything they could about their section relating to the small bike. A small bike was available in the class so that students who are hands on were able to go up, look and touch the bike. Without realising it, the class contributed to all the parts that are needed for an explanation essay. In the next session, we focused on individual writing. Being mindful that the topic students have to write about can potentially be a limitation in their engagement (Garlid, 2014), I asked the students to decide on their topic. The students spent a few minutes discussing their ideas in groups. Four of the students in my inquiry group, except for Student 1, had decided on a topic suitable for explanation writing. Student 1 was struggling to come up with an idea, so it was necessary to work with him and use his interests as a prompt. Interest, excitement, and engagement are important aspects of increasing achievement (Ministry of Education, 2007). For my fourth session, I had planned a workshop with my inquiry group focused on how to ‘hook’ the reader into their introduction. However, because my previous session showed me that my inquiry group were engaged, I decided to make it optional for them to attend. Student 5 was the only student from my inquiry group who decided

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to work independently and the other four chose to come and join the workshop. A few students from the wider class also joined this group. In this workshop, we spoke about different ways we could use to hook the reader in. Students 2 and 4 were very keen to write their introduction sharing their ideas with the group. They were excited about their topics and engaged in the group. Students 1 and 3 struggled to come up with their opening sentences. However, the remaining students in the group were able to come up with ideas and suggestions to help scaffold these students to get started. Interestingly, Student 1 had a problem with his laptop which ran out of battery during the session and so he had to move to writing using pen and paper. Except for Student 1, who was working without his device, the other four students in my group were all very engaged and happily working independently. During the next few writing sessions, the students were engaged in independent writing drafts and editing. Once students had finished their piece of writing, we used peer conferencing to help the students to finish their work. When students had finished their work, we printed their writing and displayed it on the wall. This provided each student with a sense of satisfaction and ownership. Student also completed a reflection form and place themselves on a level based on their writing. The levels were from Level 2 up to Level 5 and focused on hooking the reader in, structure of their writing, and the use of technical language. The levels were based on Levels in the New Zealand Curriculum (NZC). Student 1 required the most scaffolding around topic choice, hooks, and general writing support. In his ‘pre-assessment’ Student 1’s writing would be graded as working within level 2 based off NZC standards. After the writing intervention, Student 1’s explanation writing was assessed at Level 3. Upon reflection he marked his work as a mixture of Levels 2 and 3. The writing ‘pre-assessment’ of Student 2 was very basic and within level 2 of the NZC. This student was highly engaged during the sessions and worked very hard to grasp a challenging topic. His finished explanation essay was sitting within Levels 3 to 4 of the NZC. In his reflection, he marked himself as Level 4 which shows confidence in his ability as a writer. Student 3 had the least skills in his writing, and this was evident in his ‘preassessment’. It was a very short, unpunctuated, simple piece of writing. This piece of writing was in Level 2 of the NZC. During the sessions, his confidence grew, especially with scaffolding in the workshops and he was able to produce a great explanation essay that was sitting at Level 3 of the NZC. This student really enjoyed his writing and would ask at the beginning of the day ‘When are we doing writing again?’. Student 3’s reflection was accurate, placing himself in Level 3 across the board. Student 4 experienced the most growth in confidence during these sessions. His first piece of writing was Level 2 of the NZC. Over the period of the inquiry and intervention, this student was fully engaged and wanted to write all the time. He was the second person in the class to finish and was so proud of his writing and the length he wrote. His explanation writing was sitting between Level 3 and Level 4 of the NZC. His reflection showed the growth in his confidence he had in his ability,

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marking himself as mostly Level 5. Although this was above his assessed level, this confidence helped this student in other areas of the classroom and meant he was engaged in, and proud of his work. Student 5 required the least scaffolding during this inquiry. His ‘pre-assessment’ was quite basic, sitting at Level 2, but there was far more length than the other students. He chose to work independently when the others from the group chose to attend workshops. He was engaged and worked hard throughout the sessions. His finished explanation writing was assessed at Level 4 of the NZC, the only one out of the group. In his reflection, Student 5 was quite hard on himself and marked himself mostly Level 3 with a Level 4. Before the writing intervention, all the students in my inquiry group were sitting at Level 2 of the NZC. Their ‘pre-assessments’ were very basic and short, and lacked structure. After the writing intervention, every boy in the group was able to move up a level of the Curriculum. The writing improved and presented with more sophisticated language, punctuation, length, and structure. Throughout the inquiry and the teaching sessions, I used Leuven’s Engagement scale to measure engagement of the students in the inquiry group. Using this scale, I was able to observe the students and decide consistently if I thought they were engaged or not. Over the period of my inquiry, all learners were mostly sitting at a Level 4 which involves ‘Intense mental activity’ or Level 5 ‘absorbed by the activity’ (Laevers, 2015). Occasionally, there were periods where a few students were not highly engaged, for example, when Student 1’s device ran out of battery. However, the majority of the writing time, the students in this group were engaged with their writing. This high level of engagement clearly helped the boys to learn and engage in their writing. This links back to Hattie’s theory (2012) that for students to learn, they must be engaged. All the students in the inquiry group made huge improvements in not only their writing but also their enjoyment and their belief in their ability to write.

Reflections on the Inquiry Limitations, benefits, and concluding comments: This inquiry has been a very interesting process for me. I have been able to see a huge improvement in not only engagement but also the level of writing from every member of my inquiry group. The importance of hooking boys into their writing and providing them with the opportunity to choose a topic that is of interest and relevance to them proved to be effective. The boys were all very happy with their work and have since been more engaged in their writing in the general classroom environment. My first sessions involving objects brought in for the students to touch and discuss and the use of brainstorming in groups had full engagement from the class. As these lessons were held with the entire class, it was also clear that all students benefited from the planned writing intervention.

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There are some limitations with my inquiry including the small size of the group. Although I was able to increase engagement in this group of students, it would be difficult to know if this result would be the same in a larger group or a classroom with a higher proportion of learners needing similar writing support. In this format of writing, I was able to let the students choose any topic they liked, provided they could discuss how it worked. However, there are some genres of writing, such as debating, where this isn’t always possible. This highlights the need for further investigations regarding alternative strategies to increase and sustain engagement if there isn’t free choice of topic. While research shows that the achievement levels of boys in writing are very concerning, this inquiry has shown that with the right approach, support, and scaffolding, boys can be positively engaged in writing. The first step is engagement.

References Duchesne, S., & McMaugh, A. (2016). Educational psychology for learning and teaching. Cengage Learning Australia. Franco, M. J., & Unrath, K. (2015). The art of engaging young men as writers. Art Education, 68(3), 26–31. Garlid, S. W. (2014). ‘Writing is not really something I do’: Engaging reluctant male writers. Afterschool Matters, 20, 47–52. Hattie, J. (2012). Visible learning for teaching maximising impact on learning. Routledge. Laevers, D. F. (2015). Making care and education more effective through wellbeing and involvement. Research Centre for Experiential Education University of Leuven. Loane, G., & Muir, S. (2010). Developing young writers in the classroom: I’ve got something to say (1st ed.). Aries Publishing Ltd. Marsh, C. J. (2008). Becoming a teacher: Knowledge, skills and issues. (4th ed.). Pearson Education Australia. Ministry of Education. (2007). Boys’ achievement a synthesis of the data. Ministry of Education. https://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/24935/Boys_ Achievement_Final_for_PublicationV3.pdf Ministry of Education. (2015). The New Zealand curriculum. Learning Media Limited.

Chapter 14

Our Concluding Thoughts Patricia Martha Stringer and Jyoti Rookshana Jhagroo

Introduction The focus of this book is on pre-service teachers’ engagement with the ‘Teaching as Inquiry’ (TAI) model associated with improving their practice as a precursor to becoming first-year teachers in schools. Learning from their voice is a matter of significance to educators at all levels of the schooling system. For practitioners in schools, utilising the TAI model encourages framing and implementing practicebased inquiries reflective of local, contextual knowledge. As editors, we feel the narratives presented highlight the need for practitioners to own their practice and determine aspects needing improvement by noticing what is and is not ‘working well’. This starting point motivates engagement in research to create and apply authentic ‘interventions’ or teaching approaches in pursuit of professional learning to advance student learning. The One year on from being a first-year teacher reflections accompanying the narratives highlight the importance of local, contextual knowledge acquisition to strengthen individual professional learning trajectories as opposed to buying in outside knowledge that often promotes a consumer of knowledge mentality. The reflections confirm that professional learning owned and driven by the pre-service teachers are invaluable in preparing them for teaching. Narratives presented in this book draw on the TAI theoretical framework to structure individual inquiries applicable to specific teaching and learning classroom situations. From this position, challenges faced, and the benefits accrued in relation to professional learning are aligned with school and classroom determinants and New Zealand curriculum outcomes. Apart from use at a school practitioner level, this book is also of value to teacher educators in tertiary institutions who want to P. M. Stringer (B) · J. R. Jhagroo Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand e-mail: [email protected] J. R. Jhagroo e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 J. R. Jhagroo and P. M. Stringer (eds.), Professional Learning from Classroom-Based Inquiries, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5099-7_14

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ensure pre-service programmes are driven by individual student need reflective of context. The narratives advance what it means to be a reflective practitioner in practice and highlight necessary dispositional skill sets to attain valuable professional learning through inquiry. They offer teacher educators and their students’ examples of authentic inquiry undertaken in practice. The TAI model unpacked in classrooms provides a structural framework that facilitates professional learning from practicebased inquiries. The classroom-based inquiries narrated by the contributing authors draw attention to two ‘enduring themes’ worthy of highlighting in the conclusion. First, dispositional traits needed to undertake and embed TAI form an essential part of professional learning. They foster the development of an inquiry in practice mentality. Second, professional learning through engagement in TAI means breaking away from recipient type thinking associated with knowledge acquisition from outside sources to active participation that engenders locally constructed knowledge to drive change of practice. Application of the TAI model liberates pre-service teachers and experienced teachers from being knowledge consumers to local knowledge producers motivated to conduct data informed, research-based inquiries. The dissonance this shift creates, negates the ‘comfortable doing’ of teaching to make the act of teaching authentic, relevant, and powerful. In the following paragraphs, both themes are awarded coverage.

Inquiry in Practice Mentality The ‘Teaching as Inquiry’ model was introduced by the Ministry of Education (MoE) in 2007. In the New Zealand Curriculum document (MoE, 2007), the TAI model is considered effective pedagogy that requires teachers to “inquire into the impact of their teaching on their students” (MoE, 2007, p. 35) through focused and individualised teaching inquiry. Cyclical processes of identifying outcomes, planning, implementing strategies for improvement, monitoring progress in relation to outcomes, and deciding next steps for improvement help teachers improve their practice through professional learning (Stringer & Jhagroo, 2019). TAI involves teachers examining data to identify gaps in student learning, asking questions to and pursuing approaches to enhance student achievement, designing and implementing intervening strategies, and ascertaining their effectiveness by continually gathering and reflecting on practice (Stringer & Jhagroo, 2019). Undertaken individually or in professional learning communities, TAI provides opportunities to question assumptions underpinning teaching (Robinson & Lai, 2006; Timperley & Parr, 2004). However, learning opportunities linked to TAI cannot be assumed. For a start, features of immediate and ever-expanding contexts need deliberate analysis to determine the type of influence exerted on teacher action in terms of determining the inquiry scope and applicability. The extent of professional learning is also questionable given requirements of setting and direction school-directed professional leaning takes. However, from the narratives, utilisation of TAI results in production of local knowledge acquisition that enhances professional learning, agency, and movement towards transformational

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pedagogies to inform practice (Jhagroo et al., 2020). Learning is a social process involving multiple players who bring to the learning platform divergent expertise and knowledge. Using a ‘context matters’ frame, indicates that our contributing authors openly share their learning journeys with others. They are upfront about identifying needs in practice, display a willingness to change despite challenges incurred and embed TAI as a process that enhance inquiry dispositions. Donald Schon (1983) devoted himself to the question, what makes professional practice effective. He stated that one defining characteristic of professional practice is the capacity to reflect on and in daily action. Schon’s early theorisation has since been expanded by authors in the field to include other organisational learning frameworks: ‘situated learning’, ‘communities of practice’ (Lave & Wenger, 1991), ‘experiential learning’ (Kolb & Fry, 1975) and ‘communities of learning’ (Lipman, 2003). Theoretically, these frames confirm that professional learning is not limited to the individual but involves ‘communities’ which Wenger (1998) refers to as groups collaborating to complete tasks and engage in learning. The narratives contained endorse the social aspect of learning. Of interest is that engagement in TAI generates inquiry mentality dispositions cognisant of context. Application of resulting professional learning in practice rests on the following premises: knowledge creation requires shared discourse and collaboration; reflection on and in action promote the need for change; diverse sources of information provide a contemporary base for local knowledge procurement; transformative pedagogies promote change of practice; and application of knowledge is cyclical with subsequent reiterative calls for reflection on practice. Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999, 2001, 2008) provide insights into how and why practitioner inquiry strengthens teacher and student learning as well as contributes to a substantial knowledge base for teaching. Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999) identify three sources of knowledge teachers need to have to make lasting and effective changes in practice: knowledge for practice whereby teachers become informed about current legitimised educational research-based practice; knowledge in practice where the role of practical knowledge improves teaching; and knowledge of practice or systemic inquiry into one’s practice and those of others. Developing inquiry mentality dispositions is not restricted to outside sources of knowledge but rather tacit knowledge practitioners bring from lived experiences. When teachers draw on authentic knowledge sources, they develop an inquiry stance defined as: A worldview and a habit of mind—a way of knowing and being in the world of educational practice that carries across educational contexts and various points in one’s professional career and that links individuals to larger groups, and social movements intended to challenge the inequities perpetuated by the educational status quo. (Cochrane-Smith & Lytle, 2009, p. vii)

The narratives presented openly endorse embedding inquiry in everyday practice. They highlight the need for dispositions or habits where problems or challenges are solved through procedures that involve data collection/analysis and research. Margaret Carr (2001) talks about dispositions being ‘habits of mind’ or preferred ways of approaching situations. She describes them as a combination of motivation,

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situation, and skill so that a learner is ready to learn. The five domains of learning dispositions include: taking an interest; being involved; persisting with difficulty and uncertainty; communicating with others; and shouldering responsibility (Carr, 2001). Bertram and Pascal (2002) describe dispositions as the first key element in an effective learner and are composed of attitudes and behavioural characteristics usually shown when approaching a learning situation. Involvement, integral to dispositions, is, according to Laevers (2003) and his team from the Leuven University in Belgium, an essential element in the learning process as it creates deep level learning hallmarked as: intense mental activity; a person working at the limit of their capacities; and a flow of energy that comes from within the individual. The narratives in this book identify key dispositions vital to sustaining inquiry and how these dispositions are not only inherent in practice but, also, are defined by it. Merely knowing what the TAI model is and what dispositions are is no substitute for action in practice which goes on to develop and embed an inquiry in practice mentality. The focus of this book is on professional learning through TAI undertaken by the contributing authors. Gaining deeper insights and understanding of the worldview and habits (Cochrane-Smith & Lytle, 2009) the contributing authors exemplify when developing an inquiry means identifying dispositional traits exhibited throughout the duration of inquiry. From the narratives, four key dispositions emerge as important: being alert to change needed in practice; demonstrating curiosity; being accommodating of what learning means in situ and in collaborative spaces when working with others; and demonstrating resilience when faced with challenges. As editors, we were impressed with a sense of alertness each author displayed when it came to changing their practice for the better. They not only observed student learning in situ but, also, analysed evidential data to decern the impact their teaching had on student learning. Being alert fuelled their determination to maximise engagement in TAI to not only lift outcomes for students but, also, engage in professional learning. Curiosity was yet another dispositional trait displayed by all throughout the duration of inquiry. For example, in the focusing phase of inquiry, they observed students in situ and analysed results from an established baseline of data before proceeding with determining next steps for learning. Their curiosity, focused on helping students learn, meant undertaking research, collaborating with others, and listening to student voice when planning interventions aimed at achieving outcomes. Curiosity is a disposition interwoven through every phase of the TAI cycle. Curiosity served to strengthen their resolve to develop an inquiry in practice mentality where TAI was continuously embedded in practice. As signalled earlier, the authors draw attention to learning conceived of as a social process. Being accommodating is a dispositional stance all authors chose to embrace due sometimes to setting requirements but, also, because valuable information gleaned from others through shared discourse in professional learning communities enriched their inquiries. They openly commented on how learning from others made them adaptable, responsive practitioners. TAI can be challenging in the sense that much is asked by way of written documentation accompanying each phase. Our authors were all student teachers on practicum at the time their inquiries were undertaken. Practicum requirements meant undertaking full control of a class over a longer period in addition to completing their

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inquiries. Fulfilling multiple demands of practicum posed many challenges but their ability to display resilience proved paramount to success. Reading their narratives provides opportunities to reflect on how it is possible to use TAI to develop an inquiry in practice mentality. The desire to gain knowledge, exercise discretion in determining what is applicable in one’s own context, and increase learning to inform professional growth rests on the dispositional skill sets mentioned. An inquiry in practice mindset enhances professional learning from classroom-based inquiries.

Application in Practice: Problem-solving activities and designing interventions for TAI are not individual but involve others working together in teams in the knowledge creation process. Practice is a communal act, and the application of new knowledge is also communal reverberating to encompass others. Reflection prior to, on and during practice with others demands transparency and authenticity not just about learning but, also, spread and transmission of learning and where learning transference in practice lifts the capabilities of all to change and focus on outcomes. The importance of context cannot be overstated. The setting where one works exerts a powerful influence on practice. This is a common thread interwoven through all narratives. Context matters in terms of displaying sensitivity to the needs of students and those working in communal spaces. Herein, the authors display awareness of being part of teams and abiding with culturally held norms and habits. Observing what is going wrong and responding positively to change necessitates greater adaptability and flexibility in modes of practice. The contributing authors listen to collective voice and welcome input of others as part of their inquiry journey. Chung’s chapter, for example, notes that working in an ILE space means working with others and buying into a constructivist paradigm when it comes to creating and applying new knowledge. Learning through the voice of students is well and truly captured in Deverall’s chapter. Student voice input in the design of interventions is also captured in the work of Hammond. Here, Hammond demonstrates deep awareness of context, not just of his classroom and school, but the wider society especially influence the internet has on this current generation of learners. In line with context requirements, he questions his ability to connect and raise awareness of literacy with boys whose learning is enhanced when they are introduced to formats like zines that tap into their creativity. Tiapapa and Kim also reflect on how their practice needs to change to fit in with the world of students if they are to gain and sustain their interest in learning. Both Taipapa and Kim’s inquiries are situated in the social science/arts curriculum and critically assess hidden messages in song lyrics and propaganda posters related to societal issues. Their inquiries are powerful because they tap into current events and initiate positive ways of helping students deal with real-life problems. These inquiries originate from a teaching platform that adopts a transformative pedagogical stance in promotion of positive learning outcomes.

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Conclusion Listening to the voices of pre-service teachers who authored these narratives is a matter of significance. Their narratives highlight the need for looking deeper into practice, pinpointing moments that are ‘not working well’ and creating/applying ‘interventions’ in pursuit of ‘what works better.’ As captured in their One year on from being a first-year teacher reflections, they are responsible for creating local knowledge to improve practice. Each contributor has shown themselves to have a substantial body of curriculum pedagogical and content knowledge. They are familiar with theories of teaching and learning that inform practice. Entering their practicum schools with formal knowledge and encountering informal school-based local knowledge has extended their abilities to be effective future practitioners in schools.

References Bertram, T., & Pascal, C. (2002). What counts in early learning. In Spodek, B. & Saracho, O (Eds.), Contemporary perspectives on early childhood curriculum. Information Age Publishers. Carr, M. (2001). A sociocultural approach to learning orientation in an early childhood setting. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 14(4), 525–542. Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. (1999). Relationships of knowledge and practice: Teacher learning in communities. Review of Research in Education, 24, 249–305. Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. (2001). Beyond certainty: Taking an inquiry stance on practice. In A. Lieberman & L. Miller (Eds.), Teachers caught in the action: Professional development in practice (pp. 45–60). Teachers College Press. Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. (2008). Teacher research as stance. In B. Somekh & S. Noffke (Eds.), Handbook of educational action research (pp. 30–38). Sage. Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. L. (2009). Inquiry as stance: Practitioner research for the next generation. Teachers College Press. Jhagroo, J., Bansilal, S., & Stringer, P. (2020). Teacher learning insights from two practice-based inquiries in South Africa and New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40841-020-00184-y Kolb, D. A., & Fry, R. (1975). Towards an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Theories of group process. John Wiley. Laevers, F. (2003). Experiential Education: Making care and education more effective through wellbeing and involvement. Leuven University: Centre for Research in Early Childhood and Primary Education. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning. Cambridge University of Cambridge press. Lipman, M. (2003). Thinking in education (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. Ministry of Education. (2007). The New Zealand curriculum framework. Ministry of Education. Robinson, V., & Lai, M. K. (2006). Practitioner research for educators: A guide to improving classrooms and schools. Corwin. Schon, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. Basic Books. Stringer, P., & Jhagroo, J. (2019). Towards a more complete understanding of ‘teaching as inquiry’: Perspectives of beginning teachers explored. New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 54, 39–52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40841-019-00131-6

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Timperley, H., & Parr, J. (2004). Using evidence in teaching practice: Implications for professional learning. Hodder Moa Beckett. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge University Press.